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diff --git a/43965-0.txt b/43965-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b556da4 --- /dev/null +++ b/43965-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11775 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43965 *** + + INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY + TO PROGRESS + + + + + INVENTION + + THE MASTER-KEY + TO PROGRESS + + BY + + REAR-ADMIRAL BRADLEY A. FISKE, LL.D. + + UNITED STATES NAVY + + Former Aid for Operations of the Fleet, President U. S. Naval + Institute, Gold Medallist of U. S. Naval Institute, the Franklin + Institute and the Aero Club of America. + + Author of "Electricity in Theory and Practice," "War Time in Manila," + "The Navy as a Fighting Machine," "From Midshipman to + Rear-Admiral," "The Art of Fighting," etc. + + Inventor of the Gun Director System, the Naval Telescope Sight, the + Stadimeter, the Turret Range Finder, the Horizometer, + the Torpedoplane, etc., etc., etc. + + NEW YORK + E. P. DUTTON & COMPANY + + 681 FIFTH AVENUE + + + Copyright, 1921, + By E. P. Dutton & Company + + _All Rights Reserved_ + + + PRINTED IN THE UNITED + STATES OF AMERICA + + + + +PREFACE + + +To show that inventors have accomplished more than most persons +realize, not only in bringing forth new mechanisms, but in doing +creative work in many walks of life, is, in part, the object of this +book. To suggest what they may do, if properly encouraged, is its main +intention. For, since it is to inventors mainly that we owe all that +civilization is, it is to inventors mainly that we must look for all +that civilization can be made to be. + +The mind of man cannot even conceive what wonders of beneficence +inventors may accomplish: for _the resources of invention are +infinite_. + + + + +The author is indebted to Ginn & Company, Boston, for the use of +illustrations from "General History for Colleges and High Schools," +by Philip Van Ness Myers, and "Ancient Times, A History of the Early +World," by James Henry Breasted, and to George H. Doran Company, New +York, for the use of a map from "A History of Sea Power," by William +Oliver Stevens and Allan Westcott. + + + + +CONTENTS + + + CHAPTER PAGE + + I. INVENTION IN PRIMEVAL TIMES 1 + + II. INVENTION IN THE ORIENT 24 + + III. INVENTION IN GREECE 51 + + IV. INVENTION IN ROME: ITS RISE AND FALL 81 + + V. INVENTION OF THE GUN AND OF PRINTING 101 + + VI. COLUMBUS, COPERNICUS, GALILEO AND OTHERS 125 + + VII. THE RISE OF ELECTRICITY, STEAM AND CHEMISTRY 148 + + VIII. THE AGE OF STEAM, NAPOLEON AND NELSON 179 + + IX. INVENTIONS IN STEAM, ELECTRICITY, AND CHEMISTRY CREATE + A DANGEROUS ERA 203 + + X. CERTAIN IMPORTANT CREATIONS OF INVENTION, AND THEIR + BENEFICENT INFLUENCE 231 + + XI. INVENTION AND GROWTH OF LIBERAL GOVERNMENT AND AMERICAN + CIVIL WAR 255 + + XII. INVENTION OF THE MODERN MILITARY MACHINE, TELEPHONE, + PHONOGRAPH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE 279 + + XIII. THE CONQUEST OF THE ETHER--MOVING PICTURES--RISE OF + JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES 301 + + XIV. THE FRUITION OF INVENTION 322 + + XV. THE MACHINE OF CIVILIZATION, AND THE DANGEROUS IGNORANCE + CONCERNING IT, SHOWN BY STATESMEN 333 + + XVI. THE FUTURE 341 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PAGE + + Carvings in Ivory and in Stone of Cavern Walls made by the + Hunters of the Middle Stone Age 3 + + Early Babylonian Signs, Showing Their Pictorial Origin 27 + + Villa of an Egyptian Noble 34 + + The Pyramids of Gizeh 36 + + Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive 44 + + Two Cretan Vases 52 + + Insurgent Captives Brought Before Darius 58 + + The Lighthouse of the Harbor of Alexandria in the Hellenistic + Age 77 + + Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus 96 + + The Printing of Books 113 + + Portuguese Voyages and Possessions 126 + + Hero's Engines 150 + + Hero's Altar Engine 151 + + Leupold's Engine 154 + + + + + INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY + TO PROGRESS + + + + +INVENTION, THE MASTER-KEY TO PROGRESS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INVENTION IN PRIMEVAL TIMES + + +Our original ancestors dwelt in caves and wildernesses; had no sewed +or fabricated clothing of any kind; subsisted on roots and nuts and +berries; possessed no arts of any sort; were ignorant to a degree that +we cannot imagine, and were little above the brutes in their mode of +living. Today, a considerable fraction of the people who dwell upon the +earth enjoy a civilization so fine that it seems to have no connection +with the brutish conditions of primeval life. Yet, as these pages show, +a perfectly plain series of inventions can be seen, starting from the +old conditions and building up the new. + +The progress of man during the countless ages of prehistoric times is +hidden from our knowledge, except in so far as it has been revealed +to us by ruins of ancient cities, by prehistoric utensils of many +kinds, and by inscriptions carved on monuments and tablets. The sharp +dividing line between prehistoric times and historic times, seems to be +that made by the art of writing; for this epochal invention rendered +possible the recording of events, and the consequent beginning of +history. + +Of prehistoric times we have, of course, no written record; and we +have but the most general means of estimating how many millenniums +ago man first had his being. Geological considerations indicate a +beginning so indefinitely and exceedingly remote that the imagination +may lose itself in speculations as to his mode of living during those +forever-hidden centuries that dragged along, before man had advanced +so far in his progress toward civilization as to make and use the rude +utensils which the researches of antiquarians have revealed. + +Inasmuch as the most important employment of man from his first breath +until his last has always been the struggle to preserve his life; +inasmuch as the endeavor of primeval man to defend himself against +wild beasts must have been extremely bitter (for many were larger +and stronger than he), and inasmuch as man eventually achieved the +mastery over them, one seems forced to conclude that man overcame wild +beasts by employing some means to assist his bodily strength, and that +probably his first invention was a weapon. + +The first evidences of man's achievements that we have are rude +implements of stone and flint, evidently shaped by some force guided +by some intelligence;--doubtless the force of human hands, guided by +the intelligence of human minds. Many such have been found in caves and +gravel-beds over all the world. They were rough and crude, and indicate +a rough and crude but nevertheless actual stage of civilization. Some +call this the Old Stone Age and others call it the Early Stone Age. +Besides stone and flint, bones, horns and tusks were used. Among the +implements made were daggers, fish-hooks, needles, awls and heads of +arrows and harpoons. One of the most interesting revelations of those +rude and immeasurably ancient implements is the fact that man, even in +those times, possessed the artistic sense; for on some of them can be +seen rough but clear engravings of natural objects, and even of wild +animals. + +[Illustration: Carvings in Ivory (1 and 3-7) and in Stone of Cavern +Walls (2), made by the Hunters of the Middle Stone Age] + +Men naturally supported themselves mainly by hunting and fishing, +as savages do now; and it was because they had invented suitable +implements and weapons for practicing those necessary arts, that +their efforts were successful. The first weapon was probably the +fist-hatchet, a piece of sharpened flint about nine inches long, that +he grasped in his hand. At some time during the centuries of the Old +Stone Age, someone invented a much finer weapon, that continued to be +one of the most important that was known, until the invention of the +gun, and is used even now in savage lands--the bow and arrow. What a +tremendous advantage this weapon was in fighting wild beasts (and also +men not possessing it) it is not hard for us to see; for the arrow +tipped with flint or bone, could be shot over distances far greater +than the spear or javelin could be thrown, and with sufficient force +to kill. The club and spear had probably been devised before, for they +were simpler and more easily imagined and constructed. + +How the bow and arrow came to be invented we have no intimation. The +invention of the club and spear did not probably involve much creative +effort, so simple were those instruments, and so like the branches +that could be broken from the trees. Yet, to the untrained mind of the +primeval savage, the idea of sharpening a straight branch of wood into +a fine point at the end, in order that penetration through the skin +might be facilitated, must have come as an inspiration. No such thing +as a spear exists as a spear in nature, and therefore the making of a +spear was a creative act. To us, the use of the spear as a projectile +may not seem to have required the inventive faculty--unless the hurling +of stones may also be supposed to have required it. It may be, however, +that with the dull mind of primeval men, even the idea of using stones +or javelins as projectiles was the result of a distinct, and perhaps +startling inspiration. + +The invention of the bow and arrow was one of the first order of +brilliancy, and would be so even now. It is not easy to think of any +simple accident as accounting for the invention; because the bow and +arrow consists of three entirely independent parts--the straight +bar of wood, the string, and the arrow; for the bow was not a bow +until the string had been fastened to each end, and drawn so tight +that the bar of wood was forced into a bent shape, and held there at +great tension. When one realizes this, and realizes in addition the +countless centuries during which the bow and arrow held its sway, the +millions of men who have used it, and the important effect it has had +in the overcoming of wild beasts, and the deciding of many of the +critical battles of the world, he can hardly escape the conclusion +that the invention of the bow and arrow was one of the most important +occurrences in the history of mankind. + +A still more important occurrence was the invention of making fire. +Probably less inventive effort was needed for this than for the bow and +arrow; for fire could be seen in the lightning and in trees struck by +lightning, and in the sparks that came forth when two hard stones were +struck together. The discovery of fire may have been made by accident; +but this does not mean that no invention was needed for devising and +producing the means whereby fire could be produced at will. To note +the fact of a phenomenon, say the production of fire when stones are +accidentally struck together, or the falling of an apple from a tree, +requires no special effort, and of itself brings forth no benefit; but +to reason from the appearance of the sparks to the production of an +apparatus for making fire at will; or to reason from the falling of an +apple to the enunciation of Newton's Law of Gravitation, is the kind of +successful mental effort that has produced the effects which it is the +endeavor of this humble book to indicate. These effects have combined +as progress has advanced, to put civilized man in a position relatively +to his natural surroundings very different from that held by primeval +man, and very different from that held by the brutes, both in primeval +days and now. Evidently, the effects have been made possible by some +faculty possessed by man and not by brutes. This faculty is usually +called reason, and is held to be a faculty by means of which man can +infer cause from effect, and effect from cause, and can remember events +and facts to a degree sufficient to enable him to hold them in his +mind, while reasoning about them. + +But it seems impossible to explain the advent of even the oldest and +simplest inventions by the possession of reason only, using the word +reason in its ordinary sense; for it is obvious that no matter how +clearly a man could reason as between cause and effect, no matter how +great a student of all phenomena he might be, no matter how good a +memory he might have, he might nevertheless live for many years and +never invent anything. In fact, we see men at the present day who +possess great knowledge, splendid energy, keen powers of analysis, +high courage, and even great administrative talent, and yet who +are obviously deficient in originality, who seem to possess the +constructive faculty in only a small degree, and who seem incapable of +taking any step forward except on paths that have been plainly trod +before. + +Countless instances can be cited of the persistence of men, even in +civilized lands, in following a certain practice for long periods, +until someone possessing the inventive faculty has devised a better +one. For the sake of brevity, only two cases, and those well known, +will be mentioned as illustrative. One was the invention of movable +type, and the other that of pointing the wood screw. Man had continued +for centuries to make blocks of wood or other material on which words +and phrases were engraved or cut, and then to print from them. Suddenly +a man in Germany (usually said to be John Guttenberg) made the change, +so slight in appearance and yet so tremendous in results, of cutting +only one letter on a block, and arranging and securing the blocks in +such a way as to enable him to print any word or words desired. This +did not occur until about the year 1434 A. D. Why had not someone +done this in all the long centuries? Surely it was not because men +of great reasoning faculties had not lived; for in the long interval +the civilization of Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece and Rome +had flourished; and Plato, Aristotle, Cæsar and the great inventor +Archimedes had lived! Similarly, men continued to use in wood the same +flat pointed screw that they used in metals, boring the hole first in +the wood with a gimlet, and then entering the flat point of the screw +into the hole. Suddenly (but not until the nineteenth century A. D.) +an inventor made and patented a screw which came to a sharp point like +a gimlet, which could be forced into wood just as the gimlet was, and +then screwed into the wood without further ado. How can we explain the +curious fact that countless men of reason, intelligence and mechanical +skill had continued century after century to bore into wood with +gimlets, and then follow the gimlet with flat-pointed screws? + +The explanation seems to be expressed in the phrase, "the idea had +not occurred to them." Why had it not occurred to them? This question +cannot, of course, be answered convincingly; but it may be pointed out +that there is a small class of men to whom original ideas seem to come +of their own accord. The inventor of mechanical appliances is in this +class, and is perhaps its most conspicuous exemplar. + + * * * * * + +It may be pointed out, however, that the inventors of mechanical +appliances are not the only men to whom original conceptions come; +for original conceptions evidently come to the poets, the novelists, +the musical composers, the artists, the strategists, the explorers, +the statesmen, the philosophers, the founders of religions and the +initiators of all enterprises great and small. It may be pointed out +also that their mental processes are similar, and that they are best +described by the greatest of all poets in the lines-- + + "The poet's eye in a fine frenzy rolling, + Glances from heaven to earth, from earth to heaven; + And as imagination bodies forth + The forms of things unknown, the poet's pen + Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing + A local habitation and a name." + +These lines suggest that the first step in invention is made almost +without effort; that a picture, confused and dim but actual, is made +by the imagination on the mental retina; and that, after that, the +constructive faculties arrange the elements of the picture in such wise +as to produce a clear and definite entity. + +Regarded in this way, the inventor of mechanical appliances suddenly +sees a confused and dim picture of an instrument or a mechanism (or a +part of it) that he has never seen with his bodily eyes; the musical +composer hears imperfectly and vaguely a new musical composition; the +sculptor sees a statue, the painter sees a new combination of objects +and colors producing a new effect, and the poet feels the stirring in +him of vague, but beautiful, or powerful or inspiring thoughts. If now +the picture is allowed to fade, or if the constructive faculty is not +able to make it into an actuality, or if the picture has not in itself +the elements which the state of civilization then prevailing make it +possible to embody in an entity, no invention of a mechanical appliance +is made, no plan of campaign, no musical composition, no statue, no +painting, no poem is produced. + +If, however, the constructive effort develops successfully the +conception that the imagination made, and if the circumstances of time +and place are all propitious, then the art of making fire at will is +born, or Bonaparte's suggestion at Toulon is made, or the strains of +Beethoven's music inspire the world, or the statue of Moses is carved, +or the Immaculate Conception is pointed, or Hamlet is written, or the +electric telegraph binds the peoples of the earth together. + +The inventor in mechanics, the sculptor, the painter, the novelist and +the poet embody their creations in material forms that are enduring +and definite, and constitute evidences of their work, which sometimes +endure throughout long periods. The architect and the constructing +engineer are able similarly to produce lasting and useful monuments +to their skill; but it can hardly be declared that their work is +characterized by quite so much of originality and invention, because +of the restrictions by which the practice of their arts is bound. It +is, in fact, hard to conceive of a bridge very different in principle +or design from bridges that had been built before; and while it is not +difficult to conceive of an engine different in principle and design +from previous ones, yet we realize that the points of novelty in such +an engine would be attributable more to invention than to engineering. +This is because the arts of engineering and architecture rest on +principles that have long since been proved to be correct, and on +practices that are the results of long experience; whereas one of the +main characteristics of invention is novelty. + +It is true that many of the most important inventions have been made +by engineers; but this has been because some engineers, like Ericsson, +have been inventors also. But it is also true that only a small +proportion of the engineers have made original inventions; and it is +equally true that many inventions have failed--or have been slow in +achieving success--because of lack of engineering skill in construction +or design. These facts show that the work of the inventor is very +different from that of the engineer, and that the inventor and the +engineer are very different people, though an engineer and an inventor +sometimes live together inside of the same skin. In fact, it is by a +combination of inventive genius and engineering talent in one man that +the greatest results in invention have been achieved; though great +results have often followed the intimate cooperation of an inventor and +an engineer, the two being separate men. + +It is in the latter way that important advances have usually been +made; and it is somewhat analogous to the way in which authors and +publishers, actors and managers, promoters and capitalists cooperate. + +But while the individuals whose inventions have taken the form of +new creations, such as novel machines and books and paintings, have +received the clearest recognition as men of genius, may not the +inventive faculty be needed in other fields and be required in other +kinds of work? If an instrument is produced by the joint exercise of +imagination and constructive talent, is not every puzzle worked out, +and every problem solved, and every constructive work accomplished by +the similar exercise of those same faculties? + +It may seem obvious that this question should be answered in the +negative, and so it unquestionably should be. But there always has been +much cloudiness as to what constitutes invention in our own minds; +and it must be admitted that the dividing line is not immediately +obvious between invention and the art of meeting difficulties with +resourcefulness, or between invention and the act of solving any of the +perplexing riddles of our daily lives. + +It may be declared with confidence, however, that the difference +between invention and any one of these other acts is that, while +invention ends in performing such acts, it begins with an exercise +of the imagination. A man who designs an engine to fulfil a stated +purpose, who solves any problem whatever that is presented to him from +outside, simply accomplishes a task that is given to him to accomplish; +whereas, while the inventor accomplishes a similar task, he does it +as a second step in a task that was not given him to accomplish, but +that he himself had pictured to himself. The act of inventing consists +of three separate acts--the act of conceiving, the act of developing, +and the act of producing. Of these three acts, that of conceiving is +obviously not only the first, but also the most important, distinctive +and unusual. + +For every real invention, there have been countless constructive acts. +In the invention of the bow and arrow, the conception was probably +instantaneous and unbidden. The subsequent work of developing the +conception into material and practical shape was probably one of long +duration, consisting of many acts, accompanied with many difficulties +and disappointments, and accomplished finally in the face of much +active and passive opposition. + + * * * * * + +The Old Stone Age gradually developed into the New Stone Age at +different times in different localities, as successive improvements +in implements were made. The New Stone Age was distinguished from its +predecessor mainly by the fact that the principal weapons and utensils +were formed into regular shapes, polished into smoothness, and in many +cases ground to sharp points and keen cutting edges. These improvements +made the implements more effective both as weapons and as utensils, by +facilitating not only cutting but penetration. + +How much invention was needed to make these improvements, it is not +easy to decide; but probably only a little was required, and that of an +order not very original or high; for the improvements were rather in +detail than principle. Perhaps their character can be best indicated by +saying that they were improvements, rather than inventions of a basic +kind. + +It may here be pointed out that the act of improving upon an invention +already existing may be almost wholly a constructive act, performed +on a visible and tangible material object, and not on a picture made +by the imagination on the mind. In such a case, the act of improving +belongs rather in the category of engineering than of invention, for +the reason that it involves only a slight use of the imagination. It +may also be pointed out, however, that a mere improvement may be, and +sometimes has been an invention of the highest order. As a rule, of +course, basic inventions have been the most brilliant and also the most +important. + +But it was not only by polished instruments of stone and bone that +the New Stone Age was characterized; for we find in the records which +our ancestors unintentionally left us, many evidences that they had +invented the arts of making pottery, of spinning and weaving, and +of constructing houses of a simple kind. This Age was characterized +by many improvements besides those relating to articles of stone, +and was a period far in advance of its predecessor on the march to +civilization. It was marked by the domestication of animals and plants, +the tilling of the soil, and a gradual change from a purely savage and +nomadic mode of life. This change was first to a pastoral life, in +which men lived in fixed habitations and tended their flocks; thence +to an agricultural life, in which men cultivated the ground over large +areas and grew crops of cereals and vegetables; and then to a still +more settled existence, in which men congregated in villages and towns. +Certainly, the race had taken the first steps, and had started on the +path which it has since pursued. + +In order to make the start and to proceed afterwards in the line +begun, many physical, mental and spiritual attributes were needed +and employed, that mere brutes did not possess, and because of which +the civilization of the Old Stone Age had been begun and gradually +developed. Of these faculties, those principally characteristic seem +to have been mental; and among those faculties, invention, reason, +construction and memory seem to have been the most important. It would +be unreasonable to declare any one of those faculties to have been +more important than the others; but it can hardly be denied that the +first steps in the march of progress should be credited to invention. +Clearly, it was the weapons and utensils of the Old Stone Age that made +possible the subduing and subsequent domestication of certain animals, +such as the horse, the cow, the dog, the sheep and the goat. + +It may be pointed out, in passing, that many animals have not been +domesticated even at this late day--such as the tiger, the eagle +and the bear. But, equally, certain tribes of men have not been +domesticated. It may be that in both the undomesticated men and the +undomesticated brutes, the mind is of such a character that it cannot +assimilate even the first grains of knowledge, or make any effort +whatever of an inventive character. + +There was one invention that was probably made in the Old Stone Age, +which must have needed considerable inventiveness to be developed as +highly as it was developed during the Old and New Stone Ages, and that +was language. The origin of language is, of course, hidden in the +impenetrable mystery of the childhood of the race; and it may be that +language was an original attribute of man. If we reason, however, that +the development of language must have been a continuing act from the +first, inferring it from the fact that it has been a continuing act +from the dawn of recorded history until now, and if we suppose that it +had a rise and a growth like those of other arts, we may reasonably +conclude that some man invented the plan of making his wants known by +the use of vocal sounds, uttered in accordance with a preconcerted +code; that the invention was only partially successful at first, and +that it was afterwards improved. That language was not a natural gift, +but rather the result of an invention and subsequent development, is +suggested by the fact that a child has to be taught to speak, but +does not have to be taught to exercise his natural functions, such as +breathing, eating, drinking, walking, etc. + +Which was the first invention ever made by man, there is, of course, +no means of ascertaining; but it seems obvious that that of language +must have been among the first. The invention of weapons we may easily +imagine to have been actually the first, called for by the necessity +of defense against wild beasts and other men. Following the defense by +individual men of their individual lives, it seems logical to suppose +that a man and his wife, a man and his brother, and then groups of men, +banded together in their common defense against common foes. To further +their joint action, what would be more valuable than a language +consisting of vocal sounds, arranged in accordance with a simple code, +as a means of conveying information, issuing warnings, and giving +signals in emergencies, to insure concerted action? + +That language should later be used for manifold other purposes would +be most natural; for many other arts have been invented primarily +to further man's first aim, the preservation of his life, and have +afterwards been employed for other purposes. The uses of clothing, +houses, knives, guns and of nearly all weapons are cases in point. + +The New Stone Age seems to have passed gradually into the Age of +Copper, because doubtless of a more or less accidental discovery +when native copper was seen upon the ground, or when some copper ore +was subjected to fire. The metal, by reason of its great durability, +ductility, elasticity and strength, came to be used for many +purposes--the first use being probably in weapons; for weapons were the +main dependence of the people in their struggle against beasts. + +A great advance was made when bronze was discovered, with which weapons +and tools of many kinds could be made that were harder than those of +copper. Then the Age of Bronze succeeded the Age of Copper. One can +hardly imagine that bronze was really invented; for it is difficult to +see how, knowing the softness of copper and tin, any primeval man could +have imagined a metal made from them much harder than either, and then +proceeded to make it by mixing about seven parts of copper with one +part of tin. The gradual improvement made in bronze implements, and the +different kinds of bronze that later appeared (made by altering the +proportions of tin and copper) were doubtless due more to constructive +and engineering methods than to pure invention; but nevertheless a +considerable amount of inventing must have been required; for one can +rarely effect any important improvement in any weapon, instrument or +tool, without first imagining the improvement, and then endeavoring to +effect it. + +In fact, an overwhelming majority of the "inventions" for which +patents are issued by our Patent Office, are for mere improvements +over existing apparatus; and the bald fact that the thing accomplished +is only such an improvement, instead of the creation of something +different from everything else whatever, like the telephone or +phonograph, does not debar the achievement from being classed as an +invention. The pointed screw was merely an improvement over previous +forms of screw, and yet it was an invention of high originality, +novelty and importance. Obviously, improvements occupy various +positions not only in importance and scope, but also in the relative +degrees in which invention and construction were employed to bring them +into being. + +It is held by some that no purely human act can possibly create +anything really new, that "there is nothing new under the sun," and +that therefore every so-called invention made by a man must be merely a +novel arrangement of already existing objects. + +Of course, no man "creates" anything, in the sense that he makes +anything whatever out of nothing; but it is a well-known fact that he +has created many things in the sense that he has made many entities to +exist that had not existed before as such entities; for instance, man +made the speaking telephone to exist. The speaking telephone did not +exist before Bell invented it, and it did exist after he invented it. +To say that Bell did or did not create the telephone conveys a meaning +dependent wholly on the meaning in which the word "create" is used. +Men ordinarily use the word with such a meaning that it is correct to +say that Bell created the speaking telephone; it being understood as +a matter of common sense that Bell did not create the metals and other +material parts which he put together to make the telephone. + +Used in this sense, primeval man (or more correctly some primeval +men, and probably a very few) created certain weapons, implements and +utensils, that gave the men who used them such mastery over wild beasts +and over men who did not use them, that the steps since taken toward +civilization were made possible. + +Our whole civilization can be traced back to those inventions, and can +be shown to proceed from them and be based upon them. _No other basis +that civilization could have proceeded from can even be imagined; for +the actual progress of events was the outcome of the actual nature of +man, and the actual nature of his environment._ + +We seem forced to conclude, therefore, that we owe our civilization +primarily to the invention of certain primeval implements and weapons, +the art of making fire, etc., and therefore to the inventors who made +the inventions. This does not mean that we do not owe it to other +things besides inventions, and to other men besides inventors; for it +is obvious that we owe it to all the facts of our history, and to such +of our ancestors as did anything to advance it. We owe it in part, for +instance, to the men who framed the laws that made living in villages +and cities possible, to the men who executed the laws, and to all the +men and women who observed the laws and gave examples of righteous +living. For it is obvious that, no matter what inventions were made, +the march of civilization could not have even started, unless there had +been a sufficient number of good and intelligent men and women to keep +the human procession in good order from the first. + +It may be pointed out here that, although every human being has much +of evil in his nature, yet even the most depraved person desires +other people to be good. Even thieves see the advantage to themselves +resulting from the fact that most men do not steal; murderers have no +inclination toward being themselves murdered, and human beings as a +class see the benefits of morality and good living throughout society +as a whole. For this reason, and for the still more important reason +that most individuals are not very different in their characteristics +and abilities from the average of all individuals, the tendency of +society is to reduce men to a common level; so that we see only a +small fraction who are extremely good or extremely bad, extremely +brilliant or extremely stupid, extremely large or extremely small, etc. +Similarly, there is only a small fraction of the people who have done +much good individually or much harm, or who have exercised individually +any noticeable influence of any kind. + +We may reasonably conclude, therefore, that there were only a few men +in primeval days who performed any acts that entitle them to individual +recognition; and as the only records that have come down to us indicate +that the most important acts were the inventing of certain implements, +we seem forced to conclude that most of the recognition accorded to +individuals of primeval days may be limited to a very small number, and +they inventors. + +Who they were, and where and when they lived, is not known and probably +never will be. For countless centuries their names and personalities +have been forgotten as wholly as those of many beasts. But maybe other +achievements like those that have exposed the history of certain +Oriental kings and wise men to our knowledge, will some day tell us who +were the inventors who started the march of human progress, and pointed +out the road that it should follow. + +Yet, if we infer the probable conditions of the remote past from the +conditions of the present and recent past, we shall have to conclude +that, while the names and deeds of prehistoric rulers may some day +become known to us, and even the names of authors, poets and song +singers, the names of the original inventors will be forever hid. For +inventors have ever been depreciated in their day; even at the present +time, despite the known facts as to what inventions and inventors +have done for every one of us, the inventor as an inventor is lightly +regarded, and so are his inventions. So are his inventions until they +have ceased to be regarded as inventions, and have been accepted as +constituent parts of the machine of civilization. By that time the +inventor has often been forgotten. + +The Age of Iron succeeded the Age of Bronze in the countries from which +we have inherited our civilization; but in Africa bronze does not seem +to have been discovered until after iron was. Iron being an element +like copper, and not an alloy of two metals like bronze, it seems +probable that its discovery, like that of copper, followed the act of +heating stones with fire. The coming of iron seems due therefore to +discovery rather than to invention; but yet the mere discovery that a +very hard substance had been accidentally produced would of itself have +brought forth no fruit. One is almost forced to infer from probability +that the fact must have become known to many men, but only as a plain +and uninteresting fact. Finally, some man realized that that hard +substance was superior to bronze for making weapons, and then set to +work to ascertain exactly what kinds of stone it could be gotten from, +and exactly what process gave the best results. + +To us who have been carefully taught the facts known at the present +day, and whose minds have been trained by logic and mathematics to +reason from effect to cause, and to construct frameworks of cause +wherefrom to gain effects, it seems that anyone who noted that the +hard substance which we call iron came from heating certain stones, +would immediately invent a process for making iron in quantities. But +prehistoric man had no knowledge whatever save that coming from his +own observation and the oral teachings of the wise men; mathematics +and logic did not exist; and the only training given him was in those +simple arts of hunting, fishing, field tilling, etc., by which he +earned his livelihood. For a mind so untrained and ignorant to leap +from the simple noting of the accidental production of the metal to +a realization of its value, then to a correct inference as to the +possibility of producing it at will, then to a correct inference as +to the method of producing it, and then to devising the method and +actually producing iron at will, suggests a reasoning intelligence of +an order exceedingly high. + +Nevertheless, the art of making iron may have originated not so much +from effort as from inspiration; the process may have been less one of +reasoning than one of imagination, less one of construction than one of +invention. In fact, when we realize that imagination is almost wholly +a pure gift (like beauty, or artistic genius or a singing voice) while +the reasoning and constructive faculties require long education, we may +reasonably conclude that the production of iron and of all the metals +and processes in prehistoric times, was probably attributable mainly to +invention. + +The crowning invention of prehistoric man was that of writing; for +it lifted him out of his dependence on oral teachings, with their +liability to error and forgetfulness, into a condition in which the +facts and experiences of life, and the reasons for failure or success, +could be put into permanent form, and supply sure bases from which to +start on any line of progress in the future. + +The production of the art of writing seems to have been a pure +invention, and it has always been so regarded. Nothing resembling +writing is to be found in nature; _nowhere do we see in nature any +effort to preserve any records of any kind_. How man, or a man, was led +to invent writing we can only imagine, for we cannot ascertain. When +we realize, however, how entirely novel an undertaking the production +of writing was, and that there is no process of mere reasoning by +which a man could arrive at a decision to produce it, we seem forced +to conclude that it must have been caused by one of those inexplicable +conceptions that imagination puts into the mind, and that constitute an +inspiration, coming from the Great Outside and its ruler, the Almighty. + +In fact, if one ponders the history and teachings of the Christian +religion (in truth of all religions), and notes that the revelations +on which they are believed to have been founded seem to have come +unbidden to certain men as inspirations from On High, he must realize +how similar are the conceptions that come to inventors in a field less +spiritual, but yet actual. For in the case of each basic invention, an +idea seems to have come unbidden to the mind, and grown and developed +there. + +The first writing was what we call picture writing, in which +representations in outline of well-known objects were scratched with +a hard point on some softer substance. This form of writing probably +began in the Old Stone Age. It continued for different lengths of +time among different peoples, as have all other characteristics of +any stage of civilization; and it is practiced in some degree by some +peoples even now. In fact, one might with reasonableness declare that +many of the illustrations used in books and magazines and papers, many +of the paintings and drawings that adorn our walls, and many of the +moving pictures in our places of amusement convey messages by means of +pictures, and are therefore forms of picture writing. + +As the intelligence of man increased, and his consequent need for +better means of expressing himself in writing increased, the idea +occurred to someone to use conventional drawings to represent vocal +sounds, instead of pictures of visible objects. The first writing of +this kind, called phonetic writing, used characters that represented +spoken words, and therefore required many characters and necessitated +long and tedious study to master it. It was gradually replaced among +most peoples by an improved phonetic system, in which each character +represented a syllable instead of a word; though the Chinese have +never wholly abandoned it. The syllabic system needed, of course, +fewer characters, and was much more easily learned, much more flexible +and generally satisfactory. The syllabic system was finally replaced +among the more progressive peoples by the alphabetical system, in +which each character represents a separate vocal sound. As the number +of separate vocal sounds is few, only a few characters are needed. In +most alphabets, the number of characters varies between twenty-two and +thirty-six. + +We of the present day plume ourselves greatly on our achievements in +invention, and point to the tens of thousands of scientific appliances, +books and works of art with which we have enriched our civilization. To +most of us, prehistoric man was an uncouth creature, living in caves +and uncleanly huts, and so far removed from us that in our hearts we +class him as little higher than the beasts. Yet to prehistoric man we +owe all that we are and all that we have. The gift of life itself came +to us through him; and so did not only our physical faculties, but our +mental, moral and spiritual faculties as well. It was prehistoric man +who invented the appliances without which the wild beasts would not +have been overcome, and the man, wilder than himself, been kept at bay; +by means of which the soil was tilled, and boats were made to move +upon the water, and villages and towns were built. It was prehistoric +man who invented spoken language and the arts of drawing, painting, +architecture, weaving and writing. It was prehistoric man who started +the race on its forward march, and pointed it in the direction in +which it has ever since advanced. It was prehistoric man who made the +inventions on which all succeeding inventions have been based. The +prehistoric inventor exercised an influence on progress greater than +that of any other man. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +INVENTION IN THE ORIENT + + +The first countries to pass into the stage of recorded history were +Egypt and Babylonia. Excavations made near the sites of their ancient +cities have brought to light many inscriptions which, being deciphered +and translated, give us clear knowledge of the conditions under which +they lived, and therefore of the degree of the civilization that they +had attained. + +As we note the progress that the inscriptions show us to have been +made beyond the stage reached by prehistoric man, it becomes clear to +us that much--if not most--of that progress could not have been made +without the aid of writing. One cannot conceive of the invention and +development of Astronomy, for instance, without some means of recording +observations that had been made. + +In developing the art of writing itself, much progress was effected +in both countries, and many improvements were made in the art itself +that must have been due to that lower order of invention which consists +in improving on things already existing. In addition, invention was +employed in devising and arranging means for preserving the writings in +an enduring form. In Babylonia, this was done by making the writing on +soft tablets of clay about an inch in thickness, that were afterwards +baked to hardness. In the case of records of unusual importance, the +precaution was sometimes taken of covering the baked inscription with +a thin layer of clay, making a duplicate inscription on this layer, +and then baking it also. If afterwards, from any cause, the outside +inscription was defaced, it could be removed and the inside inscription +exposed to view. + +In Egypt, the writing was done on sheets of papyrus, made from a reed +that grew in the marshes. To devise and make both the baked clay +tablets and the papyrus, it is clear that invention had to be employed; +for nothing exactly like them existed in nature. Thus the invention +of the art of writing was supplemented by the invention of the art of +preserving the records that writing made. The act of writing would have +been useful, even if no means had been invented for preserving the +things written; even if the things written had perished in a day. But +the importance of the invention of writing was increased ten thousand +fold by the invention of the means for preserving the things written; +because without that means it would have been impossible by any process +of continual copying of tablets to keep at hand for reference that +library of records of the past on which all progress has been based, +and from which every act of progress has started, since some inventor +of Babylonia invented baked clay tablets and some inventor of Egypt +invented papyrus. + +It may be objected that there is no reason for assuming that any one +man invented either; that each invention may have been the joint work +of two men, or of several men. This of course, is true; but it does not +minimize the importance of either invention, or the credit due to the +inventors. It simply divides the credit of each invention among several +men, instead of giving it all to one. It is a notable fact, however, +that, although some inventions have been made by the joint work of two +men, and although some books have been written, and some music has been +composed by two men working in cooperation, yet such instances have +been rare. + +Many men combine to do constructive work of many kinds, and millions +combine to work and fight together in armies; and it is an interesting +fact that the working together of many men has been made possible by +inventions, such as writing and printing. Yet there is hardly any other +kind of work that is so wholly a "one man job" as inventing. The fact +that only one man, as a rule, makes a certain invention, or writes a +certain book, or composes a certain musical piece, or does any other +inventional work, seems to spring naturally from the original fact that +an invention begins with a picture made by imagination on a mind. Now a +picture so made is an individual picture in an individual mind. If the +picture is allowed to fade, or if from any cause the mind that received +it does not form it into a definite entity, no invention is made. If, +on the contrary, the mind develops the dim picture into a definite +entity of some kind, that mind alone has made that invention; even if +other minds improve it later by super-posing other inventions on it. + +It is true that sometimes a man who receives from his imagination +a mental picture of some possible invention will communicate it to +another man, and that other man will contribute some constructive work, +and make the dim picture into a reality; so that the complete invention +resulting will be the joint product of two men. It seems to be a fact, +however, that these dim pictures have rarely been disclosed while in +the formless period, and that almost every invention of which we know +the history, was made by one man only. + +It need hardly be interjected here that we are discussing inventions +only, and not the acts of making inventions practicable in the sense +of making them useful or commercially successful. At the present day, +there are few inventions indeed, which even after having been completed +as inventions, need no modification at the hands of the engineer and +the manufacturer, before they are suitable to be put to practical use. + + * * * * * + +That the Babylonians realized the importance of their invention is +proved by the fact that their baked tablets were carefully preserved, +and that in some cities large libraries were built in which they were +kept, as books are kept in our libraries at the present day. When the +expedition of the University of Pennsylvania made its excavations +near the site of the ancient city of Nippur, in the southern part of +Babylonia near the city of Babylon, a library was discovered that +contained more than thirty thousand tablets. + +[Illustration: Early Babylonian Signs, Showing Their Pictorial Origin] + +The writing of the Babylonians, while phonetic, was a development of +picture writing, each character expressing a syllable, and was made of +wedge-shaped characters. From the shape of the characters the adjective +_cuneiform_ has been applied to the writing, the word coming from the +Latin word, _cuneus_, a wedge. Syllabic writing was in use for probably +three thousand years among the peoples of western Asia. + +The Babylonians utilized their ingenuity and inventiveness in divers +ways, and accomplished many things that help to form the basis of +our civilization, without which we cannot imagine it to exist. Their +creations were of a highly practical and useful kind, and illustrate +the proverb that "necessity is the mother of invention." From the fact +that their ships sailed the waters of the Persian Gulf, and had need +of means to locate their positions and determine their courses from +port to port, and from the fact easily noted by their navigators that +the heavenly bodies held positions in the firmament depending on their +direction from an observer, and on the month and season and the time of +day, the study of the heavens was undertaken; with the result that the +science of astronomy was conceived and brought into existence. + +It may here be asked if this achievement can properly be called an +invention. One must hesitate a little before answering this question +either negatively or positively; because such an achievement is not +usually called an invention, and yet it cannot truthfully be denied +that there is nothing in Nature like the science of astronomy, and +that therefore it must have been created by man. It cannot reasonably +be denied, also, that after the science had at last been formulated, +it was as clearly a distinct entity as a bow and arrow or a telephone. +Furthermore, it does not seem unreasonable to suppose that, before +any of the principles of astronomy were laid down, before anyone even +attempted to lay them down, before anyone even attempted to ascertain +the laws that seemed to govern the movements of the heavenly bodies, +the idea must have occurred to someone that those heavenly bodies were +all moving in obedience to some law; and a more or less confused and +yet real image must have been made upon his mind of a great celestial +machine. He must actually have imagined such a machine. This first act +would be quite like that of the inventor of a mechanical device. The +next act would be to observe and record all the phenomena observable +in connection with the movements of the celestial bodies, then to +analyze and classify them. This series of acts would not, of course, be +inventive or even constructive. They would rather be like those studies +of any art, without which no man could be an inventor in that art. + +The analysis having been completed, the positions of the heavenly +bodies at various times having been ascertained and tabulated, the +next step would seem to be to construct a supposititious machine of +which each part would represent a heavenly body, and in which those +various parts would move according to laws induced tentatively from +the actual motions of certain heavenly bodies. If it were afterwards +found that all positions of each part, predicted in advance by applying +the laws tentatively induced, corresponded to the actual positions +of the heavenly body that it represented, then the supposititious +machine could be truthfully declared to be a correct imitation of the +great celestial machine. That is, the machine could be declared to be +successful. + +The science of astronomy is, in effect, such a machine. Its parts are +representations of the sun, moon and other heavenly bodies, that move +according to laws that are illustrated in the diagrams, and expressed +precisely in the formulas. + +The first act of the originator of the science of astronomy being one +of the imagination in conceiving a picture of a celestial machine, and +being like that of the inventor in conceiving a picture of an earthly +machine; and his second act being also like that of the inventor in +developing the picture, a justification for speaking of the "invention" +of the science of astronomy may perhaps be reasonably claimed. + +(We must bear in mind, of course, that no invention is complete until +the third act has been performed, and the thing invented has been +actually produced.) + +To speak of invention in connection with bringing forth novel creations +is far from new, for the phrases "construct a theory," "invent a +science," "invent a religion," etc., are in almost daily use; and it +may seem unnecessary to some persons, therefore, to discuss it at +such length. But most people seem to regard such phrases as merely +figurative; while the author wishes to make it plain that they are not +figurative but exact. + +As this modest treatise does not pretend to be a learned one, and as +the author is not a professional scholar, no further attempt will +be made to claim the production of the science of astronomy as an +invention. To pursue the subject further would be merely to enter a +discussion as to the meaning, both original and derived, of the word +invention. The author, however, cannot escape the conclusion that, +no matter what may be the literally correct meaning of the word, the +mental acts performed by the originators of the science of astronomy +were like the mental acts performed by the inventors of mechanical +appliances, and exerted a similar influence on history. That is, he +believes that the men who brought into being the science of astronomy +and the men who brought into being the bow and arrow, first saw +pictures on the mental retina of some things actual yet vague and +formless, and then constructed entities from them. He believes also +that the creation of the bow and arrow, and the creation of the +science of astronomy constituted actual and similar stepping-stones on +which the race rose toward a higher civilization. + +In default of any definition of the word invention, which precludes +its application to the origination of a science, theory, religion or +formulated school of thought, the author begs permission so to use it, +in indicating the influence on history of the novel creations which, +according to this meaning of the word, have been inventions. + +The influence on history of the invention of the science of astronomy +has been so great that we cannot estimate its greatness. On it the +whole science of navigation rests. Without it, the science and the art +of navigation could not exist, no ships could cross the ocean from one +port to another, except by accident, and the lands that are separated +by the ocean would still rest in complete ignorance of each other. +This world would not be a world, but only a widely separated number of +barbarian countries; most of them as ignorant of even the existence of +the others as in the days before Columbus. + +Following the invention of astronomy, or as it was first called, +Astrology, the imaginative and practically constructive intellects +of the Babylonians naturally led them to invent the sun-dial for +indicating the time during the day, and the water-clock for indicating +it during the night. + +Another invention, doubtless brought into being by the study of +the movements of the heavenly bodies, was the duodecimal system of +notation, of which the base was twelve. In accordance with this +system, the Babylonians divided the Zodiac into twelve equal parts or +"signs"; divided the year into nearly equal months, that corresponded +approximately to the length of a lunar month; divided a day and a night +into twelve equal parts or hours; divided an hour in sixty (12 x 5) +equal parts or minutes, and divided a minute into sixty (12 x 5) equal +parts or seconds. + +The duodecimal system of notation has been supplanted for many purposes +by the more convenient decimal system, the invention of which is +attributed by some to the Arabs; but the duodecimal divisions of time +are still with us, and the duodecimal divisions of the circle are still +used in most countries. + +The duodecimal system of notation seems to have been the earliest +system of notation invented; and it was an invention so important that +we cannot imagine civilization without it and the decimal system, +possibly its offspring. The influence of these two inventions on +history has been so great that the mind is incapable of realizing its +greatness, even approximately. + +Who were the inventors, we do not know. It is almost certain that none +of our generation ever will know, and it is far from probable that any +one of any generation will ever know. If any knowledge on this subject +is ever given to the world, it will be knowledge of names only--only +names. Yet some human beings, forgotten now and probably obscure even +in their lifetimes, invented those systems, and contributed more to the +real progress of the race than many of the great statesmen and warriors +of history. + +The Babylonians invented measures of length, capacity and weight, also; +and it is from those measures that all the later measures have been +directly or indirectly derived. To have invented systems by which time, +angle, distance, space, weight and volume were lifted out of the realm +of the vague and formless into the realm of the definite and actual, +was an achievement that almost suggests that noted in the first chapter +of Genesis, in the words, "And God said 'Let there be light,' and there +was light"; for what a clearing up of mental darkness followed, when +the science of measurement turned its rays on the mysteries that beset +the path of early man! + +The Egyptians seem to have been inventors, though hardly to the same +degree as were the Babylonians. The Egyptians studied the heavens and +employed a science of astronomy; and it is possible that they, rather +than the Babylonians, should be credited with its invention. But it is +not the intention of this book to decide points in dispute in history, +or even to discuss them. Its intention is merely to study the influence +that inventions and inventors had. Whether the name of an inventor was +John Smith or Archimedes, whether he lived in the year 1000 or 1100, +or which one of two rival claimants should be credited with the honor +of any invention, is often an interesting question; but it is not one +that is especially important to us, unless it casts light on the main +suggestion of our inquiry. The only reason for mentioning names and +dates and countries in this book is to show the sequence of inventions +as correctly as practicable. In order to show the influence of +invention on history it seems best to give the treatment of the subject +an historical character. + +Possibly the most important invention of the Egyptians was papyrus, +which was the precursor of the paper of today. The clay tablets of +the Babylonians were clearly much less adapted to the making of many +records than was papyrus. One cannot readily imagine an edition of +300,000 newspapers like the _New York Times_, made out of clay tablets +an inch in thickness, and sold on the streets by newsboys. Clearly the +invention of papyrus was one so important that we cannot declare any +invention as more important, except on the basis that (other factors +being equal) the earlier an invention was the more important it was. +To assume such a basis would, of course, be eminently reasonable; +because the earlier invention must have supplied the basis in part for +the making of the later. The invention of writing, for instance, was +more important than the invention of papyrus. + +[Illustration: Villa of an Egyptian Noble] + +A curious invention of the Egyptians was the art of embalming the +bodies of the dead, an art still practiced in civilized countries. It +was prompted by their belief that the preservation of the body was +necessary, in order to secure the welfare of the soul in the future +life. This belief resulted further in building sepulchres of elaborate +design, filling them with multitudes of objects of many kinds, +decorating the walls with paintings, sculptures and inscriptions, +and placing important manuscripts in the coffins with the mummies or +embalmed bodies. The sepulchres of the kings were, of course, the +largest and most elaborate of all; and of these sepulchres the grandest +were the pyramids. By reason of the great care and labor lavished on +tombs and sepulchres and pyramids, and by reason also of the dryness of +the air in Egypt, and the consequent durability of works of stone, it +has been from the tombs that many of the clearest items of information +have come to us about old Egyptian times. + +The Egyptians excelled in architecture, and the greatest of their +buildings were the pyramids. As to whether or not there was much +invention devoted to those works, it is virtually impossible now +to know. The probability seems to be that they could not have been +produced without the promptings of the inventor, but that the progress +was a slow and gradual march. It seems that there was a long series +of many small inventions that made short steps, and not a few basic +inventions that proceeded by great leaps. + +The Egyptians seem to have been the inventors of arithmetic and +geometry. What men in particular should most be credited with +inventing them, we do not know; but that some men were the original +inventors the probabilities seem to intimate. For these sciences were +creations just as actual as the steam engine, and could hardly have +been produced save by similar procedures. + +[Illustration: The Pyramids of Gizeh] + +The suggestion may here be made that whatever we do is the result (or +ought to be) of a decision to do it, that follows a mental process +not very different from that invented by the German General Staff for +solving military problems. By this process one writes down-- + +1. The mission--the thing which it is desired to accomplish. + +2. The difficulties in the way of accomplishing it. + +3. The facilities available for accomplishing it. + +4. The decision--that is, how to employ the facilities to overcome the +difficulties and accomplish the mission. + +In solving a military problem (or in solving many of the problems of +daily life) it is often a matter of great difficulty to arrive at a +clear understanding of what the mission actually is, what one really +wishes to accomplish. In the majority of ordinary cases, however, the +mission stands out as a clear picture in the mind. Such a case would +be one in which an enemy were making a direct attack; for the mission +would be simply to repel it. Another case would be one in which the +mission was stated by the terms of a problem itself; for instance, to +build a steam engine to develop 1000 horse power. In the case of the +inventor, the mission seems to be sent to him as a mental picture; he +suddenly sees a dim picture in his mind of something that he must make. + +Perhaps, many centuries ago, some man who had been laying out plots of +ground in Egypt, of different shapes and sizes, and making computations +for each one, suddenly saw a phantom picture in which all the lines and +figures appeared grouped in a few classes, and arranged in conformity +to a few fixed rules. The mission was given to him free, but it +devolved on him to formulate the rules. As soon as he had formulated +and proved the rules, the science of Geometry existed. + +It is interesting to note that the conception of the idea required +no labor on the part of the conceiver. He was virtually a passive +receiver. His labor came afterwards, when he had to do the constructive +work of "giving to airy nothing a local habitation and a name." + +The Egyptians seem to have learned the use of many drugs, though they +can hardly be said to have invented a system or a science of medicine. +They did, however, invent a system of characters for indicating the +weights of drugs. Those characters are used by apothecaries still. + +The first means of cure were incantations that evidently influenced the +mind. It is interesting to note that modern systems tend to decrease +the use of drugs and increase that of mental suggestion. + +Both the Babylonians and the Egyptians held religious beliefs; but it +is doubtful if the religious beliefs of either were so definite and +formulated that they could be correctly called religions, according to +our ideas of what constitutes a religion. An interesting fact is the +wide difference between the beliefs of the two peoples, in view of the +similarity of many of the other features of their civilizations. The +beliefs of neither can be called highly spiritual; but of the two, the +Egyptian seems to have been the more so. The Egyptians believed that +the souls of those who had lived good lives would be rewarded; while +the Babylonian belief did not include even a judgment of the dead. + +One of the most important inventions made in Babylonia was that of a +code of laws. It is usually ascribed to a king named Hammurabi; but +whether he was the real inventor or not, we have no means of knowing. +We do know, however, that the first code of laws of which there is any +record was invented in his reign, and that it was the prototype of all +that have followed since. + +The influence on history of the invention and carrying into effect of +a formulated code of laws, we cannot exactly gauge; but we may assert +with confidence that modern civilization would not have been possible +without codes of laws, and that the first code must have been more +important than any code that followed, because it led the way. + +Both the Babylonians and the Egyptians seem to have made most of +their inventions in the period of their youth, and to have become +conservative as they grew older. The Babylonians were a great people +until about the year 1250 B. C., when a subject city, Assur, in the +north, threw off its allegiance and formed an independent state, +Assyria. The decline of Babylonia continued until the fall of Assyria +and the destruction of Nineveh, its capital, about the year 606 B. C., +when the new Babylonian, or Chaldean Empire, came into existence. It +enjoyed a period of splendid but brief prosperity until it was captured +by Cyrus, king of Persia, in the year 538 B. C. + +Egypt's career continued until a later day; but it was never glorious +in statesmanship, war or invention, after her youth had passed. + +A nation possibly as old as the Babylonian or Egyptian was the Chinese; +but of their history, less is known. It is well established, however, +that they possessed a system of picture writing in which each word was +represented by a symbol. The system was much more cumbrous, of course, +than the syllabic or alphabetical; but its invention was a performance, +nevertheless, of the utmost brilliancy and importance, viewed from the +light of what the world was then. There is little doubt also that the +Chinese were the original inventors of the magnetic compass and of +printing from blocks, two of those essential inventions, without which +civilization could not have been brought about. Another of China's +inventions was gunpowder; though it is not clear that the Chinese ever +used it to propel projectiles out of guns. + +Achievements equally great, and maybe greater, were the creations of +religions--Confucianism and Taoism, invented in China, and Buddhism, +invented in India. These religions may seem to us very crude and +commonplace and earthy; but we should not shut our eyes to the fact +that they have probably influenced a greater number of human beings +toward right living than any other three religions that we know of. + +Like Babylonia and Egypt, China became conservative as she grew older. +At the present day, her name stands almost as the symbol of everything +non-progressive and non-inventive. + +Assyria was able to capture Babylon about the year 1250 B. C., and to +maintain the position of the dominant power in western Asia for about +600 years. A progressive and ambitious people, they accomplished an +original and important step in the art of government by organizing +conquered peoples into provinces under governors appointed by the +king. It does not seem to be a great straining of the word to declare +that this achievement was so novel, so concrete and so useful as to +possess the essential features of an invention. For if we realize that +during all the times that had gone by, conquered peoples had remained +simply conquered peoples, paying tribute but not forming parts of the +conquering state, we can see that the idea of actually incorporating +them into the state, thereby increasing the population of the state +by the number of people incorporated, and making the state stronger +in that proportion, we can hardly fail to realize that the conception +of doing this was of the highest order of brilliancy. To work out +afterwards the details of developing the conception in such a way as +to render possible the production of an actual and workable machine +of government was a constructive act. When the machine was actually +produced a new thing had been created. In other words, the institution +of this new scheme in government seems to have followed the same three +stages as the invention of a mechanical device; that is, conception, +development and production. + +_The likeness between this process and that of conception, gestation +and birth is obvious._ + +The Assyrians were evidently a very practical and constructive people, +somewhat such people as the Romans later were. They devoted themselves +to the practical side of life, and to this end they developed the +governmental and the military arts. They were great warriors. The +period of their greatest greatness was in the seventh and eighth +centuries B. C., when the conquerors Sargon II and Sennacherib were +kings. The splendor of the empire afterwards was conspicuous but not +long lived; for after unifying the great nations of the Orient under +Assyrian rule, and carrying on wars marked with the utmost of cruelty +and oppression, they finally entered on a rapid decline in morals, +and consequently in national prosperity and strength. The end came in +606 B. C., when a combined force of Medes and Babylonians captured +and sacked the hated Nineveh, the capital. The intensity of the +hatred against the Assyrians may be gauged by the completion of the +destruction visited on Nineveh. When Xenophon saw its ruins only two +centuries afterwards, he could not even ascertain what city those ruins +marked. + +The Assyrians have left us clearer records of their achievements in +the invention of weapons than has any other ancient nation. It is +impossible to declare with certainty that all the seemingly novel +weapons and armor which the ancient Assyrians possessed and used were +invented by themselves, and not by the Egyptians or the Babylonians; +but the mere facts that the Assyrians were the most military nation of +the three, and that the specimens of those weapons which have come down +to us have been mostly Assyrian, give probability to that supposition. + +The Assyrian soldier was finely equipped and armed as far back as the +thirteenth century B. C.; and Assyrian bas-reliefs show that they +actually used war-chariots then, drawn by horses and operated by armed +warriors. The infantry soldiers wore defensive armor consisting of +helmets, corslets made of skin or some woven stuff on which plates of +metal were sewn, and sometimes coats of steel mail; with leggings to +protect the legs. They carried shields, and were armed with lances, +swords, slings and bows and arrows. The Assyrians employed cavalry, +the horsemen wearing mail armor, and carrying shields and swords and +lances. They employed archers also; the archers being sometimes mounted. + +The use of war-chariots, with all the mechanical equipment that was +necessary, in order to make them operate effectively, shows a state +of civilization much higher than many people realize. It shows also +that a great deal of inventiveness and constructiveness must have been +employed, and must have been skilfully directed;--for it is a very +long road--a very long road indeed--from the bow and arrow to the +war-chariot. In order to produce the war-chariot, several inventions +must have previously been made. The most important of these was one of +the most important inventions ever made,--the wheel. + +Who invented the wheel, and when and where did he invent it? + +This is one of the unanswered questions of history. The war-chariot +suddenly appears on the stage, without any preliminary announcement, +and without any knowledge on our part that even the wheel on which it +moved had been invented. + +It is true that the records of prehistoric man show us that in +fashioning pottery he used a disc that he revolved on a spindle and +applied to the surface of the urn or vase; and it is also true that a +revolving disc is a kind of wheel. But a disc revolving on a stationary +spindle is in its intent and use a very different implement from a +wheel placed on a chariot, and turned by the forward movement of the +chariot itself, for the important purpose of reducing its resistance to +being drawn along the ground. + +It is true also that invention was needed to produce the revolving +disc, the forerunner of all the polishing and turning machines on the +earth today. But the wheel was a different invention, probably a later +one, and certainly a more important one. There are things sometimes +seen in nature that look a little like revolving discs; for instance, +swirls of dust or water. In fact, almost anything put in rotation looks +like one, if the rotation is rapid enough; for instance, the sling that +a primeval slinger revolved around his head. But what do we know of in +nature that looks like a wheel, or that is used for a similar purpose? +Nothing. This being the case, the mind may lose itself in speculation +as to what could have led to the conception of such an appliance in the +mind of the original inventor of the wheel. + +The suggestion may be hazarded that the invention was preceded by an +accidental recognition of the fact that it was easier to drag something +along the ground, if it rested on round logs, than if it did not so +rest; and by noting also that the logs were passed over and left behind +continually. From this point to the mental conception of a roller that +would not be left behind, but would be secured to the thing dragged +by a round shaft on which it revolved, there was probably a single +mental jump. Someone saw such a contrivance with his mental eye. It +looked dim and unreal--but he saw it. To make the picture clear, and +then to develop the thing pictured, constructiveness was used. In other +words, conception and development accomplished their successive but +cooperating tasks. The invention was complete when a wheel was actually +produced. + +To realize the importance of the wheel, we have but to ask ourselves +(or our neighbors) how history could possibly have been even +approximately what it has been if the wheel had not been invented. + +Another important invention probably made by the Assyrians was the +catapult; another one, somewhat similar, was the balista. The catapult +was used for hurling stones, balls, etc.; the balista for shooting +arrows with greater force than an archer could exert. Another was the +battering ram for making breaches in the walls of fortresses. + +[Illustration: Assyrians Flaying Prisoners Alive. (From a bas-relief.)] + +The Assyrians used these inventions in their wars against the +contiguous nations of the East, and with their aid achieved the +mastery, and unified the Orient. That the Assyrian rule was harsh +and cruel should not be denied; but, on the principle that any kind +of government is better than no government, it cannot reasonably be +supposed that the central and efficient administration of Assyria was +not better than the condition of continual petty wars and quarrels that +had existed among the numerous tribes and nations, with their enormous +possibilities for suffering of all kinds. + +It may be pointed out here that the cruelties and injustices committed +by any powerful government against great numbers of persons attract +immeasurably more notice and condemnation by historians and others +than do the numberless atrocities of all kinds that lie hidden in the +darkness of anarchy, or the confusion of petty wars. In the endeavor to +preserve order over widely separated and barbarous peoples, when means +of transportation and communication were inadequate, stern measures +seem always to have been required. That they have often been too stern, +and that great cruelty has often been exercised, the wail of the ages +testifies. But human nature is very imperfect; and no really good +government, no government free from the faults of man, has ever been +established. Yet every government has been better than anarchy. + +The Assyrians, despite their cruel treatment of their conquered +peoples, did a direct service to mankind and gave a powerful stimulus +to the march of progress. For the great empire which they established, +and the great cities which grew up, and the system of provinces which +they instituted, formed a pattern for similar work by later nations; +while the civilization which they spread throughout the more backward +countries under their rule, especially in Greece, started the later +culture which Greece developed, and which is the basis of all that is +most beautiful in the civilization of today. + +The influence of the weapons which the Assyrians invented was toward +this end. + +Between Egypt on the west and Babylonia and Assyria on the east lay +Syria; a territory not very large, of which the part that played the +most prominent part in history bordered the eastern coast of the +Mediterranean Sea. Two important peoples dwelt in Syria, the Hebrews +and the Phoenicians. Both belonged to the Semitic race, and neither was +distinctly warlike; though the Hebrews during a brief period achieved +considerable military strength and skill, under their great king David. + +The main gift of the Hebrews to the world was the Jewish religion, a +more spiritual religion than any that had preceded it, and based on a +conception of one God, a holy God. The ideas held of immortality and of +judgment after death for the deeds done in this life were not entirely +new, but the conception of a holy and beneficent Deity was new; and +it was so inspiring and stimulating a conception that it lifted the +Jews at once to a moral and spiritual plane higher than any people had +ever lived on before. It constituted a step also directly toward the +Christian religion--which also was born in Syria; in Palestine. + +That the conception and establishment of the Jewish religion was an +invention may not be admitted by some; but the author respectfully asks +attention to the sense in which he uses the word invention in this +book, and points out that they constituted an invention in that sense. + +That it was a beneficent invention, and that it helped the human race +spiritually in a way analogous to that in which the invention of +many mechanical devices helped it materially, does not seem hard to +realize. For in both cases the race was transported away from savagery +and toward high civilization; and in both cases there was first a +conception of something desirable, then a constructive effort to +develop it, and finally its production. + +The Phoenicians lived just north of the Jews, and possessed a territory +smaller than that of any other people who ever exercised an equal +influence on history; for it embraced merely a little strip of land +hardly longer than a hundred and twenty miles from north to south, or +wider on the average than twelve miles from east to west. It bordered +on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, and was shut off by the +mountains of Lebanon from Syria, that lay due east. + +The Phoenicians were a people of extraordinary enterprise and +initiative. Inventors are men of extraordinary enterprise and +initiative. How much the Phoenicians are to be credited with the +invention of sailing vessels, we have no means of knowing; but we +do know that (with the possible exception of the Egyptians) the +Phoenicians were more identified with early navigation by sailing +vessels and by vessels pulled by oars than any other people. It +is even known that Phoenician vessels were navigating the Eastern +Mediterranean, both under sails and under oars, as long ago as 1500 B. +C. So, while we should not be justified in asserting positively that +the Phoenicians were the inventors and developers of sailing vessels +and of vessels pulled by banks of oars and steered by rudders, we may +declare with ample reason that probably they were. + +For the purposes of this book, however, the identity of the inventors +is not important. What is important is the fact that the invention +of those vessels had immediate fruit in a commerce by which the +products of eastern civilization were taken westward to Greece and +other countries, while tin and other raw material were brought east +from Spain and even Britain; and that it had later fruit in gradually +building up a western civilization. It had other fruit as well, in +demonstrating the possibilities and the value of ocean commerce, and +forming the basis of the world-wide navigation of today. + +Few inventions have had a greater influence on history than that of the +sailing ship. To some of us it may seem that no invention was involved; +that to use sails was an obvious thing to think of and accomplish. But +if any one of us will close his eyes a moment and imagine an absence +of most of the great scientific and mechanical knowledge of today, and +imagine also the absence of nearly all the present acquaintance with +the laws of weather, flotation, resistance to propulsion, metacentric +height, etc., he may realize what a feat was the invention of the +sailing ship and even of the ship pulled with oars and steered with a +rudder. It is true that we have no reason to assume that either vessel +was conceived by one leap of the imagination and developed by one act, +while we have many reasons to think that each was the result of a +series of short steps; but this does not invalidate the invention of +the ships, or depreciate its influence. + +By two other achievements, also, the Phoenicians showed the kinship +between the inventor and the man of enterprise and initiative; the +invention of the Tyrian dyes and of an alphabetical system of writing +that forms the basis of the systems of today. Here again it is +necessary to remind ourselves that possibly the Phoenicians were not +the sole and original inventors of the alphabet, and that they may +have merely improved upon a system invented by, say, the Cretans; and +again it may be helpful to point out that the important fact is not the +personality of the inventors but the birth of the invention, and the +influence of the invention on history. Certain it is, however, that it +was the Phoenicians who brought alphabetical writing to the practical +stage and who not only used it themselves, but carried it in their +ships all over the Mediterranean, where it bore abundant fruit. It bore +fruit especially in Greece. + +Phoenicia is an instructive illustration of the fact that a country +(like a man) may make inventions of lasting usefulness to mankind, and +yet not hold a position of power or splendor in the world. Phoenicia +was nearly always a vassal, paying tribute to one great monarchy or +another. + +In striking contrast with Phoenicia was the empire of Persia, which, +though it gave to the world of that day the best government it had +ever known, contributed nothing in the nature of an actual new +stepping-stone to civilization. + +Persia conquered Lydia, which is credited with the important invention +of coinage. The coins first issued by the Lydians were of electrum, an +alloy of gold and silver. King Croesus later issued coins of pure gold +and pure silver. + +Directly east of Syria was Phrygia. It was in Phrygia that the flute, +the first real musical instrument, is supposed to have been invented, +in about the sixteenth century B. C. + + * * * * * + +The brief résumé just given of the inventions made in prehistoric +times, and also in historic times in China, Egypt and western Asia, +shows that before Greece had attained any civilization whatever the +most important inventions for the betterment of mankind had been +already made. These inventions were not only mechanical appliances +and such arts as spinning, weaving, pottery making, etc., that were +intended for safety and material benefit generally; for they included +systems of government and codes of laws and even religions that +aimed to elevate man, and that did elevate him mentally, morally and +spiritually. + +At the present day, when inventions follow each other with such +rapidity that even students and experts cannot keep themselves informed +about them, except in certain specialties, it is natural for us to feel +that no inventing of any consequence was ever done before. In fact, the +present age is called "The Age of Invention." Yet all the inventions +of the last century added together have not had so great influence on +mankind as the invention of writing, or of the bow and arrow, or the +wheel--or almost any of the inventions we have noted. Not only are they +not so important,--they were not so novel, they did not constitute +steps so long, they did not mark such epochs, and probably resulted +from less brilliant pictures on the mind. Can anyone think that the +telephone was as novel or as important as the wheel? Can anyone suppose +that the steam engine, or the electric telegraph, or the powder-gun +took us as long a step upward to civilization as did papyrus? Will +anyone declare that the railroad ushered in as great an epoch as +the sailing ship? Is it probable that the first conception of the +phonograph made quite so startling a picture on the accustomed brain +of the habitual inventor as that of the art of making fire did on the +virgin mentality of the savage? + +The last contribution of western Asia to the betterment of the world +was Christianity. It was not made until after Greece had reached the +prime of her civilization and passed beyond it; and some may consider +it a sacrilege to call it an invention. It was an inspiration from On +High. But dare anyone assert that the wonderful conceptions that have +come unbidden to the minds of the great inventors were not, in their +degree, also inspirations from On High? Whence did they come? That they +came there can be no doubt. Whence did they come? Our religion teaches +us that God directs our paths, that He puts good thoughts into our +minds. It also teaches us that He inspired the men who wrote the Bible. +In the ordinary meaning of the word "inspired," Some One inspired every +noble and novel and beneficent achievement that was ever made. Who? + + * * * * * + +Without insisting tediously on the meaning of the word invention, one +may point out that the word is used continually to mean a mental act by +which something heretofore non-existent is created. The expertest of +all word users, in any language, cried: + +"Oh, for a muse that would ascend the highest heaven of invention"; +expressing almost exactly what the present author is trying to express, +and indicating invention as the highest effort of the mind. + +In this sense, may I reverently claim the Christian Religion as an +invention, one of the greatest inventions ever made? + + + + +CHAPTER III + +INVENTION IN GREECE + + +Our brief survey has thus far carried us over the lands of Egypt, +China and western Asia; lands so far removed from us in distance, and +inhabited by people so far removed from us in time and character, +that they seem to belong almost to another world. But we now are +coming to a country which, though its history goes back many centuries +before the Christian era, was a country of Europe and inhabited by +a people who seem near. The Greeks who overran what we now call +Greece, probably about 1500 B. C., took possession of a civilization +exceedingly high, which the inhabitants of the mainland and the Ægean +Islands had received from the East, through the Phoenicians, who +brought it in their ships. This civilization the Ægean islanders, +especially the Cretans, had developed and improved, particularly in +creations of beauty and works of art. The Greeks created a still +higher civilization, and transmitted it to us. The influence of Greek +civilization we see on every hand:--in our language, in our daily life, +and especially in our ideas of art, literature and philosophy. + +That a civilization so high and beautiful should have been attained, +could hardly have been brought about without the presence of great +imagination among the Greeks, and the exercise of considerable +invention. The presence of both imagination and invention are evidenced +in every page of the early history of Greece, in the stirring +stories of her heroes, and in the conception and development of her +government. Compared with the stories of ancient Greece, the stories of +the childhood of every other country seem unimaginative and tame. The +stories of early Greece still live and still have the power to charm. +The Iliad and Odyssey are in the first rank of the great poems even +now; and the story of Helen and the siege of Troy is as full of life +and color as any that we know. + +[Illustration: Two Cretan Vases] + +An interesting legend characteristic of the inventiveness of the +ancient Greeks was that of the large wooden horse in which a hundred +brave warriors concealed themselves, and were drawn within the walls of +Troy by the Trojans themselves, who had been induced to do this by an +ingenious story, invented to deceive them. Whether the legend is true +or not does not affect the fact that invention was needed and employed +to create the legend in the one case, or to cause the incident in the +other case. + +The prehistoric age of Greece was filled with myths of so much beauty, +interest and originality, that the Greek mythology is more read, even +now, than any other. It formed also the basis of the later mythology of +the Romans. + +It may be noted here that mere imagination is not a quality of very +high importance, unless it be associated with constructiveness. In +fact, imagination is evidenced more by savage and barbarous peoples +than by the civilized; as it is also by children and women than by +men. Imagination by itself, untrained and undirected, while it is +unquestionably an attribute of the mind, is not one of reason, in the +sense that it does not necessarily employ the reasoning faculties. In +fact, the imagination, unless trained and well-directed, may lead us to +the absurdest performances, in defiance of the suggestions of reason. +Using the word imagination in this sense, Shakespeare said-- + + "The lunatic, the lover and the poet + Are of imagination all compact." + +It is only when imagination has been assisted by reason, it is only +when conception has been followed by construction, that practical +inventions have resulted. + +The myths invented by the Greeks in their prehistoric period were +the products of not only imagination but construction. Each myth +was a perfectly connected story, complete in all necessary detail, +admirably put together, and told in charming language. The story of +Jason's Argonautic Expedition in search of the Golden Fleece cannot be +surpassed in any of the elements that make a story good; Penelope is +still the model of conjugal devotion, and Achilles the ideal warrior; +Poseidon, or his Roman successor, Neptune, still rules the waves; +Aphrodite, or Venus, calls up more vividly before our minds than any +other name the vision of feminine beauty even to this day. Hercules +exemplifies muscular strength, and Apollo still typifies that which is +most beautiful in manliness. + +The influence of the Grecian myths, "pure inventions" as they were, in +the sense that they were fictitious and not true, has been explained +and demonstrated at great length and with abundant enthusiasm by poets +and scholars for many centuries. They have been generally regarded as +inventions, but nevertheless as quite different from such inventions +as the steam-engine or the printing press. The present author wishes +to point out that the mental processes by which both myths and engines +were created were alike, and that the inventions differed mainly in the +uses to which they were put. + +Even the uses to which they were put were similar in the end; for the +use of the myths and of the steam engine was to improve the conditions +of man's existence. There is only one way in which to do this, and that +is by improving the impressions made on his mind. The myths did this by +making beautiful pictures for his mind to gaze at, and by using them to +induce him to follow a certain (good) line of conduct, rather than the +contrary. The steam engine did it by making the conditions of living +more comfortable, by rendering transportation more safe and rapid, and +by rendering possible the procuring of many of the pleasant things of +life from distant places. + +The invention of a myth may be said to be the invention of an +immaterial thing; the invention of a steam engine to be of a material +thing. These two lines of effort, invention has followed since long +before the dawn of history. Of the two, the invention of myths and +stories probably succeeded the other. + +Probably also it has been the more important in affecting our actual +degree of happiness; affecting it beneficently in the main. For, while +some myths and stories have filled men with dread and horror, a very +large majority have had the opposite effect; and while many mechanical +inventions have contributed to our material ease and comfort, it +is not clear that they have much increased our actual happiness. +Men accommodate themselves easily to changes in their material +surroundings; what is a luxury today will be a necessity tomorrow; and +very many of the material inventions have tended to artificial and +unhealthful modes of living, with consequent physical deterioration and +its accompanying loss of happiness. + +As to influence on history, however, the influence of the material +inventions has probably been the greater. Immaterial inventions might +have been made in enormous numbers without of themselves affecting +history greatly; but the material inventions have brought about most of +the events that history describes; and without one material invention, +that of writing, history could not exist at all. History is rather a +narrative of men's deeds than of their thoughts; and their deeds have +been directed largely by the implements which they had to do deeds with. + +We must realize, of course, that the Greeks were much indebted to the +Ægeans; for discoveries about the shores and islands of the Ægean +Sea show that long before the advent of the Greeks they used tools +and weapons of rough and then of polished stone, and later of copper +and tin and bronze; that they lived on farms and in villages and +cities, and were governed by monarchs who dwelt in palaces adorned +with paintings and fine carvings, and filled with court gentlemen +and ladies who wore jewelry and fine clothing. Exquisite pottery was +used, decorated with taste and skill; ivory was carved and gems were +engraved, and articles were made of silver and bronze and gold. + +As early as the sixth century B. C., the Greeks made things more +beautiful than had ever been made before. One almost feels like saying +that the Greeks invented beauty. Such a declaration would be absurd +of course: but it seems to be a fact that the Greeks had a conception +of beauty that was wholly original with them, and that was not only +finer than that which any other people had ever had before, but finer +than any other people have had since. And not only did they have the +conception, they had the ability to embody the conception in material +forms that possessed a beauty higher than had ever been produced +before, and higher (at least on the average) than have ever been +produced in any other country since. + +Looked at in this way, the production of a new and beautiful statue, +painting or temple, seems to be an act of invention much like the +formulation of a myth or the writing of a poem. In this sense, the +Greeks were inventors, inventors of works of beauty that have existed +as concrete material creations for centuries, and have exercised an +enduring influence on the minds of men. + +The influence of paintings, statues and temples is not so clear as +that of material inventions, but more clear than that of myths and +poems. They may be said to form a class midway between inventions of +material appliances and inventions of immaterial thoughts and fancies. +A beautiful painting or statue is a material object in the same sense +as that in which a steam engine is; but its office is to stimulate the +mind, as a poem does. + +The first inventor of mechanical appliances, mentioned by name as +such, was Dædalus of Athens. He was probably a mythical person. He was +reputed to be the son or the grandson of Erectheus, a probably mythical +king. He is credited with the invention of the saw, the gimlet, the +plumb-line, the axe, the wedge, the lever, masts and sails and even +of flying;--for he is said to have escaped from Crete to Sicily with +artificial wings. The story of Dædalus, like that of many other +mythological personages, is both interesting and irritating from the +mixture of the very probable, the highly improbable, and the entirely +impossible, in a jumble. But the story of Dædalus seems to make it +probable that all the things which he is reported to have invented +(except flying) were in use in Greece in prehistoric times. + +As no records show to us that the inventions just enumerated (except +masts and sails) had been invented elsewhere, we may feel justified +in inferring that they were invented in Greece by Dædalus, or by some +other man bearing a different name,--or by some other men. The name +borne by the man is not important to us now; but it is important to +realize that such brilliant and original inventions were made so long +ago by a primeval people; especially since they were of a character +somewhat different from those invented in Egypt and Asia which we have +already noted. The invention of the gimlet seems the most brilliant +and original of those just spoken of; and one marvels that it should +have been invented at such a time; for the action of the gimlet was a +little more complicated than that of even the balista or the catapult. +It is true that the number of parts was less, that in fact there was +only one part. But that part turned around in one plane, and advanced +in another; it was less like anything that existed before than the +catapult was like the sling, or the balista was like the cross-bow. +There was no immediate forerunner of the gimlet. In other words, the +mental jump needed to invent the gimlet was from a base of nothing that +we can exactly specify. + +[Illustration: Insurgent Captives Brought Before Darius] + +A possible suggestion for the gimlet was the succession of inclined +planes by which one mounted to the top of an Assyrian or Chaldean +palace; these planes rising gradually on each of the four sides, +so as to form together what might be called a square spiral. It is +possible that a circular spiral may have been traced later around some +cylindrical shaft or column, and given the first suggestion for the +screw or gimlet. Of course, a gimlet is a kind of screw. The Greeks do +not seem to have applied their inventiveness after the time of Dædalus +to mechanical appliances, but to works of art and systems of religion +and philosophy. One of their most important inventions may be said to +be mid-way between: it consisted in adding vowels to the Phoenician +alphabet and producing the basis of the Latin and succeeding alphabets. +The Greeks were not naturally of a warlike disposition, and their +peculiarly jealous temperament prevented the various states and cities +from combining and forming a great nation. Their energetic character +and great intellectuality saved them, however, when Darius, King of +Persia, invaded Greece in 490 B. C. + +By that time the Greeks had raised and trained an army of great +excellence. No especial inventiveness seems to have been exercised, +but the equipments of the men, their organization, their armor, their +weapons and their discipline had been brought to a standard exceedingly +high. All these advantages were needed; for the Persians were a warlike +people, their King Darius was an ambitious and successful conqueror, +and the number of Persians that invaded Greece was far greater than the +number that Greece could raise to fight them. + +Had the Greeks been destitute of invention they would have followed +the most obvious course, that of shutting themselves up inside the +protection of the walls of Athens. Had they done this, the Persians +would have surrounded the city, shut them off from supplies from +outside, and slowly but surely forced them to surrender. + +But, on the insistent advice of Miltiades, the Greeks advanced to +meet the Persians, leaving the shelter of their walls behind them. It +may not seem to some that Miltiades made any invention in planning +the campaign which he urged against much resistance, and which the +Athenians finally carried out. Yet his mental action was one allied +to that of making an invention; for his mind conceived a plan as a +purely mental picture, then developed into a workable project, and +then presented it as a concrete proposition. Later, when the hostile +forces met on the low plain of Marathon, Miltiades rejected the obvious +plan that an uninventive mind would have adopted. Instead of it, he +invented the plan of weakening his center, strengthening his flanks, +and departing from the usual custom of advancing slowly against the +enemy, in favor of advancing on the run. The plan (invention) worked +perfectly. The unsuspecting Persians broke through the center and +pursued the fleeing Athenians to a rough ground;--only to be caught +between the two flanks, like a nut in a nut-cracker, and crushed to +pieces. + +It can hardly be seriously questioned that in this plan Miltiades +showed the abilities of the inventor, and in a highly brilliant and +highly important way. Had he fought the battle in the obvious way, the +great numerical superiority of the Persians could hardly have failed +to gain the victory, despite a really considerable superiority of the +Athenians in training and equipment. But the Persians were the victims +of a new and unexpected kind of attack. A new weapon suddenly brought +to bear on them would have had a similar effect. + +This is the first illustration in recorded history of the influence +of invention on the deciding of a war. Its influence was enormous in +this case; for the battle of Marathon was one of the most decisive and +one of the most important battles ever fought. If it had been decided +contrariwise, Grecian civilization would have been stamped out, or so +completely stifled that it would never have risen to the heights it +afterwards attained; freedom of thought and government would have been +smothered, and the world would be immeasurably different now from what +it really is. + +The defeat of the Persians was so decisive that they withdrew to +their own country, but with the determination of returning, and in +overwhelming force. By reason of a variety of circumstances, including +the death of the king, the invasion did not take place until ten years +later. Then, in the year 480 B. C., King Xerxes set out on a punitive +expedition against Greece with an enormous military and naval force. + +Again Greece was saved from Persia by pure brain power, that of +Themistocles. Like Miltiades, he rejected the obvious. Discerning, +as no one else discerned, that the weakest point in the Persian +forces was the line of communication across the Ægean Sea, because +the ships of those days were fragile, and an invading army needed to +get supplies continually from Persia, he pointed out that although it +was the Persian army that would do the actual damage in Greece, yet +nevertheless, the major effort of the Athenians should not be spent on +their army but on their navy. + +The difficulties he met in making the Athenians see the truth may +easily be imagined, from experiences in our own day. He succeeded at +last, however; so that by the time the Persians reached Greece, Greece +had a fleet that was very good, though not nearly so large as the +Persian. The fleets came near to each other in the vicinity of Athens. +The majority of the Athenian leaders advised that the Athenian fleet +should retreat toward the south and west, to the isthmus of Corinth, +and await the Persians there; because, if defeated, a safe retreat +could be effected. But Themistocles opposed this plan with all the +force and eloquence he could bring to bear; pointing out that the aim +of the Athenians should not be to find a safe line of retreat, but to +win a battle; and that the Bay of Salamis was the best place, for two +reasons. One reason was that the Persians would have to enter the bay +in column, because the entrance was narrow, and the Persian ships, as +they successively passed into the bay, would therefore be at a great +disadvantage against the combined attack of the Athenian ships, waiting +for them there; the other reason was that the bay was so small that the +great numbers and size of the Persian ships would be a disadvantage, +instead of an advantage. Themistocles (not without the use of +considerable diplomacy and even subterfuge) finally secured the assent +of the other Athenian leaders. The result was exactly what he predicted +that it would be. The Persian fleet was wholly defeated, and Greece +again was saved. + +The great victory of the Greeks over the Persians wrought a powerful +stimulation among all the people, especially in Athens, and was +followed by the most extraordinary intellectual movement in the history +of the world. It lasted about a century and a half; and in no other +country, and at no other period, has so much intellectual achievement +been accomplished by so few people in so short a time. + +Before the Persian wars, the Greeks had already shown an extraordinary +originality in art and literature; especially in architecture, +sculpture and poetry. Naturally these peaceful arts languished during +the wars; but after the Persian invaders had been finally ejected, they +rose with renewed vigor, stimulated by the patriotic enthusiasm of the +nation as a whole. + +It was in Athens, and among the Athenians that most of the movement +was carried on. The principal state in Greece besides Athens then +was Sparta. The Spartans devoted themselves mainly to warlike and +allied arts, while the Athenians devoted themselves mainly to the +beautification of Athens; though they were careful to guard it +adequately by maintaining an excellent navy, surrounding the city with +high walls, and building two long parallel walls from Athens to Piræus, +its seaport. + +It would be out of place in a book like this to attempt any description +or discussion of the various phases of the intellectual activities that +rose with such startling quickness, and developed into such important +movements, during the century and a half that followed the Persian +wars; especially as this has already been done by many scholars, +in many languages, and at many times. A very brief and elementary +statement may, however, be made, for the purpose of illustrating the +influence of invention on history. + +The main characteristic of the movement as a whole and of every +one of the various channels which it followed, was originality. No +such perception of beauty had ever been evidenced before; no such +conceptions of logic, philosophy or science. + +Accompanying these was a conception of free government equally +original. Whether the government of Athens was the cause of the +intellectual rise, or the intellectual rise was the cause of the +government, may safely be left to scholars to debate; for the purposes +of the present discussion, it seems sufficient that they co-existed and +had together a powerful influence on history. + +The greatest genius that guided the intellectual forces of the +Athenians in the matter of government was that of Pericles, who ruled +their minds by pure force of argument and persuasion, from about 445 +to 431 B. C. Athens and her subject cities formed a virtual empire, +small in extent, but powerful in influence; though in form it was a +democracy. In some ways it was the most perfect democracy that ever +has existed even to this day; for not only was every citizen available +for office, but he was expected to take active part in deciding public +measures, and to be really qualified to hold office. + +This idea was put into practical operation by a careful system of +payment for every public service; to the end that even the poorest +citizen should be enabled to hold office, and a wealthy office-holding +caste prevented from existing. To so great an extent was this carried +out that, by the time that the Age of Pericles ceased and the +Peloponnesian War began, almost every citizen was in the pay of the +state. The perfect equality of all the citizens, and their community +of interests and privileges, was recognized by supplying them at +times with free tickets to places of amusement, and by banqueting the +people on great occasions at the expense of the state. To distribute +widely the powers and duties of citizenship, exceedingly large juries +were established for the trials of all cases. There was no king or +president or prime minister. The source of authority was the Assembly +which included every citizen over eighteen years of age, and held forty +meetings a year. Cooperating, as a sort of committee, was a Council of +Five Hundred, whose members were chosen by lot each year from citizens +over thirty years of age. + +The success of the Athenian democracy has had a powerful influence ever +since on history; because it has supplied not only a precedent but an +encouragement to every people to try to escape from the individual +restrictions that monarchies and all "strong governments" tend to +impose. But it had another though less powerful influence also, +which continued for a long while, but now has ceased, in supplying a +precedent for slavery. For while the citizens of Athens were free, only +the sons of Athenian fathers and Athenian mothers could be citizens; +many thousand workers and merchants of all kinds could take no part in +the government, and there were besides an enormous number of slaves. +It was to a great degree the fact of slavery that made possible the +success of the so-called Athenian democracy; for it liberated the +citizens in very great measure from the drudgery of life, and gave them +leisure to devote themselves to the study of government and the arts. + +In addition, Athens acquired great wealth from the spoils of its wars +and the tribute of its subject states. This wealth was expended largely +in the beautifying of Athens, and in the consequent encouragement +and opportunity to artists of all kinds. Naturally, the art most +immediately encouraged was that of architecture; and that the +encouragement met with ready and great success the most beautiful ruins +in the world superbly testify. The directing genius in this work and +in all the others was Pericles, who stimulated the Athenians with his +conception and description of a city worthy to symbolize the power and +glory of the empire. The twin arts of architecture and sculpture worked +together and in harmony; and a city more beautiful than ever known +before, or ever known since, testified to the soundness and brilliancy +of the conception and to the constructive ability of the Athenians to +embody it in material form. + +The poets and scholars kept pace with the statesmen and the architects +and the sculptors; but the philosophers surpassed them all. For, while +the successful democracy of Athens is a model still, and while the +Parthenon and the statue of Apollo are models still, yet an integral +part of the system of government (slavery) has been abjured by the +civilized world, and the temples and the statues have been for the +pleasure of but a few; while the teachings of the philosophers have +been the basis on which has rested ever since much of the intellectual +progress of mankind. + +It may be noted here that, as men have progressed up the steep road to +civilization, the only guides they have had have been men who have not +themselves passed over the road before, and whose only qualification +as guides has lain in some attribute of the mind that enabled them +to survey the road a little farther ahead than the others could, and +to point out the paths to take, and the obstructions to avoid. Man's +physical instincts guide him considerably as to the methods to preserve +his physical existence; but they help him not at all to lift himself +above his physical self, and in many ways they hinder him. It seems +to be the office of the mind both to discern the upward paths and to +stimulate the will to overcome the difficulties and dangers in the way. + +Of the great pointers of the way, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and +others, it might be deemed presumptuous of the present author to do +more than speak; and of the great stimulators, Æschuylus, Sophocles, +Euripedes, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, and, above all, Demosthenes +as well. But because it is pertinent to our subject it is instructive +for us to note that the main distinctive feature of the work of each +was originality. It is true that it is the completed work in the case +of each that meets our gaze; it is true that the superficial impression +would be the same, even if each work had been a copy of some work that +had gone before; in the same way that, superficially, many a copy of +an oil painting is as good as the original. But from the standpoint +of influence on the future, it is the originator rather than the +copyist who wields the influence; just as it is the basic inventor of a +mechanical appliance rather than the man who improves upon it. + +The Athenians and Spartans became involved in the Peloponnesian War, +that lasted from 431 to 404 B. C., and ended with the capture of +Athens. The Spartans thereupon became dominant in Greece, but only to +be mastered by the Thebans in 371 B. C. The little jealous states of +Greece were never able to agree together long, and no one state was +ever able to unite them. But the half-barbarian people of Macedonia, +under Philip their king, after developing their army, according to a +novel system invented by him, overcame and then united under their sway +the highly cultured but now military weak states that had despised them. + +Possibly, it would somewhat strain the meaning of the word invention, +to declare that Philip made a radically new invention, when he +improved on the Theban phalanx, and devised his system of military +training; for kings and other leaders had trained armies long before +Philip lived, and Philip departed only in what some might call detail +from the methods that had been used before. But, at the same time, +it was an act, or a series of acts, betokening great initiative and +originality, for a man ruling a weak collection of tribes such as dwelt +in Macedon, to create out of such crude material as he began with, such +an extraordinary army as he ultimately was able to lead to battle. To +accomplish this it was necessary for him to conceive the idea of doing +it, then to embody his conception in a formulated plan, and then bring +forth the finished product. The thought of doing it must have come to +him:--how else could he get it? An idea comes from outside through the +mental eye to the mind; as a ray of light comes from outside through +the physical eye to the retina. + +The picture made on Philip's mind must have impressed him profoundly, +for he spent the rest of his life in giving it "a local habitation +and a name." To accomplish it cost him years of continual effort of +many kinds, but he did accomplish it. He did, as a result, produce a +machine, as truly a machine as Stephenson ever produced, but made up of +many more parts; each part independent of any other, and yet dependent +on every other, and all working together, for a common purpose. + +Let us remind ourselves again that a machine composed of inanimate +parts only is only one kind of machine; for a machine may be composed +of animate parts, or inanimate parts, or of parts of which some are +animate and some inanimate. Clearly, it makes no difference, so far +as the act of invention goes, whether a man uses animate or inanimate +parts; the essential of invention is the creation of a new thing. If a +man merely puts two pieces of wood and a piece of string into a pile, +or if he merely collects a number of men together, no invention is made +and nothing is created. But if he so combines the two pieces of wood +and the string as to make a bow and arrow; or if he combines a modified +Theban phalanx with masses of cavalry and catapults in a novel and +effective way as Philip did, invention is exercised and something is +created. + +Before Philip's time a phalanx was used to bear the brunt of the +battle, and to overwhelm the enemy by mere strength and force; as the +Thebans did at Leuctra and Mantinea. But Philip conceived the idea of +merely holding the enemy with his phalanx assisted by the catapults, +and hurling his cavalry against their flanks. Philip's army, as Philip +used it, was a machine and a very powerful one:--each part independent +of every other, yet dependent on every other--all the parts working +together for a common purpose. Philip conceived the idea of making +this machine, and afterwards made it; just as Ericsson more than two +thousand years later conceived the idea of making a "_Monitor_" and +afterwards made it. + +By means of his machine Philip defeated the Greeks at Cheronea in the +year 338 B. C., just as Ericsson by means of his machine defeated the +_Merrimac_ at Newport News in the year 1862 A. D., exactly twenty-two +centuries later. The two machines differed, it is true. Yet they did +not differ so much as one might unthinkingly suppose; for each machine +was made up of parts, of which some were animate and some were not; and +in each machine every part, animate or inanimate, cooperated with all +the others; and all cooperated together, to carry out the inventor's +purpose, the destruction of the enemy. + +The influence of Philip's invention began before Philip died, and it +continues to this day. For after Philip's death, his son Alexander put +it to work at once on the task of subduing thoroughly all of Greece, +and then subduing Asia. + +The influence of the machine in subduing even Greece alone must not be +regarded lightly; not so much because Greece was subdued, as because +the various little states were by that means brought together; and +because it illustrates the fact that without a machine, no great number +of people can work together. It _was because of the absence of any +machine_ that the Grecian states acted separately and antagonistically, +instead of in cooperation. + +After subduing Greece, Alexander took his machine across the +Hellespont, in the year 334 B. C., to try it on the Persian troops +in Asia Minor. The machine worked so successfully at a battle on the +Granicus that Alexander took it south, and with its aid was able to +conquer all of Asia Minor in about a year. + +It may be objected that it is not correct to attribute all of +Alexander's success to the excellence of his machine; and this +objection would have great force and receive the approval of most +people, for the reason that, in most histories, the main credit is +given to the energy of Alexander and the courage of his troops;--though +the excellence of the training and organization bequeathed by Philip is +admitted. + +To this hypothetical objection the answer may be made that the ultimate +result was due to both the machine and the excellence with which it was +operated; that is, to the product of what the machine could do if it +were used with perfect skill and the percentage of skill with which it +was actually used. This statement is, of course, true of all machines +and instruments, as the author has often pointed out, in articles and +addresses. + +In the case of Alexander and his army, the percentage of skill, of +course, was high; but Alexander and each one of his soldiers was only +a part of the machine; and even their skill was part of the machine +in the sense that it was a characteristic included in the original +design of Philip. In other words, we should not fall into the error of +dissociating the skill of Alexander and his soldiers from the machine +itself; because it was part of Philip's invention that the training +should produce that skill. The system of training was part of the +invention. + +It is true, however, and exceedingly important, that the degree of +skill which Alexander brought to bear personally was far in excess of +what any system of training could possibly produce. When we read of the +amazing victories that Alexander made over superior forces of highly +trained warriors, we see that Philip of Macedon should not be given +all the credit; that the genius of Philip of Macedon was not the only +genius contributing to the result. We see that genius of some kind +directed the decisions of Alexander. What were the characteristics of +that genius? + +Courage? Yes; history tells of no one possessing higher courage, +both physical and moral, than Alexander. Not only was he physically +brave, not only did he dare physical danger of many kinds, and on many +occasions, but he was morally brave; he did not shirk responsibility; +he did not fear to take enormous risks; he did not hesitate to reject +advice, even the advice of his most experienced and able generals; he +was willing to stake everything, sometimes, on the success of some +wholly untried expedient of his own devising. + +But does mere courage, even of so many kinds--and even if it be added +to trained skill and the possession of an admirable machine--do they +all together explain the amazing successes of Alexander? No. What does +explain them? + +Genius? Yes, but the word genius is only a word, and explains nothing; +for the reason that no one knows what the word genius means. It is +merely a label that we attach to a man who is able to do things that +other men cannot do. But granting that the possession of "genius" is +an explanation of Alexander's being able to accomplish what he did, in +what way did that genius operate? in what way did it help him to win so +many victories and extricate himself from so many perilous situations? + +By inventing methods and devising schemes and improvising plans +that an uninventive man would not have thought of. The story of the +Gordian knot may or may not be true; but it seems credible, because +it was exactly the kind of a thing that Alexander might have been +expected to do in such an emergency. Posing as a great conqueror, he +was (according to the legend) suddenly confronted with the untying of +a knot, the successful accomplishment of which would make him master +of Asia. He realized that he could not untie it. Any man but a man +like Alexander would have tried it and acknowledged failure, or have +declined to try it: placing himself in a defensive position in either +case. But Alexander draws his sword and cuts the knot in two, thereby +accomplishing whatever the untying of the knot would have accomplished, +but in an unexpected way. Alexander's victories and escapes from +perilous positions were largely accomplished by unexpected measures. + +But Alexander showed his inventive ability before he invaded Persia; +in his very first campaign undertaken to subdue a revolt in Thessaly +immediately after he ascended to the throne. The Thessalians opposed +him in a narrow defile. An ordinary man would have thought, as the +Thessalians did, that he was checkmated. But Alexander conceived and +executed the ingenious scheme of cutting a new road up the steep +side of the mountain, leading his army along that road, and suddenly +threatening the Thessalians in their helpless rear. Shortly afterward +in Thrace he reached a defile in the mountains which it was necessary +for him to pass, but which he found defended by a force that had +stationed a number of war-chariots at the top, to be rolled down on the +Macedonians. Alexander immediately ordered his infantry to advance up +the path and to open their ranks whenever possible to let the chariots +rush through; but when that could not be done to fall on their knees +and hold their shields together as a sort of roof on which the chariots +would slide, and from which they would roll off. This amazing story is +supposed to be true; and it is said to have succeeded perfectly. + +Not long afterward Alexander had to cross the Danube with his army and +all their equipments and attack a force of barbarians on the farther +bank. This he saw he could not do by the use of any means available of +an ordinary kind. Nothing daunted, he conceived and executed the scheme +of floating his equipments across at night in floats made of tent +skins, filled with hay. + +The next clear example that we find of Alexander's inventiveness +was when he undertook the siege of Tyre. Tyre stood on an island +of Phoenicia in the extreme eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. +It was surrounded with a wall, very thick and very high, and was +separated from the shore by half a mile of deep water. To capture +such a place was no small undertaking for a man who had no ships. But +Alexander conceived and executed a scheme that worked successfully. +In accordance with that scheme, he built a causeway that extended +from the shore out toward the island on which Tyre stood. Naturally, +the Tyrians obstructed his efforts by sending fireships against +him and firing projectiles; and these tactics became more and more +effective as the causeway approached the city. Then Alexander visited +some of the jealous neighbors of Tyre that had submitted to him, and +secured a fleet of some eighty ships; and these he led, as the admiral +commanding, against the Tyrian harbor. + +By this time, the causeway was well protected with catapults and +war-engines of various kinds, and had been carried close up to the +island. Yet little actual damage could be done to Tyre, because of the +height and thickness of the walls, and because Alexander's galleys that +he had equipped with war-engines could not get close enough, by reason +of large boulders under water. Alexander then equipped certain galleys +with windlasses to root up the boulders, the galleys being fitted +with chain cables to prevent divers from cutting them. Tyre was soon +afterwards reduced to a purely passive defense and consequent surrender. + +The story of the siege of Tyre, if read in the light of the conditions +of the comparative barbarism of the world in those days, is a record of +inventiveness, on the part of Alexander, so convincing and complete, as +to entitle Alexander to a place in the first rank among the inventors +of our race. + +Shortly afterward Alexander reached the town of Gaza, the great +stronghold of the Philistines. It stood on high ground, and was +more than two miles from the sea. Alexander's engineers reported to +him that, as the fleet could not assist them, and as the walls were +themselves very high and stood on a high hill, the walls could never be +stormed. Things looked serious. They were serious; and failure would +then have come to any man, except a man like Alexander. He cut the +Gordian knot by ordering that ramparts be thrown up as high as the top +of the walls, and war engines placed on the ramparts. This was done, +and the city was taken. + +Alexander's campaigns in Egypt, and afterward in western Asia, were +characterized by the same quickness and daring, both in conception and +in execution, that had marked his opening campaigns in Greece. Later, +when advancing toward Persia, he encountered a tribe of hillsmen in +the Uxian Pass, who, like the Thessalians and the Thracians, thought +they had blocked his passage by opposing him in so narrow a defile. +Alexander literally "circumvented" them by making a night march over +a difficult mountain pass, and astonishing them by an attack on +their rear the following morning. Shortly afterward a like situation +presented itself, when an army opposed him in a narrow defile called +the Persian Gates, that was fortified with a wall. Alexander soon +realized that the position of his enemy was impregnable. He learned, +however, that there was a path that led around the pass, though it was +exceedingly dangerous, particularly to men in armor and to horses, +and especially at that time, when snow and ice were on the ground. He +again utilized his former invention (circumvention) and with his former +success; though the conditions under which it was accomplished were +much more difficult. + +The four examples just given of literally circumventing an uninventive +enemy illustrate in the simplest form the influence of invention on +military history. + +After it became clear to Alexander that his invasion of Asia would +be successful from a military point of view, his active imagination +presented to his mind a picture of a grand and noble empire, embracing +the whole world, but dominated and inspired by the spirit of the +civilization of Greece. To develop this conception into an actual +reality, became at once the object of his efforts. To develop it, he +decided to adopt in some measure the characteristics and dress of +the people in whatever province he might be, and to take such steps +in organizing provinces, founding cities and establishing systems, as +to weld all into one empire, under himself, as ruler. One can hardly +credit the authoritative account he reads of Alexander's bewildering +success. He seems not only to have won battles, and built cities, +and organized provinces, but actually to have super-posed Greek +civilization on Persian civilization! + +In one of his most important later battles, Alexander again utilized +his inventiveness. If he had not done so, he would assuredly have lost +the battle. It was against King Porus in northwestern India. Alexander +found the forces of Porus encamped on the opposite side of the Hydaspes +River, with the evident intention of preventing him from crossing. As +the army of Porus in men alone was evidently equal to his own, and +as it was reinforced with a multitude of elephants, Alexander was +apparently confronted with a problem impossible of solution. It would +have been impossible to anyone but a man like Alexander. He, however, +by means of various feints and ingenious stratagems, managed to get +across at night about sixteen miles up the river, using boats that he +had constructed, and floats of skin stuffed with straw. Porus took up +a position on the opposite shore and made ready to receive attack, his +front preceded by war chariots and elephants. Alexander had neither; +but he did have brains and originality. So he simply held the enemy +with his infantry, and then made a determined attack with cavalry and +archers on the enemy's left flank, and especially on the elephants. The +elephants soon got beyond control; and the rest of the battle was a +fight between a highly trained Macedonian phalanx, assisted by cavalry, +and an Oriental mob. + +Alexander died in Babylon when not quite thirty-three years old. In +actual and immediate achievement he surpassed perhaps every other man +who has ever lived. He founded an empire which he himself had conceived +and developed, which covered nearly all the then known world, and +which, though it was composed mainly of barbarous and semi-barbarous +people, was dominated by Greek thought. It is true that the empire +fell apart almost immediately after Alexander died. But it did not +fall into anarchy, or revert to its previous state: it was divided +into four parts, each of which was distinct, self-governing and well +organized. The two larger parts, the kingdom of the Seleucidæ, which +occupied approximately the territory of Persia, and the kingdom of the +Ptolomies, or Egypt, continued as torch-bearers to civilization for +many centuries thereafter. + +Of the two, the former was the larger and was probably the better, +from an administrative point of view; but Egypt represented the finer +civilization; for Alexandria, with its library and its wonderful +museum, became the seat of learning and the resort of the scholars of +the world, and the centre of the Hellenistic civilization that followed +that of Greece. + +This Hellenistic civilization, it may here be pointed out, was in some +respects as fine as that of Greece, and in some respects was finer, +because it was more mature. But (perhaps for the reason that it was +more mature) it lacked much of the element that was the highest in the +Greek, the element that gave Greek civilization greater influence on +history than any other civilization ever had--the creative element. The +creative period of Greece ceased when her political liberty was lost. +Furthermore, the immense amount of wealth that poured into the Grecian +cities and the Græco-Oriental world, by reason of the putting into +circulation of gold that had been stored away in Oriental palaces, +as well as by the commercial exploitation of the riches of the East, +brought about a general effeminizing of all classes of society, and the +consequent dulling of their minds. + +[Illustration: The Lighthouse of the Harbor of Alexandria in the +Hellenistic Age] + +Nevertheless, there was great intellectual activity in the +Græco-Oriental world, and a certain measure of invention, though little +was of a basic kind. Euclid improved the science of geometry, and put +it in virtually the same shape as that in which it has been taught +since, even to this day. Aristarchus, the astronomer, announced the +doctrine that the earth revolves around the sun and rotates on its +own axis; and Hipparchus invented the plan of fixing the positions of +places on the earth by their latitudes north and south of the Equator +and their longitude east or west of a designated meridian. Hippocrates +and Galen conceived and developed the foundations of the science of +medicine of the present day. Eratosthenes estimated with extraordinary +accuracy the circumference of the earth, and founded the science of +geography. + +But the greatest of all of the original workers of that time was +Archimedes, who lived at Syracuse in Sicily, and was killed by mistake +when Syracuse was captured in the year 212 B. C., while engaged in +drawing a geometrical figure on the sand. His principal fame is as a +mathematician; but as a great inventor of mechanical appliances, he +is the first man recognized as such in history. The invention with +which his name is most frequently linked is that of the Archimedean +screw. This consisted of a tube, wound spirally around an inclined +axle, and so disposed that when the lower end of the tube was dipped +into water and the axle was rotated water would rise in the tube--as +shavings do when a screw is screwed down into wood. It constituted a +very convenient pump and was so used. This was, of course, a mechanical +invention of the utmost originality and value, and forms one of the +clearly defined stepping-stones to civilization. + +There seems to be a belief in the minds of some that Archimedes was the +inventor of the lever. The lever was, of course, invented long before +he lived; but the laws of its operation and the principle that the +weight on each side of the fulcrum, multiplied by its distance from +the fulcrum, is equal to the weight on the other side, multiplied by +its distance (when the lever is in equilibrium), seems to have been +established by him. + +Many stories are told of his exploits when Syracuse was besieged by +the Romans, but they are rather vague. The best known story is that he +arranged a great many mirrors in such a way that he concentrated so +many rays of sunlight on some Roman ships that they took fire. Whether +this is true or not is not definitely known; but many centuries later +Buffon, the French scientist, made an arrangement of plane mirrors +with which he set fire to wood 200 feet away. + +The greatest single exploit of Archimedes was his discovery and +demonstration of the hydrostatic principle that the weight of liquid +displaced by a body floating in it is equal to that of the body. +The story is that the king gave him the apparently impossible task +of determining the quantity of gold and the quantity of silver in a +certain gold coin, in making which the king suspected the workmen of +stealing part of the gold and substituting silver. Pondering this +subject later while lying in his bath, Archimedes suddenly realized +that his body displaced a bulk of water equal to that part of his body +that was immersed, and conceived the consequent law; and the conception +was so startling and so vivid that he rushed unclad out into the street +crying, "I have found it, I have found it." + +The story as a story may not be exactly true; but if Archimedes +had realized the full purport and the never-ending result of his +conception, he would probably have done something even more eccentric +than he did. + + * * * * * + +Archimedes esteemed mechanical inventions as greatly inferior in value +to those speculations and demonstrations that convince the mind, and +considered that his chief single work was discovering the mathematical +relation between a sphere and a cylinder just containing it. + +Whether this discovery and the discovery of the hydrostatic principle +just mentioned were inventions or not, depends, of course, on the +meaning of the word invention. Within the meaning of the word as +employed heretofore in this book, both seem to have been inventions. +Each made a definite creation and each caused something to exist, +the like of which had never existed before. Furthermore, the mental +processes followed resemble very closely the conception and formulation +of a religion or a theory, the conception and composing of a new piece +of music, story or poem, the conception and developing of any new +plan or scheme; the conception and embodying in material form of any +mechanical device. + +It is not asserted, of course, that all inventions are on a dead level +of equality, simply because they are inventions. Evidently there are +degrees of excellence among inventions as among all other things. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INVENTION IN ROME: ITS RISE AND FALL + + +We have noted, up to a time approximately that of Archimedes, a +continual succession of inventions of many kinds, that formed +stepping-stones to civilization so large and plain, that we can see +them even from this distance. + +We now come to a period lasting more than a thousand years, in +the first half of which there was a gradually decreasing lack of +inventiveness shown, and in the latter half a cessation almost complete. + +The nation that followed Greece as the dominant nation of the world was +Rome. She became more truly a dominant nation than Greece ever was; but +her civilization was built on that of Greece, and her success even in +war and government was due largely to following where Greece had led. +That Rome in her early days should have followed the methods of Greece +was natural of course; for the two countries were close together, and +the methods of Greece had brought success. The early religion of Rome +was so like that of Greece that even to this day the conceptions of +most of us regarding Zeus and Jupiter, Poseidon and Neptune, Aphrodite +and Venus are apt to become confused. + +Like the Greeks, the Romans first were gathered in city-states that +were governed by kings; and as with the Greeks, more republican forms +were adopted later. In one important particular, the Roman practice +diverged from the Greek, and that was in incorporating conquered +states into the parent state, and granting their inhabitants the +privileges of citizenship; instead of keeping them in the condition +of mere subject states. The Roman system was somewhat like the system +of provinces established by the Assyrians. It forms the basis of the +"municipal system" of the free states of the present day, in which +local self-government is carried on, under the paramount authority of +the state. + +It may be pointed out here that the conception of such an idea and its +successful development into an effective machine of government by the +Romans constituted an invention; though in view of what had been done +before by Assyria and Greece, it cannot be called a basic invention. + +The early Romans were very different in their mental characteristics +from the Greeks; for they were stern, warlike, intensely practical, and +possessed of an extraordinary talent for what we now call "team work." +As a nation they were not so inventive as the Greeks; but the Roman, +Cæsar, was the greatest military inventor who ever lived. + +As might be expected, their early endeavors pertained to war, and their +first improvements were in warlike things. One improvement that was +marked by considerable inventiveness was in changing the phalanx into +the legion. The phalanx, the historian Botsford tells us, was "invented +by the Spartans, probably in the eighth century B. C.," and consisted +of an unbroken line of warriors, several ranks deep. The Thebans +improved on this; and from the Theban, Philip developed the Macedonian +phalanx with which Alexander fought his way through Asia. The Romans +under Servius Tullius developed this into the Roman phalanx, which was +different only in detail. The essential characteristic of the phalanx +was strength. This was gained by the close support given by each man +to his neighbor, the personal strength of each man and the trained +co-operation of all. A tremendous blow was given to an enemy's line +when a phalanx struck it. + +In the early wars among the hills of Italy, the Romans found the +phalanx too rigid for such uneven country; and it was in endeavoring +to invent a substitute that they finally developed the legion. This +machine was much more flexible, the individual soldiers had more +room for their movements, and yet the machine seemed to possess the +necessary rigidity when the shock of impact came. The heavy infantry +was in three lines, and each line was divided into ten companies, or +"maniples." The burden of the first attack was borne by the first +line. If unsuccessful, the first line withdrew through gaps in the +second line, and the second line took up the task;--and then the third, +composed of the most seasoned troops. The attack usually began with the +hurling of javelins, and was followed at once by an assault with the +Roman strong short swords. + +Now the legion was just as truly an invented machine as a steam engine +is; and it had a greater influence on history than the steam engine has +ever had thus far. It was by means of their legions that the Romans +passed outside of the walls of Rome, and conquered all of Italy. It +was by means of their legions that the Romans conquered all the coast +peoples that bordered the Mediterranean Sea, subdued Gaul, Europe and +Egypt and Asia, and became the greatest masters of the world that the +world has ever seen. + +The first war of the Romans that history calls great was their war +against the splendid and wealthy city of Carthage, situated on the +opposite side of the Mediterranean, inhabited by descendants of the +Phoenicians. They were an aggressive and energetic people, but only +commercially. They were not of the warlike cast, and delegated the work +of national defense to hired soldiers and sailors. They had one great +advantage over the Romans in the possession of an excellent navy. + +The Romans resolved to create a navy. With characteristic energy +and practical ability, they devoted themselves at once to both the +acquisition of the personnel and the material, and the adequate +training of the crews. It is stated that within two months from the +time of starting, Rome possessed a hundred quinqueremes, the largest +galleys of those days, having five tiers of rowers; though they had had +none when the war broke out. The first naval battle took place near the +promontory of Mylæ. Naturally, the Romans were at a great disadvantage +as compared with the experienced officers and sailors in the +Carthaginian fleet; for though the Roman soldier was far better than +the Carthaginian, the Roman sailor was inexperienced and unskilful. +To remedy the difficulty, the Romans made a simple but brilliant +invention. They provided each quinquereme with a "corvus," that +consisted essentially of a drawbridge that could be lowered quickly, +and that carried a sharp spike at its outer end; and then arranged a +plan whereby each quinquereme should get alongside of a Carthaginian, +drop the drawbridge at such a time that the spike would hold the outer +end of the drawbridge in place on the Carthaginian deck, and Roman +soldiers should then rush across the drawbridge and attack the inferior +Carthaginian soldiers. + +Few more brilliant inventions have ever been made; few have been more +successful and effective. The battle ended in a perfect victory for the +Romans, and constituted the initial step in the subjugation of Carthage +by Rome. + +There were three wars in all, called Punic Wars. The great Carthaginian +General, Hannibal, invaded Italy by land in the Second War, and after +a campaign marked with a high order of daring and ability, threatened +Rome herself after a brilliant victory near Lake Trasimene. Another +victory followed at Cannæ, but a decisive disaster later on the +Metaurus River. So the Second War was won by Rome. But Carthage still +existed, and menaced the commercial, naval and military dominance of +Rome. Therefore war was brought about at last by Rome, and Carthage +destroyed completely. + +The conduct of Rome toward Carthage cannot be justified on any grounds +of any system of morality accepted at the present day; and yet it +cannot reasonably be denied that it was better for human progress that +Rome should prevail than Carthage. The Romans, harsh and ruthless +as they were, were less so than the Carthaginians; and they had an +element of strong manliness and a comprehensive grasp of things beyond +mere commerce and money-getting and ease and comfort that the Semitic +Carthaginians wholly lacked. The effect of the conquest of Carthage by +Rome was a little like that of the conquest of Persia by Alexander. + +During the same year (146 B. C.) when Rome destroyed Carthage, she also +destroyed Corinth in Greece, and brought Greece and Macedonia under her +sway. She had previously (190 B. C.) defeated Antiochus the Great, and +taken from him nearly all his territory in Asia Minor. + +By the year 58 B. C., Rome had become the most powerful nation in the +world and still preserved a republican form of government. In that +year, 58 B. C., the man who probably is the most generally regarded +as the greatest man who has ever lived, appeared upon the stage of +history. His name was Julius Cæsar. + +He appeared in that year, because he went then from Rome to Gaul, +and started on those brilliant and in many respects unprecedented +campaigns which have had so profound an effect on history, and which +for originality in conception and execution have had no rivals since. + +At this time, Italy and the lands of Africa and Asia on which +Alexander had impressed the civilization of Greece, were prosperous +and well-governed; but beyond those countries only barbarous customs +prevailed, and only a primitive civilization reigned. The lands that +lay north and northwest of Italy, throughout all Gaul, were inhabited +by savage tribes that were in a state of continual war with each other. +In the southern and middle parts the effects of Roman civilization +might be dimly seen; but in the southwestern part, and in the north, +especially among the German tribes on the Rhine, and the Belgæ near the +North Sea, a condition of virtually pure savagery prevailed. + +Into such a country Cæsar marched, at the head of a body of men wholly +inferior in numbers to those they were to meet, not superior to them +in courage or physical strength, but considerably superior to them +in discipline, and vastly superior in the weapons and methods that +had gradually been invented, with the progress of civilization. Thus, +while the Roman machine was superior as a machine to any that the +Gauls could bring to bear, it was smaller; so that the question to be +decided was whether the superior excellence of the Roman machine was +great enough to balance its inferiority in size. Looking back from our +vantage ground on the history of the campaigns that followed, we feel +inclined to answer the question in the negative, unless we consider +Cæsar himself a part of the machine. It is true that the campaigns were +decided in favor of the Roman machine; but there seems little ground +for doubting that they would not have been so decided, if the genius +of Cæsar had not managed the Roman machine and made improvements from +time to time. + +Cæsar had had little experience as a soldier, but his habits of life +and traits of character were of the military kind. As the campaigns +progressed, his courage, equanimity and rapidity of thought and action +were continually displayed;--yet not to such a degree as to put him +in a higher class than many other generals of history, or to account +wholly for his marvellous successes. One peculiar ability, however, +he possessed and exercised in a degree greater than any other general +of history: and it was by the exercise of that ability that his most +extraordinary victories were achieved, and his generalship especially +distinguished from the generalship of others. That ability was +inventiveness. + +His first contact was with the Swiss (Helvetii), who were about to +leave the barrenness of their mountain lands, and march west to the +fertile lands beyond. As this would take them through Roman territory +and tend to drive the Gauls into Italy, open Switzerland to occupation +by the Germans, and point a road thence for them also into Italy, +Cæsar hastened to the Rhône River, destroyed the bridge which they +would naturally go over, and forbade the Swiss to attempt to cross the +river. The Swiss pleaded with Cæsar to permit them to cross. As Cæsar +realized that the Swiss were too greatly superior in force to be kept +back, unless he could strengthen himself in some way, he asked time +for reflection, and told them to return in two weeks. When the Swiss +returned at the end of that time, their astonished eyes disclosed to +them the fact that Cæsar had constructed walls and trenches and forts +at every point where a passage could reasonably be attempted. + +It may be objected that walls and trenches and forts were not new, and +that therefore Cæsar invented nothing. This may be admitted as an +academic proposition; but nevertheless, it was clearly the ingenious +and wholly unexpected construction of certain appliances by Cæsar that +opposed the barbarous Swiss with barriers which they could not pass. It +may even be argued with much reason that the conception and successful +execution of Cæsar's plan as a whole constituted an invention, even +though the material used was old. Certain it is that a situation was +created which did not exist before, and that it was the creation of +this situation, and not the exercise of strength or courage, that was +_the determining factor_ in stopping the Swiss. Froude says of Cæsar, +"He was never greater than in unlooked-for difficulties. He never +rested. He was always inventing some new contrivance." + +Cæsar realized fully the value in war of mechanical appliances, +and took careful measures before he left Italy to supply his army +adequately with them, and also with men trained to use them. Besides +the fighting men strictly considered, Cæsar took a considerable number +of engineers with him, and expert men for building bridges, and doing +mechanical work of many kinds. The ingenious and frequent use that +Cæsar made of these men and of mechanical appliances was the most +powerful single factor that contributed to his success. + +The Swiss departing from Switzerland by another route, Cæsar pursued +them, and defeated a fourth of them in a battle on the banks of a river +which the other three-fourths had crossed. He then built a bridge +over the river and sent his army across. This feat alarmed the Swiss +more than their defeat; because Cæsar had built the bridge and sent +his army across in one day, whereas they had consumed twenty days in +merely crossing. The Swiss pleaded to be allowed to proceed; but Cæsar +was obdurate. A battle followed, in which the Swiss, though greatly +superior in numbers and reinforced by 15,000 allies, were decisively +beaten; not because of inferior courage or warlike skill, but by reason +of inferior equipments, mechanical appliances and weapons. + +Cæsar's next battle was with the Germans. It was won, if not precisely +with inventiveness, at least with "brains." He learned that the +German matrons had declared, after certain occult proceedings, that +Heaven forbade them to fight before the new moon. Apprehending his +opportunity, he advanced his forces right up to the German camp, +thereby forcing them as valiant soldiers to come out and fight. Fight +they did, but under an obvious psychological disadvantage, and with the +natural result. + +In this battle, as in others between the Romans and the barbarians, +it was noticeable that although their first onslaught was fine, the +barbarians seemed to be at a loss afterwards,--if anything unexpected +occurred, or if any reverse was sustained; whereas the Romans--and +especially Cæsar himself--never behaved so well as when threatened +with disaster. This may be expressed by saying that the barbarians, as +compared with the Romans, were wholly inferior in the inventiveness +needed to devise a new plan quickly. + +Not long afterward, Cæsar advanced against the town of Noviodunum. He +soon saw that he could not take it by storm; and so he brought forward +his mechanical siege appliances. The psychological effect of these on +the barbarians was so tremendous that they at once pleaded for terms of +surrender. + +After a battle with the Nervii, in which Cæsar defeated them +disastrously, largely because of his resourcefulness in emergency and +their lack of it, he advanced against a great barbarian stronghold +that looked down on steep rocks on three sides, and was protected by +a thick, high double wall on the fourth side. Cæsar made a fortified +rampart around the town, pushed his mantlets (large shields on wheels +protected on the sides and top) close up to the wall, and built a +tower. The barbarians laughed at this tower; seeing it so far away +that, they thought, no darts thrown from it could reach them. But when +they saw the tower actually moving toward them they were struck with +terror and began at once to sue for peace. + +During the following winter the Veneti, a large tribe on the +northwestern coast, the most skilful seamen and navigators of Gaul, +stirred up a revolt that quickly and widely spread. The situation at +once became serious for Cæsar, for the reason that the Veneti could not +be subdued, except on the sea; and neither the Roman sailors nor the +Roman vessels were as good as were those of the Veneti. Nevertheless, +Cæsar ordered war-vessels to be built on the Loire River, and seamen +and rowers to be drafted from the Roman Province. + +When the improvised fleet of the Romans and the thoroughly prepared +fleet of the Veneti came together, the latter was superior even in +numbers. Furthermore, the Romans were at a great disadvantage in the +matter of throwing projectiles, from the fact that the Veneti's decks +were higher than theirs. + +But Cæsar had prepared a scheme that gave him victory. In accordance +with it, the Roman galleys rowed smartly against the Veneti ships, and +Roman sailors raised long poles on which were sharp hooks which they +put over the halliards that held up the sails. Then each Roman galley +rowed rapidly away, the halliards were cut, and down came the sails. +The Veneti ships became helpless at once and were immediately boarded; +with the result that, of all the number, only a few made their escape. + +Somewhat later, Cæsar decided to cross the Rhine into the country of +the Sueves, and to impress them with the power of Rome by building a +bridge and marching his army across. This bridge and the quickness and +thoroughness with which it was built are still models for engineers; +for in ten days after he had decided to build it, at which time the +material was still standing in the forest, a bridge 40 feet wide had +been constructed. Across this Cæsar at once marched his legions. The +effect on the barbarous Germans can be imagined. It made them realize +that the Romans were a race superior to themselves in ways that they +could not measure or even understand; and it impressed them with that +fear which is the most depressing of all fears, the fear of the unknown. + +Did Cæsar make an invention? This depends on the meaning of the word +invention. Cæsar did not invent the bridge; but he did conceive and +carry into execution a highly original, concrete and successful scheme. +By it he accomplished as much as a victorious campaign would have +accomplished, and without shedding any blood. _He devised means which +created a state of thought in the minds of his enemies that destroyed +their will to fight._ Therein lay his invention. + +Cæsar then conceived the idea of going across the water to the island +of Britain, about which little was known. After having a survey made +of the coast, he took his legions across in about eighty vessels. He +had to fight to make a landing, of course; but he succeeded, and then +formed his camp. A Roman camp, we may now remind ourselves, was so +distinctly a Roman conception, and so distinctly a part of the Roman +system of conducting war, that it almost constituted an invention. +Whenever a Roman army halted, even for one night, they intrenched +themselves within a square enclosure, surrounded with a ditch and +a palisade of stakes, and made a temporary little city, laid with +streets. In such a camp they were reasonably safe against any attack +that barbarians could make. + +But a storm arose that drove some of Cæsar's ships ashore and some out +to sea. In this emergency, Cæsar's resourcefulness and energy directed +the work of recovery and repair, and enabled the Romans to collect and +put into good condition nearly all their ships. Cæsar returned shortly +afterward to Gaul; arrived there, he gave directions for building and +equipping another and larger fleet. + +In the following July (54 B. C.), he started again for Britain. This +time he took five legions and some cavalry and had about 800 vessels. +He landed and formed his camp, and then advanced inland;--but another +storm arose that scattered his ships. He returned at once to the coast, +and instituted such prompt and resourceful measures that in ten days he +was able to resume his march. On this march, which took him far inland, +he was able to overcome all opposition; largely because, after the +first onset, the barbarians seemed to be without any plan of action, +while Cæsar was at his best. + +_Cæsar had the ability to invent under circumstances of the utmost +danger and excitement._ + +Cæsar's remaining campaigns in Gaul were marked with the same +resourcefulness and originality on his part, and the same lack of +resourcefulness and originality on the part of the barbarians. Cæsar +would continually do something that the barbarians had not expected him +to do. True, they gradually learned some of his schemes and methods +from him; but only to find that he had then some newer schemes and +methods. + +Cæsar at one time remarked that wise men anticipate possible +difficulties, and decide beforehand what they will do, if certain +possible occasions arise. Does not this process involve invention, +in cases where the possible occasions are not of the ordinary and +expectable kind? In such cases, does it not require imagination to +foresee the possible occasions, and form a correct picture on the mind +of the resulting situations? This being done, does it not require the +exercise of the constructive faculty afterwards, to make a concrete and +effective plan to meet them? + +If it be so, then we may reasonably declare that, of all the factors +that contributed to the successes in Gaul of Cæsar, the most powerful +single factor was his inventiveness. + +The final crisis came when Cæsar besieged Alesia, and Vercingetorix, +who had taken refuge in it, sent out a call for succor, that was +eagerly and promptly responded to; for it was plain to the barbarians +that Cæsar, being held in position fronting a fortress that he could +not successfully storm, would be in a precarious condition if attacked +vigorously in his rear. Attacked vigorously he was; for the barbarians +came in his rear with about 250,000 men; Cæsar having only 50,000, and +the enemy in front having 80,000. + +But it required somewhat more than a month for the barbarians to unite +and reach Alesia. With his wonted energy and resourcefulness, Cæsar had +by this time cast up siege works all around the fortress, placed camps +at strategic points, and constructed twenty-three block-houses. He dug +a trench twenty feet deep around the place, and back of this began his +other siege works. These included two parallel trenches fifteen feet +broad and fifteen feet deep. Behind these he built a palisade twelve +feet high, and to this he added a breastwork of pointed stakes; while +at intervals of eighty feet he constructed turrets. In addition, he +had branches cut from trees and sharpened on the ends; and these he +fastened at the bottom of the trenches, so that the points projected +just above the ground. In front of these he dug shallow pits, into +which tapering stakes hardened in the fire were driven, projecting +four inches above the ground. These pits were hidden with twigs and +brushwood. Eight rows of these pits were dug, three feet apart; and +in front of all stakes with iron hooks were buried in the ground at +irregular intervals. When all this had been done on the side toward the +fortress, Cæsar constructed parallel entrenchments of the same kind, to +protect his rear; the two sets being so arranged with respect to each +other that the same men could man both. Having constructed all these +material appliances, he instituted a comprehensive system of drills, so +that his men would know exactly how to utilize them under all probable +contingencies. + +In the battle that followed the barbarians showed their wonted courage +and dash; but an unexpected situation arose when Cæsar attacked a +separated part in their rear. Then they were seized with panic, and the +natural rout and disaster followed. + +This battle decided the fate of Gaul; though its actual subduing, +especially in the southwestern part was not accomplished immediately. +The last major act was taking a strong fortress. This was accomplished +by cutting a tunnel, by which the spring was tapped that supplied +the garrison with water. As Vercingetorix said, the Romans won their +victories, not by superior courage, but by superior science. + +Cæsar's later passage across the Rubicon, the flight of the Senate, +and his later operations by land and sea against Marseilles (Massilia) +and hostile forces in northern Spain, are well known, and were +characterized by the same high order of inventiveness. His later +operations against Pompey, and later still against Pharnaces and +Scipio, were conducted under conditions that gave him less opportunity +to utilize the quality of inventiveness in such clear ways; but they +were marked with the kindred qualities of foresight, skilful adaptation +of means to ends, and presence of mind in emergencies. + +In the minds of some, Cæsar's greatest influence on history has been +due to his improvement of the Calendar, and especially his reforms of +the public morals and the laws of Rome, after his campaign against +Pharnaces. This subject has been the theme of jurists and scholars to +such a degree that it might seem presumptuous in a navy officer to +do more than mention it. At the same time it may be pointed out that +Cæsar's work was not in any matters of detail, or in contributing any +legal or juridical skill or knowledge, but in conceiving the idea of +creating the _Leges Juliæ_, and then creating them. + +Julius Cæsar was murdered in the year 44 B. C. He was followed in power +by his grandnephew Octavius, one of the most fortunate occurrences in +history; for Octavius possessed the ability and the character to carry +on the constructive work that Julius Cæsar had begun. Under Octavius +and his successors, the Roman Empire became increasingly large and +strong, until the reign of Trajan in the second century, A. D., when it +acquired its greatest territorial extent. + +During the time when Rome was increasing in extent and power, the +wealth of cities and of individuals increased also, and enormous public +works of all kinds were constructed, many of which are still the +admiration of the world. Material prosperity reached its highest point. + +But the creative period had passed. Youth, with its dreams and vigor +of doing had gone, and maturity, with the luxury of prosperity and +the consequent dulling of the imagination, had assumed its place. +Senescence followed in due course. Then the empire was divided into +two parts, the Empire of the West and the Empire of the East. Finally, +in 476 A. D., Rome died and with it the Empire of the West. + +[Illustration: Triumphal Procession from the Arch of Titus] + +But the Eastern Empire stood, and Constantinople was its capital. And +it stood, alone and unassisted, as the sole bulwark of Christianity and +civilization for nearly 1000 years, until it finally fell before the +Ottoman Turks in 1543. It could not have done this, if in the latter +part of the seventh century when it was beleaguered by a Turkish fleet, +much greater than its own, it had not suddenly received unexpected +aid in the shape of a new invention. This was "Greek fire," which +seems to have been a pasty mixture of sulphur, nitre, pitch, and other +substances, which when squirted against wood set it on fire with a +flame that water could not quench. In the very first attack, the Turks +were so demoralized by the Greek fire that they fled in panic. They +never learned the secret and were never able to stand up against it. +On one occasion, fifteen Christian ships, using Greek fire, actually +put to rout a Turkish fleet numbering several hundred. + + * * * * * + +During all the countless centuries before the dawn of recorded history, +and during the approximately forty centuries that elapsed from the +beginning of recorded history until the fall of Rome, we have observed +the coming of many inventions of both material and immaterial kinds, +and noted the influence of those inventions in causing civilization, +and therefore in directing the line that history has followed. + +It may be objected that a perfectly natural inference from what has +been written would be that the only thing which had influenced the +direction of movement of history was invention. To this, the answer +may very reasonably be made that this book does not pretend to be a +history, or to point out what have been the greatest factors that +have influenced its line of movement; it attempts merely to emphasize +the influence of one factor, invention, and to suggest that maybe its +influence has not hitherto been estimated at its proper value. + +Another objection like that just indicated might be made to the effect +that all the progress of the world up to the fall of Rome is attributed +in this book to inventors only; that all the work of statesmen, +scientists, generals, admirals, explorers, jurists, men of business, +etc., etc., is ignored. + +Such an objection would be natural and reasonable; but to it an answer +like the previous one may be made, to the effect that the purpose of +this book is not to compare the benefits conferred by any one class of +men with those conferred by any other, but merely to point out, in a +very general way, what inventors have done. + +Nevertheless, it does seem clear that inventors did more to map out +the direction of the progress just traced than any other single class +of men. If we will fix our attention on any one invention about which +we know enough--say, the water-clock--we can see that the original +inventor of the water-clock (no matter who he was) had more influence +on the history of the clock than any other man has had; and that the +inventors of clocks who followed him had more influence on the clock +than any other equal number of men had. This does not mean that the +men who risked their money in making novel clocks did not influence +the history of the clock materially; and it does not mean that the men +who made good materials for them did not influence the history of the +clock greatly; and it does not mean that the engineers and mechanics +who operated them successfully did not influence its history. It would +be absurd to pretend that each one of these men did not influence +the history of the clock; for without them there would have been no +successful clock. Nevertheless, in the nature of things, the original +inventors must be credited with influencing the history of the clock +more than any other equal number of men did, just as a father must +be credited with influencing the history of his children more than +any other man can, from the mere fact of his having caused them to be +born. The inventors of clocks were the fathers of the clocks that they +invented, and also the forefathers of all the inventions that proceed +directly or indirectly from them. + +What has been said about the clock applies with equal force to every +other invented thing. Therefore, it can hardly be gainsaid that, so +far as invented things are concerned, their inventors have had more +influence on the history that has resulted from them than any other men +have had. + +If anyone will glance through any book of ancient history, he will +realize that it is mainly a record of wars; the political changes +caused by wars, or rendered possible by their means; the growth of +nations and other organizations; the invention of certain mechanisms, +arts and sciences; and the construction of certain structures such +as temples, palaces and ships. All these agencies influenced ancient +history, of course; but it is clear that the agency that influenced it +the most obviously and immediately was the wars. + +Yet let us remind ourselves that the real effect on history of any war +was not exerted by the war itself, so much as by the result of the war. +Let us also remind ourselves that the result of any war was because of +the material forces engaged and the skill with which they were handled. + +Now the material forces put onto the field of battle on each side +in any of the wars were the product of the material resources of +the country, of its wealth, its ability to manufacture weapons +and transport troops; that is, of its utilization of invented +mechanisms, processes and methods. The skill with which they were +handled--(especially when supreme skill was exerted, as in the cases of +Alexander and Cæsar)--was the outcome not of mere laborious training, +not of mere knowledge, or courage, or carefully detailed arrangement, +but of plans so conceived, developed and produced (invented) as to +confront the enemy with unexpected situations that they were not +prepared to meet. So the influence of even the wars seems to have been +due fundamentally to invention. + +As to the other agencies that influenced the course of ancient history, +they seem to owe their influence even more obviously to invention than +war does. Every department of ancient civilization seems traceable back +to some invention or inventions. The whole of ancient civilization +seems to rest primarily on inventions. + +As inventions were made by inventors, we seem forced to the conclusion +that inventors influenced ancient history more than any other one class +did. This does not mean that the inventor of a child's toy influenced +history more than did any one of the millions of wise and good men in +each generation who helped to keep the machine of civilization working +smoothly; for it refers to inventors as a class, and not to inventors +as individuals. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE INVENTION OF THE GUN AND OF PRINTING + + +The period from the fall of Rome to the beginning of the fourteenth +century was almost destitute in the matter of inventions that can be +distinctly named: though the conception and carrying into effect of +Mohammedanism in the seventh century, the campaigns and governmental +systems of Charlemagne in the ninth century, the invasion of England by +William of Normandy in the eleventh century, and the Crusades in the +eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries, as well as all the numerous +wars and campaigns that succeeded each other so rapidly, indicate a +mental and nervous restlessness which sought relief in action, and +which received guidance in seeking that relief from the suggestions of +invention. + +During the interval, paper is supposed by some to have been invented, +or at least the art of making it from rags. Paper itself, however, had +been invented long before in China. + +The early part of the twelfth century opened a new era in Europe with +the introduction of one of the most important inventions ever made, the +gun. It is often said that gunpowder was invented then. Gunpowder, of +course, had been invented or discovered many centuries before. + +There is much obscurity about the invention of gunpowder. It is usually +supposed to have been invented in China, and to have crept its way +first to the western Asian nations, and afterwards to Europe by way +of the Mediterranean. There can be little doubt that gunpowder was +known to the Romans in the days of the empire; and some accounts of +Alexander's campaigns declare that he used mines to destroy the walls +of Gaza. + +It is supposed by many that the Chinese had cannon, from certain +embrasures in some of their ancient walls; but there seems to be no +absolute proof of this. It seems fairly well established that the Moors +used artillery in Spain in the twelfth century; though some writers +hold that what were called firearms in Europe before the fourteenth +century were only engines which threw fire into besieged places. + +It seems probable that the gun was invented as the result of an +accident that occurred while some man was pounding the (gunpowder) +mixture of charcoal, saltpetre and sulphur in a receptacle of some +kind. According to one story, the mixture exploded and threw the pestle +violently out of the mortar. From this incident, the man who was +handling the pestle, or a bystander, is supposed to have conceived the +idea that the powder could be used intentionally to throw projectiles, +and he is supposed also to have actually proved that it could be done +at will, and to have produced a concrete appliance for doing it. From +the history of the case, it would seem that the first gun was what we +still call a "mortar." + +It may occur to some that (conceding the story to be true, which it +possibly is, in essentials) the gun was not an invention so much as a +discovery. It may be pointed out, however, that while the fact that +gunpowder would blow a pestle out of a mortar might be truly called +a discovery, yet the conception of utilizing the discovery by making +a weapon, and the subsequent making of the weapon constituted an +invention of the most clean-cut kind. + +Let us realize the extreme improbability that the phenomenon of the +expulsive force of gunpowder was then noted for the first time. It +seems probable that accidental ignition of the mixture had often +occurred before, and missiles hurled in all directions in consequence. +But, as happens in the vast majority of all incidents, no one imagined +any possible utilization of the facts disclosed by the incident; and +if the man who invented the gun, after witnessing the expulsion of the +pestle from the mortar, had not been endowed with both imagination +and constructiveness, he would have treated it as most of us treat +an incident--merely as an incident. But the imagination of this man +must at once have conceived a picture of what we now call a mortar, +which should be designed and constructed so that projectiles could +be expelled from it at will, in whatever direction the mortar were +pointing; and then his constructive faculty must have taken up the task +that imagination had suggested, and developed the conception into a +concrete thing. + +Into the long, elaborate and exciting history of the development of +the gun, that has been carried on with enormous energy ever since, it +is not necessary at this point to enter. Since the sixteenth century, +its history is accurately known, and many large books are filled with +descriptions and diagrams and mathematical tables and formulæ that +recount its progress in detail; while the histories of all the nations +blaze with stories of the battles in which guns have been employed. +Of all the inventions ever made, it is doubtful if the development +and improvement of any other has enlisted the services of a greater +number of men and of more important men, than the gun. It is more than +doubtful if a greater amount of money has been expended on any other +invention, if a greater number of experiments have been made, or if +more mental and physical energy has been expended. Certain it is +that no other invention has had so direct and powerful an effect on +human beings; for the number of men it has killed and wounded must be +expressed in terms of millions. + +This phase of the influence of the gun on history is clearly marked. +Not so clearly marked, but really more important, has been its +influence in deciding wars; for the ways in which wars have been +decided have been the turning points in the march of history. The issue +of Alexander's wars, for instance, had decided that Greek civilization +should not perish, but survive; the issue of Cæsar's wars in Gaul had +decided that Roman civilization should extend north over Europe, and +that the western incursion of the savage Germans should be stopped; the +issue of the wars between the vigorous Goths and degenerate Rome had +decided that Rome must die; and so forth, and so forth. So, after the +invention of the gun, the issue of every succeeding war supplied a new +turning point for history to follow. Naturally, those nations that took +the most skilful, prompt and thorough advantage of the power, range and +accuracy of the new invention gained in almost every case the victory +over their opponents. + +So long as no weapons existed, struggles between men had to be +decided by physical strength and cunning and quickness only. When the +first flint fist-hammer was invented, a man who was sagacious enough +and industrious enough and skilful enough to make one, could gain +the victory over many another man of greater physical strength and +quickness, but who had not the sagacity, industry and skill to provide +himself with a flint fist-hammer. + +Supposing the flint fist-hammer to be the first invention ever made, +as many think it was, we see here the first instance of the influence +of invention on history; because this first invention influenced the +course of history in favor of men possessing sagacity, industry and +skill, as against men not possessing those qualities. By doing this, it +not only decided that such men (and tribes composed of such men) should +prevail, but did even more to influence history; _it induced men and +tribes to make and develop and utilize inventions_. This resulted in +what we call civilization. + +As each improved weapon followed its predecessor, a new demand was +made;--not only for a new kind of skill on the part of the man making +the weapon and on the part of the soldiers using it, but also for +foresight on the part of the tribe or nation that would supply the +weapon to its troops. It is easily realized that, if there were two +contiguous tribes about to go to war against each other, one of which +was ruled by a sagacious, energetic and far-seeing chief, while the +other was ruled by a dull, slothful and short-sighted chief, the former +chief would probably provide his warriors with the newest weapon (say, +the bow and arrow) and train them in its use; whereas the other would +ignore it and go to battle with clubs and javelins only. As between +two tribes otherwise equally matched, the result would be obvious; and +doubtless it was exceedingly obvious in hundreds of tribal battles, +before the dawn of history. + +It is a characteristic of evolution, as has been pointed out by wise +men, that complexity eventually evolves from simplicity. In no one +department of man's endeavor does this truth stand out more clearly +than in the evolution of weapons. For the oldest weapon that we know of +was probably a stone, or a stick used as a club; and each succeeding +weapon has been more complicated than its predecessor,--needing +additional parts with which to secure the additional results achieved. +This increased complexity has entailed increased liability to +derangement, because the failure of any one part has entailed the +failure or the decreased effectiveness of the weapon as a whole. This +increased liability to derangement has entailed a demand for not only +increased care and skill in fabricating the weapon, but for increased +knowledge, diligence and skill in caring for it, and using it. + +The superiority of the gun over all previously existing weapons was +quickly recognized, and every civilized nation soon adopted it as +its major implement of war. As the gun was a piece of mechanism, it +possessed the attribute which seems to give to pieces of mechanism an +element of superiority over every other thing in the universe, the +attribute of continual improvability. Human beings do not possess this +attribute, nor does any other thing in nature, so far as we know. Every +human being begins where his father did--and so does everything else +on the earth; though human invention has recently made it possible for +certain plants to be improved. No new invention ever dies as a man +does, even if the material parts or immaterial parts that compose it +are destroyed. On the contrary, it lives, in the sense that it exists +as a definite usable entity, and also in the sense that it continues to +propagate. And the things that it propagates do not begin as helpless +and useless babies, but as mature creations. The first completed gun is +still the model for the guns that men make now, and will continue to be +the model for all guns in the future. The man who made the first gun +has been succeeded by other men, as the first gun has been succeeded by +other guns; but the human successors have been no improvement on the +inventor of the first gun, while the guns that have succeeded the first +gun have been improvements on it to a degree that it is difficult--in +fact, impossible, to realize. + +The relations of the gun to civilization are reciprocal, and are +therefore in accord with most of the other phenomena of our lives; for +just as the gun furthered the improvement of civilization, civilization +furthered the improvement of the gun. Nearly every step taken in the +physical sciences, and afterward in engineering and general mechanics, +has had a direct effect in improving the gun. The gun began as an +exceedingly rough, awkward and crude appliance; the gun today is one +of the most highly specialized and perfect appliances that the world +possesses. + +But it is not only the gun itself that has been improved; the powder +has also been improved, and to a degree almost equal, if not quite. +When we realize that modern gunnery is so exact that if a gun is fired +in any direction and at any angle of elevation, the projectiles will +fall so close to a designated spot that all considerable variations +in the points of fall from that spot are usually attributed to other +causes than imperfection in the powder; and if we realize also that +a variation of one per cent. in the initial velocity imparted to a +projectile by its powder would result in a variation (practically +speaking) of one per cent. in the range attained, we then may realize +how perfectly understood the laws of the combustion of powder and the +development of powder gas have become, and how perfect are the methods +of manufacturing, storing and using it. Books upon books have been +written on the subject of making and using gunpowder; and as high a +grade of experimental ability has been employed as on the development +of any other art. + +It is not quite clear whether stationary cannon or small guns carried +by soldiers were the first to be used; but the probability seems to be +that cannon were the first. It soon became desirable to devise and to +make appliances for holding the cannon in position, elevating them to +predetermined angles, and transporting them from place to place. To +accomplish these things, gun-carriages were invented. These appliances +have kept pace with guns and gunpowder in the march of improvement; +countless minor inventions have been made; countless experiments +have been conducted; countless books and articles have been written; +countless millions of money have been expended. That the field has +been large can readily be realized, when we remind ourselves of the +numberless situations that gun-carriages have had to be adapted to, on +the level plains of Central Europe, in the mountains, on the sands of +the desert,--in cold and heat and wet; and on the ocean also, in small +vessels and great battleships, to handle cannon great and small, on the +uneasy surface of the sea. But it will not be enough for us to realize +that it has been necessary to construct gun-carriages so ingeniously +that guns can be handled on them under all these circumstances; for we +will fall short of a realization of what must be attained, unless we +realize that the guns must be handled with safety, and (which is more +difficult of attainment) with precision and yet with quickness. + +Now to bring the gun and its accessories to the high standard they have +now reached, the resources of virtually all the physical sciences have +been required and utilized; so that, while modern civilization was made +possible by the gun, and could not have been made possible without it, +the modern gun has been made possible by civilization, and could not +have been made possible without it. + +This mutuality between civilization and the gun is evident in the +relations between civilization and every other great invention. It is +very clearly evident in the case of material mechanism; for it has been +plainly impossible for any material invention to exist without directly +and indirectly contributing to the improvement, and even to the birth, +of others. Any improvement in the process of making any metal or any +compound has always been of assistance to every mechanism using that +metal or that compound; and it seems impossible to name any mechanism +or process whose invention has not helped some other mechanism or +process. In the matter of the invention of immaterial things, the +effect may not be quite so obvious; and yet it is plain that most of +those inventions have contributed to the safety, intelligence and +stabilization of peoples, and therefore to a condition of mentality and +of tranquillity that permitted and often encouraged the improvement of +existing appliances, and the invention of new ones. Of one class of +immaterial invention, such as new books on the physical and engineering +sciences, the influence on material inventions is, of course, as +obvious as it is profound. + +The boom of the gun may be said, by a not forced figure of speech, to +have ushered in the new civilization that rose from the mental lethargy +of the Middle Ages; for it was the first great invention of all in the +long line that have followed since. As it was the first, and because +without it the others would have been impossible, we can hardly avoid +the conclusion that it was the most important. + +The mutual reactions between the gun and civilization have resulted, +and are still resulting, in widening the distance between the civilized +and the uncivilized, placing more and more power in the hands of the +civilized, and putting the uncivilized more and more into subjection +by the civilized. The process that began with the invention of the +fist-hammer, and was continued through the centuries by all the +improvements in weapons that followed, was brought to a halt when +Rome fell, and not revived until the gun came into general use in the +fourteenth century. During the interval of nearly nine hundred years, +civilization indeed went backward with the advance of the barbarians +into Europe, checked but not wholly stopped by Charles Martel at the +Battle of Tours in 732, and later by Charlemagne, his grandson, in +numerous campaigns. But the gun, being adopted and improved by peoples +having the mentality needed to discern its usefulness, stabilized the +conditions of living afterward by keeping in check the barbarians, +especially east of Europe. Its greatest single usefulness followed from +this by making possible the development and utilization of the next +great invention. This invention was next to the gun in point of time. +It was next to the gun in influence on history also; and some people +think it has had even more influence than the gun. This invention is +usually called the invention of printing. + +Of course, printing had been invented centuries before, probably in +China, and had been practiced during all the intervening centuries, +in China, Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Greece, Rome, the Hellenistic +countries and Italy. But the printing had been done from blocks on +which were cut or carved many characters, that expressed whole words or +sentences. Naturally, printing done from them was not adaptable to the +recording of discussions, the making of connected narratives, or the +publishing of books. + +Suddenly, about the year 1434, John Gutenberg, who lives at Mayence, +conceives the idea of cutting only one letter on each block, putting +the blocks in forms so arranged that the blocks can be put in such +sequence as may be desired for spelling words, and all the blocks +secured firmly in position. In other words, he invented movable type. + +Objection may be made to this statement, and the declaration urged that +movable type were used in China before the Christian era. Possibly +they were; some declarations have been made to that effect. But +even if they were, we cannot see that their invention there had any +considerable influence on history. China was separated from western +Asia and from Africa and Europe by the long stretch of the dry lands +of Central Asia, across which little communication passed. It is +more nearly certain than most things are in ancient history, that +the civilized peoples of western Asia, Africa and Europe, including +Gutenberg himself, did not know of movable type until Gutenberg +invented them. + +It is absolutely certain that virtually the whole of the influence +that printing by movable type has exercised on history sprang from the +invention of Gutenberg. It started almost immediately; and it increased +with a rapidity and a certainty that are amazing. No invention made +before, not even the gun, was seized upon with such avidity. The +world wanted it. The world seemed to have been waiting for it, though +unconsciously. + +It may be well at this point to impress upon our minds the fact that +no invention has ever been recognized as an invention, unless it has +been put into a concrete form. The U. S. Patent Office, for instance, +will not award a patent for any invention unless it is described and +illustrated so clearly that "any one skilled in the art can make and +use it." It is an axiom that a man "cannot patent an idea." In many +countries a patentee is required to "work" his invention, to make +apparatus embodying it, and to put the apparatus to use. The underlying +idea of the patent laws of all countries is that the good of the public +is the end in view, and not the good of the inventor; that rewards +are held out to the inventor, merely to induce him to put devices of +practical value into the hands of the people. From this point of view, +which seems to be the correct one, the mere fact that a man conceives +of a device, even if he afterward develops his device to the degree +that he illustrates it and describes it to someone in such a way that a +person skilled in the art can make and use it, does not entitle him to +any reward. He must use "due diligence" in communicating full knowledge +of his invention to the public, through the Patent Office, ask for a +patent, and pay to the Government the prescribed fee. + +Now, Gutenberg "worked" his invention so energetically that, with the +assistance of Faust, Schaeffer and others, an exceedingly efficient +system of printing books was in practical operation as early as 1455. +The types were of metal, and were cast from a matrix that had been +stamped out by a steel punch, and could therefore be so accurately +fashioned that the type had a beautiful sharpness and finish. In +addition, certain mechanical apparatus of a simple kind (printing +presses) were invented, whereby the type could be satisfactorily +handled, and impressions could be taken from them with accuracy and +quickness. + +News of the invention spread so rapidly that before the year 1500 +printing presses were at work in every country of Europe. The first +books printed were, of course, the works of the ancient authors, +beginning with three editions of Donatus. These were multiplied in +great numbers, and gave the first effective impulse to the spread of +civilization from the Græco-Oriental countries, where it had been +sleeping, to the hungry intellects of Europe. + +The new birth of civilization (usually called the Renaissance) began +in Italy, where civilization had never quite died out, at some time +during the fourteenth century, and took the form at first of the +study of classical literature. This led naturally to a search for old +manuscripts; and so ardent did this search become that the libraries +of cathedrals and monasteries in all the civilized countries were +ransacked. Many new libraries were founded, especially in Italy, to +hold the old manuscripts that were discovered. A great impetus was +given to the movement by the exodus of scholars from Constantinople, +and their migration west to Italy, during the half century between the +year 1400 and the fall of Constantinople before the Ottoman Turks in +1453. + +[Illustration: The Printing of Books] + +Therefore, when the news of the invention of Gutenberg reached +the scholars of Italy and other lands, they seized upon it as an +undreamed-of blessing for bringing about that widespread study of +the classical authors which they had been struggling under so many +difficulties to accomplish. + +To narrate and describe the progress made since then in the art of +printing would be to rewrite what has been written from time to time in +books and magazines and papers. To describe and point out the other +arts that have sprung directly from the art of printing, such as the +manufacture of printing presses and allied machinery, would require an +enormous book of a wholly technical nature; to describe and point out +the arts that have been made necessary, and the arts that have been +made possible, by the invention of printing would entail a history of +most of the industrial arts of the present day; while to mention and +adequately describe the measures that have resulted from the invention +of printing, and those made necessary and possible by it, would entail +a history of all the civilization that has come into being since +printing was invented. + +The effects of the invention of printing are most of them so obvious +that it would be unnecessary to call attention to them. No other +one art seems to be so directly and clearly to be credited with the +progress of civilization. In the minds of many people, perhaps of most +people, printing is considered the most important invention ever made. +Maybe it is; but let us remind ourselves that the gun came before +the printing-press, and that the civilization contributed to by the +printing press would not have been possible without the gun. It may be +answered that, nevertheless, the printing press contributed more than +the gun; in the same way that a bank contributes more to the welfare of +a city than does the policeman who guards the bank. + +Such an argument would have much to commend it, and it may be based +on the correct view of the situation. But to the author, the gun +seems to constitute the foundation of modern civilization, and the +printing press to be part of the structure built upon it; for the +fundamental enemy to civilization has always been the barbarian, be +he a savage under Attila or a Bolshevik in New York. It is true that +civilization may be considered as more important than the means that +makes it possible, but even this seems to be discussible; but that the +gun constitutes more distinctly the preservative influence of modern +civilization than any other one thing constitutes civilization itself +seems hardly to be discussible. The whole system of defense of all the +nations against foes outside and anarchy inside has rested on the gun +ever since it was invented; whereas, not even the printing press can +be said to be the only element, or even the main element, in modern +civilization. + +This brief discussion is perhaps not very important; but it does not +wholly lack importance, for the reason that it brings into clear +relief the fact that we cannot reasonably discuss civilization without +realizing the dangers that confront it, and have always confronted +it, and will continue to confront it. _Civilization is an artificial +product_, that some people think has more evil in it than good for the +majority of mankind, and that certainly has been forced on mankind by a +very small minority. The foundation on which the force has rested for +four hundred years has been the gun. + +But whatever the comparative amount of influence of the gun and the +printing press, there can be no doubt that they have worked together +hand in hand: that one guarded, and the other assisted, the first +tottering steps of the Renaissance movement, and that both have +continued to guard and assist the grand march that soon began, and that +is still advancing. + +As the circumstances surrounding the invention of both the gun and the +art of printing are sufficiently well known to warrant the belief that +each was made, not by a king or any other man of high position, but by +a man relatively obscure, and that the surroundings and early life of +both were not those of courts or palaces, but those of a humble kind, +it may be well to note how enormous are the results that have flowed +from causes that seem to be very small. We have been told that "great +oaks from little acorns grow"; but the consequences that have grown +from the conception of the idea of printing are larger than any oak; +and an acorn is probably much larger than the part of the brain in +which an idea is conceived. + +As a matter of interest, let us realize the strong resemblance between +the impression we receive from a material object actually seen by the +eye and the memory of that impression afterwards. Let us then realize +the strong resemblance between it and another impression of that same +object seen mentally but not physically; for instance, let us realize +the strong resemblance between the impression made on us by actually +seeing some friend and the impression received by _imagining_ him +receiving a letter which we are now writing to him. The first picture +was an image of the external object that was physically made on the +retina, as a picture or image is made by a camera on a screen; but that +picture on the retina must have been seen by the brain, or we would not +have known of it. The other pictures were not made physically on the +retina, so far as we know. Yet we all realize that we can make pictures +on our minds the more readily if we close our eyes. The fact of our +eyes being open seems to operate adversely to our receiving a clear +mental picture. + +Now it is a matter of fact that an object (for instance, a pole) can +be seen by a person with normal eyesight, if it subtends an angle as +great as one minute; that a pole a foot thick can be seen clearly from +a distance of 3600 feet, at which distance it subtends that angle. The +rays of light pass through the crystalline lens of the eye and are +focussed on the retina, as they pass through the lens of the camera, +and are focussed on the sensitized paper. Assuming the distance from +the crystalline lens to the retina to be about three-quarters of an +inch, the pole would be represented on the retina by an image 3/(4 x +3600) or less than 1/4000 of an inch wide. During daylight our retinas +are continually receiving images of which all lines as wide as 1/4000 +of an inch (and much narrower) are very clearly apprehended by the mind. + +But very few of those images are noticed by us. It is only when some +incident calls them to our attention, or when the mind voluntarily +seizes on them, that any conscious impression is made upon the brain. +Similarly, images of physical objects unseen by the physical eye are +continually made on the mind: we are continually thinking of our +friends and of past incidents and possible future incidents; and our +thoughts of these things take the form of pictures. We see the man +with whom we had a conversation yesterday, and we see him with a +clearness that is proportional to the interest taken by the mind in the +conversation and the circumstances surrounding it. If our conversation +was uninteresting and the circumstances tame, we see him dimly. But if +our conversation was angry and the circumstances were exciting, we see +him and the surroundings very vividly--so vividly that our anger is +again aroused; perhaps to as high degree as on the day before, or even +higher. + +This image-making is, of course, voluntary sometimes; but most images +come without volition on our part, and require no effort that we are +conscious of. To call up an image voluntarily requires conscious +effort; and to keep it in position while we gaze upon it requires +effort that is great in proportion to the time during which it is +exerted. Psychologists speak of this act of keeping an image in +position as one of giving attention, or paying attention. + +To perform this act requires the exercise of will, unless the act gives +pleasure, or the image suggests danger; in each of these cases, of +course, the act is almost involuntary. + +A man who is observant notes consciously the incidents that are passing +around him: he seizes on certain of the millions of pictures passing +before him, concentrates their images on his retina, and gazes on +each one for a while. Similarly, a man who is contemplative, seizes +on certain of the vague mental pictures passing through his mind, +concentrates his attention on them, and gazes at each one for a while. +We call the former an observant man and the other a thoughtful man. +Sometimes an observant man learns a great deal from what he sees, in +the same way that sometimes a studious man learns a great deal from +what he studies; but the learning of course cannot be accomplished +without the assistance of the memory. One is often surprised to see +how little some observant and studious men have remembered. Many +impressions have been received, but few retained. + +The thoughtful man, of course, cannot in the nature of things receive +so many conscious impressions as the merely observant or studious man; +for the reason that he continually seizes on one and then another, and +holds each for a time, while he fixes his attention on it. Usually, +however, the thoughtful man memorizes his observations or his studies +for some specific purpose; he moves the various images about in his +mind; and arranges them in classes: for otherwise, the various images +would form merely an aggregation of apparently unrelated facts. The +value of such aggregations is, of course, enormous; they compose what +we call data, and include such things as tables of dates, etc. + +But data, even tables of dates, have no value in themselves; it is only +from their relations to other things that they have value. There would +be no value, for instance, in knowing that William of Normandy invaded +England in 1066, unless we knew who William was, and what England +was, and what the effect of his invading it was. Now the thoughtful +man, like the man who arranges a card-catalogue in such a way that +it will be useful, not only notes isolated facts, but puts them into +juxtaposition with each other, and sees what their relations are. +The mental pictures that he finally fixes in his mind are of related +things, seen in their correct perspective. They are like the pictures +which are made on the mind of anyone by--say, a landscape: whereas the +mental pictures made by an unthoughtful man are such as little children +probably receive from nature; pictures in which the trees and hills and +valleys of a landscape do not appear as such, but merely as a great +aggregation of numberless separate images, confused and meaningless +like the colored pieces of a kaleidoscope. + +To the thoughtful man, therefore, life seems not quite so meaningless +as to his neighbor; though even the most thoughtful can fix very few +complete and extensive pictures in his mind. If his thoughtfulness +takes him no further than simply forming pictures that enable him to +see things as they are, and in their correct relations to each other, +he becomes "a man of good judgment," a man valuable in any community, +especially for filling positions in which the ability to make correct +deductions is required. + +Such a man, however, no matter how correctly he may estimate any +situation, no matter how clearly he may see all the factors in it, +no matter how accurately he may gauge their relative values and +positions, may be unable to suggest any way for utilizing its possible +benefits, or warding off its possible dangers. That is, he may lack +constructiveness. He is like a man who possesses any desirable thing or +dangerous thing, and who understands all there is to understand about +it, but _does not know what to do with it_. The various factors are in +his (mental) hands, but he can make nothing of them. + +The constructive man can construct concrete entities out of what +are apparently wholly individual factors having no relation to each +other; he can, for instance, take two pieces of wood and a piece of +string, and make a weapon with which he can kill living animals at a +considerable distance. With neither the pieces of wood nor the string +could he do that; and he could not do it with all three, unless he were +able to construct them into a bow and arrow. That is, he could make the +weapon if he had ever seen it made before. If he were only constructive +and not inventive, he could not make it unless he had seen it done +before, or knew it had been done. + +Men of purely constructive ability have not of themselves taken very +conspicuous parts on the stage of history; and yet the things that they +have constructed comprise nearly all that we can see and hear and touch +in the world of civilization. Thus history, while it is a narrative +of things that have been done, is not a narrative of all the things +that have been done, but only of the new and striking things. It is a +narrative of wars, of the rise and fall of nations, of the founding of +cities, of the establishment of religions and theories, of the writing +of books, of the invention of mechanisms, of the painting of pictures, +of the carving of statues; in general, of the creative work that man +has done. + +The merely constructive man, unless he has been inventive also, has +never constructed anything of a really novel kind. It is a matter of +everyday experience that nearly all the things that are constructed +are according to former patterns and the lessons of experience. All +the constructive and engineering arts and sciences are studied and +practiced for the purpose of enabling men to build bridges and houses +and locomotives, etc., in such ways, as experience has shown to be +good. Nearly all our acts, nearly all our utterances, nearly all our +thoughts, are of stereotyped and conventional forms. + +This condition of affairs possesses so many advantages that we cannot +even imagine any other to exist. It enables a man to act nearly +automatically in most of the situations of life. The main reason for +drilling a soldier is that when confronted with the conditions of +battle, he shall fire his musket and do his other acts automatically, +undisturbed by the danger and excitement. Similarly, all our experience +in life tends to automaticity. It is a very comfortable condition, +for it demands the minimum amount of mental and nervous energy. The +conductor demands your fare, and you pay it almost automatically. +That a condition of automaticity prevails in nature, as we see it, +one is tempted to suppose: for the seasons succeed each other with a +regularity suggestive of it. + +But even if the machine of nature and the machine of civilization are +automatic now, we have no reason for believing that they always were +so. Even the most perfect automatic engine had to be started at some +time, and it had to be invented before it could be started; and it had +also to go through a long process of development. Similarly, a man +reads a paper almost automatically; but it required years of time to +develop his ability to do so. + +Now it has happened from time to time in history that some invention +has broken in on the smoothly running machine of civilization and +introduced a change. The gun did this, and so did the printing press. +In every such case, a few men have welcomed the invention, but the +majority have resented the change: some of them because their interests +were threatened by it; others because of the instinctive but powerful +influence of dislike of change. + +The purely constructive man does not cause any such jolt. His work +proceeds smoothly, uniformly, and usually with approval. But the +inventive man, "his eye in a fine frenzy rolling," is visited with some +vision which he cannot or will not dismiss, and which compels him to +try to embody it in some form, and to continue to try until he succeeds +in doing so, or gives up, confessing failure. The inventive man, having +seen the vision, becomes a constructive man, and (in case he succeeds) +_puts the vision which he sees into such form that other people can see +it also_. + +It is obvious therefore that two kinds of ability are needed to produce +a really good invention of any kind, inventive ability and constructive +ability; and it is also obvious that they are separate, though they +cooperate. Many an invention of a quality that was mediocre or even +inferior in originality, novelty and scope, has been quite acceptable +by reason of the excellent constructive work that was done upon it: +many a book and many an essay has succeeded almost wholly because of +the skilful construction of the sentences; many a picture because of +the accuracy of the perspective and the mixing of the colors; many a +new mechanical device because of the excellent workmanship bestowed +upon it. Conversely, many a grand and beautiful conception has failed +of recognition because of the poor constructive work that was done on +it. But occasionally a Shakespeare has given to the world an enduring +masterpiece, the joint work of the highest order of invention and the +highest order of constructive skill; occasionally a Raphael has painted +a picture similarly conceived and executed; and occasionally an Edison +has given the world a mechanical invention, comparably wonderful and +perfect. + +In all such cases, the start of the work was a picture on the mental +retina; an image of something that was not, but might be made to be. +A physical picture is actually made on the physical retina, but it +cannot be recognized by the owner of the retina, unless a healthy optic +nerve transmits it to his brain. Every mental picture must also be +transmitted to the brain; and some mental pictures are very bright and +clear. In some forms of insanity, the mental pictures are so clear that +the patient cannot be persuaded that they are not physical; the patient +sees a man approaching him, when there is no man approaching him; but +the impression made on the patient's mind is the same as if there were. + +The thought of the enormousness of the consequences that have followed +the appearing of some visions to men (the vision of the gun, for +instance) is almost stunning, if we try to realize the small area of +the brain that the vision must have covered. If a line 1/4000 of an +inch wide made on the physical retina and afterwards transmitted to the +brain is seen with perfect clearness by the mind, what a small area of +the brain must have been covered by the original vision of the gun! Yet +how vast have been its consequences! + +The fact that the inventor sees a vision, and then mentally arranges +and rearranges the various material elements available in order to +embody his vision in a painting, a project, a machine, a poem or a +sonata, indicates that the essential processes of invention are wholly +mental. This truth is illustrated by the work of every inventor, great +or small. Possibly, the most convincing illustration is that given by +the deaf Beethoven, who conceived and composed some of his grandest +works when he could not physically hear a note. + + Reference to the work of Roger Bacon has not been made, because + of the doubts surrounding it. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +COLUMBUS, COPERNICUS, GALILEO AND OTHERS + + +Long before the Christian era the Chinese used pivoted magnetic needles +to indicate absolute direction to them; but that they possessed or +had invented the mariner's compass, there is considerable doubt. The +history of the invention of the mariner's compass has not yet been +written. It is not known when, or where, or by whom it was invented. + +It is well-known, however, that the mariner's compass was in use in +the Mediterranean Sea in the early part of the fifteenth century A. D. +Guided by it, the navigators of that day pushed far out from land. + +The first great navigational feat that followed the invention of the +compass was that performed by the Portuguese, Bartholomew Dias, who +conceived the idea of reaching India by going around Africa, and +sailed down the west coast of Africa as far as its southern end, +later called the Cape of Good Hope. It was a tremendous undertaking, +and it had tremendous results; for it demonstrated the possibilities +of great ocean voyages, proved that the road to India was very long, +and led to the expedition of Columbus, six years later. It was also a +great invention, both in brilliancy of conception and excellence of +execution, although Dias did not reach India. + +The second great navigational feat was performed by Christopher +Columbus in 1492. Before that time it was conceded by most men of +learning and reflection that the earth was spherical; and it was +realized that, if it was spherical, it might be possible by sailing to +the westward to reach India, the goal of all commercial expeditions in +that day. Columbus is not to be credited with the first conception of +that possibility. + +[Illustration: Portuguese Voyages and Possessions] + +But that conception rested undeveloped in the minds of only a few men. +Had it not been for Columbus, or some man like him, it would have +remained undeveloped and borne no fruit. The Savior in his parable +tells us of the sower who went forth to sow, and tells us also that +most of the grain fell on stony ground. So it is with most of the +opportunities that are offered to us every day; and so it is even +with most of the visions that are placed before our minds. But the +Savior tells us also of other grains that fell on good ground and bore +abundant fruit. Such are the conceptions that the great inventors have +embodied; such was the conception that fell on the good ground of the +mind of Christopher Columbus. + +The conception that came to him was not of the possibility that someone +could sail west and eventually reach India, but of preparing a suitable +expedition himself and actually sailing west and reaching India. The +conception must have been wonderfully powerful and clear, for it +dominated all his life thereafter. But he could not make others see +the vision that he saw. For many years he went from place to place, +trying to get the means wherewith to prepare his expedition. He made +only a few converts, but he did make a few. Some of these exerted their +influence on Queen Isabella of Spain. She, together with her husband +Ferdinand, then supplied the money and other necessaries for the +expedition. + +The invention of the gun was followed by the invention of printing in +1434, and this by the discovery of America in 1492. These three epochal +occurrences started the new civilization with a tremendous impetus. +This impetus was immediately reinforced by the voyage of the Portuguese +Admiral, Vasco da Gama, around the Cape of Good Hope to India in +1497-1498, and the circumnavigation of the globe by Ferdinand Magellan +in 1519-1522. + +The immediate practical influence of da Gama's feat was almost to kill +the commerce of the cities of Italy and Alexandria with India by way +of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and to transfer the center of +the sea-commerce of the world to the west coast of Europe, especially +Portugal. Near the west coast it has rested ever since; though but +little of it stayed long with Portugal. + +While Magellan's voyage was not quite so important as the discovery of +America, it was not immeasurably less so; for it set at rest forever +the most important question in geography,--was the earth round or +not? The voyage of Columbus had not answered it, because he returned +by the same route as that by which he went. But Magellan started in +a southwesterly course, and one of his ships again reached home, +coming from the east. The Victoria had circumnavigated the globe! Only +eighteen men and one ship returned. The other ships and the other men +had perished. Magellan himself had been buried in the Philippines. + +The news of Magellan's great exploit and the stories that came to +Europe of the riches beyond the sea, resulted soon in an idea coming +to the mind of Hernando Cortez, the development of that idea into a +concrete plan, and the making of a complete invention. This was a +plan by which he should head an expedition to a certain part of the +New World, and "convert" the heathen dwelling there; doing whatever +killing and impoverishing and general maltreatment might be found to +be convenient or desirable. The invention worked perfectly; some +half-savage Indians of what we now call Mexico were "converted," many +were killed, and untold treasure was forcibly obtained. + +The success of this invention was so great that Francisco Pizarro was +inspired to copy it, and to try it on some Indians in a country that +now we call Peru. Whether Pizarro improved on Cortez's scheme, or +whether the conditions of success were better need not concern us now: +the main fact seems to be that Pizarro was able to convert and kill and +impoverish and generally ruin more effectively than Cortez. + +Following Cortez and Pizarro, many expeditions sailed from Spain to +the West Indies, Central America and South America, and carried out +similar programs. The two principal results were that those parts +of the world were soon dominated by Spain, and that the people of +Spain received large amounts of gold and treasure. The main result to +them was that they succumbed under the enervating influence of the +artificial prosperity produced, and rapidly deteriorated. By the end of +the hundred years' period after Columbus discovered America, Spain was +clearly following the downward path, and at high speed. + +One of the early results of the invention of printing was an increased +ability of people separated by considerable distances to interchange +their views; and a still greater though allied result was an increased +ability of men of thought and courage to impress their thoughts upon +great numbers of people. At the time when printing was invented, the +Church of Rome had ceased to dominate European nations as wholly as it +had done before; but it exercised a vast power in each country. This +was because of its prestige, its hold on the clergy and the Church +property, and its authority in many questions connected with marriage, +wills, appointments, etc. This was resented, but impotently, by the +various sovereigns. + +It was realized also (and it came to be realized with increasing +clearness toward the end of the fifteenth century) that there were many +grave evils and scandals in the Church, even in the highest quarters. +The printing-press lent itself admirably to the dissemination of views +on this matter: so that there gradually grew up a strong and widespread +feeling of discontent. But despite considerable friction as to the +limits of their respective functions, the Church and the State were so +intimately allied in every country, and each realized so clearly its +dependence on the other, that no movement of any magnitude against even +the acknowledged evils had been able to gain ground. No man appeared +who was able to conceive and execute a plan that could successfully +effect reform. + +But such a man appeared in the year 1517, whose name was Martin +Luther. He was a poor monk; but a knowledge of virtually all there +was to know lived in his mind, coupled with imagination to conceive, +constructiveness to plan, and courage to perform. In that fateful year, +1517, the Pope sent agents through the world to sell "indulgences," +which remitted certain temporal punishments for sin, in return for +gifts of money. The agent who was commissioned for Germany carried out +his work with so little tact and moderation, that he made the granting +of indulgences seem even a more scandalous procedure than it really +was. Luther had been preaching the doctrine of a simple following of +the teachings of the Savior, and deprecating a too close adherence to +mere forms and ritual. He now seems to have conceived a clean-cut plan +of effective action; for on the evening before the indulgences were to +be offered on All Saints Day, in the Church of Wittemberg, Luther nails +on the door his celebrated ninety-five theses against the sale. The +printing-press reproduced copies of these in great numbers throughout +Germany. A definite sentiment antagonistic to the indulgences developed +rapidly, and a general movement toward the reform of the abuses in the +Church took shape. Luther was threatened with excommunication by the +Pope in 1520, but he burned a copy of the "papal bull" in a public +place on December 10 of that year. + +The emperor of Germany convened a meeting of the Diet at Worms in 1521, +at which he exerted all his powers to make Luther retract: but in vain. +So great a following did Luther now have that, though the emperor put +him under ban, and all persons were forbidden to feed or give him +shelter, he was cared for secretly by men in high position, until he +voluntarily came out of hiding, and appeared in Wittemberg. The emperor +called a meeting of the Diet at Spires in 1526, and another meeting +in 1529. Both meetings had for their object the suppression of the +movement begun by Luther. It was against a decree made by the second +Diet that certain high officials and others made the famous protest, +that caused the name to be affixed to them of Protestants. This name +has been perpetuated to this day. + +As is well known, the movement resulted, after nearly a hundred years +of disturbed conditions, in a series of wars, called "The Thirty Years' +War" that began in 1618, and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in +1648. This Peace marked the end of the Reformation period, and resulted +in establishing Protestantism in North Germany, Denmark, Norway, +Sweden, England and Scotland. + +The influence of Luther's conception with its subsequent development +was thus definite, widespread and profound, even if regarded from a +merely religious point of view: but the influence it had on religion +was only a part of its total influence. In words, the protest was +against certain abuses in the Roman Church; but in fact it was against +a domination exercised over the minds and souls of men. Luther's +influence was in reforming not only the Roman Catholic Church and the +practice of the Christian religion throughout Europe, but also the +conditions under which men were allowed to use their minds. + +While the inventions in mechanism, religion, etc., which we have just +noted were going on during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, +others were going on in the realm of science. The movement was begun +about 1507 by a young man named Nicolas Copernicus, who was executing +the dissimilar functions of canon, physician and mathematician in +the little town of Frauenberg in Poland. Copernicus at this time +was thirty-four years old, but he had even then devoted the major +activities of his mind to astronomy for several years. Naturally, +his efforts had been devoted to mastering whatever of the science +then existed. The efforts of most people in dealing with any subject +end when they have gone thus far--and very few go even thus far. But +Copernicus noted that, while the Ptolemaic System (suggested, though +probably not invented by the Egyptian king) was the one generally +accepted, it did not account for many of the phenomena observed; that +none of the other systems that had been suggested afterward explained +matters more satisfactorily, and that no one of the systems was in +harmony with any other. + +Thereupon this daring young man conceives the idea of inventing a +system of astronomy himself, in which all the movements of the heavenly +bodies should be shown to be in accordance with a simple and harmonious +law. Seizing on this idea, he proceeds at once to develop it; and he +works on it until death takes him from his labors in 1543 at the age of +seventy. + +The whole civilized world had virtually accepted the Ptolemaic +Theory,--at least, the part of it which assumed that the earth was the +center of the universe, the sun and stars and planets revolving around +it. Copernicus invented the theory that the sun was the center, that +the earth and the other planets revolved around it, and that the earth +revolved on its own axis once in twenty-four hours. So great was the +insistence of the religious bodies in adhering to the Ptolemaic Theory, +so set were the minds of all men of high position on it, that though +Copernicus wrote a book expounding his own theory, he did not think it +wise to publish it. He seems to have completed the book in about 1530. +He did not publish it till 1543. Just before its printing was finished, +Copernicus was taken ill. The first volume was held before him. He +touched it and seemed to realize dimly what it was. Then he relapsed +into torpor almost immediately, and soon died. + +It is interesting to note that Copernicus was not the first to conceive +the idea that the earth turns on its own axis, or that the earth +revolves around the sun, any more than Bell was the first to conceive +the idea that speech could be transmitted by a suitable arrangement of +magnet, diaphragm and electric circuit. But Copernicus was the first to +invent a system of astronomy that was like a machine. It was a usable +thing. It could be made to explain astronomical phenomena and predict +astronomical events correctly. + +It may be well to remind ourselves again that no application for patent +will be granted by our Patent Office unless the invention is described +and illustrated so clearly and correctly that "a person skilled in +the art can make and use it;" and to realize that this admirable +phraseology may be utilized to distinguish any other novel endeavor of +man entitled to be called an invention from any other not so entitled; +for no system, no theory, no religion, no scheme of government, +regardless of how attractive it may be, is entitled to be called an +invention, unless, like the Copernican System, "a person skilled in the +art can make and use it." + +Shortly after Copernicus, came Johann Kepler, who was born in +Württemburg in 1571, and died in 1630. He had been a pupil of Tycho +Brahe, who did not succeed in making any great invention or discovery, +but who did collect a great amount of data. Utilizing these, Kepler +devoted many years to the study of Copernicus, and tried to invent a +system which would explain some facts of astronomy that the system +of Copernicus did not explain, notably the non-uniform speed of the +planets. The main result of his labors was the famous Kepler's Laws, +which were + + "1. The orbits of the planets are ellipses having the sun at + one focus. + + "2. The area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and + planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. + + "3. The squares of the periodic times of the planets are + proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the + sun." + +These three discoveries, enunciated in three interdependent, concrete +laws, constituted an invention which, while it was merely an +improvement on Copernicus's, was so great an improvement as almost +to make the difference between impracticability and practicability. +Without this improvement, astronomy would not be what it is, navigation +would not be what it is, the regulation of time throughout the world +would not be what it is, and the present highly intricate but smoothly +running machine of civilization could not exist at all, except in a +vastly inferior form. The machine of civilization is dependent for its +successful operation on the good quality and correct design of every +other part. So is every other machine; for instance, a steam-engine. + +The Copernican System was not recognized for more than a century. +It was, in fact, definitely rejected, and people were subjected to +punishment and even torture for declaring their belief in it. + +One of the amazing facts surrounding Copernicus's invention was that +he carried on his observations with exceedingly crude appliances. _The +telescope had not yet been invented._ + +Who invented the telescope is not definitely known; but it is probable +that both the telescope and the microscope (compound microscope) +were invented by Jansen, a humble spectacle-maker in Holland. Both +inventions were made about the year 1590, and were of the highest order +of merit from the three main points of view,--originality, completeness +and usefulness. Few inventions more perfectly possessing the attributes +of a great invention can be specified. The originality of the +conception of each seems unquestionable; the beautiful completeness of +the embodied form of each was such that only improvements in detail +were needed afterward; and, as to their usefulness, can we even imagine +modern civilization without them both? + +The interesting fact may now be called to mind that, although many men +who lived in Jansen's time were loaded with honors and fame and wealth +and glory, the inventor of the telescope and the microscope received +no reward of any kind that we know of; and his fame has come to us so +imperfectly that we are not even sure that Jansen was his name. + +The man usually credited with the invention of the telescope is +Galileo, though Galileo himself never pretended that he invented it, +and though historical statements are clear that he heard that such +an instrument had been invented, and then designed and constructed +one himself in a day. It would be interesting to know just how much +information Galileo received. It seems that his information was very +vague. If so, a considerable amount of inventiveness may have been +required, besides a high order of constructiveness. But the mere fact +that Galileo knew that such an instrument had been invented caused his +mental processes to start from an image put into his mind by an outside +agency and not from his own imagination. Galileo's work did not begin +with conception, and therefore it was not an invention. + +Galileo was one of the foremost and most ardent supporters of the +Copernican Theory; and it was on his skilful and industrious use of +the telescope in making observations confirming the theory that his +fame mainly rests. As late as 1632, nearly a century after Copernicus's +doctrine had become known, Galileo was compelled by threat of torture +to recant, and was condemned to imprisonment for life. + +The influence of inventions on history has been greater and more +beneficial than that of any other single endeavor of man. Yet most +inventions have been resisted. _The invention of Copernicus was +resisted for more than a century by the organization commanding the +greatest talent and character and learning that the world contained._ + +The extraordinary access of mental energy in Europe about the beginning +of the seventeenth century is illustrated by another invention +virtually contemporaneous with those of Copernicus and Jansen, and also +in the line of mathematical research. This was the invention by Baron +John Napier of logarithms. + +It was a curious invention--an invention the like of which one cannot +easily specify; for the thing invented was not a material mechanism, +or a theory, or anything exactly like anything else. It is difficult +to classify a logarithm except as a logarithm:--yet Napier did +create something; he did make something exist that had not existed +before; he did conceive an idea and embody that idea in a concrete +machine. That machine, in the hands of a man who understood it, could +supply extraordinary assistance in making mathematical calculations, +especially calculations involving many operations and many figures, as +in astronomy. It has been in continual use since Napier invented it, +and is used still. In order to indicate the simplicity and the value +of Napier's invention, it may assist those who have forgotten what +a logarithm is, or who have been so fortunate as never to have been +compelled to study about them, to state that logarithms are numbers so +adapted to numbers to be multiplied, divided, or raised to any power, +that one simply adds their logarithm, subtracts one logarithm from the +other or multiplies or divides a logarithm by the number representing +the power, and then notes in a table the number resulting, instead of +going through the long process of multiplying, dividing, squaring, +etc. Of course, in the case of small numbers, the use of logarithms +is not only unnecessary but undesirable; but in the case of the long +numbers used in astronomy, and even in navigation, logarithms are +inexpressibly helpful and time-saving. The mental feat of Napier +consisted in conceiving the idea of accomplishing what he subsequently +did accomplish, and then constructing and producing the "logarithmic +tables" that made it possible. + +Another indication of the new intellectual movement in Europe was the +experiments, deductions and inventions of William Gilbert, an English +physician, who lived from 1540 till 1603. According to the use of +the word invention followed in this book, only two actual inventions +can be credited to Gilbert, that of the electroscope and that of +magnetization. Gilbert's work was valuable in the highest degree, more +valuable than that of most inventors; and yet it was more inductive +and deductive than inventional. It is not the purpose of this book to +suggest that invention has been the only kind of work that men have +done which has had an influence on history; and the work of Gilbert +gives the author an opportunity to emphasize the value of certain +work which is not inventional. At the same time, the author cannot +resist the temptation of pointing out that Gilbert's work was original +and constructive, that it hovered around the borders of invention, +and that it did more to assist the inventors of the electric and +electro-magnetic appliances that were soon to follow, than the work of +almost any other one man. + +The full influence of Gilbert's work was not apparent for many years; +not, in fact, until the discoveries and inventions of Volta, Galvani +and Faraday showed the possibilities of utilizing electricity for +practical purposes. Then the facts which Gilbert had established, and +the discoveries built upon them afterward, were the basis of much of +the work of those great men, and of the vast science of electrical +engineering that resulted. + +The inventions made before the opening of the seventeenth century A. +D., wonderful as they were, were quite widely separated in time, and +seem to have been wholly the outcome of individual genius, and not the +result or the indication of any widespread intellectual movement. But +soon after it opened, the influence of printing in spreading knowledge +became increasingly felt, and inventions began to succeed each other +with rapidity, and to appear in places far apart. + +In the beginning of the seventeenth century, certain writings appeared +in England that took great hold on the minds of thinking men, not only +in England, but throughout Europe. The name of the author was Francis +Bacon. + +It would not be within the scope of this book even to attempt to +analyze the philosophy of Bacon, to differentiate between it and +the philosophy of Aristotle or any other of the great thinkers of +the world, or to try to trace directly the influence of Bacon's +philosophy on his own time and on future times. It is obvious, +however, that Bacon invented a system of inductive reasoning that +assisted enormously to give precision to the thoughts of men in his +own day, by convincing them of the necessity of first ascertaining +exact facts, and then inferring correct conclusions from those facts. +This seems to us an easy thing to do, looking at the matter in the +light of our civilization. But it was not easy, though Bacon's high +position gave him a prestige exceptional for a philosopher to possess; +and this smoothed his way considerably. Men had not yet learned to +think exactly. The efforts of even the great minds were of a groping +character; and fanciful pictures made by the imagination seem to +have intertwined themselves with facts, in such a way that correct +inferences (except in mathematical operations) were hardly to be +expected. Bacon insisted that every start on an intellectual expedition +should be made from absolutely indisputable facts. + +The first effect of such teaching was to make men seek for facts. Not +long afterward, we find that many men were making it the main business +of their lives to seek for facts from Nature herself. This does not +mean that men had not sought for facts before from Nature, or that +Bacon alone is to be credited with the wonderful increase in the work +of research and investigation that soon began. + +Bacon's principal book was published in 1620, and called the "Novum +Organum," or "the new instrument." It was obviously an invention, for +it was a definite creation of a wholly new thing, that originated in +a definite conception, and was developed into a concrete instrument. +That Bacon so regarded it is evident from the title that he gave it. +Furthermore, he described it as "the science of a better and more +perfect use of reason in the investigation of things and of the true +aids of the understanding." Bacon was a patient of Dr. Harvey, who +discovered the circulation of the blood; and it would be strange indeed +if Bacon's philosophy did not give to Harvey a great deal of guidance +and suggestion that furthered his experiments. + +William Harvey discovered the fact that the blood circulates in the +bodies of living animals. This declaration stated by itself would +convey to the minds of some the idea that Harvey discovered it, +somewhat as a boy might discover a penny lying on the ground. The first +definition of the word discover in the _Standard Dictionary_ is "to +get first sight or knowledge of"; so that the mere announcement that +an investigator has "discovered" something gives to many people an +incorrect idea of his achievement. Harvey discovered the fact of the +circulation of the blood after years of experimentation and research on +living animals, and by work of a most laborious kind. His conclusions +were not accepted by many for a very considerable period; but he was +fortunate, like Bacon, in holding a position of such influence and +prestige, that he escaped most of the violent opposition that inventors +usually meet. + +Harvey's discovery did not of itself constitute an invention; but the +embodiment of that discovery in a concrete theory, so explained "that +persons skilled in the art could make and use it," did constitute +an invention of the most definite kind. The whole influence of that +invention on history, only a highly equipped physician could describe; +but, nevertheless, one may feel amply justified in stating that its +influence on the science and practice of surgery and medicine, and on +the resulting health of all the civilized nations of the world, has +been so great as to be incalculable. + +A contemporary and acquaintance of Harvey was Robert Boyle, one of the +most important of the early scientific investigators, who was an avowed +disciple of Bacon, and followed his methods with conscientious care. +His work covered a large field, but it was concerned mostly with the +action of gases. He is best known by "Boyle's Law," which is usually +expressed as follows: "When the volume of a mass of gas is changed, +keeping the temperature constant, the pressure varies inversely as the +volume; or the product of the pressure by the volume remains constant." +While it has been found that this law is not absolutely true with all +gases at all temperatures and pressures, its departure from accuracy +are very small, and these are now definitely known. With certain +tabulated corrections, this law is the basis on which most of the +calculations for steam engines, air engines and gas engines are made. +It is usually expressed by the formula + + p v = p´ v´ = constant. + +Boyle is said to have "discovered" this law, and Harvey is said to have +"discovered" the circulation of the blood. Doubtless they did: but if +they had done no more than "discover" these things, no one else would +have been the wiser, and the world would have been no richer. What +these two men did that made us wiser and the world richer, was to make +inventions of definite character, and give them to the world in such +manageable forms, that "persons skilled in the art can make and use +them." + +In 1620, the spirit thermometer, as we know it now, was invented by +Drebel. It is by some ascribed to Galileo. An interesting controversy +has been waged as to which was actually the inventor. The facts seem to +be that Galileo did invent a thermometer in which the height of water +in a glass tube indicated approximately the temperature. The tube was +long and ended in a bulb at the top. The bulb being warmed with the +hand of Galileo, and the open lower end of the tube being immersed in +water, and then the warmth of the hand removed, water rose in the tube +to a height depending on the warmth of the air in the bulb. The height +of the water therefore varied _inversely_ as the temperature. The +defect of the instrument was that it was a barometer as much as it was +a thermometer; because the varying pressure of the atmosphere caused +the water to rise and fall accordingly, and thus falsify the thermal +indications. Drebel realized this, and closed both ends of the tube. + +Thus Galileo came very near to inventing both the thermometer and the +barometer, but yet invented neither! It seems incredible that he should +have failed to invent the barometer, having come so near it; for he had +been engaged for a long period in investigating the weight of air, and +finally had succeeded in ascertaining it. The barometer was invented +or rather discovered by Galileo's successor, Torricelli, in 1645. +Torricelli, in investigating the action of suction pumps, constructed +what now we call a barometer; but it was not until _after_ he had +constructed it that he realized that the height of mercury in his tube +indicated the pressure of the air outside. Seventy-five years later, +Fahrenheit made a great improvement in the thermometer by substituting +mercury for spirits. + +Meanwhile, Otto von Guericke, following in the footsteps of Galileo and +Torricelli, had invented the air-pump, by means of which he succeeded +in getting a fairly perfect vacuum in a glass receiver. This seems to +have been an invention of the most clear-cut kind, resulting from an +idea that occurred to Guericke that he seized upon promptly and put to +work to serve mankind. Its influence in giving impetus to the science +and art of pneumatics, and the influence of pneumatics on the progress +of civilization, are too obvious to need more than to be pointed out. +The invention of Guericke is a simple and clear illustration of the +"power of an idea"; an illustration of seed falling on good ground and +bringing forth fruit an hundred fold. + +One of the greatest inventors that ever lived was Isaac Newton, who +lived from 1642 till 1728. Even as a child he busied himself with +contriving and constructing mechanical appliances, mostly toys. As +a young man he occupied himself mostly with studies in mathematics +and experiments in physics, especially optics. In 1671 he invented +a special form of the reflecting telescope, called after him the +Newtonian telescope. He made many experiments in optics, in consequence +of which he discovered and announced that white light consists of seven +colors, having different degrees of refrangibility. The influence of +this discovery on the advancement of learning since that time, it +is unnecessary to point out; but we cannot realize too clearly that +without it much of the most important progress in optics since that +time would have been impossible. + +The invention by reason of which Newton is most generally known is his +theory or law of gravitation, which he announced in his _Principia_, +published in 1686. In 1609, Kepler had announced his famous laws, that +reads: + + "1. The orbits of planets are ellipses having the sun at one + focus. + + "2. The area swept over per hour by the radius joining sun and + planet is the same in all parts of the planet's orbit. + + "3. The squares of the periodic times of the planets are + proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the + sun." + +Newton showed from the laws of mechanics which he had discovered that, +assuming the first two laws of Kepler to be true, each planet must +always be subject to a force directing it toward the sun, that varies +inversely as the square of its distance from the sun: otherwise, it +would fly away from the sun or toward it. From this, Newton inferred +that all masses, great and small, attract each other with a force +proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square +of the distance between them, and invented what is now called the law +of universal gravitation. + +Another invention of possibly equal value, also published in his +_Principia_, but not so generally known, is his three laws of motion. +These are + + "1. Every body continues in its state of rest, or of moving + with constant velocity in a straight line, unless acted + upon by some external force. + + "2. Change of momentum is proportional to the force and to the + time during which it acts, and is in the same direction as + the force. + + "3. To every action there is an equal and contrary re-action." + +It is probably impossible for any human mind to conceive any invention +of a higher order of originality than either of these two, or to +construct any invention more concrete and useful. Certainly no more +brilliant inventions have ever yet been made. These two wonderful +products of Newton's genius underlie the whole structure of modern +astronomy and modern mechanics. The sciences of modern astronomy and +modern mechanics could not exist without them, and would not now exist +unless Newton (or someone else) had invented them. + +It may be pointed out that Newton's conception of our solar system is +that of a machine in rapid motion, of which the sun and the planets are +the principal parts. + +Another important invention ascribed to Newton is that of the sextant, +a small and easily handled instrument, used ever since in ships for +purposes of navigation; but whether he should receive the entire credit +for this invention seems quite doubtful; for another astronomer, Robert +Hooke, is credited by some with the original suggestion, and John +Hadley, still another astronomer, with having adapted it to practical +sea use. Numerous other scientific inventions, however, that have +formed the basis of much of the scientific work of later experimenters +and inventors are clearly to be credited to Newton. Among these, his +formula for the velocity of a wave of compression, his color-wheel, +and his simple apparatus known as "Newton's rings," by which can be +measured the wave lengths of light of different colors, are possibly +the most important. + +In approximate coincidence with the Renaissance movement and the +accompanying awakening of the intellect of Europe, there began a +conflict between the sovereigns and the Pope. The Popes had gradually +acquired great power, because of their prestige as the successors of +St. Peter, to whom it was declared our Savior had given the keys of +heaven. Coincidentally, the multitudinous barons had gradually built +up the Feudal System. This was a loose-jointed contrivance, under +which Europe was virtually divided into little geographical sections, +ruled over by hereditary feudal lords, who in each country owed +allegiance to a sovereign. By reason of the slowness and uncertainty +of transportation and communication, the various feudal lords were +extremely independent, and each one did substantially as he willed in +his little domain. + +The situation was a miserable one for every person, except the Pope, +the sovereigns, the feudal lords and their hangers-on; not only +because of the various petty tyrannies, but because of the continual +little wars and the general absence of good government. Gradually, +the sovereigns got more and more power (except in England) and the +conditions improved so much that the people realized that it was better +to be ruled by one king, or emperor, than by a multitude of barons. The +sovereigns finally acquired so much power that they dared to oppose the +Pope in many of his aggressions; but no very important situations were +developed until the Reformation caused the existence of protestant or +heretic sovereigns, and the occasional excommunication of one of them +by the Pope, with its attendant exhortation to his subjects to take +up arms against him. To meet this situation, the theory of the Divine +Right of Kings was invented. + +This was a very important invention; for it offset the Divine authority +of the Pope as Pope, and gave a theme for the bishops and priests in +their discourses to the people, and a slogan for the soldiers. It was +extremely successful for three centuries, and its influence was in the +main beneficent. It worked for the establishment of stable governments +and great nations, tended to prevent the excessive domination of +a religious organization, and, by recognizing the fact that every +sovereign's power comes from the Almighty, it suggested the sovereign's +responsibility to Him. At first this suggestion evidently bore little +fruit; for the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were characterized +by general oppression of the people, and filled with dynastic wars, +waged merely in behalf of monarchical ambitions. But gradually the +kings and the peoples came to realize the duties of sovereigns, as well +as their privileges and powers. Gradually then, the view came to be +held that kings were bound to exercise their power for the benefit of +their people. + +Even the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings, now condemned and +obsolete, had a great influence and a good influence during the time it +was in vogue; and it supplies a clear illustration of the power of a +good idea, skillfully developed, to fulfill a given purpose, so long as +its existence is necessary. + +Most men have a considerable amount of energy, but do not know what to +do with it. Children are in the same category, except that toys have +been invented for them, and parents give these toys to their children. +Without toys, children find the days very long, and parents find their +children very trying. The usefulness of toys seems to be mainly, not so +much in giving children pleasure directly, as in supplying an outlet +for their energies, both physical and mental. For what greater pleasure +is there than in expending one's natural energies under pleasant +conditions? + +Possibly, all the work that men have done in building up civilization +is like the work that children have done with building blocks. +Certainly there are many points of similarity. The mental efforts are +similar; and, so far as we can see, the results are similar also. +Toy temples have been built of building blocks, and then have been +destroyed. Civilizations also have been built and then destroyed. And +in the case of both the building blocks and the civilizations, the +pleasure seems to come, not from the result achieved, but from an +enjoyable expenditure of energy in achieving it. In both cases it has +been the inventors who have pointed out the ways in which to expend the +energy, and achieve the results. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE RISE OF ELECTRICITY, STEAM AND CHEMISTRY + + +The invention of the first electrical machine was made by Otto Von +Guericke, of Magdeburg, about 1670. It consisted of a sulphur ball, a +stick with a point, and a linen thread "an ell or more long," hanging +from the stick. The lower end of the thread being made to hang "a thumb +breadth distance" from some other body, and the sulphur ball rubbed and +brought near the point of the stick, the lower end of the thread moved +up to the body. The ball being removed, the lower end of the thread +would drop away from the body; so that by moving the ball back and +forth, the lower end of the thread would be made to move back and forth +simultaneously. + +It may be objected that Guericke made no invention, because he did not +conceive the idea of making a machine or instrument and did not, in +fact, produce one: that he merely made a discovery. The author admits +that such an objection would have great reasonableness, and that +Guericke's feat is a little hard to class. It is classed by many as an +invention, however, and the present author is inclined to class it so; +because there seems no reason to doubt that Guericke first conceived +the idea of doing what he did do, and that he did produce a device +whereby an actual motion of a rubbed ball at one place caused actual +motion at another place, through the medium of a current of electricity +that traversed a conductor joining the two places. The device is +sometimes spoken of as the first telegraph instrument. + +Guericke (like Gilbert) was more distinctly an experimenter than an +inventor,--and (like Gilbert) his work was not only in electricity, but +in most of the other branches of science. Of the two, Guericke seems +to have covered a wider field, and to have been more distinctly an +inventor. His celebrated experiment of holding two hollow hemispheres +together, then exhausting the air from the hollow sphere thus formed, +and then demonstrating the force of the atmosphere by showing that +sixteen horses could not pull the hemispheres apart, indicates just the +kind of clear apprehension of the laws of Nature that characterizes the +inventor. + +By some, Guericke is esteemed the inventor of the first electric light, +because by rubbing a sulphur ball in a dark room he produced a feeble +electric illumination. Of Guericke's discoveries and inventions, the +only one that has survived as a concrete apparatus is the air pump; +but it is doubtful if the direct influence on history of the air pump, +great as it has been, has actually been any greater than the indirect +influence of his less widely known discoveries and experiments. + +[Illustration: Hero's Engines] + +One of the early influences of the art of printing was to bring to the +notice of some restless minds the writings of Hero and Archimedes. In +Hero's _Pneumatics_, published more than 120 years before Christ, he +gives such a clear account of an invention of his own, in which the +expansive force of steam was used to give and maintain motion, as to +establish thoroughly his right to the basic invention of the steam +engine. He described three apparatus that he devised. In one, the +currents of air and aqueous vapor rising through a tube from a hollow +sphere, containing water, under which a fire is burning, support a +ball placed immediately above the tube, and make it seem to dance. In +another apparatus, a hollow sphere into which steam has arisen from +what we now call a boiler, is supported on a horizontal or vertical +axis, and provided with tubes that protrude from the sphere, and are +bent at right angles to the radius and also to the pivot. The inner +ends of these tubes lie within the sphere, so that the steam passes +from the sphere through the tubes. As soon as this happens, the sphere +takes up a rapid rotation, that continue so long as the steam continues +to escape from the nozzles of the tubes, which point rearwardly. A +third apparatus was merely an elaboration of the second, in that the +sphere was connected with an altar which supported a large drum on +which were figures representing human beings. The fire being lighted, +the sphere would soon begin to revolve, and with it the drum; and +the figures on it would seem to dance around, above the altar. The +invention was probably to impress the people with the idea that the +priests were exerting supernatural power. + +[Illustration: Hero's Altar Engine] + +Hero's wonderful invention remained unused and unappreciated for nearly +2,000 years. About 1601, an Italian named Della Porta, published a book +that seems to show acquaintance with it, also with the fact that if +water be heated it is converted into a gas that can raise water to a +height. In 1615, a Frenchman named de Caus published a book in which he +showed a hollow sphere into which water could be introduced through an +orifice that could then be closed; the sphere carrying a vertical tube +that dipped into the water at its lower end, and ending in a small +nozzle at its upper end. When a fire was started under the sphere, the +air in the upper part expanded, and forced down the water that occupied +the lower part, so that a jet of water would soon issue from the upper +end of the tube. Of course, this was really less than Hero had done, +because the appliance described did not constitute a machine, in any +real sense of the word. + +In 1629, an Italian named Branca carried Hero's invention a step +further, by inventing a simple apparatus whereby the revolution of +Hero's hollow sphere was communicated to a series of pestles in +mortars, and put to the useful work of compounding drugs. Branca seems +entitled to the basic invention of the steam engine as an industrial +machine. + +About 1663, the Marquis of Worcester invented a steam engine that +exerted about two horse-power, and was employed to raise water from the +Thames River, and supply it to the town of Vauxhall. Six years later +(1669) Captain Thomas Savery erected a steam engine about twenty-five +feet above the water in a mine, and successfully drew water out. This +was a very important feat, because the difficulties surrounding the +problem of freeing the mines from water were extremely great, and the +desirability of overcoming them was equally so. In Savery's engine, +there were two boilers in which steam was raised, and two receivers +communicating with them. Steam being admitted to one receiver, the +connection with the boiler was shut off by a valve, and a cold jet was +then suddenly thrown on the receiver, condensing the steam and forming +a partial vacuum. This vacuum the water below immediately rushed up to +overcome. Connection with the pipe leading down was then shut off, and +steam introduced to the receiver. This steam forced out the water from +the receiver into a pipe, which discharged it above. This operation +was then performed by the other boiler and receiver; so that, by +their continued and alternate action, a fairly continuous stream of +discharged water was maintained. + +This invention was quickly followed by Captain Savery with another, by +means of which the discharge stream was made to fall on a mill-wheel, +as though from a natural waterfall. Several of these machines were +erected for actuating the machinery of mills and factories in the +district. + +In 1690, Dr. Papin invented a steam engine, in which he used a cylinder +containing water, with a piston so arranged that, when the water was +heated, the steam would raise the piston. The fire being then removed +the pressure of the atmosphere would force down the piston. This +was followed shortly by an invention of Newcomer and Cawley, which +was a very considerable advance on previous engines. It comprised a +separate boiler and furnace, a separate cylinder and piston, means for +condensing the steam in the cylinder by injecting water into it, and +a system of self-acting valves that were opened and closed by a long +beam that was moved by the piston. Furthermore, this beam communicated +motion to a pump that pumped the water up directly. This engine was +so efficient and so practically useful, that it was very generally +introduced into service for draining mines throughout England. About +1775, Smeaton built an engine carefully designed on these lines, of +which the cylinder was 72 inches in diameter, and the length of stroke +was 10 feet and 6 inches. + +In 1725, Jacob Leupold invented an engine, in which the work was done +by steam alone, instead of by the atmosphere, as in the engines that +immediately preceded it. Leupold used two cylinders. They were open +at the top to the atmosphere as in the others, but he used higher +pressures of steam, and arranged a four-way cock between the bottoms of +the two cylinders in such a way that the bottom of each cylinder, in +its turn, was connected to the boiler or to the open air. Each cylinder +actuated directly a separate vibrating beam, which in turn actuated the +piston of a pump; the two pistons acting reciprocally, each drawing up +water in its turn. + +[Illustration: Leupold's Engine] + +In 1765, James Watt made the very great improvement of providing a +condenser separate from the cylinder of the engine, so that the great +loss of heat caused by cooling the cylinder and then heating it at +each stroke was wholly avoided. He covered the cylinder entirely, and +surrounded it with an external cylinder kept always full of steam, that +maintained the cylinder at a high temperature. The steam, instead of +being condensed within the cylinder, after it had done its work, was +allowed to escape into the condenser. To facilitate this action, the +condenser was fitted with an air-pump that maintained a good vacuum in +it. + +In 1769, Watt invented an improvement that consisted mainly of means +whereby the supply of steam to the cylinder could be shut off at any +desired part of the stroke, and the steam allowed to complete the +rest of the stroke by virtue of its expansive force. This invention +increased tremendously the efficiency of the engine: that is, the +amount of work done with a given amount of steam. + +During all this time, Watt had realized that virtually all the work was +done on the down stroke, and none on the up stroke, and also realized +that it would be highly desirable to devise an apparatus whereby the +reciprocating motion of the piston could be converted into a rotary +motion. Watt was able to accomplish both feats, and to connect the +bottom and top of the cylinder alternately with the condenser and +boiler by a simple mechanism driven by a wheel rotated by the engine. +The result was the reciprocating steam engine in its main features, as +it exists today. + +The influence of Hero's invention on history is not direct, because +his engine has never been employed for any industrial purpose. But +Hero's engine has had an enormous influence on history, nevertheless, +because it supplied the basis on which the steam engine of the last +two centuries has rested. The influence of Hero's invention was not +realized until two thousand years after he had died, and until after +all those men had died whose names have just been mentioned. It is +inconceivable that any of those men could really have expected that +their work was to have even a small fraction of the influence on +mankind that it actually has had. The influence of Watt's work became +visible to some degree before he died, and became clearly visible not +very long after he had died; so clearly visible that by many men Watt +is credited with the invention of the steam engine. But his good work +was built on the good work of his predecessors, whose main work was +in making Watt's work possible. The successive feats of all, like the +successive layers in the foundations of any building, were to support, +in time, the whole superstructure of the great and beneficent science +of steam engineering. + +But the work done by these men was not all the work that had to be +done, to make Watt's steam engine the efficient machine it was. These +men were the men who are directly to be credited, but they were not +the only men engaged. Neither did they belong to the only class of +men engaged. There was another class of men whose labors were equally +arduous, and equally important, though not so clearly in evidence--the +physicists, as we now call them. It was by the knowledge which they +gleaned regarding the properties of steam and air and water and iron, +regarding the laws of motion and heat and work and force and weight +and mass, that the inventors' experiments were guided. It is true that +the science of physics was then in its infancy, as we realize with the +knowledge of the science today; but Aristotle in the days of Greece, +and Archimedes and Hero later, and Galileo and many others in Italy--as +well as Guericke in Germany, Newton and Gilbert in England, and others +of less note, had evolved a good deal of order out of what had been +chaos, and had given inventors a great deal of firm ground on which +to stand themselves and raise their structures. And reciprocally, the +inventors found themselves confronted with problems of a kind that gave +opportunities for the physicists to show their skill and knowledge. + +Thus were opened up promising avenues of investigation, and not only +of investigation, but of invention also. For it is obvious that, +while investigation and experimentation can hardly fail to secure +data, they may secure nothing else, and usually do. But mere data are +mere facts; and, valuable as they are if suitably classified, they +are not valuable unless they are classified; and even after data are +classified, they are not useful until some use is found for them. The +data in card-indexes are mere unrelated facts, and are almost useless, +until they have been classified and arranged in boxes alphabetically +labeled. Then they are useful whenever any use is found; when, for +instance, some one is seeking information on a certain subject. In +this condition, data are like material substances, in that they are +available for use,--in fact, data are often spoken of by writers +as "material"; a certain series of incidents, for instance, supply +"material" for a story. Now, just as pieces of iron and brass supply +material with which an inventor can create a new machine, so classified +facts, or data, supply material with which an inventive investigator +can create a new theory, or formulate a new law. + +Our books on physics are full of accounts of experiments and +investigations conducted by such men as Hero, Archimedes, Gilbert, +Galileo and many others, the consequent discoveries that they made, +and the consequent laws that they enunciated; but those books could +not possibly describe all the investigations that have ever been +made. Those which they describe are those that ended in some definite +creations, such as the hydrostatic law enunciated by Archimedes. Most +investigations, experiments and researches have ended in nothing +definite:--most of them, in all probability, have not even established +facts. The investigations that we studied about when boys were such as +those of Archimedes, that presented us with inventions, in the form of +useful and usable laws. No appreciable difference is apparent between +the mental operations of Archimedes in inventing these laws and his +mental operations in inventing his screw: for in both cases the mental +operations consisted mainly in conceiving an idea and then embodying +it. The Archimedean screw was a machine of an entirely new kind that, +in the hands of a man understanding its use, would enable the man to +do something he could not do before--or enable him to do a thing he +could do before, but do it better. So were his laws. The laws have been +utilized ever since, as definite and concrete devices; and to a much +greater extent than the special form of screw that he invented. + +In a like way, all the laws that investigators have put into concrete +and usable form, have been used by other investigators as bases +for further investigations, and by inventors as bases for future +inventions. Even the inventor of the fist-hammer had to know something +about the material which he employed; he had to know that it was hard +and heavy, for instance, and that it could be hammered so as to have a +point and a sharp edge. He had to know also something about the flesh +of a man: he had to know that if his flesh was struck with a sharp hard +instrument, it would be bruised, and the man injured, and maybe killed. +Similarly, the inventor of the gun, and the inventor of printing, +and the inventors of steam engines, had to know a good deal about +the materials which they employed, and about the uses to which their +appliances could be put. Naturally, they had to know much more than did +the inventor of the fist-hammer. But the inventor of today has to know +still more, because there is still more to know. An inventor of the +present day who knew no more about physical science than Galileo did +would not be able to go far. + +A like remark may be made about any man in any vocation, as compared +with his predecessor in Galileo's time. The machine of civilization is +so vast and so complex, that the amount of knowledge which anyone of +us needs in mere daily life is almost incredible. Let anyone try to +enumerate all the facts he knows! The attempt will convince him quickly. + +It may be pointed out here that, while modern civilization differs +from ancient civilization in many ways, it differs more in complexity +than in any other one way. Some of the factors of ancient civilization +were as good as those of today; such things, for instance as temples +and pyramids and stationary objects in general. But the ancients did +not understand motion clearly, especially irregular motion; and they +had no fast vehicles of any kind. Their knowledge of statics must have +been fairly complete, or they could not have built their temples and +pyramids; but their records show little understanding of dynamics. + +Now the basis of dynamics is mathematics. Dynamics is the result of the +application of mathematics to the observed effects of force on bodies, +in producing motion. Dynamics is a branch of the science of mechanics, +and a most difficult branch. It is built on the observations, +calculations and conclusions of Newton and a host of experimenters and +mathematicians of lesser mentality, and it could not have come into +being without them. + +But dynamics has not been the only physical science involved in making +the machine of civilization. All the physical sciences have taken part; +and each one has taken a part which was essential to the final result, +and without which the final result could not have been attained. +The science of light made possible the solution of our problems of +illumination and the development of inventions for producing it; the +science of acoustics made possible the solution of our problems of +sound, including music, and the invention of acoustic and musical +instruments; the science of heat made possible the invention of all the +complex and powerful steam and gas engines that have revolutionized +society; the science of electricity (including magnetism) has made +possible the invention of those electric and electro-magnetic machines +that have supplemented the work of the steam engine; and the science of +pneumatics has made possible the invention of those "flying machines" +of many kinds, that promise to complicate civilization further still. + +But let us realize clearly that no one of these sciences by itself +has been able to perform any of the feats just mentioned. Each one +was virtually dependent on every other one; and all were dependent on +mathematics. In order to make the steam engine work efficiently, it was +not enough that heat should expand water into steam: the mathematical +laws which showed how much water was needed to secure a certain amount +of steam, for instance, and how a certain desired pressure of steam +could be secured, had first to be comprehended and then to be followed. +In order to have boilers and engines so designed as to prevent +disastrous explosions, the laws governing the strength of materials +had to be known and followed. In order that a projectile could be so +fired from a gun as to reach a certain predetermined spot, the laws of +heat, pneumatics, chemistry and dynamics had all to be understood and +followed with exactness. + +But it was not only the machines and instruments that needed the +assistance of those sciences, it was the sciences themselves; because +it was only after eliminating phenomena caused by one agency from those +caused by another, that accuracy in any conclusions whatever could be +secured; and in order that the phenomena caused by one agency could +be kept separate from the phenomena caused by another agency, the +laws underlying both had to be understood. The science of light could +not be developed until the action of heat was fairly well understood; +dynamics had to wait on statics; Newton could not have contributed what +he did to astronomy, unless the science of light (including optics) was +sufficiently understood; and the laws of pneumatics could not have been +developed, unless the laws of heat had been developed, etc. And not one +of the physical sciences could have gone beyond the state of infancy, +if the science of mathematics had not been invented and made into a +workable machine. + +The paragraph above may be put into a different form, and made to +state that all the physical sciences have been brought up to their +present stage, by subjecting the phenomena studied by each science +to quantitative investigation. It was by making these quantitative +investigations that Newton and the others were able to ascertain the +exact facts from which to start in their endeavor to discover the +laws of nature; and it was from the laws of nature thus induced that +later investigators were able to start on still further expeditions of +discovery into the unknown. As the common basis of all quantitative +work is mathematics, the common basis of all the physical sciences +is mathematics. This makes all the physical sciences interdependent, +despite the fact that each is independent of the others. Each one +of the physical sciences has contributed its part to building the +machine of civilization; the part that each has specially contributed +can be clearly specified; and yet, since the machine is the result +of the combination of what all have contributed, their contributions +are interdependent. This remark applies to the various parts of all +machines. The piston of a steam engine, for instance, and the valve +that admits steam to the cylinder are entirely separate from each +other; but from the mere fact that they both work together, each one +must be designed and operated with reference to the other; so that both +in their construction and their operation, they are interdependent. + +Francis Bacon, in the sixteenth century, may be said to have +inaugurated the system on which the whole of modern progress has been +based, and Newton in the seventeenth century to have taken up Bacon's +work and carried it further on. Following Newton, only a few great +investigators can be seen in the seventeenth century; but in the +eighteenth, began that intense and brilliant movement of investigation, +discovery and invention, that has been adding more and more to the +machine of civilization--and still is adding more. + +One of the earliest and most important contributions was an apparatus +for measuring time accurately. Who was the inventor is not precisely +known. It seems fairly well established, however, that Galileo was the +first to call attention to the fact that the vibrations of a pendulum +were nearly isochronous, and could be used to measure the lapse of +time; and that Galileo's son (as well as Dr. Hooke, Huygens and a +London mechanic named Harris, in the early part of the seventeenth +century) made clocks based on that principle. It is fairly well +established also that Huygens was the first one to make a mathematical +investigation of the properties of the pendulum, and to enumerate the +laws since utilized for making accurate clocks and watches. + +Most of the investigators of the eighteenth century occupied themselves +with studies indirectly or directly caused by the invention of the +steam engine, that is with studies relating to heat and light; but, +by reason of the interdependence of all the physical sciences, their +investigations led them automatically into the allied fields of +acoustics and electricity. Their investigations led even further; they +led to the establishment, on the ruins of the illusions of alchemy, of +a wholly new and supremely important science, chemistry. + +One of the most important inventions of a purely scientific character +made during the period was one that has never been known by any other +name than "Atwood's machine." It is an interesting illustration of the +addition of invention to investigation, in that its end was--merely +investigation; and it reminds us of a fact that many people are +prone to forget, that invention may be applied to almost any purpose +whatever, and that even a "machine" may be devoted to a purpose not +utilitarian. + +Atwood's machine was the outcome of studies into the relations between +force and a body to which force may be applied. Galileo had shown +that a body subjected to a constant force, like that of gravity, will +gradually acquire a velocity and at a constant rate; and also that +this rate, or acceleration, is proportional to the force (leaving out +the effect of air resistance). Atwood's machine consisted merely of an +upright with a pulley at its upper end over which passed a cord, to +both ends of which weights could be attached. In any given experiment, +a weight was attached to one end and allowed to fall free; but another +weight could automatically be attached to the other end by a simple +device, when the first weight had fallen through any predetermined +distance. If the added weight were equal to the first weight, the +velocity of movement became uniform at once; while if it were less, the +velocity approached uniformity to a degree depending on the approach +to equality of the two weights. While this machine did not establish +any new law, or prove anything that Newton had not proved before, it +supplied a very valuable device for conducting quantitative experiments +with actual weights, and for instructing students. + +The first important improvement in the art of printing was made by +a Scotch goldsmith named William Ged, about the year 1725. It is now +called stereotyping, and it seems to have been successful from the +first, from a technical point of view. It was far from successful from +a financial point of view, however, mainly because of the opposition +from the type-founders; so that Ged died without realizing that he had +accomplished anything. Ged's invention was not put to practical use +for nearly fifty years after his death; but after that, its employment +extended rapidly over the civilized world. Ged's experience was bitter, +but no more so than that of many other discoverers, inventors and +benefactors. He did not profit in the least by his invention; in fact, +it must have brought him little but exasperation and discouragement. +But can we even imagine civilization to exist as it exists today, if +stereotyping had not been invented? + +An invention of a highly original kind was made some time in the middle +of this century which is attributed by some to Daniel Bernoulli, one +of the eight extraordinary investigators and scholars of that family. +According to this theory, the pressure of any gas is due to the +impact of its molecules against the walls of the vessel containing +it. Naturally, the greater the density of the gas, and the greater +the velocity of the molecules, the greater is the pressure. This +theory has greatly assisted the study of gases, and contributed to the +investigation of electric discharges in gases and partial vacua, and +therefore to the modern science of radio-activity. + +In the year 1640 there came to the little throne of the Margravate +of Brandenburg a coarse and violent man, who conceived a principle +of government that seems to have been wholly novel at that time, the +principle of efficiency. Having conceived this idea clearly in his +mind, he proceeded to develop it into a system of administration, in +spite of opposition of all kinds, especially inertia. He ruled till +1688. He found Brandenburg unimportant, disordered and poor; he left +Brandenburg comparatively rich, with a good army, an excellent corps of +administrators, a very efficient government, and a recognized standing +before the world. For his contribution to the cause of good government, +he is known in history as The Great Elector. He might be called, with +much reasonableness, the inventor of governmental efficiency, if Julius +Cæsar had not in some degree forestalled him. + +He was followed by his son, who contributed nothing to this cause +or to any other, but who was able to take advantage of his father's +work and be crowned as King of Prussia. He was followed by his son, +King Frederick William I, who was a man like the Great Elector, his +grandfather, in the essential points of character, both good and bad. + +He was somewhat like Philip of Macedon also; for he conceived the +idea of making his army according to a certain pattern, novel at that +time, though considerably like the pattern that Philip had employed. +The likeness was in so organizing and training the soldiers that a +regiment or division could be handled like a coherent and even rigid +thing, directed accurately and quickly at a pre-determined point, and +made to hit an enemy at that point with a force somewhat like the blow +of an enormous club. He succeeded during his reign of twenty-seven +years in developing his conception into such a perfect and concrete +reality, that he was able on his death in 1740 to bequeath to his son a +veritable military machine--the first since the days of Rome. + +These two Frederick Williams were inventors in the broad sense of +the word, and made inventions that have had an influence on history +since they died, as great as that of almost any other contemporary +inventions that can be specified. Their immediate influence was to make +it possible for the son of King Frederick William, Frederick the Great, +to put Prussia in the first rank among the nations, and to lay the +foundations of the German Empire. + +It may be objected that the ultimate result was not extremely great, +after all, because the German Empire fell in 1918. To this possible +objection, it may be answered that, nevertheless, the doings of Prussia +and the German Empire have had an enormous influence up to the present +time; and that, though the empire itself has ceased, the influence of +its policies and doctrines, of its military system, and, above all, of +its doctrine of efficiency in government has not ceased, and shows no +signs of ceasing. Besides, _history still is young_. + +Frederick the Great made no inventions in improving the military +machine bequeathed him; but he did operate it with inventiveness, +daring and success. He showed these qualities in his actual operations +in the field; but he showed inventiveness in an equal degree before +those operations took place, in the plans which he prepared. As a +tactician, Frederick could hardly help being good, in view of the +training he had received and the military atmosphere in which he +had been born and bred. But no amount of training could have given +Frederick the brilliant and yet correct imagination that enabled him +to see entire situations clearly and accurately with his mental eye; +that enabled him to form a correct picture of the mission in each case, +the difficulties in the way of accomplishing it, and the facilities +available for his use. And, equally, no amount of training or knowledge +or experience could of themselves have given him the constructive +ability necessary to build up such plans as he built up, for +accomplishing the mission with the facilities available and in spite of +the difficulties. + +Frederick's first invention was his successful invasion of Silesia. +This may be called by some "an invention of the devil," and perhaps it +was inspired by him. But even if Frederick's conception came straight +from the devil, it was a brilliant conception, nevertheless, as the +conceptions of the devil himself are popularly supposed to be. So +original in conception and so perfect in development was Frederick's +invented plan, that he had seized the capital of Silesia before Austria +had taken any real defensive measures of any kind. + +During the first half of Frederick's reign, or twenty-three years (from +1740 to 1763), he was engaged continually in war or preparation for +war; and in both activities he had to plan to fight against odds that +often seemed overwhelming. They would have overwhelmed any man, except +a man like Frederick. It is true that Frederick had two advantages, +the best trained army, and the fact that all his forces, military and +political, were united under one head--his own. But it is the verdict +of history that even these advantages were far from sufficient to +explain his victories; that his victories cannot be explained except +on the ground that Frederick showed a generalship superior to that +of his foes. In what did its superiority consist? A careful study of +his campaigns, even if it be not in detail, shows that Frederick was +able to invent better plans than his adversaries, to invent them more +quickly, and to carry them into effect more promptly. If he had been +born under other stars, he might have exercised his inventiveness in +such ways as men like Guericke, for instance, did; as is shown by his +gathering around him, in the peaceful period of the latter half of +his reign, a company selected from the most eminent philosophers and +scientists of the age; and as is shown with equal clearness by his +admirably conceived and executed measures for the better government of +his country. + +The middle of the eighteenth century is especially distinguished by the +success of some extraordinary and brilliant experiments with electrical +apparatus. One of the most important in results occurred about 1746, +in the town of Leyden, where Muschenbroek invented a device that made +possible the accumulating and preserving of charges of electricity. +This appliance consisted of merely a glass jar, coated on the outside +and the inside with tin foil. It was a most important invention, and it +is still in general use, and called the Leyden jar. + +The Leyden jar was soon put to practical work in electrical +investigations, notably by the Royal Society in London; and many +valuable demonstrations were made with it. Among these were the firing +of gunpowder by the electric spark that passed when both surfaces of +tin foil were connected by an external conductor; and the transfer +of the spark over a distance of two miles, by using one discharging +conductor or wire two miles long, the earth acting as the return +conductor. + +But the greatest results came from the investigations of Benjamin +Franklin, who proved that there was only one kind of electricity, that +the two coatings of tin foil were both charged with it, that one had +more than its ordinary quantity, while the other had less, and that +the spark was caused by the transfer of electricity from one coating +to the other. These discoveries were as much as any one discoverer +might reasonably be expected to contribute; but Franklin soon followed +them by his discovery of the power of points to collect and discharge +electricity. He then pointed out with extraordinary clearness the fact +that all the phenomena which had been produced by electricity were like +those produced by lightning; and made the suggestion that lightning +and electricity were identical. + +This was an interesting suggestion, but a suggestion only. To make +it into a theory, or prove it as a law, an invention was required. +Franklin made the invention. He conceived the idea of bringing down the +electricity, with which he imagined that a storm-cloud was charged, by +means of a long conductor, and of drawing off a spark from the lower +end of the conductor as from an electrical machine. The long conductor +he had in mind was a high spire that was about to be erected in +Philadelphia. The erection of the spire being delayed, his imagination +presented to his mind the picture of a kite flying near the cloud, +and the charge flowing down the cord, made into a conductor by the +accompanying rain. Forthwith, he embodied his conception in definite +form by preparing a kite to which was connected a long cord, that ended +with a piece of non-conducting silk, that was to be held in the hand, +and kept dry if possible, and a key that was secured to the junction of +the conducting cord and the non-conducting silk. The expectation was +that the key would receive the charge from the cloud and give it out as +a spark, if Franklin applied to it the knuckle of his disengaged hand. +The invention was a perfect success in every way; sparks were given +off, a Leyden jar was charged, and subsequent discharges of the Leyden +jar were made to perform the same electrical feats as jars charged from +ordinary electrical machines. (June, 1752.) + +The courage shown by Franklin in performing this experiment may here be +pointed out. To the eye of a casual observer, he must have been trying +to get struck by lightning. + +This brilliant invention caused Franklin to conceive another brilliant +invention, the utilization of the discovery he had just made in +combination with his previous discovery of the power of points to +collect electricity. He embodied his conception in what we now call +"lightning rods," by erecting on the highest points of houses thin +metal rods or conductors, the lower ends of which were buried in the +earth, while their upper ends were sharpened to points, and made to +project upward, above the houses. Franklin's theory was that the points +would collect the electricity from the clouds and allow it to pass +harmlessly through the conductors into the ground. The invention worked +perfectly, and has been utilized everywhere ever since. + +Naturally, Franklin's epochal discoveries stirred the scientific world +in Europe, and gave a great impetus to the study of electricity and +the other physical sciences. One of the earliest important discoveries +that followed (made by Mr. Cavendish) was that the electrical spark +could decompose water and atmospheric air, and make water by exploding +mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen. An epochal discovery was made by Mr. +Cavendish about 1787, when he exploded a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen +and obtained nitric acid. + +In 1790 Galvani discovered that, if two dissimilar metals were +placed in contact at one end of each, and if the free ends are put +into contact with the main nerve of a frog's hind leg and the thigh +muscle respectively, spasmodic muscular movements would ensue. In +investigating the cause of this phenomenon, Volta discovered that if +the lower ends of two dissimilar metals were immersed in a liquid they +would assume opposite electrical states; so that if their outer ends +were joined by a conducting wire, electricity would pass along it. This +led him at once to the invention of the Voltaic cell. The enormous +value of the Voltaic cell in building up the science of electricity +need hardly be pointed out. It is still used in electric telegraphy as +a source of current. + +During the eighteenth century, the relations between chemistry and +heat were very ill defined; but they were cleared up gradually by the +researches of such men as Black in Scotland, Priestley and Cavendish +in England, and Lavoisier in France. Black's work was mainly in +making investigations of the phenomena of heat. In the course of them +he discovered the important fact that different substances require +different amounts of heat to be applied to a given mass to raise its +temperature 1°. From this discovery arose the science of calorimetry, +which deals with the specific heats of all substances, solid, liquid +and gaseous, and which is necessary to the present science of heat +and the arts that depend upon it. About 1774 Dr. Priestley discovered +oxygen. + +Lavoisier prosecuted rigorous researches in heat and chemistry, and +finally made a discovery that cleared up a great fog of doubt as to +the nature of oxidation, by proving that it consisted in an actual +attack on a metal by oxygen, and that the increased weight resulting +from oxidation was that of the oxygen that became associated with the +metal in the form of rust. He therefore disproved the theory formerly +loosely held that the increase in weight was due to the escape of a +spirituous substance which the chemists of that day imagined to depart +from the metal, and called by the name phlogiston. An analogous and +equally valuable contribution by Lavoisier was that of introducing the +use of exact measurements into the study of chemistry. The result of +his labors was to put the science of chemistry on a new basis and to +separate it from physics entirely. + +It might be supposed that Lavoisier would live and die in great honor. +He lived in comparative obscurity, and was publicly guillotined on a +false accusation. He requested a brief respite, in order to complete an +important experiment, and was told in answer that "the Republic has +no need of philosophers." This was France's reward for one of the most +useful lives that has ever been lived. + +One of the most important industrial inventions ever produced and +one of the first of the long list of inventions for making things +by machinery that had formerly been made by hand, was the spinning +machine, that was invented by Dr. Paul in England about 1738. Spinning +is an exceedingly ancient art, and consists in forming continuous +lengths of thread by drawing out and twisting together filaments of +such material as wool, cotton, flax, etc. This art was practiced in +many of the ancient countries; and it seems to have been practiced in +essentially the same way in England in the eighteenth century A. D., +as in Egypt and Assyria long before the eighteenth century B. C. About +1738 Dr. Lewis Paul invented and patented a simple mechanism that +anyone with imagination could have invented at any time during the +two or three thousand years before, in which the filaments were drawn +between rollers. The invention seems to have been moderately successful +from the start; for it is stated that in 1742 a spinning mill was +in operation in Birmingham in which ten girls were employed, and in +which the motive power was supplied by two asses. Paul's invention +was improved by a weaver named Hargreaves, who invented the "spinning +Jenny"; and it was later brought to a high state of efficiency and +value by an invention of a poor and wholly uneducated barber, named +Richard Arkwright. The spinning machines of the present day are of +the highest order of intricacy, efficiency and usefulness; but they +are all based directly on the invention of Arkwright, and his was +based on the previous inventions of Paul and Hargreaves. Few persons +have contributed so much as these three men of humble station to the +comfort and well-being of the race. + +On July 3, 1775, George Washington arrived at Cambridge, near Boston, +and took command of an army of about 17,000 men that faced a British +army occupying Boston. Washington devoted his energies to organizing +and training his motley force during the ensuing fall and winter, the +enemy making no decided move to drive him off. Finally, on March 4, +1776, having conceived a plan that promised success to him, he suddenly +seized and fortified Dorchester Heights, about two miles south of +Boston, from which he could command the whole of Boston and the channel +south of it, by means of guns which he had ordered, to be dragged +through the snow from Ticonderoga. His plan worked perfectly; for the +British General Howe, after a vain attempt to drive Washington away, +evacuated Boston himself, and took his army to Halifax. + +This was Washington's opening move in our War of the Revolution. It +was the execution of a plan admirably conceived. There may seem little +of originality or brilliancy in it to us now, looking at a map of +Boston in the quiet and safety of a library, but there must have been +a great deal of merit and originality in it; for it took a British +major-general completely by surprise, and compelled him to evacuate an +important stronghold with a precipitancy that must have been distinctly +galling to British pride. Few neater feats of strategy can be found in +military history. + +Washington's next feat was in extricating his force from a distinctly +perilous position in Brooklyn in front of a superior British force, +retreating across the East River to New York, and landing near what +is now called Fulton Street. This was on August 30, 1776. The next +three months were spent in maneuvers that showed great clearness in +conception and great energy in execution on Washington's part, and +ended with his occupying Trenton, and Howe occupying New York with +the bulk of his forces. Washington had only a little more than 4,000 +men, while Howe had 30,000. Washington's troops were discouraged, +half-ragged, underfed and untrained; Howe's were elated, well clad, +well fed and thoroughly trained. Washington was in as dangerous a +plight as can easily be imagined. He extricated himself by conceiving +and carrying into execution the brilliant plan of crossing the Delaware +River on Christmas night, forcing his way through floating ice, and +falling on the amazed camp of the Hessians on the other side. His +invention worked perfectly, and effected almost a complete reversal in +the relative conditions of the opposing forces; for it put the British +on the defensive, and made them withdraw all their forces from New +Jersey. + +Thenceforward, Washington, by the exercise of imagination, +constructiveness and sheet force of will, fought a continual fight +against forces that were superior in material and training, but +inferior in mentality. Finally, in August, 1781, the crisis came. +The British were occupying New York, and Washington was in front of +it, threatening to attack it, but knowing that he could not do so +with success. About August 14 he received a letter written in July +by Admiral Comte de Grasse, then in the West Indies, saying that he +would start with his fleet and a force of troops for Chesapeake Bay +on August 13. Washington knew that the British General Cornwallis +was entrenched at Yorktown, near the mouth of the Chesapeake, with +a force considerably inferior to his own. He instantly proceeded +to embody in action an idea that he had already conceived--that of +leaving the vicinity of New York secretly, and marching with the utmost +possible despatch to Yorktown, and calling on de Grasse to assist him +to capture Yorktown, and if possible Cornwallis. No invention ever +succeeded better. Its influence on history was to precipitate the +collapse of the entire British program of hostilities, and cause the +establishment of the United States. + +The balloon was invented about 1783. Mr. Cavendish had found that +hydrogen was about seven times lighter than air, and Dr. Black had +forthwith delivered a lecture in which he pointed out that a thin light +vessel inflated with hydrogen should be able to rise and float in the +air. He conceived the idea of the balloon, but made no invention. The +Italian philosopher, Cavallo, about 1782, inflated soap-bubbles with +hydrogen gas, but went no further. The subject of making balloons +filled with hydrogen was widely discussed; but the first balloon +really to rise was the hot-air balloon invented by Joseph and Stephen +Montgolfier. This balloon made a successful ascent on June 5, 1783, +carrying the two brothers, flew about ten minutes, and alighted safe, +after a trip of about a mile and a half. This was followed on August 27 +by a flight of a balloon filled with hydrogen gas, the design of which +was made by the physicist Charles, and the cost of which was met by a +popular subscription. The flight was followed shortly by many others. +The first employment of balloons in practical work was in making +observations of the enemy by the French army in 1794. + +An important invention for utilizing mechanical power in place of +hand-power was the power-loom invented in 1785 by Edmund Cartwright. +This was an invention of the most clean-cut kind, originating in the +conception by the Rev. Dr. Cartwright of the possibility of doing much +more weaving by mechanical power than by hand, then constructing the +machine to accomplish it, and then accomplishing it. An interesting +fact in the early development of looms for weaving was the determined +and angry opposition of weavers to each improvement in succession. + +Another invention also utilizing external power, made near the end of +the eighteenth century, was the hydrostatic press. It consisted of a +vertical cylinder, fitted with a piston prevented by suitable means +from rising, except against great pressures; the piston resting on a +liquid in the bottom of the cylinder, which was connected by a small +pipe with a small pump, by which more liquid could be forced in. When +the pump was operated the pressure per square inch on the piston of +the pump was communicated to each square inch of the large piston in +the press, and a force exerted equal to that pressure multiplied by +the difference in area of the two pistons. This is the model on which +hydraulic jacks and many other hydraulic mechanisms are constructed; +and it has taken a prominent part in the development of the science of +hydraulics ever since it was invented. + +Because of the gradual recognition of the value of sea-commerce in the +British Isles, and the fact that the stormy seas adjacent necessitated +the construction of ships at once sturdy and yet capable of speed, +much study and experimentation were carried on during the eighteenth +century, especially in England. In these experiments, the invention +by Archimedes of the hydrostatic principle of buoyancy supplied the +starting-point, and gave an excellent illustration of the influence +of invention on history: for from experiments and investigations on +floating bodies carried on in England, based on the invention of +Archimedes, and followed by others of English origin, sprang England's +merchant marine and England's navy and England's domination over a +quarter of the land on the surface of the earth. + +The eighteenth century closed with the invention of two very important +mechanisms that reinforced the power of the human hand with power +drawn from external sources: these were the threshing machine and +the cotton gin; the former invented by Andrew Meikle in 1788, and +the latter by Eli Whitney in 1793. It would be hard to decide with +knowledge as to which has had the greater influence in constructing +the machine of civilization; but it is not at all hard to realize that +the machine of civilization could not have attained its present stage +without the assistance of both. + +One of the last important inventions of the century was that of an +art entirely new, as distinguished from inventions like the cotton +gin, that merely increased the value of an art already in existence. +This was the invention of lithography, or printing from stone, made by +Alois Senefelder in 1796. The first thing printed by him was a piece of +music. While this invention was more brilliant than those of Meikle and +Whitney, it was hardly so important. Nevertheless, it was important in +a high degree and made a valuable addition to civilization. + +An invention of a kind different from either Whitney's or Senefelder's +was made on October 15, 1793, by Napoleon Bonaparte. He was at that +time a young and ill-clad captain of artillery, attending a Council of +War in Toulon. An idea for driving out the English had been conceived +and embodied in a complete plan by a celebrated engineer, and it +had been approved by the Committee on Fortifications. The youthful +and prestigeless captain opposed this plan with a vehemence and +convincingness that came to be familiarly known a few years later, +and proposed in place of it a plan that he had himself conceived and +embodied in a concrete form. His plan consisted in the main merely in +mounting some guns on a point of land that he designated, from which +they could command the British war-ships in the harbor; and it was so +much simpler and in every way better, that, despite his obscurity +and youth, it was adopted, and he himself was charged with carrying +it into operation. This he did; and with such constructive skill and +energy, that the British ships were driven from the harbor and the +entire vicinity, and without doing any damage to the town. The British +soldiers, then unsupported, immediately withdrew. + +What was the determining difference between Napoleon's plan and that of +the great engineer? _The idea conceived._ + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE AGE OF STEAM, NAPOLEON AND NELSON + + +In the early part of the nineteenth century began what has been called +the Age of Steam; but before it ended, it was supplanted by the Age of +Electricity. When the century opened, the steam engine of Watt existed +in a practical and useful form, and the numberless experiments of +the physicists in the preceding century had laid bare the main laws +governing the force and the expansion of steam and air, and of gases +and vapors in general. The laws of the expansion of solids and liquids +were also understood in their main features, and the various inventions +mentioned in the last chapter were in operation. Seizing on the +facilities thus supplied, and noting the worldly success that certain +discoverers and inventors had achieved, the inventors of the nineteenth +century got speedily to work. The result was that the civilized world +at the end of the nineteenth century was vastly different from the +civilized world at the end of the eighteenth century. + +In general terms, it may be declared that during the first half of the +nineteenth century, the principal inventions were in the utilization of +heat, especially in the form of steam engines; while during the latter +half, the principal inventions were electrical:--though some very +important electrical inventions were made before 1850. In this brief +résumé, no attempt will be made to describe or even mention all the +inventions made, or even all the important ones; for such an attempt +would be impossible to carry out. Only a few super-important ones will +be mentioned. + +The first important successful application of the steam engine was +embodied in the steamboat _Charlotte Dundas_ that was produced in +Scotland in 1801. Other steamboats had appeared before, but they had +not been successful. The first was tried on the Soane River in France +in 1781. Later, Fitch and Ramsay made some unsuccessful attempts in the +United States. Then, in 1788, Patrick Miller, with the assistance of an +engineer named William Symington, had constructed a steam vessel that +attained a speed of five knots on a lake in Scotland. In the next year, +Mr. Miller and Mr. Symington had put another steamboat on the water +that developed a speed of nearly seven knots. None of these experiments +could be called successful of itself; but the experience gained by +them induced Lord Dundas to build the _Charlotte Dundas_ and name it +after his daughter. The _Charlotte Dundas_ was a practical success from +the start; for, in March, 1802, it towed two vessels of 70 tons each +a distance of 19-1/2 miles in six hours, while such a strong wind was +blowing from ahead that no other vessel on the canal tried to move to +windward. + +Whether or not this constituted an actual invention the present author +will not attempt to determine, even in his own mind. It is clear, +however, that it was the direct issue of several inventions, and that +it was the first embodiment in a concrete form of the successful and +practical application of steam power to transportation on the water. + +The next successful application was made by Robert Fulton, who built +the _Clermont_ in 1807. This vessel went into regular service in 1808, +plying between New York and Albany, on the Hudson River. + +The first steamboat to venture on the ocean was the _Phoenix_, that +made the trip from New York to Delaware Bay by sea in 1808. It was +built by Mr. R. L. Stevens, an engineer of Hoboken. If it accomplished +nothing else, it supplied a precedent and gave encouragement to +inventors everywhere. It made "le premier pas qui coute." + +Meanwhile, in June, 1802, Mr. Thomas Wedgwood had published "An Account +of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of making Profiles +by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver," with observations by +Sir Humphry Davy. In the course of his paper, he declared that he had +secured profiles of paintings made on glass by throwing the shadows +of those paintings on paper covered with a solution of the nitrate; +the paper showing the objects delineated in tones that were dark or +light inversely as they were in the painting. He also took profiles of +natural objects by throwing their shadows on the prepared paper: the +parts of the paper covered by the shadows being white, while the parts +outside the shadows became dark. + +This seems to have been an actual invention, in that it followed a +discovery made by Wedgwood that sunlight acted on nitrate of silver, +and was the embodiment of an idea, then conceived by him, to utilize +his discovery in making profile pictures. His invention was far from +perfect, however; the greatest imperfection being the fact that the +pictures could not be fixed; because, unless the paper was ever +afterward kept away from the light, its whole surface would become +dark, and the picture therefore cease to exist. In consequence, it +aroused almost no interest whatever at the time. In 1814, M. Niepce +invented a process that he called "heliography," by which he made +pictures on silvered copper covered with a thin solution of asphaltum. +In 1829, Daguerre and Niepce entered into a copartnership for +developing heliography, and instituted experiments that led Daguerre +to inventing the daguerreotype, made by a process quite new in detail, +but based on the earlier inventions of both Wedgwood and Niepce. The +daguerreotype was followed in 1850 by the present "photograph." + +The invention of electroplating was made by Brugnatelli in Italy +in 1803. The fact that electric currents could decompose certain +liquids had been known since 1800, and also the further fact that +oxygen and hydrogen, acids and alkalies, appeared at the positive and +negative poles respectively of the wires in contact with the liquid. +But Brugnatelli seems to have been the first to conceive the idea of +utilizing these facts in a device whereby he could deposit metals +at will at the negative end of a solution. In the embodiment of his +conception, pieces (say of silver) were hung on rods in connection with +the positive pole of the battery supplying the electric current, while +the articles to be plated with silver were hung on rods connected with +the negative pole. The value of this invention and its extensive use in +the electrodeposition of metals at the present day are well known. + +In the following year, Sir Humphry Davy, working along the general +line of electrical decomposition of liquids, made a number of +super-brilliant investigations. Possibly the most important result was +his discovery of a new metal, to which he gave the name Potassium, +formed at the negative pole by the electrical decomposition of +moistened caustic potash. He followed this by decomposing caustic soda +and discovering another new metal, that he named Sodium. + +During the course of his experiments, Davy noted that when the two +terminal wires from a large Voltaic battery were touched together and +then drawn apart, not only did a spark pass, but a continuous discharge +of great brilliancy, that did not cease until the wires were separated +by a considerable distance. The extent of this distance was found later +to be dependent on the number of cells in the battery. He noted also +that the discharge did not follow a straight line, but was bent into +an arc; and for this reason he gave it the name, "Voltaic arc." This +light is still known by the name "arc light." Its importance does not +seem to have been realized until after the dynamo-machine had been +invented, and means thereby supplied for providing a greater amount of +electric current, and at less expense than Voltaic cells were capable +of delivering. + +Davy's last great invention was his miner's safety lamp, made in 1816. +There had been frequent explosions in the collieries, attended with +great loss of life, and Davy was requested to try to ascertain how they +could be prevented. After visiting the mines, he had samples of the gas +that was found in them sent to him for investigation. He went about the +work with scientific thoroughness and system, and ascertained that the +gas would not explode if it were mixed with less than six times or more +than fourteen times its volume of air; that air rendered impure by the +combustion of a candle would not explode the gas; that, if a candle +were burnt in a closed vessel, with small openings near the flame, no +explosion would take place, even if the vessel were introduced into an +explosive mixture; and that the gas from the mines would not explode +inside a tube less than 1/8 inch in diameter. These data being secured, +Davy conceived the idea of making a lamp in which a small oil light +should be fixed and surrounded with a cylinder of wire gauze. He then +embodied his conception in a concrete form, and the "Miners' Safety +Lamp" resulted. + +This was an invention of the first order; original, concrete and +highly useful. After meeting the customary chorus of prejudice and +opposition, it justified its existence by a quickly established record +of effectiveness, and took its place among the useful adjuncts of the +machine of civilization. + +Meanwhile, several other adjuncts had appeared. Among these was the +steel pen, a process of making malleable iron castings, the planing +machine, a fireproof safe, the knitting machine and the band wood-saw. + +In 1726 Dr. Hales had announced that a gas capable of burning, and +giving light while burning, could be distilled from coal. This +announcement created great interest, and led to a long series of +scientific investigations as to the possibility of utilizing it for +house and street illumination, especially by a Mr. Murdock in the +latter decade of the century. In 1802 Mr. Murdock made a public display +of the result of his labors, by illuminating a factory with gas. In +the year 1803-1804 the Lyceum Theatre in London was so lighted, and a +year later some extensive cotton mills in Manchester. Public interest +was so roused that investigations on a larger scale ensued, which +resulted in lighting Westminster Bridge with gas in 1813, and the town +of Westminster the following year. In 1816 street lighting by gas was +common in London. The lighting of houses by gas followed later, but +very slowly. + +It is a little difficult to see that there was much invention of an +original or brilliant kind involved in the gradual development of the +art of illuminating by gas; but it cannot reasonably be denied that a +considerable amount of invention must have been done in the aggregate, +for the reason that a wholly novel art was created. If it was not +invented, how was it brought into being? The best answer probably is +that the art was not the result of one brilliant invention followed by +others that improved upon it, but was rather the aggregate work of a +number of minor inventions, each one of which carried the art forward, +but by only one short step. + +Other minor inventions produced the locomotive and the railroad. The +first steam engines were stationary; but portable engines, now called +locomotives, gradually came into being. They were engines mounted +on platforms resting on wheels that, in turn, rested on the ground; +the revolutions of the engines turning the wheels, and causing the +advancement of the whole. In 1807 a wagon-way was laid down on which +cars were run to and from a colliery, and this wagon-way passed close +in front of a house in which lived a poor family named Stephenson, +a member of which was a boy whose Christian name was George. In the +following year, the wooden parts were taken up and replaced by a +single line of iron rails with sidings. In 1811 a portable engine +was constructed for running on these rails, and this was followed by +another in the following year. George Stephenson made a locomotive for +running on rails in 1814, and followed it by another in 1816, both for +hauling coal. + +It was now so obvious that locomotives could haul other things than +coal, that a railroad was laid down between Manchester and Liverpool, +and a prize of £500 was offered for the best engine. On October 6, +1829, the competition was held, though only three engines appeared. The +prize was won by Stephenson's locomotive, the _Rocket_, which attained +a speed of 29 miles per hour. + +With the locomotive, as with illuminating gas, it is impossible to +see any one original or brilliant invention. We do see, however, the +result of the superposition on one brilliant invention (that of Hero's +steam engine) of a number of minor inventions, and much constructive +ingenuity and initiative. + +An invention of a higher order had signalized the latter part of the +eighteenth century, in the form of a printing press in which the speed +of printing was greatly increased by the use of revolving cylinders; +one holding the type on its outer surface, and the other covered +with leather, the paper passing between, and receiving the printed +impression by the pressure exerted between the two cylinders. In order +that the type should fit on the curved surface of the cylinder, they +were made narrower toward the bottom. The machine was invented by an +Englishman named Nicholson. It was never put into practical use; but +a machine embodying the revolving cylinder for receiving the force of +the impression communicated to the paper, was invented and put into +successful use later by a German named König. The type, however, was +not put on a cylinder in this machine, but on a flat plate that passed +back and forth under the revolving impression cylinder. Two of König's +presses were bought for the _London Times_; and on November 28, 1814, +one made 1,100 impressions per hour, a marvelous advance over speeds +previously attained. From the standpoint of pure invention, it was +not so admirable as Nicholson's; but being a later product, and being +based on Nicholson's principle, it was naturally an improvement in +construction and mode of operation. + +In 1814 Sir David Brewster, while experimenting on the polarization of +light, made an invention of the most original and concrete type, which +required a high grade of scientific knowledge for its conception and +development, but which was not intended for any utilitarian purpose, +and yet was of too serious a character to be called a scientific toy. +This was his famous kaleidoscope; an instrument described accurately +by its name, for it enabled one to see beautiful things. It was very +simple in construction and principle, and seems to have fallen short +of greatness in only one element, that of usefulness. By a careful +adjustment of two prisms at a definite angle to each other, Sir David +showed that geometrical images of the utmost beauty and variety could +be made of objects placed between the mirrors, especially if those +objects were small objects, and if they were of different colors, +like bits of colored glass. Knowledge of this escaping, thousands +of kaleidoscopes were soon put on the market, and sold in all the +principal cities, before Sir David had had time to get a patent. +Though the instruments were unscientifically made, they gave beautiful +pictures nevertheless; but the result was that the kaleidoscope was not +appreciated at its full value. The inventor improved the instrument +greatly, and developed it into one of the most beauty-producing +appliances known, and one of the most extraordinary and unique. The +most remarkable fact connected with it is that no real usefulness for +it has ever yet been found. The present author ventures to predict that +a clear field of usefulness will some day be found by some fortunate +inventor. + +Meanwhile, the ill-clad captain of artillery who had invented the plan +by which the British were pushed out of Toulon with so much neatness +and despatch, had nearly turned the civilized world upside down. No man +save Alexander ever accomplished so much of that kind of work in so +short a time. His work consisted of a number of acts performed by him, +each of which was like his act at Toulon, in that it began with the +conception of a brilliant idea, proceeded with the embodiment of the +idea in a concrete plan, and ended with the carrying into operation of +that plan. Napoleon was great in each of these lines of work. He had +a brilliant and yet correct imagination, that enabled him to conceive +ideas of extraordinary brilliancy, and also to select from them the +ideas that were the most susceptible of being made into concrete plans +of the kind that could be carried out successfully. He possessed great +constructiveness, that enabled him to construct mentally a plan in +which all the means available for his use were seized upon and put to +their special tasks. He possessed finally great ardor, industry and +courage, that enabled him to start his plan to going very quickly, and +keep it going very rapidly, until it had performed its task. It would +be idle to discuss at which of these three stages of the work he was +the greatest, or to try to decide which stage of the three was the most +important; because the three were links in a continual chain, and the +chain depended on each equally for its strength:--as any chain does on +its links. + +It may be interesting, however, to realize that mere imagination is +possibly the most elementary activity of the mind; mere imagination +is evidenced by savages, for instance, and by children, more than by +highly educated men. Constructiveness, on the other hand, is little +to be found in savages or children, and is a product of education, +and a result of the training of the reasoning faculties. Courage and +impulsive energy again are elemental faculties, and are observable +more in savages than in the civilized. It seems to be the effect of +civilization, therefore, to develop the reasoning faculties, at the +expense of both imagination and courage. In fact, it is clearly the +effect of civilization to develop a cold and calculating materialism. +Men are rare therefore, and have been rare in every age, who combine +the three qualities of imagination, constructiveness and courage. +Napoleon combined all three in harmonious proportions; and he possessed +each one in its most perfect form. + +His performance at Toulon was so spectacular that it attracted +attention at once, and caused his promotion to the command of the +artillery in Italy. Here he was able to suggest projects that received +approval and brought successes. One plan conceived and developed by +him, however, was disapproved. It consisted essentially of dividing the +Piedmontese and Austrians, crushing the Piedmontese, and then driving +the Austrians out of Italy into Austria and following them thither. +Later, this plan was approved, and he himself was put in command in +Italy. It was this plan, executed by the Bonaparte of those days, that +began the career of the Napoleon of history. So original and brilliant +had been the conception, so mathematically correct and practically +feasible had been the plan which Bonaparte developed from it, and so +furiously energetic were his operations in carrying out the plan, that +the sluggish Piedmontese were defeated before they quite realized that +war had been begun. A like catastrophe happened to the equally mentally +and physically sluggish Austrians; then another catastrophe, and then +another, and then still others; and in such rapid and bewildering +succession, that in a year and a month after his arrival in Italy he +had driven the Austrians out completely, formed the Cisalpine and +Ligurian republics in the north of Italy, and signed the armistice of +Leoben with the Austrians, within fifty miles of Vienna. + +Napoleon's next invention was a project for ruining England by +attacking her East Indian possessions by a campaign beginning with an +invasion of Egypt. Everything proceeded in substantial accordance with +the plan developed, until August 1, 1798. In the evening of that day +the whole project was destroyed by Horatio Nelson. + +It was destroyed in a battle near the mouth of the river Nile, that was +decided in fifteen minutes, though it was not wholly concluded until it +had been raging for nearly four hours. In fifteen minutes, the French +fleet on which depended Bonaparte's communications with Europe, had +been so severely damaged that the failure of Bonaparte's project was +decided. + +Nelson was a man like Bonaparte in certain qualities; in the qualities +that are essential to great leadership, imagination, constructiveness +and executiveness. The first clear evidence of these qualities he had +displayed startlingly at the battle of Cape St. Vincent on February 14, +1797;--when, swiftly realizing that two separated parts of the hostile +Spanish fleet were about to join, he suddenly conceived the idea of +preventing the junction by committing an act that--unless it brought +success--would probably cost him his commission and perhaps his life. +Now, the mere conception of an idea so revolting to professional ethics +would not occur to an unimaginative man: and still less would it be +retained. But it did occur to Nelson; and Nelson retained it and looked +it squarely in the face. To embody his idea in a practicable plan was a +simple matter to his active and trained intelligence, while to execute +the plan was an act so natural as to be almost automatic. Much to the +amazement of the Commander of the fleet and all the officers and men in +both the fleets, the little division commanded by Commodore Nelson was +seen actually to leave the line of battle! Nelson had taken his life, +his fortune and his sacred honor in his hand, and staked all on an +endeavor to get between the two separated parts of the Spanish fleet. +The British Commander quickly realized what his daring subordinate +had in mind, and speedily came to his relief. A brilliant, though +not materially decisive, victory was won. The already distinguished +Commander-in-Chief was then made Earl St. Vincent, and the hitherto +obscure Horatio Nelson brought into the forefront of naval heroes, with +the rank of rear-admiral, a gold medal and a knighthood. + +Now, Nelson had not appeared at the mouth of the Nile because of any +accident, or any chain of fortuitous circumstances; he did not fight +the epochal battle there because of any accidental occurrences or +conditions, and he did not gain the victory because of any similar +causes. Nelson appeared at the mouth of the Nile in accordance with a +plan that he had conceived as soon as he heard of Bonaparte's departure +from Toulon on a destination carefully kept secret, but which Nelson +divined as Egypt. He so divined it, by imagining himself in Bonaparte's +place, and imagining for what purpose he, Nelson, would have left +Toulon under the conditions prevailing then in France. He engaged the +French fleet when he did, and he fought the French fleet in the way he +did, in accordance with a plan that he had conceived long before. No +men were ever more cautious, more solicitous about the future, more +painstaking, more prudent, more insistent against taking undue risks, +than those reputedly reckless devil-may-cares, Napoleon Bonaparte and +Horatio Nelson. + +Napoleon realized at once that his brilliant scheme had been shattered; +but he could not now even take his army home, because the British fleet +was in the way. Finally, he succeeded in making the trip himself, with +only a few of his staff. Events ran rapidly then; and on the sixth of +May, 1800, we see Napoleon leaving Paris to undertake a campaign in +northern Italy, in accordance with a plan embodied to carry out an idea +conceived in his fertile mind, of taking his army through the great St. +Bernard pass, dragging his cannon with him through the snow. This plan +(like most of his plans) was so brilliantly conceived, so skillfully +planned, and so energetically executed, that when Napoleon suddenly +appeared with his army in the North of Italy, the Austrian general was +bewildered with amazement. The natural result developed quickly, and +the Austrians retired beyond the Mincio River. + +By this time affairs in Europe were vastly complicated, because of the +fact that the maritime enemies of France (which meant virtually all +the other maritime countries of Europe) became exasperated at one of +their number, Great Britain, in consequence of what they considered +her unreasonable insistence on certain doctrines concerning maritime +affairs. A League of Armed Neutrality against her was finally formed, +that soon assumed menacing proportions. This league was completely +broken by the same Horatio Nelson in a naval battle off Copenhagen on +April 2, 1801. This battle was the direct result of a plan conceived +by Nelson, that was so original and so daring that for a long time +he could not secure the consent of his Commander-in-Chief to its +execution. The battle resulted in a victory that was brilliant in +the highest degree; but it was brilliant only because the original +idea was brilliant, and because it was developed into a plan that was +constructively correct and skillfully carried out. + +Meanwhile, a brief campaign had been going on between the French and +the Austrians in Austria. It was carried on with great brilliancy of +conception and skill of execution by Moreau, and ended with the battle +of Hohenlinden and the disastrous defeat of the Austrians. The treaty +of Lunéville followed in February, 1801, and left Great Britain as +France's only antagonist. + +The victory of Copenhagen having broken the strength of the Confederacy +of Neutrals, and Napoleon seeing the folly of attempting further to +ruin British commerce then, the Treaty of Amiens between Great Britain +and France followed in March, 1802. + +As part of this treaty, Great Britain agreed to give up Malta. For +various reasons that do not concern this discussion, Great Britain did +not do so, and war followed in May, 1803. + +Before that time, Napoleon had realized that his principal enemy was +England. He now conceived the project of sending an invading army +across the English Channel, knowing that if he could accomplish that, +he could march to London, and dictate his own terms of peace. But how +could he get across the channel, in the face of the British fleet? +From the numberless pictures conjured up in his brilliant imagination, +Napoleon selected the one which showed a French fleet threatening +British possessions in the West Indies, a British fleet rushing to +the West Indies to save them, the French fleet returning and joining +with another French fleet waiting for it, then the combined fleets +securing the mastery of the English Channel from the depleted British +fleet remaining, then a French flotilla of transports with an invading +army forthwith starting across the channel, then a landing against an +opposition easily overcome, then a march to London, then a capture of +London: and finally, he, Napoleon, riding in triumph through London +streets and sleeping in the palace at London--as he had slept in other +palaces on the Continent. + +It was a beautiful vision;--a beautiful series of moving pictures +presented to his imagination. To embody all these pictures in realities +became the pre-occupation of his waking and his sleeping hours. By +dint of herculean exertions, he finally collected near Boulogne about +200,000 troops and 1,500 transports. At the proper time, Villeneuve, +with a powerful fleet, was sent to the West Indies to threaten the +British possessions there. + +But the same man who had spoiled his India project by the battle of +the Nile, and who had spoiled his project of ruining British commerce +by the battle of Copenhagen, spoiled his present project: the same +man, Horatio Nelson. Nelson had some imagination himself; and he +imagined (correctly as usual) that Villeneuve had sailed for the West +Indies--and away he went in pursuit. Arriving there, and finding that +Villeneuve had been in the West Indies but had left, Nelson left also. +He imagined that Villeneuve had sailed for Europe; and so Nelson sailed +for Europe also, sending a fast frigate to inform the Admiralty of all +that he had learned, and of all that he inferred. The frigate made such +speed, and the First Lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Lord Barham, acted +with such sailor-like energy and skill, that a large British fleet +intercepted Villeneuve on his return, brought him to action near the +coast of Spain, and handled him so roughly that he went for repairs to +Cadiz. He arrived there on August 20. + +The news of this, reaching Napoleon, wiped all the beautiful pictures +out of his mind. But he had other pictures in the background. These +he put promptly into the foreground, and started off with incredible +swiftness toward Austria. On October 19, he brought the Austrians to +battle near Ulm, and achieved one of the most decisive victories of his +career. The victory was mainly due to the clearness and correctness +of Napoleon's conceived idea, and the amazing speed and certainty of +his movements in carrying it into execution. The Austrian General Mack +was so wholly taken by surprise that he found his army was completely +surrounded before he had had time to take any preventive measures. + +Napoleon had correctly judged the import of Villeneuve's interception +by the British fleet, and realized that it would be mere folly +afterward to attempt to cross the channel then. Still, the situation +was not wholly bad for him, and the victory at Ulm made it beautiful. +For, though England was still greater on the sea than France, France +was also great, and was still a powerful weapon which he could wield +against England, with all the power of genius. But, two days after +the victory of Ulm, came the disaster near Cape Trafalgar, when Nelson +defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets, and thereby secured +for England a superiority at sea, vastly more pronounced than it had +been before. This victory, by making Napoleon helpless at sea against +Great Britain, ruined all Napoleon's chances of dominion, except upon +the Continent. + +Napoleon made two brilliant campaigns after this, that brought him to +the summit of his career. Had he been content to stop there, had he +not tried to climb still higher, his descendants might now sit on the +throne of France. But the intoxicating fumes of success seem to have +clouded that brilliant mind, and to have prevented those clear and +correct pictures from forming there that had formed before. The result +was that he embarked on a new project for ruining England that began +with an invasion of Portugal and Spain, which brought on a war with +Austria. It is true that, by a brilliant campaign, Napoleon worsted +Austria and made an advantageous treaty with her, and then married +the daughter of the emperor: but the continuance of the policy that +underlay the war with Austria, brought on later a war with Russia that +sent Napoleon to Elba, an exile. + +We see the key to Napoleon's successes in the quality of his mind at +the time of those successes, and we see the key to his failures in a +lowering of the quality of that mind. Military writers tell us that his +mind was not of the same quality when he planned his Russian campaign +as it had been when he planned his early campaigns. Now the reasoning +faculties do not grow dull when one approaches middle age; but the +imaginative faculties do--(in most people). It is an old saying that +"one cannot teach an old dog new tricks." Clearly, this cannot be +because of any failing of memory, though memory fails with age; because +the memory is not involved, save slightly. It must be therefore +because of failing impressionability and receptivity. We all speak +of the "receptive years," meaning the years of childhood and then of +youth; and it is a common saying that young people are more receptive +than old people. Of what are they receptive? Clearly, of mental +impressions. Parents and teachers are warned not to forget that the +minds of young people are very impressionable, and to be careful that +their minds receive good impressions only, so far as they can compass +it. Napoleon, when he made his Russian campaign, was only 43 years old +in years; but he had lived a life that was far from normal or hygienic +physically, and extremely abnormal and unhygienic mentally. + +The intention of the last sentence is to point out that mental health +cannot be long preserved amid surroundings mentally unhealthful, any +more than physical health can be long preserved amid surroundings +physically unhealthful; and that the highest qualities of our nature +are the most difficult to maintain and therefore are the first to +fail, under unhealthful surroundings. The spiritual faculties fail +first, then the moral, then the mental and lastly the physical. Now the +imagination, while a mental quality, rather than a moral one, partakes +in a measure of the spiritual, and is one of the highest of the mental +attributes. For this reason imagination is one of the first to be +impaired. + +The especial picture of the imagination that becomes faulty under +certain conditions, is the picture of one's self. Under conditions such +as Napoleon had lived under for several years, the picture of himself +in his mind had become unduly magnified in relation to the pictures of +other men. Now is there any one thing more dangerous to a man than to +carry in his mind an incorrect picture of himself? + +In Napoleon's case, it led him to the unforgivable military crime; +that of underestimating the enemy. His imagination, by presenting a +magnified image of himself, presented relatively dwarfed images of his +antagonists. The very faculty (imagination) which started Napoleon on +his great successes, started him now on his great reverses. The actual +beginning of these was in his carelessly planned campaign in Russia. +His invention seems to have failed him both in planning the campaign +and in meeting situations afterwards; because his imagination failed to +picture each situation to him exactly as it was. + +But the Russian campaign did not wholly ruin him. Even after that, +even after Elba, situations were sometimes presented to him, such +that (although Trafalgar had prevented him from achieving European +domination), yet, if he had been able to see them as clearly as he +had seen situations in his unspoiled days, he might, at least have +saved himself from ruin. But his imagination had become impaired and +therefore his powers of invention also. + +Napoleon as general, and Nelson as admiral were what we may term +"opportunistic inventors," who made inventions for meeting transient +situations with success, as distinguished from inventors like Newton +and Watt, who made permanent contributions to the welfare of mankind. +Napoleon as statesman, however, made contributions of a permanent +character. + +A supremely valuable contribution of this kind was the stethoscope, +which was invented about 1819 by Dr. Laennec in Paris, and by means of +which the science and art of diagnosis were given an amazing impetus +almost instantly. Possibly one cannot find in the whole history of +modern invention any instrument so small and so inexpensive that has +been so widely and definitely useful. A painful interest hangs to it in +the fact that by means of his own invention, Laennec discovered that +he himself was dying of tuberculosis of the lungs. + +In July, 1820, a discovery of a vastly different character was made by +Oersted in Copenhagen; the discovery that if a current of electricity +be passed over or under a magnetic needle, the needle will be deflected +in a direction and to a degree depending on the strength and direction +of the current and the position of the conducting wire relatively to +the needle. Now Laennec invented a simple and little instrument that +began virtually perfect, and that exists today substantially as it +started. Oersted did something equally important, that ultimately +initiated intricate inventions of many kinds, and yet he did not +really invent anything whatever. The importance of his discovery was +recognized at once; so quickly, in fact, and by so many experimenters +and inventors, that Oersted soon found himself in the extraordinary +position of being left behind, in an art to which himself had almost +unknowingly given birth! That some relation existed between magnetism +and electricity had long been evident to physicists; but what that +relation was they did not know until Oersted told them. They seized on +his information with avidity, with results that the whole world knows +now. + +The first man heard from was Ampère, who communicated the results of +his experiments in the new art to the Institute of France as early as +September 18th. Almost immediately afterward, Arago discovered that, +if a conducting wire were wrapped around iron wires, those iron wires +became magnets and remained magnets as long as the electric current +continued to pass. Thereupon, Arago made and announced his epoch-making +invention, the electro-magnet. The influence of this invention on the +subsequent history of the machine of civilization, it is hardly needful +to point out. + +The experiments of Oersted gave rise at once to much speculation as +to the nature of the action between electric currents and magnets, +and also to considerable experimental and mathematical research. +As had been the case for many thousand years in other endeavors, +speculation accomplished little, but experimental research accomplished +much. By this time mathematics had been highly developed, not only +as an abstract science but also as an aid to physical and chemical +research. The man who attacked the problem in the most scientific +manner was Ampère, who in consequence solved it in the following year, +after a series of mathematically conducted experiments of the utmost +originality and inductiveness. As a result in 1820, he showed that +all the actions and reactions of magnets could be performed by coils +of wire through which electric currents were passing, even if there +was no iron within the coils:--but that they were more powerful, if +iron were within. From this and kindred facts, which he developed by +experiment--(especially the fact that electric currents act and react +on each other as magnets do), he established a new science to which he +gave the name electro-dynamics. In recognition of his contributions to +electricity, the name given many years later to the unit of electric +current was ampère. + +In the following years, while pursuing a series of investigations into +the new science, Faraday invented the first electro-magnetic machines. +In the first machine, a magnet floating in mercury was made to revolve +continuously around a central conducting wire through which an electric +current was passing; in the second a conductor was made to revolve +continuously around a fixed magnet; in a third machine, a magnet so +mounted on a longitudinal axis that an electric current could be made +to pass from one pole half way to the other pole, and then out, would +revolve continuously as long as the electric current was made to pass. +Faraday invented the first machines that converted the energy of the +electric current into mechanical motion; though Oersted was the first +who merely effected the conversion. It can hardly be said that Oersted +invented a machine; but Faraday certainly did. + +The first utilization of Oersted's discovery in a concrete and +practically usable device was the galvanometer, invented by Schweigger +in 1820. It was a brilliant invention, and solved perfectly the +important problem of measuring accurately the strength of an electric +current. The apparatus consisted merely of a means of multiplying the +effect of the deflecting current by winding the conductor into a coil, +the magnetic needle being within the coil. The galvanometer (named +after Galvani) was an invention of the utmost value, and it is in use +to this day, though in many modified forms. When one realizes how +obvious a utilization of Oersted's discovery the galvanometer was, and +that Schweigger did not invent it until two years later, he wonders +why Oersted himself did not invent it. But the history of invention is +full of such cases and of cases still more amazing. Why did the world +wait several thousand years before Wise invented the metal pen? Why are +we not now inventing a great many more things than we are? Nature is +holding out suggestions for inventions to us by the million, but we do +not see them. + +In the year before Schweigger's invention, in 1821, the important +discovery had been made by Seebeck in Berlin, that if two different +metals are joined at their ends, and one junction be raised to a +higher temperature than the other, a current of electricity will be +generated, the strength of which will vary with the metals employed +and the difference in temperature of the junctions. The discovery was +soon utilized in Nobili's invention of the thermopile in which the +current was increased by employing several layers of dissimilar metals +(say antimony and bismuth) in series with each other. The main use of +the thermopile has been in scientific investigations, especially in the +science of heat. + +One of the results of the increased use of mathematics, especially +arithmetic, was the invention of Babbage's calculating machine in 1822. +The usefulness of this invention was so apparent that it was not long +in coming into use, or long in causing the invention of improvements on +it of many kinds. The calculating machine was a distinct contribution +to civilization. + +Another contribution, but of quite a different kind, was made +by Faraday in the following year (1823) when, after a series of +experiments, he announced that he had succeeded in liquefying many +of the gases then known by the combined action of cold and pressure. +The possibility of doing this had long been suspected by physicists +reasoning from known phenomena; but the actual accomplishment of +the liquefaction of gas was none the less a feat of a high order of +brilliancy and usefulness. In experiments subsequently made, Dewar +received the gases in a vessel of his invention which had double walls, +the space between which he had exhausted of air, and thus made a +vacuum--which is a non-conductor of heat. The "thermos bottle" of today +was invented by the great chemist Dewar, and is not therefore a new +invention. + +Meanwhile, the steam engine had been undergoing rapid development, +though the use of locomotives for drawing passenger trains does not +seem to have come into regular use until the Liverpool and Manchester +Railroad was opened in 1830. In 1828, the Delaware and Hudson Canal +Company constructed a short railroad, and sent an agent to England to +buy the necessary locomotives and rails. In the four years following +twelve railroad companies were incorporated. The Baltimore and +Susquehanna began actual operations in 1831. + +The inventions of Hero, Branca, Worcester, Savery, Papin and Leupold, +brought to practicality by Watt, had now come to full fruition, and +entered upon that career of world-wide usefulness that has advanced +civilization so tremendously and still continues to advance it. + +But the most decisive triumph of the steam engine had come more than +a decade before, when in 1819 the American steamship _Savannah_ +crossed the Atlantic ocean in 26 days, going from the United States to +Liverpool. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +INVENTIONS IN STEAM, ELECTRICITY AND CHEMISTRY CREATE A NEW ERA + + +When the nineteenth century opened, George III was King of England, +Napoleon was First Consul of France, Francis II was Emperor of Germany, +Frederick William III was King of Prussia, Alexander was Czar of Russia +(beginning 1801), and John Adams was President of the United States. + +By this time the influence of the inventions of the few centuries +immediately preceding, especially the invention of the gun and that +of printing, was clearly in evidence. The Feudal System had entirely +vanished, the sway of great and powerful sovereigns had taken the place +in Europe of the arbitrary rule of petty dukes and barons, the value +of the natural sciences was appreciated, and a fine literature had +developed in all the countries. + +A terrible war was raging, however, that was not to end for fifteen +years and that involved, directly or indirectly, nearly every +European nation. The war had started in France, where the tremendous +intellectual movement had aroused the excitable people of that land to +a realization of the oppression of the nobility and a determination to +make it cease. + +The wars that ensued were not so different from the wars of the +Egyptians and other ancient nations as one might carelessly suppose, +because the weapons were not very different. The only weapon that +was very novel was the gun; and the gun of the year 1800 was a +contrivance so vastly inferior to the gun that exists today as not +to be immeasurably superior to the bow and arrow. It had to be loaded +slowly at the muzzle; and the powder was so non-uniform and in other +ways inferior, that the gun's range was short and its accuracy slight. +Even the artillery that Bonaparte used so skillfully was crude and +ineffective, according to the standards of today. The cavalry was not +very different from the cavalry of the Assyrians, and the military +engineers performed few feats greater than that of Cæsar's, in building +the bridge across the Rhine. There were no railroads, no steamships, no +telegraphs, no telephones. There was less difference between the armies +of 1800 A. D. and those of 1800 B. C., than between the armies of 1800 +A. D. and those of 1900 A. D. + +The same remark applies to virtually all the material conditions of +living. There was less difference, for instance, between the fine +buildings of 1800 B. C. and 1800 A. D. than between the fine buildings +of 1800 and 1900 A. D. The influence of the new inventions on the +material conditions of living was only beginning to be felt; for the +twin agencies of steam and electricity, that were later to make the +difference, had not yet got to work. It was the power of steam that +was to transport men and materials across vast oceans and across great +continents at high speed, and place in the hands of every people the +natural fruits and the foods and the raw materials and the manufactured +appliances of other lands; it was the subtle influence of electricity +that was to give every people instant communication with every other. +It was the co-working of steam and electricity that was to make +possible the British navy and the British merchant marine, and the +relatively smaller merchant marines and navies of other countries, and +to bring all the world under the dominance of Great Britain and of the +other countries that were civilized. + +The opening of the nineteenth century, therefore, marks the opening of +a new era. In 1800 the steam engine was already an effective appliance, +but it was not yet in general use. Electricity was a little behind +steam; and though Franklin and the others had proved that it possessed +vast possibilities of many kinds, and also that it could be harnessed +and put to work by man for the benefit of man, electricity had as yet +accomplished little of real value. + +Under the stimulating influence of the quick communication given by the +art of printing, literature had blossomed especially in Great Britain, +France, Germany and Italy; but in 1800 one has to notice the same fact +as in previous years--literature had not improved. The literature of +1800 A. D. was no better than the literature of Greece or Elizabethan +England--to state the truth politely; and no such poet lived as +Homer, Shakespeare or John Milton. It seems to be a characteristic of +literature, and of all the fine arts as well, that each great product +is solely a product of one human mind, and not the product of the +combined work of many minds. To the invention of Watt's steam engine, +numberless obscure investigators and inventors had contributed, besides +those whose great names everybody knows: but how can two men write a +poem or any work of fiction, or paint a picture or carve a statue? It +is true that each of these feats has been performed; but rarely and not +with great success. + +For this reason, it is not clear that mere literature as literature, or +that any of the fine arts as such can exert much influence on history, +and it is not clear that any of them have done so. That they have had +great influence in conducing to the pleasure of individuals there can +be no question; but the influence seems to have been transient. History +is a record of such of the doings of men as have had influence at +the time, or in the future. Of these doings, the agency that has had +the most obvious influence is war, and next to war is invention. War, +next after disease, has caused the most suffering the world knows of; +but out of the suffering have emerged the great nations without which +modern civilization could not exist. The influence of invention is +not so obvious, but it is perhaps as great, or nearly so; the main +reason being that invention has been the agency which has enabled +those nations to emerge that have emerged. Without the appliances that +invention has supplied, the civilized man could not have triumphed over +the savage. + +Now literature and painting and sculpture and music, while they have +made life easier and pleasanter, have contributed little to this +work, and in many ways have rather prevented it from going further by +softening people, physically and mentally. This statement must not +be accepted without reservations of course; for the reason that some +poems, some works of fiction, and some paintings and (especially) some +musical compositions have tended to strengthen character, and even to +stimulate the martial spirit. But a careful inspection of most works of +pure literature and fine art must lead a candid person to admit that +the major part of their effect has been to please,--to gratify the +appetite of the mind rather than to inspire it to action. + +The author here requests any possible reader of these pages, not to +infer that he has any objection to being pleased himself, or to having +others pleased; or that he regards the influence of literature and the +fine arts as being detrimental to the race. On the contrary, he regards +them as being valuable in the highest degree. He is merely trying to +point out the difference between the influence of inventions in the +useful arts and those in the fine arts. + +A like remark may be made concerning inventors and other men; the word +inventors being here supposed to mean the men who make inventions of +all kinds. These men seem to have been those who have brought into +existence those machines and books and projects of all kinds that +have determined the kind of machine of civilization that has now been +produced. These men are very few, compared with the great bulk of +humanity; but it seems to be they who have given direction to the line +along which the machine has been developed. + +This does not mean, of course, that these men have been more estimable +themselves than the men who kept the machine in smooth and regular +motion, and made the repairs, and supplied the oil and fuel; but it +does mean that they had more influence in making its improvements. +Naturally, their work in making improvements would have been of +no avail, if other men had not exerted industry and carefulness +and intelligence and courage, in the countless tasks entailed in +maintaining the machine in good repair, in keeping it running smoothly, +and in receiving with open minds and helping hands each new improvement +as it came along. And it was not only in welcoming real improvements, +but in keeping out novelties which seemed to be improvements but were +not improvements that the work of what may be called the operators, +as distinguished from the inventors, was beneficent. Nothing could be +more injurious to the machine than to permit the incorporation in it of +parts that would not improve it. There has been little danger to fear +from this source, however; for the inertia of men is such that it is +only rarely that one sees any new device accepted, until it has proved +its value definitely and unmistakably in practical work. + +Possibly the greatest single impetus given to progress about the year +1800 was that given by Lavoisier shortly before, which started the +science of chemistry on the glorious career it has since pursued. As a +separate branch of science, chemistry then began, though it had been +the subject of investigation for many centuries, beginning in Egypt +and the other ancient countries of the East. In the Middle Ages, it +was known in Europe by the name Alchemy. Originally, and in all the +long ages of its infancy, the investigations of the experimenters were +carried on mainly to discover new remedies in medicine, or to learn +methods to transmute base metals into precious metals; though there +was a considerable degree also of pursuit of knowledge for its own +sake. As a result of the investigations, many startling facts were +developed, and many discoveries were made; but, for the reason that the +investigations were not conducted on the mathematical or quantitative +lines that had led to so much success in developing physics, alchemy or +chemistry did not rest on any sure basis, and therefore had no fixed +place to start from. It was in the same vague status that some subjects +of thoughtful speculation are in today, such as telepathy, which may +(or may not) be put on a basis of fact some day, and started forward +thence, as chemistry was started. + +What gave chemistry its basis was the methods introduced by Lavoisier +who was a practiced physicist. He introduced the balance into the study +of chemistry, and raised it instantly from a collection of speculations +to an exact science, capable of progressing confidently and assuredly +thereafter, instead of wandering in a maze. Lavoisier gave chemistry a +mathematical basis to start from, and sure beacon lights to guide it; +and though many changes in its theory have been made from time to time, +they have been due only to increase of knowledge and not to departure +from fundamental principles. Finding that a substance was not an +element, but was a compound of two elements, or more than two, did not +require any rejection of accepted principles, but merely a readjustment. + +We now see that it was impossible because of the exact nature of +the way in which the various elements combine, that chemistry could +have become a science until the balance had been used to weigh the +substances investigated; and we also see that it was impossible that +the balance could have been so used until physics had been developed +to the point permitting it, and men skilled in exact measurements had +been brought up by practice in physical researches. Lavoisier himself +had served a long apprenticeship, and his earliest claim to fame was +his mathematical researches on heat, embodied in an essay, written in +connection with Laplace, and published in 1784. Even after an enormous +mass of facts had been collected and announced, chemistry could not +take her place by the side of physics, and Bacon's teachings could not +be followed, until those facts had been mathematically investigated, +and their mathematical relations to each other had been established. +This Lavoisier and his followers did. + +No better illustration of the influence of invention on history can +be found than the fact that chemistry hovered in the dim twilight of +speculation, guess-work and even superstition, until Lavoisier brought +to bear the various inventions made in physics. Then, presto, the +science of chemistry was born. + +We must not let the fact escape us, however, that Lavoisier would have +left mankind none the wiser, if he had merely brought mathematical +research to bear and discovered what he did, and then stopped. If he +had stopped then, his knowledge would have remained locked inside of +his own mind, useless. The good work that Lavoisier actually did was +in actually producing an invention; in conceiving a certain definite +method of chemical research, then embodying it in such a concrete form +that "persons skilled in the art could make and use it," and then +giving it to the world. + +The first important effect of Lavoisier's work was the announcement by +Dalton about 1808 of his Atomic Theory, which has been the basis of +most of the work of chemistry ever since. Dalton's earlier work had +been in physics, and its principal result had been "Dalton's Laws" in +regard to the evaporation and expansion of gases, announced by him +about 1801. These investigations led his mind to the consideration +of the various speculations that had been entertained concerning +the nature of matter itself, as distinguished from the actions and +reactions between material objects that physics studies; and they +brought him to the conclusion that there are certain substances or +elements which combine together to form compounds that are wholly +different from each of the elements (oxygen and hydrogen, for instance, +combining to form water); and that those elements are made up of units +absolutely indivisible, which combine with each other in absolutely +exact proportions. The units he called atoms. He built up a theory +wonderfully convincing and coherent, that explained virtually all the +chemical phenomena then known, and supplied a stepping-stone following +Lavoisier's, from which chemists could advance still further. Dalton +classified certain substances as elements which we now know are not +elements, because they have been found since to be compounds of two or +more elements; but this in itself does not disprove his theory, because +he himself pointed out that means might be found later to decompose +certain materials that seemed then to be elements, because no means had +then been found to decompose them. + +It may be instructive to note here that Dalton was not the first to +imagine that certain forms of matter were elemental, or that matter was +indivisible beyond a certain point, or that substances entered into +combination with each other in definite proportions. Speculation on all +these points had been rife for many years, but it had not produced the +invention of any workable law or even theory. Similarly, many men later +speculated on the possibility of devising an electrical instrument that +would transform the mechanical energy of sound waves into electrical +energy, transfer the electrical energy over a wire, and re-convert it +into sound; but no one succeeded in producing such an instrument, until +Bell invented the telephone in 1876. + +History is a record of acts, and not of dreams. And yet the greatest +acts were dreamed of before they were performed. Every process, +no matter how small or how great, seems to proceed by three +stages--conception, development and production. Most of our acts are +almost automatic, and the three stages succeed each other so quickly +that only the final stage itself is noted. But the greatest acts, from +which great results have followed, have begun with the conception of +a picture not of an ordinary kind, such as a great campaign, a new +machine, a novel theory, a book, painting, statue or edifice:--then a +long process of development, during which the conception is gradually +embodied in some concrete form, as, for instance, a statue, a painting +or an instrument;--and then production. _Finis opus coronat, the end +crowns the work_; but the work is not crowned until it is finished, and +a concrete entity has been brought forth. + +Lavoisier finished his work. Not only did he dream a dream, but he +embodied his dream in a definite form, and gave it to mankind to use. +Dalton did similarly. This does not mean that their work was not +improved upon thereafter, or that they invented the chemistry of +today. They merely laid the foundation of chemistry, and placed the +first two stones. + +A remarkable exemplar of the meaning of this declaration was Benjamin +Thomson, who was an American by birth, but who entered the Austrian +Army after the War of the Revolution, and made an unprecedented record +in the application of physical and chemical science to the relief +of the distressed and ignorant and poor, especially the mendicant +classes. For his services he was made Count Rumford. His researches +were mostly in the line of saving heat and light, and therefore saving +food and fuel. He ascertained by experiments of the utmost ingenuity +and thoroughness that the warmth of clothing was because of the air +entangled in its fibers; he investigated the radiation, conduction +and convection of heat, analyzed the ways in which heat could be +economized, and invented a calorimeter for testing the heat-giving +value of different fuels. In 1798 he had noted the fact that heat was +developed when cannon were being bored. He immediately conceived the +idea that the heat developed was related to the amount of work expended +driving the boring tool, and invented a means of measuring it. This +consisted simply of a blunt boring tool that pressed into a socket in +a metal block that was immersed in water, of which the temperature +could be taken. To get a basis for his investigations into the problem +of lighting economically the dwellings of the poor, Rumford invented +a photometer for measuring illumination. No man in history shows more +clearly the co-working of a high order of imagination, and a careful +and accurate constructiveness; and no man ever secured more intensely +practical and beneficent results. In the hospital at Verona he reduced +the consumption of fuel to one-eighth. + +In 1827 a valuable improvement was made to the machine of civilization +by Ohm, who announced the now famous Ohm's Law, that the strength of an +electric current in any circuit is equal to the difference in potential +of the ends of the circuit, divided by its resistance. This is usually +expressed by writing C = E/R. + +Can anything be less inspiring than C = E/R? Yes:--few things have +been more inspiring. Few things have inspired more zeal for work than +that simple formula. That simple formula evolved order out of chaos in +the little but super-important world, in which physicists and chemists +were trying to solve the riddles that the utilization of electric +currents presented. It gave them a basis from which to start, and a +definite rule to work by. No oration of Demosthenes, Cicero or Webster +has imparted more inspiration, or supplied a greater stimulus to high +effort, or done more for human kind than C = E/R. + +In 1827 Walker in the United States invented friction matches. It +seems strange that someone had not invented matches before. The usual +way of getting light was with the flint and steel and tinder-box,--a +most inconvenient contrivance. It was quite well known that certain +substances would ignite when rubbed, and yet men waited until 1827 to +utilize the fact in matches! + +In the following year Wöhler succeeded in reducing aluminum, thus +contributing a valuable new factor to human knowledge and a valuable +new metal to human needs. In the same year Neilson took out a patent in +England for "an improved application of air to produce heat in fires, +forges and furnaces," in which he proposed to pass a current of heated +air through the burning fuel. His invention met with opposition of all +kinds, but eventually proved its usefulness. Another invention produced +in the same year was Woodworth's machine for planing wood. Still +another, was the tubular boiler for locomotives. + +In 1829 the first steam locomotive was put into use in the United +States. No especial invention seems to have been expended on this +device; but there was considerable invention of the kind that I have +ventured to call "opportunistic" involved in conceiving the idea of +getting the locomotive, and then in actually getting it, and then +putting it to work. In the following year Braithwaite and Ericsson +in London brought out the first portable fire-engine. There was a +great deal of invention of the practical kind involved in the design, +construction, production and successful employment of this novel +device; and an important step was taken in the means of protecting life +and the material products of civilization from destruction by fire. + +In 1831 Faraday in London made one of the most important discoveries +in physical science ever made, the discovery that if a current of +electricity is changed in strength, or if a conductor carrying a +current be moved, an instantaneous magnetic effect is felt in the +vicinity; and that this magnetic effect will cause an instantaneous +current in any closed conducting circuit that may be near. Faraday also +discovered that a similar instantaneous current will be set up in a +closed circuit if a magnet be moved in its vicinity. This discovery is +usually spoken of as the discovery of electro-magnetic induction; and +the instantaneous currents are said to be "induced." + +About the same time Professor Henry in Princeton discovered that an +electric circuit will act not only on other circuits in its vicinity, +but on itself; that the fact of being increased or decreased will +set up instantaneous currents that tend to oppose the increase or +decrease. Thus, while Faraday is credited with the discovery of +electro-magnetic induction, Henry is credited with the discovery of +self-induction. It has been claimed by some that Henry discovered +electro-magnetic induction before Faraday did. This question is of +great interest but it is outside the scope of this modest volume. + +While both discoveries were of prime importance, and were also +analogous, that of electro-magnetic induction has played the more +conspicuous part. With it began the endeavor to develop electric +currents by the relative motion of coils of wire and magnets, that +resulted in the invention of the dynamo, and the later invention of +electric lights and motors. + +In the same year the discovery (or was it the invention?) of chloroform +was made by Guthrie in America, Soubeiran in France and Liebig in +Germany. A curious fact connected with the early history of chloroform +is that, although its anæsthetic properties were known in general, and +although the idea of using gases and vapors and medicines to deaden +pain was many centuries old yet nevertheless, chloroform was not put to +practical use until about 1846 when Dr. Morton, a dentist, of Boston, +adopted it as an anæsthetic. Of all the single inventions ever made, +chloroform has unquestionably done more than any other, invented till +that time, to give relief from agony. + +In 1832 the electric telegraph was invented by Morse, though he did +not patent it until 1837. The influence of the electric telegraph +on subsequent history has been so great that the influence of no +contemporary invention can reasonably be declared to be greater. As +with many other inventions, one is tempted to wonder why it had not +been invented before; for the fact that electricity could be sent along +a conductor and made to cause motion at the other end had been known +since Guericke had demonstrated the fact in the closing years of the +seventeenth century. The original invention of the electric telegraph +is claimed by some for Henry, who had a wire run between his house and +his laboratory at Princeton, over which he sent messages, by opening +and closing the circuit and thereby actuating an electro-magnet at the +receiving end. + +The first machine to put Faraday's discovery of magneto-electric +induction to practical use was invented by Pixii in France in 1832, +and exhibited before the Academy of Sciences. It consisted of a +powerful magnet that was made to revolve with great rapidity before +a bar of soft iron that had wrapped around it a coil of insulated +wire about 3,000 feet long. The north and south poles taking position +in succession in front of the coil, currents were induced that +alternated in direction, twice in each revolution. If a man grasped +two wires in the circuit he received a series of sharp electric +shocks; but such effects as decomposing water that were produced by +the continuous currents of Voltaic batteries could not be produced by +these alternating currents. To secure such effects, Siemens and others +made machines in which the magnet in the form of a U was stationary, +two coils of wire revolved in front of the poles, and a two-part +"commutator" was used. When this was placed on the axle, and the axle +was revolved, the change in direction of the current was obviated, +though a smooth and uniform current was not produced. The reason was +that the current fell to zero twice in each revolution. + +The magneto-electric machine, as it was called, remained virtually +in this form for many years. It was not sufficiently effective +or efficient to be of much practical usefulness in any art, and +was considered more of a scientific toy than a machine of serious +importance. Still, the probability was realized by many investigators +that a new discovery or invention might be made at any moment, that +would put it in the forefront of the useful inventions of the age. (The +invention was not made till 1862; it was made by Pacinnotti in Italy +and will be mentioned later.) + +The influence of the magneto-electric machine, therefore was not +direct, but indirect. It was a basic invention; and like many basic +inventions, it formed the hidden foundation on which a conspicuous +superstructure was later to be reared. One of the lessons of history is +that it is the men and the methods and the other things which are in +evidence when some important occurrence happens, that are identified +with it in the minds of people not only at the time, but afterward. +An invention that may have cost its creator the toil and struggle +of a lifetime may not gain success simply because of some existing +unfavorable conditions of some kind. Suddenly the conditions become +favorable. John Doe takes advantage of all the work that other men have +done, adds some slight improvement, achieves "success" and dons the +laurel wreath. + +We see at this time (1832) very clear signs of an increasing number +of inventions per year, an increasing speed of invention. We see an +acceleration in invention which we cannot help associating in our minds +with the acceleration which any material object gets, when continuously +subjected to a uniform force, like that of gravity. One almost feels +that there must be a continuous force impelling men to invent; so clear +is the increase of the speed of inventing. + +Following the magneto-machine in 1832 came the invention of a rotary +electric motor by Sturgeon, the discovery of chloral-hydrate by +Liebig, the production of the first large American locomotive by +Baldwin and the invention of link motion by Sir Henry James. The +last was an exceedingly important and ingenious contribution to the +steam engine, especially in locomotives and ships; for it gave a very +quick and sure means of reversing its direction of motion, and of +regulating the travel of the valve and the degree of expansion of the +steam. In the following year came Stephenson's steam whistle; and in +the year following (1834) came the McCormick reaper. Few inventions +have had a greater or a more immediate effect on the trend of modern +progress, which is to influence men to live in large communities. For +the McCormick reaper could do so much more work, and so much better +work, than men could do without it, that the cultivation of extensive +areas of land could be undertaken with the assurance that large crops +of grain could be secured. This not only secured more grain for the +country, but liberated many men from toil on farms, and permitted them +to migrate to the cities. + +The author does not wish to be understood as meaning that migration to +cities is wholly desirable; for he is familiar with its disadvantages +and dangers. But whether it be desirable or not is beyond the scope +of this book. This book is merely a modest attempt to point out the +influence of invention in making the world what it is today. Perhaps it +would have been better if men had had no invention and had remained in +a state of savagery. Some men say so sometimes; but even those men (or +most of them) like to sit by a warm fire in a cozy room when it is cold +outdoors. The consensus of opinion seems to be that civilization in the +main has been a blessing to men, though not an unmixed blessing, and +though men must keep on their guard against certain manifest dangers +which civilization entails. + +In the same year, 1834, Jacobi invented an electric motor and Runge +made the important discovery of carbolic acid. In 1835 Burden invented +a horse-shoe machine. In 1836 four important inventions added four +important parts to our rapidly growing Machine. + +The first was the "constant battery" invented by Daniell. Before this +time a Voltaic cell, or battery, soon lost its strength, because of +various chemical actions inside the cell which need not be detailed +here. Daniell overcame this difficulty almost wholly by inventing a +battery, in which there were two liquids instead of one, and the two +liquids were in two separate compartments but separated only by porous +material. This invention was successful from the start, and immediately +increased the usefulness of Voltaic batteries and the means of +utilizing electric currents. + +The second great invention in 1836 was that of acetylene gas made by +Edmund Davy. It is still the most brilliant illuminating gas we have, +and is rivaled by the electric arc-light only. The third invention was +that of the revolver, made by Samuel Colt. + +It may be objected by some that the revolver did not contribute +anything valuable to the Machine of Civilization because it was merely +an improvement on the pistol, and enabled one to kill more men in a +given time than he could before. Such an objection would have much to +justify it; but it may be pointed out that the Machine must be made +self-protective as far as possible; and that anything which increases +the power of civilized man as against the savage, or barbarous, or +semi-barbarous increases its power of self-protection. It is true +that a savage can use a revolver, if he be instructed; but the more +complicated a weapon is the more difficult it is for a savage, as +compared with a civilized man, to use it effectively. This is not +an argument in favor of complication for its own sake; but it is +an argument in favor of accepting complication in a weapon, if the +complication renders greater effectiveness possible. + +The last invention was the most important of the four, the application +of the screw propeller to navigation made by John Ericsson. The author +is aware of the fact that this invention was claimed by others, and +is claimed for others now. The weight of testimony, however seems +to be on the side of Ericsson; and as has been pointed out before, +the question of the identity of the inventor is not important to our +discussion. The first ocean steamship to be propelled by a screw was +the _Stockton_, which was built in England under Ericsson and fitted +with his screw. The first war-ship to be fitted with a screw was the U. +S. S. _Princeton_ in 1841. Its screw was designed by Ericsson. + +In 1837 Crawford invented a process for "galvanizing" iron; for +electro-plating it with a non-oxidizable metal. The value of this +invention in preserving iron wire and iron articles in general needs +not to be pointed out; it was a contribution to the permanency of the +Machine. In the same year, Cooke and Wheatstone in England invented +their famous "Needle Telegraph," in which a magnetic needle was made to +deflect quickly to the right or left when one of two keys was pressed +by an operator and letters thereby signaled. This invention was a +valuable contribution; but it was eventually superseded by Morse's +telegraph, after that system had established itself in the United +States and on the Continent. + +In 1839 Babbitt invented his celebrated Babbitt metal, which has been +successfully used ever since in the bearings of engines and in moving +machinery generally, for reducing friction; and in the same year +Goodyear made an invention even more important, the art of hardening, +or "vulcanizing," rubber by means of sulphur. This invention was a +great boon to mankind, but not to Goodyear; for the jackals who lie +in wait for great inventions eager to wrest unearned profit for +themselves from the men who have truly earned it, made Goodyear's +life miserable for many years. Before he died, however, his wrongs +were righted at least in part. In the same year Jacobi, in Germany, +propelled a boat by electricity using an electric motor of his own +invention. + +But the great contributions made in 1839 were to the art of what we now +call photography. About 1834 Talbot had succeeded in taking pictures +in a camera by the agency of light on paper washed with nitrate of +silver and also in fixing them. Later, he was able to obtain many +copies, or "proofs," from one picture or negative. It seems that he +did not publicly announce his invention till 1839. To it was given the +name "calotype." In May of that year Mr. Mungo Ponton announced that +he had been able to copy pictures of engravings and of dried plants on +paper that he had soaked in bichromate of potash. A number of other +investigators forthwith announced similar feats, using various chemical +solutions. + +In 1840 Draper published the result of certain important experiments +made by him in photographing celestial bodies. In 1841 pneumatic +caissons were invented by Triger in France. In 1842 Long discovered +the usefulness of ether as an anæsthetic, and Seytre invented the +automatically played piano. In the same year, Selligne discovered a +method of utilizing water-gas, made by decomposing water and producing +a new illuminating agent that could be used by itself or in combination +with coal gas. In the same year James Nasmyth in Scotland invented the +steam hammer--a simple appliance by means of which steam was able to +make a hammer give blows much heavier than the human arm could give. +This invention belongs to the class in which the human muscles are +assisted in doing work which the brain directs them to do, but which +they are not strong enough to do effectively. + +The self-playing piano belongs in a class closely allied, in which the +machine invented merely assists the muscles: the assistance in this +class being not in supplying power in order to do more work, however, +but in supplying what may be called auxiliary physical agencies. In the +player piano, the fingers are replaced by little mechanical hammers; in +the steam hammer the arm is replaced by a piston actuated by steam. One +secures quickness, the other secures force. + +But the self-playing piano and the steam hammer are in very different +classes, when viewed from the standpoint of their influence on history. +The influence of the piano is scarcely discernible, while the influence +of the steam hammer stands out in enormous letters of steel. The piano +seems to be in the same category as are literature and poetry and music +in general: it serves to please. The steam-hammer, on the other hand, +has had so great an influence on history subsequent to its invention, +that we know that subsequent history could not have been as it has +been, if the steam hammer had not been invented. + +It has been the steam hammer and the ensuing modifications of it that +have made possible the making of large forgings of iron and steel. It +has been the large forgings of iron and steel that have made possible +the use of large solid masses of those metals in the construction of +engines, guns, shells, houses, bridges and ships. It is the ability +to use large and solid masses of iron and steel, free from holes and +seams, that has enabled constructors and engineers to produce the +tremendous engineering structures that characterize today. _The main +element in the progress of the race has been its triumph over the +forces of material Nature._ This triumph has been gained by inventors, +who conceived of certain methods and devices (clothing, for instance) +by means of which materials provided by Nature could be utilized by man +to protect himself against her attacks upon him--attacks by cold, for +instance. Inventions of the useful kind have had a history of their +own, as definite as the history of any other thing or things, in which +it is shown that every useful instrument or method has been succeeded +by another and better; so that the history of useful inventions may +be compared to a picture of men mounting a flight of stairs toward +civilization, the steps of the stairs being the successive useful +inventions of different kinds. + +The paragraph just written is not intended to mean that inventions +which please have no value, but merely to point out the difference +between what are aptly called the fine arts and the useful arts. There +would be little happiness given to man by toilsomely climbing the +stairway to civilization, unless he were occasionally cheered on the +way by a strain of music, or a beautiful painting, or a poem, or a +brisk walk in northwest weather, or a gladdening glass of wine. It may +be argued that these are the things that really give happiness; it may +be claimed that these things go direct to the seat of happiness in the +brain, but that steam hammers merely provide a material civilization, +which continuously promises to make men happier some day, but never +makes them happier. + +Verily, verily, the way to happiness is not so clearly marked, that +anyone can walk in it all the time, or even for five minutes, except +on rare occasions. The consensus of opinion seems to be, however, that +the civilized man is, on the whole, happier than the savage; that +civilization is preferable to savagery. It is the purpose of this book, +moreover, merely to point out that that structure of civilization has +become so complicated and is moving so fast that it is now a veritable +machine and to indicate the part that invention has taken in building +it. + +Not only is it a veritable machine, it is the largest, the most +powerful, the most intricate machine we know of--except the solar +system and the greater systems beyond it. And not only is it powerful +and intricate--it is, like all powerful and intricate machines, +extremely delicate. Extreme delicacy is a characteristic of all +machines; it is inherent in every machine, simply because the good +working of every part is dependent on the good working of every other +part. An organism is a machine of the highest order, and therefore +possesses this characteristic of inter-dependability in its highest +form. A club is not an organism, or even a machine, and does not +possess it. If a man injures one end of a club the other end is just as +good as before; but if a club injures one end of a man, the other end +is injured also. A severe blow on the head will prevent the effective +use of the foot, and a severe blow on the foot will prevent the +effective use of the head. + +Similarly, in this great Machine of Civilization, a war between any +two nations affects every other nation in the realm of civilization, +though it may not affect appreciably the savages of Australia. A strike +in the coal mines affects every person in the United States;--and even +a threat to strike by the railway employees affects not only the whole +United States, but, to some degree, all Europe. + +This brings us to realize that, while the Machine of Civilization +itself has improved tremendously, it is only as a machine, and only +because it is a machine. It should make us realize also that the mere +fact that a machine is good or useful is no bar to its being destroyed. +It should make us realize besides that the finer a machine is the +greater danger there is of its being injured and even destroyed, by +careless or ignorant handling. These facts are clearly realized by all +engineering companies of all kinds; and the result has been that highly +competent engineers have been trained to care for and handle their +engines. There are no more highly competent men in any callings than +are the engineers in every civilized country. One might declare without +much exaggeration that, of all the men in business or professions, the +engineers are the most competent for their especial tasks; and the +reasonableness of the declaration might be pointed out on the ground +that the very nature of the engineering profession (unlike that of +most other professions) makes it impossible for an engineer to be +incompetent, and yet maintain his standing. + +But the Machine of Civilization is composed not only of material +parts, such as come within the province of the engineer, but also of +immaterial parts; in fact, the principal parts are men, and especially +the minds of men. It is the office of the Machine of Government to +handle the men. It is also its office to direct their minds; because +unless those minds view things correctly, the Machine of Government +cannot work with smoothness. Now, men are inferior to machines in one +important way:--men, as men, cannot be improved. It therefore devolves +on Government continuously to instruct and train men to handle the +Machine of Civilization skillfully, because the machine is being made +more and more complicated, and more and more in need of intelligent +care, with every passing day. + +Is this fact realized? I fear not. No sign is visible to the author of +these pages that the people in any country realize or even suspect that +there is any need for looking out for the integrity of the Machine as +a whole. The closest approximation to it is a belated realization that +the Bolsheviki are a danger to "society." The people do not seem even +to realize the necessity of having competent experts at the head of +governmental affairs. + +The Machine of Civilization had been developed to a very high stage +when Trajan ruled the world about the year 100 A. D. For three-quarters +of a century afterward, it continued to run with smoothness, under +intelligent care; but in the year 180 A. D. Commodus came to the +throne, and soon after began to abuse it. For two hundred years +thereafter, the Machine suffered from such abuse and neglect, that by +the year 395, it had become so unwieldy, that it was divided into two +parts, one administered from Rome and the other from Constantinople. +The two parts soon became two separate Machines, the Roman Machine +being at first the better, but gradually becoming more and more +ineffective under the unfavorable conditions of abuse and neglect. In +476, the Roman Machine broke down completely, and the barbarian chief, +Odoacer, sat himself on the throne of Octavius Cæsar. + +A ruin more complete, it would be hard to realize. The vast structure +of Roman civilization, built on the civilization of Greece and Assyria +and Babylonia and Egypt, was hurled to the ground; and its fine and +beautiful parts were scattered to the winds by barbarians who hated +civilization because they were barbarians. The progress of science +and literature and art stopped. The marvelous inventions of the past +were forgotten and disused. A condition of semi-barbarism passed into +Europe, and continued for a period of five hundred years, to which the +name Dark Ages has been aptly given. A feeble light began to glow about +800 A. D. as a result of the activities of Charlemagne, but it almost +expired when he did. It began again when the Crusaders came back from +the Orient with knowledge of the civilization that still persisted +there; and shortly after came the first effort of the Renaissance. +Then followed the invention of the gun, and then the invention of +printing:--and presto--the making of another Machine of Civilization is +begun. + +Now let us realize three facts: one fact is that the Machine of +Modern Civilization, though bigger and more complicated than the one +of Trajan's time is not nearly so strong; another fact is that the +Roman Machine was destroyed because it had become ineffective through +carelessness and abuse; the third fact is that because in a measure, +"history repeats itself," the Modern Machine may be destroyed, as the +Roman was. + +The Machine of today is vastly weaker than Trajan's. Trajan's Machine +was operated by a powerful empire that controlled the whole world +absolutely. No rival of Rome existed. The structure of society was +simple, homogeneous and strong. It was almost wholly military. It +rested on force; but that force rested on reason, moderation, skill and +patriotism. Rome had many foes; but they were so weak compared with +Rome, that she had naught to fear from them--so long as she kept her +Machine in order. + +The Machine of today is not only more complicated than that of Trajan, +and therefore more liable to derangement from that cause alone--but +it is supported by no government that dominates the world. On the +contrary, the control is divided among a number of different nations +that have diverse interests. The influence of this condition can be +clearly seen in the fact that every great war has set back the progress +of civilization for a while in all civilized countries, even though +in some ways it has advanced it. The World War just finished, for +instance, shook the very foundations of society; and we do not yet +know that it did not impair them seriously. Certainly the Machine has +not yet begun to run smoothly again. Certainly, the Bolsheviki are +threatening it as seriously as the barbarians began to threaten Rome +not long after Trajan's time. The Romans did not regard the barbarians +then any more seriously than we regard the Bolsheviki now. + +The barbarians finally succeeded in destroying the Roman Machine, but +not for the reason that they had become any stronger. They had not +become any stronger, but the Roman Machine had become weaker. It had +become weaker for the reason that the men in charge of it had not taken +the proper care of it. They failed to take proper care of it, for the +reason that they were not the proper kind of men to have charge of that +kind of machine. The reason for this was that the Roman people did +not see to it that they put the proper kind of men in charge of their +Machine. + +Someone may say that Rome was an autocracy, and that there are no +autocracies now. True, but republics have been inefficient, just as +often, and in as great a degree as autocracies have. The United States +under President Buchanan, for instance, was excessively inefficient; +while the Roman autocracy under Octavius was exceedingly efficient. +But whether a government is autocratic or democratic, the degree of +civilization must depend in the main on the people themselves. Even +the power and genius of Charlemagne could not at once make Europe +civilized; and even the power and bestiality of Commodus could not at +once make Rome uncivilized. In every nation, the rulers and the people +re-act upon each other, and each makes the other in a measure what they +are. A people that are strong and worthy will not long be governed +by men who are weak and unworthy. If a nation continues to have weak +and unworthy rulers, it is because the people themselves are weak and +unworthy. + +Therefore, it is an insufficient explanation of the breaking down of +the Roman Machine to declare that the Roman emperors were what they +were. The Roman emperors reflected the Roman people, or they would not +have remained Roman emperors. If the Roman people had been as strong +individually and collectively as they were in the days of Octavius +and Trajan, no such emperors as later sat on the throne would have +been possible. But the Roman people gradually deteriorated, morally, +mentally, and even physically; and inefficient government was one of +the results. + +What caused the deterioration of the Roman people? The same thing that +has caused the deterioration of every other great people that have +deteriorated--the softening influence of wealth and ease. + +Thus, Rome did not fall because of the barbarians, but because of +herself. She fell because her people allowed the Machine which she had +built up, in spite of the barbarians outside, at so much cost of labor +and blood, to become so weak that it could no longer protect itself. +Can this happen to our Machine? Yes, and it will happen as surely as +effect follows after cause, unless means be taken to see that men are +trained to care for the Machine more carefully than they are trained +now. _In no country is there any serious effort made to train men to +operate the Machine of Government_, except those parts of the Machine +that are called the army and the navy:--though some tremendous efforts +are made in private life to train men to handle corporations and +business enterprises, and to learn all that can be learned in medicine, +engineering, the Law and all the "learned professions." And even the +efforts made to train officers to handle armies and navies are in great +part neutralized by placing men at the head of those armies and navies +who are not trained in the slightest. + +The Roman Machine fell with a crash that was proportional to the +magnitude of the Machine. The Machine of today is much larger and +heavier than the Roman. If it falls, as it may, the crash will be +proportionally greater. What will follow, the mind recoils from +contemplating. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +CERTAIN IMPORTANT CREATIONS OF INVENTION, AND THEIR BENEFICENT INFLUENCE + + +In 1843 Charles Thurber invented the typewriter. Few inventions are +more typical. In 1843, the conditions of life were such that the first +stage in inventing the typewriter must have been the conception of an +extremely brilliant and original idea. After that, the difficulties of +embodying the idea in a concrete form must have been very great; for it +was not until about 1875 that instruments of practical usefulness were +in general use. Since then, typewriters have penetrated into virtually +every office in the civilized world. + +Though the typewriter is a very simple apparatus in both principle +and construction, yet few machines stand out more clearly as +great inventions. Few inventions also have exerted a greater +influence--though the influence of the typewriter has been auxiliary, +rather than dominant; it has merely enabled a greater amount of +business to be transacted than could be transacted before. If anyone +will go into any business office whatever, and note the amount of work +performed in that office by means of one typewriter that could not be +performed without it, and will then multiply that amount by the number +of typewriters in the world, he will come to a confused but startling +realization of the amount of executive work that is being done in a +single day through the agency of the typewriter, that otherwise would +not be done. If he will then go a step further, and multiply the number +of days that have gone by since the typewriter was first employed, by +one-half, or even one-tenth, of the amount accomplished by means of +all the typewriters in a single day, he may then be able to appreciate +in a measure the enormous influence on progress which the invention +of the typewriter has already had. One would not make an exaggerated +statement if he should declare that if the typewriter had not been +invented, every great business organization in the world today would be +much smaller than it is; the great industries would not exist in their +present vastness; and all the arts of manufacture, transportation and +navigation would be far behind the stage they now have reached. + +The electric telegraph was patented by Morse in 1837, but the first +telegram was not sent till 1844, along a wire stretched from Washington +to Baltimore. It is said that the first official message was "What hath +God wrought!" This message shows a realization of a fact which some +people fail to realize: the people who say, "God made the country, but +man made the city." The message showed a realization that God inspires +the thoughts of men, as truly as He provides them with things to eat. +It is inconceivable that it was intended to call attention to the fact +that God wrought the wire along which the message ran, or the wooden +poles that carried the wire, or the material zinc and copper of the +battery. The only new thing evidenced in the telegraph so far as anyone +could know, was the invention itself. God had wrought that through the +agency of Morse. It is a known fact that no human mind, no matter how +fine it may be, or how brilliant and correct its imagination, can have +any images or ideas that are not based in some way on the evidence of +the senses. We can imagine things, and even create things, that have +never existed before; but those things must be composed of parts whose +existence we know of through the evidence of our senses. So Morse, +although he invented a thing that was wholly new, although he created +something--did not create any of the parts that composed it. He used +such well-known things as wire, iron, zinc and copper. Even in the +creation of man, the Almighty himself used common materials: "And the +Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his +nostrils the breath of life: and man became a living soul." (Genesis, +Chapter II.) + +If the Lord God breathed the breath of life into Adam, He inspired him +according to the original meaning of the word inspire. If He inspired +Morse with the conception of the electric telegraph, He inspired +him according to the modern meaning of the word, which is not very +different from the original meaning, and which is not at all different +from the meaning according to which He is said to have inspired the +prophets of old. + +To bring before us clearly the whole influence of the telegraph on +history would require a book devoted to no other subject; yet the +telegraph belongs in the same class with the typewriter, in the sense +that its main office is to assist the transaction of business. The +telegraph does not of itself produce results. It is not in the class +with the fist-hammer, or the weaving machine, or the gun, or the steam +engine, or the electric light, or chloroform, or the telescope, or the +discovery of America. It owes its reputation largely to the spectacular +way in which it first appeared, and to the seeming wonderfulness of its +success. Yet the telegraph seems no more wonderful than the typewriter, +to a person who knows even a little of electricity; and the task +of making it practicable was much easier. A very simple and crude +apparatus sufficed for the telegraph: but a highly perfect mechanism +was needed for the typewriter. + +It is probably true, however, that the telegraph has had a greater +influence on history than the typewriter, though modern civilization +would not be even approximately what it is, if either had not been +invented. And if by any combination of circumstances, either one +should now be taken from us, the whole Machine would be thrown into +inextricable confusion. + +It may be objected that if Morse had not invented the telegraph, +or if any inventor whoever had not invented whatever thing he did +invent, some other man would have done so; and that therefore those +inventors do not deserve to be placed in any especial niche of honor. +There would be considerable reasonableness in such an objection, as +is evidenced by the fact that in many cases two or more men have +invented the same thing at about the same time. It may be pointed out, +however, that while this has often happened in regard to improvements +on basic inventions, it has not happened very often in regard to the +basic inventions themselves; and also that, even if we include all +the inventors the world has ever heard of, we find that there have +been surprisingly few. Therefore, it really makes little difference to +the race as a whole whether Smith or Jones made a certain invention, +or whether Smith would have made it, if Jones had not made it. "The +man who delivers the goods," receives, and as a rule deservedly, the +recognition of mankind. Furthermore, this book, as has been stated, is +not concerned mainly with inventors, but with inventions. + +In 1844, the use of nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) as an anæsthetic +was introduced by Dr. Wells. It cannot be said that this invention has +had any direct influence on history itself, though it has had a great +deal of influence on the history of some individuals. It contributed a +new and distinct part to the Machine, however, and certainly helped to +ameliorate the conditions of living. Besides, it seems to be one of the +lessons of history that most new and distinct creations, even if no use +has been found for them for a long while, have ultimately found a field +of usefulness. Furthermore, every new and useful thing, like nitrous +oxide gas, attracts the attention of men to the advantages that the +study of physical sciences and the prosecution of invention offer, and +gives inspiration for further study and endeavor. + +In the same year, Léon Foucault invented the first practical electric +arc-light. Davy had made the basic invention of the Voltaic arc in +1808; but his invention was in the class just spoken of, in that it +was not utilized for many years. Even the arc-light that Foucault +produced in 1844 was not utilized then. In both cases, the cause of +slowness of utilization did not rest so much in the invention as in +the stage of civilization at the time. The world was not yet ready +for the arc-light. In fact, it did not become ready, and it could not +become ready, to use the arc-light in real service, until a cheaper +means of producing electric current had been invented. This did not +happen until the dynamo-electric machine had been invented and had been +brought to such a point of practical development that it could supply +electric current, not only adequately and economically, but reliably. +A necessary step toward the utilization of the arc-light was made in +1845, however, by Thomas Wright, who invented a means whereby the +carbons could be kept automatically at the correct distance apart for +maintaining a continuous and uniform light. + +In 1845, Robert Hoe made an important contribution in his +double-cylinder printing press. In the same year, R. W. Thompson +invented the pneumatic tire. This invention belongs distinctly in the +class just spoken of, for the pneumatic tire did not come into general +use until the bicycle did, about 1890. It may be asked if there is any +use in inventing appliances long before they are needed. So far as the +inventor is then concerned--no: so far as the public is eventually +concerned, yes. All inventions made and patented are described and +illustrated in the Patent Office Gazette; and many of them are +described and illustrated in magazines and newspapers, even if they are +not used in actual practice. These records form part of the general +knowledge of mankind, just as much as do the facts of geography and +history and arithmetic; and they can be drawn upon by investigators and +inventors, and made to assist them in their work. + +In 1846, an invention was made by Elias Howe, that does not belong +at all in the same category as that of the pneumatic tire, because +it was utilized almost immediately. This is usually spoken of as the +sewing-machine; but the essence of the invention was not a machine, but +merely an instrument; for it consisted of a needle in which the eye was +near the point, instead of at the other end, as in existing needles. +The machine afterwards produced was merely an obvious means for using +the new kind of needle. + +The invention of the sewing-machine was one rich in influence on +subsequent progress; and all the story connected with it is interesting +in many ways. But the most wonderful fact connected with the invention +is that it was not made before! Many inventions have not been made +because the conditions at the time did not demand them, or make +their successful utilization possible: and yet some inventions, +like the Voltaic arc, were made despite the unfavorable conditions. +But what conditions were unfavorable to the utilization of Howe's +sewing-machine, even as far back in history as the days when the +pyramids were built? The Howe sewing-machine was not so complicated +an apparatus as the ballista, or the chariot, used by the Assyrians +and the other nations in the "fertile crescent," that curved from +Alexandria to Babylon; and it was much easier and cheaper to make. +Its construction required immeasurably less scientific knowledge and +carefulness than the printing press, the gun, the telescope and the +microscope, and a score of appliances that had preceded it by several +centuries. Why was the sewing-machine not invented before? Why, why? +This question continually presents itself to the mind, when certain +simple inventions appear, that (so far as we can see) could have been +invented and ought to have been invented, long before. + +In 1846, the printing-telegraph was invented by House. No such question +as that just discussed is presented to our minds by this invention, +because we realize that it could not have been invented before some +means of generating continuous electric currents had been invented. The +printing-telegraph was not an invention of the same order of influence +as the sewing-machine; but it has assisted the work of the telegraph in +supplying news, especially in reports of stock fluctuations. + +In the same year, De Lesseps started his project of building the Suez +Canal, and joining the Mediterranean to the Red Sea; so that ships +could proceed to India from Europe by a direct route. Many centuries +before, a canal had been cut and generally used that ran from the Nile +River to the Red Sea. The canal that De Lesseps proposed was to be +larger, and the engineering difficulties greater. The vast enterprise +was finally carried out, at a cost of about $100,000,000. It seems +to have passed through the three successive stages of conception, +development and production. The idea of building a canal did not +originate in 1846, or in the brain of De Lesseps; for the idea was very +old, probably older than recorded history. But the only man who formed +the mental picture in his mind and afterwards developed it into a +concrete plan was De Lesseps. He did this; and his plan was so complete +and coherent, and so evidently practical, that he finally succeeded in +convincing engineers and capitalists of the fact, and forming a large +company. The execution of the concrete plan was not begun until 1859, +and it was De Lesseps who began it. Thus De Lesseps, though he did +not conceive the basic idea, conceived and combined the various ideas +necessary to embody the basic idea in a concrete plan, then constructed +the concrete plan, and then produced the actual instrument. + +This instrument (the canal) was a very useful instrument. An +instrument, according to the _Standard Dictionary_, is "a means by +which work is done." By means of the Suez Canal, the work of direct +water transportation between the Far East and Europe was done; and it +could not have been done, except by means of that instrument. It has +been done by that instrument ever since, and at an increasing rate. The +canal was completed in 1869, and widened and deepened in 1886. It has +shortened the water distance between England and India by about 7600 +miles, and has had a tremendous influence on history, especially on +Great Britain's history. One of the largest stockholders is the British +Government; three-fourths of the ships passing through it have been +British; and though the whole world has benefited, the greatest single +beneficiary has been Great Britain. + +Yet De Lesseps was a Frenchman! This calls to our minds the fact +that although some of the greatest names in History are French, yet +the French nation, as a nation, has never shown the same concerted +national purpose as the British. In this respect, the French seem to +have borne somewhat the same relation to the British, as the Greeks +did to the Romans: and yet the French are more nearly allied by blood +and language to the Romans than are the British. The Greeks and the +French aimed to make life pleasant, by the aid of the fine arts and a +general utilization of all that is delightful; while the Romans and +the British, early in their careers, conceived the idea of dominion, +embodied the idea in a concrete plan, and proceeded to carry the plan +into execution. The plan was continually accommodated to the changing +conditions of the times, and the means of execution were continually +accommodated also. The result has been that Greece and France never, +as nations, acquired dominion even approximately; while Rome did +completely, and Great Britain did, approximately. + +The author does not wish to be understood as approving of the idea of +acquiring dominion, or as failing to realize the sordidness of such +an ambition, and the evil that men and nations have done, in order to +achieve it. He begs leave to point out, however, that the Machine could +not have been built, except under the stable conditions that large +nations permit better than small nations do; and that it has been the +endeavor to achieve dominion by aspiring tribes and nations, and the +consequent endeavor to gain strength in order to prevent it, by other +aspiring tribes and nations, which have caused the gradual building up +of the great nations of today, with the comfort, security and culture +that their existence permits. + +In the same year, 1846, artificial limbs were invented, and so was the +electric cautery. Neither of these inventions had a profound influence; +but each was a new creation, and each formed a useful and distinct +addition to the Machine. But another invention was made in 1846, that +has had great influence. + +This was the invention of gun-cotton, made by Schonbein in Germany +by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on cotton, or some other +form of cellulose. It was the first practical explosive that depended +for its usefulness on the decomposition of a chemical compound, and +not on the combustion of a mechanical mixture, like gunpowder. The +explosive power of gun-cotton was declared by the chemist Abel to be +fifty times that of an equal weight of the gunpowder of that day; but +this does not mean that it possessed fifty times the energy. The action +of gun-cotton is very much more sudden than that of gunpowder; and for +that reason, it exerts a much greater force for an instant, and has +much greater efficacy for such purposes as breaking into structures, +bursting shells, etc. On the other hand, the very fact that its energy +is developed with such suddenness, causes its force to fall to zero +very soon, and makes it useless for such purposes as gunpowder fulfils +in firing projectiles from guns. In a gun, especially in a long gun, +the endeavor is made to keep down the pressure of the gas and prolong +its continuance; so that the projectile will receive a comparatively +gentle but prolonged push, that will start it gradually from its seat, +and will continue to push it, and therefore to increase its velocity, +all the way to the muzzle. + +Gun-cotton does not belong in the class with the typewriter and the +telegraph, that merely assist men to transact business: gun-cotton +transacts business "on its own account." Gun-cotton belongs in the +class with the gun; and its main influence has been to increase the +self-protectivity of the Machine. It has done this mainly by increasing +the power of the submarine torpedo against the hulls of warships. It +may be objected that both sides in a war between civilized nations +would use torpedoes, that no persons except organizations controlled by +civilized nations (such as those in warships) would use torpedoes, and +that therefore, whatever effect the torpedo might have on the Machine +is neutralized by the fact that two civilized bodies use it against +each other. True; but the fact that the torpedo and the gun-cotton +in it require a high degree of civilization in the people who use +it, gives civilized people an immediate and tremendous advantage +over uncivilized people; and furthermore, the fact that the torpedo +and the gun-cotton in it depend for their ultimate effect not only +on their being used, but on the degree of knowledge and skill with +which they are used, gives an advantage to which every nation in any +war is willing and able to utilize the most knowledge and exert the +most skill. That is, the torpedo and the gun-cotton in it combine to +give the advantage to the nations possessing the highest degree of +civilization and willpower. They enable the Machine of the most highly +civilized nation to protect itself if it will against the Machines of +less highly civilized nations. + +In the year following the invention of gun-cotton, came Sobrero's +invention of nitro-glycerin, made by the action of nitric acid on +glycerin (1847). The new explosive was more powerful than gun-cotton, +but much more dangerous to handle. By reason of its extreme +sensitiveness and the consequent danger of handling it, the use of pure +nitro-glycerin has never been great. + +In the same year, 1847, the time-lock was invented by Savage. This +invention was in the class with the gun and gun-cotton, in the sense +that it enhanced the self-protectiveness of the Machine. It did not +enhance its self-protectiveness against a few great, open, external +foes, however, but against a myriad of small, secret, internal foes. +The Machine is very expensive to maintain in operation, and so is +every one of the little mechanisms of which it is composed. And each +one of these little mechanisms, each bank, its business corporation, +each company, each department store, each little shop, requires that +its money be kept safe from the burglar and the pilferer. Inasmuch as +the time-lock assists in doing this, the time-lock has been a valuable +contribution to the Machine, and has exerted a good influence on +history since it was invented. + +In the same year, 1847, R. M. Hoe invented his great printing press, +that could make 20,000 impressions per hour. As it was a long step +forward in the improvement of printing, this invention deserved the +applause which it received; and the inventor deserved the financial +reward which he received. + +In 1848, Dennison invented a machine for making matches. This was a +most useful contribution; but one is inclined to wonder why twenty +years elapsed between the invention of matches and the invention of a +machine for making them. Inventing was not going ahead so fast then as +it is now. Surely, no such interval is allowed to pass unutilized, in +the present inventing days. + +In 1849, the "interrupted thread" screw, for use in closing the +breeches of guns was invented. Many men have claimed the honor of +this invention. Regardless of who the particular inventor was, the +invention itself must be regarded as one of a very high order, from the +standpoints of originality, constructiveness and usefulness. Though the +screw itself was a very old contrivance, the idea of cutting a long +slot lengthwise, so that the screw could be pushed forward quickly +without the slow process of continuously turning it around, yet so +arranged that the screw could be turned when near the end of its +travel, and the force-gaining power of the screw-thread thus secured, +seems to have been entirely new. Certainly the idea was original and +brilliant and useful. To develop the idea into a concrete plan was not +difficult, and neither was it difficult to carry the concrete plan +into execution. This invention falls into the happy class of which the +stethoscope is typical, in which the idea originally conceived was so +perfect, that little else was needed. The main use of this invention +has been that for which it was first intended, to close the breeches of +guns. It is used in most of the navies and armies. Its principal rival +is the famous sliding breech-block of Krupp. + +In 1849, came an invention in the gun class, the magazine gun, made by +Walter Hunt. This invention also seems to fulfil all the requirements +of a real invention, in originality of conception, constructiveness of +development and ultimate usefulness. But in this case, the original +idea can hardly be declared as brilliant and spectacular as that of +the "interrupted thread"; and certainly the labor of developing it was +incomparably greater. The author feels the temptation of declaring +that the more brilliant and valuable a conception is, the less will be +the difficulty of developing it. He refuses to declare it, however, +realizing that it would not be wholly true; and yet he wishes to point +out that if a conception be wholly erroneous, it cannot be developed +into any concrete plan whatever; and that many of the most brilliant +conceptions, such as the fist-hammer, the flute, the telescope, the +telegraph and the telephone were very easily developed into forms +sufficiently concrete to make them practically usable. An idea itself +is an extremely simple thing, even if it be developed ultimately into +a highly complex machine. The idea of the steam engine, for instance, +the idea which Hero conceived was, of itself, extremely simple; but see +into what complex forms it has been developed! The original idea of +Hero was easily developed into "Hero's engine." The improvements that +have been made upon it have been the developments of separate ideas +that were conceived later. Not one of these ideas has been nearly so +brilliant as Hero's, and few of them have been so easily developed. + +In 1849, Bourdon invented the steam pressure gauge that still bears +his name, and made a contribution of distinct and permanent value, +by which ability to keep track of the steam pressure in boilers was +increased, and safety from explosion increased proportionately. In the +same year, Sir David Brewster invented his lenticular stereoscope. In +this beautiful instrument two separate pictures of the same object +are put on one card, one picture showing the object as it would +look to the left eye from a given distance, and the other picture +showing the object as it would look to the right eye. The two eyes of +an observer look at the two pictures through the two halves of two +convex lenses, that are so shaped that the two pictures are seen as +one picture, but so superposed as to represent the object in relief, +as the actual object appears to the two eyes. Like the kaleidoscope, +this later product of Sir David Brewster's brilliant imagination has +had little influence thus far, except possibly to lead the way toward +stereo-photography and the stereopticon: but it seems hardly probable +that an important field will not be found some day for an invention so +suggestive. + +In the same year, Hibbert made an important improvement on the +knitting machine, and Corliss invented his famous engine cut-off, +which vastly economized fuel. Neither invention was especially novel +or brilliant, but both were highly practical and useful contributions +to the improvement of the Machine. In the same year also came Worm's +improvement on the printing press, that concerned the making of +"turtles" which held type in a curved shape, so that they could be +secured to the cylinder of the press. + +In 1850, Scott Archer succeeded in using collodion to fix silver salts +on the surface of glass plates in photography. He cannot be credited +with the basic invention, because the idea of doing this had been +suggested long before. The invention made an important contribution to +the growing art of photography, mainly by supplying a stepping stone +for further advances. In the same year, an important improvement was +made in watch-making by inventing a watch-making machine. This was +one of the first of those distinctly American inventions, by which +machine-work replaced hand-work, with great increase in speed of +production and lessening of cost, but without decrease in accuracy of +workmanship. + +The influence of this invention has escaped the notice of many of us, +for the reason that it has spread so gradually, and has been of such +a character as to fail to strike the imagination from its lack of +spectacularity. But the idea of what we now call "quantity production" +has spread to all the fields of the manufacturing world, and is the +basis of much of the enormous industrial progress of the last half +century. It is rendered possible mainly by making the machinery +automatic, or nearly so. Without such exaggeration, America may justly +claim the contribution of automaticity to the Machine of Civilization. + +In 1851, Dr. Charles G. Page produced the first electric locomotive. +Like many pioneers, it did not achieve practical success itself, +but it supplied a stepping stone to further progress. In the same +year, Seymour produced his self-rakers for harvesters, and Gorrie +invented the ice-making machine. Two more important inventions were +the ophthalmoscope, invented by Helmholtz, and the "Ruhmkorff coil," +invented by the man whose name still clings to it. + +The ophthalmoscope reminds one of the stethoscope; so simple it is, +so perfect and so useful. It consists merely of a small concave +mirror with a hole in it, a lamp and a small convex lens: the mirror +being held so that one eye of a physician can look through it, and +the lens being placed conveniently by the physician near the eye +of a patient. The mirror reflects light from the lamp towards the +patient's eye, and the convex lens concentrates them on whatever is to +be examined--usually the interior of an eye. This instrument belongs +in the small class of inventions already spoken of, in which the +original conception was so perfect, that the acts of developing it into +a concrete instrument and then producing the instrument were easily +performed. + +The Ruhmkorff coil is in the same class; for it consists merely of two +coils of wire; one "primary" coil being of coarse wire and connected +with a source of electric current, and the other "secondary" coil of +fine wire placed around the coil of coarse wire. If the current in +the primary coil be made or broken or changed in force or direction, +currents are "induced" in the secondary coil; the strength of the two +currents varying relatively according to the sizes and lengths of the +wires in the two coils. This invention has an interest apart from +its usefulness, in the fact that Ruhmkorff invented it for purposes +of scientific study, and that no utilization of it for everyday life +occurred until nearly half a century later. Then Ruhmkorff coils were +made into "transformers" for use in "stepping down" the small high +voltage currents needed for transmitting electric currents over long +distances, into the larger but lower voltage currents needed for +actuating electric lights and motors. + +In the following year, 1852, Channing and Farmer invented the +fire-alarm telegraph, an important contribution to the safety of the +Machine, though it did not come into general use for several years. In +the same year, Fox Talbot made another of his epochal contributions to +photography, by inventing a process by which photographic half-tones +could be produced. In the following year, a process was invented for +making from wood a pulp that was very valuable as the basis of making +paper,--and Faraday made three important discoveries. These were the +laws of electro-magnetic induction, the relations of the dielectric +to the conducting bodies in electro-static induction, and the laws of +electrolysis. + +These discoveries of Faraday were all inventions, in the sense in which +the word invention is used in this book. Each one was the outcome +of a series of careful and mathematically guided experiments, and +the outgrowth of an idea. In the following year, Melhuish invented +photographic roll films, and Herman invented the rock drill. The latter +invention has been of the utmost practical value in blasting operations +of all kinds, and must be regarded as a very distinct addition to the +Machine. + +In the same year, appeared the Smith & Wesson revolver; not a great +invention, but an improvement in many ways over Colt's; Mr. A. B. +Wilson brought out his four-motion feed for sewing-machines, and R. A. +Tilghman invented his process for decomposing fats by hot steam. In the +following year (1855), Lundstrom made the highly important invention +of safety matches. When one reflects (as every one must at times) how +great and absolutely irretrievable are the losses caused by fire each +year, how the amount of possible destruction grows each year exactly as +fast as the Machine grows, and realizes how large a fire many a small +match has caused, he feels inclined to give a mental salute to Mr. +Lundstrom of Sweden. + +In the same year, iron-clad floating batteries were used in the Crimean +War. This was not the first time that iron-clad vessels had been +employed, for vessels protected on the sides with sheets of iron and +copper had been used by the Coreans in their victorious war against +the Japanese about three hundred years before; but it was the first +time that such vessels had appeared in Europe. Cocaine was invented the +same year, and one of the most valuable anæsthetics yet known was then +produced. + +But the most valuable contribution to the Machine in 1855 was Henry +Bessemer's epochal invention of making steel by blowing air through +molten cast iron, until enough of the carbon had been burnt off to +leave a steel of whatever quality was desired. This invention reduced +the cost of making steel, and the time required, in so great a degree +as to place the manufacture of steel on a basis entirely new, and to +extend its field of employment greatly. And, as with many previous +great inventions, this one paved the way for still other inventions, by +indicating the possibility of still wider fields. The Bessemer process +is not in the class with the typewriter or the telegraph, but in the +class with the gun; for it does things itself. It would be difficult +to specify any invention (except one produced at a much earlier time) +that has had more influence, and more good influence, on history than +Bessemer's. No one can look out of his window in any town or city, +without seeing some of the innumerable products of Bessemer's idea. + + * * * * * + +Our record has now brought us to the middle of the nineteenth century. +The conditions of living in 1850 were greatly different from those +of 1800. In fifty years, the physical conditions of living and of +carrying on business of all kinds, had improved more than in the +century between 1700 and 1800, more than in the two centuries preceding +1700, and more than in the ten centuries from 500 and 1500. Rapid +transportation over the land in railroad trains for both passengers +and freight had largely replaced the slow transportation methods of +1800; and, in an almost equal degree, steam transportation at sea had +replaced transportation by sails. The printing press had been developed +from a crude and slow contrivance, worked by a hand, to a magnificent +mechanism worked by steam: the electric battery had been improved +into an appliance of the utmost reliability and usefulness; telegraph +lines stretched over the continents, and messages were sent surely +and instantaneously over hundreds of miles of land; and the science +of chemistry had arisen from the ashes of alchemy. As a result of +this, the science of photography had been born, and had already begun +its work, so varied and so useful. Physics had grown so surely and so +greatly, that it had been divided into the separate but allied sciences +of heat, light and electricity--including magnetism: the science of +engineering had expanded so widely, that it also had been divided into +other sciences--civil engineering, mechanical engineering, hydraulic +engineering and electrical engineering: the science of medicine, +because of the advances in chemistry and physics, had advanced at +an equal rate: the gun had been so greatly improved, and gunpowder +also, that such a degree of precision and range had been attained +as to make the gun of 1800 seem crude indeed; and the improvement +had been inevitably caused by the greater knowledge placed at the +disposal of ordnance officers, by the advances in chemistry, heat, +light, electricity, magnetism and the various engineering arts. The +introduction of illuminating gas, the improvements in forging, casting +and turning metals, had made possible the building of edifices, and the +fabrication of better and cheaper utensils of every kind: improvements +in the means and methods of spinning, knitting and weaving had bettered +the materials that people wore upon their persons: improvements in +rubber manufacture had made possible the use of waterproof garments; +crops could be gathered more quickly and surely: safety from fire had +been increased: methods of heating houses had been vastly improved: and +the discovery of anæsthetics had relieved civilized man in great degree +from his most distressing single enemy. As a result, the people of +every civilized country lived under conditions of comfort far greater +than had ever been known before in similar climates. + +The facts and conditions detailed above relate almost wholly to the +material conditions of living, and show that, for most people, they +had been enormously improved: though it is noteworthy that for the +very poor, they had not improved in many cases, and had been altered +for the worse in other cases. The unfavorable changes were mainly +those produced by "factory life" which in 1850 must have been worse +than country life for the same class of people. These cases were so +greatly in the minority, however, as not to affect the main proposition +that the advance in civilization from 1800 to 1850, caused by new +inventions, had improved the material conditions of living for the +great majority of the people affected by them. + +That it was desirable that these conditions should be improved, some +people may be disposed to deny; pointing out that the improvement +tended to develop "luxury, thou cursed of Heaven's decree." One of the +effects of increasing material prosperity is undoubtedly a tendency +toward luxury. But the number of people thus affected was so very small +in the period from 1800 to 1850, and the degree of luxury attained +then was so slight, that this question need hardly be discussed, at +this point. + +But the mental condition of the people had changed as greatly as the +physical conditions of their environment. The immediate cause of +this change was, of course, the printing press, which disseminated +the thoughts of thinking men broadcast, and told of events that were +occurring not only in places near, but also in places distant. This +gave an enormous stimulation to the minds of the people by exciting +their interest: and it also gave to their minds both "food for thought" +and almost unlimited opportunity for exercise. Before this period, only +a small part of the population had a wide range of knowledge, or a +large number of subjects to think about. Their lives were exceedingly +monotonous, and would have been exceedingly dull, had it not been for +the continuous necessity of combating the inconveniences of every-day +life by continual toil of one kind or another. There were very few +subjects of conversation. + +But the printing-press told the people of other things besides the +events that were taking place; it told them also of new discoveries +and inventions that were being made, and of the effects they would +produce. The news of a great discovery or invention must have created +more excitement in 1831 when the discovery of chloroform was announced, +than almost any discovery would now, because we are so accustomed +to new discoveries as almost to be sated. We know what excitement +the first successful railway trips created. The coming of these new +discoveries and inventions gave mental exercise in four ways:--first by +stimulating the imagination with a picture it had never seen before, +and whose possibilities reached no one could guess how far; second +by stimulating the logical powers to reason out and understand the +principles underlying each discovery or invention; third by stimulating +the memory to engrave upon its tablets certain new and important facts; +and fourth, by stimulating the inventive faculties, to carry inventions +further. + +Thus, the influence of new inventions was to change a man's +environment, both physical and mental. Now every man is said to be the +product of his environment and his heredity; so that the influence +of these new inventions was to change men to a degree proportional +to the degree by which they changed their environment. This does not +mean that inventions have changed man biologically, or even changed +him so much that he will act very differently from a savage, under +abnormal conditions. It does mean, however, that they have caused men +so to adapt themselves to the new environment which inventions have +created, that, while in that environment, they will for all practical +purposes, be very different from savages. It means that under nearly +all the conditions of living, a gentleman in civilized society will +be a gentleman--courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral. It does +not mean that he will be perfect, but that he will be very much more +courteous, refined, law-abiding and moral than a savage; and it means, +in consequence that the society of civilized people in general will +possess these characteristics much more than any society of savages +does. + +Not only, however, have these inventions changed the environment of +civilized man, they have changed his heredity also; because they had +previously changed the environment of his parents, grandparents and +other ancestors. The graduate of Oxford of 1850, the son of an Oxford +graduate who was also the son of an Oxford graduate, though he was +biologically the same as his barbarian ancestors of ten thousand +years before, was nevertheless a much more refined, intelligent and +courteous gentleman. Under certain abnormal conditions, such as +intense thirst, hunger, jealousy, passion or unlooked-for temptation +he might act as badly as a savage:--in fact such men sometimes do. +But nevertheless, the fact that in 99% of the conditions under which +he lives he acts as a gentleman and not as a savage makes him 99% a +gentleman, and only 1% a savage, during his mortal life. + +Thus inventions, while originating (or seeming to originate) in the +minds of men, change the environment of men, and this changes the +men. Of the two changes, it would be easy to say that the change made +in the men is the more important; but would it be truthful to say +so? We have already noted the curious fact that inventions have the +faculty of self-improvement to a degree far greater than men have it; +for the reason that each new man must begin where his last ancestor +began, whereas each new invention begins where his last ancestor +finished. This suggests that the changes produced in environment are +more profound than the changes produced in men; that in fact the +changes in environment are very profound, and the changes in men quite +superficial. That this is really the case is indicated by the very long +time needed to build up the environments of civilization, and the very +short time needed for men to adapt themselves to those environments, +or to any changed conditions. The fact has often been noted (sometimes +with chagrin) that highly refined gentlemen adapt themselves with +extreme facility to the often primitive environments of hunting or +campaigning, and history shows in many instances how quickly barbarians +have adapted themselves to civilization. + +This leads us to suspect that the Machine which inventions have built +up may not be of so much permanence as we are prone to think, and +makes us realize that it is not a natural production but one wholly +artificial. Now nothing that is wholly artificial can reasonably be +expected to be permanent, unless adequate and timely measures are taken +to insure it. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +INVENTION AND GROWTH OF LIBERAL GOVERNMENT, AMERICAN CIVIL WAR + + +While the period from 1800 to 1850 was alive with inventions of many +sorts, it was alive also with the economic changes which the inventions +caused and with political changes also. It was in the United States +of America that the greatest changes of all kinds came. This was to +be expected from the fact that before 1800 the United States were +considerably behind the countries of Europe from which their own +civilization had been derived; whereas in 1850, they had been able to +get abreast of them, by reason of the quickness of transportation and +communication that ocean steamers gave, and the energy and enterprise +of the new American nation. During the period from 1800 till 1850, +the United States went through three successful wars; one with Great +Britain, one with Algiers and one with Mexico. They expanded also over +a considerably greater territory, acquired a much greater population, +added new states, and showed such aptitude in scientific discovery and +invention as to achieve a place in the first rank of nations in this +particular. + +The Constitution of the United States may be characterized as a great +invention, in the meaning of the word which is used in this book; +and until 1850, it had worked with a success that surprised many of +the statesmen and scholars of Europe. The problems placed before the +nation had been many, various and difficult; but all had been solved +with a sufficient degree of success for practical purposes; and the +resulting situations had, on the whole, been met with courage, energy +and intelligence. The Monroe Doctrine had been treated with respect, +if not with entire acquiescence; the conduct of the Navy in the War of +1812 had demonstrated to Europe the fighting ability of our people; +our scientific men, such as Franklin and Henry, ranked as high as any +who had ever lived in any country; certain of our statesmen such as +Franklin, held equal rank with statesmen anywhere; and the invention +and first use of the electric telegraph had put America ahead of every +other country in inventions of a basic kind. + +When we realize the rapid growth of the United States in the half +century 1800-1850, and realize also that it was a growth almost _ab +initio_, and note that the engineering materials of all kinds and +all the knowledge of science in the country had come from Europe, we +must admit that it is to the influence of invention, more than to any +other one thing, that we owe the rapid progress of our country. As +is the case with individuals, nations are prone to extol their own +successes, and to take the entire credit for them. Americans are apt +to thank themselves only for their amazing progress; but, in fairness, +they should admit that without the inventions made in Europe and by +Europeans, they would have had no means for even starting. The first +locomotive used in the United States was brought from England. + +In Great Britain, the wars with France were under full headway in 1800, +and her statesmen knew that she was faced with a danger so great that +only the most strenuous exertions, and the utmost naval and military +skill could overcome it. This danger was not overcome till the Battle +of Waterloo in 1815. Thereafter, the progress of the nation was fairly +quiet and assured, the main difficulties centering in the deplorable +condition of the working classes, serious disturbances in Ireland and +the mutiny in India. + +In few matters has the influence of invention been greater than in the +relations between Great Britain and India. In 1564 a company called the +Merchant Adventurers had been formed for competing with the merchants +of Spain, Venice, Holland and other countries. A company coming into +existence shortly afterward was the East India Company, formed for +trading with India, Persia, Arabia and the islands in the Indian +Ocean. The company was chartered by the Crown and had a monopoly of +a certain territory. The object was that the company should not only +make money for itself, but promote the welfare of Great Britain and +her subjects, by taking out manufactured goods, and bringing back raw +materials and coin. During the seventeenth century, naval wars took +place with Holland, and in the eighteenth century with France; both +originating in commercial and colonial rivalry--especially in regard +to India. Both wars were won by Great Britain. The Seven Years' War in +particular ended to the advantage of Great Britain, as regards India; +for France was left with only a few trading stations. By 1773, the East +India Company was in virtual control of India; but in 1784 William Pitt +secured political control of it by the Government. Napoleon realized +the importance of India and sent an army there to recover control, but +without success. The Crimean War that began in 1853 between Russia and +Turkey was joined by Great Britain in 1854 because she feared that +Russia would flank the British route to India through the projected +Suez Canal. This war ended to the advantage of Great Britain, and the +danger to India was removed. + +Now the whole area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland +is only about 121,000 square miles, while that of India is about +1,803,000, nearly fifteen times as great. The population of the United +Kingdom in 1917 was about 45,370,000, while that of India was about +315,156,000, or nearly seven times as great. Yet Great Britain has +secured the complete mastery of India! How has she been able to do +it? The easiest answer would be that the British are a "superior" +people. Even if they are, such an answer would explain nothing, unless +the means be indicated by which the superiority was made effective +in conquering India. The superiority evidently did not consist in +courage or physical strength, which were obvious factors in achieving +the victories in the field that were necessary, for those qualities +were shown equally by the Indians. But if we should answer that the +British succeeded for the reason that they could bring to bear superior +weapons, equipments, means of transportation, means of communication, +methods of organization and methods of operation, we evidently would +explain what happened adequately and convincingly. Now all these +facilities the British had available; they had been invented and were +ready. + +One of the important influences of invention on history therefore, has +been to give Great Britain control of India. + +In France, the changes in economic and political conditions rivaled the +changes that one sees take place in Sir David Brewster's kaleidoscope. +In 1800 Napoleon had been First Consul, in 1804 emperor, in 1814 an +emperor and then an exile, in 1815 an emperor and then an exile. France +was a kingdom from then until 1848, and then a republic till 1852, when +she again became an empire, under Napoleon III. The virtual anarchy +following the Revolution had been crushed out and replaced with order; +and the menace to republican institutions had been removed by the +genius of Napoleon I, who then established an autocracy of a kind that, +though arbitrary, was so wise and broad-viewed as to be beneficent +on the whole. The result of all was that in 1850, France was in a +condition of civilization and prosperity that was amazing to one who +remembered the conditions of 1800. + +When we analyze the causes of the evolution of order and prosperity out +of the conditions of 1793, and the later conditions of 1800, we can +hardly fail to realize the greatest single cause was the same cause +as that of Napoleon's victories. It was the mind that conceived and +developed and brought forth; the mind that invented so amazingly. + +That many other causes may be named need hardly be pointed out. In +the complex affairs of human life, every result is the resultant of +many causes; but in most of those affairs, most of those causes are +always present; so that we have to find an unusual cause to explain an +unusual condition or event. It would be easy to say that the cause of +France's return to a condition of law and order was that the condition +of anarchy was abnormal; and that France simply returned to her normal +state, as a wave does after it has risen above or fallen below the +level of the sea. But would this be true? Is the condition of anarchy +more abnormal than the condition of law and order? Which was the +condition of primitive man? Which is an artificial product of man's +invention? Is it not logical to conclude from the record of invention's +influence that it was man's inventions that brought into existence the +artificial condition of law and order which existed in France prior to +1793, and that it was also man's inventions that restored it afterward? +Three ideas were conceived in France and developed into the Revolution: +these ideas were the principles of equality, of the sovereignty of +the people and of nationality. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the +Congress of Vienna met to readjust the affairs of Europe. The Congress +seems to have conceived the idea of preventing the carrying out of +those principles as their first starting point, and to have developed +that idea with fixed determination. The Commissioners endeavored +to restore everything to its condition before the Revolution, and +to discredit the principles conceived and developed in France. +They succeeded in accomplishing their intent, so far as remaking +political boundaries, etc., was concerned; but they did not succeed in +discrediting the principles. A great picture had been made in the minds +of men, and the Commissioners could not wipe it out. As a result, three +revolutions took place in 1820, 1830 and 1848, of which the second was +more important than the first, and the third was more important than +the second. + +Shortly after the fall of Napoleon, the Czar Alexander, with the +emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia, invented the Holy Alliance. +It was in pretense an alliance to advance the cause of religion, and to +reduce to practice in political affairs the teachings of Christ; but +it was in intention a league against the spread of the ideas embodied +in the French Revolution. The League was not successful in the end, +for the picture of liberty made in the minds of men was too brilliant +and too deeply printed to be wiped out. One of the results of the Holy +Alliance was the invention by the United States of the Monroe Doctrine +which was made to prevent that intervention in affairs on the American +continent which the proceedings of the Alliance foreshadowed. + +Italy was very harshly treated by the Congress of Vienna, two of her +largest provinces in the north being given to Austria, who forthwith +proceeded then to try to control the entire peninsula. In 1820, a +revolution broke out in Italy, but it was soon suppressed. Another +broke out in 1830, simultaneous with that in France; and this was also +suppressed. The third, in 1848, met a similar fate. But the revolutions +in France were successful; the one of 1848 resulting in the formation +of a republic. At the same time, a sympathetic revolution in Germany +was in a measure successful also. + +In Germany, the formation of the German Confederation in 1815 by the +Congress of Vienna was the formation of a kind of political body that +has never lasted long; for no political body has ever lasted long, +except an actual and definite nation. The various components of the +German Confederation were too loosely bound together. This invention, +like others of mechanical machines, was not a practical invention +because the machine invented was too easily thrown out of adjustment. +The Customs Union was invented in 1828 to supply the necessary element +of coherency. It was hardly adequate for its task, at the time; but +it made the people think of national union; an idea that was finally +developed in 1871. + +In Russia, considerable progress was made from 1800 to 1850, though +not so much as in the countries farther west. An adequate reason would +seem to be that there were too few minds, in proportion to the entire +population, that were able to conceive and develop the ideas that are +needed to make progress. + +During this half-century, while the names of many men stand out as +having done constructive work in invention and discovery, and while +many great statesmen existed, the names of three statesmen stand out +more brightly than the rest: Pitt, Talleyrand and Metternich. Each +had the mind to conceive, develop and produce; and each did conceive, +develop and produce. Of the three, William Pitt was, according to +almost any accepted standard by far the greatest, and Talleyrand was +second. Without the force and guidance of such a mind as Pitt possessed +and utilized, it is hard to estimate what would have been the rôle of +England in the Napoleonic wars, and what would have been her fate. In +the actual course of events, it was England that announced the "mate in +four moves" to Napoleon at Trafalgar, and that finally checkmated him +at Waterloo. True, Pitt died long before Waterloo; but the policy which +he conceived and developed was the policy which was followed; and the +influence of his mind lived in almost unabated strength after his poor, +frail body had ceased to live. + +Talleyrand seems to have been what I have asked permission to call +an "opportunistic inventor"; quick to conceive, develop and produce +plans for meeting difficult situations as they arose, but without +any ultimate objective, or any moral or other principles of any +kind. Metternich, on the other hand, though lacking the brilliancy +of Talleyrand, exerted his talents devotedly to the interests of his +country, as he saw them. But he failed to realize how deep the ideas +of the French Revolution had been engraved in the minds of men, and +finally saw the Machine of the Austrian Government almost destroyed +in 1848. He himself was forced to flee; and the Emperor was forced to +abdicate in favor of his nephew, who granted the people a Constitution, +in order to save the Machine. In Prussia, affairs went almost as far +as in Austria, though not nearly so far as in France. The Machine in +Prussia was saved by the promise of the granting of a constitution. + +The main ultimate political result of the agitations of all kinds +during the half century 1800 to 1850, was the granting to greater +numbers of people of a part in directing the affairs of State. In +France, the whole Machine of Civilization had been menaced with +destruction in the years just previous to 1800; but destruction had +not resulted, and actual improvement had been begun by 1800, though in +an experimental and tentative way. During the fifty years now under +consideration, the idea conceived and developed in France spread to all +other civilized countries; and in all those countries it exercised its +benignant influence, especially in the new nation across the Atlantic, +the United States of America. Reciprocally, the news of the formation +of that republic, and the adoption of its Constitution in 1787, had +exercised considerable influence in giving support to the idea of the +people of France, although the United States of America was very far +away indeed, and her experiment in government was as yet untried. +Then, as the years went by, between 1800 and 1850, and as the American +experiment became increasingly successful, and as the ocean steamships +brought prompt and adequate information about all of its developments, +the American idea joined with the French idea, to advance the cause of +government by the people. + +It may be pointed out here that the discoveries in the physical +sciences and the utilization of those discoveries in the invention of +material instruments and mechanisms were more fruitful in creations +of a permanent and definite character than were the achievements of +statesmen, generals, admirals and "opportunistic inventors" in general. +The same remark is true of discoveries and inventions in systems of +government, ethics and religion. These also have developed monuments +of extraordinary permanency; witness, for instance, the inventions +of the kingdom, of democracy and of the Buddhist, Shinto, Taoist, +Jewish, Christian and Mohammedan religions. The distinctive feature in +securing permanency seems to have been the intent to secure it. The +sudden conception, development and production of a campaign, political +maneuvre or business enterprise, seems to have produced a creature +that was merely a temporary expedient, adapted only to meet emergencies +that themselves were temporary. + +This does not mean that the influence of these temporary expedients +has not sometimes been great: it does not mean, for instance, that the +influence of the victory at Salamis was not great. It does not mean +to deny the plain fact that it has been the succession of the results +of temporary expedients that has brought affairs to the condition in +which they are today. It does mean, however, that the actual pieces +of the existing Machine of Civilization are the permanent inventions +which have been made; while the opportunistic inventions have in some +cases prevented, and in other cases have furthered, the making of +those inventions, and the incorporation of them in the Machine. The +invention of printing, for instance, produced an actual part of the +Machine; while the successful wars waged by civilized nations with +the gun against savages, barbarians and peoples of a lower order of +civilization, made possible the further development of printing, +and its continual use in upbuilding the Machine. The use of the +opportunistic inventions seems to have been in assisting the inventors +of permanent creations and in directing the efforts of the operators of +the Machine. + +An analogue can be found in the case of the invention, development and +operation of the smaller machines of every-day life: the inventor of +each machine merely invents that machine; when he has done this his +work is virtually finished. When his machine is put to work (say, an +electric railroad) the operators carry on the various routine tasks; +just as the president of a bank operates his bank, or the president +of a nation administers the affairs of the nation. But there arise +occasions when something goes wrong, when something besides supplying +coal and oil and electricity is necessary for the successful running +of the railroad, when something more than routine administration is +required of the president of the bank, or the president of the nation. +Then the ingenious and bright mechanic or electrician invents a +practical scheme for circumventing the difficulty with the railroad; or +Napoleon invents a campaign to save the French Republic. + +In 1855 Taupenot made the important invention of dry-plate photography, +by which dry plates can be prepared and kept ready for use when needed, +and Michaux invented the bicycle. Both of these were fairly important +contributions of a practical kind; so was Woodruff's invention of the +sleeping-car, and so was Perkins's discovery of aniline dyes, both of +which came in 1856. None of these was a brilliant invention, though +each was a useful one. But they were immediately followed by one of +a high order of brilliancy and usefulness, Siemens's regenerative +furnace, in which the waste heat of the combustion gases was utilized +to heat the air or gas just entering. In the same year, Kingsland +invented a refining engine for use in making paper pulp. In the +following year the first ocean-going iron-clad ship of war, _La +Gloire_, appeared, and in 1858 the first cable car, invented by E. A. +Gardner. + +In the same year Giffard invented his famous injector, which performs +the feat (seemingly impossible at first thought) of using steam at +a certain pressure in a boiler to force water into that same boiler +against its own pressure! The explanation of course is that the area +of the stream of water that enters the boiler is less than the area of +the stream of steam that leaves the boiler. This invention was one of a +very high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction +and usefulness of final product. It was a valuable contribution to the +Machine. + +In the same year Cyrus Field of New York succeeded in laying the first +Atlantic cable between Ireland and Newfoundland. It is difficult to +declare whether this achievement constituted an invention or not, and +it may not be so classed by many people. Nevertheless, it created +something that had not existed before, and it progressed by the same +three stages of conception, development and production by which all +inventions progress. It was a contribution of enormous value to the +Machine, moreover; for though the first cable was not a practical +success, and though the second cable broke while being laid in 1865, it +was recovered and re-laid and afterward operated successfully. Since +that time, submarine cables have been multiplied to such an extent +that there were more than 1800 in operation in 1917, and they formed +a network under all the seas. Such important parts of the Machine of +Civilization have these submarine cables become that the Machine as it +is could not exist without them. That is, it could not have existed +before the wireless telegraph came. The wireless telegraph has made the +Machine less dependent on submarine cables than it was before, and yet +not wholly independent. + +In 1858 the _Great Eastern_ was launched, the largest steamship built +up to that time. The case of the _Great Eastern_ is interesting from +the fact that she was too large to fit in the Machine as it then +existed, and that by the time that the Machine had grown large enough +the _Great Eastern_ was obsolete! + +About 1859, Kirchhoff and Bunsen invented the spectroscope, an optical +instrument for forming and analyzing the spectra of the rays emitted +by bodies and substances. In 1860 Gaston Planté invented his famous +"secondary battery," formed by passing an electric current through +a cell composed of two sheets of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric +acid, the two sheets separated by non-conducting strips of felt. The +acid being decomposed, hydrogen formed on one plate, while oxygen +attacked the other plate and formed peroxide of lead. There being +now two dissimilar metals in an acid solution, a Voltaic battery had +been created, that gave a current which passed through the liquid in +a direction the reverse of the current ("charging current") that had +caused the change. Planté's secondary battery was an important and +practical contribution to the Machine; but the credit for the basic +invention does not belong to Planté, but to Sir William Grove, who +had invented the "Grove's gas battery." In this battery, two plates +of platinum were immersed in dilute acid, and submitted to a charging +current that decomposed the liquid and formed an actual though +practically ineffective "secondary battery"; the two elements being +oxygen and hydrogen. + +In the next year Philip Reis invented the singing telephone, by which +he could transmit _musical tones_ over considerable distances. Whether +or not Philip Reis invented the speaking telephone has been a much +controverted question, for the reason that speech was occasionally +transmitted over Reis's telephone,--though not by intention. The +invention that Reis conceived, developed and produced was a singing +telephone only; the apparatus by which he sometimes transmitted speech +was his singing telephone, slightly disadjusted. That Reis should have +failed to invent the telephone is amazing, in the same sense that it is +amazing that Galileo did not invent the thermometer and the barometer; +and the fact is extremely instructive in enabling us to see distinctly +what constitutes invention. To make an invention, a man must himself +create a thing that is new, and produce it in a concrete form, such +that "persons skilled in the art can make and use it." Reis did not +do this: and yet Philip Reis's telephone could be made to speak in +a few seconds, by simply turning a little thumb-screw! Reis did not +know this, and consequently could not give the information to "persons +skilled in the art." Reis did not invent the speaking telephone, +for the fundamental reason that his original conception, although +correct for his singing telephone, was wholly incorrect for a speaking +telephone; because the speaking telephone requires a continuous +current, while Reis's conception included an intermittent current. + +Apologies are tendered for going into what may seem a technicality +at such great length; but the author wishes to utilize this example +to emphasize the importance of the original conception, the image +pictured on the mind by the imagination. This original conception is +of paramount importance in making inventions, not only of material +mechanisms, but of all other things that can be invented, such as +religions, laws, systems of government, campaigns, books, paintings, +etc., etc. The final product cannot be better than the original +conception, except by chance; for even if the development be absolutely +perfect, the invention finally brought forth can be only equal to the +original conception. It is obvious that the simpler the invention +is the more easily it can be made equal to the original conception, +and vice versâ. For this reason the stethoscope is a more efficient +embodiment of the original conception than is that very inefficient +product--the steam engine. + +The fact that the final product cannot be better than the original +conception (except by chance) is the bottom reason for placing men +of fine minds at the head of important organizations. It is the +ideas conceived by the man at the head in any walk of life, that are +developed by his assistants: at least, this is the intention, in all +organizations, and the only efficient procedure. We see an analogue in +the actual life of every individual. Now the conception is the work +of the imagination, and not of the reasoning faculties: the reasoning +faculties develop and construct what the imagination conceives. It +is because of this that men of fine mentality sometimes devote their +talents to evil ends: their imaginations have conceived evil pictures. +Sometimes this is the result of a bad environment in childhood. The +environment of Talleyrand's childhood, for instance, caused the +conception in his imagination of evil aims. + +In 1860 Carré made the important invention of the manufacture of ice +with the use of ammonia. In 1861 Craske improved stereotyping by +making it possible to reproduce curved printing plates from flat forms +of type. Green invented the driven-well in the same year, and McKay +invented the shoe-sewing machine. + +The most important event of 1861 was the outbreak of the Civil War in +America, when the invention of the American Constitution was put to +its severest test. It had been known ever since the adoption of the +Constitution that the instrument was faulty in not defining clearly the +relative rights of the Federal Government and the separate states; but +it had been found impossible to secure the assent of a sufficiently +large body of citizens to any proposition that defined them clearly; +and so the machine of Government had operated for nearly three-quarters +of a century, with the disquieting knowledge in the minds of its +operators that conditions might put it to a test that would break it +down, and perhaps destroy it totally. The most dangerous condition +was seen to be the one associated with the question of slavery in +the Southern States. This question, and the consequent condition of +antagonism between the North and the South, became rapidly worse during +the period from 1846 to 1861, when war between them finally broke out. + +The war was ultimately decided in favor of the North, despite the fact +that the South was much the better prepared; in fact, that the North +was wholly unprepared. The main weakness in the Confederate situation +was the fact that cotton was virtually the only product with which she +could raise money for feeding and equipping her army, that she had to +get the equipments from Europe, and that the line of communication to +Europe was across the Atlantic Ocean, 3000 miles wide. The weakness +seemed, during a period of about twenty-four hours, to be removed by +the invention of the iron-clad _Merrimac_; for the _Merrimac_ destroyed +the _Cumberland_ and _Congress_, two of the finest warships on the +Union side, without the slightest difficulty in one forenoon, and +threatened the destruction of all the other Union ships. The Union +ships having been destroyed or made to flee to port, complete freedom +from blockade of the Confederate coast would follow immediately. The +_Monitor_ had been invented years before; but no steps had been taken +to build her, despite the insistence of the great inventing engineer, +John Ericsson. News of the work of constructing the _Merrimac_ had +reached the North, however, and stimulated the northern imagination +to the extent that it was able to see in the _Monitor_ a savior (and +the only savior) from the _Merrimac_. By the exercise of amazing +engineering skill, Ericsson constructed his invention with such speed +and precision that the _Monitor_ was able to meet and defeat the +_Merrimac_ the very day after she had destroyed the Union ships. + +The result was an immediate and absolute reversal of conditions. It +was the North now that controlled the sea and the South that was to be +blockaded. And not only this; for the fact that the North possessed a +warship that was not only the most formidable in the world, but was of +such simple construction that many of them could be launched in a very +short time, showed to those European powers who were deliberating as to +whether or not they should recognize the Confederacy, the futility of +their attempting to carry into effect on the American coast any naval +policy of a character unfriendly to the United States. The victory of +the _Monitor_ was the announcement of the "mate in four moves." Victory +for the South became immediately impossible, no matter how long the +final checkmate might be delayed. We know, of course, that checkmate +was delayed until April 9, 1865, when Lee surrendered to Grant at +Appomattox. + +In few cases has the influence of invention on history shone more +clearly than in the case of the _Monitor_. The _Monitor_ was the +deciding factor in the Civil War. This does not mean that the _Monitor_ +alone won the Civil War. No one event or person or maneuver won the +Civil War: for the Civil War was won by the resultant effect of many +events, persons and maneuvers. It does mean, however, that the victory +of the _Monitor_ made it virtually impossible for the issue to be +otherwise than it eventually was; provided, of course, that a course of +conduct not wholly unreasonable was pursued by the North. All the other +factors in the war were what might be called usual: the _Monitor_ alone +was unusual. The _Monitor's battle was the only battle in which the +light of genius shone, on either side_. + +The _Monitor's_ victory emphasizes a truth previously pointed out +in this book: the truth that the influence of invention has been to +advance the cause of civilization, by giving victory in wars, as a +rule, to the side possessing the higher civilization. This was clearly +the case in our Civil War; for the South was far more an agricultural +and primitive community than the North. It was for this reason that +Ericsson lived in the North. We can hardly imagine Ericsson coming +from England and going to live in the South; for the simple reason that +Ericsson, the dynamic, inventive Ericsson, could not possibly have +lived a life even approximately satisfying to him in the South. There +was no opportunity in the South for him to exercise his powers. It has +been said sometimes that the _Monitor_ might have been produced by the +South, and the _Merrimac_ by the North. Of course, anything is possible +that is not wholly impossible; but history shows that inventions have, +as a rule, been produced by people like those of the North, and not by +people like those of the South. + +The influence of invention on history has been to bring about such +victories as that of the _Monitor_ over the _Merrimac_; and the +influence of those victories has been to enhance the advantages +possessed by the more highly civilized. Furthermore, the victory of the +more civilized has given civilization greater assurance in its struggle +to go still higher, just as defeat has made it pause and sometimes +retreat. The issue of the Civil War, for instance, was more than a +victory over slavery and the tendency to dissipation of energy by a +division into two parts of the forces of the country; for it removed +permanently a highly injurious obstruction and started the rejuvenated +republic along that career of progress which it has followed since so +valiantly. + +In 1861 E. G. Otis invented the passenger elevator. Possibly this was +not an invention of the first order of brilliancy, but certainly it +was an invention of the first order of utility. Can anyone imagine +the New York of today without passenger elevators? The Otis elevator +has not made it possible to grow two blades of grass where one +blade grew before; but it has made it possible to operate hotels +and office buildings of more than twice as many stories as could be +operated before. Few inventions have had more immediate influence on +contemporary history than the passenger elevator. + +In the same year was invented the barbed-wire fence. The production +of carbide of calcium followed in 1862, and also the invention of +the Gatling gun. This was the first successful machine gun, and an +invention of a high order of brilliancy of conception, excellence of +construction and practical usefulness. Few inventions have been more +wholly unique than this machine: so beautiful and harmonious and simple +in principle--though devoted superficially merely to the killing and +wounding of men. Like all inventions in the gun class, it contributed +to the self-protectiveness of the Machine. + +An invention in a similar class, smokeless gunpowder was invented by +Schultze in 1863, for use as a sporting powder. Being based on the +action of nitric acid on cellulose, it was somewhat like gun-cotton, +and therefore a chemical compound; rather than a mechanical mixture +like the old gunpowder. It gave out but little smoke when fired. +Smokelessness would be such an obvious advantage in military +operations, that the study of this powder was prosecuted carefully, +with a view to obtaining a smokeless powder suitable for military +purposes. This was accomplished in 1886 by Vieille in France. The +invention of smokeless powder was not one of a high order of brilliancy +for the reason that it was the result of a long series of painstaking +investigations and not of any luminous idea. It was nevertheless a +contribution of the highest usefulness to the self-protectiveness of +the Machine, and therefore to Civilization. + +In 1864 Behel invented the automatic grain binder, an invention of the +same class of practical and concrete usefulness as McCormick's reaper, +and a distinct contribution to the Machine. It expedited the binding +of grain, tended to insure accuracy and efficiency, and stimulated +the agricultural classes to a study of mechanism, and therefore of +physics and the arts depending on it. In other words, this invention +performed the double service that many other inventions have performed, +of contributing to the material necessities of men, and inspiring their +intellects as well. In the following year, Martin invented his process +for improving the manufacture of fine steel. + +In the same year (1865) Lister brought out his method of antiseptic +surgery. It would be difficult to specify any invention which has +contributed more in half a century to the direct welfare of mankind. +It has effected such a change in surgery as to make the surgery before +Lister's time seem almost barbarous. It made a greater change in +surgery than any change ever made before: one is tempted to declare +that it has brought about a greater change in surgery than all the +previous changes put together. Now, it is interesting to realize +that all these changes, extending over all the civilized world, and +affecting countless human beings, were caused by "a mere idea." They +were caused by a picture made by the imagination of Lister on his +mental retina, that must have covered a very small area of his brain. +It is interesting also to realize that if that part of his brain +had become impaired from any cause, the picture could not have been +imprinted there. And was his brain always in condition to receive +such a picture, or only seldom? Knowing as we do that even the most +brilliant minds are brilliant only rarely, may we not infer that +conditions of the brain permitting such pictures as this of Lister +occur but rarely? + +It was also in 1865 that Bullock invented his web-feeding printing +press, and Dodge invented the automatic shell-ejector for firearms. +In 1866 Siemens and Martin invented the open-hearth process for steel +making, Burleigh the compressed air rock-drill, and Whitehead the +automobile torpedo. + +The Whitehead torpedo was an invention of the highest order of +brilliancy of conception; but, unlike many other inventions of this +class, it has been a matter of the utmost difficulty to develop it. The +possible usefulness suggested was so great that the principal European +nations, especially the Germans and English, went about its development +at once; but the practical difficulties encountered were so many and so +great, and the opportunities of testing out its usefulness in actual +warfare were so few, that it was not until after its successful and +important use in the war between Russia and Japan in 1904-1905, that +the torpedo was accepted as a major weapon. This invention is one of +the most important contributions ever made to the self-protectivity +of the Machine of Civilization; not only because of its immediate +usefulness in war, but because its complexity necessitates such skill +and knowledge in the operators, and its cost is so great, that only +the most wealthy and highly civilized nations are able to use it +successfully. As has been pointed out repeatedly in this book, one of +the influences of invention on history has been to urge nations to a +high degree of civilization, under pain of greater or less subjection +to nations more highly civilized. + +In 1866 Wilde in England and Siemens in Germany invented dynamo +electric machines, in which the magnetic field was made, not by +permanent steel magnets, but by electro-magnets of soft iron that were +energized by the current which the machine itself produced. This was +an invention of the utmost practical value; but who was the actual +inventor does not seem to be exactly known. Its main value is in its +ability to produce a much more powerful current than could be produced +when using permanent magnets; caused by the fact that electro-magnets +can create a "magnetic field" much stronger than steel magnets can. + +In 1867 Tilghman invented his sulphite process for pulp making, and in +1868, Moncrief invented his famous disappearing gun-carriage. This was +an invention requiring a high order of conception and constructiveness; +it resulted in a considerable improvement in the art of sea-coast +defense, and therefore in the self-protectiveness of the Machine, by +keeping the guns safe behind fortifications except when actually being +fired. Moncrief's carriage, although originally very good, has been +improved upon from time to time; whenever the progress of the mechanic +arts has made it possible, and some inventor has realized the fact. + +Attention is here requested to the last clause in the last sentence. As +civilization has progressed and various inventions have been made, the +whole field of possible future invention has been narrowed, but a field +of clear though limited opportunity has been mapped out. Each invention +narrows the field by removing the opportunities for making that +especial invention: after the printing press had been invented, for +instance, the number of possible inventions was reduced by one; but see +what a field for future invention was mapped out, and what immeasurable +opportunities were suggested! Nevertheless, opportunity does not +produce inventions, it merely invites them; and we have occasionally +noted in this book that the opportunity to make a certain invention +had existed for ages before it was realized: for instance, the +sewing-machine and the little stethoscope. + +In 1868 Sholes invented what is usually considered the first practical +typewriting machine. The machine that Thurber had invented in 1843 had +never been developed to a practical stage, and, consequently, it was +not itself a direct contribution to the Machine. Whether it paved the +way for Sholes's is a debatable point; if it did, it was an indirect +contribution, like Hero's engine. Not for several years after 1868 +did the typewriter take its place in the Machine: but now it plays an +exceedingly useful, if not conspicuous, part in making it operate day +after day. + +In the same year Nobel contributed another of his notable inventions, +and called it dynamite. It was the development of an exceedingly +brilliant and original idea; and, as often happens with conceptions +of that kind, it was easily developed into a concrete, usable and +useful thing. It consisted merely in mixing nitro-glycerin with +about an equal quantity of very finely divided earth. The resulting +mixture was much less sensitive to shock and therefore much safer to +handle than nitro-glycerin. It supplied the factor needed to render +the utilization of nitro-glycerin possible, and therefore it was a +valuable contribution to the Machine. In the same year, Mege invented +oleomargarine, a comparatively inexpensive substitute for butter, and +therefore an important factor in furthering the health and comfort of +the poorer classes and a considerable forward step. + +Shortly after 1866, Mrs. Eddy declared to many people that she had made +a discovery which enabled her to cure the sick with Divine aid, and +without the use of drugs. She healed many people and gradually gathered +followers. In a few years, she developed a religion that is now called +Christian Science; and in 1875 she published a book called "Science +and Health, with Key to the Scriptures." Since then, the number of her +followers has increased enormously, and Christian Science Churches +have been erected in all the civilized countries of the world. Though +the doctrines of Christian Science have not been accepted by many +Christians, the great opposition directed toward them at first has now +been largely overcome; and it is admitted by most fair-minded people +that Christian Science seems to have made an important contribution to +the spiritual, mental and physical welfare of mankind. + +In 1868, Westinghouse made his epochal invention, the railway +air-brake. It was the result of a brilliant mental conception that +was put into practical form without very serious difficulty. At first +sight, this invention might not be considered of very great importance, +because one might assume that its only office was to prevent collisions +and consequent loss of life and property. Doubtless that was its only +direct effect; but its indirect effect was to increase the confidence +of the people in the safety of railway travel, consequently the number +of people who traveled, consequently the prosperity of the railway +companies, consequently the faith of people in railway investments, +consequently the number and magnitude of railway projects, consequently +the number and length of railways, consequently the speed and general +excellence of transportation and communication over the land in every +civilized country, and consequently the coherency and operativeness of +the entire Machine. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +INVENTION OF THE MODERN MILITARY MACHINE, TELEPHONE, PHONOGRAPH, AND +PREVENTIVE MEDICINE + + +In 1866, one of the most important inventions of history was put to +test, in a war between Austria and Prussia. The invention was the +Prussian Military Machine, of which the inventor was von Moltke, the +Chief of Staff of the Prussian Army. Moltke was not the original +inventor of the Military Machine, any more than Watt was the original +inventor of the steam engine; but he was the inventor of the modern +Military Machine, just as Watt was the inventor of the modern +reciprocating steam-engine. + +Moltke had been made Chief of Staff in 1858, and had proceeded at once +to embody an idea that his mind had conceived some years before. This +idea was to utilize all the new inventions of every kind that had +been made, especially in weapons, transportation and communication; +and to continue to utilize all new inventions as each reached the +useful stage, in such a way that the Prussian Army would be an actual +weapon, which could be handled with all the quickness and precision +that the products of modern civilization could impart to it. Philip of +Macedon, Julius Cæsar, and Frederick William of Prussia evidently had +had similar ideas; but no one after them, save Moltke, seems to have +realized fully that armies and navies must utilize all the new methods +and appliances that can be made to assist their operations, if those +armies and navies are to attain their maximum effectiveness. It is +true that no very great changes in arms or in methods of transportation +and communication had recently taken place, at the time when Napoleon +went to war; but this only emphasizes the new conditions with which +Moltke was confronted, and the courage and resourcefulness with which +he met them. + +Moltke's Machine was, of course, much more comprehensive and detailed +than the paragraph above would indicate; but almost every machine, +after it has been perfected, is comprehensive and detailed, even if +the original idea was simple. It is true also that the direct means +which Moltke employed to perfect his Machine was to train officers to +solve independently certain problems in strategy and tactics, just as +children at school were taught to solve problems in arithmetic. It +is true also that more attention has usually been fixed on Moltke's +system of training than on his utilization of inventions, and it may +be true that Moltke himself fixed more attention on it. But the idea +of training officers as he did, seems also to have been original with +Moltke; and it is certain that Moltke was the first to develop such a +system, and therefore, that he was the inventor of that system. + +We see, therefore, that Moltke made two separate inventions, and +combined both in his machine. Both inventions were condemned and +ridiculed, but both succeeded. The result was that, when war was +declared in 1866 between Prussia and Austria, a reputedly greater +nation, the Prussian machine started smoothly but quickly when the +button was pressed, advanced into Austria without the slightest delay +or jar, collided at once with the Austrian machine, and smashed it in +one encounter. This encounter was near Sadowa and Königgrätz, and took +place only seventeen days after war began. The most important single +invention that Moltke had utilized was the breech-loading "needle +gun," a weapon far better than the Austrians had, not only in speed of +loading, but in accuracy. The two armies were not very different in +point of numbers: so that, even if von Moltke's other measures had not +been taken, the superiority of the Prussian musket over the Austrian +must of itself have caused the winning of the war, though not so +quickly as actually was the case. + +But in the war with France, Moltke's machine demonstrated its +effectiveness even more completely, because its task was harder. For +France was esteemed the greatest military nation in the world; it was +the France of Napoleon the Great, then ruled by his nephew Napoleon +III. In the usual sense of the word, the French were a more "military" +people than the Prussians. The Empire of Napoleon III was much more +splendid than the poor little Kingdom of Prussia, the army was more +in evidence, there were more military pageants, the people were more +ardent. But the military leaders of the French included no such +inventor as von Moltke, there was no one who conceived any such ideas +as were pictured in Moltke's imaginative brain; and consequently it +never occurred to anyone to utilize strenuously all the new inventions, +or to train officers like school boys, in the practical problems of +war. The result was that Moltke's machine got into France before the +French machine had been even put together. The pieces of the French +machine had not been got together even when the war ended. When war +was declared by France, her military machine was in three parts. Two +of them got together fairly quickly, so that the French machine was +soon divided into only two parts; one under Marshal Bazaine, and the +other under Marshal McMahon. But Moltke's machine was together at the +start, and it stayed together throughout the war. This does not mean +that all its parts stood in the same spot; but it does mean that the +parts were always in supporting distance of each other. The two parts +of the French machine were not in supporting distance of each other, +and the German machine prevented them from uniting. When McMahon and +Bazaine tried to unite, McMahon was defeated at Wörth, and Bazaine at +Gravelotte. McMahon was forced to surrender his entire force, including +the emperor at Sedan; and Bazaine was shut up in Metz. Paris was then +besieged. Bazaine was soon forced to surrender and Paris to capitulate. + +The main immediate result was the establishment of the German Empire. +A later result was the establishment of what is sometimes called +militarism. Of the two, the latter was probably the more important +in future consequences; for the influence of Moltke's conception of +military preparedness has been to make all civilized nations keep up +enormous and highly organized military and naval establishments, under +pain of being caught unprepared for war and beaten to subjection. + +The German Empire has vanished, but militarism has not vanished. There +seem to be no signs that it will soon vanish, for it is simply part +of a general preparedness movement that embraces many fields of life, +that is necessitated by the existence of this cumbrous Machine of +Civilization, and that is advanced by the realization that everyone +must cultivate foresight. The physicians tell us, the financiers tell +us, the lawyers tell us, the clergymen tell us, even the business men +of every day and the housewives tell us that we must continually look +ahead and continually prepare to meet what may be coming. Now this is +what Militarism urges as applied to the coming of war. Militarism is +the doctrine of preparedness for war; it holds the same relation to +national health that preventive medicine does to individual health. +It would make us do many unpleasant things, and refrain from doing +many pleasant things. But to do many unpleasant things and to refrain +from doing many pleasant things is necessary, in order to lead even a +moderately virtuous and prudent life. Militarism may be pushed to an +undue extreme; but so may any course of conduct. + +It may be interesting to note that Moltke was not an "opportunistic +inventor," like most men of action typified by Napoleon, but that +Bismarck was. Moltke made inventions of a permanent nature, but +Bismarck did not. Yet Moltke was a soldier and Bismarck was a +statesman. Bismarck's German Empire has already passed away, but +Moltke's method of preparedness is with us still, and is gathering +more and more prestige as the years go by. Judged by the standard of +permanent achievement, Moltke was a greater man than Bismarck; though +a belief to the contrary was held during their lifetimes, and is +generally held by most men now. + +In 1870, Gramme invented the famous Gramme dynamo-electric machine, +which was so excellent a machine for producing a smooth and +unidirectional electric current, that it gave the start to that +wonderful succession of electrical inventions which established the Age +of Electricity. The main part of Gramme's machine was a modification +of the Pacinnoti ring, invented by Pacinnoti in 1862, which seems +never to have been put to practical use, and never to have been heard +of by Gramme. The Pacinnoti ring consisted of a ring around which +a continuous coil of wire was wound. This ring being rotated in a +magnetic field, the various parts of the wire at any instant lay at +different angles to the lines of force, instead of at the same angle to +them, as was the case with the flat coil of previous dynamo machines. +The result was that some coil was always cutting the magnetic +lines-of-force at the maximum speed, while others were cutting them +at varying speeds, down to zero; so that the aggregate of all was +approximately the same at all instants. The result was that the current +was nearly uniform in strength. The influence of this invention on +subsequent history need hardly be pointed out; for it is impressed on +us every day and every night, in every part of the civilized world. + +In the same epochal year that ushered in the Franco-Prussian War and +the Gramme machine, the Hyatts invented celluloid. The invention was of +the simplest character, involving mainly the compression of camphorated +gun-cotton by hydraulic or other force. This was not a great invention, +but a useful one; making it possible to fabricate many useful articles +at low cost. + +In the following year of 1871, Goodyear invented his welt shoe-sewing +machine and Maddox made his epochal discovery. This was that when +nitrate of silver was added to a solution of gelatine in water +containing a soluble bromide, silver bromide was formed, which did +not subside even after long standing; that the emulsion could be made +quickly and in large quantities, and that by thus substituting gelatine +for collodion on the surface of glass plates used in photography, +greater sensitiveness, and therefore, greater speed could be obtained. +This led to an important improvement, and paved the way to others, and +thus became the basis of rapid photography. + +By 1871 the work of several inventors had produced a press that printed +an endless sheet of paper on both sides and folded it automatically. +In the same year Ingersoll invented his compressed air rock drill. +In 1872, Lyall invented his positive-motion weaving loom, and Clerk +Maxwell propounded his electro-magnetic theory of light. According +to this theory, luminous and electric disturbances are the same in +kind, the same medium transmits both, and light is an electro-magnetic +phenomenon. This was a most important invention in the field of +physical science, and is now accepted by the majority of scientists. It +is not so applicable to the needs of men at the present moment as the +weaving loom; but in the future, it may be more so. + +In the same year, Westinghouse invented an improvement on his original +air-brake that made it automatic under some conditions, and in the +following year Janney invented the automatic car-coupler. Both of these +were brilliant inventions, though not nearly so brilliant as Clerk +Maxwell's. They were immeasurably more important, however, from the +standpoint of material contributions to the Machine. One result was +that the inventors were immeasurably more rewarded in a material way +than was that great mathematical physicist, Clerk Maxwell. + +In the same year of Our Lord, 1873, Willis invented his platinotype +photographic process, in which finely divided platinum forms an image +virtually permanent, and Edison invented his duplex telegraph. This +was the first of those wonderful inventions that made Edison famous; +and it embodied possibly as brilliant an idea as he ever conceived. +The principle was exceedingly simple, and consisted merely in using +currents that increased in strength as the key was pressed to actuate +an ordinary electro-magnet for one message, and using currents whose +direction was reversed when the key was pressed, to actuate a polarized +relay for another message. By combining this scheme with one long +before proposed, of putting the receiving instruments across the arms +of a Wheatstone Bridge, the entire system could be duplicated, and two +messages sent at the same time in each direction. This, of course, +constituted quadruplex telegraphy. + +In the same year, Gorham invented the twine-binder for harvesters, +Bennett improved the gelatine-bromide process of Maddox; and Locke and +Wood invented the self-binding reaper. In 1874, Glidden and Vaughan +invented a machine for making barbed wire, and Sir William Thomson +invented his super-excellent siphon-recorder for receiving messages +over the Atlantic cable. This invention combined the three elements +that constitute a great invention; brilliancy of conception, excellence +of construction and concrete product. It was of immediate usefulness +also, which a great invention may not necessarily be. But Sir William +Thomson was a "canny Scot," a good mechanic, and a man of the world, +as well as a mathematical physicist of the highest order; with the +result that even on his loftiest flights, he held tight to a string +that connected him to the earth, and that kept his flights within +the regions of the practical and immediate. His siphon-recorder was +very much more sensitive to electric currents than any recorder ever +invented before; a quality which made feebler currents utilizable, +decreased induction and therefore increased speed. Coming when it +did, and coming because Sir William Thomson saw a need for it, it +was a great and important contribution to submarine telegraphy, and +therefore to the Machine; for the Machine has now become very large +and complicated, and needed the best possible communication among its +various parts. Some of these parts were far distant from each other. + +In the following year, 1875, Brown invented his cash-carrier. This +was not so brilliant or important an invention as Sir William +Thomson's; but it can hardly be doubted that a hundred thousand +times as many cash-carriers and their children, cash-registers, have +been made as siphon-recorders. In the same year, Lowe invented his +illuminating water-gas; Wegmann his roller flour mills; Smith his +middlings purifier for flour; and Pictet his ice-machine. The last +four inventions were of that distinctly practical kind that contribute +directly to the operativeness of the Machine, by facilitating the +conditions of living in large communities, and make great cities +possible. Of the four, the invention of Pictet was the most brilliant +and scientific, and the least directly useful. + +In 1876, Bell made an invention that is usually conceded to be the most +important of modern times, and that was also of the highest order of +brilliancy of conception, excellence of construction and concreteness +of result. The invention was that of the speaking telephone. + +The telephone is not in the class with the actual doers of things, +like the weaving machine and the gun, but rather in the class with +the telegraph and the typewriter, in being an assistant to the doers +of things: that is, it is an instrument rather than a machine. This +does not mean that a machine is more important than an instrument, +though possibly machines have done more work directly in furthering +civilization than instruments have. A machine does something itself; +an instrument is a means or agency or implement with which men do +something. As a class, machines have probably been more directly useful +than instruments; but this does not mean, of course, that any machine +that one may name has been more useful than any instrument. A machine +(generally speaking) does only one class of work; the sewing-machine, +for instance, does no work save sewing; while such an instrument as +the telephone is an aid to men in directing the work of thousands of +machines. + +It may be pointed out here that, in the broad meaning of the word +instrument, every machine that does actual work is an instrument in the +hands of men for doing that work; but that every instrument is not +necessarily a machine. A machine, by definition, is composed of various +parts that work together to a common end, and it carries with it the +ideas of movement and of power. An instrument, on the other hand, need +not be composed of more than one part; it may of itself be incapable of +moving or exerting power; and yet, in the hands of men and women, it +may be the means of doing the most useful work. A familiar illustration +among many is the needle. + +Now the telephone can hardly be called a machine: it can of itself do +nothing. It is not like an engine that can do work hour after hour, +without external interposition, supervision or assistance. Yet, for +the reason that the only value of a machine lies in the fact that it +is an instrument whereby men can get results, an instrument is not +necessarily in a lower class than a machine. + +The essential value of the telephone seems to lie in the fact that the +Machine has become so complicated, and composed of so many separate +parts, that, without the telephone, those parts would not be adequately +linked together. The telephone, like the telegraph, acts in the Machine +of Civilization as do the nerves in the human organism. The human +organism could not be an organism without the nervous system; and +the present Machine could not exist in its present form without the +telegraph and the telephone. These two instruments have so greatly +improved the Machine as to raise it toward the dignity of an organism. +They have not made it an organism, because they have not endowed it +with life. They have, however, raised it to the dignity of an automatic +machine, by supplying such a ready and sure means of conveying +information and instructions, that a blow to the Machine anywhere is +felt everywhere, and assistance to the part attacked can be summoned +from everywhere. + +Illustrations of this can be seen the most clearly in our large cities, +in which information concerning a fire, or a riot, or an accident is +transmitted instantly to all parts of the city; and fire engines, +police or ambulances are sent in response thereto. Illustrations +covering wider fields come to mind at once; but they are of the same +character, whether the fields comprise single states or continents +or seas, or the whole surface of the earth. Possibly the best single +illustration is that supplied by the events of the recent World War, in +which the nerves of civilization in every land were kept on the tingle +by the news continually received from the fighting fronts, and measures +were continually taken to meet each situation as it occurred. Australia +and New Zealand and America and Canada and South Africa assisted France +to repel the invader from her soil. + +The influence of the telephone on history has been so great that +history would not be at all as it has been, if the telephone had not +been born. Has this influence been beneficent? Probably, because it +has tied the parts of the Machine together, and made it more coherent. +But it may be well to realize that this very fact has had the effect +of permitting other additions to the Machine; with the result that the +Machine is perhaps no more coherent now than it was when the telephone +was added to it. Furthermore, we must not forget that, although the +influence of each new invention is usually to assist civilization +rather than to assist its enemies, yet we cannot assume that 100% +is exerted on that side, for a considerable percentage is always +exerted on the other side. For instance, the printing press is used to +disseminate harmful teachings, as well as beneficent teachings, the +telephone is used for bad purposes as well as good ones, etc. + +We must not restrict our appreciation of the influence of the telephone +by ignoring the stimulation which it has given to study and experiment, +especially in the physical sciences. People of the present day do not +realize the amazement and excitement caused throughout the world by the +sudden realization of the fact that human speech could be transmitted. +Coming as it did so soon after the invention of the Gramme dynamo, +it waked the minds of men with a sudden start, and opened a dazzling +avenue of anticipation of discoveries and inventions yet to come. Young +men, and especially young men of fine ambition, saw ahead a clear +line of useful and brilliant work; and the colleges and technical +schools were soon thronged with eager youth. A new epoch--the electric +epoch--was at hand. + +The most generally noticed herald of the new epoch was not the +telephone, however, but the "electric candle" invented by Jablochkoff +in 1876, which soon afterward came into use in Paris. This candle +consisted of two parallel sticks of carbon separated by an insulating +substance, made of some refractory material, that fuzed as the carbons +gradually burned away. The two carbons were connected to an electric +circuit that passed from the tip of one carbon to the tip of the other, +causing a brilliant electric arc. To prevent one carbon wasting away +more rapidly than the other, an alternating current was employed. This +great invention is now almost forgotten, because it was soon supplanted +by the present arc-light that is better in many ways. Nevertheless, to +Jablochkoff must be accorded the distinction of being the first to make +electric lighting on a large scale practicable, and to demonstrate the +fact. + +In the same year, an invention of more than doubtful beneficence was +made, a machine for continuously making cigarettes; but this was +balanced in the same year by the inventions of the steam saw-mill and +of Portland cement. + +In the following year came an invention fully as brilliant as the +telephone, though not so useful, the phonograph. It is usually +considered as more brilliant; certainly it was more unexpected. The +idea of transmitting speech was very old, many men had worked on it, +and many were working on it at the time when Bell accomplished it; +but the idea of recording speech was almost undreamed of. Up to the +present moment, it can hardly be said that the phonograph has had great +influence on history; for its main work has been in giving pleasure by +the music it has rendered. We can easily imagine the present Machine, +without the phonograph, but not without the telephone. + +And we cannot imagine the present Machine to exist without the gas +engine, invented the same year by Dr. Otto, that made possible the +use of large units of mechanical power, without the need of boilers +or condensers or other external appliances; for the combustion of the +fuel was carried on inside the engine itself. This invention has been +followed by many others during the forty-five years that have since +gone by, in which oil has taken the place of gas. Petrol or gasolene +has been the oil (or spirit) most used; but engines of the Deisel type, +employing heavy oils, have now come into being in large numbers. + +It is easy to underestimate the influence of the gas-engine, or +oil-engine (usually called the internal combustion engine), as is +proved by the fact that most people do so; despite the evidence of its +importance on all sides, in the shape of submarine vessels, automobiles +and similar vehicles. Its most important single effect has been to +make possible the aeroplane, and all the science and art of aviation, +and the consequent conquest of the air. + +In the same year of 1877, Edison made his great invention, the carbon +telephone transmitter, which increased enormously the effect of the +voice in varying the resistance of a telephone circuit, and thereby +increased the loudness of telephone speech. In the same year, Berliner +invented the induction transmitter, which consisted of a primary coil +of small resistance in circuit with the transmitter and the secondary +coil connected to the outside circuit. These two inventions, added +to Bell's original invention, made the telephone of today--in its +essential features. + +In 1878, Edison produced his incandescent lamp, in which a carbon +filament, enclosed in a bulb exhausted of air, was heated to +incandescence by an electric current. The importance of this invention +need hardly be even mentioned. As to the originality of the conception, +there are many opinions; for several experimenters had been working in +this field, and many brilliant results had been achieved. Important as +this invention was, we can imagine the Machine to exist without it, +though not in quite so perfect and complete a form. Its main use is +its obvious use; though there can be no doubt that the improvement it +wrought in the conditions of comfortable living, and the attractions it +offered to ambitious youths enlisted a large army in the study of the +physical sciences, gave impetus to all the mechanic arts, and assisted +in many important ways the upbuilding of the Machine. + +In 1879, Appleby invented the automatic grain-binder, and Sir William +Crookes made his epochal discovery of cathode rays. This discovery, +like many others of a highly scientific character, was not of immediate +practical value; consisting as it did in the fact that if the poles +of the secondary circuit of a Rhumkorff coil were connected to the two +ends of a glass tube from which nearly all the air (or other gas) had +been exhausted, a stream of electrified particles was projected from +the cathode, or negative pole. These particles were evidently projected +with great violence; for if they struck the side of the tube, they +produced a brilliant illumination there; while if they struck a piece +of metal they developed heat. If the metal were sufficiently thin, it +was melted. Later study of these cathode rays developed the fact that +the stream of charged particles could be deflected by magnetic and +electric fields, thus showing that they had actual physical mass; and +still later studies resulted in that mass being determined, and also +the amount of the electric charges on them. To an individual particle +the name electron was given; and the interesting fact developed that +the mass of an electron is only about one-thousandth that of an atom of +hydrogen. + +This is not very exciting news to men whose time is consumed in the +engrossing occupation of earning a living; but scientific facts have +a curious habit of lurking in the background, sometimes a long while, +and then suddenly stepping up to the footlights in the form of facts +or inventions of a kind that are exceedingly important,--even from the +standpoint of making a living, or at least of enduring the conditions +of living. The study of electrons, for instance led the way to the +discovery of the beneficent X-rays, made in 1895 by Röntgen. + +The first electric railways, like the first railways of any kind, were +laid in mines; for the superiority of electricity over steam for use in +the unventilated spaces of mines was obviously greater than in the open +spaces on the surface. The first one was in the mines at Zankerode in +Germany and was constructed by the famous Siemens Brothers. The first +electric surface railway was built at Berlin in 1879. It was about +three hundred and fifty yards in length, and laid upon wooden sleepers; +an auxiliary rail being fixed midway between the two main rails. The +auxiliary rail carried the electric current, which was taken off by a +brush connected to the electric motor on the car, from which it went +to the rails that acted as the "return." The similarity between this +system and that now used in all our cities is striking, and shows how +practically and scientifically good the first electric railway was. + +To estimate correctly the influence of the invention of the electric +railway would be, of course, impossible, especially on partially +developed countries; for the electric railway assisted greatly in +developing them. It seems possible, however, that the electric +railway may be of not very long life, for the reason that the +internal-combustion-engine possesses the same great advantage of +smokelessness that the electric motor does and makes possible the use +of a much simpler system than electric railways necessitate. The fact +that any invention is displaced by a later one does not, of course, +detract from the merit of the invention displaced, in having supplied +the needed stepping-stone for the other one to rise from. + +In the same year, Foy invented the steam plow, and Lee invented his +magazine rifle. In the following year (1880) Blake invented his +telephone transmitter, an improvement of a practical character over +preceding ones, Greener invented his hammerless gun, and Faure invented +his electric storage battery. + +The Faure storage battery was a very important invention, but not +nearly so important a one as was at first supposed. It was an +improvement on Planté's battery, and consisted mainly in applying red +lead and litharge directly to the positive and negative lead plates, +before sending any charging current through the liquid; thus expediting +the making of the battery very greatly. The invention was hailed with +extravagant rejoicings, even Sir William Thomson being carried away +from his habitual equanimity; but serious practical difficulties soon +developed that are familiar to most of us, and that have never yet been +overcome. + +In 1880, Koch and Eberth isolated the typhoid bacillus, and Sternberg +the pneumonia bacillus. The importance of these two discoveries is not +usually appreciated by any but physicians and those who have suffered +from these diseases and been cured. Even those who have been saved from +having them, especially those in armies who have been saved from having +typhoid fever, fail to realize their debt. But the almost perfect +immunity from typhoid fever enjoyed by all the enormous armies of the +vast World War, compared with the frightful distress and mortality +caused by typhoid fever in previous wars, bears eloquent witness to the +influence of the great discoveries of those tireless investigators. + +It may be pointed out here that of all the inventions and discoveries +ever made, those made in medical and surgical science, especially in +preventive measures, have had more direct and immediate influence on +history than contemporary inventions in any other field, save possibly +religion. For what is history but the life-story of the human race; and +what greater influence can be had than influence upon the health of its +component members? The discoveries and inventions made in the field of +bacteriology especially, by gaining knowledge concerning the unseen and +unheard foes that attack us from within, have lifted civilized man up +to a condition of cleanliness and purity, in comparison with which the +conditions under which our forefathers lived seem almost repulsive. + +It is true that many of these conditions were outcomes of civilization +itself, and that for some of them medicine has merely found the +antidotes. Yet the fact that medicine has found antidotes shows +that medicine has been keeping pace with progress and has invented +measures for preventing the Machine from poisoning itself by a sort +of auto-intoxication. That the Machine is in danger of disruption +by outside and inside forces has been suggested frequently in this +book; so that what seems to be indicated as desirable is a series of +discoveries and inventions that will prevent it. But, in attempting +this, we must not forget that each new discovery or invention adds +another part, that safety devices are sometimes so intricate as to +increase the danger element rather than lessen or prevent it, and that +safety appliances themselves are apt to get out of order, and thus lead +to a false sense of security. These reflections force on our attention +the fallibility of the human, the necessity for continuous study of +all situations as they successively develop, and the solemn fact that +progress is not beneficial of itself; for it may be in the wrong +direction. + +One obvious fact that we have always realized, startles each one of +us occasionally; the fact that "people do not know what is good for +them." The appetites and instincts of undomesticated brutes are said to +be much more trustworthy as guides than those of domesticated brutes +and human beings. We, by cultivating our imaginations and reasoning +powers, and the brutes by being given food and shelter that they +themselves do not have to get, seem to have lost a considerable part +of the instinctive abilities with which we were originally blessed. +With human beings, many objects that most of us aim for are extremely +artificial, and some of them are extremely harmful. An illustration is +the craving for much food and little physical labor,--a craving that is +gratified almost at once by most people suddenly achieving wealth, with +consequences that are always deplorable and are frequently distressing. + +Of course this comes from excessive yielding to our appetites; but +the brutes seem to feel no temptation to excessive yielding; an +undomesticated brute seems to know when he has had enough. We not only +yield, we go further and force our appetites. Possibly this is only +an illustration of the fact that our minds have a sort of inertia, +comparable to the inertia of physical objects; so that when we move +in any direction, we are apt to go too far. That it is a tendency of +human nature to go too far in any line of conduct, when once it is +entered on, the facts of daily life continually testify. What reformer +in public or private life ever knew when to stop; what money maker ever +realized that he had enough money and ceased his efforts to get more? A +small percentage have, but only a small percentage. + +For this reason and others, the human machine and the Machine of +Civilization do not get along together as harmoniously as might be +wished. Though many inventions, especially the basic ones, have been +actually uncontrollable acts of self-expression, many others have been +inspired by motives largely selfish, such as the wish to gain fame, or +power or money (or fame _and_ power _and_ money); and the result is a +Machine that contributes more to man's material well-being than to his +moral, mental or spiritual well-being, and a consequent civilization +that is necessarily artificial. The net effect, however (unless all our +standards are wrong), has been beneficial; for it cannot truthfully +be denied that physically, mentally, morally and spiritually, the +civilized man is better than the savage, and to a degree commensurate +with the degree to which he is civilized. + +Probably most civilized men would agree to this proposition. Probably +most of them would also agree that civilization brings its evil +influences as well as its good influences, that the Machine has been +found vulnerable to destructive influences in the past, that the +ultimate effect must be judged from its influences on human beings, and +that the most beneficent inventions and discoveries have been those +that tend to the safety of the Machine itself and the spiritual, moral, +mental and physical health of the individual humans who comprise its +principal parts. They will therefore applaud such discoveries as those +of Eberth, Koch and Sternberg of 1880, and also another one of Koch and +one of Pasteur two years later. Both of these benefactors then isolated +deadly microbes of disease: Koch the bacillus of tuberculosis, and +Pasteur that of hydrophobia. + +In 1881, Reece invented a button-hole machine and Schmid a hand +photographic camera. Both of these were useful inventions if not +brilliant. It would be interesting to know the amounts of money +realized by their inventors, compared with the amounts received by +Koch, Pasteur and Sternberg. In 1884, by the way, Koch made another +epoch-making and beneficent discovery, and isolated the bacillus of +cholera. Loeffler did the same thing, in the same year for diphtheria, +and Nicolaier for lockjaw; while Kuno produced antipyrene. + +In reflecting on what these great men accomplished, it is interesting +to point out to ourselves that the consensus of opinion seems to be +that, for most people, "the pursuit of happiness" is the main business +of life. Whether this ought to be or not, should not distract our +attention from the fact that it really is. To most of us--at least +to those of us who are young--happiness seems to lie in the thing +pursued, provided the pursuit succeeds. We all seek the crock of gold +at the end of the rainbow, and imagine that if we get it, we shall +get the _summum bonum_ of everything--happiness. Yet all one has to +do is to remember how happy he was one day when he was feeling well +physically, morally, mentally and spiritually (as we all have at rare +intervals), to realize that happiness is merely a condition,--and +that it is a condition that depends more on _the condition of his own +machine than on all other things put together_. When one observes the +action of a fine trotting horse, the smooth and noiseless motion of +a large steam-engine, or the majestic setting of the sun; or when he +hears the harmonies of some great musical composer, or the grander +harmonies of the ocean-breakers on the beach; or when he ponders on the +inconceivably swift but God-like regularity of the stars and planets, +he may get a faint and brief conception of what it means for a machine +to be in order. Our human machines are rarely in this condition: but +sometimes, without any assignable cause whatever, one takes a deep, +full breath, and says, "It is good to live." + +The men just spoken of, and the great teachers of truth in all ages, in +even a higher degree, admonish us to keep our machines in order, and +tell us how to do it. + +How not to do it, the world and the flesh and the devil tell us +unceasingly; beguiling us, as the serpent beguiled Eve, to eat; to +gratify one and all the appetites of the senses, regardless of the +effect on the machine inside. For we know those senses ought to guard +our intake valves, but do not. + +Why cannot some one invent a device that will automatically regulate +our intake valves? Such an invention would prevent us from eating too +much, drinking too much, and smoking too much, and also from eating, +drinking and smoking things detrimental to the machine, and injurious +to our happiness; and even from taking in sights and sounds and +thoughts of an unhealthful kind. This might be followed by another +invention that would regulate our outgo valves, and put a brake on our +speech, our ambition, our acquisitiveness, etc. But would not these +take from us our God-granted free will? Yes, in great measure. But +such is the effect of the Machine of Civilization. The primeval savage +lived--(and the primeval savage still lives) in a condition of almost +perfect liberty, as do the beasts that perish: but in the vast Machine +of Civilization, we are only tiny parts. Each of us, it is true, has a +little freedom of motion; but it is like the "lost motion" of a loose +part in a crude or ill-constructed engine; and it seems to be growing +smaller and smaller, as the Machine grows larger and improves. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +THE CONQUEST OF THE ETHER--MOVING PICTURES--RISE OF JAPAN AND THE +UNITED STATES + + +In 1884, Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine, in which matrixes +for casting different type were moved successively into line, by +pressing the corresponding alphabetically marked keys on a keyboard, +and the whole line then moved to the casting mechanism and cast. This +was an invention of the most clean-cut and perfect character; following +clearly the processes of conception, development and production, and +resulting in an improvement in the art of printing of a most important +kind. Few inventions embody such a brilliant and original conception, +such excellent constructiveness and such a useful product. So perfect +was the result, and so clear was the conception that preceded it, +that one marvels that some one had not invented it before. Why make +matrixes for type, then cast the type, then space the type individually +one after the other in line, and then stereotype them as they stand +in line, when it is so much easier simply to place the matrixes in +line and then stereotype the matrixes? The influence of this invention +is of the same kind as the influence of the invention of the art of +printing from movable type, because it is an improvement in that art. +All over the world this invention, or inventions suggested by it, are +used by the newspaper and book publishers, with the result that the +quickness and accuracy of printing are much enhanced, and the work of +co-operating the parts of the Machine thereby facilitated. + +In the same year Marble increased the safety of the bicycle by his +invention of the rear-driven chain, and Schultz invented his chrome +process of tanning leather. Both of these were important in their way; +but in 1885 Cowles made a more important invention, that of reducing +(and thereby producing) the metal aluminum from its oxide, called +alumina, the chief constituent of clay. The usefulness of aluminum lies +largely in its extreme lightness, and in the fact that when combined +with certain metals, notably copper, it forms important alloys. + +During the same year, Welsbach invented his gas mantle, a valuable +contribution to gas-lighting, and Bowers invented his hydraulic dredge, +in which the act of dredging a channel or harbor was accomplished by +hydraulic power. In the same year, Van Depoele invented a practical +contact appliance for use in taking off the current from the overhead +wires of electric railways. In 1886, Bell and Tainter invented the +graphophone, an important improvement on the phonograph, and Elihu +Thompson invented electric welding. This was an epochal invention, +inaugurating as it did an entirely new art, and contributing enormously +not only to the quickness of welding, but to its accuracy and strength. +Many improvements have been made on this invention during the past few +years, that have increased its scope and value. Many articles are now +made in one piece that is really solid, though composed of several +parts: for those parts are so firmly welded together that the joints +cannot be seen and are as strong as any other parts. + +In the same year, Matteson invented his combined harvester and +thresher. In the following year, Prescott invented his band wood saw, +and McArthur and Forrest invented their process of extracting metals +(especially gold and silver) from ores by the use of a solution of +potassium cyanide, and greatly cheapened the work. In the same year, +Tesla invented his system of multi-phase electric currents, which +rendered possible the economical transmission of power over long +distances, of which the first use was made in transmitting power +derived from Niagara Falls. This was another invention of the first +order of merit in brilliancy and originality of conception, excellence +of constructiveness and usefulness of result. Its value has been only +dimly appreciated by most men, because the invention does not stand +continually before our eyes, like the telephone and electric light; for +it cannot be seen at all. It is not a machine or instrument (in the +common use of those words) but a system, actually invisible of itself, +that governs the method of design, construction and operation of the +visible dynamos, motors and conductors. Like the germ of life, we see +not it, but only its manifestations. + +In the same year, Welsbach brought out an improvement on his +incandescent gas-mantle that was valuable for cases in which a +brilliant illumination was desired, that leaped almost immediately into +public favor. In the following year of 1888, Sprague made the first +installation of street electric railways in the United States, and the +first in the world in which the conditions of operating were difficult. +The success of Sprague's system was largely due to the excellence of +Sprague's electric motor, which had the curious property of being +designed on principles which the scientific men of those days declared +to be wholly wrong. Sprague's reputation rests mainly on his electric +railway; but, from the standpoint of the inventor, Sprague's invention +of his electric motor was of a higher order than that of his electric +railway. + +In 1888, Harvey invented his process of making armor-plate. In the +same year, Eastman and Walker invented the kodak camera, in which the +novelty consisted mainly of a continuous roll of sensitized film, +on which photographs could be successively made; and De Chardonnet +invented his process of manufacturing artificial silk from threads that +were made by forcing collodion through very small holes. These were +important in fact; but in comparison with the discoveries in the realm +of the actual ether made in the same year by Hertz, they were quite +trifling. + +These discoveries resulted from experiments with electric apparatus +of the simplest and most inexpensive character, in a space near which +sparks were passing between the two terminals of a Rhumkorff coil. +It had been known before that each spark accompanied and therefore +represented an establishment of equilibrium between the two oppositely +charged terminals, and that each discharge was of an oscillatory +character--as any readjustment of equilibrium always is. By means of +a mere single wire, curved into a circle, except that the two ends +were not quite joined, Hertz discovered that the space was filled with +electric waves that were propagated in straight lines from the source +(as light is) and accompanied with vibrations at right angles to the +direction of propagation (also as light is); and also that the electric +rays were refracted, reflected and polarized, as light rays are. +Subsequent experiments with modified apparatus measured the velocity of +the propagation of electric waves, and found that it was virtually the +same as that of light. + +To some, this may not seem a very important discovery, "from a +practical standpoint"; and doubtless it is not, from the "practical +standpoint" of some people, because it does not affect the amount of +their worldly possessions, or their ease, comfort and pleasure. It +was hailed with delight by scientific men, however; because not only +did it support the electro-magnetic theory of light, but the course of +Hertz's work had demonstrated the suspected fact that the "receiver" +of electric waves must harmonize in its electric dimensions with the +transmitter, in order that the greatest amount of electric energy +may be developed in the receiver; and it had thus given assistance +to investigations then in progress on what we now call "wireless +telegraphy." + +Many investigators were now in the field, among whom was the humble +author of these pages. Little real progress was made until, in 1891, +when Branly announced his amazing discovery and utilized it in his +amazing invention, called the "coherer." His discovery was that, if a +tube containing metal filings be placed in the "field" of the spark of +an electric machine, Leyden jar, or Rhumkorff coil, it (the filings) +will become a conductor of electricity when hit by the electric waves; +and that it will revert to its normal state as a non-conductor, if +smartly tapped: the effect of the waves being to cause the separate +particles to co-here and form a continuous metal conductor; while the +effect of the tapping was to jar the particles apart. The first use +of this coherer was in place of the ring that Hertz had used; but its +value as an instrument of practical usefulness in achieving electric +communication without wires was almost immediately perceived--and +demonstrated. + +The career of the wireless telegraph since Branly's great discovery +has been as rapid, widespread and important as any other new agency +has ever enjoyed, and possibly more so. That wireless telegraphy was a +distinct invention may perhaps be questioned. If it was, who was the +inventor? It is true that an invention does not have to be associated +with any one inventor in order to have the right to be characterized +as an invention; but in the case of the wireless telegraph, it seems +safe to say that, although some of the separate steps toward its +achievement were inventions, the final step was merely the adding +together of these separate steps in a way that was perfectly obvious, +and that several men accomplished almost simultaneously. As soon as +Branly produced his coherer, the problem was thereby automatically +solved. Every experimenter realized that it was merely necessary to +use Branly's coherer, in place of any receiver previously used, and to +"tune" the transmitting and receiving circuits into harmony. + +The first man to make a practical wireless installation seems to have +been Marconi, in 1896. As is well known, the distances over which +messages can be sent has been increasing rapidly ever since, and so has +been the number and the importance of the organizations using it, of +which the largest are the various national governments themselves. The +vast influence of wireless (or radio) telegraphy on the history of the +great World War is too recent to need detailing, but possibly it may +be well to call to mind the fact that the ocean cables were virtually +all under the control of the Allies, and that "the wireless" was almost +the only means that Germany had for receiving information quickly and +sending instructions quickly beyond her own coast line. It was used by +the Allies, however, almost continually in the controlling of their +multitudinous naval units on the sea, and among those units themselves; +and it made possible that prompt and harmonious action among numerous +widely separated groups, that distinguished this war from all preceding +wars. It would be difficult to determine whether the wireless +lengthened the war by the assistance it gave to Germany, or shortened +it by the assistance it rendered the Allies. In the early part of the +war, when Germany was directing ships that were far away, it helped +Germany more than it helped the Allies; but in the last years, when +the Allies were fighting the submarines in the Mediterranean and North +Seas, it helped the Allies more. In the main, it probably shortened the +war considerably, by accelerating the operations. + +This reminds us of the fact that the general effect of invention +has been to make wars more terrible but more brief; and that the +abbreviating effect is especially noticeable in inventions that +increase the speed and safety of transportation and communication. +Another effect of invention has been to make wars more widespread; for +the reason that it links some nations together and creates antagonism +between other nations, even if they are far apart. Larger and larger +organizations are thus brought into being, not only as nations but +as allies and confederates. In this way, Japan fought in Asia, in +co-operation with her allies in France. + +On the supposition that the Machine is going to continue to increase +in size and strength and excellence, on the further supposition that +the more highly civilized nations will continue to control the less +civilized nations increasingly, the time may not be many generations +distant when all the nations of the world will be divided into a very +few groups, each dominated by one great nation; as the Middle Europe +nations were dominated by Germany in the last war. As all the known +world was once divided into two groups headed by Assyria and Babylon; +at another time by Assyria and Persia; at another time by Greece and +Persia; at another by Rome and Carthage, etc., and as at various times +Europe also has been divided into two opposing groups of nations, so +the whole known world may again be divided into two opposing groups of +nations:--possibly the white and the yellow nations. + +The clash of the fighting machines of two such vast organizations, +perfected in power and speed as they doubtless will be as the years go +by and inventions succeed each other, will surpass in grandeur anything +yet dreamed of. It may never occur. _Never?_ It may never occur; but +something approximating it will occur, if history is to be as much like +past history as history usually has been. + +In 1889, Schneider invented his process of making nickel steel, and +thereby effected an improvement in steel that was first utilized in +making armor, and afterward in making other articles of many kinds. +Hall invented a process of making aluminum during the same year. In the +following year, Stephens invented his electric plough, and Mergenthaler +made an improvement on his linotype machine. About the same time, +pneumatic tires were attached to bicycles; and an invention of a most +important kind, that had lain dormant for many years, was put to work +at last. The inventor had long since died. Does he know that his +invention is now used all over the civilized world? If so, does the +knowledge give him pleasure? + +One of the most unsatisfactory parts of an inventor's experience is the +difficulty he has in making other men see the value of his inventions, +combined with the fact that when the invention is finally adopted, his +part in it is often forgotten, and sometimes intentionally ignored. +This applies especially to inventions of a high order of originality, +that are a little in advance of the requirements and knowledge of most +men at the time, and that are looked upon as visionary and do not +come into use for a considerable while. Many an inventor has endured +a purgatory while trying to get a hearing for his invention, and yet +been wholly forgotten when it was finally adopted. To make the matter +worse, he has often been branded for life as a visionary, and remained +so branded, even after the invention had been adopted because of which +he had been branded. In other cases, manufacturers have stolen his +invention and denied his claims, knowing that he was too poor to fight +against them with all of their resources. In other cases, business men +and lawyers have combined to induce him to sign papers of a highly +advantageous character to the business men, but contrariwise to the +inventor. In all of these cases, the matter has usually been the worse +for the inventor in proportion to the high order of the invention: for +the real inventor, like the real artist, is usually so absorbed in his +thoughts that he cares but little (too little) for material gain. The +case of the inventor who makes a business of inventing is somewhat +different. He usually confines his efforts to making inventions that +will bring in money, becomes an expert on nice points in patent law, +discerns chances for circumventing existing patents while utilizing +their basic principles, perceives opportunities for making the little +improvements in detail that promote practicability, and becomes the +kind of inventor who owns a limousine. + +In 1890, Krag-Jorgensen invented the famous rifle of that name. In the +following year, Branly invented the coherer mentioned on page 305, and +Parsons invented his rotary steam turbine. The steam turbine was an +improvement over the reciprocating steam engine for many classes of +work, great and small. The first steam engine invented by Hero was a +rotary engine, but it was of course, most uneconomical of steam. The +first steam engine that was really efficient was the reciprocating +engine produced by Watt. The greatest single defect of rotary engines +has always been the loss of steam in going by the rotating parts +without doing any work, a defect existing in only a small degree with +the closely fitting pistons of reciprocating engines. In the turbines +invented by Parsons and others about the same time, wastage of steam +was prevented by various means that need not be detailed here, and +smooth motion of the rotary engine at the same time secured. The +greatest benefit accrued probably to ocean steamships, in which the +absence of vibration, and the saving in weight, space and number of +attendants required were features of great practical importance. + +About 1890, Edison invented the kinetograph and kinetoscope, after +a long series of investigations and experiments. These followed the +experiments made by Dr. Muybridge some years before, in which he had +taken many successive pictures of horses at very short intervals, by +means of as many separate cameras, (twelve pictures in one stride +for instance), and afterwards reproduced them in such a way as to +show horses in rapid motion. They came also after Eastman's kodak, +in which pictures could be taken successively, on a traveling film. +In the kinetograph, only one object glass was used; and the film was +drawn along behind it in such a way that, at predetermined intervals, +the film was stopped and a shutter behind the object glass or lens +was moved away, and a picture taken. The moving mechanism (at first +the human hand) continuing in motion, the shutter was closed and the +film was moved along a short distance, so as to bring another part +behind the object glass. Then the same operation was repeated--and +so on. In the kinetoscope, the operation was reversed, in the sense +that the pictures taken were presented successively to the eye of the +observer. In the first form, the observer looked at them through a +peep-hole: but in the latter forms, the pictures have been thrown upon +a screen--somewhat as from a magic lantern, and become the "movie" of +today. + +Here, again, we see an invention of the highest order in each of +the three essentials--conception, development and production. No +invention exists of a higher order. As to their use and usefulness, +we are most familiar with them in moving pictures. Whether it is for +the public good to produce so many shows for idly disposed men and +women to spend their time in looking at, is perhaps a possible subject +for enlightening discussion. But the moving picture is used for many +purposes, especially for purposes of education and research, besides +that of mere amusement, and will unquestionably be so used, more and +more as time goes on. One of its most obvious spheres of usefulness +is in making photographs of movements that are very rapid, and then +analyzing and inspecting those photographs when presented very slowly, +and when stopped. Another is in taking photographs of successive +situations that have occurred at considerable intervals of time, and +then presenting the pictures quickly, and thus showing a connected +story. By dealing in this way with historical incidents, we can get +a realization of the interdependence of those incidents that we +cannot get in any other way, and see how cause has produced effects, +and effects have come from causes. Similarly, the work of building +any large structure can be shown by presenting rapidly a series of +photographs taken at different stages; and so can the growth of a plant +or animal, and almost any kind of progress. + +Let us impress on our minds the fact that if we read any book, or +witness any occurrence, or listen to any argument, or receive any +instruction of any kind, the only value comes to us from the pictures +made on our mental retinas and the permanence and clearness of the +records impressed. Thus, any means that can impress us quickly with +the most important pictures must be of the highest practical value, +both in prosecuting studies of events, and in gathering conclusions +from them. In fact, the kinetograph and the kinetoscope are simply +Edison's imitation of the operations carried on inside the skull of +each of us; for we are continually taking moving pictures of what +we see and hear and read and feel; recording them on our own moving +sensitized films, and bringing them before our mental gaze at our own +volition and sometimes in spite of it. + +In 1890, the author of this book patented "A Method of Pointing Guns +at Sea" that has been adopted in all the great navies, under the name +"Gun Director System." In 1891 he patented a modification under the +name "Telescopic Sight for Ships Guns." These two inventions are used +in every navy in the world, have increased the effectiveness of naval +gunnery immeasurably, and have, therefore, been important contributions +to the self-protectiveness of the Machine. + +In 1893, Acheson invented his process for making carborundum, a +compound of carbon and silicon, made in the electric furnace, and +used for abrasive purposes; and in the same year Willson made carbide +of calcium from carbon and quick-lime, also in the electric furnace. +In 1895, Linde invented his process of liquefying air, and the first +installation of great electric locomotives was effected: this was in +the Baltimore and Ohio tunnel. In the same year, Röntgen made the +epochal discovery of what he called by the significant name "X-rays," a +name that still clings to them. + +They were discovered by Röntgen in the course of his researches with +cathode rays. His discovery was in effect that electric rays emanated +from the part of the tube struck by the cathode rays. They were not +cathode rays, though produced by them, and had the amazing property +of penetrating certain insulating substances, such as ebonite, paper, +etc., while not penetrating metals, except through short distances. +Unlike the cathode rays, they were not deflected by magnets; and +neither did they seem to be reflected or refracted similarly. Their +most important property was that of acting photographically on +sensitized plates, even when in closed slides, and wrapped carefully in +black paper. + +The greatest usefulness of the X-rays thus far made has been in +photographing internal parts of the human body; for the rays pass +through certain parts less readily than through other parts; through +bones for instance, less readily than through soft parts. Fractures +or displacements of bones can therefore be readily detected. So also +can the formation of pus in cavities, and the appearance of abnormal +products of many kinds. To this discovery we must give a rank as +high as almost any other that we have noted in this book, though we +cannot tell, of course, how long it will hold it. With mechanical and +scientific inventions, as with books and poems and inventions of other +kinds, the question of permanence of value or of usefulness cannot be +decided until after many years. + +One of the curious properties of X-rays is that of rendering the air +through which they pass a conductor of electricity. So far as the +author is aware, no invention of practical usefulness has yet been +made, based upon this property. + +In 1896, Marconi brought out the first practically successful system +of wireless telegraphy, Finsen demonstrated the usefulness of certain +rays of the spectrum for treating certain skin diseases, and Becquerel +discovered what have since been called the Becquerel rays. In +experimenting with X-ray photography, he found that a sensitized plate, +though covered with black paper, was acted on not only by X-rays, but +also by the metal uranium and certain of its salts; and he also found +that the mere presence of uranium made the contiguous air a conductor, +as did the X-or Röntgen rays. The amazement caused by the discovery of +such undreamed-of properties, especially in so commonplace a substance +as uranium had been supposed to be, can easily be imagined; and it is +plain why strenuous efforts were made at once by scientific people, +to see if other substances did not possess those properties also. As +a result, it was soon found that other bodies did possess them. To +those bodies that seem to possess the quality of radiating activities +of certain kinds, the adjective _radio-active_ has been applied. The +most important radio-active elements are uranium, thorium and radium, +of which the last is immeasurably the most active and important. +Radium was discovered in 1898 by M. and Madame Curie and M. Bémont, +while experimenting with the uranium mineral pitchblende. It seemed to +some people at the time to challenge the theory of the conservation +of energy, and to threaten the destruction of the whole science of +Physics, by emanating energy without loss to itself. It has since been +found, of course, that radium does give up part of its substance; that +it disintegrates in fact, as a result of its emanations. + +How great an influence the discovery of radium is going to exert, it +is now impossible to predict with confidence; but it is manifest that +the three successive and allied discoveries of cathode rays, X-rays +and radium have introduced a new and growing science into the Machine; +and it is seemingly possible that that science may, soon or tardily, +ascertain the nature of the atom, and even teach us to divide it. +It seems that an atom of radium does actually disintegrate, and by +disintegrating give out energy. The energy it gives out is so enormous +in proportion to the mass which gives it out, as to suggest to us an +almost infinite source of available power, if other substances can be +made to disintegrate. It is said that one gramme of radium can emit +a quantity of heat of about 100 calories per hour; that is enough +heat to raise 100 grammes of water a 1° centigrade in temperature, +_by simply existing_. It is true that radium is the most expensive +article in the world; but that is only because of the difficulties of +obtaining it at present. Now if radium is so potentially powerful and +disintegrates so easily, it seems possible that other substances less +easily disintegrable could emit greater energy, if (or when) a means is +discovered for disintegrating them. + +The interesting question now suggests itself of what would happen +if some man should some day discover accidentally a means of +disintegrating--say carbon--and should unintentionally disintegrate +a few tons of coal in Wall Street. We know what has happened at +times when piles of explosives have been accidentally detonated. But +explosives are merely chemical compounds, and, compared to atoms of +radium are relatively microscopic in the energy developed when broken +up. We remember the story of the commotion caused by the monk's +experiment in making powder, when the mixture exploded and hurled the +pestle out of the mortar and across the room. Imagine a few tons of +carbon atoms exploding. + +In 1894 a war, long presaged, broke out between China and Japan. In +1854, when Commodore Perry went to Japan, and gave a virtual ultimatum +that resulted in Japan's opening her seaports to the commerce of the +world, China and Japan were on the same plane of civilization, though +China was many times greater in area and population. But the people +of Japan were different from those of China in the essential mental +characteristic of imagination,--at least their rulers were. For those +rulers, noting the superior power of the foreign war-ships as compared +with theirs, and reasoning from this to the conditions of the countries +that produced those war-ships, and that produced also the implements of +war on board that were so much superior to the Japanese, made a mental +picture of what would happen to Japan some day, when those war-ships +should come to Japan and demand submission. To make such a picture did +not require much imagination, maybe; but the fact seems to be that no +other Asiatic nation, and no African nation, made it. Then the Japanese +made another picture, that required imagination of a brilliant kind; +and that was a picture of Japan learning the arts of the foreign devil, +and then utilizing those arts to keep the foreign devil himself at bay. + +To us, looking back on the perfectly clear record of performance +that Japan has made since then, that performance may seem not very +difficult either to attempt or to achieve. But no other nation in the +history of the world has ever paralleled it, or even approximated +it. To appreciate it, one must exert all the imagination of which he +is capable, and see himself in Japan as Japan was in 1854, amid all +the influences of the history and environment then prevailing, with +all their accompaniments of ignorance, prejudice, inertia and racial +pride. It is the consensus of opinion throughout the world that the +performance of Japan since 1854 has been amazing. It is part of the +humble effort of this book to show that, in all great achievements, the +result should be attributed mainly to the estimate originally formed of +the situation, and the decision (invention) made to meet it. "C'est le +_premier_ pas qui coute": the rest follow as results. + +The war between China and Japan, and in greater degree the result of +that war, give clear and impressive demonstrations of the influence of +invention on history; because the victors were victors simply because +they had taken advantage of the inventions made in Europe and America. +There was no marked difference physically in favor of the Japanese. +Whether there was morally, we have no means of judging. Was there a +difference mentally? We have an excellent means of judging this,--the +fact that the Japanese had made a correct estimate of the situation and +come to a correct decision, while the Chinese had not. + +In the war that occurred ten years later, between Japan and Russia, the +influence of invention was even more clear and striking, for the reason +that Japan was a virtually semi-barbarous country in 1854, while Russia +was one of the five great powers of civilization and Christendom; and +yet in exactly fifty years, Japan demonstrated her equality with Russia +in the decisive court of war on land, and beat her ignominiously in the +equally decisive court of war on sea. + +Why? Because during that fifty years Japan had availed herself of the +aid of invention more than Russia had done; with the result that when +they went before the supreme tribunal, Japan had better methods, better +equipment, better plans, better soldiers, better ships, better _tout +ensemble_. The most important single item was the naval telescope sight +invented by the author. That was the cause of the immeasurably superior +gunnery of the Japanese at the decisive naval battle of Tsushima. + +Concerning Japan's war with China in 1894, the same truths may be +uttered, though not with quite so much emphasis; for the results had +not been so startling. Both wars demonstrate the same principles, +though in unequal degrees of convincingness. Both wars show that +the influence of invention has been to build up a Machine which is +powerful not only for peace but for war; to assist those nations the +most that avail themselves of it with the greatest skill and energy, +and therefore to spur ambitious and far-seeing people to the study of +whatever knowledge the world affords. The study most clearly indicated +is that of the resources of physics and chemistry, and the experiences +recorded in history. + +In 1897, Henry A. Wise Wood invented the autoplate, a machine for +making printing plates previously made by hand, which multiplied +fourfold the reproduction of the type page in printing plates. This +invention facilitated and cheapened the cost of printing, and was +therefore a valuable addition to the Machine. + +In 1898 a war, giving us lessons similar to those of the Japanese wars, +broke out between the United States and Spain. The disproportion of +material resources was great, and was in favor of the United States. +Yet in the early part of the sixteenth century, Spain had been esteemed +by many to be the greatest of all the powers, while the territory later +held by the United States was the wild domain of savages. Why had Spain +fallen so far below a country so new, living three thousand miles away +from the civilization of Europe? Because she had lost her vision; +because she had become infected with the disease of sordidness which +quickly-gotten wealth, especially ill-gotten wealth, has often brought +to nations; because she had ceased to encourage such bright visions as +she had encouraged in the days of Columbus and Magellan, and settled +down in the torpor of unimaginativeness. The United States, on the +other hand, had been seeing such visions and following them to learn +what lay beyond; and had been embodying all that could be embodied in +practical projects and machines and methods and instrumentalities of +all kinds. The United States had been taking all possible advantage of +the potentialities of invention, but Spain had not. + +An important result of this war was the proof, and its utilization on +a large scale in Cuba and other Spanish-American countries, that the +mosquito is a carrier of the infections of yellow fever and many other +diseases. + +Hardly had this war finished, when a war broke out in 1899 between +Great Britain and the Boer Republic in South Africa. It is an evidence +of the important influence of invention that it was possible for Great +Britain to wage effective war so far away, and finally to triumph. She +triumphed mainly because of the superior power of her military machine; +but she had been able to construct and to improve it continually by +her persistent utilization of the possibilities of invention. The +possibilities that she had utilized became especially conspicuous when +the necessity came for transporting the necessary troops and guns and +munitions and supplies over the vast ocean spaces intervening, and +for handling them on a foreign soil; under conditions very novel, and +against a wary and yet skilfull and aggressive foe. + +This war had not closed when the Boxer rebellion broke out in China, +and a lesson even more clearly marked was given to the world. For +the Chinese Government was perhaps the oldest in the world and the +Chinese nation the most numerous. The revolt grew out of a series of +aggressions by certain European powers, especially Great Britain, +Germany, France and Russia, that consisted in virtually appropriating +under various pretexts, certain important positions and valuable pieces +of territory in China. Because of the fact that China had lost her +vision, and had not even been stimulated to realizing facts by the +example of Japan, China was at this time an incoherent aggregation of +separate states and organizations; though she was supposed to be a +coherent nation, under the emperor in Pekin. Because of a lack of such +a nervous system as was given to each civilized nation by its railways, +mails, newspapers, telegraphs and telephones, China was a soft and +almost amorphous mass; with no definite purpose and no strength, either +external or internal. China was not a machine in any proper sense of +the word, and was therefore incapable of any action of an effective +kind. The result was that, although the cause of the Boxers was not +only just but laudable, the whole movement resulted in a series of +pitiful atrocities committed by the Boxers in Pekin, followed by a +forced entry into that ancient capital by a few thousand troops from +the principal civilized nations, and a quick and complete suppression +of the entire revolt. + +There, in Pekin, in the closing days of the year 1900, could be seen, +in two contrasting groups, peoples representing the highly organized +and effective Machine of Civilization on one side and its crude and +ineffective predecessor on the other side. What was the cause of the +enormous difference between the groups? In physical strength and size +and courage, little difference if any was observable;--yet one went +down before the other, like tenpins before a bowling ball. Some may say +that the difference was due to the difference in race. Yet the Japanese +were of the same race as the Chinese, and the Japanese troops were +as markedly superior to the Chinese as were the troops of any other +nation: in fact, it was the consensus of opinion that the Japanese +troops were superior to all the others, except the German. Some may +say it was because of the difference in religions. Yet the Japanese +were of virtually the same religion as the Chinese. Of course, the +paramount difference was in the degree of civilization. What was this +difference in civilization due to? Clearly, it was due to numberless +causes; but there seem to be two causes more important than the others: +a difference in attitude toward the possibilities of invention, and a +difference in what has been called "the fighting spirit." + +But the fighting spirit and a receptive attitude toward invention are +usually found together, though the fighting spirit may sometimes lie +dormant in inventive and enterprising people; may lie dormant, even +for considerable periods, when conditions are peaceful, and prosperity +prevails. But Achilles--(so the legend runs)--dwelt at one time in +hiding, dressed in woman's garb, quiet and unsuspected. Yet when +suddenly the bugle rang, he grasped the sword and shield. So, in 1914, +and for some years before, Great Britain, the United States and France +slumbered under the narcotic spell of pacifism; yet when suddenly +the German War Machine advanced upon them, each nation and all three +nations together rose in quick and yet majestic armed reply, and proved +their fighting spirit was not dead, although it had been sleeping. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +THE FRUITION OF INVENTION + + +The twentieth century was the fruition of all that invention had +achieved during the ages of the past. When it opened, the world was a +world far different from what it had been, even in times not long gone +by. It was far different from the world of 1850, or even 1875; for many +inventions had been made and utilized during the passing years. + +The last quarter of the nineteenth century, the interval between 1875 +and 1900, has been called the "industrial age," because of the great +advances made in all industrial appliances, and the consequent advance +made in the size and wealth and power of industrial organizations of +all kinds. In especial, the organizations dealing with systems of +transportation and communication, and with manufacturing the many +appliances needed by them had expanded greatly. Other organizations +had expanded also; for the improvement and extension of the means of +transportation and communication rendered possible the existence and +successful operation of organization in many branches of effort, to +a degree impossible before. Cities grew in area and population; the +buildings in size and especially in height; railroads increased in +number, length of route and speed of travel; locomotives and cars +grew commensurately; colleges, hospitals, churches, clubs, scientific +bodies, benevolent societies--all seemed to take a start about 1875 and +to grow at increasing speed, as year succeeded year. But the greatest +single advance was made in ocean transportation; for the sea, by the +year 1900, had become a plane across which steamers moved with a speed +and a certainty and a safety, rivaling that of railway trains on land. + +The factors most immediately and importantly to be credited with all +these advances were the improvements in the steam engine, the electric +telegraph, and the manufacture of steel; also the invention of the +dynamo-electric machine, the electric light and the telephone. These +factors had given such power and certainty and speed to the Machine of +Civilization that the nations which joined it and became contributory +parts of it, advanced rapidly in prosperity and wealth, both actually +and also relatively, as compared with nations that did not. + +In the year 1900, the great nations of the world were Great Britain, +France, Germany, the United States and Japan. Of these Japan had +advanced the most in civilization during the preceding half century, +then the United States, then Germany, then Great Britain, and then +France. The nation that had increased the most in territorial extent +was Great Britain. In 1900, the British Empire, including India, +covered about one-fourth of the whole surface of the earth. It +comprised, besides Great Britain and Ireland, five self-governing +colonies, the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the +Union of South Africa, New Foundland and New Zealand, in addition to +the 1,800,000 square miles of British India and her three hundred +million people. France had "expanded" in both Africa and Asia; that is, +she had conquered territory in those partially civilized continents. +Germany had done similarly; and Russia had subjugated the nomadic and +semi-nomadic tribes of Central Asia. The United States had taken only +a little territory, that included in the Philippines and Porto Rico; +for she had expanded her constructive energy and skill in developing +the vast and fertile area within her own boundaries. Japan had expanded +only slightly in actual territory; the exercise of her constructive +talents being urgently required at home. + +It may be declared that invention should not be credited with any of +this expansion, for the reasons that to increase one's possessions is +an instinct of human nature, and that the colonization of savage and +barbarous lands has been a favorite activity with great nations always. +True: but the inventions enumerated in this book, and the agencies +which they supplied for going quickly, surely and safely to places far +away; of taking to those places certain tools of conquest, such as guns +and powder; and of supplying afterward to the conquered people finer +conveniences of living, juster laws and better government of every +kind, have been the effective means to an end that could not have been +attained without them. + +It may be objected that the principal factors in all of these +achievements have been omitted, the commercial enterprise of the +merchants, the farseeing wisdom of the statesmen, the valor and skill +of the strategists, and (back of all) the courage and enterprise +of the original explorers. That these have been omitted, is true; +for the reason that this discussion is intended to point out only +what invention has done. It is obvious that the main incentive of +colonization has been commercial gain, and that the initiators of +colonization schemes have usually been merchants. It is equally obvious +that the statesmen are to be credited with the framing and execution +of the measures needed to make any colonization scheme effective; and +it is equally obvious that strategists and explorers did work without +which no expansion whatever would have been possible. Nevertheless, it +must be clear that the essential difference between the conquerors and +the conquered, by reason of which the uncivilized were conquered by +the civilized, lay in the aids which civilization had supplied to the +civilized. Colonization and conquest have been going on ever since the +beginning of recorded history and before; but from the days of Thutmose +III in ancient Egypt until now, the conqueror and the colonizer have +in almost every case been more civilized than were their victims. It +is true also that savages have sometimes overrun civilized countries, +and even conquered them, for Alaric captured even Rome: but up to the +present time, the fruits of such conquests have not been permanent, +whereas the fruits of colonization have been. + +In 1900, then, the Machine of Civilization was in operation in all +parts of the world; in the dark continent of Africa, the deserts of +Asia, the wild regions of Australia, and even on the ocean. In fact, +it was on the ocean that the Machine was operating with the most +efficiency and effectiveness; for nowhere else are the power and the +harmony of machinery of all kinds, inert and human, seen in such +perfection as in great steamships on the sea. + +We seem safe in concluding, therefore, that while invention was only +one of many factors in bringing about the world-wide conditions +that prevailed in 1900, invention was the initiating factor. It was +invention that suggested to the explorer that he explore; to the +merchant that he launch his enterprise; to the statesman that he +encourage the merchant and assist him with wise laws; to the strategist +that he make such and such plans, to meet the emergencies that arose. +Finally, it was invention that made possible the actual transportation +of explorers and merchants and troops to designated spots, and made +successful the operations which ensued there. + +But the Machine still continued growing. In 1900 Hewitt invented his +beautiful mercury-vapor electric light, and in 1901 Santos-Dumont +invented his air-ship and demonstrated its practicability by going +around the Eiffel Tower in Paris in it and returning to the spot from +which he started. This feat began that great succession of feats with +dirigible balloons with which we are so familiar now, and which promise +to be succeeded by a condition of world-wide transportation through the +air. + +In 1900, the author of this book patented the method of controlling the +movements of vessels, which consists in using radio telegraphy. This +invention has recently been brought to the stage of practicality by the +United States Navy. It was utilized in July, 1921, for steering the +Iowa when bombed by airplanes. + +In 1903 came the first successful flight by aeroplane, which was +made by the brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright at Kitty Hawk, North +Carolina. This was an epochal adventure; it inaugurated an age which is +already called the Aerial Age, and which will bring about changes so +vast that our imagination cannot picture them. + +An interesting and instructive fact connected with this flight, +and with the aeroplane in general, is that the aeroplane was +not practicable and could not be made practicable before the +internal-combustion engine had been invented and developed; because +all preceding engines had been too heavy. This illustrates the +fact occasionally adverted to in this book, that one of the most +important factors in the influence of invention is that each new +invention facilitates later inventions. _The influence of invention is +cumulative._ + +In 1905, Elmer Sperry invented his gyroscopic compass which is +unaffected by terrestrial magnetism and points to the true north. In +1907, he invented his gyroscopic stabilizer which reduces greatly the +rolling of ships, aeroplanes, etc. + +Meanwhile, the endeavor to accomplish photography in color had been +receiving persistent attention from many scientific experimenters, but +without much practical success. The achievements of Becquerel, Lippman, +Joly, Lumière, Finlay and others have doubtless laid the initial +stepping stones; for color-photography by their efforts has been made +an accomplished fact. As yet, however, the art is still in its infancy, +and has not, therefore, reached the stage of maturity that enables us +to estimate what importance it will eventually assume. + +In 1908 Goldschmidt invented the thermit process of welding; thermit +being a mixture of aluminum with some metallic oxide such as oxide of +iron. When this mixture is ignited, the oxygen leaves the iron and +unites with the aluminum, causing an enormous rise of temperature, and +the consequent formation of molten iron. This molten mass being poured +around the ends of two pieces of iron, welds them together at once. In +the following year, Hiram Maxim invented his silencer for fire arms, +by means of which the noise resulting from firing a gun is greatly +lessened. How valuable a contribution this will be to the Machine, it +is impossible at the moment to predict with confidence. + +In 1910, Henry A. Wise Wood invented his printing press that more than +doubled the speed of printing, produced a thousand newspapers of the +largest size per minute, and directly enhanced the solidarity of the +Machine. + +In 1911 Glenn Curtiss produced his epochal flying-boat, Just and +Hanaman invented the tungsten electric light, and Drager his pulmotor, +for reviving persons who have been asphyxiated or partially drowned, +by forcing oxygen into their lungs. The pulmotor has come into use +to a surprising degree, and has already been established as a part +of the Machine with a recognized value. It belongs in the class of +remedial agents, about which nobody questions the beneficence, and for +which everyone recognizes the debt of gratitude owed by mankind to the +inventors. + +In 1912, the author of this book invented the torpedoplane, a simple +combination of the automobile-torpedo with the aeroplane, so designed +that an aeroplane can carry a torpedo to a predetermined point near +an enemy's ship and then drop it, while simultaneously operating the +torpedo's starting mechanism: so that the torpedo will fall into the +water, and then continue under its own power toward its victim. As +the torpedoplane combines the most powerful weapon with the swiftest +means of transportation, many Navy officers think it an invention +of the first rank of importance, that threatens to wipe all surface +fighting vessels off the seas. During the World War, it played only a +subordinate part, though it was used effectively by the British and the +Germans. Our Navy did not use it at all, as Secretary Daniels rejected +it. The British Navy has already adopted it as a major instrument of +war, and constructed two especially designed fast vessels, each of +which carries twenty torpedoplanes. It seems obvious that such a ship, +if sufficiently fast to keep out of the range of a battleship's guns, +could sink her without much trouble. + +In the same year Flexner discovered his antitoxin for cerebro-spinal +meningitis, and Edison invented the kinetophone, a combination of the +phonograph and the kinetoscope. As yet, this has not been made to work +with such complete success as to warrant its introduction into use. The +probabilities seem to be that someone will eventually supply the link +that is evidently necessary, and make the voice and the picture on the +screen cooperate in unison as they should. Two years later, Flexner +isolated the bacillus of infantile paralysis and Plotz that of typhus +fever. + +The World War that broke out in August, 1914, was marked with far +greater utilization of new inventions than had marked any war before, +and foreshadowed even greater utilization of new inventions in the next +war. + +The first evidence of any new appliance was a rain of heavy projectiles +on the tops of the Belgian forts; the forts having been designed to +resist projectiles on their sides. The projectiles, it was discovered +later, came from mortars of a kind the existence of which had not +been suspected. Soon after, the German submarines showed qualities of +endurance and radius of action that bespoke new appliances; and then +came attacks on the Allied troops with poison-gas that almost were +successful. The Allies replied with new inventions, especially in +wireless telegraphy and telephony, mines, "depth-bombs" and "listening +devices;" the latter being employed under water to detect the movements +of submarines. Many other inventions were almost on the point of +practicality when the Armistice was signed, but were not quite ready; +showing what had often been shown before, that inventions for use in +war, like all other preparations for war, should be complete ready for +use, before the war begins. + +As soon as the war broke out in Europe, the present author began to +urge that the United States develop naval and military aeronautics +to the utmost; in order that, when we should finally enter into the +war, we should have available a large force of bombing aeroplanes +and torpedoplanes. When we finally entered into the war, in April, +1917, he urged continually that we develop a great aeronautical force +and send it to Europe to prevent the exit of German submarines from +their bases, to destroy those bases and to sink the ships of the +German fleet. These suggestions were rejected by Secretary Daniels as +impracticable; but subsequent developments have proved that they were +thoroughly practicable; in fact, an expedition was organized in England +to carry them out, when the Armistice was signed. + +It is interesting to consider what would have been the effect on the +war (and, therefore, on all subsequent history) if the United States +had sent a large force of bombing aeroplanes and torpedoplanes to +Europe shortly after we entered the war in the Spring of 1917. This we +easily could have done, if we had started to get them ready, when the +suggestion was first made; or even at a considerable time thereafter. +Certainly, the war would have been greatly shortened, and much +suffering averted. + +The inventions and discoveries made since the Great War began, though +some are evidently important, are so recent that we cannot state with +any confidence what their effect will be; and for this reason the +author craves permission to close his brief story at this point. + + * * * * * + +A noteworthy fact observable in the history of invention is that it has +been confined almost wholly to Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, China, Persia, +Greece, Italy, Germany, France, Great Britain, and the United States, +and to a few men in those countries. Now it is in those countries that +the highest degree of civilization has been developed, and _it is from +them that other nations have drawn theirs_. The almost total absence of +invention in women is more noteworthy still; for Mrs. Eddy and Madame +Curie seem to be the only women who have contributed really original +and important work. + +Another noteworthy fact is that the idea-germs from which all +inventions have been developed have been very few and very tiny. But +what a numerous and important progeny has been brought forth; and how +wholly impossible civilization would be now, had it not been for a +few basic inventions and certain improvements made upon them! We can +realize this, if we try to imagine the effect of removing a single one +of the basic inventions (and even of certain derived inventions) from +the Machine of Civilization. + +Try to imagine what would happen if the invented art of--say +writing--for instance were suddenly lost. Would not the whole civilized +world be thrown into chaos as soon as the fact were realized? A like +disorder would be occasioned, though possibly not so quickly, if men +should suddenly forget how to print, or even how to use the telegraph, +telephone or the comparatively unimportant typewriter. Try to imagine +what would happen in even one city,--say New York--if the typewriter +were suddenly to be withdrawn! Would not all the business of New York +be paralyzed in a single day? Or fancy that all the machines for making +and utilizing electricity for supplying light and power should suddenly +become inoperative. Would there not be a panic within twenty-four hours +or less? Fancy that all the elevators should have to stop. Imagine what +would happen if the steam engine should suddenly cease to operate, and +all the steamships and railroad trains should stop, and the countless +wheels of industry that are turned directly or indirectly by steam +should cease to turn. Imagine that gunpowder should cease to function, +and that savages could meet modern armies on equal terms. + +Some one may declare that this line of argument does not prove as +much as it seems to prove regarding the influence of invention, for +the reason that it includes a sudden change, and that every sudden +change produces results which are caused merely by the suddenness of +the change. So let us grant this, and then imagine that the changes +suggested would not take place suddenly, but very slowly. Imagine, for +instance, that we should discover that the various inventions noted in +this book were gradually to cease to operate, but that they would not +cease altogether for twenty years, or even forty. _Is it not certain +that the human race would revert to savagery, after those inventions +had ceased to operate?_ + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +THE MACHINE OF CIVILIZATION, AND THE DANGEROUS IGNORANCE CONCERNING IT, +SHOWN BY STATESMEN + + +The originating work of inventors of all kinds, and the assistance +rendered by countless wise and good men and women, have built up a +Machine of Civilization that is surpassingly wonderful and fine. + +To keep the great Machine in order and to handle it, large numbers of +men have been educated in specialties pertaining to its various parts. +The first men were probably the warriors, who defended whatever little +Machines the various tribes had built up, in their little villages +and towns. Next, probably, came the kings or rulers who commanded +the warriors; and then, the priests who inculcated in the people the +various virtues, such as loyalty, courage, honesty, etc., that tended +toward the discipline of the individual and the consequent solidarity +of the tribe. Probably agriculturists came next, who tilled the +soil; and then came the inventors, who assisted the warriors and the +agriculturalists by devising implements to help them do their work. +It seems probable that the artisans came next; and that it was by the +co-operative working of them with the inventors, that the conceptions +of the inventors were embodied in implements of practical usefulness +and value. As time went on, and implements were produced that consisted +of two or more parts, the activities of the artisans were enlarged, so +as to take care of those implements and keep them in adjustment. The +bow and arrow, for instance, would not work well, unless the cord were +maintained at the correct degree of tension, the feathers on the arrows +were kept straight, the ends of the cords properly secured to the +bow, etc. Similarly, the mechanisms made for spinning and weaving and +fabricating pottery had to be kept in proper condition and adjustment; +and if we could realize the small amount of mechanical knowledge extant +in primeval days, we would probably also realize that the difficulties +of keeping these crude appliances in good working order were as +great as are the like difficulties now, with the most complicated +printing-press. + +Furthermore, it was not only for keeping mechanisms in good condition +that artisans were needed: a higher degree of skill was needed for +operating them. We are forced to the conclusion that, as soon as +mechanisms were produced, the need of artisans trained to operate them +was felt. Not only this: the fact that the mechanisms were operated, +the facts that flax was spun and textures were woven, and pottery was +fashioned and baked, and that bows and arrows were used in battle, +prove that operators were actually trained to skill in the various +arts. This means that, as soon as the Machine of Civilization was +begun, operators skilled in the kinds of work which that Machine +required were trained in their various parts, and did their appointed +work. + +It was not only machines of brass and iron and wood, moreover, that +required skilled operators: the individual human machines were +continually getting out of order, and men were trained in whatever +knowledge the world contained, to keep them in good order. Hence the +physician came into being. + +The merchant must have been developed shortly after the agriculturist +and the artisan, to act as the agent for placing the products of the +soil and the products of the mechanisms in the possession of the +consumers. + +As a tribe or nation increased in size, laws had to be formed to +regulate the mode of living of its members, decide disputes, punish +offences, and regulate conduct in general. Hence the lawyer was +gradually developed. + +It seems probable, therefore, that even in prehistoric times, warriors, +rulers, priests, physicians, agriculturists, inventors, artisans, +merchants, and lawyers were at work, and that the activities of men +were divided mainly among those classes. + +The activities of men are similarly divided now. In fact, it is by +these separate activities that the _separate parts_ of the Machine are +handled. That these separate parts are handled well, the progress made +in those parts convincingly testifies. + +Despite this fact, however, no book on invention would be complete +which did not point out that the Machine, _as a whole_, is not being +handled well. + +The Machine in each country is, of course, handled by the ruler and his +assistants. Originally the ruler handled it alone; but, as it increased +in complexity and size, the task became too great for one man, and +advisers and ministers were appointed to assist him. Men fulfilling +such tasks and allied tasks we now call statesmen. + +Now it is to the hands of the statesmen of each country that the actual +management of the Machine of Civilization is committed. Yet it is a +well-known fact that although there are but few men in the world so +wise and learned that they know much about the Machine or any of its +parts, yet it is not from the wise and learned class that the great +officials of governments are selected! + +The truth of this statement cannot reasonably be denied. That the +whole safety of the Machine of Civilization is in the hands of men +untrained in statesmanship is incontrovertible. In fact, the whole +status of statesmanship is disconcertingly vague; for in all the +grand progress of mankind, no science of statesmanship seems to have +developed, or any system of training to practice it. There seem to +be no fixed principles of statesmanship, no literature except of an +historical kind, and little activity save of an opportunistic sort. +No special education seems to be thought necessary in a statesman, or +any record of achievement; for in all countries, irrespective of their +form of government, men are placed in positions carrying the utmost of +human power for good and for evil, with little previous experience or +training, and without having to pass any examinations of any kind! + +This fact demands attention. Of what avail is it to train men to handle +the separate parts of the Machine, if the Machine as a whole is to +be handled by untrained men? Of what avail is it to train engineers, +warriors, priests, physicians, lawyers and merchants to handle their +several parts, if the Machine as a whole is to be handled by statesmen +who have not been trained to handle it? It must be obvious that no men +can handle the Machine as a whole, unless they comprehend the Machine +as a whole, and also understand all its parts enough to realize their +relation to the whole. _No man can well handle any machine, be it +large, or be it small, without such knowledge._ No man can be a good +captain of a battleship, for instance, until he has spent many years +mastering the necessary knowledge. Ignorance of the parts and the +whole of a battleship is not permitted in a captain of a battleship. +Why is ignorance of the parts and the whole of their respective +responsibilities permitted in officials occupying higher places in the +governments? + +That there are few men in the world who understand enough of all the +various parts of the Machine to understand the Machine as a whole is +certainly unfortunate; that almost none of these few men are selected +to fill the positions of statesmen is dangerous to the last degree. +For the Machine has grown to be extremely complicated; and it has the +quality, which all machines have in common, that an injury to any +part affects the whole. This quality is highly valuable, in fact it +is essential; but it carries with it a menace to the entire machine, +if it is operated by unskilled men. The Machine of Civilization came +very near to being smashed in the World War; because the statesmen of +France and Great Britain were so inefficient in the most important +part of their work (that of guarding the Machine as a whole) that they +permitted Germany to catch them unprepared. + +The longer this condition continues to prevail, the greater the danger +to the Machine of Civilization will become. The resources of invention +are infinite. The resources of invention are almost untouched. Every +new discovery or invention prepares the road for a multitude of others. +These inventions and discoveries improve and enlarge the Machine; but +they complicate it more and more, and demand greater knowledge in +statesmen; just as increase in complexity of ships demands greater +knowledge in captains. + +It can be mathematically proved by the Theory of Probabilities that, if +there be any chance that a certain accident may occur, it will surely +occur some day if the predisposing causes are suffered to continue; and +that therefore, any machine committed to unskilful handling will be +wrecked some day, if the unskilful handling is suffered to continue. +This establishes the probability that our Machine of Civilization will +be wrecked some day, unless statesmen be trained to handle it. + +An invention seems to be needed that will insure adequate knowledge +in high officials in governments. But such an invention is not really +needed, because it is merely necessary to utilize an invention made +and used in Greece many centuries ago. This invention consisted in +conceiving, developing and producing a system whereby every candidate +for any office was required to show adequate knowledge of matters +coming within the jurisdiction of that office, by passing a rigid +examination. + +Such a system may be deemed impracticable in modern representative +governments. _Why?_ It is followed in all civilized armies and navies. + +If it be really impracticable, then it is impracticable to assure that +wise and able men shall manage the complex Machine of Civilization. +This means, if history has any lessons for us, that sooner or later, it +will again go down in ruin;--as it has gone down at different periods +of the past, in Egypt and Assyria and Babylon and Rome. + +That influences are already at work which impair the functioning of +the Machine in the present and threaten its continuance in the future, +cannot reasonably be denied. Of these, the two most powerful may be +classed under the general heading "bolshevistic" and "pacifistic." +At the bottom of the bolshevistic movement is, of course, the thirst +for wealth and power; the thirst for opportunities for handling and +using the Machine and its various parts, by men who have done no work +in designing, or building, or caring for it. At the bottom of the +pacifistic movement is effeminacy: a desire for mere ease and luxury +and softness, a shirking of responsibility and discipline and sacrifice. + +These two influences, unlike though they are, combine to threaten the +Machine; the bolshevistic by assault, the pacifistic by insuring +weakness of resistance to assault. Of these, the pacifistic is the +more dangerous, because the more insidious; for the same reason that +a disease hidden inside is more dangerous than an attack made openly +outside. The most potent cause of pacifism is the effeminacy caused +by the combination of prosperity and long-continued peace, with its +resulting division of a population into a vulgarly ostentatious rich +minority and a more or less envious poor majority. When a division like +this has come to pass, hostile conflict has usually ensued. Such a +conflict produced the French Revolution, and almost wrecked the Machine +in France. Such a conflict is now in progress in Russia, and threatens +some parts of Europe. + +Unfortunately, the progress of invention, by enlarging the scope and +speed of communication and facilitating the acquiring of superficial +knowledge, has put into the hands of men possessing merely the +natural gift of eloquence the power to influence large numbers of +people, without possessing knowledge or skill in statesmanship. It +has facilitated demagoguery:--and herein lies the root of the danger +to the Machine; for without the demagogue, the bolshevist and the +pacifist would be unable to get their civilization-destroying doctrines +presented attractively to the people. + +Fortunately, the Great War, though it caused tremendous suffering, +broke up many visionary notions that were crystallizing into beliefs, +and brought the world face to face again with realities. And although +the violent disturbance of society's always unstable equilibrium is +still evident in the world-wide unrest among the poorer classes, yet +the unrest seems gradually to be dying down, with the realization that +better conditions of living will be theirs in future. + +And as every nation that is not wholly degenerate, possesses the power +within itself to save itself, and as the great nations of the earth +are very far indeed from being degenerate, we are warranted in assuming +that each nation will take the necessary steps, not only to guard the +Machine of Civilization, but to increase its power and excellence. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE FUTURE + + +The fact that invention has not only been increasing during the past +one hundred years, but that its speed of increase has been increasing +and is still increasing, is well recognized. There seems to be a +constant force behind invention that imparts to it an acceleration, +comparable to that of gravity in accelerating the descent of a falling +stone. Such a phenomenon would be thoroughly conformable to modern +theories; and that there is a force, impelling people to invent, must +be a fact; for otherwise, they would not invent. If that force be +constant, the acceleration imparted to invention will be constant. If +the force be variable, the acceleration imparted to invention will be +variable. In other words, the future speed of invention, like that of +every moving body, must be governed by the force behind it and the +resistances opposed. + +At the present moment, the resistance to invention is being gradually +lessened because the benefits coming from invention are being realized. +Simultaneously, the facilities for inventing are being increased. + +These facilities are mainly in instruments of measurements and +research. So many of these are there now, that it would only complicate +matters to enumerate them and describe their spheres. Two of the most +important are the spectroscope and the photographic camera. By means of +the spectroscope, the astronomer can ascertain the chemical elements +of far distant stars, the temperature and pressure under which they +exist, the stage of progress of the star, and its speed and direction +of movement, whether toward us or away. By means of the photographic +camera, not only can records be made of stars so far away and faint +that light-waves from them cannot be noted by the eye, even with the +assistance of the most powerful telescope,--but a virtually unlimited +number of permanent records can be made. + +All fields of research now feel the assistance imparted by new +instruments and methods. Even the chemist realizes the aid of +instruments invented by the physicist; while every physicist welcomes +the aid that comes to him from chemists. The chemists and the physicist +are now working together in harmony and with enthusiasm, engaged in +a friendly rivalry as to which shall help the other most. And, as +discovery succeeds discovery, and invention succeeds invention, they +find themselves--although the domain of each is widening--not drifting +farther apart, but drawing closer together. For it seems to be coming +more and more assured that the Laws of Nature are simpler than we +thought, that chemistry and physics are more alike than we supposed. +Many startling generalizations have been suggested, with much reason; +such as, that matter and energy are one, that space and time are one, +and that even the mind of man may be subjected to physical methods and +analysis. In fact, some of the greatest advances made during the past +twenty-five years have been in psychology, and achieved largely by +the use of physical apparatus. Many subjects, formerly included with +alchemy and astrology in the class of occult if not deceitful arts, +are now being developed apparently toward more or less exact sciences; +as alchemy was developed into chemistry, and astrology into astronomy. +Efforts are even being made to communicate with distant planets and +with the spirits of the dead. + +That much is being attempted that may not be realized is true. But if +we realize that the universe is now supposed to be many millions of +years old, it seems only yesterday that the phenomena of electrical and +magnetic attraction and repulsion were confusing the minds of even the +wisest: and now electricity and magnetism are harnessed together, and +working together in perfect harmony and marvelous effectiveness, for +the good of man. + +That the future of invention is to be as brilliant as its past, +every omen indicates. In what direction will it proceed? Probably in +all directions. But the line of direction that will occur the first +to many, is probably in aerial flight. Doubtless it is in aerial +flight that the greatest advance has been made since flight was first +successfully accomplished in 1903; and doubtless it is in that line +that the greatest progress is being made now. The enormous speeds +already achieved; the growing size of both aeroplanes and dirigibles; +their increasing speed, safety and convenience; the fact that roads +are not needed for aerial transportation as they are for carriages +and railway trains, or deep water channels as for water craft; and +the comparative cheapness with which people and light packages can +be carried swiftly and far, all point to a vast increase in aerial +transportation, and a great modification in all our modes of living in +consequence. + +Akin to transportation is communication:--but in communication, one +may reasonably feel that we have arrived almost at the boundary line, +not only of the possible but even the desirable. For we have almost +instantaneous communication all over the surface of the earth and under +almost all the ocean, by the telegraph and telephone, using wires and +cables; and nearly equally good communication by radio telegraph, using +no material connection whatever. The wireless telephone is following +fast on the heels of the wireless telegraph; and by it we can already +telephone hundreds of miles between stations on land and sea, and carry +on conversation for several miles between fast moving aeroplanes. + +But progress is going on rapidly also in the older fields of invention. +The ocean steamship, especially the battleship, is growing in size, +speed and safety; so is the locomotive, so is the automobile. Because +of the progress in all the useful arts and sciences, buildings of all +kinds are being constructed higher and larger, and more commodious +and safe; civil engineering works of all description--roads, canals, +bridges and tunnels are setting their durable marks of progress all +over the earth; the uses of electricity are growing, and showing every +indication that they will continue so to do; and so are the uses of +chemistry and light and heat. And through all the industrial world, +in manufactures of every kind, we see the same unmistakable signs of +progress, increasing progress and increasing rate of progress. + +In the field of pure science, we note the same signs of progress, +increasing progress, and increasing speed of progress. Naturally, +however, it is far more difficult to predict with confidence the +direction which future progress will take in this field than in the +field of the practical application of pure science, in which invention +usually bestirs itself. The fact, however, that any actual advance has +begun in any new science gives the best possible reason for expecting +that the advance is going to continue. Therefore, we may expect +continuing progress in all branches of pure science: for the near +future, for instance, in biology, psychology and what is loosely called +"psychics," which seems to be a virtual excursion of psychology into +the hazy realms of telepathy, clairvoyance, spiritualism, and so forth. + +That invention and research are concerning themselves more and more +with immaterial subjects is a fact that is not only noticeable but of +vital importance to us, for signs are not lacking that man's material +comfort is already sufficiently well-assured; in fact, that perhaps +he is already too comfortable for his physical well-being. Already we +see that labor saving and comfort-producing appliances are impairing +the physical strength of men and women, and to such a degree that +artificial exercises are prescribed by doctors. Inasmuch as "the mind +is its own place, and in itself can make a heaven of hell, a hell of +heaven," it seems probable that the direction of effort in which the +greatest real benefit can be attained is in research and consequent +invention concerning the mind itself. But, for the reason that this +is probably the most difficult road, it seems probable that success +in it may come the latest. It seems probable also that even in that +road, progress will be achieved by means analogous to those by which it +has been achieved in other roads; that is by the use of physical and +chemical instruments and methods. Much has been done already by their +aid in psychology, and much more is promised in the not distant future. + +The idea of influencing the mind directly to states of happiness, +and guarding it from unhappiness, is far from new; for what were +the epicureans, stoics, and others trying to do but that? Such +attempts, many systems of philosophy and many mystic sects distinctly +made. Of these sects, one of the most interesting was that of the +omphalopsychites, who were able to raise themselves to high states of +happiness by the simple and inexpensive process of gazing at their +navels. Some advantages of their system are obvious. Certainly it was +less costly than other means of gaining happiness, such as wearing +narrow-toed shoes, chewing tobacco, smoking cigarettes and drinking +whiskey; and there is no evidence that it ever caused ingrowing +toe-nails, delirium tremens, or Bright's disease. + +That invention and progress have produced and may be relied upon to +continue to produce prosperity, may reasonably be predicted. But will +they together produce happiness? + +The author respectfully begs to be excused from answering this +question. He requests attention, however, to the manifest facts that +invention is a natural gift, that the impetus to invention has always +been the desire to achieve prosperity of some kind, and that to employ +our natural gifts to satisfy our natural instincts can reasonably be +expected to further our happiness; unless, indeed, we suspect Nature of +playing tricks upon us. + +That Nature sometimes seems to do this, and that it is dangerous to +follow our instincts blindly is of course a fact. But it seems to be +a fact also that the danger in following our instincts seems to come +only when we follow them blindly; and that, though there may be danger +sometimes in following them even under the guidance of our reason, +yet the only way in which we have ever progressed at all has been +by following our instincts under reason's guidance, and invention's +inspiration. + +And since the civilized world is in virtual agreement that civilization +is a happier state than savagery, and since we have been impelled +toward civilization by invention mainly, there seems no escape from +the conclusion that it is to invention mainly that we must look for +increase of happiness in the future. + +It may be, of course, that happiness does not come so much from a +condition or state attained as from the act of striving to attain it. +It may be suggested also by some one that life is merely a game, and +that happiness comes from playing the game and not from winning it, +just as children delight more in constructing a toy building with +their blocks than in the building when completed: for they no sooner +complete the building than they knock it down, and begin to build it up +again. But, even from this point of view, the desirability of fostering +invention would be apparent; because it would continually supply us +with new games to play, and new toys with which to play them. + +But that any thoughtful person could really think life a game is an +impossibility. No man with a mind to reason and a soul to feel can +contemplate the awful suffering that has always existed in the world, +and think life a mere game. No man can think life a mere game, who with +an eye to see and an imagination to conceive, gazes upon the infinite +sea of stars visible to his unaided vision, realizes how many thousands +upon thousands of stars there are besides, that the photographic camera +records, and realizes also that, though light travels even through air +at a rate exceeding 186,000 miles per second, yet that some stars are +so distant that the light now reaching us from them started ages before +the dawn of history. And no man who is able to follow the teachings +of science, even superficially, can note the enormous development of +civilization during the last few thousand years, and realize that a +development similar though infinitely grander, must have been going on +in all the universe for countless centuries, without realizing also +that "through the ages an increasing purpose runs." He may even note a +likeness between it and the development on an infinitely smaller scale, +of the conception of a merely human inventor. Possibly, his fancy may +even soar still higher: possibly he may even wonder if all this great +creation may not be in effect a great invention, and God its Great +Creator, because its Great Inventor. + +So, whether we fix our thought on what the scientists tell us of the +probable course of development of the universe during the countless +ages of the past, or consider merely the development of man since the +dawn of recorded history, we seem to find as the initiating cause of +both--invention. + +Let us therefore utilize all means possible to develop this Godgiven +faculty, the chiefest of the talents committed to our keeping. That way +lie progress, prosperity and happiness. How far and how high it may +lead us, God only knows; for the resources of invention are infinite. + + +The End. + + + + +INDEX + + + A + + Abel, 240 + + Acetylene gas, 219 + + Acheson, 312 + + Ægeans, 55, 56 + + Aerial Age, 326 + + Age of Bronze, 15 + + Age of Copper, 15 + + Age of Iron, 19 + + Age of Steam, 179 _et seq_ + + Air-brake, 278 + + Air-pump, 142, 143 + + Airships, 326 + + Alchemy, 208 + + Alexander, 69 to 97 + + Alexandria, 77 + + Alphabet, 58 + + Aluminum, 213, 302 + + Ampère, 198, 199 + + Analine dyes, 265 + + Antipyrene, 298 + + Antiseptic surgery, 274 + + Antitoxin, 328 + + Appleby, 292 + + Application of hot air to furnaces, 213 + + Arago, 198 + + Arc-light, 183, 235 + + Archimedes, 78, 79, 149, 176 + + Aristotle, 139 + + Arithmetic, 35 + + Arkwright, 172 + + Artificial limbs, 239 + + Artificial silk, 304 + + Assur, 38 + + Assyria, 39, 40 + + Astrology, 31 + + Astronomy, 24, 29 + + Atlantic cable, 266 + + Atomic Theory, 210 + + Atwood's machine, 163 + + Automatic arc-light, 235 + + Automatic car-coupler, 285 + + Automatic grain-binder, 273, 292 + + Automatic piano, 221 + + Autoplate, 318 + + + B + + Babbage, 201 + + Babbitt metal, 220 + + Babylonian measures, 32 + + Babylonian religion, 38 + + Bacillus of cholera, 298 + + Bacillus of diphtheria, 298 + + Bacillus of hydrophobia, 298 + + Bacillus of infantile paralysis, 329 + + Bacillus of lockjaw, 298 + + Bacillus of tuberculosis, 298 + + Bacillus of typhus fever, 329 + + Bacon, Francis, 139, 140, 162 + + Bacon, Roger, 124 + + Baldwin, 217 + + Balista, 44 + + Band wood-saw, 184, 302 + + Barbed-wire fence, 273 + + Barometer, 142 + + Battle of the Nile, 189, 190 + + Bazaine, 281 + + Bémont, 314 + + Becquerel Rays, 313, 314 + + Behel, 273 + + Bell, 287, 302 + + Berliner, 292 + + Bernoulli, 164 + + Bessemer's process, 248 + + Bicycle, 265 + + Bismarck, 283 + + Black, 171, 175 + + Blake telephone-transmitter, 294 + + Bonaparte, 177, 178 + + Bourdon, 244 + + Bow and arrow, 4, 5 + + Bowers, 302 + + Boyle, 141 + + Braithwaite, 214 + + Branca, 152 + + Brandenburg, 164 + + Branly's coherer, 305 + + Brewster, 186, 244 + + Britain, 91, 92 + + Brugnatelli, 182 + + Buddhism, 39, 263 + + Bullock, 274 + + Bunsen, 266 + + Burden, 218 + + Burleigh, 275 + + + C + + Cable-car, 265 + + Cæsar, 7, 85 to 95, 279 + + Calculating machine, 201 + + Carbide of calcium, 273 + + Carbolic acid, 218 + + Carbon telephone-transmitter, 292 + + Carborundum, 312 + + Carré, 269 + + Carthage, 83, 84, 85 + + Cartwright, 175 + + Cash-carrier, 286 + + Cash-register, 286 + + Catapult, 44 + + Cathode rays, 292 + + Caus, 151 + + Cavallo, 175 + + Cavendish, 170, 171, 175 + + Cawley, 153 + + Celluloid, 284 + + Cerebro-spinal meningitis antitoxin, 328 + + Channing, 246 + + Charlotte Dundas, 180 + + Chemistry, 208 + + Chloral hydrate, 217 + + Chloroform, 215 + + Christian Science, 277 + + Christianity, 50, 263 + + Chrome process of tanning, 302 + + Cigarette machine, 291 + + Circulation of blood, 140 + + Civil War in America, 269 _et seq_ + + Clay tablets, 24 + + Clerk Maxwell, 284, 285 + + Clermont, 180 + + Clock, 162 + + Coal-gas, 184 + + Cocaine, 248 + + Coins, 48 + + Color photography, 327 + + Colt, 219 + + Columbus, 125 _et seq_ + + Compressed-air rock drill, 275, 284 + + Confucianism, 39 + + Congress of Vienna, 260 + + Congress, U. S. S., 270, 271, 272 + + Constant battery, 219 + + Constantinople, 96, 97, 113 + + Constitution of the United States, 263 + + Cooke, 220 + + Copenhagen, 192 + + Copernicus, 132, 133, 134 + + Corliss cut-off, 244 + + Cornwallis, 174, 175 + + Cortez, 128, 129 + + Corvus, 84, 85 + + Cowles, 302 + + Craske, 269 + + Crawford, 220 + + Cretans, 48 + + Croesus, 48 + + Crookes, 292 + + Cumberland, U. S. S., 270, 271, 272 + + Cuneiform writing, 28 + + Curie, 314 + + Curtiss, Glenn, 327 + + Curved stereoplates, 269 + + Customs union, 261 + + Cyanide process, 303 + + Cyrus, 39 + + + D + + Dædalus, 57 + + Daguerre, 181, 182 + + Dalton, 210, 211 + + Daniell, 219 + + Daniels, 328, 330 + + Darius, 59 + + Davy, 181, 182, 183 + + Davy, Edmund, 219 + + De Chardonnet, 304 + + De Grasse, 174, 175 + + De Lesseps, 237 + + Decimal system, 32 + + Deisel Engine, 291 + + Della Porta, 151 + + Dennison, 242 + + Depth bomb, 339 + + Dewar, 201 + + Dias, Bartholomew, 125 + + Diet at Spires, 131 + + Diet at Worms, 131 + + Disc for polishing, 43 + + Divine Right of kings, 146, 147 + + Dodge, 274 + + Domestication of brutes, 13 + + Drager, 327 + + Draper, 221 + + Drebel, 142 + + Dry-plate photography, 265 + + Duodecimal system, 31, 32 + + Duplex telegraph, 285 + + Dynamics, 159 + + Dynamite, 277 + + Dynamo electric machine, 275 + + + E + + East India Company, 257 + + Eastman, 304 + + Eberth, 295 + + Eddy, 277 + + Edison, 123, 292, 310, 328, 285 + + Egyptian religion, 38 + + Electric light, 149 + Telegraph, 215 + Cautery, 239 + Locomotive, 245 + Candle, 290 + Railway, first, 293 + Welding, 302 + Furnace, 312 + Motor, 217, 218 + + Electrically propelled boat, 221 + + Electricity, 148 _et seq_ + + Electromagnetic theory of light, 284 + + Electron, 293 + + Electroplating, 182 + + Electrostatic induction, 247 + + Elevator, 272 + + Embalming, 35 + + Ericsson, 10, 68, 214, 220, 270, 271, 272 + + Ether as an anæsthetic, 221 + + + F + + Fahrenheit, 142 + + Faraday, 138, 199, 214, 247 + + Farmer, 246 + + Faure storage battery, 294 + + Feudal system, 145, 146 + + Field, Cyrus, 266 + + Finlay, 327 + + Finsen, 313 + + Fire alarm telegraph, 247 + + Fire, 5 + + First American locomotive, 217 + + First electric telegraph, 232 + + First successful aeroplane flight, 326 + + Fiske, 312, 326, 328 + + Fitch, 180 + + Flexner, 328, 329 + + Flute, 49 + + Flying boat, 327 + + Foucault, 235 + + Fox, Talbot, 247 + + Foy, 294 + + Franklin, 168, 169, 170, 256 + + Frederick the Great, 166 _et seq_ + + Frederick William, 165, 166, 279 + + French Revolution, 260 + + Friction matches, 213 + + Fulton, 180 + + + G + + Galileo, 135, 136 + + Galvani, 138, 200 + + Galvanization, 220 + + Galvanometer, 200 + + Gardner, 265 + + Gas engine, 291 + + Gas mantle, 302 + + Gatling gun, 273 + + Gaul, 86 to 95 + + Gaza, 73 + + Ged, 164 + + Geometry, 37 + + German Confederation, 261 + + Giffard, 265 + + Gilbert, 137, 138 + + Gimlet, 57 + + Goldschmidt, 327 + + Goodyear, 220, 284 + + Gorham, 286 + + Gorrie, 245 + + Gramme, 283 + + Graphophone, 302 + + Gravitation, Law of, 144 + + Great Eastern, 266 + + Greece, 45 + + Greek fire, 96, 97 + + Green, 269 + + Greener's hammerless gun, 294 + + Groves gas battery, 267 + + Guericke, 142, 143, 148, 149, 216 + + Gun carriage, 108 + + Gun-cotton, 240 + + Gun director system, 312 + + Gun, 101 to 110 + + Gunpowder, 39 + + Guthrie, 215 + + Guttenberg, 7, 111 + + Gyroscopic compass, 326 + + Gyroscopic stabilizer, 327 + + + H + + Hadley, 145 + + Hales, 184 + + Hall, 308 + + Hammurabi, 38 + + Hanaman, 327 + + Hand photographic camera, 298 + + Hannibal, 84, 85 + + Hargreaves, 172 + + Harvey, 140, 141 + + Harveyized armor, 304 + + Heat, a measure of work, 212 + + Hebrews, 45 + + Hellenistic civilization, 76, 77 + + Helmholtz, 246 + + Henry, 214, 216, 252 + + Herman, 247 + + Hero, 149, 150, 151 + + Hertz, 304, 305 + + Hewitt, 326 + + Hibbert, 244 + + High speed printing press, 327 + + Hoe, 235, 242 + + Holy Alliance, 260 + + Homer, 205 + + Hooke, 145, 162 + + Horseshoe machine, 218 + + Howe, 236 + + Huygens, 162 + + Hyatt, 284 + + Hydraulic dredge, 302 + + Hydraulic jack, 176 + + + I + + Ice machine, 245, 287 + + Illuminating water-gas, 286 + + Image making, 117, 118 + + Incandescent lamp, 292 + + Induced currents, 214 + + Induction transmitter, 293 + + Ingersoll, 284 + + Internal combustion engine, 291 + + Interrupted thread screw, 242 + + Invasion of England, 193, 194 + + Ironclads, 248 + + + J + + Jablochkoff, 290 + + Jacobi, 218, 221 + + James, 217 + + Janney, 285 + + Jansen, 135 + + Jewish religion, 45, 46 + + Joly, 327 + + Judaism, 263 + + + K + + Kaleidoscope, 186, 187 + + Kepler, 134 + + Kinetograph and kinetoscope, 310, 328 + + Kingsland, 265 + + Kirchoff, 266 + + Knitting machine, 184 + + Koch, 295, 298 + + Kodak camera, 304 + + König, 186 + + Königgratz, 280 + + Krag-Jorgensen rifle, 309 + + Krupp, 243 + + Kuno, 298 + + + L + + La Gloire, 265 + + Laennec, 197 + + Laplace, 209 + + Laughing gas, 234 + + Lavoisier, 171, 172, 208, 211 + + Laws of electrolysis, 247 + + Laws of electromagnetic induction, 247 + + Laws of electrostatic induction, 247 + + League of Armed Neutrality, 192 + + Lee magazine rifle, 294 + + Leges Juliæ, 85 + + Legion, 83 + + Leibig, 215, 217 + + Leupold, 153 + + Leyden jar, 168, 169 + + Liberal government, 255 _et seq_ + + Light, 235 + + Linde, 312 + + Link motion, 217 + + Linotype machine, 301 + + Lippman, 327 + + Liquefaction of air, 312 + + Liquefaction of gases, 201 + + Lister, 274 + + Lithography, 177 + + Locomotive, 185 + + Loeffler, 298 + + Long, 221 + + Loom, positive motion weaving, 284 + + Lowe, 286 + + Lumière, 327 + + Lundstrom, 247 + + Luther, 130 _et seq_ + + Lyall, 284 + + + M + + Machine for making barbed-wire, 286 + + Mack, 194 + + Maddox, 284 + + Magazine gun, 243 + + Magellan, 128 + + Magneto electric machine, 216, 217 + + Malleable iron castings, 184 + + Marathon, 59, 60 + + Marble, 302 + + Marconi, 306, 313 + + Martel, Charles, 110 + + Martin's steel process, 274 + + Match-making machine, 242 + + Matteson, 302 + + Maxim, 327 + + McCormick Reaper, 218 + + McMahon, 281 + + Melhuish, 247 + + Merchant adventurers, 257 + + Mercury-vapor light, 326 + + Mergenthaler, 301, 308 + + Merkle, 177 + + Merrimac, C. S. S., 68, 270, 271, 272 + + Metternich, 261, 262 + + Michoux, 265 + + Middlings purifier, 287 + + Militarism, 282 + + Military machine, 279 _et seq_ + + Miller, 180 + + Miltiades, 59, 60 + + Milton, 205 + + Miners' safety lamp, 183, 184 + + Mohammedanism, 263 + + Moltke, 279 + + Moncrief's disappearing gun-carriage, 276 + + Monitor, 68, 270, 271, 272 + + Monroe Doctrine, 256 + + Montgolfier, 175 + + Morse, 215, 232, 233, 234 + + Morton, 215 + + Motion, Laws of, 144 + + Multiphase currents, 303 + + Mungo Ponton, 221 + + Murdock, 184 + + Muschenbroek, 168 + + Musical telephone, 267 + + Muybridge, 310 + + Mythology, 53 + + + N + + Napier, 136, 137 + + Napoleon, 187 _et seq_, 257 + + Nasmyth, 221 + + Needle telegraph, 220 + + Nege, 277 + + Neilson, 213 + + Nelson, 190, 192, 194, 197 + + Newcomer, 153 + + Newton, Isaac, 143, 144, 145 + + Nicholson, 186 + + Nickel steel, 308 + + Nicolaier, 298 + + Niepce, 181 + + Nineveh, 39 + + Nitroglycerin, 241 + + Nobel, 277 + + + O + + Oersted, 198, 199, 200 + + Ohm, 213 + + Oleomargarine, 277 + + Omphalopsychites, 345 + + Open-hearth process for steel-making, 274 + + Ophthalmoscope, 245 + + Otis, 272 + + Otto, 291 + + + P + + Pacinnotti, 217, 283 + + Page, 245 + + Painting, 56 + + Paper, 101 + + Papin, 153 + + Papyrus, 25, 33 + + Parson's steam turbine, 309 + + Pasteur, 298 + + Patent office, 111 + + Paul, 172 + + Peloponnesian War, 63, 66 + + Pericles, 62 + + Perkins, 265 + + Perry, 315 + + Persian Gates, 74 + + Phalanx, 68, 69 + + Philip of Macedon, 66, 67 + + Phoenicians, 45 + + Phoenix, 181 + + Phonetic writing, 27 + + Phonograph, 291 + + Photographic roll films, 247 + + Photography, 181, 221 + + Photometer, 212 + + Pictet, 287 + + Picture-writing, 27 + + Pitt, 261, 262 + + Pixii, 216 + + Pizarro, 129 + + Planté, 266 + + Platinotype process, 285 + + Plotz, 329 + + Pneumatic caissons, 221 + + Pneumatic tire, 235 + + Pneumonia bacillus, 295 + + Poetry, 62 + + Portable fire engine, 214 + + Portland cement, 291 + + Porus, 75 + + Potassium, 182 + + Power-loom, 175 + + Prehistoric inventor, 23 + + Prescott, 302 + + Priestley, 171 + + Primeval weapons, 1 to 20 + + Princeton, U. S. S., 220 + + Principia, 143 + + Printing press, 186 + + Printing telegraph, 237 + + Printing, 110 to 115 + + Pulmotor, 327 + + Pump, 243 + + Punic Wars, 84, 85 + + Pyramids, 35, 36 + + + Q + + Quadruplex telegraphy, 285 + + + R + + Radio activity, 314 + + Radio control of moving vessels, 326 + + Radium, 314 + + Ramsay, 180 + + Rear driven chain for bicycles, 302 + + Reece, 298 + + Regenerative furnace, 265 + + Reis, 267 + + Renaissance, 112 + + Revolver, 219 + + Rock drill, 247 + + Rocket, 185 + + Röntgen, 293, 312 + + Rubicon, 94 + + Ruhmkorff coil, 246, 293 + + Ruin of the machine of civilization, 226-230 + + Rumford, 212 + + Runge, 218 + + Russian campaign, 196, 197 + + + S + + Sadowa, 280 + + Safety matches, 247 + + Sailing vessels, 47 + + Salamis, 61 + + Santos Dumont, 326 + + Sargon, 41 + + Savage, 241 + + Savannah, first ocean steamship, 202 + + Savery, 152, 153 + + Schmid, 298 + + Schneider, 308 + + Schonbein, 240 + + Schultz, 302 + + Schultze, 273 + + Schweigg, 200 + + Scott Archer, 245 + + Screw propeller, 220 + + Sculpture, 62 + + Secondary battery, 266 + + Seebeck, 200 + + Self-binding reaper, 286 + + Self-induction, 215 + + Selligne, 221 + + Senefelder, 177 + + Sennacherib, 41 + + Sewing-machine, 236 + + Sextant, 145 + + Seymour, 245 + + Seytre, 221 + + Shakespeare, 205 + + Shell ejector, 274 + + Shintoism, 263 + + Shoemaking machine, 269 + + Sholes, 276 + + Siemens, 216, 265, 275, 294 + + Silencer for fire arms, 327 + + Sleeping-car, 265 + + Smeaton, 153 + + Smith and Wesson revolver, 247 + + Smokeless gunpowder, 273 + + Sobrero, 241 + + Sodium, 182 + + Soubeiran, 215 + + Sparta, 62 + + Spectroscope, 266 + + Sperry, 326 + + Spinning machine, 172 + + Sprague electric railway and motor, 303 + + St. Vincent, 190 + + Statuary, 56 + + Steam engine, 150 _et seq_ + + Steam hammer, 221 + + Steam plough, 294 + + Steam presser gauge, 244 + + Steam saw-mill, 291 + + Steam whistle, 218 + + Steel pen, 184 + + Stephenson, 185, 218 + + Stereoscope, 244 + + Stereotyping, 164 + + Sternberg, 295 + + Stethoscope, 197, 246 + + Stevens, 181 + + Sturgeon, 217 + + Suez Canal, 237 + + Sulphite process, 276 + + Syphon, 286 + + Syria, 45 + + + T + + Tainter, 302 + + Talbot, 221 + + Talleyrand, 261, 262 + + Taoism, 39, 263 + + Taupenot, 265 + + Telephone, 287 + + Telescope sight for ships' guns, 312 + + Telescope, 135, 136 + + Tesla, 303 + + Themistocles, 61 + + Thermit welding, 327 + + Thermometer, 142 + + Thermopile, 200, 201 + + Thermos bottle, 201 + + Thompson, Elihu, 302 + + Thomson, Benjamin, 212 + + Thomson, Sir William, 286 + + Thorium, 314 + + Threshing-machine, 177 + + Thurber, 231 + + Tilghman, 276 + + Time-lock, 241 + + Torpedoplane, 328 + + Torricelli, 142 + + Toulon, 177 + + Trafalgar, 195 + + Triger, 221 + + Tubular boiler, 214 + + Tungsten electric light, 327 + + Turtle for printing presses, 245 + + Twine-binder, 286 + + Typewriter, 231, 276 + + Typhoid bacillus, 295 + + Tyre, 72, 73 + + Tyrian Dyes, 48 + + + U + + Ulm, 194 + + Uranium, 314 + + Use of collodion in photography, 245 + + Uxian pass, 74 + + + V + + Van Depoele, 302 + + Vasco da Gama, 128 + + Veneti, 90 + + Vercingetorix, 93, 94 + + Vieille, 273 + + Villeneuve, 193, 194 + + Visibility of objects, 116, 117 + + Volta, 138, 170, 171 + + Voltaic arc, 182, 183 + + Vulcanizing rubber, 220 + + + W + + Walker, 213 + + Walkers, 304 + + War-chariot, 42 + + Washington, 173 _et seq_ + + Watch, 162 + + Watch-making machine, 245 + + Water-gas, 221 + + Watt, 154 _et seq_ + + Webb-feeding printing press, 274 + + Wedgwood, 181 + + Wegmann, 286 + + Wells, 234 + + Welsbach, 302 + + Westinghouse, 278, 285 + + Wheatstone bridge, 285 + + Wheatstone, 220 + + Wheel, 42, 43 + + Whitehead torpedo, 275 + + Whitney, 177 + + Wilde, 275 + + Willis, 285 + + Wireless telegraph, 305, 306 + + Wöhler, 213 + + Wood pulp, 247 + + Wood, Henry A. Wise, 318, 327 + + Woodruff, 265 + + Worm, 245 + + Wright, Orville and Wilbur, 326 + + + X + + X-Rays, 293, 312, 313 + + Xerxes, 60 + + + Z + + Zankerode, 293 + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + + +Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant +preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. + +Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced +quotation marks retained. + +Inconsistent hyphenation, e.g., "co-operation" and "cooperation", has +been retained unless one form predominated. + +Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. + +Page 174: "and sheet force of will" is misprint for "sheer". + +Page 249: Several colons would be semi-colons in modern practice. + +Index was not well-alphabetized; corrected here. Diacriticals and +ligatures have been alphabetized as plain letters. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Invention, by Bradley A. Fiske + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43965 *** |