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diff --git a/43963-h/43963-h.htm b/43963-h/43963-h.htm index 87de9a8..2166faa 100644 --- a/43963-h/43963-h.htm +++ b/43963-h/43963-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Principles of Stratigraphical Geology, by J. E. Marr, A Project Gutenberg eBook @@ -123,48 +123,7 @@ sup {font-size: .6em; position: relative; top: 0.2em; left: 0.3em;} </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -Project Gutenberg's The Principles of Stratigraphical Geology, by J. E. Marr - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Principles of Stratigraphical Geology - -Author: J. E. Marr - -Release Date: October 16, 2013 [EBook #43963] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43963 ***</div> <div class="center"> <p class="caption2">Cambridge Natural Science Manuals.<br /> @@ -522,7 +481,7 @@ taken place. He tries to restore the physical geography of each period of the past, and in this way to write a connected history of the earth. His methods are in a general way similar to those of the ethnologist, the -archæologist, and the historian, and he is confronted with +archæologist, and the historian, and he is confronted with difficulties resembling those which attend the researches of the students of human history. Foremost amongst these difficulties is that due to the imperfection of the @@ -579,7 +538,7 @@ for that long period of time, but in this respect the geologist is in the same condition as the student of human history, for the relics of the early stone age prove that man in that age had attained a fairly high state of -civilisation, and the gap which separates palæolithic man +civilisation, and the gap which separates palæolithic man from the first of our race is relatively speaking as great as that which divides the Cambrian period from the commencement of earth-history. Nevertheless, human @@ -630,7 +589,7 @@ Subsequently to this, a more minute subdivision of the rocks is possible as the result of labours conducted by one or more workers who are enabled to avail themselves of the work of the pioneer, and our knowledge of the rocks -is largely increased thereby. But the minutiæ, often of +is largely increased thereby. But the minutiæ, often of prime importance, are supplied by workers who must spend a large portion of their time in the area where the work lies, and it is only in districts where work of this @@ -659,7 +618,7 @@ which occur in the seam. The suite of relics of the organisms of that period is accordingly far more perfect than in the case of many other beds, and indeed the large and varied collection of relics of the vertebrata of the period -which furnish much information of value to the palæontologist +which furnish much information of value to the palæontologist would not have been gathered together, had not this seam been so carefully worked, and an important paragraph in the chapter bearing on the history of this @@ -851,7 +810,7 @@ his attention to the rocks of a limited district.</p> <p>The Rev. John Michell published in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i> for 1760 an "Essay on the Cause and -Phænomena of Earthquakes," but Prof. Phillips gives +Phænomena of Earthquakes," but Prof. Phillips gives proofs that Michell, who in 1762 became Woodwardian Professor, had before 1788 discovered (what he never published) the first approximate succession of the Mesozoic @@ -926,7 +885,7 @@ containing an Appendix in which the general succession of the strata of Derbyshire is noted. The main points of interest are that the author clearly recognised the 'toad-stones' of Derbyshire as igneous rocks, "as much a <i>lava</i> -as that which flows from Hecla, Vesuvius, or Ætna," +as that which flows from Hecla, Vesuvius, or Ætna," though he believed that they were intrusive and not contemporaneous, and he also foreshadows the distinction between the solid strata and the superficial deposits,—"we @@ -1021,7 +980,7 @@ below and the stratum above, at or near the places where now they are imbedded; and observing that in the successively-deposited strata the organic remains were of different forms and structures—Gryphites in the -lias, Trigoniæ in the inferior oolite, hooked oysters in the +lias, Trigoniæ in the inferior oolite, hooked oysters in the fuller's earth,—and finding these facts repeated in other districts, he inferred that each of the separate periods occupied in the formation of the strata was accompanied @@ -1074,16 +1033,16 @@ of a country composed largely of stratified rocks are essentially stratigraphical, but partly no doubt on account of adherence to old custom, partly on economic grounds, the majority of our stratigraphical maps are lithological -rather than palæontological, that is the subdivisions of the +rather than palæontological, that is the subdivisions of the strata represented upon the map are chosen rather on account of lithological peculiarities than because of the variations in their enclosed organisms. It is hardly likely that Government surveys will be allowed to publish -palæontological maps, which will be almost exclusively +palæontological maps, which will be almost exclusively of theoretical interest, and it remains for zealous private individuals to accomplish the production of such maps. When they are produced, a comparison of stratigraphical -maps founded on lithological and palæontological considerations +maps founded on lithological and palæontological considerations will furnish results of extreme scientific interest.</p> <p>Turning now from Smith's contributions to the science @@ -1468,14 +1427,14 @@ of the Strata.</p> <p>The above table contains a very complete classification of the British Mesozoic rocks, one of the Tertiary strata which is less complete, and a preliminary division of the -Palæozoic rocks into Permian (Redland Limestone), +Palæozoic rocks into Permian (Redland Limestone), Carboniferous (Coal Measures and Mountain Limestone), -Devonian (Red Rhab and Dunstone) and Lower Palæozoic +Devonian (Red Rhab and Dunstone) and Lower Palæozoic (Killas).</p> <p>Since Smith's time the main work which has been done in classification is a fuller elucidation of the sequence -of the Tertiary and Palæozoic Rocks, and this we may +of the Tertiary and Palæozoic Rocks, and this we may now consider.</p> <p>The Mesozoic rocks are developed in Britain under @@ -1483,7 +1442,7 @@ circumstances which render the application of the test of superposition comparatively simple, for the various subdivisions crop out on the surface over long distances, and the stratification is not greatly disturbed. With the -Tertiary and Palæozoic Rocks it is otherwise, for some +Tertiary and Palæozoic Rocks it is otherwise, for some members of the former are found in isolated patches, whilst the latter have usually been much disturbed after their formation.</p> @@ -1521,19 +1480,19 @@ University of Oxford.</p> <p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Lyell, <i>Students' Elements of Geology</i>. 2nd Edition, p. 118.</p></div> -<p>Amongst the Palæozoic rocks, it has been seen that +<p>Amongst the Palæozoic rocks, it has been seen that the Permian, Carboniferous and some of the Devonian beds were recognised as distinct by Smith, though a large number of deposits now known to belong to the last named were thrown in with other rocks as 'killas.' The Devonian system was established and the name given to it in 1838 by Sedgwick and Murchison, largely -owing to the palæontological researches of Lonsdale. An +owing to the palæontological researches of Lonsdale. An attempt was subsequently made to abolish the system, -but the detailed palæontological studies of R. Etheridge +but the detailed palæontological studies of R. Etheridge finally placed it upon a secure basis. The establishment of the Devonian system cleared the way for the right -understanding of the Lower Palæozoic rocks, which +understanding of the Lower Palæozoic rocks, which Sedgwick and Murchison had commenced to study before the actual establishment of the Devonian system, and to these workers belongs the credit of practically completing @@ -1541,7 +1500,7 @@ what was begun by William Smith, namely, the establishment of the Geological Sequence of the British strata. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> The controversy which unfortunately marked the early -years of the study of the British Lower Palæozoic Rocks +years of the study of the British Lower Palæozoic Rocks is well-nigh forgotten, and in the future the names of Sedgwick and Murchison will be handed down together, in the manner which is most fitting.</p> @@ -1550,12 +1509,12 @@ in the manner which is most fitting.</p> Geology is not yet complete. In 1854, Sir William Logan applied the term Laurentian to a group of rocks discovered in Canada, which occurred beneath the Lower -Palæozoic Rocks. Murchison shortly afterwards claimed +Palæozoic Rocks. Murchison shortly afterwards claimed certain rocks in N.W. Scotland as being of generally similar age, and since then a number of geologists, most of whom are still living, have proved the occurrence of several large subdivisions of rocks in Britain, each of -which is of pre-Palæozoic age.</p> +which is of pre-Palæozoic age.</p> <p>The above is a brief description of the growth of our knowledge of the order of succession of the strata which @@ -1567,10 +1526,10 @@ than can be devoted to it in a work like the present, but some idea of it may be gained from a study of the later chapters of the book. It will suffice here to remark, that to Godwin-Austen we owe the foundation of what may be -termed the physical branch of Palæo-physiography, which +termed the physical branch of Palæo-physiography, which is concerned with the restoration of the physical conditions of past ages, while Cuvier and Darwin have exerted -the most influence on the study of Stratigraphical Palæontology.</p> +the most influence on the study of Stratigraphical Palæontology.</p> <hr class="chap" /> @@ -1686,7 +1645,7 @@ rock may be derived from another, the term is too comprehensive. <i>Aqueous</i> rocks should be formed in water, and most of the class of rocks which we are considering have been so formed, but others such as sand-dunes and -surface-soil have not. (The term Aerial or Æolian has +surface-soil have not. (The term Aerial or Æolian has been suggested to include these rocks which are thus separated from the Aqueous rocks proper; the objection to this is that the origin of these rocks is closely connected @@ -1830,7 +1789,7 @@ between two planes of stratification forms a <i>stratum</i> or <i>bed</i>, though if the deposit be very thin it is known as a <i>lamina</i>, and the planes are spoken of as <i>planes of lamination</i> (no hard and fast line can be drawn between strata and -laminæ; several of the latter usually occur in the space of +laminæ; several of the latter usually occur in the space of an inch).</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> @@ -1983,9 +1942,9 @@ word 'originally' which requires some comment.</p> <p>A geologist speaks of one bed lying <i>upon</i> another not only when the beds are horizontal, but when they are inclined at any angle, until they become vertical, so that -until beds have been turned through an angle of 90° by +until beds have been turned through an angle of 90° by earth-movement the test of superposition is applicable, -but when they have been turned more than 90°, the +but when they have been turned more than 90°, the stratum which was originally lower rests upon that which was originally above it, and in the case of these <i>inverted</i> strata, the test of superposition is no longer applicable. @@ -2008,7 +1967,7 @@ inversion may be frequent<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="# <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> For a discussion of the principles of mountain-building see -Heim, A., <i>Untersuchungen über den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung</i>, +Heim, A., <i>Untersuchungen über den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung</i>, and Lapworth, C. "The Secret of the Highlands," <i>Geological Magazine</i>, Decade <span class="smcap">II.</span> vol. x. pp. 120, 193, 337.</p></div> @@ -2069,9 +2028,9 @@ common limb.</p></div> <p>Here the portions of any bed (<i>xx</i>) which occur in the arch or trough are in normal position, and have not been -moved round through an angle of 90°, whilst the portion +moved round through an angle of 90°, whilst the portion which occurs in the common limb c has been moved round -through an angle greater than 90° and is inverted, so that +through an angle greater than 90° and is inverted, so that its former upper surface now faces downwards. In Fig. 1 <span class="smcap">B</span> the common limb is replaced by a reversed fault, or thrust-plane, and the inverted portion of the bed seen in @@ -2299,7 +2258,7 @@ gravels with elephant-bones.</p> <p>It must be distinctly understood that the determination of fossils as characteristic of different periods is solely -made as the result of experience. No <i>à priori</i> reasoning +made as the result of experience. No <i>à priori</i> reasoning may give one indication of the actual range in time of a species or genus; no one can say why <i>Discina</i> has a long range in time, whilst that of the closely related <i>Trematis</i> @@ -2488,7 +2447,7 @@ of various acids as hydrochloric and hydrofluosilicic have been found of use upon different occasions<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>. The various processes which have been utilised in order to extract and develop fossils can, however, be best learned by information -obtainable from curators of palæontological collections, +obtainable from curators of palæontological collections, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> and by actual experience, and there is yet much information to be acquired as to the manner of extracting fossils @@ -2536,7 +2495,7 @@ characteristics have been extensively studied, and accordingly they have been and are of great use to the geologist. Of other groups, the graptolites, corals, echinids, brachiopods, and trilobites have been very largely utilised. The -Lower Palæozoic strata have been divided into numerous +Lower Palæozoic strata have been divided into numerous groups, each characterised by definite forms of graptolites, and a similar use has been made of the ammonites in the case of the Mesozoic rocks. It is not to be inferred that @@ -2583,16 +2542,16 @@ an ideal arrangement as constituting a 'geological column.'</p></div> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, and <i>C</i> is found in any one area, each member of which contains characteristic fossils which enable it to be recognised in that area, and we will further suppose -that in another area a series of strata <i>A´</i>, <i>B´</i>, and <i>C´</i> is -discovered, of which <i>A´</i> has the fauna of <i>A</i> in the former -area, and similarly <i>B´</i> the fauna of <i>B</i>, and <i>C´</i> that of <i>C</i>.</p> +that in another area a series of strata <i>A´</i>, <i>B´</i>, and <i>C´</i> is +discovered, of which <i>A´</i> has the fauna of <i>A</i> in the former +area, and similarly <i>B´</i> the fauna of <i>B</i>, and <i>C´</i> that of <i>C</i>.</p> <p>It cannot be assumed that the stratum <i>A</i> is therefore -contemporaneous with <i>A´</i>, <i>B</i> with <i>B´</i>, and <i>C</i> with <i>C´</i>, but +contemporaneous with <i>A´</i>, <i>B</i> with <i>B´</i>, and <i>C</i> with <i>C´</i>, but on the other hand, it must not be assumed that they are not contemporaneous. This is a statement which requires some comment. It has been urged that if the deposits -<i>A</i> and <i>A´</i> in different localities contain the same fauna, +<i>A</i> and <i>A´</i> in different localities contain the same fauna, this is a proof that the two are not contemporaneous, for some time must have elapsed in order to allow of the migration of the organisms from one area to another, it @@ -2618,7 +2577,7 @@ groups of strata in different areas, in which a similar succession of faunas was traceable, maintaining that though not contemporaneous the strata might be spoken of as homotaxial. Huxley went so far as to assert that "for -anything that geology or palæontology are able to show +anything that geology or palæontology are able to show to the contrary, a Devonian fauna and flora in the British Islands may have been contemporaneous with Silurian life in North America, and with a Carboniferous fauna @@ -2690,12 +2649,12 @@ occur, which may be here considered.</p> to organisms which lived during the time of accumulation of the deposits in which they are now embedded, this is by no means universally the case, and the occurrence of -<i>remanié</i> fossils, which have been derived from deposits +<i>remanié</i> fossils, which have been derived from deposits more ancient than the ones in which they are now found is far from being a rare event. The existence of remains of this nature in the superficial drifts and river-gravels of our own country has long been recognised, and no one -would suppose that the <i>Gryphæa</i> and other shells +would suppose that the <i>Gryphæa</i> and other shells furnished by these gravels had lived contemporaneously with the species of <i>Corbicula</i>, <i>Unio</i> and other molluscs which are part of the true fauna of the gravels. In @@ -2704,7 +2663,7 @@ index to their origin, but in other cases, it is by no means an infallible guide, for we sometimes find on the one hand that remains of organisms proper to the deposits in which they occur are water-worn, whilst on the other -the relics of <i>remanié</i> fossils are not. The now well-known +the relics of <i>remanié</i> fossils are not. The now well-known gault fossils of the Cambridge Greensand at the base of the chalk were not always recognised as having been derived from older beds, and there are certain fossils found @@ -2720,15 +2679,15 @@ and appear again in the succeeding deposits <i>C</i>. Such cases <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> of <i>recurrence</i> are by no means rare, though many supposed instances of recurrence have been recorded as the result -of stratigraphical or palæontological errors. The best +of stratigraphical or palæontological errors. The best examples have been noted by Barrande among the Lower -Palæozoic deposits of Bohemia. The stage <i>D</i> of Bohemia +Palæozoic deposits of Bohemia. The stage <i>D</i> of Bohemia consists of five 'bandes' or subdivisions, the lowest (<i>d</i> 1), central (<i>d</i> 3) and uppermost (<i>d</i> 5) divisions are mainly argillaceous, whilst the second (<i>d</i> 2) and fourth (<i>d</i> 4) are essentially arenaceous. Some of the forms found in <i>d</i> 1, <i>d</i> 3 and <i>d</i> 5 have not been found in <i>d</i> 2 and <i>d</i> 4. The -best-known example is the trilobite <i>Æglina rediviva</i>. It +best-known example is the trilobite <i>Æglina rediviva</i>. It is clear that this and other forms did not become extinct during the deposition of the strata of <i>d</i> 2 and <i>d</i> 4, though they may have disappeared temporarily from the Bohemian @@ -2742,7 +2701,7 @@ remark that the whole fauna does not disappear for a time and then reappear, but only a few out of the many forms which compose it. The comparative rarity of examples of recurrence after long intervals is an indication that the -palæontological record as it is termed is not so imperfect +palæontological record as it is termed is not so imperfect as some suppose, for if our knowledge of fossils were very imperfect, we should expect cases of apparent recurrence to be common, as the result of the non-detection of fossils @@ -2846,17 +2805,17 @@ forms can only be correlated owing to their occurrence between deeper-water strata. Thus if strata <i>A</i>, <i>B</i> and <i>C</i> be found in one area, and the fauna of <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> are deep-water forms, those of <i>B</i> being shallow-water forms, and -in another area beds <i>A´</i> contain the same fauna as <i>A</i>, and -<i>C´</i> the same fauna as <i>C</i> whilst the fauna of <i>B´</i> is different +in another area beds <i>A´</i> contain the same fauna as <i>A</i>, and +<i>C´</i> the same fauna as <i>C</i> whilst the fauna of <i>B´</i> is different from that of <i>B</i>, we can nevertheless correlate the strata -<i>B</i> and <i>B´</i> (if they be conformable with the underlying and +<i>B</i> and <i>B´</i> (if they be conformable with the underlying and overlying beds), because of the identity of age of the associated beds in the two areas. It will possibly be found that the strata <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> can be further subdivided into <i>A<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>A<sub>2</sub></i>, ... &c. <i>C<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>C<sub>2</sub></i>, ... by the existence of minor faunas, which are comparable in the two cases, but such subdivisions may not be established in the case of the -beds <i>B</i> and <i>B´</i>.</p> +beds <i>B</i> and <i>B´</i>.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> @@ -2942,22 +2901,22 @@ wrong notions.</p> to the terms to be adopted. The rocks were formerly divided into Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary. Owing chiefly to the use of the term Primary in another sense, -the alternative titles Palæozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic -(or Cænozoic) were suggested, and though the term +the alternative titles Palæozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic +(or Cænozoic) were suggested, and though the term Primary has been definitely abandoned in favour of -Palæozoic, the words Secondary and Tertiary are used +Palæozoic, the words Secondary and Tertiary are used extensively as synonyms of Mesozoic and Cainozoic. It was soon perceived that the period of time included in -the Palæozoic age was much longer than the combined +the Palæozoic age was much longer than the combined periods of Secondary and Tertiary ages, and it was proposed to group the latter under one title Neozoic, whilst -another suggestion was to split the Palæozoic age into an +another suggestion was to split the Palæozoic age into an earlier Proterozoic and later Deuterozoic division. The interest excited by the advent of man is probably the cause of the attempt to establish a Quaternary division, which some hold to be a minor subdivision of the Tertiary, whilst others would separate it altogether. The -terms Palæozoic, Mesozoic (or Secondary) and Cainozoic +terms Palæozoic, Mesozoic (or Secondary) and Cainozoic (or Tertiary) are now used so generally that any attempt to abolish them would be doomed to failure, but it must be remembered that they are purely arbitrary expressions, @@ -2974,7 +2933,7 @@ be found best to allow of a certain elasticity in the use of terms, merely agreeing that they shall be used as nearly as possible with the signification assigned to them by the Congress. According to this classification, and -apart from the division into Palæozoic, Mesozoic and +apart from the division into Palæozoic, Mesozoic and Cainozoic, the strata of the geological column are grouped into <i>Systems</i>, which are subdivided into <i>Series</i>, and the series are further split up into <i>Stages</i>. A number of @@ -2988,13 +2947,13 @@ those of a <i>stage</i> during an <i>Age</i><a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNancho <p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> The chronological words have been used so loosely that it is doubtful whether any good will come of trying to restrict their use, and Sir A. Geikie has pointed out the confusion which would arise -if the term <i>group</i> be employed for the largest divisions (Palæozoic, &c.). +if the term <i>group</i> be employed for the largest divisions (Palæozoic, &c.). The terms <i>System</i>, <i>Series</i> and <i>Stage</i> may well be employed in the senses suggested by the Congress.</p></div> <p>The rocks of the Geological Column were originally divided into systems, owing to the occurrence of marked -physical and palæontological breaks between the rocks of +physical and palæontological breaks between the rocks of two adjacent systems, except in cases where a complete change occurred locally in the lithological characters of the rocks of two systems which were in juxtaposition: @@ -3040,16 +2999,16 @@ rocks of England.</p> <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></div> </div> -<p>Palæontological breaks or breaks in the succession of +<p>Palæontological breaks or breaks in the succession of organisms are in many cases, the result of physical breaks, and accordingly it is often possible to separate one set of strata from another by the existence of a combined -physical and palæontological break between them. It is +physical and palæontological break between them. It is by no means necessary however that a physical break <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> should be accompanied by a break in succession of the organisms, and the latter may also occur without the -former. It was once maintained that a palæontological +former. It was once maintained that a palæontological break was due to the complete and sudden extinction of a fauna and its entire replacement by a new one, but this is far from true, and accordingly the breaks differ in degree. @@ -3105,16 +3064,16 @@ gradually appeared in adjoining regions will now migrate to it, and will seem to come in simultaneously at the bottom of <i>o</i>; accordingly we may find that there is not a single species which passes through from <i>f</i> to <i>o</i> and the -palæontological break in this area is complete, though it +palæontological break in this area is complete, though it is clear that it only implies local change, and that we may and indeed must find intermediate forms in other regions which fill up the gap.</p> -<p>As an illustration of the local character of a palæontological +<p>As an illustration of the local character of a palæontological break we may cite the case of the Carboniferous and Permian systems of Britain. These rocks are separated from one another in our area by a physical and -palæontological break, but in parts of India, and other +palæontological break, but in parts of India, and other places, we find a group of rocks now known as the Permo-Carboniferous rocks which contain a fauna intermediate in character between those of the Permian and Carboniferous @@ -3122,14 +3081,14 @@ systems, and a study of this fauna shows that the hiatus which exists locally is filled by the species contained in the Permo-Carboniferous rocks.</p> -<p>A palæontological break may, like a physical one, +<p>A palæontological break may, like a physical one, result from depression of the ocean-floor to so great a depth, that no organisms are preserved there during the period of great depression, and the remarks made concerning a depression of this nature when speaking of physical breaks will apply here also.</p> -<p>A local palæontological break may result owing to +<p>A local palæontological break may result owing to physical changes without the production of an unconformity in the area, or its submergence to a great depth, or if an unconformity is found, the break may be more @@ -3146,17 +3105,17 @@ conditions did not occur to a great extent as in parts of Spain and North America, the similarity between the two faunas is much more pronounced. Again, there is an unconformity between the Cretaceous and Eocene beds -of England, which is accompanied by a palæontological +of England, which is accompanied by a palæontological break, but this break is more pronounced owing to difference of physical conditions, for we find abundance of gastropods in the lower Tertiary beds, and a rarity of these shells at the top of the chalk of England, though where physical conditions were favourable for the growth of gastropods, their shells are found in the higher strata -of chalk age, and the palæontological break is not so +of chalk age, and the palæontological break is not so apparent.</p> -<p>A palæontological break may occur also as the result +<p>A palæontological break may occur also as the result of climatic change, though actual instances of this occurrence are much more difficult to detect owing to the general absence of any evidence of climatic change other @@ -3175,7 +3134,7 @@ of the climate may be suspected.</p> <p>It follows from the observations which have been made, that although the rocks of the Geological Column may be divided into systems owing to the existence of -physical and palæontological breaks, and this classification +physical and palæontological breaks, and this classification may be and has been applied generally, the line of demarcation between the rocks of two systems will be a purely conventional one, where there is no break, and, to avoid @@ -3417,7 +3376,7 @@ without flints, Middle Chalk with few flints and Upper Chalk with many flints, but no two observers would probably agree as to where the deposit with few flints ceased and that with many commenced. The chalk is -now separated on palæontological grounds into Cenomanian, +now separated on palæontological grounds into Cenomanian, Turonian, Senonian and Danian, and the superiority of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> the new method to the old is practically shown by the @@ -3438,7 +3397,7 @@ fauna would lead one to suppose that the non-establishment of subdivisions of the Carboniferous strata is due to our want of knowledge rather than to their non-existence.</p> -<p>The establishment of a classification on palæontological +<p>The establishment of a classification on palæontological lines by no means does away with the necessity for local classifications on a lithological basis, and it has already been remarked that important results will follow from a @@ -3566,15 +3525,15 @@ but merely a local dip due to deposition on a slope, and any one attempting to calculate the total thickness of the beds by reference to these divisional planes might be seriously led astray. A reference to <a href="#Fig_4">Fig. 4</a> will explain -this. The lines <i>AA´</i>, <i>BB´</i> are the true bedding-planes +this. The lines <i>AA´</i>, <i>BB´</i> are the true bedding-planes cut across in the section, whilst the lines sloping to the right from <i>xx</i> are only lines of false-bedding on a large scale. An exaggerated estimate of the thickness of the deposit would be made by measuring the thickness of -each of these stratula from <i>A</i> to <i>A´</i> and adding these +each of these stratula from <i>A</i> to <i>A´</i> and adding these thicknesses together, whereas the actual thickness of the -middle bed is the distance between <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> or <i>A´</i> -and <i>B´</i>.</p> +middle bed is the distance between <i>A</i> and <i>B</i> or <i>A´</i> +and <i>B´</i>.</p> <div class="fig_center" style="width: 537px;"> <a id="Fig_4"></a> @@ -3587,7 +3546,7 @@ simulation of bedding may be carried out to a very full <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> extent. Not only do the major thrust-planes resemble bedding-planes but the minor thrusts produce an appearance -of divisional planes separating stratula or laminæ, and a +of divisional planes separating stratula or laminæ, and a close approximation to false-bedding is the result. To this structure Prof. Bonney has given the name 'pseudo-stromatism<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>.' It may be developed in rocks of all kinds, @@ -3663,8 +3622,8 @@ the term be used even more vaguely than it is at present.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Lehmann, <i>Untersuchungen über die Entstehung der Altkrystallinischen -Schiefergesteine mit besonderer Bezugnahme auf das Sächsische +<p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> See Lehmann, <i>Untersuchungen über die Entstehung der Altkrystallinischen +Schiefergesteine mit besonderer Bezugnahme auf das Sächsische Granulitgebirge</i>, Plate <span class="smcap">XI.</span> fig. 1.</p></div> <p>We have already seen that the existence of unconformities @@ -3745,7 +3704,7 @@ unconformity and, although this need not be continuous, it is usually found somewhere along the line of junction. The conglomeratic base of the Lowest Carboniferous strata when they repose upon the upturned edges of the -Lower Palæozoic rocks of the dales of West Yorkshire +Lower Palæozoic rocks of the dales of West Yorkshire is well known, and may be cited as an example. The association of conglomerates with unconformities is indeed so frequent that its possible occurrence will @@ -4009,8 +3968,8 @@ Jan. 1893, Plate 1.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Daubrée, A., <i>Études Synthétiques de Géologie Expérimentale</i>, -1<sup>ère</sup> Partie, Plates <span class="smcap">III.</span>-<span class="smcap">VI.</span>, for an example of the latter, which is also +<p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Daubrée, A., <i>Études Synthétiques de Géologie Expérimentale</i>, +1<sup>ère</sup> Partie, Plates <span class="smcap">III.</span>-<span class="smcap">VI.</span>, for an example of the latter, which is also interesting as showing the utility of a map on transparent paper super-posed on another, when illustrating the connexion between two sets of structures.</p></div> @@ -4035,7 +3994,7 @@ useful<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> For examples of maps of this kind, see Kjerulf, Th., <i>Die Geologie -des südlichen und mittleren Norwegen</i>.</p></div> +des südlichen und mittleren Norwegen</i>.</p></div> <p>A perusal of the maps to which reference has been made above will give the student some notion of the @@ -4154,7 +4113,7 @@ information.</p> <p>In the above figure (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>) taken from Sir Henry de la Beche's "Sections and Views Illustrative of Geological -Phænomena," Plate II., the lower drawing represents a +Phænomena," Plate II., the lower drawing represents a section drawn to true scale, while that above shows one which is exaggerated. The student who saw this would infer that the uppermost beds on the left side @@ -4296,7 +4255,7 @@ model, and when the student has mastered and mapped <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> in the leading features, he can find bits of country with geology of varying degrees of complexity amongst the -Lower Palæozoic rocks of the valleys which run down to +Lower Palæozoic rocks of the valleys which run down to Ingleton, Clapham, Austwick and Settle.</p> <p>The biologist is supplied with laboratories at home @@ -4345,7 +4304,7 @@ Reference will be made to this principle in a later chapter, but it is sufficient to state here that the study of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> sediments which have been deposited from the commencement -of Lower Palæozoic times to the times in which we +of Lower Palæozoic times to the times in which we now live bear the marks of having been formed under physical conditions, which, in the main, are similar in kind to those which prevail upon some part of the surface of the @@ -4414,14 +4373,14 @@ spoken of as terrestrial.</p></div> deposits of rivers and lakes resemble in general characters the shallow-water deposits of the ocean, though they are usually less widely distributed. It is the accumulations -which have actually been formed as æolian rocks, or those +which have actually been formed as æolian rocks, or those which have been laid down as chemical precipitates in salt-lakes which, by study of lithological characters, furnish the most convincing evidence of their terrestrial origin.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span></p> -<p>Many æolian accumulations may be looked upon as +<p>Many æolian accumulations may be looked upon as soils, if the term soil be used in a special sense to refer to the accumulations which are produced as the result of the excess of disintegration over transportation in an @@ -4461,7 +4420,7 @@ of sand, in which most of the grains have undergone much rounding so as to give rise to 'millet-seed' sand, will nevertheless be probably formed by wind-action except where a marine deposit is formed of material largely -derived from an earlier æolian one. The effect of frost is +derived from an earlier æolian one. The effect of frost is to split rocks into fragments which are more or less angular before they are subjected to water-action. The broken fragments are prone to collect on slopes as screes, @@ -4586,18 +4545,18 @@ in the rocks, usually supply considerable information concerning the prevalent conditions during the deposition of the rocks. By them we can not only separate marine from terrestrial deposits, but also freshwater deposits from -æolian accumulations; each kind of deposit will generally +æolian accumulations; each kind of deposit will generally contain the remains of organisms which existed under the conditions prevalent in the area of formation of the rock, though it is of course a frequent thing for a terrestrial creature or plant to be washed into a freshwater area or -into the sea. In an æolian deposit, the invertebrate +into the sea. In an æolian deposit, the invertebrate remains may be those of any air-breathing forms, as insects, galley-worms, spiders, scorpions and molluscs. The land-molluscs are all univalve. Of vertebrates, we may find the bones and teeth of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Occasionally freshwater or even -marine forms may be found in an æolian deposit, but they +marine forms may be found in an æolian deposit, but they <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> will be exceptional. Marine shells are often blown amongst the sand-grains of the coastal dunes, and seagulls @@ -4787,11 +4746,11 @@ been noted by Suess in the case of the trilobites of some beds which he accordingly infers to be of deep-water origin, and it is interesting to find that these creatures are found in deposits which give independent evidence of -an open-water origin. The <i>Æglinæ</i> of the Ordovician +an open-water origin. The <i>Æglinæ</i> of the Ordovician strata are frequently furnished with enormous eyes, and they are often accompanied by blind trilobites, and in Bohemia the blind and large-eyed forms are sometimes -different species of the same genus, for instance <i>Illænus</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>.</p> +different species of the same genus, for instance <i>Illænus</i><a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"> @@ -4818,7 +4777,7 @@ made to give numerical estimates of the depths at which different accumulations were formed, but some differences of opinion have arisen in the case of these rocks. In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> -Palæozoic rocks, only a rough idea of the general depth +Palæozoic rocks, only a rough idea of the general depth can usually be obtained, and no attempt to calculate the depth in fathoms is likely to be even approximately correct in the present state of our knowledge.</p> @@ -4843,7 +4802,7 @@ sandy beaches, <i>Cardium</i>, <i>Tellina</i>, <i>Solen</i>; gravelly shores, On rocky coasts are also found many species of <i>Haliotis</i>, <i>Siphonaria</i>, <i>Fissurella</i>, and <i>Trochus</i>; they occur at various levels, some only at the high-water line, others in a -middle zone, or at the verge of low-water. <i>Cypræa</i> and +middle zone, or at the verge of low-water. <i>Cypræa</i> and <i>Conus</i> shelter under coral-blocks, and <i>Cerithium</i>, <i>Terebra</i>, <i>Natica</i> and <i>Pyramidella</i> bury in sand at low-water, but may be found by tracing the marks of their long burrows @@ -4908,25 +4867,25 @@ character of the fossils must be taken into account rather than their size. There was a tendency amongst geologists to believe that large organisms probably indicate warm conditions. Recent researches in arctic seas have dispelled -this belief. Marine algæ of enormous size are found in +this belief. Marine algæ of enormous size are found in the cold seas, and the size of creatures, abundance of individuals and variety of forms in the arctic faunas of some regions is very noteworthy. In the Kara Sea, for instance, a variety of creatures were dredged up during -the voyage of the Vega, and Baron Nordenskjöld makes +the voyage of the Vega, and Baron Nordenskjöld makes the following pertinent remarks about them: "For the science of our time, which so often places the origin of a northern form in the south, and <i>vice versa</i>, as the foundation of very wide theoretical conclusions, a knowledge of the types which can live by turns in nearly fresh water -of a temperature of +10°, and in water cooled down to --2·7° and of nearly the same salinity as that of the +of a temperature of +10°, and in water cooled down to +-2·7° and of nearly the same salinity as that of the Mediterranean, must have a certain interest. The most remarkable were, according to Dr Stuxberg, the following: a species of Mysis, <i>Diastylis Rathkei</i> Kr., <i>Idothea entomon</i> Lin., <i>Idothea Sabinei</i> Kr., two species of Lysianassida, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> -<i>Pontoporeia setosa</i> Stbrg., <i>Halimedon brevicalcar</i> Goës, +<i>Pontoporeia setosa</i> Stbrg., <i>Halimedon brevicalcar</i> Goës, an Annelid, a Molgula, <i>Yoldia intermedia</i> M. Sars, <i>Yoldia</i> (?) <i>arctica</i> Gray, and a Solecurtus<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>. "The temperatures were taken by a centigrade thermometer. Again we read @@ -4946,7 +4905,7 @@ Seward, A. C., Sedgwick Essay for 1892.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Nordenskjöld, A. E., <i>The Voyage of the Vega</i>, Vol. I. Chap. <span class="smcap">IV</span>.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Nordenskjöld, A. E., <i>The Voyage of the Vega</i>, Vol. I. Chap. <span class="smcap">IV</span>.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> @@ -4960,7 +4919,7 @@ have been appealed to in proof of the existence of sub-tropical conditions during their formation; further back in time we find evidence of climate furnished by the fossils of the Silurian rocks of the Isle of Gothland in the -Baltic Sea. Of these, Lindström writes "<i>The fauna had a +Baltic Sea. Of these, Lindström writes "<i>The fauna had a tropical character</i>. In consideration of the great numbers of Pleurotomariae, Trochi, Turbinidae and the large Pteropods the assumption of a tropical character of the @@ -4968,7 +4927,7 @@ fauna may seem justifiable<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a hr <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Lindström, G., <i>On the Silurian Gastropoda and Pteropoda of Gotland</i>, +<p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> Lindström, G., <i>On the Silurian Gastropoda and Pteropoda of Gotland</i>, Stockholm, 1884, p. 33.</p></div> <p>Structure may give some indication of climate even @@ -4990,7 +4949,7 @@ in a water area by evaporation.</p> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> For an account of the modifications of the leaves of arctic plants, -see Warming, Eug., <i>Om Grønlands Vegetation</i>, Meddelelser om Grønland, +see Warming, Eug., <i>Om Grønlands Vegetation</i>, Meddelelser om Grønland, 12th part, p. 105.</p></div> <p>On the whole, an examination of the evidence available @@ -5012,7 +4971,7 @@ existence of climatic zones during the Mesozoic Period<a name="FNanchor_43_43" i <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Neumayr, M., "Ueber klimatische Zonen während der Jura- und +<p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Neumayr, M., "Ueber klimatische Zonen während der Jura- und Kreidezeit," <i>Denkschrift. der Math.-Naturwissensch. Classe der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften</i>, Bd. <span class="smcap">XLVII</span>. Vienna, 1883.</p> @@ -5084,7 +5043,7 @@ as fauna I. As the result of elevation or of mere silting up of the sea-margin, or of both combined, the next mass of pebble-deposit will be laid down further away from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> -the original shore, for the shore line will now be at <i>A´</i> +the original shore, for the shore line will now be at <i>A´</i> and not at <i>A</i>, and it will partly overlap the mass of sand <i>b</i>; the sand <i>b</i><sup>1</sup> will also be deposited somewhat further out and partly overlap the mud <i>c</i>, and similarly the mud @@ -5183,7 +5142,7 @@ heed as to their significance.</p> deposits and of their faunas, when the beds are traced laterally depends very largely the successful ascertainment of the existence of former coast-lines, the restoration -of which constitutes an important part, of Palæo-physiography, +of which constitutes an important part, of Palæo-physiography, concerning which some observations may here be made<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a>. If a set of deposits having different lithological characters can be proved to be contemporaneous, the @@ -5202,13 +5161,13 @@ were actually contemporaneous, and therefore although we might draw a line through Llanberis and St David's to indicate the old coast-line of the period, it does not follow that the actual beach existed simultaneously at -the positions indicated. The palæo-physiographer, however, +the positions indicated. The palæo-physiographer, however, attempts to restore the physical conditions of greater thicknesses of deposit; for instance, the distribution of land and sea during Lower Carboniferous times over the area now occupied by the British Isles is often taken to illustrate the methods of restoration of ancient -features, and all admit that the lithological and palæontological +features, and all admit that the lithological and palæontological characters of the rocks indicate a shallowing of the Carboniferous sea when passing northwards towards Scotland. For conveying an idea of the restorations @@ -5227,7 +5186,7 @@ Carboniferous period, and taking a composite photograph of these, which would appear as a wide belt of shaded <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> portion of the map with no definite boundaries. The -utmost that the maker of palæo-physiographical maps can +utmost that the maker of palæo-physiographical maps can expect to indicate, when dealing with considerable thicknesses of strata, is an approximation to the mean position of the shore-lines of the period when these strata were @@ -5235,7 +5194,7 @@ deposited. This is extremely valuable in enabling the student to understand the significance of the variations in the characters of the strata and their organic contents, if he distinctly recognises the generalised nature of the map. -Examination of any two palæo-physiographical maps of +Examination of any two palæo-physiographical maps of the same period by different authors will shew wide divergences in the details, but a general resemblance of the main features. The reader will do well to consult @@ -5244,7 +5203,7 @@ Sandstone and Lower Carboniferous Times on Plate VI. of his <i>Contributions to the Physical History of the British Isles</i>, and compare it with the map drawn by Prof. Green (<i>Coal: its History and Uses</i>, by Profs. Green, Miall, -Thorpe, Rücker, and Marshall, Fig. 3, p. 38), which will +Thorpe, Rücker, and Marshall, Fig. 3, p. 38), which will be found to bear out this statement.</p> <div class="footnote"> @@ -5252,7 +5211,7 @@ be found to bear out this statement.</p> <p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> On this subject, the student may consult Prof. E. Hull's <i>Contributions to the Physical History of the British Isles</i>.</p></div> -<p>Valuable as the published maps of palæo-physiography +<p>Valuable as the published maps of palæo-physiography are as an aid to the student in understanding the significance of the variations of characters amongst the sediments, he will do well to supplement them by maps @@ -5386,7 +5345,7 @@ adopted:—</p> Triassic</td> </tr> <tr> - <td>Palæozoic</td> + <td>Palæozoic</td> <td><img src="images/bracel_116.png" width="11" height="116" alt="" /></td> <td class="tdl">Permian<br /> Permo-Carboniferous<br /> @@ -5423,23 +5382,23 @@ older rocks, and the closer resemblance of their faunas and floras to those of existing times.</p> <p>With reference to the groups, the writer has already -commented upon the use of the terms Palæozoic, Mesozoic -and Cainozoic; below the lowest Palæozoic rocks (those of +commented upon the use of the terms Palæozoic, Mesozoic +and Cainozoic; below the lowest Palæozoic rocks (those of the Cambrian system) lie a group of rocks which have -been variously spoken of as Azoic, Eozoic, and Archæan. +been variously spoken of as Azoic, Eozoic, and Archæan. There is an objection to the use of any one of these words in this sense; the objection in the case of the first two is that the term is theoretical and probably incorrect, whilst -the word Archæan, otherwise suitable, has also been used +the word Archæan, otherwise suitable, has also been used in a more restricted sense. In these circumstances the term Precambrian will be used when referring to any -rocks which were formed below Palæozoic times, though +rocks which were formed below Palæozoic times, though no doubt when this obscure group of rocks is more thoroughly understood a satisfactory classification will be applied to it.</p> <p>Taking the other groups into account, the lower -systems of the Palæozoic group will be found to vary +systems of the Palæozoic group will be found to vary greatly according to the views of different writers; some make only one system, the Silurian, others two, the Cambrian and Silurian. The three systems are here @@ -5509,7 +5468,7 @@ that in which they were deposited.</p> order, that is, in the order of deposit, will not be found to task the student to any great extent, especially if, as is very desirable, he has studied the main facts and -principles of Palæontology before commencing the study of +principles of Palæontology before commencing the study of the rock-systems in detail. There is one reason for beginning with the study of the older sediments which outweighs any reasons which can be advanced against it, @@ -5601,13 +5560,13 @@ to their formation. The difference between the coarser types of crystalline schists and these associated rocks is sometimes so marked that geologists have necessarily paid attention to it, and separated the two -groups of rocks; the term Archæan has been used by +groups of rocks; the term Archæan has been used by some geologists to include the crystalline schists, and -Eparchæan for the associated rocks of known Precambrian +Eparchæan for the associated rocks of known Precambrian age, but though this separation may sometimes be effected, there are cases when it is impossible to draw any sharp <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> -line of demarcation between 'Archæan' and 'Eparchæan' +line of demarcation between 'Archæan' and 'Eparchæan' types.</p> <p>In the present state of our knowledge, a chronological @@ -5710,8 +5669,8 @@ beds of the Cambrian system near Loch Maree, proves the Precambrian age of the Torridonian strata, whilst the unconformable junction between the latter and the crystalline schists indicates that we are here dealing with -two distinct sets of Precambrian rocks, one of Eparchæan -and the other of Archæan type.</p> +two distinct sets of Precambrian rocks, one of Eparchæan +and the other of Archæan type.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> @@ -5782,7 +5741,7 @@ Geological Survey of the United Kingdom</i> for 1893.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> It has been recently maintained that some of the Torridonian rocks -are of Æolian origin.</p></div> +are of Æolian origin.</p></div> <p>In the south-east Highlands is a great mass of crystalline schists of a less gneissose character than that of the @@ -5875,7 +5834,7 @@ Precambrian. The Pembrokeshire rocks are marked by the occurrence of a certain amount of metamorphism, probably of more than one kind, which has converted pyroclastic volcanic rocks into sericitic-schists -and quartz-felsites into hälleflintas<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>. The term Pebidian +and quartz-felsites into hälleflintas<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a>. The term Pebidian <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> given by Dr Hicks to the contemporaneous volcanic fragmental rocks should be retained, and if these rocks @@ -6007,20 +5966,20 @@ aspects recall those of the north-west Highlands of Scotland. Important masses are found in Bavaria, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span> Bohemia, France, Spain, Scandinavia and Russia. The -Scandinavian and Russian rocks of Archæan type are in +Scandinavian and Russian rocks of Archæan type are in places succeeded by the <i>Olenellus</i>-bearing beds of the -Cambrian rocks, and rocks of Eparchæan character are +Cambrian rocks, and rocks of Eparchæan character are not extensively developed, though certain Norwegian rocks may be the equivalents of the Torridonian rocks of Scotland, and other rocks of this type are found in places in Sweden. In Bohemia and in Brittany Precambrian -strata of Eparchæan type have been discovered, and this +strata of Eparchæan type have been discovered, and this type probably occurs elsewhere in Europe.</p> <p>The North American rocks require some notice, for it was in Canada that the existence of Precambrian rocks was first recognised, and the term Laurentian, originally -applied to an Archæan type of Precambrian rocks in +applied to an Archæan type of Precambrian rocks in Canada, was subsequently adopted in speaking of many Precambrian rocks elsewhere, though it is now wisely restricted to the type of rock in the original area to which @@ -6038,14 +5997,14 @@ into a Lower and Upper division was premature, as shewn by the fact that many of them, upon detailed study, prove to be intrusive igneous rocks. In the neighbourhood of Lake Huron, a set of sedimentary rocks -overlying the Archæan rocks is of Eparchæan type, +overlying the Archæan rocks is of Eparchæan type, consisting to a great extent of volcanic rocks, clay-slates and schists with intrusive igneous rocks; it has been <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> termed the Huronian System, and this term has also -been extensively applied to other Eparchæan types found +been extensively applied to other Eparchæan types found elsewhere, but should be restricted to the rocks of the -Huron district. A number of other rocks of Eparchæan +Huron district. A number of other rocks of Eparchæan type have been discovered in various parts of North America, and have been grouped together under the title of Algonkian, a name proposed for them by Dr @@ -6053,7 +6012,7 @@ C. D. Walcott, and an attempt has been made to arrange them in chronological order, though in the absence of fossils, the rocks of different districts can only be so arranged by reference to lithological characters; nevertheless -a detailed study of the Eparchæan and some of the +a detailed study of the Eparchæan and some of the more finely crystalline schistose rocks points to the existence of a number of divisions of sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age, some of which may attain to the dignity @@ -6061,11 +6020,11 @@ of forming separate systems<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a h development of American Precambrian rocks has been found in the Rainy Lake region of Canada, and it is the subject of a special memoir by Dr A. C. Lawson<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a>. The -Archæan rocks of the region are divided into a lower +Archæan rocks of the region are divided into a lower Laurentian and an upper division, which is further subdivided into the Coutchiching series below and the Keewatin series above, though the rocks of the Keewatin -series are largely of Eparchæan character. The Laurentian +series are largely of Eparchæan character. The Laurentian rocks of this region resemble those of the Laurentide area, and consist of highly crystalline schistose and gneissose rocks associated with compact rocks. The @@ -6087,7 +6046,7 @@ Keewatin series. Lawson demonstrates the igneous nature of the Laurentian rocks, and brings forward evidence of various kinds that they were formed "by the fusion of the basement or floor upon which the formations of the upper -division of the Archæan were originally deposited. With +division of the Archæan were originally deposited. With the fusion of this floor it seems probable that portions of the superincumbent strata, which once formed integral parts of either the Coutchiching series or the Keewatin, @@ -6095,7 +6054,7 @@ have also been absorbed into the general magma, and reappeared on crystallization as Laurentian gneiss. This fusion, however, only extended up to a certain uneven surface, which surface constitutes the demarcation between -the present upper and lower Archæan. Above this surface, +the present upper and lower Archæan. Above this surface, or upper limit of fusion, the formation of the Coutchiching and Keewatin series retained their stratiform or bedded disposition, and rested as a crust of hard and brittle rocks upon @@ -6103,7 +6062,7 @@ the magma, subject to its metamorphosing influences<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id=" <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> A large number of classifications have been proposed for the Archæan +<p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> A large number of classifications have been proposed for the Archæan rocks of America; the most plausible one is given in Sir A. Geikie's <i>Text Book of Geology</i>, Third Edition, p. 716.</p></div> @@ -6126,14 +6085,14 @@ according to accepted explanations of the origin of that fauna, an enormous period of time elapsed before the deposition of the earliest Cambrian strata. During portions of that long period, the undoubtedly clastic rocks -of Eparchæan type were deposited, and probably many +of Eparchæan type were deposited, and probably many others which are now so altered by metamorphism, like some of the Coutchiching rocks of Canada, that their original clastic origin can only be inferred and not directly proved. Volcanic activity was very rife during the deposition -of some of these Eparchæan rocks, though perhaps +of some of these Eparchæan rocks, though perhaps not more so than during the formation of some of the -Lower Palæozoic Rocks. All attempts to prove the occurrence +Lower Palæozoic Rocks. All attempts to prove the occurrence of organisms in Precambrian strata have hitherto failed, for no undoubted fossil has been described which is unhesitatingly accepted as of Precambrian age, notwithstanding @@ -6142,7 +6101,7 @@ That fossils will eventually be discovered is more than probable, and their non-detection at the present time is in no way very surprising, when we remember the long time that elapsed after the existence of stratified rocks below the -Upper Palæozoic rocks had been recognised, before definite +Upper Palæozoic rocks had been recognised, before definite faunas were discovered in them. The determination of the Precambrian age of stratified rocks is recent, and now that this determination has been made, the search for fossils will @@ -6162,8 +6121,8 @@ again recent research tends to show that the metamorphism is not of a kind different from that which occurred after the end of Precambrian times; the discovery of crystalline schists in Norway, Kirkcudbrightshire and Westmorland -amongst Lower Palæozoic rocks, which resemble -those of Archæan masses in all respects except in the +amongst Lower Palæozoic rocks, which resemble +those of Archæan masses in all respects except in the extent of area which they cover, shows that similar processes to those which occurred in Precambrian times went on during later periods, though perhaps not on so large a @@ -6225,13 +6184,13 @@ upheaval of the British area, and this we may speak of as the First Continental Period. It was followed by depression and extensive sedimentation, proceeding more or less continuously though with local interruptions through -Lower Palæozoic times, so that so far as Britain is -concerned we may speak of Lower Palæozoic times as +Lower Palæozoic times, so that so far as Britain is +concerned we may speak of Lower Palæozoic times as constituting the First Marine Period. Extensive upheaval gave rise to continental tracts and mountain chains, and deposits of abnormal character (as compared with ordinary marine deposits) at the end of Lower -Palæozoic times;—the Devonian period was one of elevation +Palæozoic times;—the Devonian period was one of elevation and denudation, and we may therefore refer to it as the Second Continental Period. This was followed by depression and sedimentation in Carboniferous times, and @@ -6337,13 +6296,13 @@ founded on variations of lithological character, whilst the second depends upon faunistic differences, but the original lithological classification has been to some extent modified to make it locally correspond with the classification based -upon palæontological grounds. The following table will +upon palæontological grounds. The following table will shew the differences:—</p> <table summary="Cambrian Rock Classifications"> <tr> <td colspan="4">Lithological Classification.</td> - <td >Palæontological Classification.</td> + <td >Palæontological Classification.</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="tdl" colspan="3">Tremadoc Slate Series<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a></td> @@ -6419,9 +6378,9 @@ Wales, and their Fossil Contents," vol. <span class="smcap">XXVII.</span> p. 384 some Undescribed Fossils from the Menevian Group," vol. <span class="smcap">XXVIII.</span> p. 173; and "On the Tremadoc Rocks in the neighbourhood of St David's, South Wales, and their Fossil Contents," vol. <span class="smcap">XXIX.</span> p. 39. See also Hicks, -"The Classification of the Eozoic and Lower Palæozoic Rocks of the +"The Classification of the Eozoic and Lower Palæozoic Rocks of the British Isles," <i>Popular Science Review</i>, New Series, vol. <span class="smcap">V.</span>, and Hicks, -"Life-zones in the Lower Palæozoic Rocks," <i>Geol. Mag.</i> Dec <span class="smcap">IV.</span> vol. <span class="smcap">I.</span> +"Life-zones in the Lower Palæozoic Rocks," <i>Geol. Mag.</i> Dec <span class="smcap">IV.</span> vol. <span class="smcap">I.</span> pp. 368, 399 and 441.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p></div> @@ -6460,7 +6419,7 @@ texture favourable for the production of a somewhat regular jointing, causing the rock to break into small rectangular blocks. They are thin, not exceeding 600 feet in thickness, and indicate the incoming of the general -deep-water phase of the Lower Palæozoic epoch. The +deep-water phase of the Lower Palæozoic epoch. The Lingula Flags mark a local return to shallower water conditions, especially in the central portion. The total thickness is over 3,000 feet, of which the lower stage @@ -6592,10 +6551,10 @@ America on the other, as indicated in <a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>.</p> <ul style="list-style-type: none; text-align: left; margin-left:35%;"> <li>P. Precambrian Rocks.</li> <li>A. Land.</li> -<li>XX´. Sea level.</li> -<li>BB´. Shore deposits.</li> -<li>CC´. Deep-water deposits.</li> -<li>DD´. Abyssal deposits.</li> +<li>XX´. Sea level.</li> +<li>BB´. Shore deposits.</li> +<li>CC´. Deep-water deposits.</li> +<li>DD´. Abyssal deposits.</li> </ul> </div> </div> @@ -6645,7 +6604,7 @@ with a horny shell; of these, the genus <i>Kutorgina</i> is widely distributed.</p> <p>The zoological relationships of several of the fossils of -this horizon are as yet doubtful. The Archæocyathinæ +this horizon are as yet doubtful. The Archæocyathinæ show affinities with certain corals; a number of tests, included in the genus <i>Hyolithes</i> and its allies are doubtfully referred to the Pteropods, and the position of the @@ -6747,11 +6706,11 @@ study<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" <p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> The <i>Paradoxides</i> fauna is described in the following works: Britain, Hicks, H. and Salter J. W., <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XXIV.</span> p. 510, <span class="smcap">XXV.</span> p. 51, <span class="smcap">XXVII.</span> p. 173, and Hicks, H. and Harkness, R., <i>ibid.</i> vol. <span class="smcap">XXVII.</span> -p. 384; Scandinavia, Angelin, N. P., <i>Palæontologia Scandinavica</i>; -Brögger, W. C., <i>Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XXIV.</span>, Linnarsson, -G., <i>Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning</i>, Ser. C. No. 35; Bohemia, -Barrande, J., <i>Système Silurien du centre de la Bohême</i>; Spain, Prado, C. -de, "Sur l'existence de la faune Primordiale dans la chaîne Cantabrique +p. 384; Scandinavia, Angelin, N. P., <i>Palæontologia Scandinavica</i>; +Brögger, W. C., <i>Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XXIV.</span>, Linnarsson, +G., <i>Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning</i>, Ser. C. No. 35; Bohemia, +Barrande, J., <i>Système Silurien du centre de la Bohême</i>; Spain, Prado, C. +de, "Sur l'existence de la faune Primordiale dans la chaîne Cantabrique suivie de la description des Fossiles par MM. de Verneuil et Barrande," <i>Bull. Soc. Geol. France</i>, 2 Series, vol. <span class="smcap">XVII.</span> p. 516; America, Walcott, C. D., <i>Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey</i>: "The Cambrian Faunas of North America," @@ -6793,7 +6752,7 @@ S. A. Tullberg amongst the <i>Olenus</i> beds of Scania:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td>"</td> - <td class="tdl2"><i>Peltura scarabæoides</i>.</td> + <td class="tdl2"><i>Peltura scarabæoides</i>.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>"</td> @@ -6826,7 +6785,7 @@ S. A. Tullberg amongst the <i>Olenus</i> beds of Scania:—</p> <p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> For descriptions of the <i>Olenus</i> fauna consult the following:—Wales, Belt, T., <i>Geol. Mag.</i> Dec. <span class="smcap">I</span>. vol. <span class="smcap">V.</span> p. 5, and Salter, J. W., <i>Decades Geol. Survey</i>, Decade <span class="smcap">II.</span> Pl. <span class="smcap">IX.</span> and Decade <span class="smcap">XI.</span> Pl. <span class="smcap">VIII.</span>; Scandinavia, Angelin, -N. P., <i>Palæontologia Scandinavica</i>, and Brögger, W. C., <i>Die Silurischen +N. P., <i>Palæontologia Scandinavica</i>, and Brögger, W. C., <i>Die Silurischen Etagen 2 und 3 im Kristianiagebiet und auf Eker</i>; Canada, Matthew, G. F., "Illustrations of the Fauna of the St John Group, No. <span class="smcap">VI</span>.," <i>Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada</i>, 1891.</p></div> @@ -6857,9 +6816,9 @@ fauna<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" <p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> For accounts of the Tremadoc Slates Fauna in England and Wales see Ramsay, A. C., <i>Geology of North Wales</i>, Appendix; Hicks, H., <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XXIX.</span> p. 39; Callaway, C., <i>ibid.</i> vol. <span class="smcap">XXXIII.</span> p. 652, -whilst many of the foreign fossils are noticed in Brögger's <i>Die Silurischen +whilst many of the foreign fossils are noticed in Brögger's <i>Die Silurischen Etagen 2 und 3</i> and Barrande's <i>Faune silurienne des Environs de Hof en -Bavière</i>.</p></div> +Bavière</i>.</p></div> <p>The faunas of the Cambrian rocks have not been studied in sufficient detail, with reference to the physical @@ -6936,7 +6895,7 @@ the Ordovician system are the following:—</p> </tr> </table> -<p>Adopting a palæontological classification, we may speak +<p>Adopting a palæontological classification, we may speak of the Arenig and Llandeilo beds as those containing the <i>Asaphus</i> fauna, whilst the Caradoc and Ashgill beds possess the <i>Trinucleus</i> fauna; this is the terminology @@ -7147,7 +7106,7 @@ p. 40.</p></div> <p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> See Lapworth, C., "The Girvan Succession," <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XXXVIII.</span> p. 537, and also the paper on the Ballantrae Rocks referred to in the preceding footnote. The latter paper should be carefully -read by all students of the stratigraphy of the Lower Palæozoic +read by all students of the stratigraphy of the Lower Palæozoic Rocks.</p></div> <p>It is interesting to find that in the north of Ireland @@ -7234,7 +7193,7 @@ of sediment and the hosts of other included fossils, so that their discovery is rendered much more difficult than when they occur in the black shales,—a state of things which is familiar in the case of other pelagic organisms as -<i>Globigerinæ</i>, radiolaria, and pteropods, whose tests abound +<i>Globigerinæ</i>, radiolaria, and pteropods, whose tests abound in the abysmal deposits and are comparatively rare in those of terrigenous origin<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a>.</p> @@ -7335,7 +7294,7 @@ the following table:</p> <td>Stages.</td> <td colspan="2">Old Classification.</td> <td colspan="2">New Classification.</td> - <td colspan="2">Palæontological<br />Classification.</td> + <td colspan="2">Palæontological<br />Classification.</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="tdl">1 Upper Ludlow</td> @@ -7485,7 +7444,7 @@ the Lake District there is perfect conformity between <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> the beds of Ordovician and those of Silurian age, and accordingly it is instructive to note the completeness -of the palæontological break, especially in the Moffat +of the palæontological break, especially in the Moffat district. The higher Silurian beds of Southern Scotland present a general resemblance to those of North Wales and the Lake District<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a>.</p> @@ -7586,12 +7545,12 @@ paper on the Geological Distribution of the Rhabdophora.</p></div> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See an article by Dr G. F. Matthew, "Description of an extinct -Palæozoic Insect and a review of the Fauna with which it occurs," +Palæozoic Insect and a review of the Fauna with which it occurs," <i>Bulletin</i> <span class="smcap">XV.</span> <i>of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick</i>. The Silurian Rocks of the Little River Group of St John, New Brunswick, have yielded species of land snails, two doubtful saw-bugs, several arachnids, and myriopods, two insects of the order Thysanura (Spring-tails), -and eight Palæodictyoptera.</p></div> +and eight Palæodictyoptera.</p></div> <p>The close of Silurian times ushered in the second continental period in Britain when a large part of our @@ -7617,7 +7576,7 @@ towards Scandinavia, across the Southern Scotch Uplands to the North of Ireland, through the Lake District and through Wales. As the result of lateral pressure, a cleavage structure was impressed on many of the Lower -Palæozoic rocks, the strike of the rocks extended in the +Palæozoic rocks, the strike of the rocks extended in the direction of the ridges and depressions, and the rocks as a whole became considerably compacted and hardened, thus producing one of the most important portions of @@ -7696,7 +7655,7 @@ follows:—</p> <tr> <td class="tdl">Upper Devonian (Clymenian)</td> <td><img src="images/bracel_60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="{" /></td> - <td class="tdl">Pilton Beds<br />Cucullæa (Marwood) Beds<br />Pickwell Down Sandstone</td> + <td class="tdl">Pilton Beds<br />Cucullæa (Marwood) Beds<br />Pickwell Down Sandstone</td> <td><img src="images/bracel_60.png" width="11" height="60" alt="" /></td> <td class="tdl">Entomis Slates<br />Goniatite Limestones and Slates<br />Massive Limestones</td> </tr> @@ -7767,7 +7726,7 @@ the section.</p> <table style="text-align: left;" summary="Deposits"> <tr> <td class="tdr2">A.</td> - <td colspan="3">Lower Palæozoic and Precambrian Rocks.</td> + <td colspan="3">Lower Palæozoic and Precambrian Rocks.</td> </tr> <tr> <td class="tdr2">N.S.</td> @@ -7945,10 +7904,10 @@ foraminiferal tests with a considerable percentage of pteropod shells.</p> <p><i>The Devonian flora and faunas.</i> The plant remains in the -Lower Palæozoic rocks are few in number. Some undoubted +Lower Palæozoic rocks are few in number. Some undoubted terrestrial plants have been discovered, but the prevalent -flora of lower Palæozoic times, so far as yet known, was -one consisting of Algæ. In Devonian times we begin to +flora of lower Palæozoic times, so far as yet known, was +one consisting of Algæ. In Devonian times we begin to meet with a number of Cryptogams of higher type, allied to those which form the dominant flora of the succeeding period. The fauna is in many ways remarkable. The @@ -7974,7 +7933,7 @@ we may assert that the group was practically extinct at the end of Silurian times, though species of one genus, <i>Monograptus</i>, lingered for a short time in greatly diminished quantity. The trilobites which played so -important a part amongst the faunas of Lower Palæozoic +important a part amongst the faunas of Lower Palæozoic times still occur fairly abundantly amongst the rocks of the Devonian system, and there is a very interesting point to be noticed in connexion with them. They seem @@ -8003,7 +7962,7 @@ containing many spiny trilobites was of Devonian age.</p> <div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> For an account of these see A. S. Woodward's <i>Vertebrate Palæontology</i>.</p></div> +<p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> For an account of these see A. S. Woodward's <i>Vertebrate Palæontology</i>.</p></div> <p>The abundance of Eurypterids has been previously noted. Occurring as they do in Silurian rocks, they are @@ -8031,7 +7990,7 @@ systems or referred exclusively to the latter system<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id= For an account of the Devonian rocks of Britain, the reader may consult the Monograph of the Devonian Fossils of the South of England by Rev. G. F. Whidbourne, which is now appearing in the series of Monographs of -the Palæontographical Society, and in the publications of the same +the Palæontographical Society, and in the publications of the same Society he will find a Monograph of the Eurypterids from the pen of Dr Henry Woodward. The richest Devonian fauna is undoubtedly that of the Bohemian area, for the work of Dr E. Kayser has conclusively proved @@ -8096,7 +8055,7 @@ significance.</p> <p>The somewhat abnormal development of the higher portions of the Carboniferous rocks of Britain renders the local classification only partially applicable in other -regions, and as our knowledge progresses, a palæontological +regions, and as our knowledge progresses, a palæontological classification will probably be adopted. This has already been done with the more purely open-water sediments of Russia and Eastern Asia, where the development of the @@ -8240,7 +8199,7 @@ in the area.</p> <p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> For further information upon this subject the student should consult the Introduction to a Monograph on <i>Carbonicola</i>, <i>Anthracomya</i> and <i>Naiadites</i> (the shells in question) by Dr Wheelton Hind, being one of the -Monographs of the Palæontographical Society.</p></div> +Monographs of the Palæontographical Society.</p></div> <p>There is not only a difference of opinion as to the mode of accumulation of many of the mechanical sediments @@ -8346,7 +8305,7 @@ termed the Period of Cryptogams; the remains of ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses predominate, and many of the forms reached a gigantic size. Though the floras of the various stages are marked by a general resemblance, -there are differences which enable the palæobotanist to +there are differences which enable the palæobotanist to ascertain the stratigraphical position of the beds by reference to the included plant remains, and a considerable number of successive floras have been described<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a>. The @@ -8444,9 +8403,9 @@ of Britain will be obtained from an examination of Professor Phillips' <i>Geology of Yorkshire</i>, Part <span class="smcap">I.</span>, and Mr (now Sir F.) M<sup>c</sup>Coy's <i>Carboniferous Fossils of Ireland</i>, while the nature of the European fauna is well illustrated in Prof. de Koninck's well-known work <i>Description des animaux -fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain carbonifère de Belgique</i>. For an +fossiles qui se trouvent dans le terrain carbonifère de Belgique</i>. For an account of the characters of the marine fauna of the Upper Carboniferous -rocks the reader should consult the work on Geology and Palæontology +rocks the reader should consult the work on Geology and Palæontology published by the Geological Survey of the State of Illinois in 1866.</p> <hr class="chap" /> @@ -8535,7 +8494,7 @@ Hills.</p> <img src="images/fig_21.png" width="458" height="143" alt="" /> <div class="fig_caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span><br /> <br /> -<i>a a´</i>. One stratum displaced by faults <i>f f</i>. <i>h.</i> Hills.</div> +<i>a a´</i>. One stratum displaced by faults <i>f f</i>. <i>h.</i> Hills.</div> </div> <p>The Mendip system is well shewn in the Mendip Hills, @@ -8690,7 +8649,7 @@ and marine Permian faunas are as well known as those of Triassic times (and the latter have only been fully described very recently) there is no doubt that the important break which was at one time supposed to exist -between Palæozoic and Mesozoic faunas will be filled in +between Palæozoic and Mesozoic faunas will be filled in satisfactorily<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9009,48 +8968,48 @@ Labyrinthodonts.</p> marine Permian beds. It is much richer than that of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> abnormal deposits of north-western Europe, and its study -is important as furnishing another link between Palæozoic -and Mesozoic life. Many Palæozoic genera pass up into +is important as furnishing another link between Palæozoic +and Mesozoic life. Many Palæozoic genera pass up into the Permian rocks, and, as will be ultimately seen, several occur in those of the Triassic system, and one or two even in the basal Jurassic strata, though Mesozoic forms predominate in the Lower Jurassic Rocks, and there is a fairly equal admixture of forms usually considered as -Palæozoic and of those generally regarded as Mesozoic in -Triassic rocks, while the Palæozoic forms still predominate +Palæozoic and of those generally regarded as Mesozoic in +Triassic rocks, while the Palæozoic forms still predominate over the Mesozoic in the Permian strata. Along -with these characteristic Palæozoic genera, it is interesting +with these characteristic Palæozoic genera, it is interesting to find representatives of more than one genus of the tribe of Ammonites, which is to take so prominent a place in the fauna of the Mesozoic rocks, amongst the true marine Permian sediments of India and other areas. The announcement of the contemporaneity of ammonites -with fossils regarded as exclusively palæozoic was received +with fossils regarded as exclusively palæozoic was received with considerable doubt, but this contemporaneity is now clearly established, and need not be regarded as in any way anomalous.</p> -<p>With the deposition of the Permian rocks, Palæozoic +<p>With the deposition of the Permian rocks, Palæozoic time comes to an end, but as already remarked there is no marked and sudden change to characterise it. Had our classification been originally founded on study of the Indian Rocks instead of those of Britain, and similar -terms adopted, the line of demarcation between Palæozoic +terms adopted, the line of demarcation between Palæozoic and Mesozoic rocks would probably have been drawn below the Permo-Carboniferous deposits, and if it had been based on study of other areas, perhaps elsewhere. -The palæontological break is purely local, and it is of the +The palæontological break is purely local, and it is of the utmost importance that it should be recognised as such, and that it should not be considered that division into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> -Palæozoic and Mesozoic implies some great and widespread +Palæozoic and Mesozoic implies some great and widespread change which occurred between the times covered by the deposits of each of these great divisions<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a>.</p> <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> The Permian Fossils of Britain are described by -Professor King in the Monographs of the Palæontographical Society (the +Professor King in the Monographs of the Palæontographical Society (the Brachiopods by Dr Davidson in the Monographs of the same Society). For a general account of the marine type the student may consult the second edition of Messrs Medlicott and Blanford's <i>Geology of India</i>. @@ -9081,7 +9040,7 @@ Bunter;<br /> some importance, which shew affinities with both Triassic and Jurassic rocks, which may be looked upon as true passage beds, though they are generally placed in the -Triassic System. They are known as Rhætic or locally +Triassic System. They are known as Rhætic or locally in Britain as Penarth Beds. The Muschelkalk is usually considered to be unrepresented in Britain, and accordingly the British deposits may be, and are usually grouped as @@ -9089,7 +9048,7 @@ under:—</p> <table summary="beds"> <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rhætic or Penarth beds</td> + <td class="tdl" colspan="2">Rhætic or Penarth beds</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> @@ -9145,11 +9104,11 @@ Triassic rocks of Britain is even more apparent than in the Permian strata. It is only at the extreme close of the Triassic period, during the deposition of the rocks <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> -which are admitted on all hands to be of Rhætic age, that +which are admitted on all hands to be of Rhætic age, that we note the incoming of those marine conditions over our area, which prevailed so extensively, with few local exceptions, during the remainder of the Mesozoic and the early -part of Tertiary times; the Rhætic beds, in fact, mark the +part of Tertiary times; the Rhætic beds, in fact, mark the commencement of the third marine period. Referring to the strata in further detail, we may proceed to consider the character of the different subdivisions in the order of @@ -9264,20 +9223,20 @@ essentially similar to that of the higher Permian strata, though many of the genera are different.</p> <p>The invertebrate fauna of the British deposits is, as -might be expected, very poor until the beds of the Rhætic -series are reached. In the beds below the Rhætics, the +might be expected, very poor until the beds of the Rhætic +series are reached. In the beds below the Rhætics, the principal invertebrate remains are the tests of the crustacean genus <i>Estheria</i>, though a few obscure lamellibranch shells have been recorded. The vertebrate fauna is of great interest. A number of fishes have been found, the most remarkable of which is the genus <i>Ceratodus</i>, occurring -in the Rhætic beds of Britain and lower Triassic +in the Rhætic beds of Britain and lower Triassic strata of foreign countries. It is closely related to the Barramunda of the Queensland rivers belonging to the order Dipnoi. As in the Permian strata, abundance of Labyrinthodont amphibians have been discovered, and the reptiles belong to the orders Anomodontia and Rhynchocephalia. -In the Rhætic beds of Britain and in still +In the Rhætic beds of Britain and in still lower Triassic beds abroad the orders Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia (represented by <i>Ichthyosaurus</i> and <i>Plesiosaurus</i>) are found.</p> @@ -9291,8 +9250,8 @@ now placed in a subclass Metatheria of the order Monotremata.</p> <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> rocks presents some points of considerable interest. As already remarked, the fauna may be looked upon as a -passage fauna between that of Palæozoic and that of -Mesozoic times, the number of Palæozoic forms which +passage fauna between that of Palæozoic and that of +Mesozoic times, the number of Palæozoic forms which pass into the Trias being approximately comparable with those which appear here and range upwards into higher Mesozoic strata. This may be well seen by examining @@ -9320,7 +9279,7 @@ that this zonal subdivision, long adopted for Jurassic rocks, is also applicable to those of Triassic age<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a>. He gives the following table of the classification of the Triassic rocks of the Mediterranean Province, which is -reproduced, as it is founded upon Palæontological evidence, +reproduced, as it is founded upon Palæontological evidence, and will probably be widely adopted.</p> <div class="footnote"> @@ -9339,7 +9298,7 @@ k. k. Geologisch. Reichsanstalt</i>, <span class="smcap">VI.</span> Band 2 Abthe <td class="bdb">Zonal Divisions</td> </tr> <tr> - <td class="bdb tdl"><span class="smcap">Rhætic</span></td> + <td class="bdb tdl"><span class="smcap">Rhætic</span></td> <td class="bdb bdl"></td> <td class="bdb bdl tdl"> 1. Zone of <i>Avicula Contorta</i></td> </tr> @@ -9520,9 +9479,9 @@ character of some of the Liassic strata where they abut against it. The British Lias, as a whole, seems to have been deposited in a fairly shallow sea at no great distance from the land. It passes down conformably into the -Rhætic beds, indeed the zone of Ammonites (<i>Aegoceras</i>) +Rhætic beds, indeed the zone of Ammonites (<i>Aegoceras</i>) <i>planorbis</i>, referred by British geologists to the Lower Lias -is included by some continental writers with the Rhætic +is included by some continental writers with the Rhætic beds, and the plane of demarcation here as in other cases is conventional.</p> @@ -9732,7 +9691,7 @@ genera as <i>Aspidoceras</i> and <i>Oppelia</i> are abundant and there are also extensive coral-reefs. The Equatorial <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> zone is marked by the Ammonite-genera <i>Phylloceras</i> and -<i>Lytoceras</i> and by the <i>Diphya</i> group of <i>Terebratulæ</i>. It is +<i>Lytoceras</i> and by the <i>Diphya</i> group of <i>Terebratulæ</i>. It is of special interest to note that the fauna of the South temperate bears closer relationship to that of the North temperate than to that of the intermediate Equatorial @@ -9741,11 +9700,11 @@ zone.</p> <p><i>Jurassic floras and faunas.</i> The Jurassic flora is very similar in its characters to that of the Lower Cretaceous rocks, and the two taken together afford a decided contrast -with that of later Palæozoic times, and also with that +with that of later Palæozoic times, and also with that which succeeds them in the Upper Cretaceous rocks, which bears a marked resemblance to the existing flora. Cycads predominate, accompanied by conifers, and a fair -number of ferns and Equisetaceæ.</p> +number of ferns and Equisetaceæ.</p> <p>The Jurassic fauna is specially noteworthy on account of the character of the vertebrata, but some notice of the @@ -9767,17 +9726,17 @@ known as Pterodactyls. No birds have hitherto been discovered in the British Jurassic rocks, but the Solenhofen Slate of Bavaria (of Kimmeridgian age) has furnished <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> -the celebrated <i>Archæopteryx macrura</i>, which is not only +the celebrated <i>Archæopteryx macrura</i>, which is not only placed in a family but also in an order by itself, the order -Saururæ. Many remains of mammals have been extracted +Saururæ. Many remains of mammals have been extracted from the estuarine deposits of Stonesfield, and the old surface soils of the Purbeckian beds; representatives -of the Monotremata are furnished by the <i>Plagiaulacidæ</i> -and <i>Tritylodontidæ</i>, the former family containing the +of the Monotremata are furnished by the <i>Plagiaulacidæ</i> +and <i>Tritylodontidæ</i>, the former family containing the genus <i>Plagiaulax</i> of the Purbeck Beds and the latter, <i>Stereognathus</i> of the Stonesfield slate. The Marsupialia -are represented by the <i>Amphitheridæ</i>, <i>Spalacotheridæ</i> and -<i>Triconodontidæ</i>. Some forms have been referred to the +are represented by the <i>Amphitheridæ</i>, <i>Spalacotheridæ</i> and +<i>Triconodontidæ</i>. Some forms have been referred to the Insectivora, but there is still disagreement concerning the correctness of this reference.</p> @@ -9912,7 +9871,7 @@ There is a consensus of opinion in favour of the Neocomian beds of southern Britain having been laid down in an estuary of a river flowing from the west over a continent now destroyed. To the north of this river -stood the London ridge of the Palæozoic rocks, the northern +stood the London ridge of the Palæozoic rocks, the northern borders of which formed the coast line off which were deposited the sediments of Neocomian and Aptian ages which occur in northern England. Before the deposition @@ -9963,7 +9922,7 @@ and Foster, "Geology of the Weald," <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 1875; Bristow and Strahan, "Geology of the Isle of Wight," <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>, 1889; Lamplugh, "On the Speeton Clay," <i>Q. J. G. S.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XLV.</span> p. 575, and "The Speeton Series in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire," <i>ibid.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">LII.</span> -p. 179; Barrois "Recherches sur le Terrain Crétacé supérieur de +p. 179; Barrois "Recherches sur le Terrain Crétacé supérieur de l'Angleterre et d'Irlande," Lille, 1876; and various papers by Messrs Hill and Jukes-Browne, in the <i>Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society</i> and <i>Geological Magazine</i> of recent years. For the Scotch deposits @@ -10079,19 +10038,19 @@ coiled into various helicoid spirals, sometimes having the whorls in contact, while at other times they are separate.</p> <p>In the chalk of Britain gastropods are on the whole -rare, and this fact serves to emphasize the palæontological +rare, and this fact serves to emphasize the palæontological break which occurs between the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks; but when conditions were favourable, as during the deposition of some of the strata of the Middle Chalk, gastropods are abundant, and some are related to Tertiary -genera, so that we may assume that the palæontological +genera, so that we may assume that the palæontological break alluded to is exaggerated by the difference of conditions which prevailed during the deposition of the earliest Tertiary and latest Cretaceous sediments.</p> <p>In the Cretaceous deposits of the southern sea, where the Ammonite tribe is almost unknown, the remarkable -family of the lamellibranchs known as the Hippuritidæ +family of the lamellibranchs known as the Hippuritidæ furnish the dominant invertebrates of the period, and the representatives of this family are exceedingly scarce amongst the Cretaceous strata of the northern gulf, though @@ -10107,9 +10066,9 @@ rocks. The best known representative is the gigantic <i>Mosasaurus</i>. Lastly, we have the remarkable toothed birds or Odontornithes, now placed in different orders, the genus <i>Hesperornis</i> being the only representative of -the sub-order Odontolcæ of the Ratitæ, whilst <i>Ichthyornis</i> -and allied forms are placed in the sub-order Odontormæ -of the Carinatæ.</p> +the sub-order Odontolcæ of the Ratitæ, whilst <i>Ichthyornis</i> +and allied forms are placed in the sub-order Odontormæ +of the Carinatæ.</p> <hr class="chap" /> @@ -10200,7 +10159,7 @@ three miles from the Atlantic Ocean, indicates the former extension westward of the Upper Cretaceous beds, while the occurrence of an outlier of Eocene rocks at Bovey Tracey in South Devon, resting not on Cretaceous but on -Palæozoic rocks, shows that there was an uplift after the +Palæozoic rocks, shows that there was an uplift after the deposition of the Cretaceous rocks and before the Eocene rocks were deposited there, and that during the period of uplift the Cretaceous rocks were removed.</p> @@ -10369,12 +10328,12 @@ the numerous memoirs of Professors Cope and Marsh<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id=" <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> The Eocene floras of Britain are described by Mr J. Starkie -Gardner and Baron von Ettingshausen in the <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical +Gardner and Baron von Ettingshausen in the <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical Society</i>; other Monographs of the same Society contain an account of the Eocene Mollusca by Mr F. E. Edwards and Mr S. V. Wood. An idea of the generalised forms of Mammalia may be obtained by perusal of that portion of Nicholson and Lydekker's <i>Manual of -Palæontology</i> in which the latter author treats of the Mammalia, and +Palæontology</i> in which the latter author treats of the Mammalia, and in this connexion the reader will do well to read Prof. Huxley's "Lecture on Fossil Horses," reprinted in his <i>American Addresses</i>.</p> @@ -10706,7 +10665,7 @@ in South America there are Edentata of Pliocene age<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id <div class="footnote"> <p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> The Pliocene fauna of Britain is described by Mr Searles V. Wood -in the <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical Society</i>.</p> +in the <i>Monographs of the Palæontographical Society</i>.</p> <hr class="chap" /> @@ -11004,7 +10963,7 @@ normal continental deposit of Eurasia during the period immediately succeeding the glacial period. In our own country, as the sea cannot have been far distant during these times the normal loess is not found, but several -accumulations occur, which on stratigraphical and palæontological +accumulations occur, which on stratigraphical and palæontological grounds must be regarded as synchronous with the formation of the loess. These are certain rubble-drifts of the southern counties, the older river-gravels @@ -11018,10 +10977,10 @@ a newer period of Cave Man, on account of the evidences of a lower state of civilisation afforded by examination of the River Drift implements when compared with those fashioned by Cave Man. Roughly speaking, the Steppe -period corresponds with the period during which Palæolithic +period corresponds with the period during which Palæolithic man existed, at any rate in north-west Europe, and -we may speak of the Steppe period as the Palæolithic -period, without asserting that Palæolithic man necessarily +we may speak of the Steppe period as the Palæolithic +period, without asserting that Palæolithic man necessarily disappeared at the time when the climate changed and caused the replacement of Steppe conditions by others favourable to forest-growth.</p> @@ -11059,7 +11018,7 @@ origin.</p> <p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> C. Reid, "Origin of Dry Chalk Valleys and of Coombe Rock," <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XLIII.</span> p. 364.</p></div> -<p>The Palæolithic river-gravels are found at various +<p>The Palæolithic river-gravels are found at various distances above present river-levels, and are the surviving relics of alluvial deposits which were laid down when the rivers ran at a higher level than they now do. That they @@ -11120,22 +11079,22 @@ Messrs Pengelly, Magens Mello, Tiddeman and others on the Caves of Devon, Derbyshire and Yorkshire. References have already been made to papers upon the Caverns of North Wales.</p></div> -<p>The organic contents of the Palæolithic period are of +<p>The organic contents of the Palæolithic period are of much interest, and it is desirable to discuss their character before making further observations upon the physical conditions of the period.</p> -<p><i>The Palæolithic flora and fauna.</i> The plants of some +<p><i>The Palæolithic flora and fauna.</i> The plants of some of the earlier deposits of the age we are considering show the prevalence of cold conditions during their accumulation, for instance the Arctic birch and Arctic willow are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> found in the accumulations beneath the implement-bearing -Palæolithic deposits of Hoxne in Suffolk<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>. The +Palæolithic deposits of Hoxne in Suffolk<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a>. The invertebrate fauna consists essentially of the remains of molluscs. The loess molluscs are chiefly pulmoniferous gastropods which lived upon the land, though swamp -forms are occasionally associated with them. The palæolithic +forms are occasionally associated with them. The palæolithic river-gravels have yielded numerous land- and freshwater-molluscs of living species, though some which are abundant in the British gravels are now extinct in @@ -11159,7 +11118,7 @@ the bison, and brown bear, associated with those of northern forms, as the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, glutton, reindeer, and musk ox, and also with those whose living allies are inhabitants of warmer regions, like the -lion, hyæna, and hippopotamus. One of the most remarkable +lion, hyæna, and hippopotamus. One of the most remarkable creatures is the sabre-toothed lion or <i>Machairodus</i>, remains of which have been discovered in Kent's Cavern, Torquay, and in the caves of Cresswell Crags, Derbyshire.</p> @@ -11172,7 +11131,7 @@ this fauna in the Ightham fissures.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p> <p>The first undoubted relics of mankind are found in -the Palæolithic deposits, which are very widely spread +the Palæolithic deposits, which are very widely spread over the Eurasian continent. They consist mainly of implements of bone and stone, the latter being chipped, but never ground or polished, though both bone and @@ -11193,8 +11152,8 @@ the Thames of an age antecedent to that of the ordinary river-drift implements. See <i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. <span class="smcap">XLV.</span> p. 270.</p></div> <p>There are several questions of interest connected with -the Palæolithic fauna, three of which deserve some notice -here. The absence of the relics of the Palæolithic mammalia +the Palæolithic fauna, three of which deserve some notice +here. The absence of the relics of the Palæolithic mammalia and of the human implements in the river-gravels north-west of the line drawn between the Tees and Bristol Channel, and the presence of the mammalian remains in @@ -11219,7 +11178,7 @@ entire belt of overlap to extend over a considerable distance.</p> <p>The third, and perhaps most important difficulty is -the abrupt change from the Palæolithic type of implement +the abrupt change from the Palæolithic type of implement to the Neolithic type, characteristic of the next period. Some implements, as those of the kitchen-middens of Denmark, and those found at Brandon and Cissbury in @@ -11232,12 +11191,12 @@ of Denmark, while the others are unfinished implements thrown away during the manufacture on account of flaws or accidental fractures. The difficulty is increased when we take into account the great physical and faunistic -changes which occurred between Palæolithic and Neolithic +changes which occurred between Palæolithic and Neolithic times.</p> <p>The country was undoubtedly more elevated than it is at present during portions if not during the whole of -Palæolithic times, as shown by the appearance of the +Palæolithic times, as shown by the appearance of the great mammals in Britain, the discovery of their remains beneath sea-level, and especially the occurrence of remains in the caverns of rocky islands such as those of the Bristol @@ -11270,7 +11229,7 @@ the cold regions of Siberia and North America.</p> <p>"At a higher level, and of more recent date than these—from which they are entirely distinct—are the beds -containing the Palæolithic implements, formed in all +containing the Palæolithic implements, formed in all probability under conditions not essentially different from those of the present day."</p> @@ -11285,7 +11244,7 @@ those of the present day."</p> <p class="caption2">THE FOREST PERIOD.</p> -<p>Subsequently to Palæolithic times, the physical conditions +<p>Subsequently to Palæolithic times, the physical conditions over Eurasia changed greatly, and at the commencement of Neolithic times the conditions were favourable for the growth of forests over wide regions @@ -11368,7 +11327,7 @@ and beaver have disappeared within historic times.</p> <p>The relics of man deserve passing notice. The Neolithic period is characterised by the absence of metal instruments, though those made of stone were much more -highly finished than those of Palæolithic times, and were +highly finished than those of Palæolithic times, and were often ground and polished. The first metal which was largely worked was bronze, which gradually replaced stone, though stone was extensively used in the Bronze @@ -11379,7 +11338,7 @@ Prehistoric iron age; at first, when iron was scarce, bronze implements were merely tipped with iron, but ultimately the one metal was practically replaced by the other.</p> -<p>The date of the Palæolithic period is unknown; no +<p>The date of the Palæolithic period is unknown; no approximate date can be satisfactorily assigned to it, but various calculations, founded on different data, have been made as to the age of the Neolithic period, and @@ -11404,7 +11363,7 @@ Neolithic remains of Denmark and of the Swiss Lake dwellings. For information concerning the Bronze age he should consult Evans' <i>Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain</i>. The varied Danish antiquities of Neolithic and Bronze ages are figured in H. P. Madsen's -<i>Antiquités Préhistoriques du Danemark</i>. The Prehistoric fauna of the +<i>Antiquités Préhistoriques du Danemark</i>. The Prehistoric fauna of the fenlands is described in Sir R. Owen's <i>History of British Fossil Mammals and Birds</i>.</p> @@ -11479,7 +11438,7 @@ of this, the probability is not very great. The unknown regions, as remarked above, may consist to a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> considerable extent of marine sediments, and the existence -of isolated patches of late Palæozoic and of Mesozoic +of isolated patches of late Palæozoic and of Mesozoic strata in the heart of Central Asia, points to the submergence of much wider regions than those in which these isolated patches have been found. Again, the @@ -11495,7 +11454,7 @@ time. On the other hand, the major part of Europe and North Africa, extensive tracts in Asia, the greater part of Australia, a very large part of North America and considerable tracts of South America give proofs of having -been occupied by the oceans in Palæozoic and later +been occupied by the oceans in Palæozoic and later times.</p> <div class="footnote"> @@ -11616,23 +11575,23 @@ that which has been acquired by studying distribution of organisms in past times.</p> <p>The indications of existence of an extensive tract of -continent over the North Atlantic Ocean, during Palæozoic +continent over the North Atlantic Ocean, during Palæozoic times have already been considered, and it was seen -that the thinning out of the Palæozoic sediments when +that the thinning out of the Palæozoic sediments when traced away from the present Atlantic borders in an easterly direction over Europe and in a westerly one over -North America pointed to the existence of this Palæozoic +North America pointed to the existence of this Palæozoic 'Atlantis,' as maintained by Prof. Hull in his work, "Contributions to the Physical History of the British Isles." This writer gives some reasons for supposing that the continental mass began to break up towards the end of -Palæozoic times, though it is not clear that complete +Palæozoic times, though it is not clear that complete replacement of land by sea occurred, and the nature of the Wealden deposits has been pointed to as evidence of the existence of an extensive tract of land to the west of Britain during the Cretaceous period.</p> -<p>The Palæontological evidence in favour of destruction +<p>The Palæontological evidence in favour of destruction of ancient continental areas and their replacement by the sea is more satisfactory than that which is based on physical grounds. The distribution of the Glossopteris @@ -11648,7 +11607,7 @@ America,—the Gondwanaland of Prof. E. Suess<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id=" noted here, see W. T. Blanford's <i>Presidential Address</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i></p></div> <p>Again, a study of Jurassic and Cretaceous faunas has -led palæontologists to conclude that there was a connexion +led palæontologists to conclude that there was a connexion betwixt S. Africa and India in Mesozoic times across a portion of the area now occupied by the Indian Ocean, and also between S. Africa and S. America, and these @@ -11752,7 +11711,7 @@ surface, may give and often has given rise to more rigid tracts, which will bring about the same effects as those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span> produced by orogenic disturbance as illustrated on a small -scale by the Lower Palæozoic volcanic rocks of Cambria +scale by the Lower Palæozoic volcanic rocks of Cambria and Cumbria.</p> <p><i>Uniformitarianism and Evolution.</i> According to the @@ -11773,7 +11732,7 @@ throws light upon the history of periods far earlier than those of which he has any records preserved amongst the outer portions of the earth itself, just as the modern historian is not content with written records, but must turn -to the 'prehistoric' archæologist and geologist for information +to the 'prehistoric' archæologist and geologist for information concerning the history of early man upon the earth. Interpreting the scope of geology in this general way, rigid uniformitarianism must be abandoned. Assuming @@ -11908,7 +11867,7 @@ then as now, for the mean temperature, as shown by the distance of the curve from the line <i>bc</i>, would be practically as it now is. The studies of the last few decades have brought into prominence the occurrence of glacial -periods in remote times, probably in early Palæozoic +periods in remote times, probably in early Palæozoic times; and as far as the mean temperature of the earth's surface is concerned, it would appear, from the knowledge in our possession, that matters were not very different in @@ -11985,7 +11944,7 @@ evidence of enfeebled vulcanicity in later Mesozoic times, and of its renewed activity in Tertiary times. Again, orogenic movements seem to have occurred more extensively at some times than others, as for instance in -early upper Palæozoic times, at the end of the Palæozoic +early upper Palæozoic times, at the end of the Palæozoic epoch, and in early Tertiary times, though this may also be an apparent and not an actual truth, due to imperfect knowledge. In any case, in limited areas, there seem to @@ -12003,10 +11962,10 @@ to be accounted for as due to our ignorance only.</p> <p><i>Organic evolution.</i> This subject is too wide for more <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> than passing notice in a work of this character. The -evidence of Palæontology is of extreme importance to the +evidence of Palæontology is of extreme importance to the biologist, and indeed, the way in which evolution of organisms has occurred can only be actually demonstrated -by reference to Palæontology, and the study of Palæontology +by reference to Palæontology, and the study of Palæontology has already given much information concerning the lines on which evolution has proceeded in different groups of organisms. It must be remembered that the major @@ -12149,7 +12108,7 @@ Ampthill clay, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> Angelin, N. P., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br /> Aptian series, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br /> Aqueous rocks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br /> -Archæan rocks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +Archæan rocks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> Ardmillan series, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br /> Ardwick stage, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br /> Arenaceous rocks, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> @@ -12187,11 +12146,11 @@ Bonney, T. G., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href=" Boulder clay, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> Bracklesham beds, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br /> Bradford clay, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> -Break, palæontological, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> +Break, palæontological, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">physical,</span> <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> Bristow, H., <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br /> Brockram, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br /> -Brögger, W. C., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> +Brögger, W. C., <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_163">163</a><br /> Brongniart, H., <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> Brongniart, C., <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br /> Bronze age, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>-<a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> @@ -12250,7 +12209,7 @@ Cretaceous system, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_243">243</a><br /> Croll, J., <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br /> Cromer Forest series, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br /> Cromer till, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br /> -Cucullæa beds, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> +Cucullæa beds, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> Cuvier, Baron G., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> <br /> <br /> @@ -12259,7 +12218,7 @@ Dana, J. D., <a href="#Page_285">285</a><br /> Danian series, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br /> Darwin, C., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br /> Darwin, G., <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br /> -Daubrée, A., <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> +Daubrée, A., <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br /> David, T. W. E., <a href="#Page_206">206</a><br /> Davis, W. M., <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a><br /> Dawkins, W. B., <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br /> @@ -12287,7 +12246,7 @@ Entomis slates, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br /> Eocene fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br /> Eocene rocks, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> Eozoon canadense, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br /> -Eparchæan rocks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> +Eparchæan rocks, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> Epeirogenic movements, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> Epiclastic rocks, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">simulation</span> by cataclastic rocks, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> @@ -12309,7 +12268,7 @@ Fossils, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">strata</span> identifiable by, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">mode of</span> occurrence of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">relative</span> value of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br /> -<span style="margin-left: 2em;">remanié</span>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">remanié</span>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">geographical</span> distribution of, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;<br /> <span style="margin-left: 2em;">as indicative</span> of physical conditions, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br /> Fossil zone, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br /> @@ -12426,7 +12385,7 @@ Lias, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> Liassian series, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br /> Lincolnshire limestone, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br /> Lincombe and Warberry grits, <a href="#Page_184">184</a><br /> -Lindström, G., <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +Lindström, G., <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> Lingula flags, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br /> Linnarsson, J. G. O., <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> Llandeilo limestone, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> @@ -12495,7 +12454,7 @@ Newton, E. T., <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> Nicholson, H. A., <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br /> Noachian Deluge, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br /> Noetling, F., <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br /> -Nordenskjöld, A. E., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> +Nordenskjöld, A. E., <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> Noric beds, <a href="#Page_225">225</a><br /> Northamptonshire sands, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br /> Norwich crag, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> @@ -12521,11 +12480,11 @@ Oxford oolite, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br /> Oxfordian series, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br /> <br /> <br /> -<a name="P" id="P"></a>Palæolithic fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -Palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -Palæolithic period, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> -Palæontological break, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> -Palæo-physiography, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> +<a name="P" id="P"></a>Palæolithic fauna and flora, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> +Palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> +Palæolithic period, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>-<a href="#Page_274">274</a><br /> +Palæontological break, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br /> +Palæo-physiography, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> Paradoxides fauna, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br /> Peat deposits, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br /> Pebble beds of Bunter, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> @@ -12578,7 +12537,7 @@ Red crag, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a><br /> Reid, C., <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> Renard, A., <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> Reversed fault, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> -Rhætic beds, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> +Rhætic beds, <a href="#Page_218">218</a><br /> Rhiwlas limestone, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br /> Richthofen, Baron von, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a><br /> Ridley, H. N., <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br /> @@ -12743,7 +12702,7 @@ Zone, fossil, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> <table summary="books"> <tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Elementary Palæontology—Invertebrate</b></td> + <td class="tdl"><b>Elementary Palæontology—Invertebrate</b></td> <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">H. Woods</span>, M.A., F.G.S.</td> <td class="tdr">6<i>s.</i></td> </tr> @@ -12784,7 +12743,7 @@ Zone, fossil, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;<br /> <td class="tdr">2 vols. Vol. I. 12<i>s.</i></td> </tr> <tr> - <td class="tdl"><b>Outlines of Vertebrate Palæontology</b></td> + <td class="tdl"><b>Outlines of Vertebrate Palæontology</b></td> <td class="tdl"><span class="smcap">A. S. Woodward.</span></td> <td class="tdr">14<i>s.</i></td> </tr> @@ -12949,19 +12908,19 @@ commend his book to the general reader interested in the question. His style, while never lacking dignity, avoids the dulness which too often accompanies that virtue.</p> -<p class="blockquot"><b>Elementary Palæontology—Invertebrate.</b> By <span class="smcap">Henry +<p class="blockquot"><b>Elementary Palæontology—Invertebrate.</b> By <span class="smcap">Henry Woods</span>, M.A., F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Second Edition. 6<i>s.</i></p> -<p><i>Nature.</i> As an introduction to the study of palæontology Mr Woods's +<p><i>Nature.</i> As an introduction to the study of palæontology Mr Woods's book is worthy of high praise.</p> -<p class="blockquot"><b>Outlines of Vertebrate Palæontology</b> for the use of +<p class="blockquot"><b>Outlines of Vertebrate Palæontology</b> for the use of Students of Zoology. By <span class="smcap">A. S. Woodward</span>, Assistant Keeper in the Department of Geology in the British Museum. Demy 8vo. 14<i>s.</i></p> -<p><i>Athenæum.</i> Mr Woodward, in studying vertebrate fossils for the purpose +<p><i>Athenæum.</i> Mr Woodward, in studying vertebrate fossils for the purpose of this volume, takes the biological view, and has designed his work primarily for the assistance of students of vertebrate morphology and zoology. Mindful, however, of the geological side of the subject, he has introduced a chapter @@ -13082,7 +13041,7 @@ Extension students who are making a serious study of Geology.</p> Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge. Demy 8vo. 14<i>s.</i> net.</p> -<p><i>Athenæum.</i> Prof. Lewis has written a valuable work.... The present work +<p><i>Athenæum.</i> Prof. Lewis has written a valuable work.... The present work deserves to be welcomed not only as a greatly needed help to advanced students of mineralogy, but as a sign that the study itself maintains an honoured place in the university Science Course.</p> @@ -13123,386 +13082,6 @@ fresh-water were not converted to freshwater (30 occurrences) due to usage. Corrected spellings: Godwin-Austen (<a href="#Page_20">p. 20</a>); Whidbourne (<a href="#Page_191">p. 191</a>); and Ichthyopterygia (<a href="#Page_223">p. 223</a>).</p> - - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Principles of Stratigraphical -Geology, by J. E. 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