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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-07 13:30:36 -0800 |
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diff --git a/43947-h/43947-h.htm b/43947-h/43947-h.htm index 8f853d4..98440dd 100644 --- a/43947-h/43947-h.htm +++ b/43947-h/43947-h.htm @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ <head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg E-text of Comparative Religion, by J. Estlin Carpenter @@ -122,41 +122,7 @@ p.finis { font-size: larger ; </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Comparative Religion, by J. Estlin Carpenter - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Comparative Religion - -Author: J. Estlin Carpenter - -Release Date: October 13, 2013 [EBook #43947] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPARATIVE RELIGION *** - - - - -Produced by Al Haines - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43947 ***</div> <h1> <br /><br /><br /> @@ -237,7 +203,7 @@ Produced by Al Haines "To the philosopher the existence of God may seem to rest on a syllogism; in the eyes of the historian it rests on the whole -evolution of human thought."—MAX MÜLLER. +evolution of human thought."—MAX MĂśLLER. </p> <p><br /><br /><br /></p> @@ -265,7 +231,7 @@ Over the chancel-arch of the church at South Leigh, a few miles west of Oxford, is a fresco of the Last Judgment and the Resurrection, of the type well known in -medićval art. On the adjoining south wall +mediæval art. On the adjoining south wall stands the stately figure of the archangel Michael. In his right hand he holds a pair of scales. In one scale is the figure of a soul @@ -425,7 +391,7 @@ grammar, the principles of metre, the derivations of words, were all elaborated with the utmost minuteness into different branches of Vedic lore. Two other smaller Vedas, collections -of sacrificial formulć and hymns, were very +of sacrificial formulæ and hymns, were very early placed beside the main work, and a fourth collection gained similar rank much later. With the development of the great @@ -461,7 +427,7 @@ had their origin in time there existed species (even of the gods) which belonged to the timeless order transcending our experience. So the conclusion was reached, in the words of -the great philosopher Çankara (A.D. 788-820), +the great philosopher Çankara (A.D. 788-820), that "the authority of the Veda with regard to the matters stated by it is independent and direct; just as the light of the sun is the @@ -613,7 +579,7 @@ the world's salvation. </p> <p> -Among these was the Buddha Amitâbha, +Among these was the Buddha Amitâbha, the Buddha of Boundless Light,[<a id="chap01fn1text"></a><a href="#chap01fn1">1</a>] who had made a wondrous vow in virtue of which a blessed future of righteousness and joy in the @@ -644,7 +610,7 @@ and the belief in an All-Merciful Deliverer were the essential elements of his religion. Three emperors became his pupils, and his life, compiled by imperial order after his death, -resembles that of a medićval Christian saint. +resembles that of a mediæval Christian saint. Visions of Amida and of the holy teachers of the past were vouchsafed to him. He preached—like another St. Francis—to the serpents @@ -657,12 +623,12 @@ dwelling. <p class="footnote"> <a id="chap01fn1"></a> -[<a href="#chap01fn1text">1</a>] Also called Amitâyus, the Buddha of Boundless Life. +[<a href="#chap01fn1text">1</a>] Also called Amitâyus, the Buddha of Boundless Life. </p> <p class="footnote"> <a id="chap01fn2"></a> -[<a href="#chap01fn2text">2</a>] The Japanese form of the Sanskrit Amitâbha. +[<a href="#chap01fn2text">2</a>] The Japanese form of the Sanskrit Amitâbha. </p> <p><br /></p> @@ -975,7 +941,7 @@ purity, in social effectiveness. Beneath infinite diversity the mystic will affirm the unity of the whole, with the poet of the <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P26"></a>26}</span> -<i>Masnavi</i>, Jalálu-'d-Dďn of Balkh (A.D. 1207-1273)— +<i>Masnavi</i>, Jalálu-'d-DĂŻn of Balkh (A.D. 1207-1273)— </p> <p class="poem"> @@ -1481,7 +1447,7 @@ to distinguish two sets of elements in Hellenic religion, Egyptian and Pelasgic. He left notes on the Babylonians and the Persians, on the Scythians in the vast tracts east of -northern Europe, on the Getć south of the +northern Europe, on the Getæ south of the Danube. </p> @@ -1551,12 +1517,12 @@ Sahara to the Roman wall north of our own Tyne. The introduction of Greek gods had begun centuries before. As early as 493 B.C., at a time of serious famine, a temple had been -built to Demeter, Dionysus, and Persephonę; +built to Demeter, Dionysus, and PersephonĂŞ; many others followed; resemblances among the native gods quickly led to identifications; and new forms of worship tended to displace the old. After another crisis (206 B.C.) the -"Great Mother," Cybelę, the Phrygian +"Great Mother," CybelĂŞ, the Phrygian goddess of Mount Ida, was imported. The black aerolite which was supposed to be her abode, was presented by King Attalus to the @@ -1568,7 +1534,7 @@ Roman ladies on to the Palatine hill. <p> The history of later days was full of notes -upon religion. Cćsar interspersed them +upon religion. Cæsar interspersed them among the narratives of his campaigns in Gaul; Tacitus drew on his recollections as <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P41"></a>41}</span> @@ -1581,7 +1547,7 @@ unborn. But the geographers, like Strabo material that must have been gathered ultimately from travellers, soldiers, traders, and slaves. A wise and gentle philosophic -Greek, Plutarch of Chćronea in Bœotia +Greek, Plutarch of Chæronea in Bœotia (A.D. 46-120), student at the university of Athens, lecturer on philosophy at Rome, and finally priest of Pythian Apollo in his native city, is @@ -1618,7 +1584,7 @@ literature it has disappeared, but its contents are partly known through its use by St. Augustine in his famous work on "The City of God." Following a division of the gods by the chief -pontiff Mucius Scćvola, he treated religion +pontiff Mucius Scævola, he treated religion under three heads. In the form presented by the poets' tales of the gods it was mythical. Founded by the philosophers upon nature @@ -1716,7 +1682,7 @@ defends the idea of revelation in the cases of Minos of Crete, the Persian Zoroaster, Zaleucus the shepherd legislator of the Locrians, Numa of Rome, and others. Pan was in love with -Pindar, and Ćsculapius conversed with +Pindar, and Æsculapius conversed with Sophocles: if such divine diversions were allowed, how much more should these greater <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P45"></a>45}</span> @@ -2007,7 +1973,7 @@ worship was carried through the West as far as York and Chester and the Tyne. But with the triumph of Christianity in the fourth century the sounds of conflict die away. The -men of learning, Eusebius of Cćsarea (about +men of learning, Eusebius of Cæsarea (about A.D. 260-340), Augustine (A.D. 354-430) bishop of Hippo, surveyed the religions and philosophies of antiquity as conquerors. The @@ -2057,10 +2023,10 @@ of a guide-book, a curious local usage, but he does not know that it belongs to a group of <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P54"></a>54}</span> savage practices that may be traced all round -the globe. On Mount Lycćus in Arcadia, he +the globe. On Mount Lycæus in Arcadia, he tells us, was a spring which flowed with equal quantity in summer as in winter. In time of -drought the priest of Lycćan Zeus, after due +drought the priest of Lycæan Zeus, after due prayer and sacrifice, would dip an oak-branch into the surface of the spring, and a mist-like vapour would rise and become a cloud. In @@ -2108,7 +2074,7 @@ gave the name of "Animism," and the religions founded upon it are called "animistic," or sometimes, from the multitude of unorganised spirits which they recognise, -"polydćmonistic" religions. +"polydæmonistic" religions. </p> <p> @@ -2375,13 +2341,13 @@ But Hinduism still lives on with a marvellous and self-renewing power. Two great divine figures have been set beside the original creative Brahma, representatives of the forces -that preserve and destroy, Vishnu and Çiva +that preserve and destroy, Vishnu and Çiva (p. <a href="#P128">128</a>). Vishnu succeeded to the place of the Buddha; and Hindu religion gave prominence in him to the conception of a Divine Person who out of love for man assumed human shape to conquer evil and -establish truth. The worship of Çiva has +establish truth. The worship of Çiva has been carried everywhere by the Brahmans; if he destroys, he also reproduces; he, too, appears to bless and help, and the Tamil @@ -2412,7 +2378,7 @@ date is fixed by an eclipse in 776 B.C.; and the traditions of its dynasties stretch more than a thousand years beyond. The ancient religion depicted in the books known as the -<i>Shu</i> and the <i>Shî Kings</i>, which Confucius +<i>Shu</i> and the <i>ShĂ® Kings</i>, which Confucius (550-478 B.C.) was supposed to have edited out of much older documents, rested upon the solemn order of the living Heaven and Earth, @@ -2564,7 +2530,7 @@ Fu Hhi was asked by the Emperor Wu-ti if he was a Buddhist, and he pointed to his Taoist cap. "Are you a Taoist?" he showed his Confucian shoes. "Are you a Confucian?" he -wore a Buddhist scarf. When the Abbé +wore a Buddhist scarf. When the AbbĂ© Hue made his famous journey two generations ago, he observed that when strangers met, politeness required that each should ask @@ -2654,7 +2620,7 @@ light of ancient learning had grown dim. The contact with new thought stimulated theological discussion, and the Moslem had to justify himself against the Christian, the Zoroastrian, -the Manichćan and the Buddhist. Above +the Manichæan and the Buddhist. Above the simple ritual demands of the prophet, the recital of the creed—"There is no god but God (Allah), Mohammed is the apostle of @@ -2718,7 +2684,7 @@ round him, and the movement was not checked by his arrest, his imprisonment for nearly six years, and his final execution in 1850. Thirteen years later one of his disciples named -Bahá-ullah, "Splendour of God," announced +Bahá-ullah, "Splendour of God," announced <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P71"></a>71}</span> himself as "He whom God shall manifest," whose advent the Bab had foretold. Exiled @@ -2729,7 +2695,7 @@ finality in revelation, and while recognising the Koran as a product of past revelation, claimed to embody a new manifestation of the divine Unity. Carried to Chicago in -1893 by a Bâbî merchant, it succeeded in +1893 by a BâbĂ® merchant, it succeeded in establishing itself in the United States; and its missionaries are winning new adherents in India. It, too, claims to be a universal @@ -3167,16 +3133,16 @@ cloud-crowned mountain, the winds and storms, all manifest a common power;[<a id="chap03fn1text"></a><a href="#chap03fn1">1</a>] it lives in the snake or the bull, in the tiger or the bear. This may be conceived in a highly complex -and abstract form. Thus the Zuńis of +and abstract form. Thus the Zuñis of Mexico, we are told, suppose the sun and moon, the stars, the sky, the earth and sea, with all their various changes, and all inanimate objects, as well as plants, animals, and men, to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated life. One term -includes them all: <i>hâi</i>, "being" or "life." With -the prefix <i>â</i>, "all," the whole field of -nature is summed up as <i>âhâi</i>, "life" or +includes them all: <i>hâi</i>, "being" or "life." With +the prefix <i>â</i>, "all," the whole field of +nature is summed up as <i>âhâi</i>, "life" or "the Beings." This comprehensive term includes the objects of sensible experience regarded as personal existences, and @@ -3576,7 +3542,7 @@ a temple or "august spirit-house," ran thus— <p> "Reverently adoring the great God of the -two palaces of Isé (the Sun-goddess) in the +two palaces of IsĂ© (the Sun-goddess) in the first place, the 800 myriads of celestial <i>kami</i>, the 800 myriads of ancestral <i>kami</i>, all the 1500 myriads to whom are consecrated the @@ -3724,11 +3690,11 @@ view, its inflexible impartiality. Its decrees are steadfast, and proceeded from its sovereign sway; and in this capacity it bore the <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P97"></a>97}</span> -august title of Shang Tî, "Supreme Ruler." The +august title of Shang TĂ®, "Supreme Ruler." The scholastic philosophers of a later day analysed "Heaven" in this capacity into the actual sky and its controlling personality, -and Shang Tî became the Moral Governor of +and Shang TĂ® became the Moral Governor of the Universe, the equivalent of the western God. </p> @@ -3810,7 +3776,7 @@ the Ming dynasty which preceded them: here <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P99"></a>99}</span> are one or two stanzas of a psalm in which the Emperor Kia-tsing in the sixteenth century -announced to Shang Tî that he would be +announced to Shang TĂ® that he would be addressed as "dwelling in the sovereign heavens":— </p> @@ -3818,7 +3784,7 @@ heavens":— <p><br /></p> <p> -"O Tî, when thou hadst separated the Yin +"O TĂ®, when thou hadst separated the Yin and the Yang (<i>i.e.</i> the earth and the sky), thy creative work proceeded. </p> @@ -3854,7 +3820,7 @@ beginning. <p> "Men and things are all emparadised in -thy love, O Tî. +thy love, O TĂ®. </p> <p> @@ -3875,7 +3841,7 @@ Here the ancient view of the living sky has given place under the influences of <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P100"></a>100}</span> philosophy to a creative monotheism. No -image is made of Shang Tî. As he stands +image is made of Shang TĂ®. As he stands at the head of the manifold ranks of the <i>Shin</i>, he represents the last word of animism in providing an intellectual form for religion. @@ -3971,7 +3937,7 @@ of earth and sea, and of the nether world; and may thus be presented as the sole and universal energy, not only of all outward things but also of the inner world of thought. Of this -immense development language, archćology, +immense development language, archæology, literature, the dedications of worship, the testimonies of the ancient students of their still more ancient past in ritual and belief, @@ -4018,7 +3984,7 @@ the givers of life and health and plenty, to whom costly sacrifices must be made. So they might bear the title "Mother," and were akin to the powers of fertility living in the soil, the -"Mothers" (<i>Matres</i> or <i>Matronć</i>), cognate +"Mothers" (<i>Matres</i> or <i>Matronæ</i>), cognate with the "Mothers" who fulfil similar functions in modern India. The adjacent Teutonic peoples filled forest and field with @@ -4179,7 +4145,7 @@ famous battle with the Hittites, celebrated by the court-poet of Rameses the Great (1300-1234 B.C.), the king, endangered by the flight of his troops, appeals to the great god Amen, -a form of the solar deity Rę, with confidence +a form of the solar deity RĂŞ, with confidence of help, "Amen shall bring to nought the ignorers of God": and the answer comes, "I am with thee, I am thy father, my @@ -4304,7 +4270,7 @@ deity. <p> Sometimes speculation takes a higher flight. -The Zuńis of Mexico have remained in +The Zuñis of Mexico have remained in possession of ancient traditions, uninfluenced by any imported Christianity. After many years' residence among them Mr. Cushing @@ -4380,7 +4346,7 @@ invoked with prayer and rite. The great Babylonian god, Marduk, son of Ea (god of wisdom and spells), alone succeeds in overcoming the might of Tiamat (the Hebrew -<i>tehôm</i> or "deep"), the primeval chaos with +<i>tehĂ´m</i> or "deep"), the primeval chaos with her hideous brood of monsters, and out of her carcass makes the firmament of heaven. He arranges the stations of the stars, he founds @@ -4442,7 +4408,7 @@ the reason for the discontinuance of homage was thus frankly stated by one of the poets <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P115"></a>115}</span> of the great epic, the Mahābhārata; "Men -worship Çiva the destroyer because they fear +worship Çiva the destroyer because they fear him; Vishnu the preserver, because they hope from him; but who worships Brahman the creator? <i>His work is done.</i>"[<a id="chap04fn1text"></a><a href="#chap04fn1">1</a>] @@ -4454,7 +4420,7 @@ the creator? <i>His work is done.</i>"[<a id="chap04fn1text"></a><a href="#chap <a id="chap04fn1"></a> [<a href="#chap04fn1text">1</a>] Hopkins, <i>India, Old and New</i>, p. 113. Prof. Hopkins adds that in India to-day there are thousands of temples -to Çiva and Vishnu, but only two to Brahman. +to Çiva and Vishnu, but only two to Brahman. </p> <p><br /></p> @@ -4608,8 +4574,8 @@ mystery. Such were Osiris in Egypt, Adonis the ancient Babylonian Tammuz), Attis of Phrygia in Asia Minor, and in Greece the Thracian Dionysus, and the divine pair -Demeter and her daughter Persephonę blended -with the figure of Korę "the Maid." +Demeter and her daughter PersephonĂŞ blended +with the figure of KorĂŞ "the Maid." </p> <p> @@ -4623,7 +4589,7 @@ images of the god formed out of sand or vegetable earth and corn, with yellow faces and green cheek-bones, were solemnly buried, those of the preceding year being removed. -On the temple wall of his chamber at Philć +On the temple wall of his chamber at Philæ stalks of corn were depicted springing from his dead body, while a priest poured water on them from a pitcher. This was the mystery @@ -4657,7 +4623,7 @@ life. Mystically identified with him, the deceased bore the god's name and was thus admitted into fellowship with him. Over his body the ceremonies once performed upon -Osiris were repeated, the same formulć were +Osiris were repeated, the same formulæ were recited, with the conviction that "as surely as Osiris lives, so shall he live also." But magic was early checked by morals, and by @@ -4682,7 +4648,7 @@ their consorts. Birth must be placed under divine protection, just as the organ of generation might itself be sacred. The Babylonian looked to the spouse of Marduk, "creator of -all things," to whom as Zēr-panîtum, +all things," to whom as Zēr-panĂ®tum, "seed-creatress," the processes of generation were especially referred. Or with ceremony and incantation the child was set beneath the care @@ -4799,7 +4765,7 @@ upon the monuments beside the Nile with startling realism. In later days the Greek title <i>Theos</i> (god) was boldly assumed by the sovereigns of Egypt and Syria. It was -conferred, with the associated epithet <i>Sotér</i> +conferred, with the associated epithet <i>SotĂ©r</i> (Saviour or Preserver), as early as 307 B.C., on Demetrius and his father Antigonus, who liberated Athens from the tyranny of @@ -4807,7 +4773,7 @@ Cassander. On the Rosetta stone (in the British Museum) Ptolemy V, 205 B.C., claims the same dignity, and is described as "eternal-lived," and "the living image of Zeus." Ephesus -designated Julius Cćsar as "God manifest +designated Julius Cæsar as "God manifest and the common Saviour of human life." </p> @@ -4839,7 +4805,7 @@ through him to the world." He is described as "the Saviour of the whole human race"; he is the beginning of life and the end of sorrow that ever man was born. An inscription at -Philć on the Nile equated him with the +Philæ on the Nile equated him with the greatest of Greek deities, for he is "star of all Greece who has arisen as great Saviour Zeus." </p> @@ -4866,7 +4832,7 @@ desperate intensity than in the Book of Revelation at the close of our New Testament, where Rome and her false worship are identified with the power of the "Opposer" or -Sâtân, and are hurled with all their trappings +Sâtân, and are hurled with all their trappings of wealth and luxury into the abyss. </p> @@ -4913,7 +4879,7 @@ so the shaping of affairs bore witness to the interest and intervention of wills above those of man. All through the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean the greater deities, -such as Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Ćsculapius, +such as Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Æsculapius, Dionysus, Isis, Zeus, bore the title of "Deliverer." And in the mysteries which drew so many worshippers to their rites in the first @@ -4981,20 +4947,20 @@ Vishnu was an ancient Vedic deity connected with the sun; and by his side Hindu theology set another god of venerable antiquity, once fierce and destructive, but -now known under the name of Çiva, the +now known under the name of Çiva, the "auspicious." The great epic entitled the Mahābhārata does not conceal their rivalry; but with the facility of identification <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P129"></a>129}</span> characteristic of Indian thought, either deity could -be interpreted as a form of the other. Çiva +be interpreted as a form of the other. Çiva became the representative of the energies of dissolution and reproduction; and his worship -begot in the hearts of the medićval poets an +begot in the hearts of the mediæval poets an ardent piety, while in other aspects it degenerated into physical passion on the one side and extreme asceticism on the other. But in -association with Brahma, Vishnu and Çiva +association with Brahma, Vishnu and Çiva constituted the Trimurti, or "triple form," embracing the principles of the creation, preservation, destruction, and renewal of @@ -5036,14 +5002,14 @@ in later days consecrated them "to Jupiter Greatest and Best, and the Other Immortal Gods." If reflection was sufficiently advanced to coin abstract terms for deity, like the -Babylonian <i>'ilűth</i>, or the Vedic <i>asuratva</i> or +Babylonian <i>'ilĂ»th</i>, or the Vedic <i>asuratva</i> or <i>devatva</i>, some poet might apprehend the ultimate unity, and lay it down that "the great <i>asuratva</i> of the <i>devas</i> is one." Both India and Greece reached the conception of a unity of energy in diversity of operation; "the One with many names" was the theme -of the ancient Hindu seers long before Ćschylus +of the ancient Hindu seers long before Æschylus in almost identical words proclaimed "One form with many names." The great sky-god Zeus, whose personality could be @@ -5102,7 +5068,7 @@ sovereignty of Ahura established for ever From another point of view the divine purpose of deliverance must be conceived upon an equally world-wide scale. One type -of Indian Buddhism looked to Avalokiteçvara +of Indian Buddhism looked to Avalokiteçvara <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P132"></a>132}</span> (Chinese Kwanyin, Japanese Kwannon), who made the famous vow not to enter into final @@ -5384,7 +5350,7 @@ usage; and the ancient practice still survives in strangely altered fashion in the cakes and confectionery carried on All Souls' Day to the graves in the great Parisian cemetery of -Pčre Lachaise. +Père Lachaise. </p> <p> @@ -5596,7 +5562,7 @@ occasions, the clan-god was present with his worshippers. The Greek ritual sometimes provided a place for the table-companions or "parasites," at sacred banquets, such as were -held in the temples of Apollo at Acharnć or +held in the temples of Apollo at Acharnæ or Delos. </p> @@ -5626,7 +5592,7 @@ Mediterranean, show that such hospitalities were of frequent occurrence, alike in temples and in private houses. Among the precious remains from Oxyrhynchus are such notes -as this: "Antonius son of Ptolemćus invites +as this: "Antonius son of Ptolemæus invites you to dine with him at the table of our Lord Sarapis in the house of Claudius Sarapion on the 16th at 9 o'clock." @@ -5797,7 +5763,7 @@ order to obtain concord, and to govern our city fairly and well?" Chinese statecraft well understood the significance of such worship as a social bond. The ancient author of -the <i>Lî Chî</i>, or "Book of Rites," laid it down +the <i>LĂ® ChĂ®</i>, or "Book of Rites," laid it down that "the prayers of the principal in the sacrifice to the spirits, and the benedictions of the representatives of the departed, are @@ -5902,12 +5868,12 @@ Zeus, but to the paths of simplicity let me cleave throughout my life, that when dead I may set upon my children a name that shall be of no ill repute." And Socrates prays, -as he and Phćdrus rise from the shade of the +as he and Phædrus rise from the shade of the plane-tree where they have been talking, "Beloved Pan, and all ye other gods that haunt this place, give me beauty in the inward soul, and may the outward and the -inward man be at one": to which Phćdrus +inward man be at one": to which Phædrus adds, "Ask the same for me, for friends should have all things in common." </p> @@ -5931,7 +5897,7 @@ enlightened as to our duty, yet with others we still commit heavy sins, which prevent us from advancing in true knowledge. Therefore in the presence of Kwan Yin [the Chinese form -of Avalokiteçvara, p. 131], and the Buddhas +of Avalokiteçvara, p. 131], and the Buddhas of the ten regions, we would humble ourselves, and repent of our sins.... For the sake of all sentient creatures in whatever @@ -5949,7 +5915,7 @@ roused the anger of his god, and passes into fierce incantations against the demonic powers which are the instruments of the divine wrath. Here prayer makes a close alliance -with magic: and its formulć are always in +with magic: and its formulæ are always in danger of this degeneration. In the old Italian ritual of a guild at Iguvium the exact titles of the deity must be rehearsed, and @@ -6008,7 +5974,7 @@ from falsehood to truth, from death to the deathless." The association of prayer and magic is seen in the fact that the very term <i>brahma</i> has the double meaning of prayer -and spell, something like the Greek <i>euchę</i> or +and spell, something like the Greek <i>euchĂŞ</i> or the Hebrew "bless," which could imply a curse as well as a prayer. But in its higher sense it gave birth to the "Lord of Prayer," @@ -6057,7 +6023,7 @@ In the first, the believer looks to his heavenly Lord with adoring faith (p. <a href="#P128">128</a>) and lowly love (<i>bhakti</i>), and feels the inflowing of divine favour or grace (<i>prasāda</i>). The -long line of medićval poets transmitted from +long line of mediæval poets transmitted from generation to generation passionate impulses of devotion which expressed themselves again and again in legend and song. "Search in thy @@ -6289,7 +6255,7 @@ daily by millions of devout Hindus. One of the later books of the Zoroastrian faith lays down that "it is necessary for all those of the good religion to celebrate the ritual -and become <i>navazűd</i>, newly born," or born +and become <i>navazĂ»d</i>, newly born," or born again. The ceremony began with a purification which lasted nine nights, and included sprinkling with water; the candidate for the @@ -6350,7 +6316,7 @@ The rites of the Phrygian Sabazius touch the processes of the lower culture at more than one point. In his great oration "on the Crown" (315 B.C.) Demosthenes twits his -opponent Ćschines in such terms as these: +opponent Æschines in such terms as these: "You assisted your mother in the initiations, you read aloud the books (the ritual prayers), and took part in the rest of the plot. You @@ -6605,7 +6571,7 @@ successors was Thoth of Hermopolis (p. <a href="#P8">8</a>), who introduced astronomy and divination, medicine, arithmetic, and geometry, and whose "books," embracing a kind of religious -encyclopćdia, were known to the Christian +encyclopædia, were known to the Christian teacher, Clement of Alexandria, in the second century of our era. </p> @@ -6693,7 +6659,7 @@ in Greece and Rome. The discovery of Sanskrit and the investigation of its literature, especially of the Vedic hymns, concentrated the attention of scholars for a time, -pre-eminently under the genius of Max Müller, +pre-eminently under the genius of Max MĂĽller, on the relations of myth to language, and the resolution of various deities of India and Greece into the phenomena of dawn and @@ -6734,11 +6700,11 @@ elements of savagery which could be imperfectly harmonised with the more refined ideas of a progressive culture. Thus already in Homer, Zeus, as supreme God, bears one -significant epithet; he is <i>mętieta</i>, full of <i>mętis</i> +significant epithet; he is <i>mĂŞtieta</i>, full of <i>mĂŞtis</i> or counsel. The word is of doubtful derivation, but with the strong tendency of Greek imagination to turn abstract ideas into -persons, Mętis is presented by Hesiod (next +persons, MĂŞtis is presented by Hesiod (next in literary succession to Homer) as the daughter of Ocean, the Hellenic equivalent of the Babylonian Deep, source of all being @@ -6747,7 +6713,7 @@ yet ripe for the ontological conception of wisdom or intelligence as inherent in the divine nature, so the union of Thought with Zeus is represented mythologically as a -marriage, and Mętis becomes the bride of +marriage, and MĂŞtis becomes the bride of the great "king of gods and men." The result is conceived in truly savage fashion. In order to possess her in the most intimate @@ -6881,7 +6847,7 @@ for the beneficent revelation of a god? In Greece, accordingly, the practice of sleeping at the tombs of heroes or in the temples of gods was regularly organised. -The sanctuaries of Ćsculapius, of which more +The sanctuaries of Æsculapius, of which more than two hundred can be traced round the Eastern Mediterranean and in Italy, were specially frequented by patients who resorted @@ -6898,7 +6864,7 @@ condescended to operate himself. An inscription at Epidaurus records that the stiffened fingers of a patient were straightened out and restored for use by the god's own grasp. -Was it surprising that Ćsculapius should +Was it surprising that Æsculapius should become the object of increasing reverence, and in the second century of our era should be enthroned in the highest as "Saviour (or @@ -6919,7 +6885,7 @@ chants of worship have been again and again carried back to divine authorship in a distant past. The marriage of speech with music is no art of man. So the Finnic hero, -Wäinamöinen, conceived by the wind, and born +Wäinamöinen, conceived by the wind, and born (after seven hundred years in the womb) by the maiden Dmatar, added to his gifts of fertility and fire the invention of the harp, @@ -7021,7 +6987,7 @@ remains of their national literature, Greek writers also interested themselves in the collection of the utterances of the past. About 500 B.C. Onomacritus gathered together -the oracles of Musćus. It was the first +the oracles of Musæus. It was the first instance of what became a frequent practice <span class="pagenum">{<a id="P184"></a>184}</span> in later days; one of Plato's disciples, @@ -7047,7 +7013,7 @@ ancient city of Veii had its books; Tibur (Tivoli) the "lots" of the nymph Albunea. Most famous of all were the Sibylline books, brought (according to later tradition) from -Cumć to Rome, perhaps in the last days of +Cumæ to Rome, perhaps in the last days of the monarchy, or a little later (about 500 B.C.), and placed in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol under the charge of two special @@ -7160,7 +7126,7 @@ the so-called Classics, the five King and the four Shu, which had a chequered history till they finally acquired their position as fountains of knowledge and models of composition. -The ancient odes of the Shî King, the traditions +The ancient odes of the ShĂ® King, the traditions of rulers and the counsels of statesmen in the Shu King, the collections of the teaching of Confucius and Mencius, and the remaining @@ -7185,7 +7151,7 @@ Some smaller communities claim a passing word. The Jains (p. <a href="#P61">61</a>), once the rivals of the Buddhists, possess a sacred literature only less copious. Group after group appears in -medićval India singing the hymns of its +mediæval India singing the hymns of its founder, such as the Kabir-panthis, till the poet Tulsi-Das (born 1532) embodies in his version of the ancient Rāmāyana the essence @@ -7223,7 +7189,7 @@ faith. The Hindu term Veda (meaning literally "knowledge") has a narrower and a wider sense. In its limited application it denotes the four collections of hymns, of -ritual formulć, and sacrificial songs, of which +ritual formulæ, and sacrificial songs, of which the Rig-Veda is the most important (p. <a href="#P10">10</a>). Their history must be inferred from their contents; of the circumstances of their @@ -7238,7 +7204,7 @@ other of the ancient collections, and handed down in different religious schools. These are all included more or less definitely in what a Western theologian might term "Revelation." They -are technically designated as <i>çruti</i> or +are technically designated as <i>çruti</i> or "hearing"; they form the matter of the sacred teaching transmitted orally, which must be reserved for a special order and not @@ -7342,7 +7308,7 @@ teaching declared her to be produced by Vohu Mano, the "Good Mind" of Ahura Mazda himself (p. <a href="#P131">131</a>). As the actual utterance of the Lord Omniscient, the sacred Law might also -be called his <i>măthra çpenta</i> or "Holy Word." +be called his <i>mĂŁthra çpenta</i> or "Holy Word." </p> <p> @@ -7377,7 +7343,7 @@ The believer in Islam recognised in the Eternal Word, which God from time to time "sent down" to his Prophet. It had definite size and aspect for Arab imagination. The -commentator Jalâlain described it as existing +commentator Jalâlain described it as existing in the air above the seventh heaven. There angel guardians defended it from theft by Satan or the change of any of its contents. @@ -7385,8 +7351,8 @@ It was as long as from heaven to earth, and as broad as from east to west; and its consistency was of one white pearl. Was it surprising that Mohammedan faith should -support the utterance of the pious Câdi -Iyâd (who died in Morocco, A.D. 1149): "The +support the utterance of the pious Câdi +Iyâd (who died in Morocco, A.D. 1149): "The Koran, as it lies between the two covers is God's own word, which he imparted by way of inspiration to the Prophet. Therefore is @@ -8049,7 +8015,7 @@ Song. Beside him is his Good Mind, and the Holy (or beneficent, gracious) Spirit. But opposed to him in the realm of darkness beneath is "the Lie" (<i>drug</i>), with its correlates -the Bad Mind and the Evil Spirit (<i>Ańra +the Bad Mind and the Evil Spirit (<i>Añra Mainyu</i>, not yet a proper name). The world between is the scene of continuous struggle, and in this conflict man is called to take his @@ -8064,7 +8030,7 @@ of the origin of the Drug any more than of Ahura himself. But later speculation, impressed with the contrasting elements of human life, began to ascribe to him, too, -under the name of Ahriman (Ańra Mainyu), +under the name of Ahriman (Añra Mainyu), creative power; all noxious animals and plants were due to him; plague and disease came from his hands; all agencies of cold, @@ -8135,7 +8101,7 @@ rectitude or right, and Maāt was the splendid impersonation of order, law, justice, truth, in both the physical and moral spheres. She is the daughter—or even the eye—of the -Sun-god Rę. But she is conceived in still more +Sun-god RĂŞ. But she is conceived in still more exalted fashion as the sovereign of all realms, and is elevated above all relationships. She is Lady of heaven, and Queen of earth, and @@ -8403,7 +8369,7 @@ men, nor is there any need of purification; no stain can ever cleave to virtue. But depart, whosoever is baneful at heart; for thy soul will never be washed by the cleansing of -the body." Over the sanctuary of Ćsculapius +the body." Over the sanctuary of Æsculapius at Epidaurus, where so many sufferers thronged for cure (p. <a href="#P180">180</a>), ran the inscription quoted by Porphyry— @@ -8466,11 +8432,11 @@ had first entered the world through the subtlety of a talking snake. Later thought found such a solution inadequate to enlarged moral experience. In the figure of the -Adversary or the Opposer, the Sâtân, first +Adversary or the Opposer, the Sâtân, first traceable in Israel's literature after the Captivity, Judaism admitted a moral dualism analogous to the opposition between Ahura -Mazda and Ańra Mainyu. The Sâtân had, +Mazda and Añra Mainyu. The Sâtân had, indeed, no creative power, though hordes of demons were under his sway in the abyss, and were sent forth to do the desolating work of @@ -9010,7 +8976,7 @@ pure water at the <i>meshken</i> or place of new birth. Mysterious transformations assimilated him with various gods; or he was admitted on to the sun-bark among the -worshippers of Rę, and fed on his words. +worshippers of RĂŞ, and fed on his words. But the guilty souls were subjected to unspeakable torments; there were magistrates to measure the duration of those appointed @@ -9065,11 +9031,11 @@ and if there is requital for evil there are also happy islands for the blest. The ethical leaven is already powerfully at work. The language of Cebes and Simmias in Plato's -dialogue of the <i>Phćdo</i> shows, however, that +dialogue of the <i>Phædo</i> shows, however, that the belief was by no means universal; and the beautiful sepulchral reliefs at Athens give no hint of that august tribunal of Minos, -Rhadamanthus and Ćacus, which Plato +Rhadamanthus and Æacus, which Plato pictures as engaged in judging souls. </p> @@ -9087,7 +9053,7 @@ like the consensus of feeling in an Egyptian cemetery or a modern English graveyard. The soul is piously committed to the ether, or, if there be rewards in the realm below, -is confided to Persephonę; or it is reverently +is confided to PersephonĂŞ; or it is reverently placed among the stars, in the councils of the immortals, or in the home of the gods. Such were the popular conventions. Philosophical @@ -9267,7 +9233,7 @@ which they were embodied. But the immense series led to nothing. Buddhist imagination filled the universe with worlds, each with its own systems of heaven and hell, -and projected ćons upon ćons into +and projected æons upon æons into immeasurable time, but the sequence pointed to no goal, for what could arrest the inexorable succession? Was there any escape from its law? @@ -9393,7 +9359,7 @@ bath of milk; the evil would be purged of the last impulses to sin. Saoshyant and his helpers would dispense the drink of immortality, and the final conflict with the powers -of evil would begin. Ańra Mainyu, the great +of evil would begin. Añra Mainyu, the great Serpent, with all their satellites and the multitude of the demonic hosts, should be finally driven into hell and consumed in the @@ -9487,7 +9453,7 @@ BIBLIOGRAPHY </h3> <p> -Out of the immense literature produced since Max Müller's +Out of the immense literature produced since Max MĂĽller's <i>Essay on Comparative Mythology</i> (1856) only a small number of the most important books can be here named, and the list is limited to works in English. Superior figures attached to @@ -9498,7 +9464,7 @@ the edition in brackets.] <p> GENERAL INTRODUCTION.—Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i> (4th ed.) (2 -vols. 1903); Max Müller, <i>Introd. to the Science of Religion</i> +vols. 1903); Max MĂĽller, <i>Introd. to the Science of Religion</i> (1873), <i>Hibbert Lectures</i> (1878), <i>Gifford Lectures</i> (4 vols. 1889-93); W. Robertson Smith, <i>Lectures on the Religion of the Semites</i> (2nd ed.) (1902); J. G. Frazer, <i>The Golden Bough</i> @@ -9586,7 +9552,7 @@ Greece and Asia Minor." <p> INDIA: Barth, <i>Religions of India</i> (1882); Hopkins, <i>Religions of India</i> (1895). VEDIC: Macdonell, <i>Vedic Mythology</i> (1897) -in Bühler's <i>Grundriss</i>; Bloomfield, <i>Religion of the Veda</i> (1909). +in BĂĽhler's <i>Grundriss</i>; Bloomfield, <i>Religion of the Veda</i> (1909). For BUDDHISM, <i>see</i> Mrs. Rhys Davids' vol. in this series. HINDUISM: Monieu Williams, <i>Religious Thought and Life in India</i> (1883). @@ -9603,7 +9569,7 @@ People</i> (1899); Addis, <i>Hebrew Religion</i> (1906); Marti, <p> JAINS: Jacobi in <i>Sacred Books of the East</i>, vols. xxii (1884) -and xlv (1895); Bühler, <i>On the Indian Sect of the Jainas</i> (1904). +and xlv (1895); BĂĽhler, <i>On the Indian Sect of the Jainas</i> (1904). </p> <p> @@ -9659,8 +9625,8 @@ Teutons</i> (1902). Small popular volumes in the series on "Non-Christian Religious Systems" (Soc. for Promoting Christian Knowledge), and more recently in Constable's series, "Religions Ancient -and Modern." Valuable articles in Hastings' <i>Encyclopćdia -of Religion and Ethics</i>, and in <i>Encyclopćdia Britannica</i>. +and Modern." Valuable articles in Hastings' <i>Encyclopædia +of Religion and Ethics</i>, and in <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. </p> <p><br /><br /><br /></p> @@ -9685,10 +9651,10 @@ Aditi, <a href="#P155">155</a> Adonis, <a href="#P119">119</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Ćschylus, <a href="#P130">130</a> +Æschylus, <a href="#P130">130</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Ćsculapius, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P221">221</a> +Æsculapius, <a href="#P44">44</a>, <a href="#P127">127</a>, <a href="#P180">180</a>, <a href="#P221">221</a> </p> <p class="index"> Africa, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P113">113</a> f., <a href="#P140">140</a>, <a href="#P148">148</a>, <a href="#P163">163</a>, <a href="#P182">182</a>, <a href="#P203">203</a> @@ -9697,7 +9663,7 @@ Africa, <a href="#P111">111</a>, <a href="#P113">113</a> f., <a href="#P140">140 Agni, <a href="#P34">34</a>, <a href="#P94">94</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Ahriman (Ańra Mainyu), <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a href="#P248">248</a> +Ahriman (Añra Mainyu), <a href="#P155">155</a>, <a href="#P212">212</a>, <a href="#P248">248</a> </p> <p class="index"> Ahura Mazda, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P211">211</a> f., <a href="#P248">248</a> @@ -9715,7 +9681,7 @@ Akhnaton, <a href="#P129">129</a> American Indians, North, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P81">81</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P173">173</a>, <a href="#P235">235</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Amida (Amitâbha), <a href="#P16">16</a> ff., <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P246">246</a> +Amida (Amitâbha), <a href="#P16">16</a> ff., <a href="#P132">132</a>, <a href="#P246">246</a> </p> <p class="index"> Animism, <a href="#P55">55</a>, <a href="#P59">59</a> @@ -9760,7 +9726,7 @@ Augustus, <a href="#P125">125</a> Australia, <a href="#P33">33</a>, <a href="#P75">75</a>, <a href="#P78">78</a> f., <a href="#P86">86</a>, <a href="#P110">110</a>, <a href="#P114">114</a> f., <a href="#P149">149</a>, <a href="#P162">162</a>, <a href="#P171">171</a>, <a href="#P199">199</a>, <a href="#P202">202</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Avalokiteçvara, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a> +Avalokiteçvara, <a href="#P131">131</a>, <a href="#P154">154</a> </p> <p class="index"> Awona-wilona, <a href="#P111">111</a> @@ -9859,7 +9825,7 @@ Chrysippus, <a href="#P184">184</a> Cicero, <a href="#P42">42</a>, <a href="#P46">46</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Çiva, <a href="#P62">62</a>, <a href="#P128">128</a> f. +Çiva, <a href="#P62">62</a>, <a href="#P128">128</a> f. </p> <p class="index"> Classification of religions, <a href="#P220">220</a> @@ -9877,7 +9843,7 @@ Corea, <a href="#P66">66</a> Creation-myths, <a href="#P110">110</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Cybelę, <a href="#P40">40</a> +CybelĂŞ, <a href="#P40">40</a> </p> <p><br /></p> @@ -10163,7 +10129,7 @@ Lesa, <a href="#P140">140</a> Lessing, <a href="#P22">22</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Lî Chî, the, <a href="#P150">150</a> +LĂ® ChĂ®, the, <a href="#P150">150</a> </p> <p class="index"> Life after Death, <a href="#P226">226</a> ff. @@ -10232,7 +10198,7 @@ Melanesia, <a href="#P139">139</a>, <a href="#P164">164</a> Messiah, the, <a href="#P250">250</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Mętis, <a href="#P176">176</a> +MĂŞtis, <a href="#P176">176</a> </p> <p class="index"> Mexico, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P147">147</a>, <a href="#P161">161</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a>, <a href="#P234">234</a> @@ -10283,7 +10249,7 @@ Motowori, <a href="#P92">92</a> Mulungu, <a href="#P82">82</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Musćus, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a> +Musæus, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P183">183</a> </p> <p class="index"> Muses, the, <a href="#P181">181</a> @@ -10379,7 +10345,7 @@ Pausanias, <a href="#P41">41</a>, <a href="#P53">53</a> Penates, <a href="#P123">123</a>, <a href="#P145">145</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Persephonę, <a href="#P40">40</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P240">240</a> +PersephonĂŞ, <a href="#P40">40</a>, <a href="#P119">119</a>, <a href="#P240">240</a> </p> <p class="index"> Peru, <a href="#P57">57</a>, <a href="#P108">108</a>, <a href="#P117">117</a>, <a href="#P174">174</a> @@ -10397,7 +10363,7 @@ Plato, <a href="#P38">38</a>, <a href="#P45">45</a> f., <a href="#P48">48</a> f. Plutarch, <a href="#P41">41</a>, <a href="#P44">44</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Polydćmonistic religions, <a href="#P55">55</a> +Polydæmonistic religions, <a href="#P55">55</a> </p> <p class="index"> Polynesia, <a href="#P112">112</a>, <a href="#P164">164</a> @@ -10475,7 +10441,7 @@ Saoshyant, <a href="#P248">248</a> Sarapis, <a href="#P39">39</a>, <a href="#P146">146</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Sâtân, the, <a href="#P223">223</a> +Sâtân, the, <a href="#P223">223</a> </p> <p class="index"> Scandinavia, <a href="#P209">209</a>, <a href="#P229">229</a> @@ -10505,7 +10471,7 @@ Set, <a href="#P209">209</a> Shamash, <a href="#P151">151</a>, <a href="#P172">172</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Shang Tî, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a> +Shang TĂ®, <a href="#P97">97</a>, <a href="#P100">100</a> </p> <p class="index"> Sheol, <a href="#P230">230</a> @@ -10538,7 +10504,7 @@ Socrates, <a href="#P50">50</a>, <a href="#P133">133</a>, <a href="#P153">153</a Sophocles, <a href="#P44">44</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Sotęr (saviour, etc.), <a href="#P124">124</a> f., <a href="#P127">127</a> +SotĂŞr (saviour, etc.), <a href="#P124">124</a> f., <a href="#P127">127</a> </p> <p class="index"> Spirits, <a href="#P54">54</a>, <a href="#P102">102</a> @@ -10670,7 +10636,7 @@ Vows, <a href="#P168">168</a> <p><br /></p> <p class="index"> -Wäinamöinen, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a> +Wäinamöinen, <a href="#P181">181</a>, <a href="#P232">232</a> </p> <p class="index"> Wakanda, <a href="#P81">81</a> @@ -10715,7 +10681,7 @@ Zeus, <a href="#P103">103</a>, <a href="#P106">106</a>, <a href="#P109">109</a>, Zi (Babylonian), <a href="#P102">102</a> </p> <p class="index"> -Zuńis, the, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a> +Zuñis, the, <a href="#P83">83</a>, <a href="#P111">111</a> </p> <p><br /><br /><br /></p> @@ -10770,379 +10736,7 @@ A HISTORY OF FREEDOM OF THOUGHT ... By J. B. BURY<br /> <p><br /><br /><br /><br /></p> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's Comparative Religion, by J. Estlin Carpenter - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPARATIVE RELIGION *** - -***** This file should be named 43947-h.htm or 43947-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/9/4/43947/ - -Produced by Al Haines - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, -set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to -copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to -protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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