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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43939 ***
+
+Note: Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive. See
+      http://archive.org/details/scandinavianelem33babc
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
+
+      Small capitals in the original work are represented here
+      in all capitals.
+
+      Footnotes have been renumbered and moved to directly
+      below the paragraph to which they belong.
+
+      Some tables may not line up vertically.
+
+
+
+
+
+University of Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences
+Vol. 111. No. 3        September, 1914
+
+THE SCANDINAVIAN ELEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+by
+
+KENDRIC CHARLES BABCOCK, Ph. D.
+
+Dean of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences in the University of
+Illinois
+
+Sometime Fellow in the University of Minnesota and in Harvard
+University
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PRICE $1.00
+
+Published by the University of Illinois
+Urbana
+
+Copyright, 1914
+By the University of Illinois
+
+
+
+
+  TO
+  HARRY PRATT JUDSON, KNUTE NELSON,
+  NICOLAY A. GREVSTAD, AND ALBERT BUSHNELL HART
+  IN GRATEFUL RECOGNITION OF
+  UNFAILING ASSISTANCE, ENCOURAGEMENT,
+  AND FAITHFUL CRITICISM
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+  Introduction--General discussion                            7-14
+
+  CHAPTER II
+  Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes                             15-21
+
+  CHAPTER III
+  Early Norwegian Immigration                               22-34
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+  The Rising Stream of Norwegian Immigration                35-49
+
+  CHAPTER V
+  Swedish Immigration before 1850                           50-61
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+  The Danish Immigration                                    62-65
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+  A Half Century of Expansion and Distribution, 1850-1900   66-78
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+  Economic Forces at Work                                  79-105
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+  The Religious and Intellectual Standpoint               106-129
+
+  CHAPTER X
+  Social Relations and Characteristics                    130-139
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+  The Scandinavian in Local and State Politics            140-156
+
+  CHAPTER XII
+  Party Preferences and Political Leadership              157-178
+
+  CHAPTER XIII
+  Conclusion                                              179-182
+
+  CHAPTER XIV
+  Critical Essay on Materials and Authorities             183-204
+
+  APPENDIX I
+  Statistical Tables of Population                        206-216
+
+  APPENDIX II
+  Statistics of Three Minnesota Counties                      217
+
+  INDEX                                                   219-223
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The history of the United States, according to newer views which have
+largely supplanted, or progressed beyond, those of the New England
+school of great historians, is the history of the march of a
+civilization, chiefly English, across the vast North American continent,
+within the short period of three hundred years. It is the story of the
+transformation of a wide-stretching wilderness--of an ever-advancing
+frontier--into great cities, diversified industries, varying social
+interests, and an intensely complex life. Wave upon wave of races of
+mankind has flowed over the developing and enlarging West, and each has
+left its impress on that area. Across the trail of the Indian and the
+trapper, the highway of the pioneer on his westward journey, have spread
+the tilled fields of the farmer, or along it has run the railroad. The
+farm has become a town-site and then a manufacturing city; the trading
+post at St. Paul and the village by the Falls of St. Anthony have
+expanded into the Twin Cities of the Northwest; the marshy prairie by
+the side of Lake Michigan, where the Indians fought around old Fort
+Dearborn, has come to be one of the world's mighty centers of urban
+population--and all this transformation within the memory of men now
+living.
+
+The progress of this rapid, titanic evolution of an empire was greatly
+accelerated by the desires, the strength, and the energy of multitudes
+of immigrants from Europe; and in at least six great commonwealths of
+the Northwest the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes have been among the
+chief contributors to State-building. During the eighty years ending in
+June, 1906, among the 24,000,000 immigrants who came to the United
+States, the Scandinavians numbered more than 1,700,000. Whether viewed
+as emigrations on the eastern shores of the Atlantic, or as immigrations
+on the western shores, these modern _Völkerwanderungen_ constitute one
+of the wonders of the social world, in comparison with which most of the
+other migrations in history are numerically insignificant. The
+Israelites marching out of Egypt were but a mass of released bond-men;
+the invasions of the Goths, Vandals, and Huns were conquering
+expeditions, full of boisterous, thoughtless, unforecasting energy. Even
+the immigration from Europe to America in the whole of the seventeenth
+century scarcely equalled in number the columns which moved westward in
+any one year from 1880 to 1890.
+
+In this flux of humanity, mobile almost to fluidity, various in promise
+of utility, shifting in proportions of the good and bad, of pauper,
+refugee, and fanatic, or "bird of passage", sweatshop man, and
+home-builder, there has been such an interplay of subtle and vast forces
+that no just and final appreciation can as yet be reached. But some sort
+of tentative conclusions may be arrived at by intensive study of each
+immigrant group, following it through years and generations, searching
+for its ramifications in the body politic and social.
+
+The student of this phase of American history must attempt the
+scientific method, and exercise the patience, of the student of physical
+nature. No geologist, for example, would think for a moment of
+generalizing as to the history and the future of a continent of
+complicated structure after a few examinations here and there of
+cross-sections of its strata. He must know from thoro-going observation
+the trend, thickness, and composition of each stratum; he must trace, if
+possible, the sources of the material which he finds metamorphosed; he
+must be familiar with the physical and the chemical forces at work in
+and on this material,--heat, pressure, movement, affinities, gases,
+water, wind, and sun. In like manner, the student of immigration as a
+whole, or of a section as large as that of the Scandinavians or
+Italians, must make careful discriminations as to previous conditions
+and influences, and also must notice carefully the differentiation of
+peoples, places, and times.
+
+Too much stress, however, should never be laid on the character of any
+one group of immigrants, lest it warp the judgment upon the immigration
+movement as a factor in American progress. The ardent political reformer
+in New York City, seeing the political activity of the Irish, and the
+easy, fraudulent enfranchisement of newly-arrived aliens, cries in a
+loud voice for restriction or prohibition of immigration. The California
+labor agitator, feeling chiefly the effect of Chinese efficiency in the
+labor market, would close the gates of the country to all the eastern
+nations. The social worker, knowing mainly and best the degradation of
+the Hungarians in the mines, or of the Hebrews in the sweatshops,
+prophesies naught but evil from foreign immigration. From an opposite
+point of view, when a man travels in leisurely fashion up and down
+Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, and finds a dozen race
+elements--English, German, Norwegian, or Russian--he begins to understand
+the real benefit to the nation of the coming of this vast, varied,
+peaceful army.[1] The scale of immigrants runs from the pauper or the
+diseased alien, awaiting deportation on Ellis Island in New York Harbor,
+to the rich Norwegian or German owning a thousand-acre farm in North
+Dakota, and to the millionaire Swedish lumberman or manufacturer of
+Wisconsin or Minnesota.
+
+  [1] Whelpley, _The Problem of the Immigrant_, I.
+
+For more than half a century, the United States has been almost a nation
+of immigrants, a mixture of races in the process of combination; upon
+the exact nature of this combination, whether it take the form of
+absorption, amalgamation, fusion, or assimilation, depends future
+political and social progress.
+
+The writer has for years felt a profound conviction of the vital
+importance of this whole problem of the alien, and a corresponding
+belief in the value of the investigation of each cohort in the national
+forces. Hence this attempt at a sympathetic study of the Scandinavian
+element in American life and of its contributions to the evolution of
+the Northern Mississippi Valley during the last sixty years.
+
+In such a study, the Norwegians, Swedes, and Danes, like all other
+citizens of foreign birth, must be judged by the character and
+preparation which best fit men to contribute to the permanent progress
+of a self-governing people. What are the signs of readiness for full
+Americanization? The fundamentals are manliness--Roman virility--,
+intelligence, and the capacity for co-operation, ennobled by "dignified
+self-respect, self-control, and that self-assertion and jealousy of
+encroachment which marks those who know their rights and dare maintain
+them";[2] devotion to law, order, and justice; and a ready acquiescence
+in the will of the majority duly expressed.[3]
+
+  [2] J. R. Commons, "Racial Composition of the American People,"
+      _Chautauquan_, XXXVIII, 35.
+
+  [3] R. Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_.
+
+Such qualities in America have been the especial possession of that
+sub-race of the Caucasian stock which the later ethnologists call the
+Baltic, in contradistinction to the co-ordinate sub-races, the Alpine,
+and the Mediterranean or Ligurian. This Baltic race has for centuries
+occupied the British Isles, the northern plains of Germany, and the
+North European peninsulas, being found in its purest state in Norway,
+Sweden, and Scotland. The people of this sub-race, asserts the writer of
+an admirable article on racial characteristics, are mentally
+"enterprising and persevering, and cheerfully dedicate most of their
+time and thought to work.... They are liberally gifted with those moral
+instincts which are highly favorable to the creation and growth of
+communities, altho not always so favorable to the individual who
+possesses them; they are altruistic, fearless, honest, sincere. They
+love order and cleanliness, and attach considerable importance to the
+dress and personal appearance of individuals."[4] While the other
+Caucasian sub-races do not lack these qualities, their most dominating
+characteristics are different; for example, one may exemplify the
+artistic or the idealistic side of human nature.
+
+  [4] G. Michaud, "What shall we be?", _Century_, LXV, 685.
+
+As related to the progress of civilization in America, all immigrants
+fall into three classes: those who powerfully re-enforce the strength
+and virtue of the nation, those who supplement its defects with
+desirable elements, and those who lower its standards and retard its
+advancement. Hence, those immigrants will be presumably the most
+desirable to America who come from the regions where the purest Baltic
+stock now exists, that is, north of a line running east and west through
+Brussels, and especially in north-central Germany and the Scandinavian
+peninsula.
+
+Measured by character and training, the Baltic race in America stands up
+well to the test, not only in the foreign-born alone, but in the second
+and third generation born on American soil. If generations of ignorance,
+mental inertia, social depression, political passivity, shiftlessness,
+and improvidence stretch behind the immigrant, if his religion be
+chiefly a superstition or strongly antagonistic to the principles of the
+Republic, and if he be physically inferior and long inured to the
+hardships of a low standard of living, just so far is he an undesirable
+addition to American population. But, on the other hand, if his homeland
+show a very low percentage of illiteracy; if his life has been saturated
+with the ideas of thrift and small economies; if he hold himself free
+from domination by priest, landlord, or king; and if his history be the
+story of a sturdy struggle for independence, he should be rated high and
+welcomed accordingly, for it is of such stuff that mighty nations are
+made.
+
+The student of Scandinavian immigration in the nineteenth century is not
+left to conjecture in his endeavor to estimate the probable result of
+the injection into American society of this foreign-born element. Before
+the second generation of English and Dutch settlers in America in the
+seventeenth century had grown to manhood, the Swedes began a colony upon
+the Delaware River; and their descendants are still a distinguishable
+part of the population of the lower Delaware valley. This beginning of
+Swedish immigration to America is particularly instructive because the
+settlements undertaken in the period of the Thirty Years War drew their
+recruits from the same classes of Swedish society as the movements of
+the nineteenth century, and developed under substantially similar
+conditions and along much the same lines.
+
+The Swede of the seventeenth century and the Swede of the nineteenth
+century are essentially one in character, for two hundred years have
+wrought less change in him than in his cousins of Germany and England.
+The accounts of Stockholm, its people and its surroundings, written in
+the early seventeenth century, might serve, with very little
+modification, to describe the large features of the Sweden and the
+Swedes of today. Great progress has of course been made in two
+centuries, but in political wisdom, high moral courage, and benevolent
+purpose, Gustavus Adolphus and his advisers were distinctly in advance
+of the first two English Stuarts and their courts.
+
+Perhaps no better illustration of this difference could be found than in
+the plans for the beginnings of the colonies on the James River and on
+the Delaware River. The scheme for a colony on the Delaware was
+originally outlined by the great Gustavus himself in 1624, but sterner
+duties took his energies; and after the fatal blow on the field of
+Lützen, it devolved on his daughter, Queen Christina, and her faithful
+minister, Oxenstjerna, to carry out his plan for establishing a colony
+which was to be "a blessing to the common man," a place for "a free
+people with wives," and not a mere commercial speculation or a haven for
+aristocratic adventurers and spendthrifts.[5]
+
+  [5] _Argonautica Gustaviana_, 3, 16.
+
+The first company of immigrants arrived in 1638, and year by year
+additions were received. So early as the middle of the seventeenth
+century, Sweden had a touch of the "America fever," and when an
+expedition left Gothenburg in 1654 with 350 souls on board, about a
+hundred families were left behind for want of room. Perhaps only the
+transfer of the colony, first to the Dutch and then to the English,
+prevented the Swedish immigration from attaining large proportions two
+and a half centuries ago. The Swedish flag floated over New Sweden
+notwithstanding the protests of both the Dutch and the English, until
+the conquest of the colony by Governor Stuyvesant in 1655, and then it
+disappeared from the map of America.
+
+In spite of threats, subjugation, and isolation, the prosperity of the
+early colony continued, and by the end of the seventeenth century it
+numbered nearly a thousand. No injustice in dealing with the Indians
+provoked a massacre, for these protégés of the Swedish crown, before
+William Penn was born, carefully and systematically extinguished by
+purchase the Indian titles to all the land on which they settled. Their
+piety and loyalty built the church and fort side by side, and long after
+they became subjects of the king of Great Britain they continued to
+receive their ministers from the mother church in Sweden. In fact,
+pastors commissioned from Stockholm did not cease their ministrations
+until they came speaking in a tongue no longer known to the children of
+New Sweden.
+
+This Swedish colony, planted thus in the midst of larger English
+settlements, continued for many generations to add its portion of good
+blood and good brains to a body of colonists in the New World, which too
+often needed sorely just these qualities. The Honorable Thomas F.
+Bayard, who lived long among their descendants, wrote in 1888: "I make
+bold to say that no better stock has been contributed (in proportion to
+its numbers) towards giving a solid basis to society under our
+republican forms, than these hardy, honest, industrious, law-abiding,
+God-fearing Swedish settlers on the banks of the Christiana in Delaware.
+While I have never heard of a very rich man among them, yet I have never
+heard of a pauper. I cannot recall the name of a statesman or a
+distinguished law-giver among them, nor of a rogue or a felon. As good
+citizens they helped to form what Mr. Lincoln called the plain people
+of the country,--and I have lived among their descendants and know that
+their civic virtues have been transmitted."[6]
+
+  [6] Mattson, _Souvenir of the 250th Anniversary of the First Swedish
+      Settlement in America_ (1888), 44.
+
+Their thrift and comfort and sobriety attracted the attention of Thomas
+Pascall, one of the Englishmen of Penn's first colony, who wrote in
+January, 1683: "They are generally very ingenious people, live well,
+they have lived here 40 years, and have lived much at ease having great
+plenty of all sorts of provisions, but they were but ordinarily
+cloathed; but since the English came they have gotten fine cloathes, and
+are going proud."[7] Penn himself declared: "They have fine children and
+almost every house full; rare to find one of them without three or four
+boys and as many girls; some six, seven and eight sons. And I must do
+them right--I see few young men more sober and industrious."[8]
+
+  [7] This letter, printed as a broadside in England about 1683, was
+      furnished me by Mr. George Parker Winship of the Carter Brown
+      Library of Providence, Rhode Island.
+
+  [8] Janney, _Life of William Penn_, 246-247.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SWEDES, NORWEGIANS, AND DANES
+
+
+The common use of the term Scandinavian to describe Swedes, Norwegians,
+and Danes in a broad and general way, is one of the products of the
+commingling of these three peoples on the American side of the Atlantic.
+The word really fits even more loosely than does the word British to
+indicate the English, Welsh and Scotch. It was applied early in the
+history of the settlements in Wisconsin and Illinois, to groups which
+comprised both Norwegians and Danes on the one hand, or Norwegians and
+Swedes on the other hand, when no one of the three nationalities was
+strong enough to maintain itself separately, and when the members of one
+were inclined, in an outburst of latent pride of nationality, not to say
+conceit of assumed superiority, to resent being called by one of the
+other names; for example, when a Norwegian objected to being taken for a
+Swede. Thus the Scandinavian Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church,
+organized in 1860, included both Norwegians and Danes; ten years later
+the name was changed to the Norwegian-Danish Conference; and in 1884 the
+differentiation was carried further, and the Danes formed a new Danish
+Evangelical Lutheran Church Association, supplementing the Danish
+Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, which dated back to 1871.
+
+Vigorous protests were made from time to time against the use of
+"Skandinavian" or "Skandinav." "Shall we Norwegians let the Danes
+persist in calling us Scandinavians?" wrote "Anti-Skandinavian" to the
+leading American Norwegian weekly of 1870.[9] He also quoted the
+sarcastic words of Ole Bull: "Scandinavia, gentlemen,--may I ask where
+that land lies? It is not found in my geography; does it lie perhaps in
+the moon?"[10] But the use and acceptability of the word steadily grew;
+the great daily paper in Chicago took the name _Skandinaven_; in 1889,
+the editor of _The North_ declared: "The term has become a household
+word ... universally understood in the sense in which we here use it (to
+designate the three nationalities)."[11]
+
+  [9] _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, May 12, 1870: "Skulle vi Norske lade
+      de Danske fremture i at kalde os Skandinaver?"
+
+  [10] "Skandinavien, mine Herrer, tör jeg spörge, hvor det Land ligger?
+       Det findes ikke i min Geografi; ligger det maaske i Maanen?" Ole
+       Bull, _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, May 12, 1870.
+
+  [11] _The North_, June 12, 1889.
+
+Ole Bull was, of course, right in saying that there is no Scandinavian
+language, no Scandinavian nation; but the ordinary reader or student
+does not recognize clearly that Sweden, Norway and Denmark have
+different spoken languages (though the Danish and Norwegian printed
+language is one), different traditions, as well as different
+governments. Almost while these words are being written, the coronation
+ceremony in the ancient cathedral at Throndhjem completes the process by
+which Norway is severed entirely from Sweden and again assumes among the
+powers of earth that "separate and equal station to which the laws of
+Nature and of Nature's God entitle them."
+
+The physique and characteristics of the three Scandinavian peoples have
+been profoundly affected by the physical features of the northern
+peninsulas; the mountains, fjords, and extensive coast lines of Norway,
+the level stretches, lakes, and regular coast of Sweden, and the low,
+sandy islands of Denmark find a counterpart in the varying types of men
+and women of those countries. The occupations which necessarily grew out
+of these differences of surface and soil tended to give to all a strong,
+sturdy, hardy body; farming naturally claims by far the largest
+percentage, though great numbers of the men yield to the call of the
+sea. Both Norway and Sweden have large lumbering interests, while Norway
+leads in fishing industries, Sweden in mining, and Denmark in dairying.
+
+Nature is no spendthrift in any part of the Scandinavian peninsulas;
+small economies are the alphabet of her teaching, and her lessons once
+learned are rarely forgotten. Her children of the North, therefore, down
+to the stolidest laborer, mountaineer, and fisherman, are generally
+industrious and frugal, and when they migrate to the American West, to
+enter upon the work of pioneering, with its stern requirements of
+endurance, patience, persistent endeavor, and thrift, they start out in
+the new life with decided temperamental advantages over most other
+immigrants, and even over most native-born Americans.
+
+Other characteristics common to these three peoples distinguish them
+strikingly from the South European. From their Viking ancestors they
+have inherited a love for adventure, a courage in facing the
+possibilities of the future. Their hatred of slavery, and their clear,
+high ideas of personal and political freedom, are strongly marked, and
+their peasantry is ranked highest on the continent.[12] Their
+adaptability to changes of clime, of conditions, of circumstance, has
+been remarkably demonstrated over and over again, in Normandy in the
+11th century, in Sicily in the 12th, and in America in the 19th; yet it
+has not degenerated into a facile yielding to moods and whims even under
+the rapid changes of New World society.
+
+  [12] N. S. Shaler, "European Peasants as Immigrants," _Atlantic_,
+       LXXI, 649.
+
+The typical Swede is aristocratic, fond of dignities, assertive: he is
+polite, vivacious, and bound to have a jolly time without troubling too
+much about the far future. Yet he is not afraid of hard work; he is
+persistent, ofttimes brilliant, and capable of great energy and
+endurance. He is notably fond of music, especially the singing of
+choruses and the opera, and the poetry of Bellman and the epics of
+Tegner belong to the great literature of the world.
+
+The Norwegian is above all democratic. He is simple, serious, intense,
+severe even to bluntness, often radical and visionary, and with a
+tendency to disputatiousness.[13] There is an unmeasured quantity of
+passion and imagination in him, as there are unmeasured stores of power
+and beauty in the snows of his mountains and the waters of his coast. He
+has the capacity for high and strenuous endeavor, even verging on the
+turbulent, but he rarely has developed the qualities of a great leader.
+Like the Swede, the Norwegian is fond of music, but it is of a different
+sort. Both in his music and in his literature, the dramatic element is
+strong; no names in the realm of literature of the last generation stand
+higher than those of Ibsen and Björnson, who are first cosmopolitan and
+then Norwegian.
+
+  [13] N. P. Haugen comments on the good and bad features of this
+       tendency in his Norway Day speech at the World's Columbian
+       Exposition. _Skandinaven_, May 24, 1893.
+
+The Dane is the Southerner of the Scandinavians, but still a
+conservative. He is gay, but not to excess; the healthiness and jollity
+of a Copenhagen crowd are things to covet. He is pre-eminently a small
+farmer or trader, honest and persevering, ready and easy-going, and
+altho not given to great risks, he is quick to see a bargain and shrewd
+in making it. Of self-confidence and enterprise he manifests a decided
+lack.[14] His country is small, open on all sides, and near to great
+Powers; his interests, therefore, have led him out from his peninsula
+and islands, and foreign influences have more affected him than they
+have his neighbors across the Sound and the Skager Rack. His best work
+in literature and art has been done under strong Romantic and classic
+impulses from the South.
+
+  [14] Borchner, _Danish Life in Town and Country_, 3-6; Bille, _History
+       of the Danes in America_, 1, 7, 8.
+
+Such being the qualities of the peoples of Sweden, Denmark and Norway,
+the conditions of life and society in those countries in the first half
+of the nineteenth century seem on close examination quite unlikely to
+produce a great emigration, in comparison with conditions in other
+countries from which large numbers of men and women migrated to America.
+There were no great social, economic, or political upheavals sufficient
+to cause the exodus of any class; religious intolerance and persecution
+were, with few minor exceptions, neither active nor severe. The
+Napoleonic wars did not depopulate these northern lands, nor did they,
+like their sister nations to the south, suffer seriously from the
+commercial restrictions of the Emperor of the French. Militarism did not
+crush them with its weight of lead and steel and its terrible waste of
+productive energy. Political oppression and proscription, so marked in
+the affairs of central and western European states down to 1850, were
+not features of the history of Norway, Sweden or Denmark. Though Norway
+protested in 1814 in no uncertain terms against the union with Sweden in
+a dual monarchy, she was, under the constitution of that year, one of
+the freest nations of Europe, "a free, individual, indivisible kingdom."
+In Sweden before 1840, one of the chief restrictions on the individual
+was potential rather than actual: a man who wished to leave the kingdom
+must have a passport from the king, for which he had to pay 300 kroner
+(about $81). He would also be under the close supervision of the state
+church, to which he was expected to belong.
+
+There were, however, conditions in the home-lands as well as in America,
+which impelled immigration. Anyone who has travelled over the fertile
+prairies of the Mississippi valley and then through Norway or Sweden,
+will often wonder that so many people have been content to remain so
+long in the older Scandinavia. In Norway there were in 1910, in round
+numbers, 2,390,000 people on an area of 124,000 square miles.[15] Of
+this population, about 425,000 were gathered in the larger towns, and
+250,000 were in the smaller towns, making a total urban population of
+29%, over against 21% twenty years before. The remainder were scattered
+over the vast mountainous country or along the coast-line of three
+thousand miles.[16] Thousands of fishermen's huts are grappled
+barnacle-like to the rocks, while behind them along a trickling thread
+of water stretches a precious hand-breadth of soil. The greater part of
+the interior is one wide furrowed plateau, in whose hollows, by lakes
+and streams, thrifty farmers skilfully utilize their few square yards
+of tillable land and pasture their cattle on the steep slopes. Save
+around Lake Mjösen, the Leir, Vos, and Throndhjem, there can scarcely be
+found in all Norway anything like a broad rich meadow. The farm products
+are almost literally mined from the rocks. "It is by dogged, persistent,
+indomitable toil and endurance, backed up in some cases by irrepressible
+daring, that the Norwegian peasant and fisher-folk--three-fourths of the
+population--carry on with any show of success their struggle against iron
+nature."[17] Yet in spite of such adverse conditions, these people have
+ever clung with passionate tenacity to their mountainous storm-beaten
+Norway, and by it have been made brave without bitterness, hardy without
+harshness, strong yet tender.
+
+  [15] _Statesman's Year-Book, 1914_, 1141 ff.
+
+  [16] In 1880, 20% lived in towns; in 1890, 23.7% lived in towns, and
+       76.3% in the rural districts. _Norway_ (English edition of the
+       official volume prepared for the Paris Exhibition of 1900), 90.
+
+  [17] Wm. Archer, "Norway Today," _Fortnightly Rev._, XLIV, 415.
+
+In Sweden the physical conditions are decidedly different. The area of
+172,900 square miles supports a population of 5,600,000 (1912), of whom
+50% dwell in cities of which there are now thirty with more than 10,000,
+Stockholm leading with 350,000. The urban population increased 166%
+between 1871 and 1912.[18] There are few lofty mountains and no jagged
+peaks, majestically dominating the outlook; the crag-set fjords are
+replaced by gentler bays and sounds sprinkled with beautiful islands; in
+some parts of the country, as in Wermland and Smaaland, are low and
+marshy sections, where, according to legend, the Lord forgot to separate
+the land and water. Agricultural conditions are less hard and means of
+communication are better than in Norway; closer relations exist between
+provinces and between parishes; information is more readily diffused,
+and gatherings of considerable size are held without particular
+difficulty.
+
+  [18] _Statesman's Year-Book, 1914_, 1316. The increase of urban
+       population was five times the increase of the kingdom.
+
+Denmark more closely resembles Sweden than Norway, and is in still
+better touch with the larger world than either of the others. With an
+area of about 15,000 square miles,--Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and
+Connecticut, combined--it held in 1911 a population of 2,775,000.
+Copenhagen and its suburbs had a population of 560,000. The urban
+population was 26%. Unlike the other two, Denmark has several important
+colonies in other parts of the world.[19]
+
+  [19] _Statesman's Year-Book, 1914_, 789 ff.
+
+In all three countries, as in the rest of Europe, changes in commercial,
+industrial, social, legal, and religious matters were sure to be slow.
+The tenure and succession in lands, the limited market for labor, the
+relatively small opportunity for initiative, especially for the younger
+members of considerable families,--all of these conditions with the
+characteristics already described, lent added attractiveness to the call
+of the American West.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+EARLY NORWEGIAN IMMIGRATION.
+
+
+     "Arrived last evening" (October 9, 1825).
+
+     "Danish Sloop Restoration, Holland, 98 days from Norway, via Long
+     Island Sound, with iron to Boorman and Johnson, 52 passengers."[20]
+
+     "The vessel is very small, measuring, as we understand, only about
+     360 Norwegian lasts, or 45 American tons, and brought 46
+     passengers, male and female, all bound for Ontario County, where an
+     agent who came over sometime since, purchased a tract of land."[21]
+
+  [20] _The New York Evening Post_, Oct. 10, 1825.
+
+  [21] _The New York Daily Advertiser_, Oct. 12, 1825.
+
+These ordinary shipping notices in the newspapers of New York City, and
+several other similar paragraphs, are the first entries in the
+chronicles of the newer Scandinavian immigration to the United States.
+From the cessation of Swedish immigration in the seventeenth century
+down to 1825, no considerable companies made the long journey from the
+Northlands to America, tho adventurous fellows in twos and threes came
+now and then, men who misliked the humdrum life in the old parishes,
+with its narrow opportunity and outlook, men who found the sea the only
+highway to novelty and a possible fortune.[22] Now, at last, the coming
+of a company of some size, from Norway, adding one more to the
+lengthening list of nationalities which contributed to the complex
+population of the United States, attracted more than passing
+attention.[23] That the sloop was not Danish, and that there is some
+discrepancy in the number of passengers--(and crew?)--and in the number of
+days in the voyage, are minor matters and easily accounted for; the New
+Yorker of 1825 could hardly be expected to distinguish clearly between
+Danes and Norwegians, when the people of the Northwest at the present
+time apply the name Swede indiscriminately to Swedes, Danes, Norwegians,
+Finns, and Icelanders. But back of the arrival of this little sloopful
+of Norwegians, is a story of motive, organization, and movement, more or
+less characteristic of Scandinavian immigration during the next two
+generations. The two main elements are: conditions in Norway and the
+United States, and the personal activities of one of the adventurous
+fellows already referred to.
+
+  [22] Interview with Capt. O. C. Lange (who reached America in 1824) in
+       Chicago, 1890; Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 1.
+
+  [23] _Niles' Register_, XXIX., 115. Several extended quotations from
+       newspapers in New York, Boston, and Baltimore, for the month of
+       October, 1825, relating to this company of the sloop
+       "Restoration", indicating the interest created by its coming, are
+       printed in Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 69-76.
+
+In the region about Stavanger, in southwestern Norway, in 1825, there
+had been for some time a feeling of discontent with the religious
+conditions of the country, and a tendency to formal dissent from the
+established church. The direction of this tendency and the definition
+of the movement were vitally influenced by certain zealous and
+philanthropic Quaker missionaries from England, Stephen Grellet and
+William Allen, who visited Norway in 1818. Grellet was a French nobleman
+who sought refuge in the United States during the French Revolution, and
+there united himself with the Quakers or Friends. After residing in
+America for twelve years, he began making tours through Europe to
+propagate Quaker ideas, even obtaining an interview with the Pope, which
+he describes in his diary. The visit to Norway was in furtherance of his
+general plan. While his account of his stay in Norway does not make any
+mention of America, it is impossible to believe that no reference to
+America and to the conditions of the Friends in that part of the world,
+where he himself found refuge, crept into the conferences which he held
+around Stavanger, and that no seeds of desire to seek the New World were
+sown in the slow-moving minds of the Norwegian peasants whom he met.[24]
+
+  [24] Grellet, _Memoirs_, I, 321 ff.
+
+As dissenters from the established church, these Quakers were
+continually subject to actual or threatened pains and penalties, in
+addition to those troubles which might arise from their refusal to take
+oaths and to render military service. Their children and those of other
+dissenters must he baptised and confirmed in the Lutheran Church; they
+must themselves attend its services and pay taxes for its support, or
+suffer fines or other punishment for failing so to do. Tho prosecutions,
+or persecutions, were really few before 1830, an episode now and then
+showed the dissenters what might be in store for them if they persisted,
+as when one of the Quakers was arrested in 1821 for burying his children
+in unconsecrated ground, and fined five specie dollars a day until he
+re-bury them in consecrated ground, and agree to follow the outward
+ceremonies and customs of the state church.[25] Two years before one of
+the Friends wrote: "There are no laws yet made in favor of Friends, so
+that those who stand firm in their principles act contrary to the laws
+of the country. Friends must be resigned to take the consequences."[26]
+With signs of persecution, with an increase of discontent, and with the
+leadership of a man possessed of first-hand knowledge about the United
+States, it is not surprising that emigration was decided upon.
+
+  [25] Richardson, _Rise and Progress of the Society of Friends in
+       Norway_, 37.
+
+  [26] _Ibid._, 23.
+
+Kleng Peerson, called also Kleng Pederson and Person Hesthammer, was a
+man of dubious character, who has been variously described. One has
+called him the "Father of the Newer Norwegian Immigration" and as such
+entitled to a chapter by himself; another has written him down as a
+tramp.[27] A softer characterization, however, makes of him a "Viking
+who was born some centuries after the Viking period."[28] He appears to
+have been a sort of Quaker, either from conscience or convenience. His
+leaving his home parish of Skjold near Stavanger, and his emigration to
+the United States in 1821 in company with another Norwegian, are
+attributed to motives ranging from a commission from the Quakers to find
+a refuge for them in America, to a desire to escape the rich old widow
+whom he married, and who was tired of supporting him in idleness.[29]
+Certain it is that upon his return to Norway in 1824, after three years
+of experience in the New World, the sentiment favoring emigration from
+Stavanger soon crystallized.
+
+  [27] R. B. Anderson, "En Liden Indledning" in the series of articles
+       "Bidrag til vore Settlementers og Menigheders Historie,"
+       _Amerika_, April 4, 1894. Bothne, _Kort Udsigt over det Lutherske
+       Kirkearbeide bladnt Normændene i Amerika_, 822.
+
+  [28] O. N. Nelson, "Bemerkning til Prof. Andersons Indledning",
+       _Amerika_, May 2, 1894.
+
+  [29] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 134 B-C.
+
+By midsummer of 1825 a company of fifty-two persons, mostly Quakers from
+the parish of Skjold, was ready to journey to America. They purchased a
+sloop and a small cargo of iron which would serve as ballast and which
+might bring them profit in New York, tho this was probably a secondary
+matter.[30] On the 4th of July, 1825, they set sail from Stavanger, and
+after a somewhat circuitous voyage of fourteen weeks, which was not very
+long, as such voyages went, they made their landing in New York, October
+9th, numbering fifty-three instead of fifty-two, for a daughter was born
+to Lars Larson on shipboard.[31] This landing of the "Sloop Folk" of the
+"Restoration," whose story is a favorite and oft-told one with the older
+Norwegian immigrants, is occasionally likened to the Landing of the
+Pilgrim Fathers who fled to a wilderness to escape persecution and to
+seek social and religious freedom; but on close examination the
+comparison breaks down at almost every point,--motive, objective, method
+and result.[32]
+
+  [30] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 11.
+
+  [31] C. A. Thingvold gives a list of the names of the "Sloop Folk,"
+       save four, which he obtained from one of the survivors, in
+       "The First Norwegian Immigration to America," _The North_,
+       Aug. 10, 1892.
+
+  [32] J. B. Wist, _Den Norske Invandring til 1850_, published about
+       1890, ventures to question seriously whether such a company ever
+       came to the United States! His reason is that the clearance
+       records of Stavanger show no such name as the "Restauration,"
+       and American statistics give the total Scandinavian immigration
+       as 35, of whom 14 are credited to Norway.
+
+In New York the captain and mate of the "Restoration" were arrested for
+having more passengers than the Federal law allowed--two passengers to
+each five tons of the vessel. Having an excess of twenty, the sloop was
+legally forfeited to the United States.[33] However, for some unknown
+reason, the offenders were released and allowed to dispose of their
+cargo. The original cost of ship and cargo appears to have been about
+$1950, but both were sold for $400. This inadequate sum was supplemented
+by the generosity of the Quakers of New York, whose contributions and
+assistance enabled the "Sloop Folk" to proceed inland to Western New
+York.
+
+  [33] _Statutes of the United States, 1819_, Act of March 2.
+
+They took up land in Kendall and Orleans County on the shores of Lake
+Ontario, about thirty-five miles northeast of the new town of Rochester
+in which two of the families decided to remain. The price of the land
+was $5 per acre, and each man was to take about 40 acres; but as they
+were without cash, they agreed to pay for their farms in ten annual
+instalments. The reasons for selecting this region are not difficult to
+surmise, tho there is no direct proof of the motive. The country around
+Rochester was, in 1825, in the midst of a sort of Western "boom"; the
+Erie Canal was just finished, and the prospects of Rochester were very
+promising.[34] Its population grew quite marvelously; in September,
+1822, it was 2700; in February, 1825, 4274; and in December of the same
+year, nearly 8,000.[35]
+
+  [34] "Rochester is celebrated all over the Union as presenting one
+       of the most striking instances of rapid increase in size and
+       population, of which the country affords an example." Capt.
+       Basil Hall, _Travels in North America_, I, 153.
+
+  [35] _Ibid._, I, 155.
+
+The first five years of the little colony were full of hardships and
+suffering. It was November of 1825 when they reached their destination;
+the country was all new and thinly settled; their own land was wild and
+could be cleared only with difficulty; and nothing could be grown upon
+it before the following summer. Just one man among them, Lars Larson,
+understood any English. By united efforts several families built a
+log-house, where the winter was spent in a most crowded condition, worse
+even than the three months in the close quarters of the "Restoration".
+The only employment by which they could earn anything was threshing with
+a flail in the primitive fashion of the time, and the wages consisted of
+the eleventh bushel threshed. With these scanty earnings and the help of
+kindly neighbors, they passed the dismal winter in a strange land. "They
+often suffered great need, and wished themselves back in Norway, but
+they saw no possibility of reaching Norway without sacrificing the last
+mite of their property, and they would not return as beggars."[36] But
+at length time, patience, and their own strength and diligence gave them
+a foothold. The land was cleared and produced enough to support them. A
+five years' apprenticeship made them masters of the situation; and when
+at last they had the means to return to the parish of Skjold, the desire
+had gradually faded out. Instead of re-migration, they were persuading
+others to join them in the New World.
+
+  [36] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 15.
+
+But the New Norway, or the New Scandinavia, was not to be located in the
+Middle Atlantic States, though a beginning was made in Delaware and in
+New York. Land was too dear around the older settlements even at $5 per
+acre; the promised land was shifted to northern Indiana and northern
+Illinois, where fine prairie tracts which needed no clearing could be
+had for $1.25 per acre and upwards. And into these newer regions went
+the settler and the land speculator, sometimes in one and the same
+person. Schemes for internal improvement sprouted on every side, and
+canal-building was much discussed as the best means of providing cheap
+transportation.[37] One of these projects was for a canal from Lake
+Michigan to the Illinois River, for which a land grant was made in 1827.
+This canal would bring great prosperity to northern Illinois, it was
+argued, just as the Erie Canal had developed central and western New
+York; the price of land would go up, markets would be accessible, and
+speculator and farmer would reap rich rewards.
+
+  [37] Ackerman, _Early Illinois Railroads_ (No. 23, _Fergus Hist.
+       Ser._), 19, quoting an editorial from the _Sangamo Journal_,
+       Oct. 31, 1835: "We rejoice to witness the spirit of internal
+       improvement now manifesting itself in every part of Illinois."
+
+Nor was this argument based entirely on theory, for halfway to the East,
+in Indiana, this progressive realization was in full blast. Harriet
+Martineau travelled through this part of the West in 1836, and noted
+with the eye of an acute and experienced observer, the rapid rise in
+values of farms. She estimated that a settler, judiciously selecting his
+land in the Northwest, would find it doubled in a single year, and cites
+the case of a farmer near LaPorte, Indiana, whose 800 acres, costing
+him $1.25 per acre three years before, had become worth $40 per
+acre--probably not a unique example of prosperity.[38] With these visions
+before them, many men moved from western New York, and along the line of
+the proposed canal in Illinois grew up hamlets bearing the names
+familiar along the great Erie Canal,--Troy, Seneca, Utica, and Lockport.
+
+  [38] Martineau, _Society in America_, I, 247, 259, 336.
+
+Among those attracted thither, was Kleng Peerson, who again served,
+perhaps without deliberate planning, as a scout for his Quaker
+friends.[39] On his return to the Orleans County settlers, he convinced
+them that a better future would open to them in Illinois, and in the
+spring of 1834 some of the families moved into the West and began the
+so-called Fox River settlement in the town of Mission near Ottawa, La
+Salle County, Illinois. By 1836 nearly all the Norwegians of the New
+York colony had removed to the West, and several tracts of land were
+taken up in the towns of Mission, Miller, and Rutland. The sections
+located seem to have been unsurveyed at the time of the first
+settlement, for no purchases are recorded until 1835.[40] Henceforth
+most of the immigration from Norway was turned toward the prairie
+country, and whole companies of prospective settlers after 1836 went
+directly to the Fox River nucleus, for the region thereabouts had the
+double advantage of being at once comparatively easy of access and in
+the most fertile and promising region in which government land could be
+had at the minimum price.
+
+  [39] "I have complete evidence that he visited La Salle County,
+       Illinois, as early as 1833." Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_,
+       172.
+
+  [40] _Ibid._, 174, 176 ff.
+
+In its new location, the twice transplanted colony of "Sloop Folk" was
+reasonably prosperous from the start, tho the panic of 1837 made
+impossible any realization of Miss Martineau's roseate estimate of
+probable profits. No further move of the original immigrants was made,
+and the Fox River Valley is still occupied by the well-to-do descendants
+of the Norwegian settlers of the thirties.
+
+As a preliminary to further immigration from the three countries of
+Northern Europe, a definite knowledge of America and its opportunities
+must be developed among the peasants, and a desire to remove themselves
+thither must be awakened and stimulated. To whole communities in Norway,
+made up of simple, circumscribed people, America about 1835 was an
+undiscovered country, or at best a far-off land from which no traveller
+had ever come, and from which no letters were received; the name itself,
+if known at all, was a recent addition to their vocabulary. Ole
+Nattestad, one of the early immigrants, who was decently educated for
+his time and more experienced in the world than the majority of his
+neighbors, relates how he first heard of America in 1836, when he was a
+man thirty years old.[41]
+
+  [41] _Billed Magazin_, I, 83.
+
+The leavening process went on but slowly from 1825 to 1836, for the
+story of the early experiences of the little company of dissenters,
+obscure persons from an obscure parish, if known at all, was not likely
+to inspire others to follow in large numbers. With increasing prosperity
+in the Rochester, and later in the Fox River, colony, the tone of
+letters sent back to friends in Norway took a new ring: America came to
+mean opportunity, and now there were men speaking the Norwegian tongue
+to whom newcomers might go for instruction, advice, and encouragement.
+Old settlers still bear witness to the great influence of these letters
+of the thirties telling of American experiences and of American
+conditions. Among the most influential of these semi-conscious
+propagandists of emigration was Gjert G. Hovland, who came to the
+Rochester settlement with his family in 1831, and bought fifty acres of
+land, which after four years of cultivation he sold at a profit of $500.
+Writing to a friend near Stavanger in 1835, he spoke in terms of high
+praise of American legislation, equality, and liberty, contrasting it
+with the extortion of the Norwegian official aristocracy. He counseled
+all who could to come to America, as the Creator had nowhere forbidden
+men to settle where they pleased.[42] Of this and other letters by
+Hovland, copies were made by the hundred and circulated in the Norwegian
+parishes, and many of the early immigrants have stated that they were
+induced to emigrate by reading these letters.[43] Another man whose
+words prompted to emigration, was Gudmund Sandsberg, who came to New
+York in 1829 with a family of four.[44]
+
+  [42] Translated from Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 16n. This
+       writer summarizes a letter of which he saw a copy as a young
+       man in Norway.
+
+  [43] _Ibid._; Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 147.
+
+  [44] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 133.
+
+These letters scattered through western Norway from 1830 to 1840, were
+as seed sown in good ground. Times were hard; money was scarce and its
+value fluctuating.[45] The crops were often short, the prices of grain
+were high, and the demand for the labor of the peasants was weak; the
+economic conditions of the lower classes, especially in the rural
+districts--much the greater part of the country--were growing worse rather
+than better.[46] Even the oldest son, who was heir to his father's
+homestead, was likely to find himself possessed of a debt-burdened
+estate and with the necessity of providing for the mother and numerous
+younger children.[47] The younger sons, being still worse off, were
+forced to try their hands at various occupations to earn a bare living.
+Ole Nattestad, already mentioned, was by turns before his emigration
+farmer, peddler, blacksmith, and sheep-buyer.[48] To many a man with a
+large family of growing children the possibility of disaster in the
+United States was less forbidding than the probability of ultimate
+failure in Norway.
+
+  [45] _Billed Magazin_, I, 18-19. Of the year 1836, one writer asserts:
+       "En Daler ei gjældt mere end to norske Skilling," and that many
+       lost all their property.
+
+  [46] In Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 133-135, is a translation
+       of a letter written in Hellen in Norway, May 14, 1836: "If good
+       reports come from them (certain emigrants about to sail) the
+       number of emigrants will doubtless be still larger next year.
+       A pressing and general lack of money enters into every branch of
+       business, stops, or at least hampers business, and makes it
+       difficult for many people to earn the necessaries of life. While
+       this is the case on this side of the Atlantic, there is hope of
+       abundance on the other, and this, I take it, is the chief cause
+       of this growing disposition to emigrate."
+
+  [47] _Billed Magazin_, I, 6 ff.
+
+  [48] _Ibid._, I, 83.
+
+But not to occasional letters alone was the peasant,--and the emigration
+movement--to be left for information and inspiration. Young men who had
+prospered in the new life returned to the homesteads of their fathers
+and became, temporarily, missionaries of the new economic gospel,
+teaching leisurely but effectively by word of mouth and face to face,
+instead of by written lines at long range. One such man was Knud A.
+Slogvig, who returned to his home in Skjold in 1835 after ten years in
+America, not as an emigrant agent nor as a propagandist, but as a lover
+to marry his betrothed,--an early example which thousands of young
+Scandinavians in the years to come were to follow gladly.[49] Whatever
+may have been the results of his visit to Slogvig personally, they were
+of far-reaching importance to the emigration movement in western Norway.
+From near and from far, from Stavanger, from Bergen and vicinity, and
+from the region about Christiansand, people came during the long
+northern winter, to talk with this experienced and worldly-wise man
+about life in New York or in Illinois--or, in their own phrase, "i
+Amerika." There before them at last, was a man who had twice braved all
+the terrors of thousands of miles of sea and hundreds of miles of
+far-distant land, who had come straight and safe from that fabulous vast
+country, with its great broad valleys and prairies, with its strange
+white men, and stranger red men. The "America fever" contracted in
+conferences with Slogvig and men of his kind, was hard to shake off.[50]
+
+  [49] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 148.
+
+  [50] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 18; _Billed
+       Magazin_, I, 83. Langeland writes: "Tre af Nedskriverens
+       Paarörende, som reiste fra Bergen i 1837, var blandt dem, som i
+       Vinteren 1836 besögte ham, og kom hjem fulde af Amerikafeber."
+
+The accounts of America given by this emigrant visitor were so
+satisfactory, that when he prepared to go back to the United States in
+1836, a large party was ready to go with him. Instead of the fifty-two
+who slipped out of Stavanger, half-secretly in 1825, there were now
+about 160, for whose accommodation two brigs, _Norden_ and _Den Norske
+Klippe_, were specially fitted out.[51] The increased size of this party
+was doubtless due in some measure to discontent with the religious
+conditions of the kingdom, but more to the activity of Björn Anderson
+Kvelve, who desired to escape the consequences of his sympathy with
+Quakerism, and of the marriage which he, the son of a peasant, had
+contracted with the daughter of an aristocratic, staunchly Lutheran
+army officer.[52] Being, as his son admits, "a born agitator and
+debater"--others have called him quarrelsome,--he persuaded several of his
+friends to join the party, and he soon became its leader.[53] The
+greater part of the two ship-loads, after arrival in New York, went
+directly to La Salle County, Illinois, a few stopping in or near
+Rochester. For several years after the arrival of this party, the
+immigrants from Norway generally directed their course towards the
+Illinois settlement, which, as a result, grew rapidly and spread into
+the neighboring towns of Norway, Leland, Lisbon, Morris, and Ottawa.
+
+  [51] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 18; _Billed
+       Magazin_, I, 83, 150 (Nattestad's account).
+
+  [52] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 157 ff; _Madison
+       Democrat_ (Wis.), Nov. 8, 1885.
+
+  [53] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 155.
+
+The actual process of migration from Norway to Illinois or Wisconsin was
+full of serious difficulty, and to be entered upon by those only who
+possessed a strong determination and a stout heart. The dangers,
+discomforts, and hardships which everywhere attended immigration before
+1850, were made even more trying, in prospect, by the weird stories of
+wild Indians, slave-hunters, and savage beasts on land and sea, all of
+which were thoroly believed by the peasants. Moreover, the church took a
+hand to prevent emigration, the bishop of Bergen issuing a pastoral
+letter on the theme: "Bliv i Landet, ernær dig redelig." (Remain in the
+land and support thyself honestly.)[54] Until a much later time, no port
+of Norway or Sweden had regular commercial intercourse with the United
+States, and only by rare chance could passage be secured from Bergen or
+some southern port direct to New York or Boston. The usual course for
+those desiring passage to America was to go to some foreign port and
+there wait for a ship; it was good luck if accommodation were secured
+immediately and if the expensive waiting did not stretch out two or
+three weeks. The port most convenient for the Norwegians was Gothenburg
+in Sweden, from which cargoes of Swedish iron were shipped to America;
+from that place most of the emigrants before 1840 departed, tho some
+went by way of Hamburg, Havre, or an English port.
+
+  [54] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 22. He naïvely remarks
+       that the Scandinavians have preferred to follow that other text:
+       "Be fruitful ... replenish the earth."
+
+Long after 1850, the immigrants came by sailing vessels because the
+rates were, on the whole, cheaper than by steamer; those men who had
+large families were especially urged to take the sailing craft.[55]
+The days of emigrant agents, through-tickets, and capacious and
+comparatively comfortable steerage quarters in great ocean liners were
+far in the future; the usual accommodations were poor and unsanitary;
+the danger from contagious diseases, scurvy, and actual famine were very
+real, especially if the voyage, long at the best, was prolonged to four
+and perhaps five months.[56] The cost of passage varied greatly
+according to accommodations and according to the port of departure.
+Sometimes the passage charge included food, bedding, and other
+necessaries, but usually the passengers were required to furnish these.
+One company of about 85 in 1837 paid $60 for each adult, and half fare
+for children, from Bergen to New York.[57] In the same year another
+company of 93 paid $31 for each adult from Stavanger to New York,
+without board; still another, numbering about 100, paid $33 1-3 for each
+adult passenger from Drammen in Norway to New York; the Nattestad
+brothers paid $50 from Gothenburg to Boston.[58] In 1846, a large party
+went to Havre, and paid $25 for passage to New York.[59] The extreme
+figures, therefore, seem to be about $30 and $60 for passage between one
+of the Scandinavian ports and New York or Boston. When the cost of
+transportation from the Atlantic seaboard to Illinois and Wisconsin is
+added to these figures, it will be plain that a considerable sum of
+ready cash, as well as strength and courage, was necessary for
+undertaking the transplantation of a whole family from a Norwegian
+valley in the mountains to an Illinois prairie.
+
+  [55] _Billed Magazin_, I, 123-124.
+
+  [56] Interview with the late Rev. O. C. Hjort of Chicago, July, 1890,
+       whose party spent five months on the sea.
+
+  [57] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 25--"saavidt nu erindres."
+
+  [58] _Billed Magazin_, I, 9, 94.
+
+  [59] _Ibid._, I, 388.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE RISING STREAM OF NORWEGIAN IMMIGRATION.
+
+
+The second period of Norwegian immigration, extending from 1836 to 1850,
+is marked by the strengthening and deepening of the emigration impulse
+in Norway and by its spread to new districts, and also by the deflection
+of the course of the rising stream in the United States. Not merely in
+the vicinity of Stavanger, from which a second party, made up of 93
+persons from Egersund, followed the wake of the first and reached
+Illinois in 1837, but from Bergen and in the districts near it, the
+"America fever" was spreading. The letters of Hovland circulated there,
+and at least three men journeyed to interview Slogvig. Knud Langeland,
+whose little book on the Northmen in America is frequently quoted in
+these pages, relates how, as a young man of sixteen, his imagination was
+fired by reading a small volume written by a German and entitled
+_Journey in America_, which he discovered in the library of a friend in
+Bergen in 1829; how he read eagerly for several years everything which
+he could lay hands on relating to America; and how he gathered all
+possible information about the emigration from England, during a visit
+to that country in 1834--and then became himself an immigrant.[60]
+
+  [60] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 20-21. See Cobbett, _The
+       Emigrant's Guide_ (London, 1829), a typical English guide book
+       of the period.
+
+By 1837 a goodly number were determined to emigrate, and had disposed of
+their holdings of land. A way opened for them to make the long voyage
+under especially favorable circumstances. Captain Behrens, owner and
+commander of the ship _Ægir_, on his return to Bergen in the autumn of
+1836, learned that a large party wanted transportation to America. In
+New York he had seen vessels fitted up for the English and German
+immigrant traffic; he had learned the requirement, of the laws of the
+United States on the subject; two German ministers who returned to
+Europe in his ship, gave him further information. He therefore fitted up
+his vessel for passengers, and carried out his contract to transport to
+New York the party which finally numbered 84, being mainly made up of
+married men each with "numerous family," at least one of which counted
+eight persons.[61] From New York the company proceeded to Detroit, where
+they were joined by the two Nattestad brothers from Numedal, and from
+thence they went by water to Chicago.
+
+  [61] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 25 ff.
+
+Their original intention was to go to the La Salle County settlement,
+but in Chicago they met some of the Fox River people, Björn Anderson
+among others, who gave such an unfavorable account of conditions in that
+colony that the majority determined to seek another location. At the
+instigation of certain Americans, presumably land speculators, a
+prospecting party of four, including Ole Rynning, one of the leading
+spirits of the company, went into the region directly south of Chicago
+and finally chose a site on Beaver Creek. Thither about fifty immigrants
+went, and began the third Norwegian settlement, which proved to be the
+most unfortunate one in the history of Norwegian immigration. Log huts
+were built and the winter passed without unusual hardships, tho it was
+soon evident that a mistake was made in settling so far from neighbors
+and from a base of supplies at that time of the year when the soil
+produced nothing. Serious troubles, however, developed with the spring,
+and grew with the summer. The land which appeared so dry and so
+well-covered with good grass when it was selected and purchased in
+August or September, proved to be so swampy that cultivation was
+impossible before June. Malaria attacked the settlers, and as they were
+beyond the reach of medical aid, nearly two-thirds of them died before
+the end of the summer. The remnant of the colony fled as for their
+lives, regardless of houses and lands, and scarcely one of them
+remained on the ground by the end of 1838.[62]
+
+  [62] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 30 ff; Anderson, _Norwegian
+       Immigration_, 195 ff.
+
+One of the victims of these hard experiences was Ole Rynning, who
+succumbed to fever in the autumn of 1838. Tho in America scarcely a year
+and a half, he is one of the uniquely important figures in the history
+of Norwegian immigration. The son of a curate in Ringsaker in central
+Norway, and himself dedicated by his parents to the church, he passed
+the examinations for entrance to the University of Christiania, but
+turned aside to teaching in a private school near Throndhjem for four
+years before his emigration.[63] He is invariably spoken of as a man of
+generous, philanthropic spirit, genuinely devoted to the human needs of
+his fellow immigrants.
+
+  [63] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 203-205; Langeland,
+      _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 31. Much information regarding
+      Rynning was derived from the Rev. B. J. Muus, of Minnesota,
+      a nephew of Rynning.
+
+Having learned by personal observation in America the answers to many of
+the questions which he, as a man of education, had asked himself in
+Norway, he took advantage of the confinement following the freezing of
+his feet during a long exploring tour in Illinois, to write a little
+book of some forty pages, to which he gave the title (in translation):
+"A true Account of America, for the Instruction and Use of the Peasants
+and Common people, written by a Norwegian who arrived there in the Month
+of June, 1837."[64] The manuscript of this first of many guidebooks for
+Norwegian emigrants was taken back to Norway by Ansten Nattestad and
+printed in Christiania in 1838.[65] It plays so large a part in a great
+movement, that a detailed analysis is worth presenting.
+
+  [64] Sandfærdig Beretning om Amerika til Veiledning og Hjælp for
+       Bonde og Menigmand, skrevet af en Norsk som kom der i Juni
+       Maaned, 1837.
+
+  [65] _Billed Magazin_, I, 94.
+
+The preface, bearing the author's signature and the date, "Illinois,
+February 13, 1838," is translated as follows:
+
+"Dear Countrymen,--Peasants and Artisans! I have now been in America
+eight months, and in that time I have had an opportunity of finding out
+much in regard to which I in vain sought information before I left
+Norway. I then felt how disagreeable it is for those who wish to
+emigrate to America to be in want of a reliable and tolerably complete
+account of the country. I also learned how great is the ignorance of the
+people, and what false and ridiculous reports were accepted as the full
+truth. In this little book it has, therefore, been my aim to answer
+every question which I asked myself, and to clear up every point in
+regard to which I observed that people were ignorant, and to disprove
+false reports which have come to my ears, partly before I left Norway,
+and partly after my arrival here."[66]
+
+  [66] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 207-208. In making this and
+       the following translations, Mr. Anderson used the copy of
+       Rynning's book belonging to the Rev. B. J. Muus, the only copy
+       known to be in America. This copy is now in the library of the
+       University of Illinois.
+
+The body of the book is made up of thirteen chapters devoted to these
+questions and their answers:
+
+     1-3. The location of America, the distance from Norway, the nature
+     of the country, and the reason why so many people go there.
+
+     4. "Is it not to be feared that the land will soon be
+     overpopulated? Is it true that the government there is going to
+     prohibit immigration?"
+
+     5-6. What part of the land is settled by Norwegians, and how is it
+     reached? What is the price of land, of cattle, of the necessaries
+     of life? How high are wages?
+
+     7. "What kind of religion is there in America? Is there any sort of
+     order and government, or can every man do what he pleases?"
+
+     8-9. Education, care of the poor, the language spoken in America,
+     and the difficulties of learning it.
+
+     10. Is there danger of disease in America? Is there reason to fear
+     wild animals and the Indians?
+
+     11. Advice as to the kind of people to emigrate, and warning
+     against unreasonable expectations.
+
+     12. "What dangers may be expected on the ocean? Is it true that
+     those who are taken to America are sold as slaves?"
+
+     13. Advice as to vessels, routes, seasons, exchange of money, etc.
+
+Rynning assured his readers, in the seventh chapter, that America is not
+a purely heathen country, but that the Christian religion prevails with
+liberty of conscience, and that "here as in Norway, there are laws,
+government, and authority, and that the common man can go where he
+pleases without passport, and may engage in such occupation as he
+likes."[67] Then follows this strong, significant paragraph,
+intelligently describing the slavery system, which undoubtedly had a
+powerful influence on the future location, and hence on the politics, of
+the immigrants from Scandinavia:
+
+"In the Southern States these poor people (Negroes) are bought and sold
+like other property, and are driven to their work with a whip like
+horses and oxen. If a master whips his slave to death or in his rage
+shoots him dead, he is not looked upon as a murderer.... In Missouri the
+slave trade is still permitted, but in Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin
+Territory it is strictly forbidden, and the institution is strictly
+despised.... There will probably soon come a separation between the
+Northern and Southern States or a bloody conflict."
+
+  [67] Rynning, _Sandfærdig Beretning_, 23, 24. Translated in Anderson,
+       _Norwegian Immigration_, 214-215.
+
+From the account given thirty years afterwards by Ansten Nattestad, it
+appears that a chapter on the religious condition of Norway was omitted
+by the Rev. Mr. Kragh of Eidsvold, who read the proofs, because of its
+criticisms of the clergy for their intolerance, and for their inactivity
+in social and educational reforms.[68] This has led some writers like R.
+B. Anderson to attribute large weight to religious persecution as a
+cause of emigration. While religious repression was a real grievance
+and affected many of the early emigrants, the cases where it was the
+moving or dominant cause of emigration after 1835 are so few as to be
+almost negligible.[69] At best, it re-enforced and completed a
+determination based on other motives. For most Norwegian dissenters, the
+Haugians for example, lack of toleration was rather an annoyance than a
+distress, save, perhaps, for the more persistent and turbulent
+leaders.[70] It is hardly fair, therefore, to compare them, as a whole,
+with the Huguenots of France.[71]
+
+  [68] _Billed Magazin_, I, 94.
+
+  [69] Letters of R. B. Anderson and J. A. Johnson, _Daily Skandinaven_,
+       Feb. 7, 1896.
+
+  [70] Brohough, _Elling Eielsens Liv og Virksomhed_, 10-11, 20-21,
+       30-36.
+
+  [71] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 50.
+
+In the years immediately following 1838, the "America Book," distributed
+from Christiania, went on its missionary journeys and reached many
+parishes where the disaster at Beaver Creek and the untimely death of
+Ole Rynning had never been heard of. By its compact information and its
+intelligent advice, it converted many to the new movement. The diary of
+Ole Nattestad, printed in Drammen in the same year, seems to have
+exerted very little influence, but the visit of his brother Ansten to
+his home in Numedal, in east-central Norway, a hitherto unstirred
+region, awakened keen and active interest in America, and again men
+travelled as far as 125 English miles to meet one who had returned from
+the vast land beyond the Atlantic.[72]
+
+  [72] _Billed Magazin_, I, 94.
+
+The first party from Numedal left Drammen in the spring of 1839, under
+the leadership of Nattestad, and went directly to New York. It numbered
+about one hundred able-bodied farmers with their families, some of them
+being men with considerable capital. From New York they went to Chicago,
+expecting to join Ole Nattestad at the Fox River. At the latter city
+they learned that he had gone into Wisconsin after his brother left for
+Norway in 1838, and that he had there purchased land in the township of
+Clinton in Rock County, thus being probably the first Norwegian settler
+in Wisconsin. Accordingly the larger part of the Numedal party followed
+him to the newer region, where better land could be had than any
+remaining in La Salle County, Illinois, at the minimum price, and took
+up sections near Jefferson Prairie. Thus the current of Scandinavian
+settlement was deflected from Illinois to Wisconsin, and later comers
+from Numedal, in 1840 and afterwards, steered straight for southeastern
+Wisconsin. In 1839 and later other recruits for the growing and
+prosperous settlement of Norwegians in Rock County and adjoining
+counties came from Voss and the vicinity of Bergen. Possibly the
+difference of dialects had something to do with drawing people from the
+same province or district into one settlement, but in a general way the
+same reasons and processes operated among the Norwegian emigrants as
+among those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia who settled
+in various States in sectional groups, sometimes dividing a county by a
+well-defined line.
+
+Closely connected with this settlement, begun under the leadership of
+the Nattestad brothers, were other settlements in adjacent townships,--at
+Rock Prairie or Luther Valley, comprising the present towns of Plymouth,
+Newark, Avon, and Spring Valley in Rock County, Wisconsin, and Rock Run
+in Illinois. Through these settlements many new comers filtered and
+spread out rapidly toward the West and Northwest, reaching in a few
+years as far as Mineral Point, more than fifty miles from Jefferson
+Prairie.
+
+Other sections of Norway than those already mentioned began to feel the
+effects of the emigration bacillus after 1837, and the processes
+illustrated by the movements from Stavanger, Bergen, and Numedal were
+repeated--the emigration of two or three, letters sent home, the return
+of a man here and there, the organization of the party, the long
+journey, and the selection of the new home. Thelemark, the rugged
+mountainous district in south central Norway, was in a condition to be
+strongly moved by stories of freer and larger opportunities. Long before
+1837, great tracts of land in Upper Thelemark became the property of two
+wealthy lumber men, and the tenant-farmers were drawn more and more into
+work in the lumber mills, to the neglect of farming and grazing.
+Consequently, when logging was suspended in the hard times, and the
+wages, already low, were stopped altogether, great distress resulted,
+and emigration seemed about the only means of escape. "With lack of
+employment and with impoverishment, debt and discontent appeared as the
+visible evidences of the bad condition. That was the golden age of the
+money-lenders and sheriffs. So the America fever raged, and many crossed
+the ocean in the hope of finding a bit of ground where they could live
+and enjoy the fruits of their labors without daily anxiety about
+paydays, rents, and executions."[73]
+
+  [73] Translated from _Billed Magazin_, I, 18 ff.
+
+A company of about forty, representing eleven families from Thelemark,
+failing to get accommodations with the Nattestad party at Drammen, went
+on to Skien and thence to Gothenburg, where they secured passage in an
+American vessel loaded with iron, and made the voyage to Boston in two
+months.[74] Three weeks more were consumed in the circuitous journey to
+Milwaukee by way of New York, Albany, the Erie Canal and the Great
+Lakes. Like several other parties of that year they originally aimed at
+Illinois.[75] But their boat "leaked like a sieve," and the stop at
+Milwaukee was probably precautionary. Instead of proceeding further,
+they were persuaded to send a committee, under the guidance of an
+American, into the present county of Waukesha, where they selected a
+tract about fourteen miles southwest of Milwaukee, on the shore of Lake
+Muskego.[76] Here each adult man took up forty acres at the usual
+minimum price of $1.25 per acre, and so began the Muskego colony
+proper, the name, Muskego, however, being later applied to the group of
+settlements in Waukesha County and to several towns in Racine
+County.[77] Like the colony in Rock County, the Muskego group grew
+rapidly in spite of malarial troubles, and for ten years it was an
+objective point for immigrants from Thelemark, and a halting place for
+those bound for the frontier farther west in Wisconsin or in Iowa.
+
+  [74] _Ibid._, 6-7.
+
+  [75] A shipping notice in the _Boston Daily Advertiser_, Aug. 1,
+       1839 reads: "Passengers,--in the "Venice" from Gothenburg, 67
+       Norwegians on their way to Illinois."
+
+  [76] An oft-repeated story tells how the company was persuaded to
+       remain in Wisconsin by some enterprising Milwaukee men who
+       pointed out to the immigrants a fat, healthy-looking man as
+       a specimen of what Wisconsin would do for a man, and a lean,
+       sickly-looking man as a warning of what the scorching heats
+       and fever of Illinois would quickly do to a man who settled
+       there. See _Billed Magazin_, I, 7.
+
+  [77] _Billed Magazin_, I, 10.
+
+As the emigration movement from Norway increased, the planning of
+settlements and the organization of parties took on a more definite and
+business-like air. The process is well illustrated in the case of the
+town of Norway in Racine County, Wisconsin, which was one of the most
+successfully managed settlements in the Northwest. In the fall of 1839,
+two intelligent men of affairs, Sören Bakke, the son of a rich merchant
+of Drammen, and John Johnson (Johannes Johannesson), came to America on
+a prospecting tour, for the purpose of finding a place where they might
+invest money in land as a foundation for a colony, which they may
+possibly have intended to serve as a new home for a sect of dissenters
+known as Haugians.[78] After visiting Fox River in Illinois, and various
+locations in Wisconsin, they found a tract that suited them--good land,
+clear water, and abundance of game and fish, enough to satisfy the most
+fastidious. This they purchased, building a cabin on it and awaiting the
+coming of their friends to whom they sent a favorable report.[79] The
+party arrived in the autumn of 1840, under the leadership of Even Heg,
+an innkeeper of Leir, who brought still more money, which was also
+invested in land. Altogether, the money which Bakke brought with him, or
+received later, amounted to $6000.[80] It was all used for purchasing
+land, which was either sold to well-to-do immigrants, or leased to new
+comers. This business was supplemented by a store kept in the first
+cabin. Upon the death of Johnson in 1845, Bakke went home and settled
+upon an estate owned by his father in Leir, one of the first of the very
+small number of men who have returned to permanent residence in Norway
+after some years spent in America.[81] Even Heg became the real head of
+the colony at Norway, Wisconsin, after the departure of Bakke, whose
+interests he continued to look after, and under his management a steady
+development followed. This settlement became the Mecca of hundreds of
+immigrants arriving in Milwaukee in the late forties, and "Heg's barn
+was for some months every summer crowded with newcomers en route for
+some place farther west."[82]
+
+  [78] _Ibid._, I, 12.
+
+  [79] _Ibid._, I, 18.
+
+  [80] _Ibid._, I, 12.
+
+  [81] _Ibid._; Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 280 ff.
+
+  [82] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 44; _Billed Magazin_, I, 13.
+
+Another important and highly prosperous group of settlements, called
+Koshkonong after the lake and creek of that name, sprang up in 1840 and
+1841, in the southwestern corner of Jefferson County, Wisconsin, and the
+adjacent parts of Dane and Rock Counties. The beginning was made by men
+who removed thither from the Fox River and Beaver Creek localities after
+investigating the lands in Wisconsin. In 1840 there were nine entries of
+land by Norwegians in the present townships of Albion, Christiana, and
+Deerfield, the usual purchase being eighty acres; the next few years saw
+the spread of the colony to the townships of Pleasant Valley and
+Dunkirk, from the influx of immigrants from Illinois and from
+Norway.[83] After the stress and hardship of the first pioneer years,
+the fortunate choice of location in one of the best agricultural
+sections of Wisconsin told very promptly, and Koshkonong became "the
+best known, richest, and most interesting Norwegian settlement in
+America, the destination of thousands of pilgrims from the fatherland
+since 1840."[84] Many of the farms are still in possession of the
+families of the original settlers, whose children are prominent in
+business, professional and political circles.
+
+  [83] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 326 ff. Anderson quotes in
+       full a letter from the United States Commissioner of Land Office
+       giving date and extent of each entry by Norwegians.
+
+  [84] M. W. Odland, _Amerika_, Jan. 15, 1904.
+
+The movement of the stream of Norwegian immigrants after 1845 was
+distinctly in a direction westward from the Wisconsin settlements; the
+land farther out on the prairies was better, tho it did not have the
+combination of timber and stream or lake which the early settlers
+insisted on having, often to their detriment, since land chosen with
+reference to these requirements was apt to be marshy. The fresh
+arrivals, after a few weeks or months in the friendly and helpful
+communities of early immigrants, were better prepared by a partial
+acclimatization, by knowledge of the steps necessary for acquiring
+citizenship and land-ownership, and by the formation of definite plans
+of procedure, for the next stage in the western course of their empire.
+Occasionally a shrewd farmer of the older companies took advantage of
+the rise in the value of his farm, sold out, and bought another tract
+farther out on the frontier, perhaps repeating the process two or three
+times.[85] John Nelson Luraas, for example, was one of those men who
+first spent some time in Muskego, then bought land in Norway, Racine
+County; after improving it for three years, he sold it in 1843 and moved
+into Dane County.[86] Here he lived for twenty-five years, and then
+moved into Webster County, Iowa, taking up new land. After a few years
+he went back to his Dane County property, where he spent another
+thirteen years; finally, as an aged, retired, wealthy farmer, he died in
+the village of Stoughton in 1890.[87]
+
+  [85] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 44-45; _Billed Magazin_,
+       I, 13.
+
+  [86] It may be well to note that the name of Dane county has no
+       relation to Scandinavian settlement, but was given in honor
+       of Nathan Dane of Massachusetts, author of the Northwest
+       Ordinance of 1787.
+
+  [87] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 276.
+
+Provision for religious instruction and ministration was one of the
+early concerns of the Norwegian immigrants, as would be expected from a
+people essentially religious, who moved by whole families. Nor was there
+much distinction between the more orthodox and the dissenters. After
+their magnetic center shifted to the west in 1835 and the settlements
+and population multiplied, a good deal of lay preaching of one sort and
+another went on,--Lutheran, Methodist, Haugian, Baptist, Episcopalian,
+and Mormon. Lay services, in fact, were the rule all along the westward
+moving frontier, and services conducted by regular clergymen the
+exception. One of the Norwegians wrote: "We conducted our religious
+meetings in our own democratic way. We appointed our leader and
+requested some one to read from a book of sermons.... We prayed,
+exhorted, and sang among ourselves, and even baptised our babies
+ourselves."[88]
+
+  [88] A letter of John E. Molee, February, 1895, quoted by Anderson,
+       _Norwegian Immigration_, 320. (See also, _ibid._, 396-399.)
+
+Cut off by language from much participation in English worship--a man
+must know an alien tongue long and thoroly to make it serviceable for
+religious purposes--the men from Numedal, Vos, and Drammen, felt keenly a
+great need for some one to instruct their children in the Norwegian
+language and in the Lutheran religion after the Old World customs. In
+1843, two hundred men and women in the flourishing group of settlements
+around Jefferson Prairie, Wisconsin, signed a petition addressed to
+Bishop Sörenson in Norway asking him to send them a capable and pious
+young pastor, to whom they promised to give a parsonage, 80 acres of
+land, $300 in money, and fees for baptisms, marriages, and the like.[89]
+Tho this petition itself seems not to have been answered, it was not
+long before a properly ordained clergyman arrived.
+
+  [89] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 255.
+
+Claus Lauritz Clausen, a Danish student of theology seeking employment
+as a tutor in Norway, was persuaded, probably by the father of Sören
+Bakke in Drammen, to heed the call from America.[90] On his arrival in
+the West in 1843, he found the need for a pastor and preacher more
+urgent than for a teacher, and accordingly he sought and received
+ordination at the hands of a German Lutheran minister, October,
+1843.[91] He proceeded to organize, in Heg's barn at Norway, the
+first congregation of Norwegian Lutherans in the United States, and so
+began a career of useful ministration which lasted nearly half a
+century. Not long after his ordination, its validity was called in
+question by strict Lutherans. The question was finally submitted to the
+theological faculty of the University of Christiania, which decided that
+"the circumstance that an ordination is performed by a minister and not
+by a bishop, cannot in itself destroy the validity of the ministerial
+ordination."[92] At any rate, Clausen's activity, general helpfulness,
+staunchness of convictions, and length of service, if not his
+ordination, make him one of the typical pioneer preachers.[93]
+
+  [90] Nelson, _Scandinavians in the United States_, (2d ed.) 387 ff.
+
+  [91] Bothne, _Kort Udsigt_, 835 ff.
+
+  [92] Jacobs, _Evangelical Lutheran Church_, 411.
+
+  [93] Bothne, _Kort Udsigt_, 835; Jensson, _American Lutheran
+       Biographies_, "Clausen."
+
+Another clergyman of the same class as Clausen, was Elling Eielsen, a
+Haugian lay-preacher who went from place to place in the Northwest from
+1839 to 1843, holding services with his countrymen. He was ordained in
+the same month as Clausen, and, like him, in a semi-valid fashion, by a
+Lutheran clergyman, not a bishop.[94] Like Clausen, also, his term of
+labors as a Haugian apostle, passed forty years.[95]
+
+  [94] Brohough, _Elling Eielsens Liv og Virksomhed_, ch. II, and App.
+
+  [95] Nelson, in his _Scandinavians in the United States_, 388, is
+       probably mistaken in stating that Eielsen built the first
+       Norwegian church and organized the first congregation in 1842
+       at Fox River, confusing the fact that Eielsen had built a log
+       house on his own land, and held religious services in the loft,
+       with the possibility of the formation of a congregation.
+       Eielsen's biographer makes no mention of his organization of
+       a regular congregation. Brohough, _Elling Eielsens Liv og
+       Virksomhed_, 61.
+
+Whatever irregularities in the ordination of Clausen or of Eielsen may
+have disturbed the consciences of the stricter of the Lutheran sect,
+nothing of the sort attached to the Rev. Johannes Wilhelm Christian
+Dietrichson, who arrived in 1844, fresh from the University of
+Christiania and from the ordaining hands of the Bishop of Christiania.
+He was a diligent, aggressive, zealous young man of about thirty, sent
+out as a kind of home missionary in foreign parts at the expense of a
+wealthy dyer of Christiania. For two years, summer and winter, he went
+back and forth in southern Wisconsin ministering to the Norwegians of
+all ages and beliefs,--and all for the stipend of $300 yearly.[96] One of
+the results of these labors, was a little book, _Reise blandt de norske
+Emigranter i "de forenede nordamerikanske Fristater,"_ in which
+Dietrichson gives the earliest detailed account of the settlements in
+Wisconsin and Illinois before 1846. He described the origin, numbers,
+conditions, and prospects of each community in his wide parish. At Fox
+River, he says he found about 500, who were of all creeds, mostly
+dissenters, including 150 Mormons.
+
+  [96] _Minde fra Jubelfesterne paa Koshkonong_ (1894), 54 ff; Bothne,
+       _Kort Udsigt_, 839-842.
+
+Three church edifices were erected in 1844-5, and dedicated within a
+short time of each other. Dietrichson dedicated one at Christiana, Dane
+County, Wisconsin, December 19, 1844, and another at Pleasant Valley a
+little further west; Clausen dedicated his church at Muskego on March
+13, 1845.[97] All were simple structures, as would be expected; a plain
+table was the altar, and the baptismal font was hewn out of an oak log.
+But they served none the less as effective and inspiring centers of the
+religious life of the settlements. For the Muskego church, Even Heg gave
+the land, and Mr. Bakke of Drammen, whose protégé Clausen was, gave $400
+towards construction. Dietrichson left his two churches in Koshkonong in
+1845, and returned to Norway where he remained about a year. Aided by
+benevolent friends and by the Norwegian government, he came back to his
+prairie parishes in 1846 for a final stay of four years.[98] But his
+ways were not altogether ways of pleasantness, nor entirely in the paths
+of peace. The records of the church, and his own story, show that he had
+more than one stormy time with his people.[99] He departed for Norway
+in 1850, and never again was in America.[100]
+
+  [97] Dietrichson, _Reise blandt de norske Emigranter_, 45 ff; _Minde
+       fra Jubelfesterne paa Koshkonong_.
+
+  [98] _Nordlyset_, Sept. 9, 1847.
+
+  [99] Dietrichson, _Reise blandt de norske Emigranter_, 57-67. Some
+       of the church records are printed in _The Milwaukee Sentinel_,
+       July 21, 1895.
+
+  [100] The following year he published a second book, _Nogle Ord fra
+        Prædikestolen i Amerika_.
+
+The preceding account of the beginnings and progress of the earliest
+Norwegian settlements in Illinois and Wisconsin has been given in some
+detail, for the reason that the course of these settlements, in a very
+broad sense, is typical of all the Norwegian colonization in the
+Northwest, and of the Swedish and Danish as well. In the later chapter
+on economic conditions, the causes which led these people to settle upon
+the land rather than in the cities will be discussed at length. Suffice
+it here to say that the average immigrant brought only a small amount of
+cash, along with his strong desire for land, and he consequently went
+where good land was cheap, in order the more speedily to get what he
+wanted. This meant that he would push out on the newly accessible
+government land in Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas in turn. So the
+transformation of the frontier has witnessed the continual repetition of
+the experiences of the early Norwegian immigrants in Illinois and
+Wisconsin in the years from 1835 to 1850, as they are described in this
+and the preceding chapters. At the present time, in the remoter parts of
+the Dakotas, Montana, Washington, Oregon, and Utah, the same story is
+being retold in the same terms of patience, hardship, thrift, and final
+success.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+SWEDISH IMMIGRATION BEFORE 1850.
+
+
+When the Swedish emigration of the nineteenth century began, it is
+doubtful if many persons in Sweden knew of the existence of the
+descendants of their compatriots of the seventeenth. The last Swedish
+pastor of Gloria Dei Church in Philadelphia died in 1831, and there is
+no evidence that any immigrant after 1800 turned his steps toward
+Philadelphia or the valley of the Delaware expecting to join the third
+or fourth generation of Swedes there.[101] Before 1840, in New York,
+Philadelphia, and a few other places, a Swede might now and then be
+found. One of these adventure-seeking young fellows was Erick Ålund, who
+reached Philadelphia in 1823; another was O. C. Lange who arrived in
+Boston in 1824, and by 1838 found himself in Chicago, probably the first
+of that mighty company of Swedes which has made Chicago the third
+Swedish city in the world.[102] Olof Gustaf Hedström, who left Sweden in
+1825, and his brother Jonas, were influential early arrivals.[103] But
+the number of such men could not have been large, for ignorance as to
+America was quite as dense in Sweden as in Norway, the name being all
+but unheard of in parts of the kingdom.[104]
+
+  [101] Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History of America_, IV, 488.
+
+  [102] Interview with Capt. O. C. Lange in Chicago, March, 1890. He
+        stated that he was the only Swede in Chicago in 1838, but that
+        there were thirty or forty Norwegians "who were doing anything
+        for a living, even begging,"--but Capt. Lange was an ardent Swede
+        and despised Norwegians!
+
+  [103] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 23-26.
+
+  [104] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 26.
+
+Sixteen years elapsed after the "Sloop Folk" landed in New York, and
+five years after they located in their second American home, in
+Illinois, before the Swedish immigration really began. The first party,
+or regular company, of Swedes, consisting of about twelve families,
+arrived in 1841 under the leadership of Gustav Unonius, a young man who
+had been a student at the University of Upsala.[105] It was made up of
+the "better folk", and included some, like Baron Thott, who were
+entitled to be called "Herr."[106] The immigration does not appear to
+have been induced by any religious persecution or discontent, but was
+purely a business venture of a somewhat idealistic sort, into which the
+immigrants put their all, in the hope that they could get a more
+satisfactory return than they could from a like investment in Sweden.
+
+  [105] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 2 ff. The early history of the
+        Swedish immigration is treated in a much more complete and
+        scholarly fashion than is the Norwegian, in the works of
+        Unonius, Norelius, and Peterson and Johnson. For this reason,
+        and because of the similarity of the early Swedish and Norwegian
+        movements, the Swedish settlements are not followed up in this
+        study with the same detail as the Norwegian.
+
+  [106] Unonius, _Minnen_, I, 5 ff; _History of Waukesha County, Wis._,
+        748.
+
+From New York the party went by the water route to Milwaukee, following
+in the wake of parties of Norwegians. There they met Captain Lange, who
+seems to have persuaded them to select a location near Pine Lake--a name
+that would certainly attract a Swede--in the neighborhood of the present
+town of Nashotah, about thirty miles west of Milwaukee. Here they were
+later joined by a variegated assortment of characters attracted by
+letters which Unonius wrote to newspapers in Sweden,--noblemen, ex-army
+officers, merchants, and adventurers,[107] so that the colony took on
+almost as motley an air as that at Jamestown in the first years after
+1607. While they hardly could have succeeded under more favorable
+circumstances, they were particularly unfitted by their previous manner
+of living to become farmers or to undergo the deprivations and hardships
+of pioneering. The winter of 1841-2 was severe, and their poorly-built
+houses gave inadequate protection against the cold of January and
+February in Wisconsin; their land was badly tilled, tho they labored
+earnestly; and their first crop fell short of their necessities. Their
+hope of leading an Arcadian life in America was rudely shattered.
+Captain von Schneidau, late of the staff of King Oscar, was a farm
+laborer, and Baron Thott became a cook for one of the settlers in order
+to get a bare living.[108] Sickness, misfortune, want of labor, and lack
+of money led to almost incredible suffering at the first, and some of
+the settlers, like Unonius and von Schneidau, went to Chicago, where the
+former became pastor of a Swedish congregation, and the latter prospered
+as "the most skilful daguerreo-typist, probably, in the whole
+state."[109]
+
+  [107] "and a large proportion of criminals," Nelson, _Scandinavians in
+        the United States_, II, 117.
+
+  [108] _History of Waukesha County, Wisconsin_, 749.
+
+  [109] Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, II, 214-217. Miss Bremer
+        relates how Mrs. von Schneidau "had seen her first-born little
+        one frozen to death in its bed," and how Mrs. Unonius "that gay,
+        high-spirited girl, of whom I heard when she was married at
+        Upsala to accompany her husband to the New World ... had laid
+        four children to rest in foreign soil."
+
+Frederika Bremer, the famous Swedish traveller, visited both the
+Norwegian and the Swedish settlements in Wisconsin in 1850, and has left
+a very graphic and sympathetic account of the Pine Lake colony where she
+spent a few days.[110] She found about a half dozen families of Swedes.
+"Nearly all live in log-houses, and seem to be in somewhat low
+circumstances. The most prosperous seemed to be that of the smith; he, I
+fancy, had been a smith in Sweden ...; he was a really good fellow, and
+had a nice young Norwegian for his wife; also a Mr. Bergman who had been
+a gentleman in Sweden, but who was here a clever, hard-working peasant
+farmer."[111] At one of the houses she met twenty-one Swedish settlers.
+The failure of the colony, to Miss Bremer's mind, was not altogether due
+to circumstances; the settlers at first "had taken with them the Swedish
+inclination for hospitality and a merry life, without sufficiently
+considering how long it could last. Each family built for itself a
+necessary abode, and then invited their neighbors to a feast. They had
+Christmas festivities and Midsummer dances."[112]
+
+  [110] _Ibid._, 225-235.
+
+  [111] _Ibid._, 225; Unonius, _Minnen_, II, 6 ff.
+
+  [112] Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, II, 214.
+
+Notwithstanding the hard life of the first years at Pine Lake, the
+letters from well-educated and well-known men like Unonius, especially
+those published in the Swedish newspapers, helped to stimulate a desire
+for emigration in Sweden. A company of fifty, from Haurida in Smaaland,
+left in the autumn of 1844, part of them going to Wisconsin, and at
+least one family going to Brockton, Massachusetts, and beginning the
+considerable Swedish settlement in that city.[113] In the following
+year, five families were influenced by letters from a Pine Lake settler,
+to leave their homes in Östergötland, and to set out for Wisconsin. At
+New York, however, they were persuaded, probably by Pehr Dahlberg, to go
+to Iowa, then just admitted to the Union, where land was supposed to be
+better than at Pine Lake, and could be had at the same price. The route
+followed was an unusual one for Scandinavian immigrants,--from New York
+to Pittsburg, down the Ohio River, and up the Mississippi. The location
+finally chosen was in Jefferson County, Iowa, about forty-two miles west
+of Burlington; and the settlement was christened New Sweden. To it many
+immigrants from the parishes of Östergötland found their way in later
+years. The second rural settlement of the Swedes thus established was,
+quite in contrast to the first one, distinctly successful from the
+start.[114]
+
+  [113] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 27.
+
+  [114] G. T. Flom, "Early Swedish Immigration to Iowa," _Iowa Journal
+        of History and Politics_, III, 601 ff. (Oct., 1905); Norelius,
+        _Svenskarnes Historia_, 27.
+
+The first Swedish settlements in Illinois, may be traced to the efforts
+of the brothers Hedström already mentioned. Olof visited his old home in
+1833, after an absence of eight years, and on his return to New York he
+was accompanied by his brother Jonas.[115] These two men influenced the
+course which Swedish immigrants were to take in America down to 1854,
+in much the same way as the Nattestad brothers had earlier affected the
+Norwegians. After several years, spent presumably in New York, Jonas
+moved into Illinois and settled in the township of Victoria, in Knox
+County.[116] Olof Hedström was converted to Methodism in America, and
+became a zealous minister of that church; in the history of Methodism in
+New York City and in the chronicles of Scandinavian immigration, his is
+a unique figure. The needs of the multiplying hosts of immigrants of all
+sorts, who were flocking to New York, were thoroughly understood by the
+Methodist authorities of that city, and Hedström was put in charge of
+the North River Mission for Seamen. His "Bethel Ship" work began about
+1845, a time when there was great need for a helping hand to be extended
+to the Scandinavians, among other immigrants, for whom agents,
+"runners," and "sharks" were lying in wait. The Rev. E. Norelius, the
+cultivated and scholarly pastor and historian, who had personal
+experience of the kindly offices of Hedström, declares that the
+missionary was a father to the Scandinavian people who came to America
+by way of New York.[117]
+
+  [115] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 21.
+
+  [116] _Ibid._, 24-26; Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_,
+        286.
+
+  [117] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 21, 23-26.
+
+With Olof Hedström offering friendly greeting, help, and advice in New
+York, and working in connection with his brother Jonas in Illinois, no
+prophetic instinct was needed to foretell the goal which would be
+ultimately sought by those who came under the benevolent ministrations
+of this Swedish Methodist preacher. The path to Illinois became a
+highway for multitudes of Swedes, and that State was to the Swedish
+immigration what Wisconsin was to the Norwegian.
+
+Swedish settlement on a large scale began in 1846, with the founding at
+Bishop Hill, in Henry County, Illinois, of the famous Jansonist colony,
+whose history is exceedingly interesting and, at times, highly pathetic.
+Not only were there many hundreds of Swedes and some Norwegians grouped
+together in a single county, but the colony was also an experiment in
+communism, based on peculiar religious tenets.[118]
+
+  [118] The history of this Swedish settlement, with its numerous
+        peculiarities, its prosperity and its misfortunes, has been
+        so often written up with considerable detail, that only the
+        outlines of it are given here. See Bibliography.
+
+The Jansonist movement in Sweden, which must not be confused with the
+Jansenist school or system of doctrine of another time and place in
+Western Europe, began about 1842 in Helsingland, in the prosperous
+agricultural province of Norrland.[119] For fifteen years there had been
+an undercurrent of dissent in the Established Church in that province,
+led by Jonas Olson, who called his followers "Devotionalists." The
+agitation was carried on primarily against the general ignorance of the
+people and the sloth of the clergy, but not until Eric Janson appeared
+on the scene did any organization of the dissenters take definite form.
+When he moved from Wermland to Helsingland in 1844 and published the
+high claim that he represented the second coming of Christ and was sent
+to restore the purity and glory of Christianity, he was received with
+great enthusiasm by the restless peasants, and accepted as a divinely
+appointed leader who should gather the righteous into a new theocratic
+community.[120]
+
+  [119] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 19 ff.
+
+  [120] _Ibid._, 25. "The glory of the work which is to be accomplished
+        by Eric Janson, standing in Christ's stead, shall far exceed
+        that of the work accomplished by Jesus and his Apostles,"--quoted
+        in translation by Mikkelsen from _Cateches, of Eric Janson_
+        (Söderhamn, 1846), 80.
+
+The progress of the dissenting sect was so rapid that the Established
+Church, backed by the civil authorities, took stern measures to suppress
+the heresy. It must be confessed that the dissenters continued to show a
+fanatical spirit, and gave the ecclesiastical officers special cause for
+alarm. In June, 1844, for example, the Jansonists made an immense
+bonfire near Tranberg, and burned as useless and dangerous, all the
+religious books which they could lay their hands on, with the exception
+of the Bibles, hymn-books, and catechisms. As if one offense of this
+kind were not enough to shock the pious Lutherans and everywhere stir
+up the zeal of the Lutheran clergy, a second burning of books followed
+in October, in which the Bible alone was spared.[121]
+
+  [121] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 22; Norelius, _Svenskarnes
+        Historia_, 63.
+
+Janson was repeatedly arrested and imprisoned; his followers were
+subjected to the same treatment; and finally, a price was put upon the
+head of the pestilent arch-heretic. It was these persecutions,
+supplemented by letters from a Swedish immigrant in America, which
+turned the thoughts of the Jansonists towards the United States. So it
+happened that when Janson was rescued by his friends from the crown
+officer who had him in custody, he was spirited off over the mountains
+to Norway, and thence to Copenhagen, where he embarked for America. In
+New York he met Olof Olson, the "advance agent," who was sent out by the
+new sect in 1845 to spy out the better country where there was no
+established church, no persecution for conscience's sake, and no
+aristocracy.[122] Olson met Olof Hedström on landing in New York, and by
+him was directed to his brother Jonas in Illinois, who gave the
+new-comer a hospitable reception, and assistance in a prospecting tour
+of Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. Olson decided on Illinois as the State
+in which to plant the proposed colony. On the arrival of Eric Janson in
+1846, the exact site in Henry County was selected, and the name Bishop
+Hill given it after Biskopskulla, Janson's birthplace in Sweden.[123]
+
+  [122] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 24.
+
+  [123] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 26; _History of
+        Henry County, Illinois_.
+
+Janson appointed leaders for the would-be emigrants,--captains of tens
+and of hundreds--before he left Sweden, and under their guidance several
+parties made their way to Henry County in 1846, usually going by way of
+New York, the Erie Canal, and the Great Lakes. Nearly 1100 persons were
+ready to emigrate, but, like the early Norwegians, they experienced
+great difficulty in securing passage, being compelled to go in companies
+of fifty or one hundred in freight vessels, usually loaded with
+iron.[124] The greater number sailed from Gefle, though some went from
+Gothenburg and some from Stockholm.[125]
+
+  [124] Swainson in _Scandinavia_, Jan., 1885.
+
+  [125] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 28.
+
+The greater part of these emigrating Jansonists were poor peasants,
+unable from their own means to bear for themselves and their families
+the great expense of the long journey from Helsingland to Illinois. In
+addition to other difficulties some of them had to purchase release from
+military service. It was to solve these problems of poverty and expense,
+that Janson followed the example of other leaders of religious sects,
+even of the early Christian leaders, and instituted community of goods
+for the whole sect. The pretext seems to have been religious, but from
+this distance it is clear that the motive of the leader was essentially
+economic and philanthropic. Nothing could better attest the tremendous
+earnestness of these uneducated enthusiasts than their implicit
+obedience to the commands of Eric Janson, for they gave all they had
+into his care and discretion--their property, their families, and
+themselves. The amounts contributed to the common treasury after the
+sale of individual property varied greatly, of course. Some turned in
+almost nothing, while others gave sums reaching as high as 24,000
+kroner, or about $6,500.[126]
+
+  [126] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 28.
+
+The methods and practices of the sect are revealed, in unsympathetic and
+perhaps exaggerated fashion, in a printed letter, dated at New York, May
+23, 1847, written by one who found himself unequal to the high demands
+of the new faith and its self-appointed apostle.[127] This backslider,
+who emigrated with the rest, tells a story that sounds strangely like
+accounts of the action of more recent sects and their "divinely
+ordained" prophets and priestesses. Janson and all his works are
+denounced in very bitter terms. After a five-months voyage not more
+than fifty out of three hundred, says the writer of the letter, were
+well, and many were suffering from scurvy; but Janson's "prophets" came
+aboard and "tried to work miracles and heal the sick," even damning
+those who did not believe they were well when they were raised up. He
+further says that the Jansonists were warned in Illinois to use medicine
+or the government would take a hand in their affairs. The letter closes
+with a statement that more than a hundred had already left the society.
+
+  [127] This account is contained in a small pamphlet, signed O. S.,
+        which was unearthed in the Royal Library in Stockholm while the
+        author was searching there in 1890 for material on Swedish
+        emigration.
+
+The colony had a homestead at the outset, for Janson and his co-workers
+purchased for $2000 a tract of 750 acres, part of which was under
+cultivation. By the end of 1846, new recruits brought the number in the
+settlement up to about 400 souls, who were accommodated in log-houses,
+sod-houses, dug-outs, and tents. A church was improvised out of logs and
+canvas, and services were held daily at half past five in the morning
+and in the evening. In spite of the community of goods, the first year
+with its crowding brought much suffering; the funds of the society were
+depleted by the expenses of the great journey for so many people, and by
+the expenditures for land.
+
+With the coming of spring in 1847, the settlement became a hive of
+industry. Adobe bricks were made, a new saw-mill was erected, better
+houses were built, and more land was bought to accommodate the new
+arrivals. By 1850 the community owned fourteen hundred acres of land,
+nearly free from debt. The religious or economic attractiveness of the
+colony is evidenced by the fact that its population in 1851 reached the
+considerable figure of about eleven hundred,[128] nearly one-third of
+the total population of Henry County, notwithstanding a schism in 1848
+whose centrifugal force drove upwards of 200 from the fold, and
+notwithstanding the epidemic of cholera in 1849 which claimed 150
+victims. Among these hundreds were representatives of almost every
+province in Sweden.
+
+  [128] Swainson puts the number of seceders at 250, and asserts
+        that they were drawn off by Jonas Hedström, the Methodist.
+        _Scandinavia_, Jan. 1885. Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_,
+        33, 35, 37.
+
+The communistic principle worked well, at least in the first years, in
+spite of the severity of the religious discipline. The land was
+thoroughly cultivated. The growing of flax became a prominent factor in
+the prosperity of the colony, and from this crop were made linen and
+carpeting which found a ready market, the product of the looms reaching
+30,579 yards in 1851.[129]
+
+  [129] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 335.
+
+The death of Eric Janson by the hands of a Swedish adventurer, John Root
+(or Rooth), with whom he had a quarrel of long standing, removed the
+prophet and builder of this New Jerusalem, but did not seriously
+interrupt its development. In fact it might be said to have been a
+benefit to the colony, for Janson was not a careful and skilful man of
+business, and he had involved the community in debt. To relieve this
+pressure of obligation, Jonas Olson, Janson's right-hand man, was sent
+out with eight others, in March, 1851, to seek a fortune in the
+California gold fields.[130]
+
+  [130] _Ibid._, 39.
+
+The period of which this chapter treats ends with 1850; but inasmuch as
+that year marks no break in the history of Bishop Hill, it will be well
+here to finish the sketch of the development of that colony. On learning
+of the death of Janson, Olson returned at once from California and
+became the head of the colony after February, 1851. Improvements
+immediately followed; the government, which had been autocratic or
+theoretically theocratic, became more and more democratic under Olson.
+Finally, as a completion of this broadening evolution, an act of the
+Illinois legislature of 1853 incorporated the Bishop Hill Colony, and
+vested the government in a board of seven trustees who were to hold for
+life or during good behavior, their successors to be elected by the
+community.[131]
+
+  [131] Act of January 17, 1853. The Charter and Bylaws are reprinted in
+        Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 73 ff. (App.).
+
+The trustees were from the first afflicted with a speculative mania, and
+invested in all sorts of enterprises--in grain, in lumber, in Galva town
+lots, in railroad and bank stock, and in a porkpacking establishment.
+Disaster after disaster followed between 1854 and 1857, when a general
+panic prostrated the industries of the country. The climax of the
+reckless mismanagement of the Colony came in 1860, and the corporation
+went into the hands of a receiver, only to get deeper and deeper into
+financial and legal troubles. Individualization of property took place
+in 1861, when $592,798 was distributed among 415 shareholders, and other
+property to the value of $248,861 was set aside to pay an indebtedness
+of about $118,000.[132] The last traces of communism were gone, and with
+the disappearance of communism went also the old religious tenets
+peculiar to the faith. The majority of the Jansonists joined the
+Methodist communion; even Jonas Olson deserted and became "an
+independent Second [Seventh?] Day Adventist."[133]
+
+  [132] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 44 ff.
+
+  [133] Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 71.
+
+Difficulties continued, however, for Olof Johnson, the chief offending
+trustee, secured his appointment as one of the receivers. Assessment
+followed assessment, and when the totals were footed up the chicanery of
+trustees and receivers was made clear: to pay an original debt of
+$118,403, these ill-fated people of the Bishop Hill Colony actually
+expended in cash $413,124, and in property $259,786, or an aggregate of
+$672,910.[134] Of course a lawsuit was begun, and the "Colony Case"
+dragged along in the courts for twelve years, to be finally settled by
+compromise in 1879, nine years after the death of Olof Johnson.[135]
+
+  [134] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 49-52.
+
+  [135] The special master in chancery found in 1868 that Olof Johnson
+        was indebted to the Colony in the sum of $109,613.29. Mikkelsen,
+        _The Bishop Hill Colony_, 68.
+
+Besides the numerous companies which went to Bishop Hill, many others
+between 1846 and 1850 sought different localities in the United
+States.[136] Some remained in Chicago; some built homes in Andover,
+Illinois; others began the large Swedish settlement in Jamestown, New
+York; while still others were persuaded to go to Texas, thus beginning
+the only considerable permanent settlement of Scandinavians in the
+Southern States before 1880, with the exception of settlements in
+Missouri. During these years, knowledge of the prosperous condition of
+the immigrants was spreading, in the usual fashion, into every province
+of Sweden; Småland, Helsingland, Dalarne, and Östergötland, were
+especially affected. Not merely were Jansonists and dissenters moved to
+emigrate, but men of the Established Church as well; a Jansonist's word
+in matters of faith, Scriptural interpretation, and religious practice
+was worse than worthless to staunch Lutherans, but there was no reason
+to doubt the accuracy of his statements regarding land, wages, prices,
+and opportunities in Illinois or Iowa. Even Lutheran clergymen began to
+lead little companies of their adherents to the "States," and no one
+considered it a mortal sin or eternal danger to follow in the footsteps
+of worldly-wise heretics.[137]
+
+  [136] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 30-38.
+
+  [137] Norelius, _Svenskarnes Historia_, 34.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE DANISH IMMIGRATION.
+
+
+The Danish immigration began much later than the Norwegian and Swedish,
+and its proportions were inconsiderable until after the Civil War. Not
+until 1869 did the annual influx of Danes reach 2,000. Tho the
+population of Denmark was and is somewhat greater than Norway's, yet the
+Danish immigration has never in any one year equalled the Norwegian, and
+in but seven years has it been more than one-half. As against Norway's
+total of nearly 600,000 from 1820 to 1905, Denmark's is only about
+225,000.[138] In calculating the immigration, however, a large allowance
+must be made. Since the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were acquired
+by Prussia in 1864 and 1866, their emigrants have of course been
+recorded as German. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the movement from
+Denmark has lacked momentum; its proportions are relatively small; and
+the influence of the Danes in the United States is much less important
+than that of either of the other Scandinavian nationalities.
+
+  [138] See the tables in Appendix.
+
+The causes of the smaller emigration from Denmark are to be found in the
+nature of the people and in the conditions of the kingdom itself.
+Generally speaking, the Danes are not highly enterprising, adventurous,
+or self-confident; instead of daring all and risking all for possible,
+even probable, advantage, they remain at home, for,
+
+  "Striving to better, oft we do mar what's well."
+
+Want is practically unknown in Denmark outside the slums of Copenhagen.
+The condition of the common people has steadily improved since the
+beginning of the nineteenth century, when nearly all the land was in the
+hands of the nobility; at the present time, six-sevenths is owned by the
+peasants. While this change has been going on, another, of even greater
+significance, has taken place. Improved methods of cultivation, in the
+course of a hundred years, have multiplied the productive power of the
+land by ten, which is equivalent to increasing tenfold the available
+area of the kingdom. No nation, except the United States and Canada, has
+in recent times had such agricultural prosperity.[139]
+
+  [139] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 8 n2, summarizing H.
+        Weitemeyer, _Denmark_, 100.
+
+As already noted, the activity of the Mormon missionaries drew off into
+the wilderness of Utah nearly 2000 Danes between 1850 and 1860, and
+nearly 5000 more in the next decade. In the two Prussian duchies after
+1866, the discontent of Danes who preferred emigration to German rule
+drove a large number to the United States; and as these were far from
+being sympathizers with Mormonism, they found homes in the middle west.
+Settlements sprang up after 1870 in Wisconsin, at Racine; in Iowa, at
+Elk Horn in Shelby County and in the adjoining counties of Audubon and
+Pottawatomie; and in Douglas County (Omaha), Nebraska, just across the
+line from Pottawatomie County, Iowa. It should be noted in this
+connection that all the Danish settlements save those in Utah, were well
+within the frontier line, and hence are not to be classed as pioneering
+work, for which the Danes have shown little inclination.
+
+The efforts of the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America,
+organized at Neenah, Wisconsin, in 1872, have been several times
+directed deliberately to the organization of new Danish colonies,
+always, of course, with a view to strengthening the church or to
+carrying out some of its peculiar ideas. Of the four colonies,--in Shelby
+County, Iowa, in Lincoln County, Minnesota, in Clark County, Wisconsin,
+and in Wharton County, Texas,--that in Iowa is the most noteworthy and
+successful. Soon after 1880, the church secured an option on a tract of
+35,000 acres in Shelby County from a land company. In return for 320
+acres to be given by the company to the church for religious and
+educational purposes when one hundred actual settlers were secured, the
+church promised to use its influence to secure settlers for the whole
+tract. The company agreed for three years time to sell only to Danes at
+an average price of $7 per acre, for the first year, with an advance not
+exceeding $.50 per year for each following year. The end of the first
+year found more than the required number of settlers, the church
+received its grant, and still maintains its worship, a parochial school,
+and a high school, in a community which numbers about 1,000 Danes. The
+other colonies have been less successful.[140]
+
+  [140] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 26-28; A. Dan,
+        "History of the Danish Evangelical Lutheran Church in America,"
+        in Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 166-171.
+
+The Danish element in America has always lacked unity and solidarity.
+Even in their European home the Danes possess no strong national
+ambition, and no national institution claims their enthusiastic and
+undivided support. The Danish church, or churches, has gripped its
+immigrant sons and daughters less closely than similar organizations
+among the Swedes and Norwegians. It is estimated that only one out of
+fifteen of the Danes in the United States belongs to some church, while
+one out of five of the Swedes, one out of three and one-half of the
+Norwegians, and one out of three of the total population of the country,
+is connected with an ecclesiastical organization.[141]
+
+  [141] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, II, 49.
+
+One reason for the low ebb of church influence among the Danes is
+undoubtedly the wranglings of the clergy over matters of theology and
+polity, a continuation of the factional differences between the
+followers of Bishop Grundtvig and the anti-Grundtvigians or Inner
+Mission people in the years 1854-1895. In its beginning, the Danish
+Lutheran Church in America unanimously adopted this resolution: "We, the
+Danish ministers and congregations, hereby declare ourselves to be a
+branch of the Danish National Church, a missionary department
+established by that church in America."[142] The government of Denmark
+recognized this relation; graduates of the University of Copenhagen,
+who received calls to churches in America, were ordained by a bishop in
+Denmark, and were appointed by the King as regular ministers in the
+Danish Church; and since 1884 the Danish Government has made a small
+annual appropriation for the education of ministers for the American
+branch of the Danish Church. This allowance was at first spent in
+Denmark, but since 1887, in the United States.[143] But with all this
+effort at maintaining unity and continuity, the American branch has not
+been united, peaceable or effective.
+
+  [142] Bille, _History of the Danes in Amerika_, 18.
+
+  [143] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 18n. The appropriation
+        was $840 per year.
+
+If the test of supporting educational institutions for their own people
+be applied to the Danes, the same deficiency of interest and
+contributions as in matters ecclesiastical, will be revealed. The
+attempt of the Grundtvigians to set up the peculiar "high schools" which
+they maintained in Denmark, for instruction of the common people in
+Scandinavian history, mythology, religion, language, and literature, all
+in Danish, was doomed to failure.[144] The first of these schools was
+located at Elk Horn, Iowa, in the midst of the largest Danish settlement
+in the United States, yet in the fifteen years after its establishment
+in 1878 the average attendance never reached forty. Four other schools,
+in Ashland, Michigan, in Nysted, Nebraska, in Polk County, Wisconsin,
+and in Lincoln County, Minnesota, all established between 1878 and 1888,
+suffered from like indifference and lack of financial help; not one
+averaged thirty pupils per year. Aside from tuition, the contributions
+of the Danes for educational purposes did not reach fifty cents per
+communicant during any consecutive five years up to 1894.[145] This is a
+poor showing alongside the three dollars per communicant contributed by
+the Norwegians when they were building Decorah College in 1861 to
+1865.[146]
+
+  [144] _Ibid._, 21; _Kirkelig Samler_, 1878, 320.
+
+  [145] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 16.
+
+  [146] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 15; Estrem,
+        "Historical Review of Luther College," in Nelson, _History
+        of the Scandinavians_, II, 24.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+A HALF CENTURY OF EXPANSION AND DISTRIBUTION, 1850-1900.
+
+
+While the immigration movement from Norway and Sweden was
+well-established by 1850, and certain to expand, it was numerically
+unimportant when compared with that from some other countries of Europe.
+In 1849 the influx from all Scandinavia was slightly more than one
+per-cent of the total immigration from Europe. Yet the rising stream
+had, by 1850, worn for itself a clear and definite channel from eastern
+ports like New York and Boston to such gateways to the Northwest as
+Chicago and Milwaukee; and through these it continued to flow out over
+the wilderness of the upper Mississippi Valley extending north of the
+Missouri and Illinois Rivers and west of the Great Lakes. For more than
+a half century there have been relatively few variations from this
+course, tho in the later decades, with an increase in the proportion of
+skilled laborers among the incoming thousands, certain eastern cities
+have detained a considerable percentage.
+
+No other marked change in the character and quality of the immigrants
+has developed since 1850, nor have any new motives appeared, except in
+the case of the Danes, to be discussed later. In a word, the
+Scandinavian immigration since 1850 is simply the earlier Scandinavian
+immigration enlarged in numbers, with broader and deeper significance.
+The areas of interest in emigration in Europe gradually extended to
+every part and every class of the three Northern kingdoms; and the
+localities attractive to Scandinavians in the United States, expanded
+until eight contiguous States in the Old Northwest and the Newer
+Northwest showed each a foreign-born population of Northmen numbering
+more than thirty thousand. In the State of Minnesota they now reach
+close to a quarter of a million.[147]
+
+  [147] After 1850 the book of Frederika Bremer, _Homes of the New
+        World_, is credited with large influence in Sweden among
+        the better classes. See McDowell, "The New Scandinavia",
+        _Scandinavia_, Nos. 5-8.
+
+The total recorded Scandinavian immigration, according to the statistics
+of the United States, from 1820 to 1912, is in round numbers 2,200,000.
+According to the statistics of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which may be
+disregarded for inaccuracy before 1850, the total falls about 142,000
+short of this figure, a difference which may be easily enough accounted
+for by persons leaving those countries for a more or less indefinite
+stay in other parts of Europe, before starting for America.[148] The
+American statistics in later years have sometimes shown larger numbers
+than the Swedish, but the discrepancy is accounted for by the fact that
+a great number of emigrants from Finland have passed through Sweden on
+their way to America and therefore are counted as Swedes.[149] The
+totals by decades with the percentages of the whole immigration for the
+decades, is as follows:[150]
+
+                                                           Per cent
+              Denmark     Norway      Sweden   Total Sc.   of immig.
+
+  1820-1830       189               91              280     .2
+  1831-1840     1,063            1,201            2,264     .4
+  1841-1850       539           13,903           14,442     .8
+  1851-1860     3,749           20,931           24,680     .9
+  1861-1870    17,094          109,298          126,392    5.2
+  1871-1880    31,771     94,823     115,922    242,516    8.6
+  1881-1890    88,132    176,586     391,733    656,451   12.5
+  1891-1900    52,670     95,264     230,679    378,613    9.8
+  1901-1910    65,285    190,505     249,534    505,524    5.7
+
+  [148] Nelson in his _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 253 ff., gives
+        some careful and excellent tables of statistics compiled from
+        official publications of the United States and of the three
+        Scandinavian kingdoms. Too much reliance should not be put upon
+        the earlier figures derived from either source. It will also be
+        noted that the European figures are in many cases given in even
+        fifties and hundreds, which savors of estimates rather than of
+        exact statistics. Nelson, p. 244, declares that these foreign
+        statistics, so far as they go, are more reliable than the
+        American.
+
+  [149] Sundbärg, _Sweden_ (English Translation), 132; Sundbärg,
+        _Bidrag till Utvandringsfrågan från Befolkningsstatistisk
+        Synpunkt_, 34 ff.
+
+  [150] The statistics of Norwegian and Swedish immigration were
+        combined down to 1868, but for convenience here the combination
+        is continued to the end of the decade. Statistical Abstract of
+        the U. S. (1912), 110.
+
+The fluctuations of the annual immigration have been very great, as an
+inspection of the accompanying chart and the tables in Appendix I, will
+readily show. The addition of other lines to this chart indicating the
+fluctuations in the numbers of immigrants from Germany and Ireland,
+demonstrates that these rather striking variations were chiefly caused
+by conditions and prospects in America, rather than by circumstances in
+Europe. In 1849 the total immigration of Norwegians and Swedes passed
+2,000, and even reached 3,400, but the terrible scourge of cholera in
+that year under which so many of the Scandinavians in the West fell,
+caused a falling off of more than half in 1850. After the panic of 1857,
+the Danish immigration fell from 1,035 to 252 in one year, while the
+total from the Northern lands fell steadily from 2,747 to 840 in 1860.
+
+The Civil War disturbed comparatively little the conditions favoring
+Scandinavian immigration, for the Northwest was never in danger of
+invasion, and nominal prices for farm produce ranged higher and higher.
+Furthermore, the Homestead Act of 1862 gave new and cumulative impetus
+to the immigration which sought farming lands.[151] So from a total of
+850 in 1861 (the statistics of Norway show 8,900 emigrants for that
+year, and those of Sweden, 1,087), the numbers gradually increased, in
+spite of the war, to 7,258 in 1865. The panic of 1873 did not affect the
+Scandinavian movement so immediately and seriously as might at first
+thought be expected, probably because the Northmen were seeking farms in
+the West, and also because the farmers as a class are about the last to
+feel the effects of financial crises like that of 1873. As the
+depression deepened, letters from America to Northern Europe lost their
+tone of buoyancy and enthusiasm; the eastward flow of passage-money and
+prepaid tickets almost ceased. At the same time a series of good crops
+in the three Scandinavian countries caused a rise of wages about 1873,
+doubling them in some instances.[152] Consequently the current of
+immigration lost force and volume for several years, the totals
+dropping, in round numbers, from 35,000 in 1873, to 19,000 in 1874, and
+to 11,000 in 1877.
+
+  [151] _United States Statutes at Large_ (1861-2), 392 ff.
+
+  [152] Young, _Labor in Europe and America_, 676,--quoting and
+        summarizing from a report to the Secretary of State
+        by C. C. Andrews, United States Minister to Sweden,
+        Sept. 24, 1873.
+
+After the high-water mark of 105,326 in 1882, reached during the revival
+of business from 1879 to 1884, the totals did not again fall below
+40,000 Scandinavian immigrants per year, until after the industrial and
+financial stagnation of 1893 to 1896; 62,000 in 1893 became 33,000 in
+1894, and 19,000 in 1898. With the prosperity of the first years of the
+new century in the United States, the number again passed 50,000,
+reaching another climax in the 77,000 of 1903.
+
+In general, the variations of the curves for the three nationalities
+under discussion have been nearly co-incident, as for example the high
+points in 1873 and 1882, and the low points in 1877, 1885, and 1898. The
+Danish immigration did not rise proportionately with the other two,
+especially in 1903, probably because of the democratizing of
+land-ownership in Denmark, and because of the remarkable improvement in
+methods of cultivation in the course of the nineteenth century.[153] No
+such decided improvements took place in the other peninsular kingdoms.
+
+  [153] J. H. Bille, "History of the Danes in America", _Transactions of
+        the Wis. Acad. of Sciences, Arts, and Letters_, IX, 8 n., citing
+        H. Weitemeyer, _Denmark_, 100.
+
+Another feature of the fluctuation is entitled to some consideration. In
+proportion to the population of those nations, the emigration from
+Norway and Sweden since 1870 has been very large, and such drafts as
+were made in the years 1882 or 1903 could not be expected to keep up.
+The periodicity of the ripening of a good "crop" of eligible emigrants
+for the great American West seems to have been since 1877 from five to
+eight years. In this connection it is a noteworthy fact that the
+population in each of the Scandinavian kingdoms, notwithstanding the
+great emigrations, has steadily tho slowly increased since 1850.[154]
+For the last decade of the nineteenth century, the figures for the
+increase were, Denmark, 16.6%, Norway, 10.6%, Sweden 7.3%, United States
+20%.[155] In this statistical distribution, account must also be taken
+of the Scandinavians of the second generation, born in this country of
+foreign-born parents, since this element, racially speaking, is just as
+much an alien stock, with its inheritance of tendencies, temperament,
+and passions, as were the original immigrants. The census of 1910
+enumerated among the foreign-born and the native-born of specified
+foreign parents:[156]
+
+                            Native white having
+            Foreign-born     both parents born       Total
+               white        in specified country
+
+  Danes        181,621             147,648          329,269
+  Norwegians   403,858             410,951          814,809
+  Swedes       665,183             546,788        1,211,971
+             ---------           ---------        ---------
+             1,250,662           1,105,387        2,356,049
+
+To these must be added still another group, made up of those persons
+having a father born in Norway, Sweden, or Denmark, and a mother born in
+one of the other two countries, in other words, persons of pure
+Scandinavian descent. The number of such in 1910 was 72,152. It does not
+include, be it noted, those persons of equally pure Norse blood whose
+parents, one or both, were born in the United States. The minimum number
+of Scandinavians, then, in the United States in 1910, who must be taken
+into account in all calculations and estimates of power and influence
+exercised by that factor of the population, is 2,428,201. If it were
+desired to bring the estimate up to date, the immigration of 1910-1913
+and an approximation of the increase of the native-born, would have to
+be included, and the grand total of persons of pure Northern stock
+would not be far from 2,700,000 at the present time (1913).
+
+  [154] For Denmark, the increase has been about 1% per year since 1870;
+        Sweden shows a slightly smaller increase, falling as low as
+        ¼% in 1890; Norway has a still smaller average increase than
+        Sweden, estimated by Norwegian authority "1865-1890, .65%". The
+        same writer adds: "The Norwegian race, in the course of the
+        fifty years from 1840 to 1890 must have about doubled itself,
+        which is equivalent to an annual growth of about 1.4%." Norway,
+        103; _Statesman's Year-Book, 1900_, 491, 1047, 1050.
+
+  [155] _Supplementary Analysis of 12th Census_, 31-33.
+
+  [156] These figures are drawn from the tables in the _Census Reports,
+        1910, Population_, I, 875 ff. The statistics generally deal
+        only with white persons, thus excluding blacks and mulattoes
+        of the Danish West Indies.
+
+The distribution of this vast company to the different States of the
+Union is a consideration of primary importance. The detailed analysis of
+the motives, processes, and results of the occupation of the
+Northwestern States by the children of the Northlands, belongs in later
+chapters.[157] The reasons why the stream flowed to the north of Mason
+and Dixon's Line are a combination of climate and a fear and hatred of
+slavery. If the movement from Scandinavia had begun fifty years earlier,
+before the anti-slavery agitation became acute, the New Norway and the
+New Sweden of the nineteenth century, would doubtless still have been in
+the North and probably in Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan, for very much the
+same reason that the Western Reserve was a New Connecticut.
+
+  [157] See chapters VIII-X.
+
+Desiring ownership of good agricultural land above all else, and finding
+after 1835 that the best and cheapest was to be found along the
+advancing frontier west of a north-and-south line drawn through Chicago,
+the men from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark followed their distant cousins
+of New England and the Middle States in the great trek into the
+Any-Man's-Land of the fertile upper Mississippi Valley.[158] For more
+than two decades after the Civil War, tho slavery no longer existed in
+the South, that region was still in the depression and uncertainty of
+the post-bellum industrial disorganization, and hence unattractive to
+immigrants of any class. So the tide continued to run high in the
+Northwest and spread wider and wider because of the traditions of two
+generations, and because of the attracting power of the Scandinavian
+mass already comfortably and solidly settled there.
+
+  [158] The "line which limits the average density of 2 to a square
+        mile, is considered as the limit of settlement--the frontier
+        line of population". _Eleventh Census, Report on Population_,
+        I, xviii. See R. Mayo-Smith in _Political Science Quarterly_,
+        III, 52.
+
+The first States of the Northwest into which the Norwegians and Swedes
+penetrated, as has been described above, were Illinois and Wisconsin;
+and in the censuses of 1850 and 1860 Wisconsin held first place in the
+number of these aliens, showing an increase from 8,885 to 23,265.[159]
+In 1850, Iowa, in the "far west," ranked fourth, with 611. Minnesota,
+which then stretched away to the Rocky Mountains, had 4 Swedes, 7
+Norwegians, and 1 Dane.[160] By 1860 Iowa was passed by Minnesota which
+then had 11,773, and thenceforward the Scandinavians were to keep close
+step with the westward march of the frontier. In 1870 Minnesota took
+first place, with 58,837, a position which the State has continued to
+hold. In 1890 she had within her borders 236,670 foreign-born Northmen,
+and enough of the second generation to make her Scandinavian population
+466,365, or about one-fifth that of Denmark or Norway. The order of
+Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Iowa held good for 1870 and 1880,
+but Wisconsin and Illinois changed places in the reports of 1890 and
+1900. The Dakotas, as one Territory, received their first Norse settler
+in 1858, but when the census of 1880 was taken there were 17,869, and in
+1890, when the Territory was divided into two States, the Scandinavian
+contingent was more than 65,000 strong.[161] Nebraska illustrated in a
+similar manner the widening overflow of the steady stream out of the
+European North; her population of Scandinavian birth which numbered only
+3,987 in 1870, grew by direct entry of immigrants, and by the secondary
+movement of early immigrants out of the middle Northwest, to 16,685 in
+1880, and to 40,107 of foreign-born in 1900. According to this last
+census, Nebraska counted 38,914 native persons of foreign-born
+Scandinavian parents, showing that the second generation did not fall
+much behind the first in the habit of frontier-seeking.[162]
+
+  [159] For the tables illustrating this discussion, see Appendix.
+
+  [160] Gronberger, _Svenskarne i St. Croixdalen_, 3 ff.
+
+  [161] Sparks, _History of Winneshiek County, Iowa_, III.
+
+  [162] See Appendix I.
+
+In the rush of gold-seekers into California after 1848 were many Danes
+and Swedes, who gave that State in 1860 fifth rank as to the number of
+Scandinavians; by 1890 these numbered about 42,000, of whom the greater
+part were of the two nationalities just named. Another frontier region
+which gained from the Danish immigration between 1850 and 1860 was the
+Territory of Utah, for the Mormon missionaries seem to have been
+particularly successful in Denmark, and nearly every convert became an
+immigrant. Quite in advance of their invasion of Dakota, more than 2,000
+Danes had settled in the Mormon Territory, and ten years later Utah
+counted nearly twice as many Scandinavians as Nebraska, seven-tenths
+being Danes.
+
+The increasing density of this Scandinavian population in certain
+localities,--what might be called its vertical distribution--is strikingly
+illustrated in both urban and rural communities. Chicago had barely
+emerged from the Fort Dearborn stage when the first Scandinavians walked
+its streets. Yet within two generations there were found inside of her
+wide-stretching borders more than 100,000 Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes
+of foreign birth, and enough of the second generation to give her more
+than 190,000, so that the city at the head of Lake Michigan was next
+after Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Christiania,--the largest Scandinavian
+city in the world.[163] By a similar calculation, Minneapolis would rank
+sixth or seventh.
+
+  [163] _Svenska Folkets Tidning_, Jan. 1, 1896, estimated the totals as
+        follows: Swedes, 100,000, Norwegians, 62,000, and Danes, 35,000!
+
+Rockford, Illinois, received the first of its signally prosperous
+Swedish colony about 1853; by 1865 the city had 2,000 Swedes.[164] The
+census of 1910 credits Rockford with 10,000 foreign born Swedes, and a
+total of Swedish parentage reaching close to 19,000. One of the
+west-central counties of Minnesota, Otter Tail, counted (1900) more than
+half of its 45,000 population of pure Scandinavian blood of the first
+and second generation of immigrants. Polk county, newer and farther
+north in the same State, reveals almost sixty per-cent of the same sort
+of population in a total of 35,000. For some of the still newer and more
+sparsely settled counties even larger percentages might be obtained.
+
+  [164] Kæding, _Rockfords Svenskar_, 27, 35.
+
+A closer analysis of the tables of population reveals some further facts
+as to the distribution of the different nationalities. The Swedes are
+the most numerous in Minnesota, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Nebraska, and
+Kansas; the Norwegians predominate in Wisconsin, North Dakota, and South
+Dakota, and nearly equal the Swedes in Minnesota where each passes
+200,000. The Danes are strongest--they can hardly be called a very
+important factor in any State--in Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois,
+and Nebraska; in each State they have more than 25,000. Another feature
+of this varying density of the three groups has to do with the cities.
+Chicago, Rockford, Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Duluth account for a large
+proportion of the Swedes of Illinois and Minnesota, and represent the
+later rather than the earlier stages of distribution. Outside of the
+cities mentioned, the Norwegians in Minnesota outnumber the Swedes by
+some 52,000. In North Dakota, the Norwegians are 72% of the foreign-born
+Scandinavian population, in South Dakota, 56%, and in Wisconsin, 60%,
+while in Illinois the Swedes are about 70%, and in Michigan and
+Nebraska, 63% and 59% respectively. The Danes reach their highest
+percentages of the Scandinavian foreign-born in Utah, 50%, in Nebraska,
+34%, and in Iowa, 23%. Large numbers of the later immigrants, especially
+of the skilled Swedish laborers, have found occupation in New York and
+Brooklyn, Boston and Worcester, Hartford and Providence. These have
+raised the proportion of the Swedes in the United States living in
+cities of more than 25,000, to 36%, while only 28% of the Danes, and 19%
+of the Norwegians were similarly located in 1900.[165]
+
+  [165] _Census Reports, 1900, Population_, I, Tables 33 and 35.
+
+Climate, particularly the mean temperature, has also played considerable
+part in the choice by the immigrants from Northern Europe of the sites
+for their new homes, though it is an open question whether they would
+not have been established where they were and when they were even if
+the climate were different. Certain it is that the few Icelandic
+settlements are situated in the extreme northern part of Minnesota and
+North Dakota, and in Southern Manitoba.[166] South of them come, in
+order, the zones of densest Norwegian population, 49° to 42°, of the
+Swedish, 48° to 40°, and of Danish, 44° to 38°. The three nationalities
+thus occupy relatively the same latitudinal position in America as in
+their homes in the Old North.[167]
+
+  [166] These are of course enumerated as Danes. Pembina County, in the
+        extreme northeast corner of North Dakota had in 1900 1588 Danes
+        (Icelanders). The movement from Iceland began about 1870. See
+        R. B. Anderson in _Chicago Record Herald_, Aug. 21, 1901.
+
+  [167] G. T. Flom, "The Scandinavian Factor in the American
+        Population", _Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, III, 88.
+
+Summarizing the matter of location, the great bulk of the Scandinavian
+immigrants went into the Northwest, 78% of them during the first fifty
+years of the movement, and about 70% of the total. Out of the
+immigration of the different nationalities, 81% of the Norwegians are in
+the Northwest, 60% of the Danes, and 59% of the Swedes, the percentage
+of the last being brought down, in comparison with the Norwegians, by
+the fact that nearly 100,000 Swedes are found in Massachusetts, New
+York, and Pennsylvania.[168]
+
+  [168] _Statistical Atlas of the Twelfth Census_, Plates 69, 71, 73,
+        76; _Iowa Journal of History and Politics_, III, 76.
+
+The Civil War occurred before the numbers and expansion of the Norse
+element of the country's population had much passed a promising
+beginning; the 75,000 present in 1860 could not be expected to play any
+large and leading rôle. Yet the one dramatic and heroic chapter in the
+whole story of the progress of the Scandinavians in America is that
+dealing with their part in that great struggle, in which many hundreds
+of them gave their strength and their lives for the unity and safety of
+their adopted country no less bravely and no less cheerfully than did
+the native-born American. The men from Thelemark and Smaaland and the
+sons of Massachusetts and Michigan were inspired by the same fine and
+pure motives; they hated slavery and loved the flag under whose folds
+they realized their hopes and dreams.[169] By temperament, by religion,
+by education, by tradition, men of Norse parentage were fitted to
+participate in upholding a cause so essentially right and high.
+
+  [169] Mattson, _Story of an Emigrant_, 60, 94. Here is printed, in
+        translation from _Hemlandet_, a stirring appeal "To the
+        Scandinavians of Minnesota!;" _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_,
+        September 29, 1870.
+
+In the short space of this volume, details of the loyal services of
+companies made up wholly or in large part of Swedes and Norwegians must
+be omitted, and the laurels won by such men as General Stohlbrand, who
+was made a brigadier by President Lincoln himself,[170] Colonel H. C.
+Heg,[171] Colonel Mattson,[172] and Lieutenant Colonel Porter C.
+Olson,[173] must be passed by with mere allusions.
+
+  [170] Osborn, "Personal Memories of Brig. Gen. C. J. Stolbrand",
+        _Year-Book of the Swedish Historical Society of America_,
+        1909-10, 5-16.
+
+  [171] Dietrichson, _Det Femtende Wisconsin Regiments Historie_, 26.
+
+  [172] Mattson, _Story of an Emigrant_, 59-93.
+
+  [173] Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, 112-127.
+
+The Fifteenth Wisconsin Regiment of Volunteers, consisting of about 900
+men, whose organization was decided upon at a mass meeting held in the
+Capitol at Madison, in September, 1861, was made up almost entirely of
+Norwegians and Swedes, some of whom had been in the United States less
+than a year. Hans C. Heg, one of the early leaders of the Norwegian
+immigration into Wisconsin, was appointed colonel of the regiment and
+began organization at Camp Randall, near Madison, in the following
+December.[174] The roster of officers indicates plainly their origin,
+including such names as Rev. C. L. Clausen, Thorkildson, Hansen,
+Grinager, Skofstad, Ingmundson, Tjentland, and Solberg.[175] The
+regiment left for the front in March, 1862, and participated in the
+operations of the next three years in Kentucky, Tennessee and northern
+Georgia. It was mustered out at Chattanooga in February, 1865, having
+lost about 300, quite one-third of its total enlistment, from deaths in
+battle or in the hospitals, including Colonel Heg, who was killed at
+Chickamauga.[176] Its record is summed up by the military historian of
+Wisconsin who states that it was "one of the bravest and most efficient
+regiments that Wisconsin sent to the field."[177]
+
+  [174] Enander, _Borgerkrigen i de Forenede Stater_, 106; Dietrichson,
+        _Det Femtende Wisconsin Regiments Historie_, ch. i.
+
+  [175] Dietrichson, "The Fifteenth Wisconsin, or Scandinavian,
+        Regiment," _Scandinavia_, I, 297 ff.
+
+  [176] Nelson, _History of Scandinavians_, I, 166.
+
+  [177] Quiner, _The Military History of Wisconsin_ (ch. xxiii,
+        "Regimental Histories--15th Infantry"), 631.
+
+Besides this Scandinavian regiment, there were several others in which
+the Norse element was large. Company C of the 43d Illinois Regiment was
+made up of Swedes, serving under Captain Arosenius. It was organized in
+the spring of 1862 and mustered out in the fall of 1865, with
+an honorable record of services faithfully and uncomplainingly
+performed.[178] Company D of the 57th Illinois Regiment, which served
+from the autumn of 1861 to July, 1864,[179] and Company D of the 3d
+Minnesota Regiment, which was mustered in at about the same time,[180]
+were composed of Scandinavians. A sprinkling of Swedes, Norwegians, and
+Danes appears in the lists of many of the regiments of Illinois,
+Wisconsin, and Minnesota, and many of these men rose to the ranks of
+commissioned officers.[181] The Adjutant General of Minnesota in 1866
+estimated that of the enlistments from that State, at least 800 were
+Norwegians, 675 Swedes, and 25 Danes. "In numerous instances the
+nativity of the soldiers is omitted; and it is not easy to count
+correctly all the names in such publications; hence it is fair to
+estimate that 2,000 Scandinavians from Minnesota enlisted under the
+Stars and Stripes.... One-eighth of the total population of the State
+enlisted under the Union flag; while at the same time one out of every
+six Scandinavians in Minnesota, as well as in Wisconsin, fought for his
+adopted country."[182]
+
+  [178] Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 143-149.
+
+  [179] _Ibid._, 155-161.
+
+  [180] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 59-93.
+
+  [181] _Ibid._, 62.
+
+  [182] _Annual Report of the Adjutant General of Minnesota_, 1866, II;
+        Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 303-304. Similar
+        figures for Iowa are in Nelson, II, 67.
+
+Everywhere the story of their services in the army is creditable, and it
+is not strange that the survivors are proud of their war records as the
+badge of loyal Americanism. They did not go into the war for mere love
+of adventure, nor for love of fighting, for men in large numbers do not
+leave their families and their half-developed farms for flimsy and
+temporary reasons. They loved the new country they had made their own,
+with a love that was measurable in the high terms of sacrifice, even to
+the shedding of blood and to death. The stock out of which Gustavus
+Adolphus made brave and effective soldiers had not degenerated through
+lapse of time nor through transplanting.
+
+Though John Ericsson was in no wise connected with the regular Swedish
+immigration movement, nor with Swedish settlement in the Northwest, the
+United States owes him too large a debt for what has sometimes been
+called the salvation of the Union through the agency of his "Monitor",
+to warrant the omission of his name from among those Swedes who served
+American freedom during the Civil War.[183]
+
+  [183] Church, _Life of John Ericsson_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ECONOMIC FORCES AT WORK.
+
+
+In the many monographs and more pretentious works dealing with various
+phases of the economic history of the United States, much attention
+has been given to the tariff, manufacturing, banking, currency,
+transportation, and public lands. Only recently have the economic
+results of immigration begun to receive the attention which their
+importance deserves. For a long time the excellent work of Professor
+Richmond Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_ (1890), notable for
+the strength and breadth of its general treatment, was quite alone in
+its field. Mere statistical studies no longer suffice, and just as the
+census-taking of the Federal Government has changed from the simple,
+old-fashioned inventory of numbers--so many heads, black and white,
+native-born and foreign-born--to an elaborate investigation of the life
+problem of the population, so the meaning of immigration as a whole, and
+of Scandinavian immigration in particular, requires a discussion
+extending beyond annual and decennial statistics and maps of the density
+of settlement.
+
+In the economic development of the Northwest, as compared with the
+history of the Eastern, Middle, or Southern States during the nineteenth
+century, the three principal topics are immigration, the Federal land
+policy, and improvements in transportation. In a peculiar manner the
+last two subjects are interwoven with the story of the Norwegians,
+Swedes, and Danes in America. When people by the hundreds of thousands
+were settled in the West, when commerce and manufacturing arose upon the
+sound basis of a prospering agriculture, then and not till then,
+protection, currency, and bimetallism might be accepted as real and
+immediate issues.
+
+The Scandinavian immigrants along the frontiers, like the other pioneers
+all through the prairie west, were from the first vitally interested in
+securing some form of cheap transportation of the produce of the farms
+to a good market; railroads were indispensable to the development of the
+agricultural areas of the Great West. Western Pennsylvania might find
+profit in 1794 in shipping the quintessence of its agriculture across
+the mountains in demijohns; the cattlemen of the South and Southwest
+might drive their products to market on the hoof; but at the very best
+these were exceptional, inelastic, and primitive methods. Many pioneer
+Norwegians and Swedes in Minnesota and Iowa were obliged to carry their
+wheat and corn forty and fifty miles to have it ground for their
+families, but they could not hope to haul any great amount of ordinary
+farm produce over the abominable roads of the West for a distance
+greater than forty miles and make a profit.[184] Without the hope of
+railroads, the vast stretches of cereal-producing land in the
+trans-Mississippi would long have remained virgin soil. Yet without
+assurance that population would rapidly increase in numbers and in
+complexity of life, thus giving a large traffic in both directions, no
+railroad company would build out into the thinly settled area.[185]
+
+  [184] _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, July 21, 1870; interview in 1890
+        with the Rev. U. V. Koren, the first Norwegian Lutheran minister
+        permanently located west of the Mississippi. Miss Bremer in
+        October, 1850, described the road over which the early settlers
+        in Wisconsin went 30 and 40 miles to market: "the newborn roads
+        of Wisconsin, which are no roads at all, but a succession of
+        hills and holes and water pools in which first one wheel sank
+        and then the other, while the opposite one stood high up in
+        the air.... To me, that mode of travelling seemed really
+        incredible.... They comforted me by telling me that the
+        diligence was not in the habit of being upset very often!"
+        _Homes of the New World_, II, 235-236.
+
+  [185] It was on faith in the future of the northern zone of the
+        Northwest, based upon observation, that the Great Northern
+        Railroad was built without any land-grant or subsidy such as
+        the Northern Pacific and other roads demanded and got.
+
+Broadly speaking, then, the real problem of the Northwestern frontier
+after 1850 was: how to put more and ever more men of capacity,
+endurance, strength, and adaptability into the upper Mississippi and Red
+River valleys, men who first break up the prairie sod, clear the brush
+off the slopes, drain the marshes, build the railroads, and do the
+thousands and one hard jobs incident to pioneer life, and then turn to
+the building of factories and towns and cities. Not every sort of man
+who could hold a plow or wield a hoe would do: Chinese coolies, for
+example, would hardly be considered desirable, even with all their
+capacity for hard work, persistence, and patience. Furthermore, it is
+plain now, that the West could not have looked to the Eastern States
+alone to send out an industrial army sufficient in numbers and spirit
+for the conquest of the new empire and the extraction of its varied
+resources at the desired speed. The demands were too severe, the rewards
+too remote and uncertain for the average prosperous native-born citizen.
+The aliens from the western side of the Atlantic, as it were by
+regiments and battalions, must re-enforce the companies westward-bound
+from the older States; in such a situation the Scandinavians were all
+but indispensable to rapid material progress in the Northwest after the
+middle of the last century.
+
+It is not easy to realize how attractive to the Northland immigrants
+were the broad, level lands of the West, to be had from the United
+States Government on the easiest of terms, both before and after the
+passage of the Homestead Act of 1862. Scarcely in their dreams had they
+conceived of soil so fertile, so readily tilled, and so cheaply
+acquired. To speak to a Norwegian from Thelemarken, to a Swede from
+Smaaland, or to a Dane from the misty, sandy coast of Jutland, about
+rich, rolling prairies stretching away miles upon miles, about land
+which was neither rocky, nor swampy, nor pure sand, nor set up at an
+angle of forty-five degrees, about land which could be had almost for
+the asking in fee simple and not by some semi-manorial title--this was to
+speak to his imagination rather than to his understanding. The letters
+from immigrants to their old friends in Europe continually dilated on
+these advantages, sometime with a curious mingling of humor and pathos.
+One of these communications, which was printed as a small pamphlet in
+1850, sets forth in large letters, that the land was so plentiful that
+the pigs and cattle were allowed to run at will.[186] What more could
+be asked of Providence by a poor peasant or "husmand," owing to his
+landlord, for the little strip of land on which he lived, the labor of
+two or three days each week?[187]
+
+  [186] A copy of this interesting little pamphlet, without signature,
+        was found in the National Library in Stockholm.
+
+  [187] Young, _Labor in Europe and America_, 696. Laing, _Journal of a
+        Residence in Norway_ (1834), 151, describes the conditions in a
+        parish, Levanger, near Throndhjem. There fifty estates were
+        entered to pay land tax. Out of a population of 2465, 124 were
+        proprietors cultivating their own land; 47 were tenants leasing
+        lands, and 144 were "housemen" or tenants owing labor for their
+        land.
+
+These strictly economic advantages of soil and price were not the only
+attractions for the sons of the Northlands. Both the traveller and the
+prospector for a site for a settlement were deeply impressed by the
+general appearance of the rolling country of the Northwest with its
+abundance of streams and lakes. During her visit to Wisconsin and
+Minnesota in the fall of 1850, Frederika Bremer saw with quite prophetic
+vision, the possibilities of the region:
+
+"What a glorious new Scandinavia might not Minnesota become! Here would
+the Swede find again his clear, romantic lakes, the plains of Scania
+rich in corn, and the valleys of Norrland; here would the Norwegian find
+his rapid rivers, his lofty mountains, for I include the Rocky Mountains
+and Oregon, in the new kingdom; and both nations their hunting fields
+and their fisheries. The Danes might here pasture their flocks and
+herds, and lay out their farms on richer and less misty coasts than
+those of Denmark.... Scandinavians who are well off in the old country
+ought not to leave it. But such as are too much contracted at home, and
+who desire to emigrate, should come to Minnesota. The climate, the
+situation, the character of the scenery, agrees with our people better
+than that of any other of the American States, and none of them appear
+to me to have a greater or a more beautiful future before them than
+Minnesota. Add to this that the rich soil of Minnesota is not yet bought
+up by speculators, but may everywhere be purchased at government
+prices.... There are here already a considerable number of Norwegians
+and Danes."[188] The Swedish air-castle took material shape rapidly;
+during forty years the name Minnesota, even more than Iowa, or
+Wisconsin, was a name to conjure with among the laborers and would-be
+farmers of the old kingdoms.[189]
+
+  [188] Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, II, 314-315.
+
+  [189] The charm of this name was illustrated in a curious way during
+        the journey of the writer and another American through the
+        mountains of central Norway in the summer of 1890. One early
+        evening they came to the cabin of a _sæter_, or summer pasture,
+        high up on the side of Gaustafjeld, and asked to be lodged for
+        the night. It appeared that the only room available for
+        strangers was already occupied by two young men from
+        Christiania; but when the conversation developed the fact that
+        both the late-comers were from America, and one from Minnesota,
+        the woman of the house hastened off into the next room, ordered
+        out the two Norwegians, and announced on returning that the room
+        was at the service of the foreigners!
+
+Of the peculiar fitness of the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes for this
+promotion of economic progress in a great section of the country, there
+is practically a unanimous opinion. A dispassionate, mature estimate is
+expressed officially by an agent of the British Government sent out to
+study the question of immigration in the United States. "It is generally
+admitted," he states, "that physically, morally, and socially, no better
+class of immigrants enter the United States. In some respects they are
+the most desirable of all."[190] A first-hand observer of their work as
+western farmers wrote in 1868 concerning the settlers in a Norwegian
+township in Minnesota, "They open their farms quicker, raise better
+stock than most any other class, and quickly become wealthy."[191] In a
+hearing before the Industrial Commission in 1899, Hermann Stump, a
+prominent German, testified that the Scandinavians "are really the best
+immigrants who come to the United States."[192]
+
+  [190] _Report of the Board of Trade of Great Britain on Alien
+        Immigration to The United States_, 211, 212.
+
+  [191] Goddard, _Where to Emigrate and Why_, 247.
+
+  [192] _Report of the Industrial Commission_, XV, 22.
+
+While the Scandinavians were admirably fitted to become substantial
+citizens and to develop their own properties, and while the prospect of
+possessing a farm was the most potent and pervading influence affecting
+their movements after about 1850, the very high rate of wages paid in
+the United States, as compared with the wages in Europe, was everywhere
+an important factor among the immediate attractions. All of the western
+States, in the first decade of their growth, were exceedingly anxious to
+secure settlers who should take up and improve the vacant square miles,
+thus adding to the population and to the taxable values of the
+commonwealth. At the same time there was a large and steady demand for
+wage-labor; the farmers needed helpers; the construction of internal
+improvements, begun and projected, like the rapidly expanding railroad
+systems, could be carried on only by the aid of an abundance of
+laborers.[193]
+
+  [193] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 29 ff.
+
+These needs could not be met by any considerable migration of laborers
+from the eastern States, for there the development of manufacturing and
+of transportation by land and by sea would operate to keep up wages and
+so to hold the laborers. The hard labor of the Far West, therefore, must
+be done, if done at all, by those who had not already found places for
+themselves in the industrial system of the United States, and for such
+services a good rate of wages would be paid, or at least a rate
+sufficient to draw the desired labor. In 1851 the $15 per month received
+by some Swedes working as farm hands near Buffalo, New York, was
+considered "big wages."[194] At the same time laborers on railroad
+construction in the West were receiving $.75 and $1 per day. Whether
+measured as real or nominal wages, these rates were certainly higher
+than even the average skilled laborer could earn in Norway or
+Sweden.[195] Tho the wages in the peninsular kingdoms rose considerably
+from 1850 to 1875, there was still at the later date and afterwards a
+large differential in favor of the American scale, whether for skilled
+or unskilled laborers. The experienced agricultural laborer in the
+fields of Illinois or Wisconsin received two or three times as much as
+the corresponding worker in Norway and Sweden, while in new States like
+Minnesota the multiple was even greater.[196] Still more marked were the
+differences between skilled laborers, such as carpenters and smiths, in
+America and Europe even after the panic of 1873.[197]
+
+  [194] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 17.
+
+  [195] _Ibid._, 29. For work on the Chicago & Rock Island Railroad,
+        Mattson received $.75 per day, and paid for board $1.50 a week,
+        but the determination of the real wages, per month, requires a
+        liberal deduction from these day-wages, for the process of
+        acclimatization was severe in such malarial districts as that
+        in which Mattson worked, and few men at first worked more than
+        fifteen or twenty days in the month.
+
+  [196] The following tabulation is drawn from the statistics of Dr.
+        Young, _Labor in Europe and America_, to illustrate the
+        differences of wages. Personal inquiries among men from all
+        parts of Northern Europe confirm in a general way these figures
+        reported from Europe. The European rates are reduced to gold
+        values, while those for the United States are in paper money
+        values, and should be discounted 10% or 12% to put them on a
+        par with the other rates.
+
+                                      Summer              Winter
+
+        Experienced agric.       With      Without     With    Without
+        laborers, per day       Board      Board      Board    Board
+
+        Sweden, 1873             $ .66      $         $.46      $
+        Norway, 1873               .28-.43   .42-.55   .21-.31   .55
+        Denmark, 1872              .54       .80       .40       .60
+        U.S. (Western), 1870      1.34      1.84       .97      1.40
+        Minnesota, 1870           1.60      2.50      1.17      1.67
+        U.S. (Western), 1874      1.15      1.58       .93      1.35
+        Minnesota, 1874           1.00      1.50       .75      1.25
+
+  [197] _Ibid._
+
+        Mechanics and skilled
+         laborers, per day            Blacksmiths      Carpenters
+
+        Sweden, 1873                     $.80            $.80
+        Norway, 1873                      .90             .85
+        Denmark, 1873                     .85             .65-.85
+        U.S. (Western), 1870 & 1874      2.88 & 2.66     2.98 & 2.72
+        Minnesota, 1870 & 1874           3.03 & 3.00     2.92 & 2.50
+        Domestic servants, female, per month
+        Sweden, 1873                                    $2.14-8.00
+        Norway, 1873 (cooks)                             2.42-3.59
+        U.S. (Western), 1870 & 1874                      9.43 & 9.28
+        Minnesota, 1870                                  8.98
+
+The eloquence of these figures, and of the conditions behind them, was
+not left to do its work by chance in the private letters of immigrants
+or in the occasional pamphlet. States and counties, as well as railroad
+corporations disseminated very widely and systematically the knowledge
+of the opportunities open to the laborer in the great West. If he were a
+man who would progress from a temporary tho necessary factor in
+construction or in the field, to a permanent settler taking up vacant
+land, so much the better for the State and the corporation. Fortunately
+for those great railroads, which were pushing construction and receiving
+large subsidies in public lands, they found just such men in the Swedes
+and Norwegians. As the Rock Island railroad pushed across Illinois and
+Iowa, as the Northern Pacific built out through Minnesota and Dakota,
+and as the road now known as the Great Northern carried its lines from
+St. Paul into the Red River valley, and on across North Dakota, the
+Scandinavian and the Irishman supplied the demand for labor front 1850
+to 1890, in precisely the same way as the Italian, Pole, Mexican and
+Greek have been doing in later years.
+
+When construction of a railroad ended, the demand for immigrants merely
+changed its form and became cumulative. The dividends of any railroad
+running out into a new country depend on the development of the
+tributary territory, and this is especially true of the land-grant roads
+which owned half of the land within ten miles of their tracks. Thus it
+came about that the Scandinavians were doubly valuable, first as
+laborers for wages, and second as independent farmers in the townships
+made accessible by the new lines.[198] It was, indeed, faith in human
+nature, and especially Swedish and Norwegian human nature, which led to
+the construction and profitable operation of hundreds of miles of new
+roads in Minnesota and Dakota after 1880. One prominent railroad man
+estimated that each settler (presumably each head of a family) meant in
+the long run from $200 to $300 a year for the railroad.[199]
+
+  [198] Personal interviews with a large number of Swedes and Norwegians
+        in northwestern Minnesota, in May, 1890, brought out the fact
+        that many of them worked in the construction of the Northern
+        Pacific and Great Northern railroads, and then invested their
+        savings in railroad lands in the Red River valley, where they
+        were prosperous farmers.
+
+  [199] Mr. Powell. General Immigration Agent of the Chicago, Milwaukee
+        & St. Paul Railroad, in the _Milwaukee Sentinel_, Dec. 30, 1888,
+        p. 10.
+
+The fulfilment of the expectations of the builders of railroads and
+commonwealths was often surprisingly prompt. The prophetic insight of at
+least one "captain of industry," President James J. Hill of the Great
+Northern Railway Company which built its transcontinental system without
+land-grant, was as sure a reliance for capital as the subsidy of the
+federal Government. Speaking in 1902 at Crookston, in the center of the
+great Scandinavian region in northwestern Minnesota, he described in
+striking terms the growth of farm values, and of the railroad business
+in some of the towns in Minnesota and North Dakota: "I took the best
+towns [of the Red River valley] outside Crookston [for comparison with
+towns in North Dakota].... I will give you the annual business. Warren's
+last year's railroad business with our company was $86,000; Hallock,
+$94,000,--a respectable sum; Stephen, $87,000; Ada, $81,000.... Langdon
+[in North Dakota] ... away up towards the boundary, upon Pembina
+Mountain, $210,000; Osnabrock, I hardly know where it is myself,
+$101,000; Park River, $170,000; ... Bottineau, away at the west end of
+the Turtle Mountains, where a few years ago people said it was too far
+away; could not live there and could not raise anything if they did live
+there, $258,000.... Land up there [around Bottineau], worth $3, $5, and
+$8 an acre, and a few pieces $10 an acre, a few years ago, is worth
+today $25 and $30 per acre."[200]
+
+  [200] _Northwest Magazine_, XX. 7, 11 (1902).
+
+The railroads left nothing undone to stimulate the economic desire of
+the Scandinavians to migrate to their particular sections of land and to
+the adjoining government sections. Several companies maintained for
+years regular immigration or land agents, besides a considerable and
+variable corps of sub-agents, port agents, and lecturers; some of them
+paid the expenses of men representing groups of prospective immigrants,
+who desired to visit and report upon a particular locality. The St.
+Paul, Minneapolis & Manitoba Railroad advertised in "Facts about
+Minnesota" (1881): "The settler--his family, household goods, live stock
+and agricultural implements--will be carried from St. Paul to any point
+on either of our lines at one-half the regular price."
+
+Besides these efforts and inducements, the railroad companies prepared
+handbooks in different languages, distributed them widely throughout the
+East and West, and circulated them systematically in Norway, Sweden and
+Denmark.[201] A few of the companies even sent special representatives
+to Europe to work directly with the people of those countries. The Hon.
+Hans Mattson left the office of Secretary of State in Minnesota in 1871
+to become the liberally paid European agent for the Northern Pacific
+Railroad whose resources he was to advertise from his headquarters in
+Sweden.[202] He was not, however, to organize regular parties of
+emigrants. A high official of one of the northwestern roads summed up
+the matter by saying, "There is as much competition among the railroads
+desiring to attract immigrants, as among dry-goods stores in aiming to
+attract customers."
+
+  [201] Such pamphlets were issued by the Wisconsin Central, the Chicago
+        & Northwestern, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, and the
+        Northern Pacific railroads. Some of them were printed in
+        Swedish, Norwegian, German, Dutch, and Polish.
+
+  [202] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 118 ff.
+
+The northwestern State governments were hardly less interested in
+inducing immigrants to help fill up the vacant square miles and
+townships than were the railroads, for developed farms meant towns,
+diversified industry, and greater assessment values, which, being
+translated, meant much-needed public buildings, institutions, and
+improvements. The competition of the States, for immigrants such as the
+Norwegians, re-enforced and parallelled that of the railroad and land
+companies. Wisconsin appointed a Commissioner of Emigration in 1852,
+who resided in New York, and employed a Norwegian and a German
+assistant.[203] The following year another Act created a Traveling
+Emigrant Agent, and prescribed that he should "travel constantly between
+this State and the city of New York," to advertise "our great natural
+resources, advantages and privileges, and brilliant prospects for the
+future."[204] Pamphlets by the thousand in German, Norwegian, and Dutch
+were sent out in America and Europe. The office was abolished in 1855,
+but in 1867 another Act created an unpaid Board of Immigration and
+appropriated $2,000 for printing pamphlets in English, Welsh, German,
+and the Scandinavian languages.[205] The State even went so far, in a
+later Act, as to authorize the Board, in its discretion, to help with
+money, "such immigrants as are determined to make Wisconsin their future
+home."[206]
+
+  [203] _Laws of Wisconsin_, 1852, ch. 432; Ibid., 1853, ch. 53;
+        _Wisconsin Documents_, 1853, 1854, Reports of Commissioner
+        of Emigration.
+
+  [204] _General Acts of Wisconsin_, 1853, ch. 56.
+
+  [205] _Ibid._, 1855, ch. 3; 1867, ch. 126; 1868, ch. 120; _Governor's
+        Messages and Documents_, 1870, 11.
+
+  [206] _General Acts of Wisconsin_, 1869, ch. 118.
+
+The Board was succeeded by a Commissioner (Ole C. Johnson) in 1871,
+whose office was in turn abolished in 1874. The story of Wisconsin's
+later organizations for promoting immigration ought almost to go into
+the chapter on politics--a new Board in 1879, abolished in 1887, renewed
+for two years in 1895, and revived for another two years in 1899.[207]
+In 1880, at the request of the president of the Wisconsin Central
+Railway Company, K. K. Kennan, agent of the land department of that
+company, was also appointed agent for the State in Europe, without
+expense to the State.[208]
+
+  [207] _Ibid._, 1871, ch. 155; 1874, ch. 238; 1879, ch. 176; 1887, ch.
+        21; 1895, ch. 235; 1899, ch. 279. The abolished Commissioner of
+        1874 declared the repeal was "conceived in vindictiveness and
+        brought about by third-rate politicians, and followed my refusal
+        to appoint to place in my office" certain incompetents. _Report
+        of Commissioner of Immigration_, 1874, 2.
+
+  [208] _Annual Report of Board of Immigration_, 1880, 6.
+
+For the same purposes, and with the same methods, Iowa had a
+Commissioner, 1860-1862, and a Board (of which the Rev. C. L. Clausen
+was a member), 1870-1874, which sent agents to Norway, Sweden, and
+Denmark, where they published articles in the newspapers and stirred up
+emigration sentiment.[209]
+
+  [209] _Laws of Iowa_, 1860, ch. 81; 1862, ch. 11; 1870, ch, 34.
+
+Minnesota, likewise, in 1867 created a Board of Emigration, and Hans
+Mattson was appointed secretary. He proved a very efficient officer, and
+not the less so because at the same time, as he admits, he acted as land
+agent for one of the great railroad companies, whose line went through
+Wright, Meeker, Kandiyohi, Swift and Stevens counties.[210] Of the work
+of the Board, Mattson gives a convincing summary: "In the above-named
+localities there were only a few widely scattered families when I went
+there in 1867, while it is now (1891) one continuous Scandinavian
+settlement, extending over a territory more than a hundred miles long
+and dotted over with cities and towns, largely the result of the work of
+the board of emigration during the years 1867, 1868, and 1869.... Our
+efforts, however, in behalf of Minnesota brought on a great deal of envy
+and ill-will from people in other States who were interested in seeing
+the Scandinavian emigration turned towards Kansas and other States, and
+this feeling went so far that a prominent newspaper writer in Kansas
+accused me of selling my countrymen to a life not much better than
+slavery in a land of ice, snow, and perpetual winter, where, if the poor
+emigrant did not starve to death, he would surely perish with cold. Such
+at that time was the opinion of many concerning Minnesota."[211]
+
+  [210] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 97, 99, 101.
+
+  [211] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 100-101.
+
+The secretaries or commissioners of immigration were usually men of
+alien birth or extraction, and therefore intelligent and sympathetic in
+their labors for succeeding immigrants.[212] Probably no State gave
+better care, guidance, and protection to foreigners coming as settlers
+than did Minnesota, and naturally, with a Swede as commissioner, the
+Scandinavians were "preferred stock." The work of the Minnesota
+commission included the appointment of interpreters to meet immigrants
+at New York, Montreal, and Quebec and accompany them to Minnesota;
+provision for temporary homes for the new-comers until they went to
+their chosen locality; and wide publication of newspaper articles in
+different languages. Pamphlets containing maps and detailed descriptions
+of States and counties were distributed at railroad stations and on
+steamers, in America and in foreign countries.[213] It would be
+stretching the truth a little to say that these circulars sent out by
+States, counties, and railroad companies were always strictly accurate
+and ingenuous, but they brought the desired results, not in one campaign
+alone, but year after year. Taken as a whole the energies of the State
+and railroad agents, were honorable, well-managed, and highly beneficial
+to both the States and the immigrants. The best evidence for this
+statement lies in the figures of the censuses of 1880, 1890, and 1900
+for the population of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas.[214]
+
+  [212] _Ibid._, 99, 102; _Wisconsin Legislative Manual_, 1895, 133.
+
+  [213] See Bibliographical Chapter, under the names, Hewitt, Listoe,
+        and Mattson, for Minnesota.
+
+  [214] See Statistical chapter, tables 5, 6, 7.
+
+The value of so many tens of thousands of immigrants added to the assets
+of western commonwealths,--so many scores of thousands of "hands," to
+make use of the colloquial term for labor units,--is at once great and
+difficult to measure or estimate. In economic terms, how much is a
+full-grown, healthy, intelligent, literate young man worth to a
+community into which he drops himself, for is he not as much a finished
+labor-performing machine as a new traction engine or a span of mules,
+either of which the assessor would set down in his books? The risks and
+pains and costs of up-bringing through unproductive years, of educating,
+of training for occupation, have all been borne by another community;
+the increment of wealth arising from his labor, providence, and skill
+will enrich the United States.
+
+Yet it is not a fair test of the value of an immigrant to this country
+to measure it by the cost of his bringing up and education, either by
+the standards of his old home or by the American standards. Professor
+Mayo-Smith pointed out the fallacy in the oft-quoted estimate of Kapp,
+made up on this basis, that "the capital value of each male and female
+immigrant was about $1,500 and $750 respectively, making an average of
+$1125."[215] Dr. Young, formerly Chief of the United States Bureau of
+Statistics, chooses as a basis the "market value" rather than the "cost
+of production," and estimates the approximate yearly addition made by
+each immigrant to the realized wealth of the country in the form of
+farms, buildings, stock, tools, and savings, to be about $40, which,
+capitalized at 5%, gives $800 as the value of each immigrant.[216] An
+interesting German calculation in 1881, made in much the same way as Dr.
+Young's, put the capital value of each immigrant at $1,200.[217] Another
+method of gauging the amount contributed to the earnings of the country
+by each immigrant, is to multiply the average daily wage of $1 by
+one-fifth the total number of immigrants, and that by 300, the number
+of working days in the year.[218] Taking the values of the immigrant
+over fourteen years of age and under forty-five, as $1000, and
+estimating conservatively that 80 per-cent of the foreign-born
+enumerated in the census of 1900 reached the United States between those
+ages, the Scandinavians so enumerated represented a capital value of
+about $850,000,000, to which the immigration from the North countries in
+the next five years added not less than $230,000,000. Viewed from one
+point, this capital was just so much given by the gods of plenty to
+accelerate the development of the West.
+
+  [215] Kapp, _Immigration and the New York Commissioners of
+        Emigration_, 146; Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_,
+        ch. vi.
+
+  [216] Young, _Special Report on Immigration_ (1871), vii-ix.
+
+  [217] "According to other statistics, the average annual earnings of a
+        workman amount to $625, and one may safely presume that every
+        able-bodied workman contributes every year 1/5 of his earnings
+        to the increase of national wealth. Taking into consideration
+        the period of time of a full working capacity of emigrants
+        according to their age, and considering the much less working
+        capacity of females, and the cost of raising the children which
+        they bring with them, one may fairly presume that, during the
+        last few years, not only considerable cash capital has been
+        taken to the United States by emigrants, but that every one of
+        them carries to that country, in his labor, a capital which may
+        be estimated at $1200. The total value of the labor thus
+        conveyed to the United States during the last five years, may
+        therefore be estimated at about $700,000,000. No wonder that the
+        United States of America prosper." _Hamburger Handelsblatt_,
+        March 18, 1881, quoted in translation from this "leading trade
+        journal of Germany", in _Annual Report of the Wisconsin Board
+        of Immigration_, 1881, 14.
+
+  [218] J. B. Webber, in _North American Review_, CLIV, 435 (1892).
+
+Another phase of the economic advantages of Scandinavian immigration has
+to do with the cash capital brought by the incoming thousands. While the
+first Norwegians were of the poorest class of the community, who escaped
+from unfavorable conditions almost empty-handed, squeezed out from the
+bottom of society, as it were through cracks and crevices, and while
+many of the later arrivals have had no other capital than strong hands
+and equally strong determination, the great proportion of adults have
+brought with them average sums variously estimated from $22 to $70 each.
+G. H. Schwab of New York, whose firm was general American agent for the
+North German Lloyd Steamship Company, estimated the average money or
+money equivalent brought by the Scandinavians, at $22 per head, probably
+including children in the calculation.[219] W. W. Thomas, Jr.,
+Commissioner of Immigration for Maine, and later minister to Sweden,
+states that 900 Swedes who came to Maine in one year, besides clothing,
+tools, and household goods, had $40,000 in cash; and elsewhere he puts
+the average at $50 per head.[220] The figures from Wisconsin, which
+received better material than the average, would naturally run higher;
+in 1880 the official estimate of cash brought by each immigrant was
+"from $60 to $70."[221] Assuming an average of 50,000 Scandinavian
+immigrants per year for the last thirty years,--a safe minimum--and an
+average of $50 cash per capita, the annual addition to the cash capital
+of the country would be at least $2,500,000.
+
+  [219] _Forum_, XIV, 810.
+
+  [220] _Report of the Board and Commissioner of Immigration of Maine_,
+        1872, 6; F. L. Dingley, "European Emigration," _Special
+        Consular Reports_, II, No. 2, 1890, 260.
+
+  [221] _Annual Report of the Board of Immigration of Wisconsin_, 1880,
+        4. A writer in the _Milwaukee Sentinel_, Sept. 10, 1889, states,
+        "Many of them (Germans and Scandinavians) bring abundant means
+        to secure large farms and stock them well."
+
+Whatever may be gained in this way is, however, offset by the steady
+stream of remittances flowing from America to Northern Europe,
+especially during the last quarter of a century, and by the large sums
+spent by the thousands of erstwhile immigrants returning to their old
+homes for a winter or for a vacation.[222] Many a son, prospering in
+America, has contributed regularly to the support or added comfort of
+his parents or family in the fatherland; every holiday season swells the
+mail sacks with letters containing money-orders and drafts. During 1902
+at least $1,000,000 was sent to Norway alone.[223] In the last two
+months of 1903, it is estimated that $3,000,000 went from the United
+States to the Scandinavian countries in these personal remittances.[224]
+Another sort of remittance which does not immediately take the form of
+cash, is the prepaid ticket for passage to an American port, sent to
+friends and relatives to assist them to emigrate. The United States
+consuls at Bergen and Gothenburg reported that about one-half of the
+emigrants from Norway and Sweden in 1891 made the journey on tickets
+sent from America.[225] In this connection, it should be noted that the
+money thus spent by immigrants is not in the nature of a permanent
+investment of hoarded earnings; it is not the remittance of "birds of
+passage" like some Italians, for example, who will shortly follow it. In
+comparison with the millions of dollars sent home by Italian immigrants
+in an average year, the Scandinavian remittances and spendings are
+almost insignificant.[226]
+
+  [222] Brace, _The Norsefolk_, 146; _Harper's Weekly_, Sept. 1, 1888;
+        _Gamla och Nya Hemlandet_, Jan. 14, 1903 (Malmö correspondent).
+
+  [223] _Special Consular Reports_, XXX, 116 (1903, Christiania).
+
+  [224] _Amerika_, Jan. 8, 1904.
+
+  [225] _Letter of the Secretary of the Treasury, etc._, 1892, 45, 50,
+        65.
+
+  [226] "In an average year the Italian bankers of New York City alone
+        sent to Italy from $25,000,000 to $30,000,000. This is said
+        to have an appreciative effect upon the money market."
+        _Lippincott's Magazine_, LVIII, 234 (1896).
+
+From the first, great numbers of the immigrants have come with no other
+capital than strong and willing hands, stout hearts, and an unchanging
+land-hunger. They served for a time as laborers on the older farms, in
+town, in the lumber camps, or in railroad construction, saving their
+money, learning American ways, and acquiring some English, but as soon
+as money enough was saved, perhaps in a year, to buy forty or eighty
+acres of government land at the minimum price, a yoke of oxen or a team
+of horses, and a few necessary farm tools and implements, the
+prospective farmer moved upon new land and started out for himself.
+Under the Homestead Act of 1862 the amount of capital required for the
+beginning of operations was greatly reduced, and it was under this act
+that the lands of the northwestern States beyond the Mississippi were so
+rapidly taken up.[227]
+
+  [227] "An Act to secure Homesteads to Actual Settlers on the Public
+        Domain," _U. S. Statutes at Large_, 1861-2, 392.
+
+A typical illustration of the process described is found in Levor
+Timanson, who came with his father in 1848, at the age of eighteen, to
+Rock County, Wisconsin, where he worked for several years as farm
+laborer, carpenter, and mason. He visited Iowa and Minnesota in 1853 in
+search of satisfactory land; finding it at Spring Grove, in the latter
+State, he settled down there as a grain and stock farmer. In 1882 he
+owned 840 acres of land of which 550 acres were under cultivation.[228]
+A study of the histories of counties and townships in eastern Iowa and
+Minnesota, and of the biographies which usually accompany them, reveals
+clearly the fact that the larger part of the Scandinavian farmers
+resident in those counties in the sixties and seventies spent from one
+to five years in Wisconsin or Illinois before moving into the Farther
+West.[229] They were in turn apprentices and journeymen, and finally
+attained to the full dignity of masters of their own estates.
+
+  [228] _History of Houston County, Minnesota_, 481.
+
+  [229] _History of Goodhue County, Minnesota_; _History of Houston
+        County, Minnesota_; Sparks, _History of Winneshiek County,
+        Iowa_. See the numerous biographies in Nelson, _History of
+        the Scandinavians_, I, II.
+
+The economic as well as the social importance of the tendency of the
+Scandinavian immigrants to settle upon the unoccupied farm lands of the
+West, can scarcely be over-emphasized. It gains still more striking
+significance when the figures showing such settlement are compared with
+those of some other races which have more recently contributed largely
+to the immigrant population; for the man who owns and develops a farm
+necessarily makes a permanent, long-time investment of himself and his
+family in a reproductively extractive industry; while the wage-earner in
+the mines or in lumbering is quite likely to be a "bird of passage,"
+engaged in destructively extractive industries, with only vague notions
+of, or longings for, citizenship and its responsibilities. Professor
+John R. Commons, perhaps the best statistical authority on this subject,
+gives some striking figures illustrative of the farm-ward tendencies of
+different alien elements, showing the percentage of total number of
+males in 1890 engaged (1) on farms, (2) as farmers and planters, and (3)
+as laborers not specified:[230]
+
+                               (1)        (2)       (3)
+                            Farm Labor  Farmers   Laborers
+
+  Danes                       40.78      27.41     13.30
+  Swedes and Norwegians       38.26      27.12     14.95
+  Germans                     27.04      21.14     11.58
+  English                     18.53      14.82      7.47
+  Irish                       14.71      11.60     25.16
+  Russians                    13.19      11.03     10.96
+  Italians                     5.81       3.91     34.15
+  Hungarians                   3.92       2.13     32.44
+
+From calculations based upon the reports of the censuses of 1870, 1880,
+and 1890, it appears that one out of four of the Scandinavians was in
+the last year engaged in agriculture; of the Americans, one out of five;
+of the Germans, one out of six; and of the Irish, one out of
+twelve.[231]
+
+  [230] _Report of the Industrial Commission_, XV, 301-302. Mr. R. C.
+        Jones, assistant superintendent of Castle Garden, New York,
+        estimated, according to an interview in the _Milwaukee
+        Sentinel_, Dec. 30, 1888, that about one Swede out of a
+        hundred went to a city.
+
+  [231] See Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 246.
+
+One of the very natural consequences of the tendency of the Norse
+immigrants to seek agricultural locations, and to seek them along the
+advancing frontier, is the township and even the county, particularly in
+Minnesota and the Dakotas,[232] peopled almost solidly with the men and
+women of one nationality. The names of post-offices and townships, and
+the assessment rolls of the counties, bear witness to the density of
+these settlements which were made up of immigrants in both the first and
+second stages, composed in part of people coming from the older colonies
+like those in Dane County, Wisconsin, or Henry County, Illinois, or
+Goodhue County, Minnesota, and in part of newcomers direct from their
+Old World homes. About 1880, the names of those whose land abutted upon
+the two railroads traversing Houston County, Minnesota showed plainly
+this process of massing. Taken in order, the first twenty-two names were
+those of American, Irish, and German settlers; then followed nineteen,
+all Scandinavian save two.[233] Fillmore County, Minnesota, one of the
+older counties, largely Norwegian from its beginning, and Chisago
+County, on the eastern border of the same State, a stronghold of the
+Swedes from its first settlement, are excellent examples of the economic
+contributions made to the State by the Scandinavian element through its
+development of the wilderness into cultivated fields and prosperous
+villages. Of the transformation of Dakota before 1890, and the part of
+the sons of the North in it, a writer says: "Most of them came with just
+enough to get on Government land and build a shack.... Now they are
+loaning money to their less fortunate neighbors.... Every county has
+Norwegians who are worth from $25,000 to $50,000, all made since
+settling in Dakota."[234]
+
+  [232] _History of the Upper Mississippi Valley_, 281, 312, 416, 440,
+        511; _History of Fillmore County, Minnesota_, 344, 346;
+        _Northwest Magazine_, Oct., 1899.
+
+  [233] _History of Houston County, Minnesota_, 286.
+
+  [234] _The Northwest Magazine_, Oct., 1889, p. 32.
+
+In comparing statistics of such counties as Fillmore and Chisago,
+showing their growth in wealth and productivity, as reported in the
+decennial census, two facts regarding the nativity and parentage of the
+population must be kept clearly in mind if the full significance of the
+work of the men of alien stock is to be appreciated: first, that the
+increase of the foreign born is largely made up of adults; second, that
+the increase of the native-born is in reality an increase of the purely
+Norwegian or Swedish element, the sons and daughters, grandsons and
+granddaughters of foreign-born parents, for the census-taker, even in
+1900, did not penetrate beyond the first degree of ancestry.
+
+The tabulation given in Appendix II illustrates the economic progress of
+three Minnesota counties in which the Norse factor has been strong from
+the early days of their settlement: Fillmore, Chisago, and Otter Tail,
+one of the newer counties in the west-central part of the State. From
+these figures some conception of the influence of the North European in
+one American commonwealth may be obtained. These are not unique cases,
+but rather they are what might be called normal counties of their class,
+counties whose population is made up more or less of good native-born
+settlers from the older Eastern States.
+
+Several processes already discussed will be easily and forcibly
+illustrated by these tables. In Fillmore County, for example, the oldest
+of the three, the increase of the foreign-born element was most rapid in
+the decade 1870-1880, while during the next ten years there was a
+distinct falling off, due beyond any doubt to the rise in the price of
+lands in that county and to the opening up of new counties like Otter
+Tail where just as good land was to be had at the minimum rate. This
+falling off was paralleled in the same decade in Chisago County, while
+both the rise and decline in the number of foreign-born Norwegians
+going into Otter Tail County occur in the two later decades, 1880-1890
+and 1890-1900, when the Dakotas were filling up.
+
+The continuing additions to the acreage of farm lands and the steady
+transformation of unimproved areas into improved areas, indicate the
+extent to which the labor of alien hands was enhancing the value of the
+prairies even down to 1900, and presumably since that date. The figures
+for the increase of the cash values of the farms, including fences,
+etc., but not improvements, have been chosen because the increases in
+the total valuations of counties is not infrequently due to the rise of
+considerable villages and cities, and to the building of railroads, and
+to these enterprises in contrast with the evolution of agricultural
+values, the Scandinavian is a comparatively insignificant contributor.
+The extent to which this development of rural areas may go, is curiously
+evidenced in the names of the subdivisions of the relatively new Otter
+Tail County. Of its sixty-two townships in 1900, not less than thirteen
+bear unmistakable Scandinavian (Norwegian) names--Aastad, Aurdal,
+Norwegian Grove, St. Olaf, Tordenskjold, Throndhjem, etc.
+
+The price which the immigrant-agriculturist was willing to pay for his
+coveted free-hold farm was not measured in dollars and cents alone. In a
+very real way, the land was to become the property of the highest
+bidder, tho each one paid $1.25 per acre; the land was sure to go to
+him who would in the long run put the most of himself into the
+bargain--muscle, courage, patience, pride in his family, and the future
+of himself and his family as over against the present. It was due in no
+small degree to the composite nature of this individual investment by
+the man from Europe's Northwest, that he so promptly and intelligently
+succeeded in acquiring free of debt his farm and home in the American
+Northwest.[235]
+
+  [235] See the testimony of John Anderson, editor of _Daily
+        Skandinaven_, before the Select (Congressional) Committee
+        on Immigration and Naturalization, 1891. _House Reports,
+        No. 3472_, 51 Cong. 2 Sess., 679-683.
+
+Another reason for his nearly uniform success lies in the fact that he
+was brought up to a more careful and intensive system of farming than
+his average American neighbor. Perhaps, too, he works harder than the
+American, but hard work, long and unflinchingly continued, is a
+fundamental condition of the success of a farmer whatever his
+nationality. From the Scandinavian immigrant's point of view, he does
+not work so hard in the United States, in order to gain a given
+result,--ownership of his own farm, for illustration,--as he would have
+had to work in the land of his birth. Personal interviews with scores of
+men in various parts of the Northwest confirm the opinion expressed to
+Miss Bremer in Wisconsin so far back as 1850, when pioneering was as
+hard as at any time since the "Sloop Folk" landed in New York: "About
+seven hundred Norwegian colonists are settled in this neighborhood, all
+upon small farms.... I asked many, both men and women, whether they were
+contented; whether they were better off here or in old Norway. Nearly
+all of them replied, '_Yes_, we are better off here; we do not work so
+hard, and it is easier to gain a livelihood.'"[236]
+
+  [236] Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, I, 242.
+
+In a discussion of the competition of the immigrants with American
+laborers, an eminent scholar maintains that the Scandinavians of the
+West have succeeded where the American with a better start has
+failed.[237] He questions if this success is a survival of the fittest,
+if it has not been purchased at the expense of American labor which is
+forced elsewhere, because the Americans will not endure the hard work
+and live on the coarse fare, through which the immigrants win their
+success.[238] However true this might be as a generalization about
+immigrants as a whole, it can hardly be true of the Swedes and
+Norwegians, except in so far as they have been more willing than the
+native American to live the life of a pioneer and to stick to the soil.
+But this cannot fairly be called forcing out American labor, or driving
+the American to the wall; immigrant labor went in where there was no
+labor of any kind. Furthermore, up to 1890, there was certainly plenty
+of land for all the American, or native-born, laborers who desired to
+devote themselves to that sort of work by which the Scandinavians were
+gaining their independence. If the agricultural land of the vast West be
+looked upon as a national asset, to be held for cautious and
+discriminating distribution to examined and approved settlers, then it
+may be that the foreigner has occupied land which might have sometime
+fallen to a better man.
+
+  [237] Mayo-Smith, _Emigration and Immigration_, 146.
+
+  [238] _Ibid._, quoting a letter from Fargo, Dakota, July 24, 1887, to
+        the _New York Times_.
+
+The standard of living among the Scandinavian settlers, whether on the
+frontier or in the towns, has not been very different from that of their
+American neighbors. It cannot vary much in a sod-house on the prairie,
+in a cabin on a claim, or in a log-hut in a clearing, whether the
+occupant be of Viking or Puritan descent.[239] The food was Indian corn,
+sometimes ground in a coffee-mill, occasionally wheat, milk, fish, wild
+fowl, pork, and common vegetables; the clothing was often primitive and
+always rough, and in the early days, at least, "men in wooden shoes and
+home-made woolen jackets were no uncommon sights at their religious
+meetings, or even when they were locked in holy matrimony before the
+altar."[240] But with prosperity, Americanization, and the settling up
+of the region about them, they took to comforts and luxuries just as
+soon as they could afford them. During the autumn of 1886 the writer
+spent more than six weeks in the family of a well-to-do Danish farmer in
+central Minnesota, and made frequent calls at the homes of Swedish and
+American neighbors; very little perceptible difference could be observed
+in the standards of living, whether judged by furniture, dress, or food.
+In the gradations up to the wealthy families of the larger towns and
+cities, the same statement would be true. If any modifications were to
+be made, it would be that Scandinavians set a more bountiful table, and
+give more attention than the Americans to festivals and celebrations.
+
+  [239] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, ch. xi; Strömme, _Hvorledes
+        Halvor blev Prest_,--an excellent picture of life among the
+        Norwegians in Wisconsin and Minnesota; Foss, _Tobias: a Story
+        of the Northwest_.
+
+  [240] _Scandinavia_, I, 142.
+
+The men of Scandinavian stock have by no means devoted themselves
+exclusively to agriculture, tho it has already been shown how dominant
+with them is the desire for the possession of land and the independence
+which that possession brings. In business--trade, manufacturing, and
+finance,--and in the professions, in all that differentiates the village
+or urban community from time rural, they have, especially since 1890,
+played an active part. A rising percentage of skilled laborers and of
+those who had in the Old World experience with business affairs, marked
+the immigration from Northern Europe after 1880. The accumulated wealth
+of the earlier immigrants sought investment in the thriving towns of the
+newer commonwealths of the Northwest. Villages which sprang up along
+railroads, became cities with the advent of other lines; water power has
+developed fast; the forests were to be turned into lumber and its
+further manufactured products. The Scandinavian villages and wards of
+great cities evolved their own stores, shops, factories, and banks just
+as they did their churches, lodges, and other social organizations,
+manned by men of ambition, ability, skill, and resourcefulness.
+
+Both in the cities like Chicago, Minneapolis, Rockford, and Madison, and
+in the more homogeneous villages of the solidly Scandinavian counties,
+Norwegian and Swedish merchants and tradesmen, catering to Americans as
+well as to persons of their own nationality, rapidly achieved success
+and fortune. Seven years after landing, a Swedish immigrant is
+reported in 1873 to have built up in Anoka, Minnesota, the largest
+grocery establishment in that section, doing an annual business of
+$100,000.[241] In the city of Minneapolis one of the largest department
+stores west of Chicago, and probably the greatest Scandinavian business
+house in the country, is that of S. E. Olson & Co., which does a yearly
+business of about $2,000,000, and in the height of the season employs
+more than 700 persons.[242] Scattered over the Northwest are scores of
+enterprising Scandinavian individuals and firms engaged in business as
+merchants, grain-dealers, contractors, etc., whose annual business
+passes $100,000.[243]
+
+  [241] _History of the Upper Mississippi Valley_, 228.
+
+  [242] Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 204; Nelson, _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, I, 466.
+
+  [243] _Ibid._, I, 504, 467; II, 160, 164, 193, 229, 233, 248, 261;
+        Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 202, 203.
+
+The manufacturing industries in which the Swedes and Norwegians play the
+more active part are those closely related to agriculture and the
+forest--the cutting and sawing of lumber, the manufacture of furniture,
+and the manufacture of agricultural implements. By foresight and shrewd
+investments in timber lands in Wisconsin and Minnesota, a certain
+Norwegian immigrant accumulated nearly a million dollars; a Swedish
+immigrant in like manner built up the C. A. Smith Lumber Company of
+Minneapolis, one of the great manufacturers of the upper Mississippi
+Valley, with works occupying seventy acres, employing upwards of 800
+men, and with branch lumber yards situated in western Minnesota and in
+the Dakotas.[244]
+
+  [244] S. A. Quale, a Norwegian immigrant of 1869, and C. A. Smith, a
+        Swedish immigrant of 1867. _The North_, May 21, 1890;
+        Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 191.
+
+The manufacture of furniture is the chief occupation of the Swedes of
+Rockford, Illinois, who comprise fully one-third of that city's
+population of 30,000. In 1875 fifteen Swedes organized the Forest City
+Furniture Company, with a capital of $50,000; ten years later, Rockford
+was the second city in the country in the production of furniture, and
+in 1893 there were more than twenty furniture companies with a capital
+varying from $50,000 to $200,000. Nearly all of these companies were
+organized on the co-operative basis, nearly all were composed of Swedes,
+and nearly all were earning a clear profit of 20 per-cent and
+upwards.[245] Other notable instances of successful Scandinavian
+manufacturers are John A. Johnson, whose works for making agricultural
+implements in Madison, Wisconsin, employed about 300 men; the great
+printing and publishing house of John Anderson & Company of Chicago,
+from which are issued the daily and weekly editions of "Skandinaven,"
+and the Swedish-American Publishing Company of Minneapolis, publishing
+the widely circulated "Svenska Amerikanska Posten."[246]
+
+  [245] Kæding, _Rockfords Svenskar_, 67, 95; _The North_, Jan. 8, 1890,
+        July 12, 1893.
+
+  [246] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, II, 209; Söderström,
+        _Minneapolis Minnen_, 181-189.
+
+The economic progress of the immigrants from the Northlands may well be
+gauged by the number of public and private banking establishments in the
+Northwest controlled by them. Surprisingly numerous are the men who,
+after gaining a competency as merchants, grain-dealers (one of these
+built twenty-five elevators along the Great Northern Railway), land
+speculators, and lumbermen, have turned to banking as their communities
+developed. The market for capital was active, ready to absorb large or
+small amounts; rates of interest ran from ten to twenty per cent.; the
+thrift and honesty of the Norse folk were equivalent to a bond. Hence
+small banks with $25,000 and $50,000 capital multiplied, not always on
+the soundest basis, it should be said, though this does not imply
+dishonesty. In Minneapolis, between 1874 and 1900, the names of no less
+than six Scandinavian banks appear, the largest becoming the strong
+Swedish American National Bank with a capital of $250,000.[247] Smaller
+cities like Sioux City and Boone, Iowa, have developed similar sound
+banks capitalized for $100,000. Not all Scandinavian bankers, however,
+have escaped the temptations of "high finance," though the total of
+failures is comparatively small. One of the most notorious and shameful
+examples of bank-wrecking in recent years occurred in Chicago in 1906,
+when Paul O. Stensland, for years the trusted and honored and admired
+president of the Milwaukee Avenue State Bank, the depository of hundreds
+of working men and small tradesmen, wrecked the bank through
+speculations in real estate, fled to Africa, and was brought back and
+placed in the Joliet prison for a term of fifteen years.[248]
+
+  [247] Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 206; Nelson, _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, II, 164, 228.
+
+  [248] The Chicago papers for August, September, and October give full
+        details of the wrecking of the bank and the career of its
+        president. See _Chicago Tribune_, August 9 ff., 1906.
+
+As the regions into which the Scandinavian immigrants have gone so
+determinedly as agricultural settlers have gradually become more complex
+in their economic structure, these men and women have once more
+illustrated their notable capacity to adapt themselves to the new
+conditions and to share in new advantages. The second and third
+generation will probably develop much the same tendency city-ward which
+the Americans of the same class show so markedly; and they will take
+their share of the honors and emoluments of business, manufacturing,
+banking, the technical professions, and the so-called learned
+professions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+THE RELIGIOUS AND INTELLECTUAL STANDPOINT
+
+
+The social results of the settlement of a body of aliens in any country,
+as compared with the economic, are far more undefinable and elusive,
+even when the settlement is compact and homogenous, like that of the
+Dutch in New York or the French in Louisiana. But when a particular
+element, like the Irish or the Scandinavian, in a complex population, is
+distributed over a wide area, with accessions running through
+three-quarters of a century, the problem of its social influence and
+importance becomes vastly more difficult. No study or observation of
+such a well-established racial group, outside of the purely statistical,
+at best can reach far beyond an impression or an individual opinion; it
+cannot arrive at a convincing and conclusive scientific deduction.[249]
+Looked at in its length and breadth, the question of social results of
+Scandinavian immigration takes various forms. Have the foreign-born
+citizen and his immediate descendants adapted themselves rapidly and
+vitally to the best American customs in business, politics, education,
+and religion? Have they learned English quickly? What has been their
+attitude towards such questions as intemperance, slavery, and public
+honesty? Are they re-enforcing the best standards of public and private
+morality prevailing in the communities into which they come?
+
+  [249] Hall, _Immigration_, ch. viii.
+
+Fundamental to this discussion, is the general effect of the process of
+immigration and new settlement, upon the physical and intellectual state
+of the immigrant and his offspring. It has already been pointed out that
+the immigrants of the nineteenth century, like those hardy souls of the
+sixteenth, who left England, Holland, France, or Sweden, were the more
+adventurous and determined men and women of their parishes, and that the
+incidents and anxieties of settling up affairs in their old homes and of
+getting off for America, would stir to quicker thinking the minds of
+even the slow and inert. Then came the influence of adjustment to the
+ways of a new and larger world, with its greater distance, its more
+rapid communication, its more strenuous activities, its new language,
+and its different climate and diet; all these re-enforced the original,
+quickened impulse, and of necessity affected both subtly and powerfully
+the mind and body of two generations.
+
+The change has in general been for the better, tho some observers think
+they see a retrogression, especially in physical respects. A Norwegian
+physician who spent about nine months in the United States in 1892,
+wrote for a Christiania medical journal an article in which he declared:
+"That the Norwegian race in the United States is declining physically,
+every one, I think, who has spent some time among our emigrated
+countrymen there must admit. But the change is a slow one." The causes,
+as he saw them, were the unwholesome climate of the Northwest, the
+unsuitable food of the farmers, the cold, damp houses of the prairies,
+and the abuse of alcoholic liquors and tobacco. By way of final summary
+of opinions, he states that "the general rule is that, these dark sides
+to the contrary notwithstanding, the social conditions in America and
+its democratic institutions are conducive to individual thinking thereby
+contributing to the development of individual talent, great or small as
+that may be."[250]
+
+  [250] Dr. E. Kraft, "The Physical Degeneration of the Norwegian Race
+        in North America," _The North_, Jan. 3, 1893,--translation from
+        _Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben_; Ch. Gronvald, "The Effects
+        of the Immigration on the Norwegian Immigrants," appendix
+        to the _Sixth Annual Report of the State Board of Health of
+        Minnesota_, (1878), II, 507-534.
+
+The views of Dr. Kraft were more or less disputed by several Norwegian
+physicians in the United States, in _The North_ for January and
+February, 1893. Dr. Harold Graff, writing to the periodical in which Dr.
+Kraft's article originally appeared, says: "With astonishing rapidity,
+the wide mouth and ungainly nose of the specific Norwegian peasant type
+become modified and disappear, the difference between the physiognomy
+and facial expression of parents and children being often bewilderingly
+great.... I have interviewed some of the oldest and most experienced
+physicians practising in this country, and also other intelligent
+Norwegians who have travelled among their countrymen in the States,
+without as yet having heard any divergent opinion whatever. All agree
+that the Norwegian race in every respect is progressing in both mind and
+body."[251] Others, who were not so sure of the physical improvement,
+agree as to the intellectual quickening. In a word, if the transplanting
+of the tree has not certainly produced an improved trunk or foliage, it
+has bettered the quality of the fruit. The next logical step is to
+attempt to estimate the value of such fruit in the American market.
+
+  [251] _The North_, Jan. 18, 1893, translating the article mentioned.
+
+The two obvious ways of determining the influence of a foreign element,
+are to compare it with some other foreign-born constituent longer and
+better known, and to compare it with the native American. The latter is
+the fairer criterion, but it is not easy to ascertain and define what
+are the purely American characteristics with which comparison is to be
+made. Statistics on social matters are so incomplete that reliance must
+be placed upon the consensus of opinion of thoughtful, sympathetic
+observers and students of American life, whether they be statesmen and
+philosophers bred in the United States, or scholarly, penetrating
+foreigners like James Bryce and Alexander de Toqueville.[252] Such men
+of insight agree that the American ideal comprises love of freedom,
+independence, and equality; respect for law, government, education, and
+social morality (including reverence for the family and the home); and
+lastly a willingness to share the common burden and, if need be, to make
+a common sacrifice for the permanent welfare of the commonwealth.
+
+  [252] Bryce, _American Commonwealth_ (3rd ed.), ch. lxxx; Matthews,
+        _American Character_, 20-34; Roosevelt, _American Ideals_, ch.
+        i, ii.
+
+In acquiring the use of English and in maintaining high standards of
+education, the Scandinavians have an unimpeachable record which no other
+foreign, non-English-speaking element can equal. Illiteracy in Norway
+and Sweden is almost unknown. Taken together, these two kingdoms have
+less than one per-cent of illiteracy, and among the recruits in Sweden
+in 1896 only .13% were unlettered, and only .63% were unable to
+write.[253] Personal acquaintance with many hundreds of Scandinavians,
+on both sides of the Atlantic, has failed to reveal to the writer a
+single adult who was unable to read and write.
+
+  [253] _Statesman's Year Book, 1900_, 1049; Kiddle & Schem, _Dictionary
+        of Education_, 452. In the latter work, Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
+        and Switzerland are marked with asterisks, signifying that they
+        are practically without illiteracy. The contrast of these
+        figures with the percentages of illiteracy of some other
+        European countries is very striking. In 1890 the percentage of
+        illiterates in Austria was 40%, in Hungary, 54%, in Italy, in
+        1897, among conscripts, 37.3% (reduced from 56.7% in 1871), and
+        among those persons marrying, males, 32.9%, females, 52.13%
+        (reduced respectively from 37.73% and 76.73% in 1871). For
+        Russia the percentage is probably about 80%, perhaps as high as
+        90%. See _Statesman's Year Book, 1900_, 374-375, 392, 744-745.
+        Statistical returns relating to German army recruits indicate
+        that in 1896-7 only about .11% could neither read nor write.
+        _Ibid._, 592. See also, Hall, _Immigration_, 46, 48, 54, 61,
+        141.
+
+One of the very first matters to receive attention in a Scandinavian
+settlement in the United States, has been the establishment of a school,
+and, as speedily as possible, the instruction has been given in English,
+partly because the school laws of most of the States would not recognize
+a public school conducted in a foreign language, and partly because the
+settlers desired to have the children know English.[254] For a year or
+two in some of the isolated communities, as in Arendahl, Fillmore
+County, Minnesota, in 1857-8, it was necessary to conduct the schools in
+Swedish or Norwegian; but only rarely has any attempt been made
+to continue systematic, regular instruction exclusively in the
+mother-tongue by the maintenance of year-long parish schools. The
+immigrants have frequently been insistent, and properly so, upon some
+scheme by which they might be able to educate their children in the use
+of the mother-tongue; but schools for this purpose have usually
+supplemented rather than supplanted the ordinary public school.[255] In
+a very few localities, like the older settlements in Goodhue County and
+Fillmore County, Minnesota, Allamakee County, Iowa, and Dane County,
+Wisconsin, parish schools are still maintained throughout the year.[256]
+
+  [254] _History of Fillmore County, Minnesota_, 346, 463,--a Norwegian
+        school for one year in a private house, then an English school;
+        Sparks, _History of Winneshiek County, Iowa_, 16-17.
+
+  [255] For a discussion of the Bennett Law in Wisconsin, see pp.
+        167 ff.
+
+  [256] _Beretning om det syttende Aarsmöde for den Forenede norsk
+        lutherske Kirke i Amerika_, 1906,--"Parochialraporter for
+        Aaret 1905."
+
+The church schools are more commonly a sort of summer vacation school
+supported either by the persons whose children attend, or at the expense
+of the whole congregation; in them are taught the language of the
+parents and the preacher, the church catechism, and something of church
+history; sometimes especial attention, as in the case of the Danish
+Grundtvigian "high schools," is given to keeping alive the traditions of
+the European kingdom from which sprang the immigrants. The teacher of
+both the language and the doctrines of religion is customarily a student
+in some theological seminary of the denomination to which the
+congregation belongs. The Lutherans have kept up these vacation schools
+more consistently than any other Scandinavian church. The report of the
+parochial schools of the United Norwegian Lutheran Church for 1905
+showed that on the average almost thirty days were devoted to the church
+school in each of the 750 congregations reporting.[257]
+
+  [257] "Sammendrag af Parochialraporter", _Beretning om det syttende
+        Aarsmöde for den Forenede norsk lutherske Kirke i Amerika_,
+        1906, LVI; J. J. Skordalsvold, in Nelson, _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, I, 241.
+
+The clergy are mainly active in this mild paternalism, upon which the
+younger people not infrequently look with disfavor, for to the second
+generation it appears an unnecessary perpetuation of an un-American
+custom, a scheme for emphasizing peculiarities and differences rather
+than a means of hastening the process of amalgamation. Sometimes the
+younger men have revolted and broken entirely with the Lutheran church,
+identifying themselves with American congregations, or drifting out on
+the wide sea of religious indifference.
+
+The loyalty of the Scandinavians to the public school system has been of
+far-reaching consequence to the immigrants themselves as well as to
+American society. There is always a more or less strongly marked
+tendency among aliens speaking a foreign language to congregate in
+groups in the country or in certain wards in large towns and cities, and
+out of this tendency springs a sort of clannishness which cannot be
+avoided and which is not peculiar to any class, for the immigrants
+naturally follow the lines of least resistance. They go to those whom
+they know, to those whose speech they can understand, to those from
+whose experience they may draw large drafts of suggestion and help. But
+this clannishness with the Swedes, Norwegians and Danes, has been but a
+stage in their evolution out of which, through the gates of the English
+language, public schools, naturalization, and increased prosperity, they
+have passed to broader relations. The filling up of the Scandinavian
+quarters of great cities like Chicago, Minneapolis, and St. Paul, may
+modify the effect of their persistent attachment to the public school;
+but so far the public school is the great foe to clannishness, and
+loyalty to it one of the best evidences of the desire of these people
+from the Northern lands to become Americanized. In the cities of
+Minneapolis and St. Paul, with their large Scandinavian population,
+there was not in 1907 a single parish in which the parochial school
+lasted through the year, and only a few in which vacation schools were
+maintained.
+
+In higher education the Scandinavians have allowed their denominational
+zeal to outrun their judgment. They have founded numerous seminaries and
+so-called colleges, but almost invariably as a part of the necessary
+equipment of a religious denomination, for how could a self-respecting
+sect, no matter how young or how slightly differentiated from its older
+brethren, permit its children to attend the schools of those whose
+denominational beliefs or practices had become objectionable enough to
+warrant a schism in the church? A few of these institutions, like Luther
+College, at Decorah, Iowa, Gustavus Adolphus College at St. Peter,
+Minnesota, Augustana College at Rock Island, Illinois, and Bethany
+College at Lindsborg, Kansas, have maintained an excellent standard of
+work and exercise a wide and beneficent influence.[258] The great
+majority, however, have simply wasted resources by the multiplication of
+ambitious, struggling, poorly-equipped, so-called colleges, with little
+or no endowment, and often dependent upon the congregations of the
+denomination which gave them birth.[259]
+
+  [258] See catalogs of these institutions.
+
+  [259] Several of the Norwegian and Swedish weekly papers supported by
+        the different denominations publish regularly lists of donors to
+        particular schools, stating the amount of money, or the nature
+        of the articles given, enumerating the books, quantities of
+        fuel, clothing, etc.
+
+One of the results of the excessive splitting-up of the Scandinavian
+churches is that the energies which ought to be concentrated are
+frittered away on unnecessary schools. A separate denominational school
+and a family paper seem to be indispensable parts of the machinery of
+every newly organized sect, no matter how young or how small or how poor
+it may be.[260] The number of these institutions continually varies with
+the ups and downs of the denominations trying to support them. In 1893,
+Mr. J. J. Skordalsvold, a graduate of the University of Minnesota, put
+the number of Scandinavian colleges, schools, and seminaries in the
+United States at thirty-six, with an attendance of about five
+thousand.[261] Sixteen of these, with an attendance of twenty-five
+hundred, one-half of the total, were located in Minnesota. By 1900 the
+sixteen had grown to twenty schools, having property worth $500,000, one
+hundred and sixty teachers, and three thousand students.[262] In that
+state, however, and in others like North Dakota, these schools are
+likely to follow the same course as many of the schools of other
+pioneering Protestant denominations, and become little more than
+preparatory schools on the one hand, or theological seminaries on the
+other, leaving to the State university the maintenance of higher
+education in every field save arts and theology. Even as secondary
+schools, not many of them will be likely to survive the third generation
+of the original immigrants, unless they are much better endowed than any
+one of them is at the present time.[263] The Red Wing Seminary (Hauge
+Synod) of Red Wing, Minnesota, founded in 1878, is essentially an
+ordinary private secondary school with a theological course attached,
+and three-fourths of its work is conducted in English.[264] Bethany
+College at Lindsborg, Kansas, one of the three prosperous Swedish
+colleges, and perhaps the most ambitious, is substantially an
+English-speaking college, with nine departments of instruction, and in
+1912 a registration of 919. Only in the classes in Swedish language and
+literature is the instruction given in Swedish, tho "Swedish is required
+of all students preparing to enter the ministerial work of our Swedish
+Evangelical Lutheran Church."[265] Luther College, the Norwegian
+institution at Decorah, Iowa, has followed along the same course only
+not quite so far. Several years ago the proportion between English and
+Norwegian as media of instruction was slightly in favor of the English
+in the college classes; in the classes in the preparatory department,
+in the literary societies, and in the conversation of the students,
+English was decidedly predominant.[266] The practice of this, the
+oldest, and in some respects the soundest and most influential, of the
+Scandinavian colleges, is sure to be adopted by the lesser schools which
+survive their adolescence.
+
+  [260] Bille, _History of the Danes in America_, 20-24,--an excellent
+        account of some of these attempts.
+
+  [261] (Transcriber's Note: This footnote does not exist in the
+        original work.)
+
+  [262] Nelson, _Scandinavians in the United States_ (2nd ed.), 317 ff.
+
+  [263] _The World Almanac and Encyclopedia_, 1914, 599-609.
+
+                               Instructors  Students  Prod. Fds.  Income
+
+        Augsburg Seminary           8         173      40,000     20,000
+        Augustana College          31         629     414,356    101,923
+        Bethany College (Kan.)     44         893      55,777     93,166
+        Gustavus Adolphus College  23         348      75,000     35,328
+        Luther College             16         213     272,408     37,000
+        St. Olaf College           32         550     250,000     74,000
+
+  [264] Interview with Professor G. O. Brohough, August, 1906. See
+        Nelson, _Scandinavians in the United States_, I, 179-180.
+
+  [265] _Catalogue of Bethany College, 31st Academic Year_ (1912), 54.
+
+  [266] A. Estrem, "A Norwegian-American College," _Midland Monthly_, I,
+        605-611.
+
+From a religious standpoint, the most noteworthy characteristic of
+Scandinavians wherever found, is their intense Protestantism. Everywhere
+and always they are uncompromising enemies of the Roman Catholic church,
+and there are barely enough Catholics among them in Europe and in the
+United States to prove that it is possible to convert one of them to
+that faith. In fact, their dislike of Catholicism is an instinct coming
+down from Reformation times rather than a matter of experience or
+close-at-hand observation; but so strong is this feeling that it colors,
+consciously or unconsciously, their relations in politics and society in
+the United States. Their distrust of the Irish is at bottom more a
+religious than a racial instinct, even when it takes an active form.
+While this dislike and suspicion are still real and large, it has
+undoubtedly been reduced by the breaking-up of the old rigid lines of
+Lutheranism, which has taken place in the last two decades in the United
+States.
+
+Each of the three peninsular kingdoms of Northern Europe has an
+established Lutheran church, administered by bishops, which holds still
+the great majority of the people. Toleration has been generally
+practiced for a half century, the sole exception being the ban against
+Jesuits in Norway.[267] Of all the Protestant churches, none is more
+rigidly orthodox than the Lutheran, none is more unwilling to admit
+changes in its traditional creed; only a few years ago, the Norwegian
+Synod in America re-affirmed its belief in the literal inspiration of
+the Bible. Yet in spite of this conservatism, the Lutherans settled in
+the United States have invariably rejected the episcopal form of
+government, and have organized upon a more or less democratic basis. No
+matter how loyal they were to the Establishment in the Old World, a
+bishop has not appeared to be necessary to their happiness or salvation
+in the New. The Lutheran Church proper has kept within its folds a much
+larger percentage of Swedes than of Norwegians in the United States, the
+characteristic independence of the latter leading many of them even
+farther than mere separation from the mother-church. The persistence of
+the centrifugal force of dissent shows itself again and again in the
+violent polemics and divisions which have marked the course of Norwegian
+church history in America.[268] While this divisiveness may in some
+degree be due to the fashion set by the early settlers of whom many were
+dissenters, probably the deeper cause is to be found in the general
+freedom from religious restriction and prescription which characterizes
+the whole United States and especially the West.
+
+  [267] _The Statesman's Year Book, 1900_, 491, 1048, 1062.
+
+  [268] Gjerset, "_The United Norwegian Lutheran Church_," in Nelson,
+        _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 229-242.
+
+Even the more extreme sects, in regard to belief and practice, have been
+recruited from among the Scandinavians both before and since their
+coming to this country. The Mormons were early at work as missionaries
+in Northern Europe and, as has been stated above, won many converts,
+particularly in Denmark, from whose immigration Utah mainly profited. In
+1900 Utah had a total foreign-born population of 53,777, of whom 9132
+were Danes; 7025, Swedes; and 2128, Norwegians. The real result of the
+missionary work, however, is better seen in the figures for persons
+having both parents born in a specified country and residing in Utah in
+1900: Danes, 18,963; Swedes, 12,047; Norwegians, 3,466; total,
+34,476.[269]
+
+  [269] _Twelfth Census, 1900_, _Population_, Pt. I, Tables 33 and 39;
+        H. H. Bancroft, _Utah_, 441, 431; Montgomery, _The Work Among
+        the Scandinavians_, 8. Mr. Montgomery, the superintendent of
+        Minnesota for the American Home Missionary Society (1886),
+        laments the fact that very large numbers of the Scandinavians
+        "have become converts to Mormonism, and have 'gathered' to
+        Utah," and adds further: "I have before me the official
+        statistics of the Mormon church (not easily obtained) giving a
+        report of their missionary work in Scandinavia for each year
+        from 1851 to 1881. They report that their converts in these
+        lands during these thirty-one years reached the enormous total
+        of 132,766 persons, and that of these 21,000 emigrated to Utah."
+        From a beginning of four elders of the Mormon church at work in
+        Denmark, Sweden, and Norway in 1850, the force increased to
+        sixty-one missionaries at work in 1881.
+
+The American churches and missionary societies were not unmindful of the
+needs of the Scandinavians scattered over the Middle West in the early
+days of its development, and in zealous and effective fashion gave them
+aid. The work of the Hedström brothers in New York and in the West,
+already described, reflects credit on the Methodist Church. Once at
+least, help came to them from an unexpected source: Jenny Lind, the
+"Swedish Nightingale," devoted to charity the proceeds of a concert in
+New York, in November, 1850, and among the items of the distribution of
+the total of $5073.20 by a committee, is "To the Relief of the Poor
+Swedes and Norwegians in the city of New York per the Rev. Mr. Hedström,
+$273.20. To the distribution of Swedish Bibles and Testaments, in New
+York."[270] Besides the Bethel Ship in New York Harbor (1845), this same
+church established a Scandinavian mission in the Rock River Conference,
+in Illinois, in 1849, and two others in Iowa and Wisconsin in 1850.
+Three years later the report showed two Swedish missions with four
+missionaries, and two Norwegian missions with four missionaries.[271]
+
+  [270] Rosenberg, _Jenny Lind in America_, 79.
+
+  [271] Simpson, _Cyclopedia of Methodism_, 785.
+
+The American Lutheran churches undertook to aid their co-religionists,
+and in 1850 the Pittsburg Synod and the Joint Synod of Ohio each sent
+one of its ministers into the Northwest, but the epidemic of cholera
+caused them to hurry back to their former homes.[272] The real support
+of some of the immigrant Lutheran missionaries came from the American
+Home Missionary Society (Congregational). One of the men thus assisted
+was Paul Anderson (Norland) who came from Norway in 1843, and received
+a part of his education in the new Congregational college at Beloit. He
+was chosen pastor of the first Norwegian Lutheran Church in Chicago in
+1848, and journeyed to Albany, New York, to be ordained by a Lutheran
+minister, but he nevertheless served under a commission from the
+Congregational Society, and made reports to it for several years.[273]
+
+  [272] _The North_, Aug. 30, 1893, quoting from _The Workman_.
+
+  [273] Jensson, _American Lutheran Biographies_, 25 ff; _The Home
+        Missionary_, XXII, 263, 264; XXIII, 119. In Anderson's report
+        for 1850 is an account of a visit to Dane County, Wisconsin,
+        where 'one of the Formalists,' after five years of labor had
+        failed to bring much enlightenment. "There are some four
+        thousand or more Norwegians in one settlement, about
+        three-quarters of whom are members of this man's church, and the
+        rest are sheep without a shepherd. They had had preaching there
+        for the last five years, but such gross immorality I had never
+        witnessed before.... We have no reasonable ground to hope that a
+        single individual of those three thousand souls is converted to
+        God; for all are intemperate and profane.... Of all I saw (and I
+        saw a great many) two out of three were intoxicated, or had been
+        drinking so that it was offensive to come within the sphere
+        poisoned by their breath; and of every two I heard talking
+        together one or both profaned their Maker."
+
+In a similar manner this Society supported for several years the
+missionary labors of Lars Paul Esbjörn, a graduate of Upsala University,
+who was ordained a Lutheran clergyman when he emigrated in 1849, and
+likewise the labors of T. N. Hasselquist. Esbjörn was appointed a
+missionary of the Society in December, 1849, on the recommendation of
+the Central Association of Congregational Ministers of Illinois, to whom
+he presented his credentials and by whom he was examined and received
+into the Association.[274] He was re-appointed year by year, making
+reports from 1851 to 1854.[275] Hasselquist makes acknowledgment of his
+obligations to the Society in a letter of July, 1853, saying that he
+rejoices "in connection with your in the highest sense benevolent
+Society, without which it would have been impossible for me to do for my
+scattered countrymen what I have done.... I give humble thanks to the
+Home Missionary Association which out of Christian benevolence helps to
+build up the Kingdom of Christ among scattered Swedes who are almost all
+very poor, but still love the word of God."[276] In 1852 the Society
+appointed the Rev. Ole Anderson [Andrewson?] to the charge of the
+Scandinavian church in Racine, Wisconsin, and two years later he reports
+to the Society from La Salle County, Illinois.[277]
+
+  [274] _The Home Missionary_, XXIII, 250, 263.
+
+  [275] _Ibid._, XXIV, 238; XXIV, 287.
+
+  [276] _The Home Missionary_, XXVI, 73.
+
+  [277] _Ibid._, XXV, 77; XXVI, 268.
+
+Since the Civil War and the great increase in the numbers of immigrants,
+the home missionary efforts of the Methodists, Congregationalists, and
+Baptists have been carried on with persistence, if not always with
+perfect wisdom. In 1911 the Methodists had five Swedish Conferences with
+222 churches, a membership of about 18,000, and property valued at
+upwards of $2,000,000, and two Norwegian-Danish Conferences, with 119
+churches, 6,300 members, and property worth $400,000.[278] The cost of
+this work to the Methodist Missionary Society is not far from $50,000
+per year.[279] The Baptists began their proselyting work in Norway and
+Sweden, and have prosecuted it steadily in the Northwest since the
+establishment of the first Swedish Baptist church in Rock Island,
+Illinois, in 1852. In 1912 the church reports showed 18 Swedish
+conferences, 374 churches, 28,000 members, and current income of
+about $350,000, and also eleven Norwegian-Danish conferences, 94
+churches, 5,900 members, and current income of $65,500.[280] The
+Congregationalists have pushed their denominational interests in like
+manner, and in 1913 had about one hundred churches, with rather more
+than six thousand members.[281] Besides these churches regularly
+connected with the Congregational organization, there are about one
+hundred congregations of the Swedish Mission Union, and the group of
+independent congregations whose faith and practice are closely allied
+with those of the Congregationalists.[282] The Unitarian church has
+endeavored to organize congregations, spending $25,000 on one church in
+Minneapolis in sixteen years.[283] A few Protestant Episcopal parishes
+also exist among the Swedes, chiefly in the large cities.[284]
+
+  [278] Liljegren, "Historical Review of Scandinavian Methodist in the
+        United States," in Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I,
+        208; _The Methodist Year Book_, 1912, 42-45.
+
+  [279] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 337; _The Methodist
+        Year Book_, 1912, 90-92.
+
+  [280] Newman, _A Century of Baptist Achievement_, 126; Nelson (and
+        Peterson), _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 202; _Annual of
+        the Northern Baptist Convention_, 1913, 189.
+
+  [281] _Congregational Year Book_, 1914. Cf. Nelson, _Scandinavians
+        in the United States_, I, 346; Montgomery, _Work among the
+        Scandinavians_ (1888), and a _"Wind from the Holy Spirit" in
+        Norway and Sweden_, 7-8, 109-112.
+
+  [282] Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 231-236.
+
+  [283] _Cosmopolitan_, Oct., 1890; Nelson, _Scandinavians in the United
+        States_, I, 337; Söderstsröm, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 249-250.
+
+  [284] Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 237-241.
+
+The three denominations first mentioned have for many years maintained,
+in their respective western theological seminaries, departments or
+professorships for the education of young men for ministerial service
+among the immigrants from the Northlands. At the Chicago Theological
+Seminary (Congregationalist) the Dano-Norwegian department was organized
+in 1884, with one professor and two students; in the following year a
+Swedish department was added, the professor being chosen from the
+Swedish Free Mission Church. In 1906 these two departments had each two
+professors and respectively thirteen and twenty-seven students, and
+published a religious paper, _Evangelisten_.[285] Besides the Garrett
+Biblical Institute (Methodist), Northwestern University has two similar
+departments, with thirty-one students in the Swedish, and sixteen in the
+Norwegian-Danish section.[286] In the Divinity School of the University
+of Chicago (Baptist), the same departments appeared up to 1912; in 1897
+there were twenty-two students in the Dano-Norwegian Department, and
+thirty-five in the Swedish; for 1905, the corresponding figures were
+twenty-four students, with one professor and two instructors, and
+thirty-four students, with two professors and one instructor. Both
+departments were dropped after 1913.[287]
+
+  [285] _Year book of the Chicago Theological Seminary_, 1906;
+        Montgomery, _The Work Among the Scandinavians_ (1888), 9-12, 22.
+
+  [286] _Catalogue of the Northwestern University_, 1913-1914, 379-380,
+        478.
+
+  [287] _Annual Register of the University of Chicago_, 1904-5;
+        1912-1913, 311.
+
+So far as the movements represented by these missionary endeavors and by
+the organization of schools help to furnish church privileges to those
+beyond the reach of other Protestant churches--since the Catholics are
+out of the question--they are admirable, accomplishing much good. But
+when they cease to be efforts to extend religious opportunities, when
+they are mainly devoted to swinging men and women already Christian from
+one denomination to another, they simply add one more factor to the
+inexcusable competition which too often characterizes the home
+missionary activity, even when it does not degenerate into a mere
+scramble for denominational advantage. The results in very many cases
+have been sadly disproportionate to the expenditures.[288]
+
+  [288] Nelson (and Skordalsvold), "Historical Review of the
+        Scandinavian Churches in Minnesota," _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, I, 335-349.
+
+Not all the forces, however, have been centrifugal; the divided body of
+Lutherans has attempted, with varying success, to effect permanent
+union. Since 1890 the centripetal reaction has been strong, gaining
+impetus from the highly significant efforts of the branches of the
+Norwegian Lutherans in a synod held in that year in Minneapolis, to
+create a single organization. The United Norwegian Lutheran Church,
+formed June 13, 1890, was made up of the Norwegian Augustana Synod, the
+Norwegian-Danish Conference, and the Anti-Missourian Brotherhood, thus
+becoming the strongest of all the American Norwegian churches, numbering
+1,122 congregations, about 120,000 members, and having property valued
+at more than $1,500,000.[289] But old antagonisms and animosities,
+generated in the bitterness of religious controversy, were not easily
+overcome, and disputes soon arose to disturb the life of the United
+Church. The chief of these related to the control of certain educational
+institutions, especially Augsburg Seminary (theological) in Minneapolis.
+So acute was the factional quarrel that it was taken into the courts in
+1893, and continued on until 1898, when the "Augsburg strife" was
+settled out of court by mutual agreement. Meantime the Augsburg party
+had withdrawn from the United Church, taking some 40,000 members,
+keeping the Seminary, worth about $60,000, but giving up to the United
+Church the endowment fund of about $40,000.[290] In spite of factions,
+secessions, and the expulsion of twelve congregations, the United Church
+as a whole prospered. Its annual report for 1905 gave the following
+statistics: congregations, more or less closely affiliated, 1,325;
+ministers and professors, 453; communicants, 267,000; property,
+$715,000.[291] While the United Church was the largest, there were no
+fewer than four other branches of Norwegian Lutherans in 1914.[292]
+
+  [289] _Ibid._, I, 236 ff.; Jacobs, _History of the Evangelical
+        Lutheran Church in the United States_, 513; _Minneapolis
+        Tribune_, June 14, 1890.
+
+  [290] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 217-224, 263; _U. S.
+        Eleventh Census_, 1890, Churches, 452.
+
+  [291] _Beretning om det syttende Aarsmöde for den Forenede norsk
+        lutherske Kirke i Amerika_, 140 and LVI.
+
+  [292] _World Almanac and Encyclopedia, 1914_, 538-539.
+
+In contrast with the Norwegians, the Swedes have manifested a
+commendable unity in keeping the faith once delivered to them by the
+fathers, the chief exception being the Swedish Evangelical Mission
+Covenant, which can scarcely be called Lutheran. The great Swedish
+Lutheran Augustana Synod, one of the constituent members of the General
+Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, stood staunchly
+united in the midst of many changes in other branches of the church.
+Under the broad name of the Scandinavian Evangelical Lutheran Augustana
+Synod of North America, which comprised both Norwegians and Swedes down
+to 1870, it grew rapidly, setting its face sternly against the New
+Lutheranism which sought to modify the old rigidity of doctrine and
+practice. In 1894 the word Scandinavian was dropped.[293] By 1899 the
+Synod represented 900 congregations, 200,000 members, and a material
+estate of $4,200,000.[294]
+
+  [293] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 219.
+
+  [294] _Ibid._, I, 217; Carroll, _The Religious Forces of the United
+        States_ (rev. ed.), 190.
+
+The break-up of the Lutheran church is not wholly to be regretted when
+viewed in relation to the process of Americanization, for the church has
+usually been a stronghold of traditionalism and conservatism. Perhaps,
+too, the vigorous religious and ecclesiastical disputes, wasteful of
+energy and of money as they sometimes seem, have contributed to a
+wholesome and pervasive intellectual activity not altogether unlike the
+results of the Puritan disputations. So careful a student of
+Northwestern immigrants as Mr. O. N. Nelson is inclined to the opinion
+that the contentions of the Lutherans may have benefited the church.
+"Close observation has convinced us that if there had been peace instead
+of war, the Norwegian Lutherans in the State (Minnesota) would have
+numbered several thousand less than they do. It may not seem pious to
+say so, but many a worldly-minded Viking has become so interested in the
+fight that he has joined the faction with which he sympathized in order
+to assist in beating the opposing party."[295]
+
+  [295] Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 339.
+
+The church services in the great majority of cases are still conducted
+in the mother-tongue. In the United Norwegian Lutheran Church, in 1905,
+for example, the services in Norwegian numbered 30,407 as against 1,542
+in English, and out of 1,300 congregations reporting, no more than six
+held services in English only, including two large congregations in
+Chicago and Milwaukee.[296] Five other congregations conducted more
+services in English than in Norwegian; in ten localities the numbers
+were equal; and in twenty-two, they were about equal, making a total of
+forty-three in which English figured prominently.[297] The Hon. N. P.
+Haugen, speaking on Norway Day at the World's Columbian Exposition, in
+Chicago, commented on the fact that a Lutheran church had just been
+dedicated, in which English alone would be used, and said significantly:
+"Twenty years ago our theologians would not have entertained such a
+proposition."[298] Now the younger Lutheran preachers are expected to be
+able to preach both in their mother-tongue and in English.
+
+  [296] _Beretning om det syttende Aarsmöde for den Forenede norsk
+        lutherske Kirke i Amerika, 1906_, XLIV.
+
+  [297] _Ibid._, II-LV.
+
+  [298] _Daily Skandinaven_, May 24, 1893.
+
+The conduct of services in non-English languages will and should
+continue so long as there is a considerable body of men and women who
+emigrated too late to learn the new language well enough to stand that
+final linguistic test, the power to worship genuinely and satisfyingly
+in the adopted speech. This means that the churches will use the foreign
+speech until the generation of the foreign-born ceases to be
+predominant, and in the cities, perhaps while the second generation is
+in the majority; but children who receive their education in the public
+schools or other English speaking schools, will require that their
+religious instruction and their devotional exercises be conducted in
+English.
+
+The children and grandchildren of the immigrants, except in certain
+large and compact settlements, chiefly in the cities, prefer English,
+and commonly use that language in conversation and in correspondence
+with each other. In the Swedish and Norwegian wards of such cities as
+Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Rockford, and in a county like
+Goodhue in Minnesota, where the presence of large numbers of the
+foreign-born makes the use of the foreign tongue imperative in the
+homes, streets, markets, and places of business, and where the news is
+read in a Scandinavian daily or weekly, the tendency to keep to the
+speech of their ancestors is strong. The preacher and the politician
+alike understand this, and the literature, speeches, and even the music,
+in the campaigns for personal and civic righteousness are presented in
+no unknown tongue, as the theological seminaries and Scandinavian
+departments in other institutions, and the Swedish and Norwegian
+political orators in critical years, bear abundant witness.
+
+Co-ordinate with the school and the church, as a social force to be
+estimated, is the press. Newspapers and periodicals of various sorts in
+foreign languages inevitably follow the settlement of any considerable
+number of aliens in a given community, for people of education and
+ambition will look in a familiar medium for their news and gossip, their
+instruction in commerce and politics, as well as their teaching in
+religion. So the Chinese and Japanese on the Pacific Coast, no less than
+the Germans, Italians, and Greeks on the Atlantic, have their dailies
+and their magazines. Since the three Norse peoples, practically without
+illiteracy and with active and ambitious minds, have settled in a large
+number of moderate-sized communities, frequently isolated from each
+other, and since their differences of opinion in matters religious and
+ecclesiastical are often positive and aggressive, the number of their
+publications of all kinds since the middle of the last century is
+curiously large, and quite as remarkable for their migratory and
+short-lived character.
+
+The newspapers usually serve as the chief means of keeping informed
+concerning the general news of the European home-lands, as well as of
+the United States. Nearly all the larger papers publish regular European
+correspondence, summaries of events, letters, and clippings, under such
+headings as "Sverige," "Fra Norge," etc.[299]
+
+  [299] _Gamla och Nya Hemlandet_, Apr. 8, 1903.
+
+The newspapers and magazines render another service by the publication,
+on the instalment plan, either as a part of the regular columns or as
+inserted sheets, of standard works of the great Scandinavian writers or
+of translations of the masterpieces of English and American authors.
+Since these novels, essays, and histories are so printed that they may
+be folded up and form a pamphlet for preservation, the periodical
+serves both as newspaper and library. "It was the Swedish-American press
+which caused the Swedish literature, as it is in America, to spring
+up."[300]
+
+  [300] _Gamla och Nya Hemlandet_, April 8, 1903 (translated).
+
+The dailies of Chicago, Minneapolis, and Duluth, in particular, publish
+every week scores of communications from subscribers in all parts of the
+Northwest, in a department devoted to neighborhood news or gossip. The
+old settler writes his reminiscences, sometimes a brief letter called
+out by some event, sometimes at great length, like the Rev. J. A.
+Ottesen's "Contribution to the History of our Settlements and
+Congregations," which ran through eleven numbers of the weekly paper
+_Amerika_, from April to September of 1894, and gave very minute details
+of immigrant families unto the third and fourth generation, as they had
+passed under the kindly eye of the patriarchal old pastor in his service
+of forty years among them.[301] Great numbers of these communications
+relate to the conditions and prospects of local settlements as viewed
+from the settler's standpoint--crop conditions, market prices, wages,
+opportunities for labor, nature and prices of nearby land, schools,
+religion. As a revelation of the real mind of a community or of an
+element of the population, showing the inducements and motives operating
+upon the immigrant, and his response, they are exceedingly valuable, and
+in some important respects almost unique.
+
+  [301] "Bidrag til vore Settlementers og Menigheders Historie."
+
+The editors and business agents of the larger and more enterprising
+Scandinavian papers very early began making journeys about the country,
+especially into the newer parts, in the interests of their papers;
+incidentally they were spying out the land for themselves, but
+indirectly they were furnishing first-hand observations of frontier
+conditions to the hundreds who were moved to reinvest themselves and
+their small accumulations. One of these "circuit riders" was Johan
+Schröder, editor of _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, founded at La Crosse,
+in 1864, who published a little book of information for immigrants in
+1867, after one of his extensive journeys among the settlements.[302]
+Three years later he made a trip into Minnesota as far as Otter Tail
+County--"En Snartur i Nordvesten"--and was deeply impressed with the
+possibilities of that fertile section, to which many men of his
+nationality were already looking, as the Newtown folk in Massachusetts
+Bay looked in 1636 toward the Connecticut country, with a "strong bent
+of their spirits to move thither." Such words as these were as seed sown
+in good soil: "So far as I have journeyed about in the prairie counties
+of Minnesota and Iowa, I have not yet met with any county which in
+multiplicity of natural resources can come up with Otter Tail.
+Immigration this year is very strong. Both newcomers direct from Norway,
+and older farmers from Iowa, Wisconsin and Southern Minnesota take their
+various ways thither."[303] The "America fever" of the Old World was now
+the "West fever," and again more of the "West fever."[304] These
+articles were not mere generalizations, but often, as in those just
+quoted from, they gave the exact and practical information the reader
+would desire--break-up of the prairie would cost $25 or $30 for five
+acres on which to grow wheat and potatoes, cash to be had by working on
+the nearby railroad at $2.50 per day, salt to be had at five cents per
+pound, butter could be sold for ten cents per pound, fish and game were
+abundant,--also mosquitoes![305]
+
+  [302] This valuable little book bore the title _Skandinaverne i de
+        Forenede Stater og Canada, med Indberetninger og Oplysninger fra
+        200 Skandinaviske Settlementer. En Ledetraad for Emigranten fra
+        det gamle Land og for Nybyggeren in Amerika._
+
+  [303] Translated from _Fæderelandet og Emigranten_, July 21, 1870.
+
+  [304] Schröder, _Skandinaverne i de Forenede Stater og Canada_ (1867),
+        53.
+
+  [305] _Ibid._, 53; also a two-and-a-half-column article "Vink til
+        Nysettlere i Minnesota," in _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_,
+        June 29, 1871.
+
+The first of a long line of Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish periodicals
+in the west, was a little paper called _Nordlyset_ (Northern Light),
+which began publication in the Norwegian colony in Racine county,
+Wisconsin, in 1847, with James D. Reymert as editor. It was a small
+four-page sheet which at the start espoused the cause of the Free Soil
+party. In 1850 it changed hands, and was re-christened _Demokraten_; tho
+its subscription list increased to three hundred, the venture proved a
+failure.[306]
+
+  [306] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 94-107. Langeland succeeded
+        Reymert as editor of _Nordlyset_. A few copies of _Nordlyset_,
+        _Demokraten_, _Emigranten_, and some fifteen other early
+        Norwegian papers were found some years ago in the hands of an
+        old Norwegian, Christopher Hanson of St. Ansgar, Iowa. By him
+        they were turned over to Rasmus B. Anderson, then editor of
+        _Amerika_. _Amerika_, Jan. 4, 1899. Anderson sold the collection
+        for $100 to the United Church in whose Seminary Library it now
+        rests. "Raport fra Komiteen til Indsamling af historiske
+        Documenter," _Beretning om det syttende Aarsmöde for den
+        Forenede norsk lutherske Kirke i Amerika_ (1906), 126-128.
+
+After 1850 the number of Scandinavian newspapers and religious
+periodicals multiplied rapidly. Langeland, himself an editor and
+publisher of the time, mentions five of these publications on the
+Norwegian side alone in the decade following 1850.[307] _Skandinaven_,
+whose foundation marks an era in the Scandinavian press, dates back to
+this period. From its small beginnings has grown a great metropolitan
+daily, with a circulation of 20,000, besides its semi-weekly and weekly
+editions which have a circulation all over the Northwest of nearly
+50,000.[308] In the ten years after 1870, a second expansion in the
+number of publications took place, tho the fifteen Scandinavian papers
+given in the list published in the standard newspaper directory for
+1870, make an almost insignificant showing by the side of the two
+hundred and fifty or more printed in America in German.[309]
+
+  [307] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 96-112.
+
+  [308] "Den skandinaviske tidnings-pressens barndom i Amerika,"
+        _Hemlandet_, Feb. 25, March 4, 1913; Hansen and Wist, "Den
+        Norsk-Amerikanske Presse". _Norsk-Amerikanernes Festskrift_,
+        1914. 9-203.
+
+  [309] Rowell, _American Newspaper Directory_, 1870, 948.
+
+The Swedish press in the United States began somewhat later than the
+Norwegian, but it manifested a stability and steadiness of progress
+which the latter too often lacked. _Hemlandet_ was founded in 1855 as an
+organ of Swedish Lutheranism, but in 1870 it was a political as well as
+a religious journal, with 4,000 subscribers to the weekly edition, and
+2,000 to the monthly,--"the largest circulation of any Swedish political
+newspaper in this country."[310]
+
+  [310] _Ibid._, 633.
+
+The high-water mark in the number of these publications in the Northern
+tongues seems to have been in 1892 or 1893, when Rowell mentions 146, of
+which Minnesota is credited with 33, Illinois with 30, Iowa with 13, and
+Wisconsin with 10, a total for these four States of 86, with a reported
+total of 140,000 subscribers, out of 550,000 subscribers for all the
+Scandinavian papers in the country. By 1901, the number of papers had
+fallen off--many suspended in the hard times after 1893[311]--but the
+number of subscribers increased for the whole country to more than
+800,000, and for the four States just enumerated, to more than
+650,000.[312]
+
+  [311] _The North_, Aug. 9, 1893, reports six weeklies "suspended
+        within the past few weeks."
+
+  [312] Rowell, _American Newspaper Directory_ for years named;
+        _Hemlandet_, Mar. 4, 1903: "De svenska tidningarne i Amerika har
+        nu sammenlagt en prenumerantsiffra som uppgår till 400,000."
+
+The politics and religion of the papers reflected the variegated
+opinions of different parties and sects, and of men who would found new
+parties and denominations, but Lutheranism and Republicanism have been
+from the start the dominating influences. A historian of Lutheranism
+named 16 Swedish Evangelical Lutheran periodicals in existence in the
+United States in 1896.[313] About the same time a Democratic paper
+remarks grudgingly and sourly: "It is worthy of note that of the fifty
+or sixty Norwegian papers in the United States, including two dailies,
+all are Republican tho at rare intervals some may bolt individual
+nominations. Generally, however, they are amazingly steadfast to
+party--moss-backed and hide-bound, in fact."[314]
+
+  [313] Lenker, _Lutherans in all Lands_, 771.
+
+  [314] _Madison Democrat_, Oct. 6, 1898.
+
+The strong hold which this press exercises upon its subscribers is
+excellently illustrated in the large sums of money raised from time to
+time through its agency in behalf of sufferers from fire and famine in
+the North European peninsulas. By editorials and special correspondence,
+by subscriptions and the publications of lists of contributors, by
+stimulating concerts for raising relief moneys, these journals have
+pursued the shrewd, enterprising, and, at the same time, benevolent
+schemes of advertising, followed by their American contemporaries. In
+1893 _Skandinaven_ received and remitted to Norway for the relief of
+sufferers from a landslide in Thelemark more than $2,700.[315] When a
+great fire nearly destroyed the city of Aalesund, that journal in the
+winter and spring of 1904 gathered and sent to Norway $19,000, mostly in
+sums ranging from $.25 to $2.00; at the same time _Decorah Posten_
+remitted more than $12,000 for the same purpose.[316] The great famine
+in northern Sweden and Finland in 1902-3 gave rise to a similar
+collection of money; the editor of the _Svenska Amerikanska Posten_, the
+powerful Swedish newspaper of Minneapolis, headed the list for his
+paper, and at the end of several months the contributions through this
+one journal reached the total of approximately $18,000.[317] Of course
+not all the money so liberally poured out to aid the unfortunate by the
+Baltic or the North Sea, was transmitted through the agents of the
+newspapers, but it is true that almost the sole inspiration for the
+gifts came more or less directly from the Scandinavian press. Probably
+out of $175,000 sent from the United States to the famine sufferers in
+1903,--and America's quota was about one-half of the total handled by the
+Swedish central committee in Stockholm--the newspapers were instrumental
+in raising fifty per-cent.[318]
+
+  [315] _Skandinaven_, May 3, May 31, 1893.
+
+  [316] _Ibid._, Jan. 27-April 30, 1904; _Dannevirke_, March 30, 1904.
+
+  [317] _Svenska Amerikanska Posten_, Feb. 17, June 30, 1903.
+
+  [318] _Hemlandet_, Feb. 25 (quoting from _Nya Dagligt Allehanda_ of
+        Stockholm for Feb. 7), July 15, Aug. 19, 1903.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SOCIAL RELATIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS
+
+
+While the normal unit in Scandinavian immigration is the family, a
+considerable proportion of the immigrants has consisted of young,
+unmarried men and women. Not infrequently the young man left behind him
+a sweetheart who followed a little later when a solid foundation was
+laid for the prospective family; or perchance, if sufficiently
+prosperous, he went back at some Christmastide to marry her and bring
+her to America. In any case, the farm meant a home, and the marriage
+back of it was generally between two of the same nationality. Still,
+intermarriages between Scandinavians and persons of American or of other
+alien stock, are not infrequent, tho the number and significance of such
+marriages is more a matter of personal opinion and estimate than of
+exact statistics, since the latter are lacking. The opinions expressed
+in this chapter are based upon the inconclusive figures of the census
+reports, upon a study of a large number of brief biographies, and upon a
+considerable acquaintance with conditions in the Northwest. The
+biographies, it should be noted, are almost exclusively of men of
+Scandinavian birth, whose intermarriage with American women is less
+common than that of American men with Scandinavian women.[319]
+
+  [319] Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, II, 222, 227, 236; Nelson,
+        _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 372, 380, 384, 404, 423, 429,
+        438, 504, 530.
+
+Before the flood tide of immigration in the period beginning about 1880
+brought to America so many young, unmarried women, intermarriages were
+more infrequent than in the later time. Hence the discussion of the
+matter in the Census Report of 1880 would not necessarily hold true for
+the subsequent period: "There is but one important element (other than
+the Irish) which manifests an equally strong indisposition to
+intermarriage, viz., the Scandinavian. This element appears in an
+important degree in but few of the States and Territories embraced in
+the following tables, but in these the effects of intermarriage are
+slight. Thus in Wisconsin, while there are 42,728 persons born on our
+soil having both Scandinavian father and Scandinavian mother, there are
+but 2,083 persons having a Scandinavian father and an American mother.
+In Dakota, the respective numbers are 10,071 and 418; in Minnesota
+69,492 and 1,906.... It will be noted that in some of the States and
+Territories where the Scandinavians are few and where it is notorious
+that they are thoroly mingled with the general population, the
+proportion of intermarriages is not a low one."[320] The figures for the
+children of such mixed marriages given in the reports of the Twelfth
+Census certainly reveal a decided increase in the number, especially
+when the necessary allowance is made for the decreasing birthrate
+naturally incident to the development of urban communities and to
+filling up of States, which took place between 1880 and 1900.[321]
+
+  [320] _U. S. Tenth Census, 1880_, I, 676.
+
+  [321] _U. S. Twelfth Census Reports, 1900_, I, _Population_, Pt. 1,
+        CXCIII, and Tables 43, 46, 56.
+
+In these two decades, large numbers of young unmarried women, moved by
+the same economic motives as the young men, came to the United States
+and took service among the Americans as domestic servants. The demand
+for capable and well-trained servants far exceeded, and still exceeds,
+the visible supply, and the wages which seemed high to the American
+housewife seemed trebly high to the girl who received in cash wages in
+the old home only $20 or $30 per year.[322] In the new service the girls
+must perforce learn English rapidly or fail, so they learned the
+language and also the ways of the American household. In return they
+gave an honest, good-tempered, and trustworthy if sometimes clumsy
+service. If they were not always evidently grateful for the instruction
+and patience of the mistress of the household, if frequently they
+married soon after they were trained into efficient and satisfactory
+servants, they should not be condemned wholesale! While the marriages of
+these strong, healthy, intelligent, domestically capable young women
+with non-Scandinavian young men of the middle and lower classes
+constitute the larger proportion of intermarriages, the intermarriage of
+the American-born Scandinavian girls, trained in the public schools and
+colleges, with American men is also frequent, and no reservation as to
+the mixture of social classes needs to be made.
+
+  [322] _U. S. Consular Reports_ (1887) No. 76, 148; Young, _Labor in
+        Europe and America_, 681.
+
+Large families have been a prominent characteristic of the home life of
+the Northmen in America's Northwest. Race suicide should not be charged
+against the Scandinavians either in their new homes or in their old, for
+in spite of the steady drain which emigration has made upon the
+population of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark for fifty years, each country
+in each decade has shown an increase of population, due solely to
+natural increase.[323] In America this natural fecundity was re-enforced
+by the conditions under which settlement was made, for large families
+are characteristic of the early years of a developing agricultural
+frontier. So when the Scandinavians entered the newly-opened regions of
+the Great West and found land and food abundant, both immediately and
+prospectively, they felt no necessity for enforcing prudential or other
+checks upon the increase of population. Putting the case more
+positively, circumstances put a premium upon families with numerous
+children; the farmer welcomed additions to his circle of boys and girls
+who would grow up into helpers upon the expanding cultivated acreage of
+the farm, and later take up land near the original homestead,
+buttressing it with prosperous allied homes. Families of ten and twelve
+were common, while others reached sixteen, eighteen, and even
+twenty-four.[324] In his remarkably detailed reminiscences of Norwegian
+settlers in Wisconsin and the further Northwest, the Rev. J. A. Ottesen
+refers to families of his friends and acquaintances, sometimes in exact
+figures, as seven, ten, or fourteen children, and sometimes in such
+general phrases as "many children," or "several children," making use of
+these phrases no less than seventeen times in three columns of a single
+article.[325]
+
+  [323] _Special Reports, Bureau of the Census_, "Supplementary Analysis
+        and Derivative Tables" (1906), 32-33.
+
+  [324] Sparks, _History of Winneshiek County, Iowa_, 110; _History of
+        Fillmore County_ (Minnesota), 377 ff., 434 ff.
+
+  [325] J. O. Ottesen, "Bidrag til vore Settlementers og Menigheders
+        Historie," _Amerika_, April-September, 1894, especially
+        July 4.
+
+An examination of several thousand biographical sketches of Danes,
+Norwegians, and Swedes who have attained some degree of success in the
+American West, the very class which would first begin to limit the size
+of the family, leads to the conclusion that the average number of
+children per family among them is between four and five. In other words
+the average is nearly double that of the United States taken as a
+whole.[326]
+
+  [326] These biographies are numerous in the many county histories
+        which appeared between 1880 and 1890 as the work of a syndicate
+        of publishers; they are also the staple of the latter half of
+        such works as Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, and
+        Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, and II. All the
+        Scandinavian newspapers print many similar sketches,
+        biographical, autobiographical, and obituary.
+
+Closely connected with this immigration of so many young, unmarried
+girls of the servant class, is the question of sex morality and
+illegitimacy. The statistics relating to this question are particularly
+unsatisfactory so far as the United States is concerned, even for a land
+where the scientific statistician is a recent product, and where the
+collection of social statistics, left mainly to the States and to local
+authorities, is very loosely carried on. The motives for concealment and
+for prevarication are obvious, and the records of municipal courts, even
+if closely inspected, would not give much more than a scant minimum of
+information applicable to an estimate of the Scandinavian element in the
+population.
+
+To judge from the figures given for certain cities in Norway and Sweden,
+it would be natural to expect a much higher percentage of illegitimate
+births among the immigrants from those countries than among persons of
+American ancestry. The United States Consul at Stockholm reported for
+1884 for the whole of Sweden that 10.2% of all births were illegitimate;
+for the city of Stockholm alone, 29.3%.[327] Twelve years later the
+figure for the whole kingdom was 11%.[328] For Norway, the figure for
+the kingdom was 7.2% for 1896; in the city of Christiania, 15.4% of the
+5,349 births in 1895 were illegitimate.[329]
+
+  [327] _U. S. Consular Reports_ (_1887_), No. 76, 151; Young, _Labor in
+        Europe_, 689. C. C. Andrews, U. S. Minister to Sweden, 1873,
+        states: "The proportion of illegitimate births, including the
+        whole kingdom was 5.85%, but including only cities, the
+        proportion of illegitimates was 14.32%."
+
+  [328] _Statesman's Year Book, 1900_, 1048.
+
+  [329] _Ibid._, 1062; _Folkebladet_, Feb. 5, 1896.
+
+Such statistics are certainly ominous, whatever the allowance which
+should be made for peculiar social conditions in Europe, which make the
+begetting of children after betrothal and before actual wedlock a less
+heinous offence against good order and morality than in America. But
+over against these startling figures stands the fact that it does not
+seem to be harder to maintain order and decency in cities like
+Minneapolis and St. Paul, or in the Scandinavian wards of Chicago, than
+it is in Detroit or Boston, or in the other alien quarters of Chicago
+itself. Nor does an inspection of the court and police records of cities
+of the Northwest for crimes and offences against decency, or against
+women, give cause for any special alarm for the future morality of the
+Scandinavians of that section.
+
+For a safe and conclusive estimate of the contributions made by the
+Scandinavian element to the delinquent and defective classes of society,
+no very complete or satisfactory data are at present to be had. A
+detailed study of the statistics of these classes in Wisconsin and
+Minnesota warrants the judgment that the immigrants from Northern
+Europe, and their immediate descendants, have a much smaller percentage
+of paupers and criminals and a much larger percentage of insane, than do
+either the Germans or the Irish, the two other alien elements which
+approach the Scandinavians in importance in those States.[330] But these
+statistics are at best unconvincing, because they are acknowledgedly
+incomplete, and because in them little attempt is made to distinguish
+between the children of American descent and those born of immigrant
+parents in America.
+
+  [330] A discussion of these statistics for 1885-1890 is given in _The
+        Forum_, XIV, 103. The reports of the superintendents of some of
+        the institutions give more or less of the history of each case.
+        See Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, II, 1-23.
+
+The experts working out the interpretation of the results of the Twelfth
+Census (1900) have made distinct progress towards a fair comparative
+judgment in matters relating to social classes and conditions. John
+Koren, for example, the son of the veteran Norwegian Lutheran pastor,
+the Rev. V. Koren, and an investigator and writer of unusual weight,
+points out that the insane in hospitals are at least ten years of age,
+while there are few children under fifteen among the immigrants as
+compared with the number under that age among the native whites, and he
+accordingly concludes that "Of the whites at least 10 years of age in
+the general population of the United States in 1900, 80.5% were native
+and 19.5% were foreign-born; while of the white insane of known nativity
+enumerated in hospitals on December 31, 1903, 65.7% were native and
+34.3% were foreign-born. Relatively, therefore, the insane are more
+numerous among the foreign born whites than among the native."[331] How
+much more convincing is such a cautious and careful estimate than the
+sweeping generalizations of another recent writer: "Roughly speaking,
+the foreigners furnish more than twice as many criminals, two and
+one-third times as many insane, and three times as many paupers as the
+native element."[332]
+
+  [331] _Special Reports, Bureau of the Census_, 1904, "Insane and
+        Feebleminded in Hospitals and Institutions," 20.
+
+  [332] Hall, _Immigration_, 166.
+
+The statistics for the insane in hospitals at the end of 1903 and of
+those admitted during 1904, as given by Mr. Koren, show a strikingly
+high percentage of insane persons of foreign parentage in Wisconsin,
+Minnesota, North Dakota, and Iowa. No other State comes within ten
+per-cent of the ratio of the first three. Of those enumerated in
+December, 1903, 56% in Wisconsin, 48% in Minnesota, 52% in North Dakota,
+and 34% in Iowa, were of foreign parentage; the percentages of the
+admissions for 1904 were 53% in Wisconsin, 55% in Minnesota, and 33% in
+Iowa.[333] In all these States the Scandinavian element has been
+numerous for at least two generations. Figures gathered for this study
+for the period between 1885 and 1895, before the children of the
+Scandinavian immigrants reached in very considerable numbers what might
+be termed the age for acquiring insanity, gave similarly significant
+conclusions. Of the inmates of the state hospitals for the insane in
+Minnesota, the foreign-born Scandinavians were 28% in 1886 and 30.7% in
+1890; of the admissions to the state hospital at St. Peter in 1890, 35%
+were Norse. Of the total admissions for the State in 1900, 23% were
+Scandinavians, while in the Fergus Falls hospital, located in the heart
+of a more recently settled Scandinavian area, 40% were of that
+nationality; Wisconsin reports show like percentages.[334] All of these
+statistics warrant the general conclusion that of all the foreign-born,
+the Scandinavians are the most prone to insanity.[335]
+
+  [333] _Special Reports, Bureau of the Census_, "Insane and
+        Feebleminded," 21.
+
+  [334] _Minnesota Executive Documents, 1900_--statistics for the insane
+        for 1890, 1896, and 1900; The North, Dec. 18, 1889; _Wisconsin
+        State Board of Control_ [biennial], 1890 to 1902.
+
+  [335] _Special Reports, Bureau of the Census, 1904_, "Insane, etc., in
+        Hospitals," 21. Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, II, ch.
+        i, makes a conscientious, but rather lame, attempt at analyzing
+        available statistics of insanity, and gives his conclusions for
+        two periods, 1881-2 and 1890-4: ratio of insane in total
+        population, 1:2718 and 1:1719; in American-born, 1:4120 and
+        1:3009; in foreign-born, 1:1480 and 1:1144; in Irish, 1:1061 and
+        1:769; in German, 1:1461 and 1:1439; in Scandinavian, 1:1588 and
+        1:819.
+
+If one seeks for adequate reasons for this unusual tendency to insanity,
+he will not find ready satisfaction. Undoubtedly the difference of
+environment and the severer strain upon muscle and nerve imposed by
+American industrial conditions, by which the machinery of the individual
+must run at a higher and unwonted speed, will account for part of the
+phenomena, but these causes operate alike upon all classes of
+immigrants. The change from the mountains of Norway, or from the rugged
+sea-coast of the great Northern peninsula, to the rolling prairies and
+the vast silent plains of the interior of the United States, has also
+its depressing effect. The very flatness of the land, its extremes of
+temperature, the fierce tornadoes of wind, the bewildering, imprisoning
+storms of snow, with no friendly mountain or forest to offer a body of
+protection or a face of comfort, and the isolation of the life of the
+frontier farmer and his family, together with the severity of their
+labor--all these are causes operating with peculiar force in the case of
+the Norwegian and Swedish immigrants. Dr. Gronvald, writing in 1887,
+stated his conviction that the women of these classes, especially the
+Norwegians, were predisposed to nervous disorders and insanity by early
+and frequent child-bearing, and from early rising from child-bed.[336]
+
+  [336] Gronvald, "The Effects of the Immigration on the Norwegian
+        Immigrants," _Sixth Annual Report of the State Board of Health
+        of Minnesota_, 520.
+
+Since the Norse immigrants have rarely if ever been charged with
+illiteracy, dependency, pauperism or mendicancy, the remaining social
+test, usually considered co-ordinate with that for insanity, is the
+proportion of criminals contributed to the total of delinquents.[337]
+Earlier computations must undergo the same severe correction as do the
+estimates regarding the insane. By 1885 there were in the Northwest
+large communities made up of the older Norwegian and Swedish settlers
+and their descendants, and other communities comprising great numbers of
+recently arrived immigrants. According to the State census of 1885 in
+Minnesota, the Scandinavians formed 16.5% of the population, and the
+Germans, 11.5%. The reports of the wardens of the State's prisons for
+1886 show 8.7% of the prisoners to be Scandinavian, and 7.4% German. The
+population of the State during the next five years grew rapidly; the
+Scandinavian element increased faster than the German and nearly twice
+as fast as the native American. Yet in 1890 the percentage of the
+prisoners who could be identified as Scandinavian was only 7.1%.[338]
+
+  [337] For an interesting background for this discussion, see Grellet,
+        _Memoirs_, I, 324. He wrote in 1818 of a parish named Stavanger,
+        having a population of some 7,000: "We visited their prison and
+        their schools; the former kept by an old woman. She had but one
+        prisoner in it, and had so much confidence in him that the door
+        of his cell was kept open."
+
+  [338] _Minnesota Executive Documents_, biennial reports of State
+        Prisons for the years mentioned.
+
+In Wisconsin, where the increase of population in the last ten years of
+the nineteenth century was in the native-born of Scandinavian parentage,
+rather than in the number of immigrants, the reports of the Waupun State
+Prison may be supplemented by those of the State Industrial School, the
+reformatory for first offenders between the ages of fifteen and thirty.
+In 1900, the foreign-born Scandinavian population of Wisconsin was 5% of
+the total, and the Scandinavian population of foreign-born parentage was
+10% of the total.[339] Of the prisoners received at Waupun, the
+Scandinavians were: 1891, 4.1%; 1898, 4.4%; 1900, 3.7%. Of boys and
+young men received at the Industrial School, those of Scandinavian
+parentage were: 1890-1892, 7%; 1896-1898, 6.5%; 1900-1902, 6.6%.[340]
+
+  [339] _U. S. Twelfth Census_, I, _Population_, Pt. I, Tables 25,
+        38, 40.
+
+  [340] _Reports of the Wisconsin State Board of Control_ for the years
+        mentioned.
+
+In the matter of petty offences which are usually tried in the police
+courts, particularly cases arising out of intemperance, the records of
+convictions in Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Chicago, together with the
+statistics of city prisons and workhouses, indicate that the Northmen
+are clearly the chief offenders.[341]
+
+  [341] _Minnesota Executive Documents_, Reports of the State Board of
+        Charities and Corrections, especially for 1884, 1890, 1896; _The
+        North_, Dec. 18, 1889. Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_,
+        II, ch. i, tabulates his estimates of criminality as he does
+        those of insanity; for the years 1880-1822 and 1892-1894:
+
+        Ratio of criminals in the whole population  1:2302  1:1999
+        American-born population                    1:2413  1:2013
+        Foreign-born population                     1:2035  1:1887
+        Irish population                            1:1600  1:860
+        German population                           1:2713  1:2715
+        Scandinavian population                     1:3706  1:5933
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+THE SCANDINAVIAN IN LOCAL AND STATE POLITICS
+
+
+The Scandinavian usually entered the field of politics rather slowly; he
+took out his "first papers" for the purpose of acquiring land, not that
+he might vote in the next election. In the early years of his settlement
+he was too busy building and paying for a home, learning English, and
+adopting American customs, to give much time or attention to public
+affairs. The clearing of woodland, the breaking up of the prairie, and
+the transformation of a one-room shack into a frame dwelling required
+severe labor and all his energies. Not until the leisure of some degree
+of success was his, did he yield to his natural inclination for politics
+of the larger sort.
+
+The Norwegian, of all the men of the Northern lands, has the strongest
+liking for the political arena, and has had the most thoro political
+training at home. Since 1814 he has lived and acted in a community
+markedly democratic. He understands the meaning of the Fourth of July
+all the better because he, and his ancestors for two or three
+generations in their home by the North Sea, celebrated on the
+Seventeenth of May the independence of Norway and the advent of
+republicanism. His sense of individuality and equality is stronger than
+that of his cousins to the east or south, and he steadily and stubbornly
+fights for the recognition and maintenance of his rights. In 1821,
+before the first real immigrants sailed for the United States, Norway
+abolished nobility, while Sweden and Denmark still retain the
+institution. Equipped thus, and educated in such a vigorous school, it
+is the Norwegian rather than the Swede or Dane who figures most largely
+in the political activities of the American Northwest.
+
+Several causes operating on the western side of the Atlantic augmented
+these natural advantages of the Norwegians. In their settlements they
+had ten or fifteen years the start of the Swedes, and in the formative
+period of Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and Dakota they greatly
+outnumbered both the Swedes and Danes. They went into new States and
+territories, and, settling on farms, profited by the power which the
+rural portion of a developing region usually exercises in politics. On
+the other hand, tho the Swedes in Illinois since the early fifties, and
+in Kansas since the late sixties, have formed decidedly the larger part
+of the Scandinavian population of those two States, they have by no
+means taken a part in politics equal to that taken by the Norwegians. In
+1890 the foreign-born Swedes in Iowa were more numerous than the
+foreign-born Norwegians, and in Minnesota about equal in number, but
+these figures do not fairly represent the political strength of the two
+elements, for to the foreign-born Norwegians must be added those of
+the second and third generation of persons of purely Norwegian
+extraction.[342] The sons, and even the grandsons of the early Norwegian
+settlers were voters before the Swedish immigration greatly exceeded the
+Norwegian.[343] Broadly speaking, the early political pre-eminence of
+the Norwegians has never been overcome.
+
+  [342] Statistics for foreign-born in 1890:
+
+                     Iowa   Minnesota
+
+        Norwegians  27,078  101,169
+        Swedes      30,276   99,913
+        Danes       15,519   14,133
+
+  [343] In 1850 the total of foreign-born Scandinavians was 12,678, of
+        whom 3,559 were Swedes. In 1860 the corresponding figures were
+        43,995 and 18,625. In 1880 the Swedes numbered 194,337, and the
+        Norwegians, 181,729. _United States Census Reports_ for the
+        years 1850, 1860, 1880.
+
+For the common people of Sweden and Denmark, political experience
+practically began with the agitation for the reforms of 1866 and 1867.
+The peasants and burghers thus came to think definitely and decisively
+about what they desired and of the means for securing the wished-for
+reforms. It may therefore be asserted without reservation that after
+1870 the average Scandinavian immigrant brought to America a fairly
+clear understanding of the meaning of republicanism; elections,
+representation, local self-government, and constitutions, are neither
+novel nor meaningless terms to him; he is ready to fill his place, play
+his part, and cast his vote, as "a citizen of no mean city." In the
+discharge of their civic duties, the Scandinavian voters have had the
+aid of several unusually well edited newspapers in their own languages.
+Since active participation in politics and patriotism are not always
+synonymous, one branch of the Scandinavian peoples may be just as
+patriotic as another. Certain it is that in the Civil War the Swedes
+were every whit as prompt and hearty in their response to calls for men,
+and as thoro in their efficiency and courage as soldiers, as were the
+Norwegians.
+
+From a political view-point, the importance of the Norse immigrants in
+the agricultural regions of the West has not been fully recognized. At
+first thought, it would seem that location in a city or town, with its
+intimate associations and sharper competitions, with its friction of
+frequent contact with Americans, should be more conducive to rapid
+Americanization of immigrants, than the life of the farm or of the rural
+village, with its isolation and narrow horizon. More careful
+consideration will make clear that the opportunities for political
+action beyond merely casting a vote, are really much better in a new,
+thinly-settled township than in a ward of a large town or city. It
+surely was not a hunger for the sweets of political influence or
+official place which led the Scandinavians into frontier regions; but
+once there, with the old political ties forever severed by taking out
+their "first papers," with partial title to land entered by preemption
+or by homesteading, their first and greatest steps in Americanization
+were safely made, and each one carried certain political consequences.
+Local political organization had to be effected somehow as a given
+locality filled up, and it happened frequently that there were none but
+Scandinavians to undertake the task. No matter what their political
+inclinations, no matter what form of organization they would have
+preferred, only one course was open to them: to get information as to
+the laws and customs of the United States and of the States in which
+they were settled, to prepare for the elections, and to assume the
+responsibilities of the necessary offices. Over and over again these
+things were done promptly and well by men in whose veins coursed only
+Viking blood, by men but recently transplanted from Norway, Sweden, and
+Denmark.
+
+Whenever a township became populous enough to have a name as well as a
+number on the surveyor's map, that question was likely to be determined
+by the people on the ground, and such names as Christiana, Swede Plain,
+Numedal, Throndhjem, and Vasa leave no doubt that Scandinavians
+officiated at the christening.[344] Besides the names of townships,
+Minnesota alone has no fewer than seventy-five postoffices whose names
+are unmistakably Norse,--Malmö, Ringbo, Ibsen, Tordenskjold, and the
+like. It was in organizing these new townships, working the town
+machinery, carrying on elections, levying and collecting taxes, and
+laying out roads, that the Scandinavian immigrants learned the rudiments
+of American politics.[345] In studying the accounts of the formation of
+scores of towns inhabited wholly or in major part by Norwegians or
+Swedes--accounts usually written by Americans, and often going into
+minute details--not one was found which describes any noteworthy
+irregularity. Except for the peculiar names no one would suspect that
+the townmakers were born elsewhere than in Massachusetts or New York.
+
+  [344] Christiana got its name through the carelessness of Gunnul
+        Vindæg, who desired to name the town after the Norwegian
+        capital, but omitted the "i" in the last syllable. _Billed
+        Magazin_, I, 388.
+
+  [345] Mattson, _Story of an Emigrant_, 50-51; _History of Goodhue
+        County, Minnesota_, 248.
+
+In some cases probably more than one-fifth of the men of the community
+shared in the actual administration of town affairs; and while this
+ratio decreased with the growth of the town, the tendency of the
+Scandinavian settlers to move on from one new region to another gave
+many of them continuing opportunities to gain political experience. Had
+the same number of men located in the larger towns or cities, their
+active duties as citizens would generally have ended with the casting of
+their annual ballot. A few might have become policemen, commissioners,
+or even aldermen, but they would have made an insignificant percentage;
+the management or mismanagement of finances, schools, streets,
+sanitation, and public services would go on without their efforts or
+participation.
+
+A few illustrations selected almost at random, will give a concrete idea
+of the process just described. Two townships in Fillmore County,
+Minnesota, were organized in 1860, and received the familiar Old World
+names, Norway and Arendahl; at the first election, all the officers
+chosen in both townships were Norwegians, and for twenty years and more,
+the Norwegians continued to fill nearly all the offices.[346] Another
+and later example is found in Nicollet County, Minnesota, farther west
+than Fillmore County, where the township of New Sweden was formed in
+1864. Thirty votes were cast at the first election, and at the first
+town-meeting, held three months later, all the offices were filled by
+the election of six Swedes and four Norwegians.[347] Five years later
+this township was divided and the name Bernadotte was given to the new
+township; by the first election, all ten offices were filled by
+Swedes.[348] Other Minnesota towns, Johnsonville in Redwood County
+(1879), Wang in Renville County (1875), and Stockholm in Wright County
+(1868), were similarly organized and officered by Norwegians and
+Swedes.[349]
+
+  [346] _History of Fillmore County, Minnesota_, 346, 378.
+
+  [347] _History of the Minnesota Valley_, 688, 690, 693.
+
+  [348] _Ibid._, 688.
+
+  [349] _Ibid._, 790, 837; _History of the Upper Mississippi Valley_,
+        572.
+
+As the townships developed, and the villages grew into cities with large
+foreign-born elements, the familiar and characteristic Northern names
+continue to fill the official records. Stoughton, Wisconsin, the
+capital, so to speak, of the solid old Dane County settlement, is a case
+in point. So late as 1901 the roster of the city ran as follows:
+
+  Mayor, O. K. Roe, born in Dane County of Norwegian parents
+
+  President of the Council, J. S. Liebe, born in Laurvik, Norway
+
+  Aldermen, four born in different parts of Norway, two born in Dane
+    County of Norwegian parents.[350]
+
+Much of the business in these new communities in their first years was
+carried on in a foreign tongue. Certainly election notices and documents
+of that sort were issued in Norwegian or Swedish, and sometimes orders,
+ordinances, and laws. No evidence, however, has come to hand to prove
+that any official records were ever kept in any other language than
+English, even in villages composed almost exclusively of Norwegians or
+Swedes.[351]
+
+  [350] _Amerika_, May 20, 1901.
+
+  [351] "The Norwegians of Wisconsin", _Phillips Times_ (Wis.),
+        April 22, 1905.
+
+One of the first offices that had to be filled in the growing settlement
+was that of postmaster; for no considerable number of people, educated
+and intelligent, will long be content with a postoffice twenty miles
+away.[352] In 1856 there were five Scandinavian postmasters in Minnesota
+alone.[353] Thus the immigrant settlers came in contact with the
+national government at the postoffice more directly and frequently than
+they did at the land-office.
+
+  [352] The nearest postoffice to the early settlers in Fillmore County,
+        Minnesota, was twenty miles away at Decorah, Iowa. _History of
+        Fillmore County, Minnesota_, 429.
+
+  [353] From the list transcribed from the books of the Appointment
+        Office of the Post Office Department, Dec., 1856. Andrews,
+        _Minnesota and Dakota_, 191.
+
+Township affairs shade off almost imperceptibly into county affairs in
+the western States, and the Scandinavians soon began to take part in the
+latter. No records are at hand for the Wisconsin settlements, but in
+1858 the first Norwegian was elected to the board of supervisors in
+Goodhue County, Minnesota, and in the following year Hans Mattson, who
+was active in building up the town of Vasa, where he filled various town
+offices, was elected auditor of the county.[354] He continued to fill
+the office until July, 1862, tho in name only for the last months, for
+in the minutes of Board of Supervisors of Goodhue County appears the
+resolution that "because the County Auditor, Hans Mattson, has
+voluntarily gone to the war with a company of soldiers, a leave of
+absence shall be extended to him, and that the office shall not be
+declared vacant so long as the deputy properly performs the duties of
+the place."[355]
+
+  [354] Mattson, _The Story of An Emigrant_, 50.
+
+  [355] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 62.
+
+Hans Mattson was only one of many who found Goodhue County politics and
+a term of service in the army excellent fitting schools for larger
+activity in State affairs. One of the Norwegians who served an
+apprenticeship in Wisconsin, a journeymanship in Iowa, and came to the
+master-grade of citizenship--office-holding--in Minnesota, was Lars K.
+Aaker, who represented Goodhue County in the Minnesota Legislature in
+1859-1860. After service as first lieutenant in Mattson's Scandinavian
+Company, he again sat in the Legislature in 1862, 1867, and 1869. Again
+after twelve years of residence in Goodhue County he moved to Otter Tail
+County, and represented that county in the State Senate, later becoming
+Register of the United States Land Office. In 1864, he moved again, to
+Crookston, in the extreme northwestern corner of Minnesota, where he
+served as Receiver of the Land Office from 1884 to 1893.[356] As the
+counties and towns have multiplied, by the biological process of
+division, in Minnesota and the Dakotas, Scandinavian names recur more
+and more frequently in their records, tho it is not always easy,
+especially since 1880, to identify such names, for the Norsemen have had
+a habit of Americanizing their original names or changing them
+altogether either with or without legal process.[357]
+
+  [356] Personal interview with Mr. Aaker, May, 1890. He was school
+        teacher, in English, and school district clerk in Wisconsin
+        before moving to Iowa and Minnesota. See also _Minnesota
+        Legislative Manual_, 1893, 89-92; Nelson, _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, I, 365.
+
+  [357] By these changes Johanson became Johnson; Hanson, Jackson;
+        Fjeld, Field; Larson, Lawson (as Victor F. Lawson, the great
+        newspaper owner of Chicago). By taking the homestead name, the
+        too common name of Olson was changed to Tuve in one case, while
+        Adolf Olson became Adolf Olson Bjelland in another.
+
+The county offices which seem to be most attractive to the Scandinavians
+are those of sheriff, treasurer, auditor, and register of deeds. The
+lists of county officers for several years in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
+the Dakotas, show that the number of Swedes and Norwegians in the four
+offices just mentioned was closely proportioned to their percentage in
+the population of the States named.[358] Because the Scandinavians are
+less numerous in the other county offices, their proportion of the total
+offices in the counties of the States falls considerably below their
+proportion of the population. Estimating on the basis of a sure minimum,
+with the difficulties in identifying names eliminated, the Scandinavians
+for several years about 1895 filled approximately one-fifth of the 1235
+county offices in Minnesota, one-fifth of the 268 in North Dakota and
+one-tenth of the 702 in Wisconsin. Their numbers relative to the
+population in each State were respectively one-fourth in Minnesota,
+two-fifths in North Dakota, one-eighth in Wisconsin, and one-fifth in
+South Dakota. More recent illustrations are to be found in the election
+of 1904. In Traill County, North Dakota, the sixth in size of the forty
+counties in the State, the sheriff, judge, treasurer, auditor,
+register, surveyor, coroner, and superintendent of schools were of
+Scandinavian origin; in Lac Qui Parle County, Minnesota, a similar clean
+sweep was made; while in Yellow Medicine County seven out of ten
+principal officers were Scandinavians.[359]
+
+  [358] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1893, 341-366 (naming 16
+        officers for most counties); _Wisconsin Blue Book_, 1895, 630
+        (naming 10); _North Dakota Legislative Manual_, 1895; Basford,
+        _South Dakota Handbook and Official and Legislative Manual_,
+        1894, 16-120.
+
+  [359] _Amerika_, Nov. 18, 1904.
+
+The first Scandinavian to enter the field of State politics was James D.
+Reymert, a Norwegian, who represented Racine County in the second
+constitutional convention of Wisconsin in 1847, and later in the
+Assembly of that State, first from Racine County and then from Milwaukee
+County in 1857.[360] He was also a candidate for presidential elector on
+the Free Soil ticket in 1840.[361] The son of a Scotch mother, and
+receiving part of his education in Scotland, he was better prepared than
+other Norwegians for taking part in politics, and for the work of
+editing the first Norwegian newspaper in America, _Nordlyset_--"The
+Northern Light"--which appeared in 1847 as a Free Soil organ.[362] In the
+constitutional convention he was not active in the debates, tho he
+advocated a six-months' residence as a qualification for voting, saying,
+"as to foreigners, the sooner they were entitled to vote, the better
+citizens they would make."[363] For one provision of the Wisconsin
+constitution he was personally responsible: Article VII, section 16,
+which directed the legislature to establish courts or tribunals of
+conciliation.[364] But in spite of the command, "The legislature shall
+pass laws" for these courts, no such law was ever passed in Wisconsin.
+
+  [360] _Journal of the Second Convention_, 18; Tenney, _Fathers of
+        Wisconsin_, 249; Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 94-96;
+        _Wisconsin Blue Book_, (1895), 141, 173.
+
+  [361] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 96.
+
+  [362] _Ibid._, 95.
+
+  [363] _Journal of the Second Convention_, 31, 129.
+
+  [364] _Ibid._, 422, 638; Poore, _Charters and Constitutions_
+        (2nd ed.), 2037.
+
+Down to the close of the Civil War the Scandinavians exercised very
+little influence in State politics. Here and there one or two of them
+appeared as members of conventions or of the legislatures, but even in
+Wisconsin the number rarely went above two in a single session of the
+legislature.[365] By 1870 many of the Norwegians and Swedes were
+well-to-do, while others who had served in the Civil War returned to
+their homes with the prestige conferred by honorable service in that
+great struggle. Furthermore, the suspicion with which foreign-born
+citizens had been viewed was greatly reduced, if not dissipated, by the
+highest evidence which any man can give of his patriotism and loyalty to
+his adopted country. No one might thenceforth deny them any of the
+rights, privileges, and honors of the political gild. Accordingly the
+number of them elected to the legislatures in the Northwest after 1870
+increases noticeably both in Wisconsin and Minnesota, and in the
+Dakotas, where rapid material development and growth of population
+furnished unusual political opportunities which the Norwegians and
+Swedes were not slow to improve.
+
+In the Wisconsin legislature of 1868 sat 2 Norwegians; in 1869, 3; in
+1871, 4.[366] In Minnesota, the figures are striking: 1868, 2
+Scandinavians; 1870, 4; 1872, 9; and 1873, 13.[367] Since then the
+percentage of Norse representatives has steadily grown, tho it is not
+always easy to determine the racial stock from which a native-born
+officer came. Recent Wisconsin legislatures had apparently out of a
+total membership of 133, in 1895, 5 Scandinavians; in 1901, 10 (1 Dane,
+1 Swede, and 8 Norwegians); in 1903, 6.[368] The Minnesota legislature
+of 1893 had 9 out of 54 senators, and 20 out of 114 representatives, who
+were of Viking origin--fully one-sixth of the total membership.
+
+  [365] _Wisconsin Blue Book_, 1895, 136 ff; _Minnesota Legislative
+        Manual_, 1893, 87-92; _History of the Upper Mississippi Valley_,
+        573; Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 390.
+
+  [366] _Wisconsin Blue Book_, 1895, 136 ff. For the more recent
+        legislatures it is possible to be fairly exact in these data,
+        since the blue books and manuals give biographical sketches.
+
+  [367] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1895, 573 ff.
+
+  [368] _Wisconsin Blue Books_, 1895, 66; 1901, 733 ff; 1903, 740 ff.
+
+In the legislatures of 1899 and 1905 the numbers were as follows:[369]
+
+  1899
+
+  Senate 63 members    Norwegian  7 (3 American born)
+                       Swede      2
+
+  House 119 members    Norwegian 16 (3 American born)
+                       Swede      9 (4 American born)
+                       Dane       1
+
+  1905
+
+  Senate 63 members    Norwegian  7
+                       Swede      4
+
+  House 119 members    Norwegian 20 (7 American born)
+                       Swede      9
+
+  [369] _Minnesota Legislative Manuals_ for 1893, 1899, 1905.
+
+In the newer States to the West, the percentages rise still higher. In
+North Dakota, the legislature of 93 members contained 17 men of
+Scandinavian parentage in 1895, and 18 in 1901--16 Norwegians (4 American
+born), one Dane, and one Icelander.[370] Unofficial figures for 1904
+gave the Scandinavians 38 out of 140 members.[371] South Dakota in 1894
+had 15 Norwegians (5 native-born) and 5 Swedes, in a legislative body of
+127; in 1897, 17; in 1903, 16; and in 1904, 17.[372]
+
+  [370] _Legislative Manual of North Dakota_, 1895, 18; _North Dakota
+        Senate Journal_, 1901, 1; _North Dakota House Journal_, 1901, 1.
+
+  [371] _Amerika_, Nov. 18, 1904.
+
+  [372] Basford, _Political Handbook_ (South Dakota), 149-197; _Senate
+        Journal_ and _House Journal_, 1897, 1903; _Amerika_, Nov. 18,
+        1904.
+
+In the executive and administrative departments of State government, as
+distinguished from the legislative, the participation of the
+Scandinavians notably increased after 1869. In the summer of that year,
+a Scandinavian convention was held in Minneapolis for the express
+purpose of booming Colonel Hans Mattson for the office of Secretary of
+State in Minnesota. Of his fitness there was no doubt, for in addition
+to holding local offices in Goodhue County and his service in the army,
+he had for two years served as Commissioner of Emigration. The
+Republicans took the hint and nominated him almost unanimously in
+September, and his election followed. He served one term at this time
+and by re-elections filled the same office from 1887 to 1891.[373] So
+frequently have Swedes and Norwegians been elected to this office both
+in Minnesota and in the Dakotas that it might almost be said that they
+have a prescriptive right to it.[374] In the thirty-seven years ending
+in January, 1907, the Swedes filled the office in Minnesota sixteen
+years and the Norwegians four years.[375] Other State offices like those
+of Treasurer, Auditor, and Lieutenant Governor, not to mention
+commissionerships and appointments to boards, have also been frequently
+filled by Scandinavians in the States of the Northwest.[376]
+
+  [373] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 115; _Minnesota Legislative
+        Manual_, 1905, 99.
+
+  [374] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1905, 99; _North Dakota
+        Legislative Manual_, 1895, 66; _South Dakota Legislative
+        Manual_, 1894, 130, 134.
+
+  [375] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1905, 99, 627.
+
+  [376] _Ibid._, 99-106, 627-637; _Wisconsin Blue Book_, 1895, 662 ff;
+        _South Dakota Political Handbook_, 1894, 130 ff; _The Viking_,
+        I, 3 (1906).
+
+The first Scandinavian to reach the eminence of a governorship was Knute
+Nelson, an emigrant from Voss, near Bergen in Norway, in 1849, who,
+after service in the Civil War, was elected in succession to the
+legislatures of Wisconsin and Minnesota and to the Congress of the
+United States. Nominated by acclamation for governor of Minnesota on the
+Republican ticket in 1892, he was elected by a plurality of 14,620
+votes; two years later he was unanimously re-nominated, and re-elected
+by a plurality of more than 60,000 votes.[377] He served only one month
+of his second term, accepting election to the United States Senate, to
+the disappointment, not to say the disgust, of many who had voted for
+him for Governor, who considered him in duty bound to serve in that
+capacity after accepting their suffrages.
+
+  [377] Stenholt, _Knute Nelson_, 68-78; Nelson, _History of the
+        Scandinavians_, I, 451; _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1893,
+        549.
+
+The second Scandinavian governor was a Swede born in Smaaland, who
+landed in the United States in 1868 at the age of fourteen--John Lind.
+Passing up through such political gradations as county superintendent of
+schools, receiver of the United States Land Office, and Republican
+representative in Congress, he allied himself with the free-silver
+movement of 1896 and became the Fusion candidate for governor of
+Minnesota. Opposed by the leading Swedes who remained loyal to the
+Republican party, he was defeated by a small majority, tho supported by
+many of the Norwegians. The Spanish War, in which he served as
+quartermaster of volunteers, gave him a new claim to popular favor, and
+when he again ran for governor in 1898 he was elected by a combination
+of Democrats and Populists, turning his former deficiency of 3,496 into
+a plurality of 20,399.[378] This victory was due more to a revolt
+against the Republican candidate than to clannish support of a Swede by
+Swedes, for the two strongholds of the Swedes, Chisago and Goodhue
+Counties, went Republican as usual, while the German and Irish wards of
+St. Paul and Minneapolis gave majorities for Lind.
+
+  [378] _Svenska Amerikanska Posten_, Nov. 22, 1898; _World Almanac_,
+        1899; Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I, 432.
+
+The third of Minnesota's Scandinavian governors came into office under
+circumstances of distinctly dramatic character. John A. Johnson was born
+of Swedish parents in the State over which he was to be made ruler; at
+the age of fourteen he became the support of his mother and of the
+family, save the inebriate father who was sent to an almshouse where he
+died. When nominated by the Democrats in 1904, Johnson had been for
+eighteen years editor of a country newspaper printed in English. The
+Republicans, especially their candidate for governor, a coarse-grained,
+distrusted, machine politician, endeavored to make political capital out
+of the fact that Johnson's father died in the poorhouse. The Democratic
+leaders persuaded Johnson with some difficulty to let the plain truth be
+told, and told on the stump--and Johnson, the son of a Swedish immigrant,
+a man from a small, interior city, a Democrat in a State strongly
+Republican as a rule, won by a plurality of 6,352 votes in a
+Presidential year, when Theodore Roosevelt carried the State by
+161,464.[379] Two years of vigorous but quiet administration brought the
+reward of a renomination and re-election in 1906 by a plurality of
+76,000.[380] Again in 1908, another presidential year, Governor Johnson
+was re-elected by 20,000 plurality, though Taft received a plurality of
+85,000.[381]
+
+  [379] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1905, 506, 520. In this election
+        of 1904, P. E. Hanson, a Swedish immigrant of 1857, was elected
+        on the Republican ticket as Secretary of State by a plurality of
+        more than 96,000.
+
+  [380] _World Almanac_, 1907, 487.
+
+  [381] _Ibid._, 1909, 639.
+
+The death of Governor Johnson in October, 1909, made the Republican
+Lieutenant Governor, Adolph Olson Eberhardt, the fourth Scandinavian
+executive of Minnesota. He was born in Sweden, the son of Andrew Olson,
+and came to America in his eleventh year. He added Eberhardt to his name
+by permission of the proper court in 1898 because several other persons
+in his community also bore the name of Adolph Olson. Governor Eberhardt
+reached the governor's chair by various business and political
+experiences--as a lawyer, contractor, United States Commissioner, deputy
+clerk of the United States District and Circuit Courts, State senator,
+and lieutenant governor. He was re-elected in his own right in 1910 by a
+plurality of 60,000, and again in 1912 by 30,000.[382]
+
+  [382] _Ibid._, 1911, 673; 1913, 741; _Who's Who in America_, 1914-15.
+
+James O. Davidson rose to the governorship of Wisconsin through long
+service in subordinate capacities. Of Norwegian birth, immigrating in
+1872, he was elected to the Wisconsin legislatures of 1893, 1895, 1897;
+twice chosen State Treasurer; elected Lieutenant Governor on the ticket
+with R. M. LaFollette, and upon the election of the latter to the United
+States Senate succeeded him as governor in January, 1906. In the summer
+of that year Senator LaFollette vainly stumped the State to prevent
+Davidson's nomination for Governor on the Republican ticket, and in the
+election that followed the Norwegian-born, soundly-experienced Governor
+was chosen by the handsome plurality of 80,247 votes.[383] In 1908 he
+was re-elected by a plurality of 76,958.
+
+  [383] _Wisconsin Blue Book_ (1903), 1070; _World Almanac_, 1907, 513.
+
+Still further up the political scale, men from Northwestern Europe have
+been taking an active part in national affairs. Sixteen of them have
+been elected to the House of Representatives of the Federal Congress.
+The first one to achieve this high position was Knute Nelson who sat in
+the House from 1883 to 1889 as the Representative of the Fifth Minnesota
+District. In 1895 he was chosen United States Senator and has served
+continuously since March 4, 1895.[384] Others who have served for
+several terms in the House are: Nils P. Haugen, a Norwegian representing
+a Wisconsin district from 1887 to 1895; John Lind, a Swede, who
+represented the Second Minnesota District from 1887 to 1893; Asle J.
+Gronna, who was a member of the House from 1905 to 1909, and succeeded
+Johnson as Senator from North Dakota, serving up to the present time;
+Gilbert N. Haugen, another Wisconsin-born Norwegian, who has
+represented the Fourth Iowa District since 1899; Andrew J. Volstead, a
+Minnesota-born Norwegian, who has sat for the Seventh Minnesota District
+since 1903; and Halvor Steenerson, born in Dane County, Wisconsin, of
+Norwegian stock, who has represented the Ninth Minnesota District since
+1903.[385] Martin N. Johnson, who was born of Norwegian parents
+in Wisconsin, had his first legislative experience in the Iowa
+legislature, sat in the House as representative at large from the new
+State of North Dakota from 1891 to 1899, and then, after a period of
+retirement, was sent to the United States Senate from the same State,
+serving from March, 1909, until his death in October of the same year.
+
+  [384] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_ (1895), 325-6, 648;
+        _Congressional Directory_, May, 1914.
+
+  [385] _Wisconsin Bluebook_ (1895), 191-2; _Congressional
+        Directories_, 1887 to 1914, which contain brief biographies of
+        Representatives and Senators. Other Representatives for briefer
+        terms than those mentioned above are: from Minnesota, Kittle
+        Halvorson (Norwegian), 1891 to 1895; Halvor E. Boen (Norwegian),
+        1893 to 1895; Charles A. Lindbergh (Swede), since 1906; from
+        Wisconsin, H. B. Dahle (Norwegian), 1899 to 1901; John M. Nelson
+        (Norwegian), since 1906; and Irvine L. Lenroot (born of Swedish
+        parents in Wisconsin), since 1909; from North Dakota, Henry T.
+        Helgesen (Norwegian, born in Iowa), since 1911; and from Utah,
+        Jacob Johnson (the only Dane who has sat in the House), since
+        1913.
+
+An analysis of this list of Representatives shows that eleven of the
+sixteen were Norwegians of the first or second generation of immigrant
+stock, four were Swedes, and one a Dane. Six of the eleven were born in
+America, three of them in the old Wisconsin settlements; only one of
+these represented the district in which he was born, the rest receiving
+their reward in the newer western sections into which they had migrated
+with the movement of population beyond the Mississippi.
+
+Different Federal administrations have deemed it wise to "recognize" the
+Scandinavian among other elements of the political population, in making
+appointments in the diplomatic and consular services of the United
+States. One of the most notable instances is that of the selection of
+John Lind, the former governor of Minnesota, as the personal
+representative of President Wilson in Mexico during the troubled months
+of 1913 and 1914 and as adviser to the United States embassy in Mexico
+City during the period following the recall of Ambassador Henry Lane
+Wilson. Another instance of appointment in this service is that of
+Lauritz Selmer Swenson, a Norwegian of the second generation, born in
+Minnesota, who was minister to Denmark from 1897 to 1906, and later
+received appointments as minister to Switzerland and to Norway,
+terminating the latter in 1913.[386] Rasmus B. Anderson represented the
+United States at the Danish court from 1885 to 1889, being at that time
+a Democrat. He was born in Wisconsin of pure Norse parentage, and had
+served as professor of the Scandinavian languages in the University of
+Wisconsin.[387]
+
+  [386] _Who's Who in America_, 1914-5.
+
+  [387] _Ibid._; Anderson, _Norwegian Immigration_, quoting from the
+        _Madison Democrat_.
+
+The appointment of Nicolay A. Grevstad as minister to Uruguay and
+Paraguay in 1911 was a fitting recognition of ability combined with long
+and able service to the people of the older, or middle, Northwest as
+editor of the _Minneapolis Tribune_, the _Minneapolis Times_, and the
+great Chicago daily, _Skandinaven_ (1902-1911). Hans Mattson, a Swedish
+veteran of the Civil War, was consul general at Calcutta from 1883 to
+1885;[388] Soren Listoe, the Danish editor of _Nordvesten_ of St. Paul,
+Minnesota, was consul at Düsseldorf, 1882-3, consul at Rotterdam,
+1897-1902, and consul general at the same city, 1902-1914.[389] At
+Rotterdam he succeeded L. S. Reque, a Norwegian from Iowa. Several other
+men have served for long terms in minor positions in the foreign
+service.[390]
+
+  [388] Mattson, _The Story of an Emigrant_, 143-145.
+
+  [389] _Congressional Directory_, 1897, 1907, 1914; Nelson, _History of
+        the Scandinavians_, I, 435, 480, 503; II, 195.
+
+  [390] Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, 389.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+PARTY PREFERENCES AND POLITICAL LEADERSHIP
+
+
+The great majority of the Scandinavians, prior to 1884, were thoro-going
+and uncompromising Republicans, and tho the party still holds most of
+them, profiting largely from their natural conservatism and their
+loyalty to a principle, it can by no means depend upon them with the
+assurance it had in the "good old days" when to find a Scandinavian
+voter in the Northwest was to find a Republican.
+
+The causes which determined the early party affiliations of the
+naturalized sons of the Vikings, in the broad area of State and Federal
+affairs, are to be found in the character of the immigrants themselves
+and in the great questions agitating the country at the time they became
+citizens. Coming to the United States with an endowment of natural
+independence, with an innate respect for government, and with an
+inclination for public concerns, their interest was at once actively
+aroused in the great problem of slavery that vexed national life from
+the time of the Sloop Folk to the Civil War. As their information about
+the slave system grew more exact, and as the tremendous significance of
+the restriction of the slave area as a cardinal political issue was made
+clear to their minds, they became of one mind in the mighty agitation.
+Neither they nor their ancestors for hundreds of years had held slaves;
+few of them had ever seen a slave, for their numerous traders and
+sailors, with slight exceptions, had no smell of blood of the African
+slave trade on their hands.[391] It was not chance, therefore, which
+kept the stream of North European immigrants from flowing into the South
+and Southwest; no attractiveness of climate or soil could compensate for
+the presence of Negro slavery. A horror and hatred of slavery colored
+their thinking from their first month in the New World; it was first a
+moral, then a political, conviction, not the sentiment of individuals,
+but the well-reasoned opinion of the whole community.
+
+  [391] Du Bois, _Suppression of the African Slave-Trade_, 90 n 5, 131,
+        143 n 1.
+
+Bound together on this great question, then so dominant, they naturally
+maintained unity on other political questions as well as on slavery; and
+when once their ideas were fixed, any change would be effected slowly
+and with difficulty. The newcomers, in their first months in the older
+settlements, were speedily indoctrinated with anti-slavery sentiment.
+Thus it came about that one party received and retained the vast
+majority of the Scandinavians down to 1884, simply because a bent that
+way was given in the early years of immigration from the Northern
+peninsulas, and because the question of the status of the Negro, in one
+form or another, continued to be a political issue.
+
+The first appearance of the Norwegians in State politics in Wisconsin,
+as already noted, was under the Free Soil banner between 1846 and 1848,
+when that State was endeavoring to form a constitution. The first
+constitution submitted to the people, in 1847, was rejected by a large
+majority, including a separately-submitted provision granting equal
+suffrage to Negroes. While the State decisively voted thus, the counties
+in which the Scandinavian vote was largest--Racine, Walworth, and
+Waukesha--showed large majorities in favor of giving the Negroes
+political privileges equal to those of the Whites. On the other hand,
+counties where the German votes were numerous stood solidly against
+equal suffrage, seemingly because in the constitutional convention the
+question of Negro suffrage was coupled with that of the granting of
+suffrage to foreign-born, in a way that greatly displeased the
+Germans.[392] When the second convention finished its constitution, in
+1848, resolutions were introduced to provide for printing and
+distributing translations of the document, 6000 copies in German, and
+4000 copies in Norwegian, a hint of the relative strength of the two
+groups.[393]
+
+  [392] Baker, _History of the Elective Franchise in Wisconsin_, 9;
+        including a reference to the _Wisconsin Banner_, Oct. 17, 1846.
+
+  [393] _Journal of the Second Convention_, 511, 584.
+
+The relation of James Reymert and his _Nordlyset_ to the Free Soil
+movement has been mentioned. When the Democratic papers mercilessly
+criticised the little sheet and poked fun at its name, the paper was
+sold by Reymert to Knud Langeland in 1849, and by him removed to Racine;
+the name was changed to _Demokraten_, but the politics of the paper were
+not affected.[394] As a political organ among the Norwegians, it was
+ahead of the times; the support of the paper was insufficient to pay the
+bills, and it was discontinued in 1850. The Norwegian immigrants were
+unaccustomed to a purely secular press; they preferred to have
+their politics wrapped up in papers labelled "religious." Langeland
+declares that many of them considered it a sin to read a political
+newspaper.[395] But the Free Soil sentiment was too strong to go without
+printed expression in Norwegian; and accordingly the propaganda
+continued in the form of speeches of Chase, Seward, Hale, Giddings, and
+other anti-slavery leaders, which were translated into Norwegian and
+mixed in with non-political matter in _Maanedstidende_, a paper whose
+publication, after the failure of _Demokraten_, Langeland undertook
+along with four clergymen, Clausen, Preuss, Stub, and Hatlestad.[396]
+
+  [394] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 96.
+
+  [395] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 98: "Den förste
+        Indvandrer-befolkning hovedsagelig bestod af Folk fra
+        Landsbygderne, som for en stor Del ikke var vant til at læse
+        andet end Deres Religionsböger, og mange af dem ansaa det endog
+        for en Synd at læse politiske Blade."
+
+  [396] _Ibid._, 98.
+
+As they read these speeches of the great leaders, as they heard from
+Negroes themselves the evils of slavery, as they learned of the
+high-handed doings in Kansas, the zeal of the Scandinavians for human
+freedom increased. There were no old party traditions, feelings, or
+feuds, to keep them from judging the issue of slavery's expansion on its
+merits; no loyalty to the memories of dead heroes held them in mortmain.
+Some few of them voted for Cass in 1848 and for Pierce in 1852, but by
+1856 there was only one issue for them: simply and straightforwardly and
+almost to a man, they became Republicans.[397] The Democrats, of
+course, did not let the children of the North go without an effort to
+secure them in their ranks. In 1856 Elias Stangeland of Madison,
+Wisconsin, started a Norwegian paper, _Den Norske Amerikaner_, in
+support of James Buchanan. His efforts to get Langeland to undertake the
+editorship failed because the latter was an ardent admirer of Fremont.
+The paper had a short life, and probably Langeland is right in
+attributing its disappearance to the withdrawal of the Democratic
+subsidy.[398] A long time was to elapse before a successful attempt
+would be made to maintain a Democratic paper in Norwegian or Swedish.
+
+  [397] Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, xii; Mattson, _The Story of
+        an Emigrant_, 56; Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, I,
+        305, 310.
+
+  [398] Langeland, _Nordmændene i Amerika_, 110.
+
+What the anti-slavery agitation left undone towards making the
+Scandinavians unswervingly Republican, was accomplished by the Civil
+War. The lingering glories of the golden age of the Democracy of Jackson
+and Jefferson were entirely obscured by the attitude of the Democratic
+party toward the conduct of the war. Only when the memories of the Civil
+War grew less vivid and less influential with new arrivals from the Old
+World, and not until moral questions were superseded in political
+discussions by economic questions relating to the tariff, currency, and
+labor, did the Scandinavians begin to arrange themselves in any
+considerable numbers outside the Republican ranks.
+
+Four times during the last thirty-five years the Scandinavian voters in
+large numbers, under varying circumstances and in different degrees in
+different States, have abjured Republican leadership. After each such
+excursion they have returned, for the most part, to their old party
+relations, but never with quite the same fervent, reliable zeal for
+Republican principles and candidates. The development of the bacillus of
+independence is unmistakable. One defection affected Wisconsin alone,
+the only instance where the Democrats profited directly by the votes of
+large numbers of Scandinavians. At a later time, when the Free Silver
+and Populist ideas took strong hold on the Northwest, the Scandinavian
+vote re-enforced the personal popularity of John Lind, the Swedish
+candidate of the Populist-Democratic party, and secured his election,
+tho the rest of the Fusion ticket suffered defeat.
+
+The first time Norse voters broke from the Republican ranks was in
+connection with the Greenback movement which began with the depression
+following the panic of 1873 and culminated in the election of 1880. Many
+of them, especially the Swedes in Illinois, became out-and-out
+Greenbackers or Independents. In his book on the Swedes in Illinois,
+published in 1880, C. F. Peterson gives brief biographies of some seven
+hundred Swedes, men of all walks of life above day laborer, who may be
+considered as representatives of the 40,000 Swedes in Illinois at that
+time.[399] At least they represent the classes which would be least
+likely to be led off into economic heresies. Of 628 whose party
+affiliations are stated, 472 were Republicans; 76, Independents; 55,
+Greenbackers; and 25, Democrats or Prohibitionists. In other words, out
+of the total number canvassed, more than twenty per-cent were dissenters
+from Republican orthodoxy.
+
+  [399] Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_, part II.
+
+The relation of political and religious sentiment is strikingly
+illustrated in analyzing these biographies, for those who were Lutherans
+or Methodists were usually Republicans in politics, and proud to belong
+to "the party of moral ideas."[400] Those stating their religious
+preferences as Lutheran numbered 388, and of these only 10 were
+Democrats, 16 were Greenbackers, and 19 were Independent. On the other
+hand, of 131 who belonged to the three political parties last mentioned,
+87 were in religion also Independent, Free Thinkers, or "Ingersollites".
+For States other than Illinois, no such complete contemporary data are
+available; but since the Greenback vote in Minnesota was only 2% of the
+total, and in Wisconsin 3%, it is fair to assume that the Scandinavians
+did not desert the Republican standard in very large numbers in those
+States.
+
+  [400] _Ibid._, 353; "Medlem i de 'moralska ideernas' politska
+        parti--det republikanska."
+
+The second case of considerable defection among the Republican
+Scandinavians occurred after the widespread development of agrarian
+discontent in the late eighties. The farmers and laborers, American and
+Scandinavian alike, felt the stress of hard times, turned to political
+agencies for relief, forsook the old parties, and formed the party
+called variously the Populist, People's, and Farmers' Alliance Party.
+Besides those Norwegians and Swedes who had been for years Republicans,
+whose political color was fixed by the mordant of slavery and the Civil
+War, there was then a very large number of men who arrived in the vast
+immigrant invasions between 1880 and 1885, and who were just coming into
+the full exercise of the rights of citizenship. An increasing proportion
+of these later arrivals went to the large cities and towns. All of them
+were moved less by the traditions of "moral ideas" and more by the
+contagious discontent of the older settlers and by the arguments of
+industrial and political agitators.
+
+In the election of 1890 a serious break occurred in the Republican Party
+in Minnesota and in the Dakotas. There was a general impression in the
+rural districts of Minnesota that the Republican candidate for governor,
+William R. Merriam, a wealthy banker of St. Paul, was renominated for
+his second term by a political ring composed of lumber-kings, wheat
+dealers, and millers who combined to cheat and rob the farmer.
+Accordingly the Farmers' Alliance nominated a third ticket headed by S.
+M. Owen, the editor of an agricultural paper in Minneapolis, who polled
+a vote of 58,513, and reduced Merriam's vote of 1888 by about
+46,000.[401] Merriam was re-elected by a plurality of less than 2,500,
+tho he had had more than 24,000 two years before.
+
+  [401] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1893, 482:
+
+                                      1888     1890
+        Republican candidate         134,355  88,111
+        Democratic candidate         110,251  85,844
+        Prohibition candidate         17,026   8,424
+        Farmers' Alliance candidate      ...  58,513
+
+A careful examination of the votes for 1888 and 1890 in such strong
+Scandinavian counties as Otter Tail, Douglas, Chisago, Freeborn, Polk,
+and Norman leaves no doubt that the Swedes and Norwegians in very large
+numbers either voted for Owen, or refused to vote for Merriam.[402] In
+some cases the Republican vote fell off one-half and even two-thirds,
+and third-party Alliance candidates for the legislature were elected. A
+prominent Norwegian writer estimated that "25,000 Norwegian-born farmers
+turned their backs upon Mr. Merriam and voted for Mr. Owen for
+governor," disregarding the injunction of the Scandinavian Republican
+press to "stick to the grand old party, for the grand old party is
+particularly favorable to the Scandinavians, and the best political
+party in America."[403]
+
+  [402] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1889, 397; 1893, 472.
+
+  [403] Mr. J. J. Skordalsvold in _The North_, Aug. 10, 1892.
+
+At the next state election in the presidential year, 1892, a Norwegian
+ran for governor on the Republican ticket, and a large part of the
+Scandinavian deserters wheeled into line and voted the Republican
+ticket. With a total vote only 15,000 greater than in 1890, the vote for
+the Republican candidate for governor increased in round number 20,000,
+for the Democratic candidate, 9,000, and for the Prohibition candidate,
+4,000, while the vote of the Alliance or People's party fell off
+20,000.[404]
+
+  [404] The ticket in Minneapolis, Hennepin County, Minnesota, in this
+        year, 1892, is an interesting illustration of "recognition" of
+        the power of the recent deserters. The Scandinavians had:
+
+                                     Republican   Democrat   Populist
+
+        Presidential elector              1          2          2
+        Governor or Lieutenant Governor   1          ...        1
+        Secretary of State                1          1          1
+        Legislative ticket                2          2          ...
+        County officers                   2          1          ...
+        City officers                     4          1          ...
+
+        _Minneapolis Journal_, Nov. 3, 1892.
+
+Conditions in North Dakota and South Dakota were even more favorable to
+the new party than in Minnesota. Estimates based on a study of
+statistics and newspapers have been confirmed by prominent officials of
+those States, one of whom declares that "in some localities quite a
+per-cent has joined the Populist party; but it is very rare indeed to
+find a Scandinavian Democrat."[405] Another believes that a considerable
+portion of the Scandinavians voted the Populist ticket in 1892 and in
+1894, but that they were normally believers in the protective principle
+and therefore naturally affiliated with the Republican party.[406] A
+German lawyer of Valley City, North Dakota, a Democrat, practically
+agreed with the Norwegian city attorney of Devil's Lake in the same
+State, the one saying that a large part of the Norse voters were
+Populists, the other declaring that the Populist party was largely
+composed of Scandinavians.[407] All agreed that these voters later
+tended to return to their former Republican alliance. It may be doubted,
+however, whether the hold of the protection idea is one of the primary
+reasons for Scandinavian Republicanism. At any rate the vote of the Hon.
+Knute Nelson for the Mills Bill for tariff revision in 1888--one of six
+Republican votes for the measure--did not make him politically _persona
+non grata_ or a suspicious character among his Norwegian or Swedish
+brethren.
+
+  [405] Letter of Thomas Thorson, Secretary of State of South Dakota,
+        April 9, 1906.
+
+  [406] Letter of C. M. Dahl, Secretary of State of North Dakota, March
+        24, 1896.
+
+  [407] Letter of E. Winterer, Valley City, March 21, 1896, and of Siver
+        Serumgard, March 24, 1896.
+
+Another index of the shifting of political sentiment among the Norse
+voters is found in the changes in the party affiliations of Scandinavian
+newspapers, tho the varying importance of these journals imposes special
+caution in interpreting these figures. It would be obviously unfair to
+offset the staunch and well-supported Republicanism of the ably-edited
+and widely-circulated _Skandinaven_ of Chicago with the less stable
+_Normannen_ of Stoughton, Wisconsin, which had not one-third the
+circulation nor one-tenth of the influence of the metropolitan
+journal.[408] The "mugwump spirit" of the press is well illustrated by
+the case of _Norden_, a Norwegian weekly of Chicago, Republican up to
+1884, when it took an independent attitude. In 1888 it became avowedly
+Democratic and supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency. This move
+was made only after the proprietor and editor assured themselves that
+the patrons of the paper would sustain them in the proposed change.[409]
+
+  [408] Rowell, _American Newspaper Directory_ for 1896, 1901, 1906;
+        _Cosmopolitan_, Oct., 1890, 689.
+
+  [409] Interview in 1890 with the editor of _Norden_, Mr. P. O.
+        Strömme. He said that the change was an excellent move for the
+        paper.
+
+Of the secular political Scandinavian papers published in Minnesota
+in 1889 nine were Republican--five Norwegian or Norwegian-Danish,
+four Swedish; three were Democratic,--all Norwegian; two were
+Prohibitionist,--one Norwegian and one Swedish; and one was
+Labor,--Norwegian.[410] In the next five years, the independent press in
+Minnesota and other states increased in numbers at least, and included
+such influential journals as _Amerika_ and _Folkebladet_. George Taylor
+Rygh, professor of Scandinavian languages in the University of North
+Dakota, estimated in 1893 that "until a few years ago over four-fifths
+of the [Scandinavian] secular press were strictly Republican in
+politics. One after another has ceased to defend the Republican party,
+and today not more than one-third of the whole number are strictly
+Republican."[411] While this personal opinion or impression is probably
+exaggerated, it may represent approximately the temporary state of that
+year if proper emphasis be laid on the word "strictly." Since there
+appears to be no evidence that these papers, with two or three
+exceptions, were subsidized to induce their change of political creed,
+it is reasonable to conclude that they had behind them a solidified
+constituency, for they were run neither for personal amusement, pure
+philanthropy, nor mere partisan propaganda.
+
+  [410] _Minnesota Legislative Manual_, 1889, 432-445.
+
+  [411] G. T. Rygh, "The Scandinavian American," _Literary Northwest_,
+        Feb., 1893. He estimated the total number of papers at "about
+        125."
+
+The third defection occurred in Wisconsin alone, and took its rise in a
+purely local question. Its interest lies in the peculiar and remarkable
+temporary alliance to which it led. The Wisconsin Legislature passed an
+act, approved April 18, 1889, "concerning the education and employment
+of children."[412] To the ordinary provisions for coercing parents and
+children, so that all children between the ages of seven and fourteen
+years should attend at least twelve weeks in some public or private
+school in the city or town or district in which they lived, nobody
+objected. But the fifth section of the act, which was known as the
+Bennett Law, was in certain church circles, like a dash of vitriol in
+the face:
+
+"No school shall be regarded as a school under this act unless there
+shall be taught therein as a part of the elementary education of the
+children, reading, writing, arithmetic, and United States history, in
+the English language."
+
+  [412] _Laws of Wisconsin_, 1889, ch. 519.
+
+The last four words of this section, innocent and reasonable as they
+look to the average American, stirred up one of the bitterest political
+fights ever known in Wisconsin. The Roman Catholic church, unalterably
+committed to a system of parochial schools in many of which instruction
+is given in a foreign language, was for once in accord with the German
+and Scandinavian Lutherans who maintained similar schools. The
+compulsory use of English in instructing pupils in specified subjects
+turned priests and pastors and whole congregations into active,
+vociferous politicians, for Germans, Norwegians, Poles, and Bohemians
+claimed the right to educate their children in parochial schools of
+their own choosing. Was not education education, whether carried on in
+English or German or Polish or Norwegian? Were not the graduates of
+church schools, even tho they spoke English brokenly or with brogue,
+just as intelligent, just as capable, just as industrious, and just as
+honest, as those educated in the "little red school house" and the
+public high school?[413] The chairman of the Lutheran Committee on
+School Legislation stated the matter clearly from the standpoint of the
+churches:
+
+"The Lutherans of Wisconsin do not oppose the Bennett Law because they
+are the enemies of the English language.... The Lutherans oppose the
+present compulsory school law because--whether designedly or not--it in
+fact infringes on the rights of conscience guaranteed by the
+constitution, and the right of parents to educate according to their
+convictions, their own children.... In short, the Lutherans insist upon
+their right to establish private schools at their own expense, and
+regulate them, without any interference on the part of the State, ...
+that their children may become Lutheran Christians as well as loyal and
+good citizens."[414] The official circular of the State Superintendent
+of Public Instruction of Wisconsin, dated January 25, 1890, almost a
+year after the passage of the act, was a statement of the opposite point
+of view, and a justification of attempts to enforce the law.
+Incidentally it was a political pamphlet as well. Superintendent Thayer
+said: "The thing that is antagonized by this law is the practice of
+allowing children of this State of proper school age, to pass that
+period of life without acquiring the minimum of education in elementary
+branches; without acquiring the ability to think in the language of the
+country, to express themselves intelligibly in that language, orally, in
+writing, and in business forms."
+
+  [413] _The Bennett Law Analyzed_, a campaign pamphlet issued by the
+        Republicans in 1890, in English, German, Polish, and Norwegian,
+        had for its heading a picture of a district school house
+        labelled "The Little School House," and underneath, "Stand by
+        It."
+
+  [414] See F. W. A. Notz, "Parochial School System" in Stearns
+        (editor), _The Columbian History of Education in Wisconsin_
+        (1893).
+
+All through the latter part of 1889 and the first ten months of 1890,
+the agitation went on. The press gave great space to it; some papers
+through several months, both in Wisconsin and in the neighboring States
+where Lutherans and Catholics were numerous, offered "symposiums" which
+printed arguments on both sides.[415] _Public Opinion_ summarized the
+sentiment for the larger world.[416] Church assemblies took action, and
+finally an Anti-Bennett Law convention was held in Milwaukee, June 4,
+1890.
+
+  [415] _The North_, Apr. 30, May 7, 14, 21, 28, June 4, 25, July 2,
+        1890.
+
+  [416] _Public Opinion_, IX, no. 1, Apr. 12, 1890.
+
+The Democrats were not slow in seizing the advantage offered, and
+managed their campaign of 1890 very shrewdly. The combination of sternly
+anti-Catholic German and Norwegian Lutherans, usually Republican, with
+Roman Catholics, under the Democratic banner, was irresistible. In spite
+of the frantic appeals of the Republican press and speakers for loyalty
+to the American flag and to the "little red school house," the Democrats
+elected their candidate for governor, and a legislature pledged to give
+the desired relief. By the six-line act of February 5, 1891, the Bennett
+Law was repealed, and two months later another compulsory education act
+was passed without the offensive and troublesome four words.[417] The
+work of the Lutheran-Catholic alliance was done; the heterogeneous,
+naturally antagonistic elements fell apart; and in a few years old party
+lines were re-established. The plurality of 28,000 by which the
+Democratic Governor, G. W. Peck, was elected in 1890, overcoming the
+usual Republican plurality of about 20,000, was reduced at his
+re-election in 1892 to 7,700. In 1894 the Republican candidate defeated
+Governor Peck by the handsome plurality of 50,000 votes.[418]
+
+  [417] _Laws of Wisconsin_, 1891, chaps. 4, 187.
+
+  [418] _Wisconsin Bluebook_ (1895), 342-342, 347.
+
+While the Bennett Law agitation was going on in Wisconsin, a similar,
+but milder disturbance occurred in Illinois. The compulsory education
+act of the latter State, which went into effect July 1, 1889, was
+closely, if not deliberately, modelled after the Wisconsin statute, and
+enacted that "no school shall be regarded as a school under this act,
+unless there shall be taught therein in the English language,
+reading, writing, arithmetic, history of the United States, and
+geography."[419] In the campaign of 1890, the Republican candidate for
+State Superintendent of Education, favoring the new compulsory education
+law, was defeated by some 36,000 votes by Raab, the Democratic candidate
+who opposed the law. The Norwegians and Danes in the city of Chicago
+probably voted for Raab in large numbers, tho he won the Swedish wards
+of that city by small pluralities. In such counties as Knox, with its
+two thousand Swedish voters, and Winnebago (in which is situated the
+city of Rockford, with about fifteen hundred Swedish voters), where
+one-third of the foreign born population was at that time Scandinavian,
+the Republican candidate received large majorities. A writer for
+_America_, the periodical published in English for Scandinavian readers,
+claimed proudly that "the large Swedish settlements in Henry, Rock
+Island, Bureau, De Kalb, Henderson, Warren, Mercer, Ford, Whiteside, and
+other counties cast a solid vote for Edwards.... The Swedes were in
+favor of compulsory education almost to a man."[420] In the city of
+Chicago, the County Superintendent of Schools for Cook County was
+re-elected by a plurality of 23,000 tho he favored the compulsory law.
+The repeal of the law of 1889 was not so prompt in Illinois as it was in
+Wisconsin, for it was not until 1893 that a new and expurgated
+compulsory education measure took its place.[421]
+
+  [419] _Laws of Illinois_, 1889, Act of May 24.
+
+  [420] _America_, V. 201 (Nov. 20, 1890). See also editorial in the
+        same volume, 172-174 (Nov. 13, 1890).
+
+  [421] _Laws of Illinois_, 1893, Acts of February 17 and June 19, 1893.
+
+A close and detailed examination of the legislative journals and the
+statutes of the Northwestern States does not reveal above a half-dozen
+laws which can be said to be due to the leadership and direct influence
+of the Scandinavians as such. On the other hand, in the field of general
+legislation these men have been indistinguishable from the native-born
+in ability, efficiency, and uprightness; the gross and net products of
+the labors of those legislatures with many Scandinavian representatives
+in such states as Minnesota and North Dakota, are not perceptibly
+different from the output of legislatures in which no Swede or
+Norwegian ever sat, as in Michigan or Colorado. Scarcely a law has been
+passed for the purpose of catering to the preferences, or of catching
+the vote, of the sons of the Northlands.
+
+An exception to this general statement is the Minnesota law of 1883
+providing for the establishment of a "professorship of Scandinavian
+language and literature in the State University, with the same salary as
+is paid in said University to other professors of the same grade." The
+man to be chosen must be "some person learned in the Scandinavian
+language and literature, and at the same time skilled and capable of
+teaching the dead languages so called."[422]
+
+  [422] _The General Statutes of the State of Minnesota_, 1894, secs.
+        3908-3909 (_Laws of 1883_, Chap. 140.)
+
+The motives of the makers of the law were benevolent enough, and
+circumstances warranted its passage, but nothing could better illustrate
+the utter carelessness and looseness with which American State
+legislators do their work, than this simple statute. It was drawn up by
+a distinguished American lawyer, Gordon E. Cole of St. Paul, at
+the request of Truls Paulsen by whom it was introduced into the
+legislature.[423] It created a chair of "Scandinavian language," when
+there is no such language, living or dead; the professorship was
+established "in the State University," when the laws of the State
+recognize no institution bearing such a name. The Norwegian who
+presented the bill, the legislature (including twenty-one other
+Norwegians and Swedes) which passed it, and the Governor who signed it,
+all showed the same quality of ignorance and neglect of fact, law, and
+English. A second law, undoubtedly based directly upon the first, even
+to copying its confusion of terms, was the act passed by the legislature
+of North Dakota in 1891, creating a chair of Scandinavian language and
+literature in the University of North Dakota.[424]
+
+  [423] Nelson, _Scandinavians in the United States_ (1st ed.), I,
+        541-542.
+
+  [424] _Revised Codes of North Dakota_, 1895, sec. 887 (_Laws of 1891_,
+        chap. 60).
+
+Another statute having still more distinct Scandinavian earmarks was
+passed by the legislature of North Dakota in 1893, providing for
+tribunals of conciliation, to be composed of four commissioners of
+conciliation elected in each town, incorporated village, and city. The
+measure was modelled in a feeble and tentative fashion after a statute
+of Norway, where such courts have been in operation since 1824, proving
+especially efficient in securing amicable adjustment of petty
+neighborhood difficulties.[425] But the law in North Dakota speedily
+fell into "innocuous desuetude," in spite of the enormous percentage of
+Norwegians in that State; its construction was defective; its
+constitutionality was questioned; its machinery was cumbersome and
+expensive. During its first two years, many communities failed to elect
+commissioners, and no serious attempt was made to comply with its
+provisions; even the Norwegians themselves manifested no anxiety or
+haste to make use of this characteristically Norwegian court. Nor did
+the amendment of 1895, substituting for compulsory use of the tribunal
+hearings at the request of one party and with the consent of both
+parties, improve matters. One Norwegian attorney pronounced the law "an
+unmitigated absurdity under present conditions," because most suits in
+the United States arise out of contracts, debts, titles, etc., rather
+than out of neighborhood quarrels, slanders, and the like.
+
+  [425] Letter of Siver Serumgard, City Attorney of Devil's Lake, N. D.,
+        March 24, 1896, and various other letters.
+
+In all matters relating to temperance and temperance legislation, the
+Scandinavian voters have almost invariably been on the side of
+restriction of the saloon and the liquor traffic. They have supported
+prohibition in Iowa and in the Dakotas, high license in Minnesota, and
+the patrol-limit system in Minneapolis.[426] The prohibition State and
+local tickets, especially in Minnesota, and in the Dakotas, always have
+a large proportion of Norwegians and Swedes among their nominees.[427]
+The best illustration of this sentiment, however, is to be found in the
+history of prohibition in North Dakota. When the new constitution for
+the proposed State was made and presented to the people in 1889, the
+section which provided for the absolute prohibition of both the
+manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors was submitted separately to
+the voters. Thus the prohibition issue was presented fairly and squarely
+to every man in the State. The constitution itself was carried by a
+majority approximating twenty thousand in a total vote of upwards of
+thirty-five thousand; the prohibitionist section received a majority of
+1159. Analysis of the vote by counties makes it clear that in every
+county where the Scandinavians predominated, with a single exception,
+the section was carried by fair majorities.[428] The question of
+re-submission of this section to the vote of the people of the State
+came up in 1895, and was postponed indefinitely by the House of
+Representatives of the State of North Dakota by a vote of twenty-six to
+twenty-two, fourteen of the sixteen Scandinavian members of the House
+voting with the twenty-six.[429] This seems to justify the opinion of
+the Secretary of State of North Dakota: "Nearly all Scandinavian members
+of the legislature have invariably voted against the resubmission of the
+question to the people.... It is safe to say that at least three-fourths
+of the Scandinavian population of this State favor prohibition, and
+one-half of them are earnest advocates of the law."[430]
+
+  [426] _Minneapolis Journal_, Jan. 16, 1891. In Dakota "the reform was
+        asked for more earnestly by the Scandinavian element than by any
+        others." Ralph, _Our Great West_, 152.
+
+  [427] The ticket voted in Minneapolis in 1893, illustrates this
+        tendency. Among the Prohibitionist nominees were two
+        Scandinavian presidential electors, the lieutenant governor,
+        secretary of state, county treasurer, one candidate for the
+        legislature, and one for the city council!
+
+  [428] _Legislative Manual of North Dakota_, 1889-1890, 170, compared
+        with the population tables of the census of 1890; Ralph, _Our
+        Great West_, 152.
+
+  [429] _Ibid._, 1895, 19-20; _Minneapolis Sunday Times_, Feb. 10, 1895.
+
+  [430] Letter from C. M. Dahl, March 24, 1896.
+
+The only remaining question as to the political influence of
+the Scandinavians is the claim of the Swedes and Norwegians for
+"recognition" at the hands of old parties; and the concessions which
+such claims have extorted. From the foregoing accounts, it is evident
+that the Scandinavians have been ready in fitting themselves into the
+political system of the United States. Altho they have not been guilty
+of that excessive and pernicious activity in the field of public affairs
+which has characterized some classes of immigrants settling by
+preference in the great cities, it must be admitted that they have now
+and then appealed to race pride and prejudice and jealousy, re-marking
+boundary lines and distinctions which should be obliterated. The
+practical politicians, on their part, have not hesitated to stir up, for
+party advantage, the sensitiveness of naturalized citizens to real or
+imaginary slights and discriminations against them by "the other party."
+
+The appeal of the Norwegian and Swedish press is not infrequently based
+frankly on the essential sentiment of clannishness: "Scandinavians in
+Superior and other places should always support a country man for
+election to public office," and if he is in all ways worthy, "we should
+all together rally around him, lay aside all small considerations, and
+honor him with our trust and esteem."[431] Ridiculing the narrowness of
+these "demands," another editor, under the heading "From Norway,
+Birthplace of Giants," suggests a full Republican ticket of Norwegians,
+including Rasmus B. Anderson, "Republican pro tem.," and also a full
+Democratic ticket of Norwegians, including Rasmus B. Anderson, "thinking
+that he may next year be a Democrat again."[432] This trick of asserting
+their political importance in the Northwestern States was very early
+learned; and so long as party managers bid for votes in the tongues of
+the aliens, bribing them with nominations of the foreign-born, just so
+long will these groups of adopted citizens reiterate and multiply their
+demands, just so long will they capitalize their voting power
+and collect a generous interest in the shape of nominations and
+appointments. It must not be supposed that the Norwegian and Swedish
+party papers in America exist for the primary purpose of forwarding the
+political interests of people of those nationalities as such, for they
+do not, any more than do the partisan papers printed in English, but the
+Scandinavian groups are so large and so definite that appeals to them to
+stand together as a race for their own interests are inevitable.
+
+  [431] Editorial in _Superior Tidende_ (Wisconsin), Feb. 2, 1898. See
+        also _Vikingen_, Aug. 18, 1888.
+
+  [432] P. O. Strömme in _Amerika og Norden_, Feb. 2, 1898.
+
+So early as 1870, one of the leading Norwegian newspapers declared
+that it was time for the Norwegians to get a Representative in
+Congress just as well as other nationalities--"_ligesaavel som andre
+nationaliteter_."[433] The editor suggested that the eight thousand
+Norse voters in the southern Minnesota district hold a convention the
+day before the regular Republican convention, and agree upon a candidate
+for the Congressional nomination: if the Republicans refused to nominate
+him, put on the screws! About twenty years later this very method was
+resorted to in North Dakota, when the Scandinavians of that State "in
+mass convention assembled," proceeded to pass resolutions and to
+organize the Scandinavian Union of North Dakota, to secure for
+themselves "that share in the government to which their competency,
+their character and numerical strength, and their rank as pioneers in
+all matters of civilization entitle them." While declaring that it
+believed that every man should stand or fall on his own merits, the
+convention resolved "that we have seen with deep regret the disposition
+of a large number of our fellow citizens in some parts of North Dakota
+to discriminate against us, because we are Scandinavians, and that an
+unprovoked war has been waged against us."[434] The Hon. M. N. Johnson,
+presiding officer, presumptive beneficiary of the Union, an aspirant for
+nomination as Representative, stated the case very frankly: "The
+Scandinavians constitute a majority of the Republican party in North
+Dakota. Under the territorial government they have not received many
+official favors, but with the opening of statehood it is proper that
+they should have some recognition. The Scandinavians are not disposed to
+leave the Republican Party. They are heartily loyal to the organization
+and its principles.... We have the numerical strength to demand and
+secure justice, and all we ask is fair play.... We are simply organizing
+our forces for united action in urging our just demands."[435] Their
+just demands consisted in "from three to five of the State officers, and
+if they stand together and attend the primaries, there is no doubt but
+that they will get what they ask for."[436]
+
+  [433] _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, July 10, 1870. See also an
+        editorial in _The North_, June 12, 1889, regretting that the
+        question of national proportions and groups should be raised
+        "but the principle having been recognized, we consider it our
+        plain duty to see that it is fairly and squarely enforced."
+
+  [434] _The North_, July 10, 1889.
+
+  [435] _The North_, July 10, 1889, including translations from _Posten
+        og Vesten_ of Fargo.
+
+  [436] _Ibid._, letter of Sigurd Syr.
+
+The effectiveness of this movement is sarcastically summed up by a
+correspondent of _The North_, in reporting the Republican convention:
+"M. N. Johnson's Scandinavian League has evidently come out of the small
+end of the horn. To be sure M. N. was made the chairman of the
+convention and the dear Scandinavians got honorary mention in the
+resolutions: but M. N.'s chairmanship was evidently devoid of results
+beneficial to the Scandinavians, and as for resolutions--talk is
+cheap!"[437]
+
+  [437] _Ibid._, Aug. 28, 1889. After the fall election the same paper,
+        October 9, announced: "The Scandinavian Union thus seems barren
+        of results.... Peace be with its ashes!"--because it secured only
+        5 senators and 18 representatives in the State legislature.
+
+In an editorial in English _Skandinaven_ discussed "Governor Sheldon's
+Mistake" in 1893: "Upwards of one-third of the population of South
+Dakota is of Scandinavian birth or origin, while Scandinavians furnish
+not less than one-half of the Republican vote of the State. Governor
+Sheldon is apparently oblivious to this fact; for in making his
+appointments he saw fit to ignore the Scandinavian-American citizens of
+South Dakota. For the sake of the Republican party of the State this
+mistake is very much to be regretted. The Scandinavians are sensitive of
+their rights as American citizens.... What has the Republican party of
+South Dakota done to Governor Sheldon that he should deal it such a
+dangerous blow?"[438] Five years later the governor of Minnesota was
+accused of a like offence in that, on the State boards appointed by
+Governor Merriam, the Scandinavians were "insufficiently represented,"
+having only five out of one hundred members, or one-twenty-fifth, when
+they constituted one-third of the population of the State.[439]
+
+  [438] _Skandinaven_, April 5, 1893.
+
+  [439] _The North_, Jan. 22, 1890, quoting in translation from
+        _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_.
+
+The pettiness of these squabbles over political "recognition" and spoils
+is well illustrated by a letter written in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, to a
+Minneapolis newspaper in 1889: "While our people here number over 3000,
+and the Irish only 1400, the latter hold a still larger percentage of
+offices than they do in your city. This year for the first time the
+Scandinavians (or more correctly speaking, the Danes) have succeeded in
+obtaining a place on the police force"![440]
+
+  [440] _The North_, July 17, 1889.
+
+These insistent demands do not stop with simple recognition of the
+Scandinavian race: different sections must be satisfied. The most
+influential Swedish paper of the Northwest announced in 1890 that "what
+we on the other hand with full propriety and without the least danger of
+transgression can demand, is a man of Swedish descent at the head of one
+of our State departments.... To deny them (Swedes) this just recognition
+would stir up bad feeling, and would be looked upon as a slight, not to
+say contempt.... Our brethren, the Norwegians, are a little more
+numerous in Minnesota, than the Swedes, although not equally good
+Republicans. They, too, are entitled to a place on the State ticket, and
+for a long time have had one [Lieutenant Governor Rice]."[441]
+
+  [441] Translated from _Svenska Folkets Tidning_ (Minneapolis), April
+        20, 1890.
+
+The failure of the Scandinavians to receive what some of them consider a
+just and due reward, one in proportion to their numbers and their
+devotion to one party, is not to be attributed wholly to the hardness of
+heart of the party leaders, nor to their shortsightedness. Nor can it be
+fairly charged to any strong dislike of Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes
+for each other: the Swedes, for example, have never bolted a ticket
+because it happened to be headed by a Norwegian.[442] In addition to the
+extension of religious antagonism into politics, "there is still another
+reason for the limited success of the Scandinavians in the political
+field, and that is their natural apathy [antipathy?] to following a
+leader. Each one considers himself competent to work on his own hook. To
+follow a leader seems incompatible with their ideas of liberty. Yet
+without union and without leaders, victory is impossible.... 'Everybody
+for himself, and the Devil for the hindmost' is the law governing
+American life, and this the Irish have learned, while the Scandinavian
+is generally waiting for someone to come along and offer something with
+the polite 'if you please.' But he has to wait."[443]
+
+  [442] Boyeson, "The Scandinavians in the United States," _North
+        American Review_, CLV, 531; _Rockford Register_ (Ill.), Sept.
+        16, 1889.
+
+  [443] _The North_, Aug. 14, 1889, translating from _Skandinavia_
+        (Worcester, Mass.)
+
+The Scandinavian press, in complaining of "a failure to get a due share
+of offices," in declaring that Norwegians are "entitled to ten seats" in
+the Wisconsin legislature when they happen to have but three, or in
+insinuating that they have never been fittingly recognized in Iowa,
+resorts to political claptrap, often quite unworthy of the journal
+printing it. The facts so easily forgotten are that the counties and
+legislative districts in which the Scandinavians are a ruling majority
+are comparatively few, while the districts in which they are an
+influential minority are very many.[444] The system of representation in
+the United States is not based on any racial divisions or class
+distinctions, and not until some scheme of minority representation is
+adopted can any foreign element get its "share" of the political plums.
+It would be hard to suggest a more dangerous and disrupting experiment,
+in these decades when aliens by the hundreds of thousands, not to say
+millions, enter the country and are incorporated into the body politic,
+than to attempt to "recognize" the various alien factors in complex
+public affairs, even if they were all as adaptable as the men from the
+Northlands. Nothing would do more, for example, to develop the latent
+religious and racial antipathies between the Scandinavians and the
+Irish. The fundamental assumption, therefore, which lies back of all
+claims for "recognition" of Swedish-Americans, or other hyphenated
+Americans, as such, savors of ward politics and the machine, rather than
+of political equity or right, and just so far as it does this it menaces
+social and political safety.
+
+  [444] _Billed Magazin_, I, 139 (1869); _Skandinaven_, Feb. 5, 1896--an
+        editorial printed, like many others, in English and evidently
+        designed for the consumption of editors of English papers. It is
+        also evident that _Skandinaven's_ readers understood English.
+        Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen_, 132, gives a fairly complete
+        list of all the Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes elected or
+        appointed to city, state or county office, even including
+        policemen. For similar list for a rural county, see Tew,
+        _Illustrated History and Descriptive and Biographical Review of
+        Kandiyohi County, Minnesota_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+CONCLUSION
+
+
+The meaning of the word American as applied to the inhabitants of the
+United States, has undergone a great change as they have multiplied
+fifteenfold in numbers and many times in varieties of nationalities in
+the course of a century. In that progress the Norwegians, Swedes, and
+Danes have played a conspicuous and constructive part. As late as 1840,
+American ordinarily meant a white person of English descent, born in
+America or resident in the United States long enough to understand and
+accept as fundamental and vital certain political and social ideals and
+ideas. That simple and definite significance applies no more. The
+American race is already alarmingly complex, tho the old type has been
+more closely adhered to than would be expected from an enumeration of
+the elements which have gone into the crucible.
+
+In temperament, early training, and ideals, the Scandinavians more
+nearly approach the American type than any other class of immigrants,
+except those from Great Britain. In such features as adaptability and
+loyalty without reservation, no exceptions need be made. They have not
+come to the New World merely to get away from Europe, nor to escape
+Siberian exile or an Abyssinian war; nor has their motive been one of
+ordinary adventure-seeking. Theirs has been a determined purpose and a
+serious resolve to "arrive" somewhere in America, and, finding their
+places, to fill them with honorable endeavor and steady ambition. They
+have come as families, or with a wholesome desire to establish families
+for themselves. Most of them have fallen considerably below the best
+types of their own nationalities; their conservatism has sometimes been
+of the degenerate sort bordering on stolidity; their independence and
+individualism has come painfully near stubbornness; and their shrewdness
+has not infrequently developed into insincerity. They have now and then
+manifested a clannishness which led them into disagreeable, if
+temporary, complications.
+
+The fact that this characteristic or that tendency exists in an
+immigrant or alien element, should not cause disturbance of mind to the
+good citizen, the statesman, or the scholar; the real question is
+whether this characteristic or tendency is growing stronger or
+disappearing more or less rapidly. For example, is the stolidity of a
+group deepening, or does mental agility develop in the second and third
+generation? That the Scandinavians have readily outgrown much of their
+clannishness, perceptibly quickened their energies in the new
+environment, and developed notably in social, commercial, and political
+efficiency cannot be seriously questioned by any one who studies their
+activities as a whole, or who has observed them for two generations.
+
+The immigrants from the North are decently educated, able-bodied,
+law-abiding men and women, not illiterates, paupers, or criminals. They
+are not here as exiles from home and country for a few years, after
+which they purpose to return to their native lands, there to enjoy a
+cheap and narrow idleness. They are in the United States as citizens, to
+become thoroly and loyally American. Their ingrained habits of industry
+and economy, coupled with a natural conservatism and shrewdness, have
+given them material success and contributed in large measure to the
+prosperity of the States in which they have made their settlements. They
+have ever striven for homes, and while some of them have been content
+for a few years to serve others, the proletariat has not been largely
+recruited from them. Mere wage-earning has not been a permanent
+condition, but a stepping stone to a greater or less degree of
+independence. In politics and in war they have evidenced their ability
+to stand side by side with the native-born of New England, Pennsylvania,
+Ohio, and Indiana, and, with real faithfulness and efficiency to fill
+such places, low or high, as shall be opened to them.
+
+Tho as Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes they will gradually disappear,
+becoming indistinguishable from other Americans, their fundamental
+characteristics cannot be blotted out even in the third and fourth
+generation. Men do not change so readily, even under the most favorable
+conditions. Fresh additions from Europe will continue to re-enforce the
+old stock; but they too will be sturdy, independent, and Protestant. It
+is not too much to expect that their virtues of intelligence, patience,
+persistence, and thrift, will be preserved as they mingle in the current
+of national life. The demand for these qualities will be steady; the
+supply on the part of the Scandinavians will not be readily exhausted.
+The intermarriage and amalgamation of two peoples so closely allied as
+the Scandinavians and Americans connotes much of promise and little of
+danger.
+
+Several forces will continue to operate in the future, as they have in
+the past, against perpetuating any distinctively Scandinavian influence
+on the population or institutions of the United States. All three
+Northern peoples are particularly free from other than traditional ties
+and sentimental attachments binding them to the mother countries. No one
+of the three kingdoms is great or powerful in the affairs of Europe; the
+heroes of the past, like Gustavus Adolphus, are too far away in time to
+affect powerfully the imaginations of today. Patriotism with them in the
+Old World is quite as much a sentiment or love for the parish or the
+homestead as it is a fierce and militant passion for the power and
+leadership of the nation. No dramatic outbursts of national feeling, or
+antagonisms to ancient enemies, will rekindle old enthusiasms in the
+American Scandinavians. Even the prospect of war between Norway and
+Sweden, when the former dissolved the Dual Monarchy, did not profoundly
+stir the Swedes or Norwegians in the Northwest; and had war broken out
+all the recruits from America could probably have been shipped across
+the Atlantic in one voyage of a small steamship.
+
+Furthermore, no great and permanent causes centering in Europe
+continually demand their active and intense sympathy and financial aid,
+knitting them closely together, as in the case of the Irish or the
+Russians. The Scandinavian contributions to European causes have been
+filial and fraternal, never political, never revolutionary, never such
+as to raise a national issue in America. Their church organizations,
+decentralized, centrifugal rather than centripetal, recognizing no unity
+under a temporal head, cannot be turned into a keen, insinuating
+political weapon. They have no secret societies ramifying through their
+settlements, no Mafias, "Molly Maguires," anarchist lodges, or other
+badges of ancient servitude or foreign hates.
+
+The Scandinavians, knowing the price of American citizenship, have paid
+it ungrudgingly, and are proud of the possession of the high
+prerogatives and privileges conferred. They fit readily into places
+among the best and most serviceable of the nation's citizens; without
+long hammering or costly chiseling they give strength and stability, if
+not beauty and the delicate refinements of culture, to the social and
+economic structure of the United States.
+
+For all these reasons the difficulties of the United States in adjusting
+the life and ideals and institutions of the nation to the presence of
+foreigners are reduced in the case of the Scandinavians to a minimum.
+The Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes are not likely to furnish great
+leaders, but they will be in the front rank of those who follow with
+sturdy intelligence and conscience, striving to make the land of their
+adoption strong and prosperous,--"a blessing to the common man,"
+according to the original vision of America seen by Sweden's great king
+Gustavus Adolphus. They will be builders, not destroyers; their greatest
+service will be as a mighty, silent, steadying influence, re-enforcing
+those high qualities which are sometimes called Puritan, sometimes
+American, but which in any case make for local and national peace,
+progress, and righteousness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+CRITICAL ESSAY ON MATERIALS AND AUTHORITIES
+
+
+The term bibliography does not accurately or fully describe the
+materials upon which this study of the Scandinavians in the Northwest is
+based. To the printed sources of all sorts,--official reports of European
+and American governments, autobiographies, travels, and the like--and to
+a wide range of secondary works, there must be added much matter
+relating to the subject gathered by means of personal interviews,
+correspondence, and observations extending over a series of years. The
+Scandinavian press is an inexhaustible mine of source material; its
+information, in nuggets, flakes, and fine particles, must be sought for
+diligently, extracted, refined, and shaped; but it is the purest source
+material, nevertheless, comprising brief autobiographies, letters,
+personal opinions, description of surroundings and movements, and
+contributions to current discussion in politics, religion, and
+education. The county and local histories which multiplied rapidly
+between 1880 and 1895, and which have not yet ceased to appear, are not
+far from the borderland of source material. Their sketches of men and
+women and settlements, tho for the most part of a crude, innocent,
+laudatory type based upon brief personal interviews by canvassers and
+elaborated according to the varying size of the subscriptions of
+individuals, are almost indispensable for certain statistical purposes.
+
+The customary distinction between source material and secondary material
+is often hard to maintain, so recent is the Scandinavian immigration,
+and so numerous are the first-hand and second-hand accounts by
+contemporaries participating in or observing the phenomena under
+consideration. The Northern peoples settling in the United States have
+had no William Bradford for a historian, but the work of Norelius and
+Mattson is in a class similar to that of _Plimouth Plantation_.
+
+The best bibliography of immigration in general is that published by the
+Library of Congress, A. P. C. Griffin (compiler), _A List of Books (with
+References to Periodicals) on Immigration_ (3rd issue, with additions,
+1907), but this is not complete, especially as relating to Scandinavian
+immigration. It omits all state documents, but is strong in its list of
+Congressional and executive documents. For the Scandinavian movement,
+the bibliography in O. N. Nelson (editor), _History of the Scandinavians
+and Successful Scandinavians in the United States_ (2nd ed., I,
+265-295), is the most useful, though it is unfortunately arranged on a
+strictly chronological basis in two parts. It is, however, far from
+complete, omitting practically all Federal and State publications, and
+all periodicals save for specific mention of certain articles. In the
+field of periodicals, is _Bibliografi; Svensk-Amerikansk Periodisk
+Literatur_ (being No. 8, _Kungl. Bibliothekets Handlingar_, Stockholm,
+1886).
+
+In a general way, the following bibliography includes only those books,
+pamphlets, periodicals, and newspapers which were directly used in the
+preparation of this volume. In the case of foreign publications, the
+place as well as the date of publication is usually given.
+
+
+DOCUMENTARY SOURCES
+
+1. _Official Publications of the United States._
+
+Five series of reports published by the Federal Government are of very
+great importance in the study of immigration, both for their scope and
+their accuracy: the _Reports_ of the censuses from 1850 to 1910; the
+_Annual Statistical Abstracts_ (36 vols., 1879-1913); _Annual Reports of
+the Commissioner-general of Immigration_ (17 vols., 1891-1909); _Reports
+from the Consuls of the United States_ (notably vol. 22, No. 76, 1887),
+particularly those from the consuls in Norway, Sweden, and Denmark; and
+_Special Consular Reports_ (particularly vol. 30, 1904). _The Report of
+the Industrial Commission_ (especially vols. XV (1901) and XIX (1902)),
+contains a vast amount of recent, complete, and diversified material in
+the testimony taken by the Commission and in the well-digested reports
+prepared by experts like John R. Commons. The Bureau of Statistics of
+the Treasury Department, _Immigration into the United States, showing
+number, nationality, sex, age, destination_ (etc.) _from 1820-1903_ (in
+_Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance_, June, 1903), gives general
+tables and a review in convenient form.
+
+The following reports of committees of the House of Representatives and
+of the Senate include usually the "hearings" of the committees, if any
+have been held: _Report from the Committee on Immigration and
+Naturalization_, 51 Cong., 2 Sess., H. R. No. 3472 (Owen Report, 1891);
+52 Cong., 1 Sess., H. R. No. 2090 (Stump Report, 1892); _Report of the
+Committee on Immigration_, 52 Cong., 2 Sess., S. R. No. 1333 (Chandler
+Report, 1893); 54 Cong., 1 Sess., S. R. No. 290 (Lodge Report, 1896); 57
+Cong., 2 Sess., S. Doc. No. 62 (Penrose Report, 1902). Special reports
+of importance are: _Report of the Immigration Investigating Commission_
+(1895); Edward Young, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, _Special Report
+on Immigration_, (42 Cong., 1 Sess., H. Mis. Doc. No. 19 (1871)); and
+C. C. Andrews, _Report made to the Department of State on the Conditions
+of the Industrial Classes in Sweden and Norway_ (1874).
+
+In a class by itself is the recent elaborate _Report of the Immigration
+Commission_, S. Docs., 61 Cong., 2-3 Sess. (Dillingham Report,
+1910-1911), 43 vols., of which vols. 1 and 2 (Abstract), 4, 34, and 36
+are specially important for this study. The _Report_ is by far the most
+scientific, thorough-going, and detailed study of the nature, extent,
+distribution and results of immigration to the United States, and to a
+few other countries like Canada, Australia, and Brazil, which has yet
+been produced.
+
+Various volumes of the United States _Statutes at Large_ and the
+_Congressional Directories_ have also some material.
+
+2. _Official Reports of Scandinavian countries._
+
+DENMARK: annual volumes of _Statistisk Aarbog_.
+
+NORWAY: annual volumes of _Norges Officielle Statistik_ (1870-1913), of
+_Norges Land og Folk_ (1885-1906), and of _Meddelelser fra det
+Statistiske Centralbureau_ (1883-1899); and _Oversigt over Kongeriget
+Norges civile, geistlige og judicielle Inddeling_ (1893).
+
+SWEDEN: annual issues of _Bidrag till Sveriges officiella statistik_
+(1857-1913), covering a wide range of topics. Gustav Sundbärg (editor),
+_Sweden, Its People and Its Industry_ (1904), is a valuable "historical
+and statistical handbook published by the order of the Government" of
+Sweden, in Swedish, English, and French.
+
+NORWAY,--_Official Publication for the Paris Exhibition, 1900_
+(Christiania, 1900) is a companion volume to that for Sweden just
+mentioned.
+
+3. _Official Publications of Great Britain._
+
+The _Report of the Board of Trade on Alien Immigration_ (into the United
+States) (London, 1893) is at once able, comprehensive, judicious.
+
+4. _Official Publications of the Northwestern States._
+
+The various annual or biennial legislative handbooks contain useful
+biographies and statistics, especially the volumes since 1880: _The
+Legislative Manual of the State of Minnesota_; _Wisconsin Blue Book_;
+_The Legislative Manual of North Dakota_; _South Dakota Political
+Handbook and Official and Legislative Manual_ (sometimes entitled _South
+Dakota Legislative, Executive, and Judicial Directory_). Of the great
+number and variety of official State documents and reports, those most
+directly useful for this study are the volumes of statistics of
+Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota;
+those relating to the State censuses, State institutions (a board of
+control as in Wisconsin and Iowa, or a board of charities and
+corrections, for certain institutions, in Minnesota and South Dakota),
+commissioners or boards of immigration, and boards of health. Reports of
+officers in charge of immigration matters are in State documents as
+follows: Wisconsin, 1853, 1854, 1869-1875, 1880-1882, 1884, 1886, 1897,
+1900; Iowa, 1872; Minnesota, 1867-1872. The publications of certain
+institutions chiefly supported by the States, like the Wisconsin
+Historical Society, the State Historical Society of Iowa, especially
+vol. III (1905), and the Minnesota Historical Society, really fall into
+this class of sources.
+
+
+GENERAL WORKS
+
+The classical work on the broad subject of immigration, notable alike
+for the breadth and penetration of its views, is Richmond Mayo-Smith,
+_Emigration and Immigration: a Study in Social Science_ (1890). Two
+other works by the same authority, are: _Immigration and the
+Foreign-Born Population_ (in vol. III of the _Publications of the
+American Statistical Assn._, 1893), and _Statistics and Sociology_
+(1895). The _Publications_ of the Immigration Restriction League take a
+wide range in 63 pamphlets (1894-1914). Next to these in importance
+come: Prescott F. Hall, _Immigration and its Effects upon the United
+States_ (1906), an excellent and compact study, somewhat marred by the
+bias of its author, who is secretary of the Restriction League; J. R.
+Commons, _Races and Immigrants in America_ (1907), a popular rather than
+profound statement, but the fresh work of a careful scholar; E. A.
+Steiner, _On the Trail of the Immigrant_ (1906); S. McLanahan, _Our
+People of Foreign Speech ... with particular reference to religious work
+among them_ (1904).
+
+A group of more recent works by competent scholars combining qualities
+of penetration and popular presentation in satisfying proportions are:
+H. P. Fairchild, _Immigration: a World Movement and its American
+Significance_ (1913); J. W. Jenks and W. J. Lauck, _The Immigration
+Problem_ (3d ed. revised and enlarged, 1913), by two men intimately
+connected with the making of the Dillingham Report; E. A. Ross, _The Old
+World in the New: The significance of past and present immigration to
+the American people_ (1914), especially ch. IV; F. J. Warne, _The
+Immigrant Invasion_ (1913), ch. XII.
+
+Of less direct bearing, but valuable: W. J. Bromwell, _History of
+Immigration to the United States_ (1856); F. L. Dingley, _European
+Immigration_ (1890); F. Kapp, _Immigration and the Commissioners of
+Immigration of the State of New York_ (1870); R. M. LaFollette (editor),
+_The Making of America_, vols. II and VIII (1906); F. A. Walker,
+_Discussions in Economics and Statistics_, vol. II (1899).
+
+The great mass of periodical literature is listed in Griffin's
+bibliography, already cited. Including general and special articles and
+some speeches in the _Congressional Record_, nearly 700 titles are
+arranged chronologically. The list is incomplete, omitting several
+articles, dealing particularly with the Scandinavians.
+
+
+SPECIAL HISTORIES
+
+Three works deal with the history of the Scandinavian immigration in a
+large-spirited, comprehensive way, and by these characteristics stand
+out from the mass of less important works. O. N. Nelson (compiler and
+editor), _History of the Scandinavians and Successful Scandinavians in
+the United States_ (2 vols., 2nd revised ed., 1904), is made up of
+specially prepared articles, reprinted articles, statistical tables, a
+bibliography, and some two hundred and eighty biographies of men in
+Minnesota, Wisconsin and Iowa. It is very uneven, and on almost every
+page betrays at once the zeal, honesty, and the inadequate training of
+the authors and the compiler. It might almost be characterized as a
+cyclopedia of the Scandinavians in America. E. Norelius, _De Svenska
+Luterska Församlingarnas och Svenskarnes Historia i Amerika_ (1890),
+while nominally a church history is in reality an excellent history of
+Swedish settlement; George T. Flom, _A History of Norwegian Immigration
+to the United States from the Earliest Beginning down to the Year 1848_
+(1909), made up in part of articles mentioned elsewhere, is a
+painstaking, exhaustive, accurate account of Norwegian immigration of
+that period into Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois.
+
+Other books dealing with special groups or States or localities are:
+Axel A. Ahlroth, _Svenskarne i Minnesota--Historiska Anteckningar_
+(Westervik, 1891); Rasmus B. Anderson, _The First Chapter of Norwegian
+Immigration, 1821-1840_, a prolix, padded, but valuable volume; and
+_Tale ved Femtiaarsfesten, for den Norske Udvandring til Amerika_
+(1875); John H. Bille, _A History of the Danes in America_ (_Trans. Wis.
+Acad. of Sciences, Arts, and Letters_, XI, 1896), a short pamphlet;
+Tancred Boissy, _Svenska Nationaliteten i Förenta Staterna_ (Göteborg,
+1882), a reprint of correspondence in _Sydsvenska Dagbl. Snällposten_;
+J. W. C. Dietrichson, _Reise blandt de Norske Emigranter i "de forenede
+Nordamerikanske Fristater"_ (Stavanger 1846, and reprinted Madison,
+1896), a historical and contemporary description of the early
+settlements, and _Nogle Ord fra Prædikestolen i Amerika og Norge_
+(1851); Robert Grönberger, _Svenskarne i St. Croix-Dalen, Minnesota_
+(1879), an early and reliable piece of work; George Kæding, _Rockfords
+Svenskar--Historiska Anteckningar_ (1885); Knud Langeland, _Nordmændene i
+Amerika--Nogle Optegnelser om de Norskes Udvandring til Amerika_
+(1889),--one of the very best of the books on the Norwegians; C. F.
+Peterson (see also Eric Johnson), _Sverige i Amerika--Kulturhistoriska
+och Biografiska Teckningar_ (1898); Johan Schroeder, _Skandinaverne i de
+Forenede Stater og Canada, med Indberetninger og Oplysninger fra 200
+Skandinaviske Settlementer_ (1867),--full of the most valuable
+information about life and conditions in the Northwest; Ole Rynning,
+_Sandfærdig Beretning om Amerika til Oplysning og Nytte for Bonde og
+Menigmand_ (Christiania, 1838),--a remarkably clear, compact, and
+influential pamphlet; Carl Sundbeck, _Svenskarna i Amerika, Deras Land,
+Antal, och Kolonien_ (Stockholm, 1900); Alfred Söderström, _Minneapolis
+Minnen_ (1899), an excellent, extensive, newspaper-like description of
+the life and activities of the Scandinavians in that half-Norse city;
+Alfred Strömberg, _Minnen af Minneapolis_ (1902); _Underretning om
+Amerika, fornemmeligen de Stater hvori udvandrede Normænd have nedsat
+sig, ... udgivne af X_ (Skien, 1843); M. Ulvestad, _Normændene i
+Amerika, deres Historie og Record_ (1907); P. S. Vig, _Danske i
+Amerika_ (1900); Johs. B. Wist, _Den norske Indvandring til 1850, og
+Skandinaverne i Amerikas Politik_ (1884?),--a small but suggestive
+pamphlet.
+
+On the Bishop Hill colony, the best authorities are: Michael A.
+Mikkelsen, _The Bishop Hill Colony, a religious communistic Settlement
+in Henry County, Illinois_ (_Johns Hopkins University Studies_, X, No.
+1, 1892)--the most convenient work in English, based almost entirely
+on Norelius, and on Johnson and Peterson, _Svenskarne i Illinois_,
+Johnson being a son of the founder, Eric Janson; Emil Herlenius,
+_Erik-Jansismens Historia ett Bidrag till Kännedomen om det Svenska
+Sektväsendet_ (Jönköping, 1900); _History of Henry County, Illinois_
+(1877); _Erick Jansismen i Nord Amerika_ (Gefle, 1845); Hiram Bigelow,
+_The Bishop Hill Colony_ (No. 7 of the _Publications of the Illinois
+State Historical Library_, 1902); W. A. Hinds, _American Communities_
+(1902).
+
+
+SELECT ARTICLES IN PERIODICALS
+
+Articles in periodicals: R. B. Anderson, "Norwegian Immigration," "The
+Coming of the Danes," "Icelandic Immigration," _Chicago Record Herald_
+(June 19, 26, July 24, Aug. 21, 1901); K. C. Babcock, "The Scandinavians
+in the Northwest," _Forum_, XIV (1892), "The Scandinavian Contingent,"
+_Atlantic_, LXVII (1896), "The Scandinavian Element in American
+Population", _American Historical Review_, XVI (1911); H. H. Boyesen,
+"Norse Americans," _The American_, I (1880), "The Scandinavians in the
+United States," _North American Review_, CLV (1892); G. T. Flam, "The
+Scandinavian Factor in the American Population," _Iowa Journal of
+History and Politics_, III (1905), and (in Norwegian translation) in
+_Vor Tid_, I (1905); A. H. Hyde, "The Foreign Element in American
+Civilization," _Popular Science Mo._, LII (1898); Luth Jæger, "The
+Scandinavian Element in the United States," _The North_, June,
+1889,--with many other similar discussions in the same weekly paper, all
+of them excellent; Kristofer Janson, "Norsemen in the United States,"
+_Cosmopolitan_, IX (1890); Axel Jarlson, "A Swedish Emigrant's Story,"
+_Independent_, LV (1903); F. H. B. MacDowell, "The Newer Scandinavian--a
+Sketch of the Growth and Progress of the Scandinavian Races in America,"
+_Scandinavia_, III (1884); J. A. Ottesen, "Bidrag til vore Settlementers
+og Menigheders Historie," _Amerika_ (Apr. to Nov., 1894),--an elaborate
+series of articles, full of genealogical and community details; E. A.
+Ross, "Scandinavians in America," _Century,_ LXXXVIII (1914); Geo. T.
+Rygh, "The Scandinavian Americans," _The Literary Northwest_, II (1893);
+Albert Shaw, "The Scandinavians in the United States," _Chautauquan_,
+VIII (1887).
+
+
+_State and Local Histories_
+
+The number of historical books and pamphlets relating to the States,
+counties, cities, and settlements in the Northwest is very great, and
+for the larger part, unsatisfactory but indispensable. They have usually
+been written by ambitious but untrained persons, either as commercial
+ventures, advertising agencies, or as the pastime of retirement or old
+age; they are nevertheless full of suggestive data; now and then one is
+found which can be trusted throughout.
+
+
+A. MINNESOTA
+
+First in importance for the Scandinavian settlements in Minnesota are
+four county histories: _History of Fillmore County, including Explorers
+and Pioneers of Minnesota_ (1882); _History of Goodhue County_ (1882);
+_History of Houston County, etc._ (1882); Martin E. Tew and Victor E.
+Lawson and J. E. Nelson, _Illustrated History and Description and
+Biographical Review of Kandiyohi County, Minnesota_ (1905),--easily the
+best local history relating to Scandinavian settlement, as well as one
+of the latest and most comprehensive. Closely connected with this last
+work in scope and value is Alfred Söderström, _Minneapolis Minnen:
+Kulturhistorisk Axplockning från Qvarnstaden vid Mississippi_ (1899).
+Other works dealing with the State or sections: Isaac Atwater (editor),
+_History of the City of Minneapolis, Minnesota_ (1893); Fredk. W.
+Harrington, _Geography, History, and Civil Government of Minnesota_
+(1883); Soren Listoe, _Staten Minnesota i Nord Amerika_ (1869); _History
+of the Minnesota Valley_ (1882); _History of the Upper Mississippi
+Valley_ (1882).
+
+W. A. Gates, _Alien and Non-resident Dependents in Minnesota_ (in
+_Proceedings_ of National Conference of Charities and Correction,
+(1899)); F. H. B. MacDowell, "Minneapolis and her Scandinavian
+Population", _Scandinavia_, III (1884); Louis Pio, "The Sioux War, in
+1862--a Leaf from the History of Scandinavian Settlers in Minnesota",
+_Scandinavia_, I (1883).
+
+
+B. WISCONSIN
+
+Of the State as a whole: J. W. Hunt, _Wisconsin Gazetteer, containing
+the Names, Locations, and Advantages of the Counties, Cities, Towns,
+Villages, Postoffices, and Settlements_ (1853); Wm. R. Smith, _The
+History of Wisconsin, in three Parts: Historical, Documentary, and
+Descriptive_ (1852); Alexander M. Thompson, _A Political History of
+Wisconsin_ (1902); Charles R. Tuttle, _An Illustrated History of the
+State of Wisconsin_ (1875); R. G. Thwaites, _Preliminary Notes on the
+Distribution of Foreign Groups in Wisconsin_ (in _Annual Reports of
+State Historical Society of Wisconsin_, 1890); G. W. Peck (editor),
+_Cyclopedia of Wisconsin_, 2 vols. (1906).
+
+For the localities: Spencer Carr, _A Brief Sketch of La Crosse,
+Wisconsin_ (1854); Daniel S. Durrie, _A History of Madison, the Capital
+of Wisconsin ... with an Appendix of Notes on Dane County_ (1874); E. W.
+Keyes, _History of Dane County_, 3 vols. (1906); _The History of Racine
+and Kenosha Counties_ (1879); _The History of Rock County_ (1879); _The
+History of Waukesha County_ (1880); H. L. Skavlem, "Scandinavians in the
+Early Days of Rock County, Wisconsin", _Normands-Forbundet_ (1909).
+
+
+C. ILLINOIS
+
+Charles A. Church, _History of Rockford and Winnebago County, Illinois,
+From its first Settlement in 1834 to the Civil War_ (1900); _History of
+Henry County, Illinois_ (1877); _The Past and Present of La Salle
+County_ (1877); John M. Palmer, _The Bench and Bar of Illinois.
+Historical and Reminiscent_ (1899).
+
+Eric Johnson (Janson) and C. F. Peterson, _Scans-karne i Illinois
+Historiska Anteckningar_ (1880), is an early work of limited scope but
+judiciously written.
+
+E. W. Olson (Editor with A. Schön and M. J. Engberg), _History of the
+Swedes of Illinois_, 2 vols. (1908), has some valuable chapters in the
+first volume, especially ch. IV on the Bishop Hill Colony, and the
+chapters dealing with Swedish churches; volume two is devoted to the
+usual illustrated biographies.
+
+
+D. IOWA
+
+Charles R. Tuttle, _An Illustrated History of the State of Iowa_ (1876);
+W. E. Alexander, _History of Winneshiek and Allamakee Counties, Iowa_
+(1882); Charles H. Sparks, _History of Winneshiek County, with
+Biographical Sketches of its Eminent Men_ (1877); J. J. Louis, _Shelby
+County_; Charles H. Fletcher, _The Centennial History of Jefferson
+County_ (1876); _A Biographical Record of Boone County_ (1902); A.
+Jacobson, _The Pioneer Norwegians_ (1905).
+
+G. T. Flom, "The Coming of the Norwegians to Iowa," _Iowa Jour. of Hist.
+and Politics_, III (1905); "The Early Swedish Immigration to Iowa,"
+_Ibid._, III (1905), "The Danish Contingent in the Population of early
+Iowa," _Ibid._, IV (1906), and "The Growth of the Scandinavian Factor in
+the Population of Iowa," _Ibid._, IV (1906); B. L. Wick, "The Earliest
+Scandinavian Settlement in Iowa," _Iowa Historical Record_, XVI (1900);
+F. A. Danborn, "Swede Point, or Madrid, Iowa", _Year-Book of the Swedish
+Historical Society of America_, 1911-1913.
+
+
+E. OTHER STATES
+
+_North Dakota_: H. V. Arnold, _History of Grand Forks County ...
+including an Historical Outline of the Red River Valley_ (1900); T.
+Haggerty, _The Territory of Dakota_ (1889); _Compendium of the History
+and Biography of North Dakota_ (1900).
+
+_Nebraska_: _History of the State of Nebraska_ (1882).
+
+_Kansas_: John A. Martin, _Addresses_ ("The Swedes in Kansas") (1888).
+
+_Utah_: H. H. Bancroft, _Utah, 1540-1886_ (in _History of the Pacific
+Coast States of North America_, vol. XXI, 1889).
+
+_New York_: Arad Thomas, _Pioneer History of Orleans County, New York_
+(1871); G. J. Mason, "The Foreign Element in New York City," _Harper's
+Weekly_ (Sept., 1888); S. Folkestad, "Norske i Brooklyn-New York",
+_Symra_ (1908).
+
+
+TRAVELS AND GUIDE BOOKS
+
+Good accounts of conditions in the European kingdoms, as those
+conditions were related to emigration at different periods, are: Samuel
+Laing, _A Tour of Sweden in 1838: comprising Observations on the Moral,
+Political and Economic State of the Swedish Nation_ (London 1839), and
+_Journal of a Residence in Norway during the Years 1834, 1835 and 1836_
+(2nd ed., 1837); Charles Loring Brace, _The Norsk Folk; or a Visit to
+the Homes of Norway and Sweden_ (1857); Mrs. Woods Baker, _Pictures of
+Swedish Life, or Svea and her Children_ (1894); J. F. Hanson, _Light and
+Shade from the Land of the Midnight Sun_ (1903).
+
+Of the numerous travelers through the American Northwest, noting the
+Scandinavian settlements or the conditions affecting them, the most
+significant is Frederika Bremer, _The Homes of the New World--Impressions
+of America_ (In translation from the Swedish, 3 vols., London, 1853),
+the work of an educated, alert, sympathetic Swedish lady already noted
+as a writer. Others of special worth are C. C. Andrews, _Minnesota and
+Dakota: in Letters Descriptive of a Tour through the Northwest in the
+Autumn of 1856_ (1857); Johan Bolin, _Beskrifning öfver Nord Amerikas
+Förenta Stater_ (Wexjö, 1853); A. Budde, _Af et Brev om Amerika_
+(Stavanger, 1850); Basil Hall, _Travels in North America in the Years
+1827-1828_ (1829, Edinburgh, 3 vols.); Thorvald Klavenes, _Det Norske
+Amerika_ (Kristiania, 1904); Harriet Martineau, _Society in Autumn of
+1856_ (1857); Johan Bolin, _Beskrifning öfver Amerika_ (Göteborg, 1872);
+P. Waldenström, _Genom Norra Amerikas Förenta Stater: Reiseskildringar_
+(Stockholm, 1890); Victor Wickström, _Som Tidningsman Jorden Rundt_
+(Östersund, 1901).
+
+Of guidebooks and handbooks for emigrants and immigrants there is a
+great number, in English, Swedish, and Norwegian; some issued from
+philanthropic motives, some by interested States, railroad companies,
+land companies, and counties, and some by the United States. Only those
+that directly affected the Scandinavians, or that are typical of a
+period, are mentioned, and the list is not meant to be exhaustive of
+titles or editions. Some of the publications by States, might well have
+been put under the heading of State documents.
+
+One of the typical, widely circulated English handbooks is William
+Cobbett, _The Emigrant's Guide, in ten Letters addressed to the
+Taxpayers of England, containing Information of every Kind, necessary to
+Persons who are about to emigrate_ (London, 1829). A similar Norwegian
+pamphlet is L. J. Fribert, _Haandbog for Emigranter til Amerikas Vest_
+(Christiania, 1847), or J. R. Reierson, _Veiviser for norske Emigranter
+til de forenede nordamerikanske Stater och Texas_ (Christiania, 1844,
+reprinted in America, 1899). The United States issued a guide: Edward
+Young, _Special Report on Immigration; accompanying Information for
+Immigrants_ (1871), reprinted in 1872, with editions in French and
+German. Other works are: Frederick B. Goddard, _Where to Emigrate and
+Why_ (1864); and Edward Young, _Information for Immigrants, relative to
+Prices and Rentals of Land, etc._ (1871).
+
+For Wisconsin, the most significant and helpful are: _Beskrivelse over
+Staten Wisconsin: Dens Klimat, Jordbund, Agerdyrkning, samt Natur- og
+Kunstprodukter. Udgivet efter Legislaturens Ordre af Statens
+Immigrations Department_ (1870); K. K. Kennan (joint agent in Europe
+for the Wisconsin State Board of Immigration and the Wisconsin Central
+Railroad, without expense to the former), _Staten Wisconsin, dens
+Hjælpekilder og Fordele for Udvandreren_ (1884)--in several editions, and
+also in Swedish; C. F. J. Moeller, _Staten Wisconsin, beskreven med
+særligt Hensyn til denne Stats fortrinlige Stilling som et fremtidigt
+Hjem, for Emigranter fra Danmark, Norge, og Sverige_ (1865);
+_Wisconsin,--What it offers to the Immigrant. An official Report
+published by the State Board of Immigration of Wisconsin_ (1879)--many
+editions, and in various languages.
+
+For Minnesota: Girart Hewitt, _Minnesota: Its Advantages to Settlers_,
+etc. (1868),--seven editions, one being published by the State; Hans
+Mattson, _Minnesota och dess Fordelar for Indvandreren_ (1867);
+_Minnesota as a Home for Emigrants_ (1886),--in Norwegian and Swedish
+also.
+
+For other States: _Resources of Dakota,--an Official Publication compiled
+by the Commissioner of Immigration_ (1887), later editions dealing with
+the two States formed from the Territory of Dakota; Fred. Gerhard,
+_Illinois as it is: its History, Geography, Statistics_, etc. (1857);
+_Iowa: the Home for Immigrants_ (1879), also in Swedish, Norwegian,
+German, and Dutch.
+
+
+BIOGRAPHIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES
+
+Several of the books mentioned under special histories, like those
+of Norelius, Langeland, Dietrichson, and Schroeder, have much
+autobiographical material in them; while others, such as the volumes of
+O. N. Nelson and C. F. Peterson and the county histories, contain
+hundreds of brief biographies. The more important and illuminating
+autobiographies are: Hans Mattson, _Minnen_ (Lund, 1890) and the same in
+translation, _Reminiscences, the Story of an Emigrant_ (1891), an
+interestingly naïve account of the varied activities of a prominent
+politician and business man; Gustaf Unonius, _Minnen från en
+sjutton-årig Vistelse i Nordvestra Amerika_ (2 vols., Upsala, 1862), a
+graphic account of the first years of Swedish settlement, by one of its
+highly educated leaders, and _Bihang till Minnen_ (Stockholm, 1891).
+With less direct bearing, is W. H. C. Folsom, _Fifty Years in the
+Northwest_ (1888); H. P. Hall, _H. P. Hall's Observations, being more or
+less a History of Political Contests in Minnesota from 1843 to 1904_
+(1904); John Reynolds, _My Own Times, embracing also the History of My
+Life_ (Chicago, 1855); Stephen Grellet, _Memoirs_ (edited by Benj.
+Seebohm, 2 vols., 1860); and S. B. Newman, _Pastor S. Newmans
+Sjelfbiografi_ (1890).
+
+Four biographies stand out above the others: T. N. Hasselquist,
+_Lefnadsteckning af E. Norelius_; L. A. Stenholt, _En Studie af Knute
+Nelson_ (1896); Chr. O. Brohough, and I. Eisteinsen, _Kortfattet
+Beretning om Elling Eielsens Liv og Virksomhed_ (1883); and L. M. Björn,
+_Pastor P. A. Rasmussen_ (1905). Other biographies of less significance
+for this study are: C. J. Rosenberg, _Jenny Lind in America_ (1851);
+Sara C. Bull, _Ole Bull_ (1883); W. C. Church, _Life of John Ericsson_
+(2 vols., 1890).
+
+Other collected biographies, including Scandinavians, are: J. C.
+Jensson, _American Lutheran Biographies_ (1890); _Men of Minnesota_
+(1902); F. G. Flower, _Biographical Souvenir Book_ (1899), relating to
+North Dakota alone; _Prominent Democrats of Illinois_ (1899); H. A.
+Tenney, and D. Atwood, _Fathers of Wisconsin_ (1880); C. J. A. Erickson,
+"Memories of a Swedish Immigrant," _Annals of Iowa,_ April, 1907.
+
+
+RELIGION, EDUCATION, AND THE PRESS
+
+No attempt is made here at a bibliography of the abundant polemical
+religious literature, nor of the sermons and proceedings of church
+conventions, nor of denominational year books, further than to show the
+material contributing to this volume. In similar manner, a limit is put
+upon the list of catalogs and publications of colleges and seminaries,
+and upon the periodicals and newspapers of which the number is very
+large.
+
+A very recent and excellent volume dealing with Norwegian progress and
+culture in America is _Norsk-Amerikanernes Festskrift, 1914_ (Chief
+Editor, Johs. B. Wist) which was prepared as an American contribution to
+the celebration of the centennial of Norwegian independence. Important
+chapters are devoted to the press (noted below), the churches, schools,
+literature, and men in public or political life, each being the work of
+a careful scholar.
+
+The most valuable volumes dealing with the religious histories of
+Scandinavian settlement are E. Norelius, _De Svenska Luterska
+Församlingarnas och Svenskarnes Historia i Amerika_ (1890) and, of
+almost equal worth, for Norwegian church history, Th. Bothne, _Kort
+Udsigt over det Lutherske Kirkearbeide blandt Nordmændene i Amerika_
+(1898), being a separate made up of a section of "Norske Kirkeforhold i
+Amerika," pp. 815-903, of H. G. Heggtveit, _Illustreret Kirkehistorie_.
+Good brief sketches of various denominations are embodied in O. N.
+Nelson, _History of the Scandinavians_, already noted. The most
+important of the other works are: R. Anderson, _Den Evangelisk Lutherske
+Kirkes Historie i Amerika_ (1889); and _Emigrantmissjonen, Kirkelig
+Vejledning for Udvandrere_ (1884); H. K. Carroll, _The Religious Forces
+of the United States, enumerated, classified, and described on the Basis
+of the Government Census of 1890.... Revised to 1896_ (1896); Theodor H.
+Dahl, _Den Forenede Kirke: Fred og Strid eller Lidt Forenings Historie_
+(1894); O. Ellison, _Svenska Baptisternas i Wisconsin Missions Historia_
+(1902); Simon W. Harkey, _The Mission of the Lutheran Church in America_
+(1853); O. J. Hatlestad, _Historiske Meddelelser om den norske Augustana
+Synode_ (1887); H. G. Heggtveit, _Illustreret Kirkehistorie_ (1898);
+Chauncy Hobart, _History of Methodism in Minnesota_ (1887); Henry E.
+Jacobs, _A History of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the United
+States_ (1893); J. N. Lenker, _Lutherans in all Lands_ (1896); N. M.
+Liljengren and C. G. Wallenius, _Svenska Methodismen i Amerika_ (1885);
+_Minde fra Jubelfesterne paa Koshkonong_ (1894); M. W. Montgomery, _The
+Work among the Scandinavians_ (1888) and "A Wind from the Holy Spirit,"
+_Sweden and Norway_ (1884); A. H. Newman, _History of the Baptist
+Churches in the United States_ (1894), and _A Century of Baptist
+Achievement_ (1901); E. Norelius, _Evangeliska Luterska Augustana
+Synoden i Nord Amerika och dess Mission_ (1870); _Affidavits of Sven
+Oftedal, et al_ (in Dist. Court of Minnesota, 4th Jud. Dist.) (1897); H.
+Olson, _Minnesotal öfver framlidne pastorn O. G. Hedström_ (1886);
+George Richardson, _The Rise and Progress of the Society of Friends in
+Norway_ (London, 1849); Matthew Simpson (editor), _Cyclopedia of
+Methodism_ (5th ed., 1882); E. J. Wolf, _The Lutherans in America_
+(1890); N. C. Brun, "Kort Omrids af den amerikansk-lutherske Kirkes
+Historie", _Vor Tid_, I (1905).
+
+On the educational side are Kiddle and Schem, _Dictionary of Education_
+(1890); Chr. Koerner, _The Bennett Law and the German Parochial Schools
+of Wisconsin_ (1890); J. W. Stearns (editor), _The Columbian History of
+Education in Wisconsin_ (1893); _The Bennett Law Analyzed_ (1890); A.
+Estrem, "A Norwegian-American College (Luther College)," _Midland
+Monthly_, I (1894); E. S. White, "Elk Horn College," _Midland Monthly_,
+II (1894); J. P. Uhler, "Scandinavian Studies in the United States,"
+_Science_, IX (1887); G. Andreen, "Det svenska Språket i Amerika",
+_Studentföreningen Verdandis Småskrifter_, No. 87 (Stockholm, 1900); G.
+T. Flom, _A History of Scandinavian Studies in American Universities_
+(Bulletin of the State University of Iowa, No. 153, 1907), and "Det
+norsk sprogs bruk og utvikling i Amerika", _Normands-Forbundet_, IV
+(1912); G. Bothne, "Nordiske studier ved amerikanske universiteter",
+_Norsk-Amerikanernes Festkrift, 1914_; A. A. Stomberg, "Swedish in
+American Universities", _Year-Book of the Swedish Historical Society of
+America_, 1909-1910; C. G. Wallenius, "Den högre Skolverksamheten bland
+Svenskarne i Amerika", _Year-Book of the Swedish Historical Society of
+America_, 1911-1913.
+
+University and college catalogs and registers need not be enumerated for
+each year; two typical years would be 1895 and 1905; Augustana College
+and Seminary, Rock Island, Ill.; Luther College, Decorah, Iowa; Bethany
+College, Lindsborg, Kansas; Gustavus Adolphus College, St. Peter,
+Minnesota; St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota; Elk Horn College,
+Elk Horn, Iowa; Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis, Minnesota; Red Wing
+Seminary, Red Wing, Minnesota; Northwestern University; University of
+Chicago; Chicago Theological Seminary; University of Wisconsin;
+University of Minnesota; University of North Dakota; University of
+Nebraska; State University of Iowa.
+
+Exhaustive and scholarly discussions of the history and character of the
+Scandinavian newspapers and periodicals published in the United States
+are: Juul Dieserud, "Den norske presse i Amerika. En historisk
+oversigt", _Normands-Forbundet_, V (April 1912); Carl Hansen, "Et Stykke
+Norsk-Amerikanske Pressens-historie", _Kvartalskrift_, III (Jan. 1907),
+"Den norsk-amerikanske presse før borgerkrigen", _Symra: en Aarbog for
+Norske paa begge Sider af Havet_, IV (1908); and "Den norsk-amerikanske
+presse: Pressen til borgerkrigens slutning", _Norsk-Amerikanernes
+Festskrift, 1914_; Johs. B. Wist, "Den norsk-amerikanske press: Pressen
+efter borgerkrigen", _Norsk-Amerikanernes Festskrift, 1914_--remarkably
+full and complete in its details; E. W. Olson (editor), "Press and
+Literature", _History of the Swedes in Illinois_ (1908), ch. 13. Less
+important is Eric Johnson, "The Swedish American Press", _The Viking_, I
+(July and Aug. 1906).
+
+For statistics and ratings of newspapers, G. P. Rowell & Co., _American
+Newspaper Directories_ (1869 to 1906); N. W. Ayer, _American Newspaper
+Annual_ (1881-1914) (Philadelphia).
+
+
+ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL QUESTIONS
+
+Florence E. Baker, _A Brief History of the Elective Franchises in
+Wisconsin_ (1894); Fremont O. Bennett, _Politics and Politicians of
+Chicago, Cook County, and Illinois_ (1886); Eugene Brown and F. Fred
+Rowe (compilers), _Industrial and Picturesque Rockford, Illinois_
+(1891); Carlo De'Negri, _Appunti di Statistica Comparata dell'
+Emigrazione dell' Europa e della Immigrazione in America e in Australia_
+(in _Bulletin de l'Institute International de Statistique_, 1888); John
+G. Gregory, _Foreign Immigration to Wisconsin_ (1902); C. H. Gronvald,
+_The Effects of the Immigration on the Norwegian Immigrants_ (in _Sixth
+Annual Report to the State Board of Health of Minnesota_, 1878); Hans
+Mattson (editor), _Two Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of the First
+Swedish Settlement in America, September 14, 1888_ (1889); Robert P.
+Porter (and others), _The West: from the Census of 1880_ (1882); Julian
+Ralph, _Our Great West: a Study of the Present Conditions and Future
+Possibilities of the New Commonwealths and Capitals of the United
+States_ (1893); Gustav Sundbärg, _Bidrag till Utvandringsfrågen från
+Befolkningsstatistisk Synpunkt_ (in _Upsala Universitets Årsskrift_,
+1884 o. 1885); Carl Sundbeck, _Svensk-Amerikanerna, deras Materialla och
+Andliga Sträfvanden_ (1904)--a good up-to-date summary of conditions in
+America; William W. Thomas, _Sweden and the Swedes_ (1893); James D.
+Whelpley, _The Problem of the Immigrant_ (1905); Edward Young, _Labor in
+Europe and America, a Special Report on the Rate of Wages, etc._
+(1875),--a particularly valuable book, dealing with conditions in Europe
+on the eve of the great movement to America.
+
+Two groups of Federal reports are very useful: _Emigration from Europe_,
+(_Reports from the Consuls of the United States_, No. 76, 1887), dealing
+with European conditions; and _Emigration to the United States_
+(_Special Consular Reports_, vol. XXX, 1904). Another exhaustive and
+scholarly investigation is embodied in _Reports of the Industrial
+Commission on Immigration, including testimony, with Review and Digest,
+and Special Reports_, being vol. XV of the Commission's _Reports_
+(1901).
+
+The Civil War as related to immigration from Northern Europe is treated
+in: Ole A. Buslett, _Det Femtende Regiment Wisconsin Frivillige_ (1895);
+P. G. Dietrichson, _En Kortfattet Skildring af det femtende Wisconsins
+Regiments Historie og Virksomhed under Borgerkrigen_ (1884); J. A.
+Enander, _Borgerkrigen i de Forenede Stater i Nord Amerika_ (1881); John
+A. Johnson, _Det Skandinaviske Regiments Historie_ (1869).
+
+Important articles in periodicals: F. W. Hewes, "Where our Immigrants
+Settle" (with excellent statistical maps), _World's Work_, VI (1903); G.
+G. Huebner, "The Americanization of the Immigrant," _Annals of the
+American Academy of Political and Social Science_, XXVII (1906);
+Richmond Mayo-Smith, "Control of Immigration", _Political Science
+Quarterly_, III, 46, 197, 404 (1888); G. H. Schwab, "A Practical Remedy
+for the Evils of Immigration," _Forum_, XVI (1893); Nicolay A. Grevstad,
+"Courts of Conciliation," and "Courts of Conciliation in America,"
+_Atlantic_, LXVIII (1891), LXXII (1893).
+
+Various numbers of _Normands-Forbundet_, published in Christiania, have
+contained noteworthy articles, besides those mentioned elsewhere in
+this bibliography, dealing with American conditions: S. Sondresen, "Den
+norsk-amerikanske farmer" (1908); J. Dieserud, "Nordmændenes
+deltagelse i de Forenede Staters politiske liv" (1908); M. Alger,
+"Re-immigrationen" (1913); Av. Kand. Gottenborg, "Hjemvandte
+norsk-amerikanere, deres livsforhold i Amerika og i Norge efter
+hjemkomste" (1913); O. K. Winberg, "Degenererer Nordmænd i Amerika"
+(1910).
+
+Three small novels contain particularly graphic accounts of the life and
+social conditions among the Norwegian settlers: P. O. Strömme,
+_Hvorledes Halvor blev Prest_ (1893), one of the very best pictures of
+pioneer immigrant family life; H. A. Foss (translated by J. J.
+Skordalsvold), _Tobias, a Story of the Northwest_, an exaggerated
+account of intemperance; and Sigurd H. Severson, _Dei möttes ve Utica.
+En paa personlig Iagttagelse grundet Skildring af Livet i ældre
+Norsk-Amerikanske Settlementer_ (1882).
+
+
+NEWSPAPERS
+
+The number of newspapers and other periodicals for the Scandinavians in
+the United States yearly given in G. P. Rowell Co., _American Newspaper
+Directory_, has varied in recent years from 125 to 140, while the total
+of short-lived and long-lived publications of the same sort would pass
+200. The following list includes those periodicals, chiefly newspapers,
+which were useful in some special degree in preparing this volume:
+
+  _America_, Chicago, an English monthly for Swedes and Norwegians.
+
+  _American-Scandinavian Review_, New York, 1913--Engl. bi-mo.
+
+  _Amerika_, Chicago & Madison, Wis., 1884 (united with _Norden_, 1897
+  q. v.), Norw. Wkly.
+
+  _Billed-Magazin, Skandinavisk_, Madison, Wis., 1868-1870. Norw. mo.
+
+  _Budstikken_, Minneapolis, 1872--. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Chicago Daily Tribune_, Chicago, 1847--. dly.
+
+  _Chicago Record-Herald_, Chicago, 1854--. dly.
+
+  _Dannevirke_, Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1880--. Dan. wkly.
+
+  _Danske Pioneer_, Omaha, Neb., 1873--. Dan. wkly.
+
+  _Decorah Posten_, Decorah, Iowa, 1874--. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Fædrelandet og Emigranten_, La Crosse, Wis., and Minneapolis,
+  1864-1888. (_Emigranten_, Inmansville, Wis., 1852; Janesville, 1856;
+  Madison, 1857; La Crosse, 1864, and united with _Fædrelandet_.Q Norw.
+  wkly.)
+
+  _Folkebladet_, Minneapolis, 1878--. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Gamla och Nya Hemlandet_, Chicago, 1855. Sw. wkly.
+
+  _Korsbaneret_, Rock Island, Ill., 1880. Sw. church annual.
+
+  _Kvartalskrift_, Minneapolis, 1903--. Nor. qtly.
+
+  _Madison Democrat_, Madison, Wis., 1852--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Milwaukee Daily Sentinel_, Milwaukee, Wis., 1837--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Minneapolis Evening Journal_, Minneapolis, 1878--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Minneapolis Times_, Minneapolis, 1889-1905. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Minneapolis Tribune_, Minneapolis, 1867--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Minneapolis Tidende_, Minneapolis, 1887--. Norw. dly. and wkly.
+
+  _Minnesota Stats Tidning_, Minneapolis and St. Paul, 1877--. Sw. wkly.
+
+  _Norden_, Chicago, 1874-1897 (united with _Amerika_). Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Nordvesten_, St. Paul, 1883--. Norw.-Dan. wkly.
+
+  _Nordmanden_, Grand Forks, N. D., 1887--. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Nordmands-Forbundet_, Christiania, Norway, 1908--. Nor.
+
+  _Normannen_, Stoughton, Wis., 1867. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _The North_, Minneapolis, 1889-1894. Eng. wkly. for Scandinavians.
+
+  _Red River Posten_ (merged with _Dakota_), Fargo, N. D., 1879--. Norw.
+  wkly.
+
+  _Rockford Register_, Rockford, Ill., 1867--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Rodhuggeren_, Crookston, Minn., 1880-1884. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Scandinavia_, Chicago, 1883-1886. Eng. mo. for Scandinavians.
+
+  _Skandinaven_, Chicago, 1866--. Norw. dly., wkly., and tri-wkly., the
+  strongest and most influential Scandinavian paper in the United
+  States.
+
+  _St. Paul Pioneer-Press_, St. Paul, 1849--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _St. Paul Dispatch_, St. Paul, 1868--. Eng. dly.
+
+  _Superior Tidende_ (originally _Posten_), Superior, Wis., 1888--.
+  Norw.-Dan. wkly.
+
+  _Svensk-Amerikaneren_, Chicago, Ill., 1866--. Sw. wkly.
+
+  _Svenska Amerikanska Posten_, Minneapolis, 1886--. Sw. wkly., a large
+  and influential paper.
+
+  _Svenska Folkets Tidning_, Minneapolis, 1883--. Sw. wkly.
+
+  _Svenska Tribunen_, Chicago, 1868--. Sw. wkly.
+
+  _Ugebladet_, Chicago, later Minneapolis, 1888--. Norw. wkly.
+
+  _Valdris-Helsing_ (_Valdris-Samband_), Iowa City, Ia., later
+  Stillwater and Minneapolis, Minn., 1893--. Norw. mo. (since 1912)
+  devoted to interests of immigrants from Valders.
+
+  _The Viking_, Fremont, Neb., 1906--? Eng. mo. for Scandinavians.
+
+  _Vikingen_, _Minneapolis_, 1906--. Norw.-Dan. mo.
+
+  _Vor Tid_, Minneapolis, 1905-1908. Norw. mo.
+
+  _Wisconsin State Journal_, Madison, 1897--. Eng. dly.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX I
+
+Statistical Tables
+
+TABLE I
+
+STATISTICS OF IMMIGRANTS FROM DENMARK, NORWAY AND SWEDEN.
+
+The number of alien passengers and immigrants from the Scandinavian
+countries arriving in the United States, 1820-1913, together with the
+total number of alien arrivals according to the statistics of the United
+States, and, where available, of the Scandinavian kingdoms. The figures
+from 1820-1840 are at best a safe minimum. The earlier figures reported
+by the Scandinavian kingdoms, given in round numbers, are probably
+estimates based upon partial data. See United States _Reports of the
+Bureau of Commerce and Navigation, Annual Statistical Abstracts_ and the
+report of the Dillingham Commission (1911); Sundbärg, _Bidrag til
+Utvandringsfrägen frän Befolkningsstatistisk Synpunkt;_ Nelson,
+_Scandinavians in the United States,_ I. 253-264c; _Bulletin de
+l'Institute Internationale de Statistique,_ III, ii, 125-127;
+_Statesman's Year-Books, 1906-14_.
+
+  +-------------------- UNITED STATES STATISTICS ------------------+
+
+                                                    Total      Total
+             Denmark        Norway    Sweden Scandinavian     Aliens
+
+  1820            20                 3                23       8,385
+  1821            12                12                24       9,127
+  1822            18                10                28       6,911
+  1823             6                 1                 7       6,354
+  1824            11                 9                20       7,912
+  1825            14                 4                18      10,199
+  1826            10                16                26      10,837
+  1827            15                13                28      18,875
+  1828            50                10                60      27,382
+  1829            17                13                30      22,520
+  1830            16                 3                19      23,322
+
+  1820-1830      189                94               283     151,824
+
+  1831            23                13                36      22,633
+  1832            21               313               334      60,482
+  1833           173                16               189      58,640
+  1834            24                42                66      65,365
+  1835            37                31                68      45,374
+  1836           416                57               473      76,242
+  1837           109               290               399      79,340
+  1838            52                60               112      38,914
+  1839            56               324               380      68,069
+  1840           152                55               207      84,066
+
+  1831-40      1,063             1,201             2,264     599,125
+
+  1841            31               195               226      80,289
+  1842            35               553               588     104,565
+  1843            29             1,748             1,777      52,496
+  1844            25             1,311             1,336      78,615
+  1845            54               928               982     114,371
+  1846           114             1,916             2,030     154,416
+  1847            13             1,307             1,320     234,968
+  1848           210               903             1,113     226,527
+  1849             8             3,473             3,481     297,024
+  1850            20             1,569             1,589     369,980
+
+  1841-50        539            13,903            14,442   1,713,251
+
+  1851            14             2,424             2,438     379,466
+  1852             3             4,103             4,106     371,601
+  1853            32             3,364             3,396     368,645
+  1854           691             3,531             4,222     427,833
+  1855           528               821             1,349     200,877
+  1856           173             1,157             1,330     200,436
+  1857         1,035             1,712             2,747     251,306
+  1858           232             2,430             2,662     123,126
+  1859           499             1,091             1,590     121,282
+  1860           542               298               840     153,640
+
+  1851-60      3,749            20,931            24,680   2,598,212
+
+  1861           234               616               850      91,918
+  1862         1,658               892             2,550      91,985
+  1863         1,492             1,627             3,119     176,282
+  1864           712             2,249             2,961     193,418
+  1865         1,149             6,109             7,258     248,120
+  1866         1,862            12,633            14,495     318,568
+  1867         1,436             7,055             8,491     315,722
+  1868           819            11,166            11,985     142,023
+
+  1861-68      9,362            42,347            51,709   1,578,036
+
+  1869         3,649      16,068      24,224      43,941     352,768
+  1870         4,083      13,216      13,443      30,742     387,203
+  1871         2,015       9,418      10,699      22,132     321,350
+  1872         3,690      11,421      13,464      28,575     404,806
+  1873         4,931      16,247      14,303      35,481     459,803
+  1874         3,082      10,384       5,712      19,178     313,339
+  1875         2,656       6,093       5,573      14,322     227,498
+  1876         1,547       5,173       5,603      12,323     169,986
+  1877         1,695       4,588       4,991      11,274     141,857
+  1878         2,105       4,759       5,390      12,354     138,469
+  1879         3,474       7,345      11,001      21,820     177,826
+  1880         6,576      19,895      39,186      65,657     457,257
+
+  1869-80     39,503     124,607     153,589     317,699   3,552,162
+
+  1881         9,177      22,705      49,760      81,582     669,431
+  1882        11,618      29,101      64,607     105,326     788,992
+  1883        10,319      23,398      38,277      71,994     603,322
+  1884         9,202      16,974      26,552      52,728     518,592
+  1885         6,100      12,356      22,248      40,704     395,346
+  1886         6,225      12,759      27,751      46,735     334,203
+  1887         8,524      16,269      42,836      67,629     490,109
+  1888         8,962      18,264      54,698      81,924     546,889
+  1889         8,699      13,390      35,415      57,504     444,427
+  1890         9,366      11,370      29,632      50,368     455,302
+
+  1881-90     88,132     176,586     391,776     656,494   5,246,613
+
+  1891        10,659      12,568      36,880      60,107     560,319
+  1892        10,593      14,462      43,247      68,302     623,084
+  1893         8,779      16,079      38,077      62,935     502,917
+  1894         5,581       8,867      18,608      33,056     314,467
+  1895         4,244       7,373      15,683      27,300     279,948
+  1896         3,167       8,855      21,177      33,229     343,267
+  1897         2,085       5,842      13,162      21,089     230,832
+  1898         1,946       4,938      12,398      19,282     229,299
+  1899         2,690       6,705      12,797      22,192     311,715
+  1900         2,926       9,575      18,650      31,151     448,572
+
+  1891-00     52,670      95,264     230,679     378,643   3,844,410
+
+  1901         3,655      12,248      23,331      39,234     487,918
+  1902         5,660      17,484      30,894      54,038     648,743
+  1903         7,158      24,461      46,028      77,647     857,046
+  1904         8,525      23,808      27,763      60,096     812,870
+  1905         8,970      25,064      26,591      60,625   1,026,499
+  1906         7,741      21,730      23,310      52,781   1,100,735
+  1907         7,243      22,133      20,589      49,965   1,285,349
+  1908         4,954      12,412      12,809      30,175     782,870
+  1909         4,395      13,627      14,474      32,496     751,786
+  1910         6,984      17,538      23,745      48,267   1,041,570
+
+  1901-10     65,285     190,505     249,534     505,234   8,795,386
+
+  1911         7,555      13,950      20,780      42,285     878,587
+  1912         6,191       8,675      12,688      27,554     838,172
+  1913         6,478       8,587      17,202      33,267   1,197,892
+
+  Totals
+             278,277     696,401   1,071,835   2,047,513  30,833,643
+
+  +----------------- EUROPEAN STATISTICS ----------------+
+
+                                                   Total
+             Denmark      Norway      Sweden  Scandinavian
+
+  1820           ...               ...               ...
+  1821           ...                 1                 1
+  1822           ...               ...               ...
+  1823           ...               ...               ...
+  1824           ...               ...               ...
+  1825           ...                53                53
+  1826           ...               ...               ...
+  1827           ...               ...               ...
+  1828           ...               ...               ...
+  1829           ...               ...               ...
+  1830           ...               ...               ...
+
+  1820-1830      ...                54                54
+
+  1831           ...               ...               ...
+  1832           ...               ...               ...
+  1833           ...               ...               ...
+  1834           ...               ...               ...
+  1835           ...               ...               ...
+  1836           ...               200               200
+  1837           ...               200               200
+  1838           ...               100               100
+  1839           ...               400               400
+  1840           ...               300               300
+
+  1831-40        ...             1,200             1,200
+
+  1841           ...               400               400
+  1842           ...               700               700
+  1843           ...             1,600             1,600
+  1844           ...             1,200             1,200
+  1845           ...             1,100             1,100
+  1846           ...             1,300             1,300
+  1847           ...             1,600             1,600
+  1848           ...             1,400             1,400
+  1849           ...             4,000             4,000
+  1850           ...             3,700             3,700
+
+  1841-50        ...            17,000            17,000
+
+  1851           ...       2,640         934       3,574
+  1852           ...       4,030       3,031       7,061
+  1853           ...       6,050       2,619       8,669
+  1854           ...       5,950       3,980       9,930
+  1855           ...       1,600         586       2,186
+  1856           ...       3,200         959       4,159
+  1857           ...       6,400       1,762       8,162
+  1858           ...       2,500         512       3,012
+  1859           ...       1,800         208       2,008
+  1860           ...       1,900         266       2,166
+
+  1851-60        ...      36,070      14,857      50,927
+
+  1861           ...       8,900       1,087       9,987
+  1862           ...       5,250       1,206       6,456
+  1863           ...       1,100       1,485       2,585
+  1864           ...       4,300       2,461       6,761
+  1865           ...       4,000       3,180       7,180
+  1866           ...      15,455       4,466      19,921
+  1867           ...      12,829       5,893      18,722
+  1868           ...      13,211      21,472      34,683
+
+  1861-68        ...      65,045      41,250     106,295
+
+  1869         4,340      18,070      32,050      54,460
+  1870         3,264      14,834      15,430      33,528
+  1871         3,249      12,276      12,985      28,510
+  1872         5,941      13,865      11,838      31,644
+  1873         5,926      10,352       9,486      25,764
+  1874         2,261       4,601       3,380      10,242
+  1875         1,678       4,048       3,591       9,317
+  1876         1,336       4,355       3,702       9,393
+  1877         1,374       3,206       2,921       7,501
+  1878         2,300       4,863       4,242      11,405
+  1879         2,845       7,608      12,761      23,214
+  1880         5,475      20,212      36,263      61,950
+
+  1869-80     39,989     170,124     148,649     306,928
+
+  1881         7,823      25,976      40,620      74,419
+  1882        11,385      28,804      44,359      84,548
+  1883         8,280      22,167      25,678      56,125
+  1884         6,149      14,776      17,664      38,589
+  1885         4,211      13,901      18,222      36,334
+  1886         5,558      15,116      27,913      48,587
+  1887         8,184      20,706      46,252      75,142
+  1888         8,269      21,348      45,561      75,178
+  1889         8,271      12,597      28,529      49,397
+  1890         9,524      10,898      29,487      49,909
+
+  1881-90     77,654     186,289     324,285     588,228
+
+  1891         9,781      13,249      36,134      59,164
+  1892         9,763      16,814      40,990      67,567
+  1893         8,551      18,690      37,321      64,562
+  1894         4,105       5,591       9,529      19,225
+  1895         3,607       6,153      14,982      24,742
+  1896         2,876       6,584      14,874      24,334
+  1897         2,260       4,580      10,109      16,949
+  1898         2,340       4,805       8,534      15,679
+  1899         2,799       6,466      11,842      21,097
+  1900         3,570      10,931      16,209      30,710
+
+  1891-00     49,652      93,863     200,524     344,029
+
+  1901         4,657      12,488      20,306      37,451
+  1902         6,823      19,225      33,151      59,199
+  1903         8,214      24,998      35,439      68,651
+  1904         9,034      20,836      18,533      48,403
+  1905         8,051      19,638      20,520      48,209
+  1906         8,516      20,449      21,242      50,207
+  1907         7,890      20,615      19,325      47,830
+  1908         4,558       7,850       8,873      21,281
+  1909         6,782      15,237      18,331      40,350
+  1910         8,890      17,361      23,529      49,780
+
+  1901-10     73,415     178,697     219,249     471,361
+
+  1911         8,303      11,122      15,571      34,996
+  1912
+  1913
+
+  Totals
+
+
+TABLE II
+
+FOREIGN-BORN SCANDINAVIAN POPULATION, 1850
+
+U. S. Census of 1850
+
+  States and                                      Total        Total
+  Territories         Denmark  Norway  Sweden Scandinavians Population
+
+  Alabama                  18       3      51         72       771,623
+  Arkansas                  7       1       1          9       209,897
+  California               92     124     162        378        92,597
+  Connecticut              16       1      13         30       370,792
+  Delaware                  1     ...       2          3        91,532
+  District of Columbia      6     ...       5         11        51,687
+  Florida                  21      17      33         71        87,445
+  Georgia                  24       6      11         41       906,185
+  Illinois                 93   2,415   1,123      3,631       851,470
+  Indiana                  10      18      16         44       988,416
+  Iowa                     19     361     231        611       192,214
+  Kentucky                  7      18      20         45       982,405
+  Louisiana               288      64     249        601       517,762
+  Maine                    47      12      55        114       583,169
+  Maryland                 35      10      57        102       583,034
+  Massachusetts           181      69     253        503       994,514
+  Michigan                 13     110      16        139       397,654
+  Minnesota Territory       1       7       4         12         6,077
+  Mississippi              24       8      14         46       606,526
+  Missouri                 55     155      37        247       682,044
+  New Hampshire             3       2      12         17       317,976
+  New Jersey               28       4      34         66       489,555
+  New Mexico Territory      2       2       1          5        61,547
+  New York                429     392     753      1,574     3,097,394
+  North Carolina            6     ...       9         15       869,039
+  Ohio                     53      18      55        126     1,980,329
+  Oregon Territory          2       1       2          5        13,294
+  Pennsylvania             97      27     133        257     2,311,786
+  Rhode Island             15      25      17         57       147,545
+  South Carolina           24       7      29         60       668,507
+  Tennessee                 8     ...       8         16     1,002,717
+  Texas                    49     105      48        202       212,592
+  Utah Territory            2      32       1         35        11,380
+  Vermont                 ...       8     ...          8       314,120
+  Virginia                 15       5      16         36     1,421,661
+  Wisconsin               146   8,651      88      8,885       305,391
+                        -----  ------   -----     ------    ----------
+       Total            1,837  12,678   3,559     18,074    23,191,876
+
+
+TABLE III
+
+FOREIGN-BORN SCANDINAVIAN POPULATION, 1870
+
+U. S. Census, 1870
+
+  States and                                      Total        Total
+  Territories         Denmark  Norway  Sweden  Scandinavians Population
+
+  Alabama                80       21      105           206     996,992
+  Arkansas               55       19      134           208     484,471
+  California          1,837    1,000    1,944         4,781     560,247
+  Connecticut           116       72      323           511     537,454
+  Delaware                8      ...        9            17     125,015
+  Florida                40       16       30            86     187,748
+  Georgia                42       14       35            91   1,184,109
+  Illinois            3,711   11,880   29,979        45,570   2,539,891
+  Indiana               315      123    2,180         2,618   1,680,637
+  Iowa                2,827   17,554   10,796        31,177   1,194,020
+  Kansas                502      588    4,954         6,044     364,399
+  Kentucky               53       16      112           181   1,321,011
+  Louisiana             290       76      358           724     726,915
+  Maine                 120       58       91           269     626,915
+  Maryland              106       17      100           223     780,894
+  Massachusetts         267      302    1,384         1,953   1,457,351
+  Michigan            1,354    1,516    2,406         5,276   1,184,059
+  Minnesota           1,910   35,940   20,987        58,837     439,706
+  Mississippi           193       78      970         1,241     827,922
+  Missouri              665      297    2,302         3,264   1,721,295
+  Nebraska            1,129      506    2,352         3,987     122,993
+  Nevada                208       80      217           505      42,491
+  New Hampshire          11       55       42           108     318,300
+  New Jersey            510       90      554         1,154     906,096
+  New York            1,698      975    5,522         8,195   4,382,759
+  North Carolina          8        5       38            51   1,071,361
+  Ohio                  284       64      252           600   2,665,260
+  Oregon                 87       76      205           368      90,923
+  Pennsylvania          561      115    2,266         2,942   3,521,951
+  Rhode Island           24       22      106           152     217,353
+  South Carolina         50      ...       60           110     705,606
+  Tennessee              86       37      349           472   1,258,520
+  Texas                 159      403      364           926     818,579
+  Vermont                21       34       83           138     330,551
+  Virginia               23       17       30            70   1,225,163
+  West Virginia          21        1        5            27     442,014
+  Wisconsin           5,212   40,046    2,799        48,057   1,054,670
+  Arizona Ter.           19        7        7            33       9,658
+  Colorado Ter.          77       40      180           297      39,864
+  Dakota Ter.           115    1,179      380         1,674      14,181
+  Dist. of Columbia      29        5       22            56     131,700
+  Idaho Ter.             88       61       91           240      14,999
+  Montana Ter.           95       88      141           324      20,595
+  New Mexico Ter.        15        5        6            26      91,874
+  Utah Ter.           4,957      613    1,790         7,360      86,786
+  Washington Ter.        84      104      158           346      23,955
+  Wyoming Ter.           54       28      109           191       9,118
+                     ------  -------   ------       -------  ----------
+       Total         30,098  114,243   97,327       241,686  38,558,371
+
+
+TABLE IV
+
+FOREIGN-BORN SCANDINAVIAN POPULATION, 1890
+
+U. S. Census of 1890
+
+  States and                                       Total        Total
+  Territories        Denmark    Norway  Sweden Scandinavians Population
+
+  Alabama                 71       47      294          412   1,513,017
+  Arizona Territory      180       59      168          407      59,620
+  Arkansas               125       60      333          518   1,128,179
+  California           7,764    3,702   10,923       22,389   1,208,130
+  Colorado             1,650      893    9,659       12,202     412,198
+  Connecticut          1,474      523   10,021       12,018     746,258
+  Delaware                41       14      246          301     168,493
+  District of Columbia    72       70      128          270     230,392
+  Florida                105      179      529          813     391,422
+  Georgia                 61       88      191          340   1,837,353
+  Idaho                1,241      741    1,524        3,506      84,285
+  Illinois            12,044   30,339   86,514      128,897   3,826,351
+  Indiana                718      285    4,512        5,515   2,192,404
+  Iowa                15,519   27,078   30,276       72,873   1,911,896
+  Kansas               3,136    1,786   17,096       21,998   1,427,096
+  Kentucky                92      120      184          396   1,858,635
+  Louisiana              232      136      328          796   1,118,587
+  Maine                  696      311    1,704        2,711     661,086
+  Maryland               130      164      305          599   1,042,390
+  Massachusetts        1,512    2,519   18,624       22,655   2,238,943
+  Michigan             6,335    7,795   27,366       41,496   2,093,889
+  Minnesota           14,133  101,169   99,913      215,215   1,301,826
+  Mississippi             90       54      305          449   1,289,600
+  Missouri             1,333      526    5,602        7,461   2,679,184
+  Montana                683    1,957    3,771        6,411     132,159
+  Nebraska            14,345    3,632   28,364       46,341   1,058,910
+  Nevada                 332       69      314          715      45,761
+  New Hampshire           64      251    1,210        1,425     376,530
+  New Jersey           2,991    1,317    4,159        8,467   1,444,933
+  New Mexico Ter.         54       42      149          245     153,593
+  New York             6,238    8,602   28,430       43,270   5,997,753
+  North Dakota         2,860   25,773    5,583       34,216     182,719
+  North Carolina          26       13       51           90   1,617,947
+  Ohio                   956      511    2,742        4,209   3,672,316
+  Oklahoma Ter.           37       36      138          211      61,834
+  Oregon               1,288    2,271    3,774        7,333     313,767
+  Pennsylvania         2,010    2,238   19,346       23,594   5,258,014
+  Rhode Island           154      285    3,392        3,831     345,506
+  South Dakota         4,369   19,257    7,746       31,372     328,808
+  South Carolina          36       23       60          119   1,151,149
+  Tennessee               92       41      332          465   1,767,518
+  Texas                  649    1,313    2,806        4,768   2,235,523
+  Utah Territory       9,023    1,854    5,986       16,863     207,905
+  Vermont                 58       38      870          966     332,422
+  Virginia               108      102      215          425   1,655,980
+  Washington           2,807    8,334   10,272       21,413     349,390
+  West Virginia           44        7       72          123     762,794
+  Wisconsin           13,885   65,696   20,157       99,738   1,686,880
+  Wyoming                680      345    1,357        2,382      60,705
+                     -------  -------  -------      -------  ----------
+       Total         132,543  322,665  478,041      933,249  62,622,250
+
+
+TABLE V
+
+FOREIGN WHITE STOCK OF SCANDINAVIAN ORIGIN, 1910
+
+13th Census, I, Chapter viii, Table 29
+
+  Under each state the figures represent
+    (1) foreign born, corresponding to the figures given
+              for 1850, 1870, and 1890
+    (2) native white of foreign parentage
+    (3) native white of mixed parentage
+
+                                                                Grand
+                 Norway    Sweden    Denmark      Totals        Total
+
+  Alabama          266       752       197         1,215
+                   114       481       105           700
+                   168       274       128           570        2,485
+
+  Arizona          272       845       284         1,401
+                   164       427       172           763
+                   106       302       246           654        2,818
+
+  Arkansas          76       385       178           639
+                    49       176        72           297
+                    77       374       198           649        1,585
+
+  California     9,952    26,210    14,208        50,370
+                 4,666    14,797     8,244        27,707
+                 2,528     5,464     4,043        12,035       90,112
+
+  Colorado       1,787    12,445     2,755        16,987
+                 1,421     9,681     1,894        12,996
+                   826     3,287     1,061         5,174       35,157
+
+  Connecticut    1,265     18,208    2,722        22,195
+                   499     14,508    1,845        16,852
+                   204      1,788      418         2,410       41,457
+
+  Delaware          38        332       52           422
+                    15        208       17           240
+                    12         85       19           116          778
+
+  Florida          303        728      295         1,326
+                   158        387      110           655
+                   303        412      161           876        2,857
+
+  Georgia          145        289      112           546
+                    56        153       33           242
+                    85        196       72           353        1,141
+
+  Idaho          2,566      4,985    2,254         9,805
+                 2,221      3,876    2,680         8,777
+                 1,289      2,124    2,532         5,945       24,527
+
+  Illinois      32,913    115,422   17,368       165,703
+                26,572     94,830   11,551       132,953
+                 8,953     19,879    4,600        33,432      332,088
+
+  Indiana          531      5,081      900         6,512
+                   363      4,824      692         5,879
+                   299      1,896      582         2,777       15,168
+
+  Iowa          21,924    26,763    17,961        66,648
+                30,392    28,859    17,814        77,065
+                14,586    10,573     5,966        31,125      174,838
+
+  Kansas         1,294    13,309     2,759        17,362
+                 1,371    15,911     2,635        19,917
+                 1,031     6,411     1,822         9,264       46,543
+
+  Kentucky          53       190        78           321
+                    39       104        40           183
+                    40       148        96           284          788
+
+  Louisiana        294       344       239           877
+                    92       154       125           371
+                   252       438       392         1,082        2,330
+
+  Maine            580     2,203       929         3,712
+                   288     1,478       715         2,481
+                   218       627       340         1,185        7,378
+
+  Maryland         363       421       237         1,021
+                   144       209        88           441
+                   164       261       158           583        2,045
+
+  Massachusetts  5,432    39,560     3,403        48,395
+                 2,170    25,149     1,706        29,025
+                   768     3,759       963         5,490       82,910
+
+  Michigan       7,638    26,374     6,313        40,325
+                 6,778    25,624     6,055        38,457
+                 2,358     4,939     2,431         9,728       88,510
+
+  Minnesota    105,302   122,427    16,137       243,866
+               126,549   118,083    15,430       260,062
+                47,755    27,508     5,957        81,220      585,148
+
+  Mississippi       91       292       119           502
+                    32       178        51           261
+                   116       280       122           518        1,281
+
+  Missouri         660     5,654     1,729         8,043
+                   543     4,937     1,147         6,627
+                   537     2,936     1,380         4,853       19,523
+
+  Montana        7,169     6,410     1,943        15,522
+                 4,859     3,865     1,302        10,026
+                 1,914     1,527       696         4,137       29,685
+
+  Nebraska       2,750    23,219    13,673        39,643
+                 2,989    26,599    13,957        43,545
+                 1,968     8,668     4,932        15,568       98,755
+
+  Nevada           254       708       616         1,578
+                   107       293       393           793
+                    92       192       307           591        2,962
+
+  New Hampshire    491     2,068       131         2,690
+                   292     1,172        55         1,519
+                    69       316        69           454        4,663
+
+  New Jersey     5,351    10,547     5,056        20,954
+                 2,256     5,899     3,350        11,505
+                   745     1,902     1,261         3,908       36,367
+
+  New Mexico       151       365       116           632
+                   109       240        75           424
+                    71       144        91           306        1,362
+
+  New York      25,012    53,703    12,536        91,251
+                10,171    29,284     5,006        44,461
+                 2,221     7,248     3,167        12,636      148,348
+
+  North Carolina    39       112        36           187
+                    13        36        13            62
+                    28        70        28           126          375
+
+  North Dakota  45,937    12,160     5,355        63,452
+                56,577    10,533     5,043        72,153
+                20,770     4,107     1,805        26,682      162,287
+
+  Ohio           1,109     5,522     1,837         8,468
+                   571     4,075     1,150         5,796
+                   351     1,458       808         2,617       16,881
+
+  Oklahoma         351     1,028       550         1,929
+                   425       943       518         1,886
+                   432     1,058       577         2,067        5,882
+
+  Oregon         6,843    10,099     3,215        20,157
+                 4,643     5,866     2,167        12,676
+                 1,949     2,233     1,391         5,573       38,406
+
+  Pennsylvania   2,317    23,467     3,033        28,817
+                   995    22,803     1,656        25,454
+                   651     5,415     1,261         7,327       61,598
+
+  Rhode Island     577     7,404       328         8,309
+                   230     5,174       153         5,557
+                   109       636       108           853       14,719
+
+  South Carolina    82        95        51           228
+                    19        20         9            48
+                    40        68        68           176          452
+
+  South Dakota  20,918     9,998     6,294        37,210
+                27,803     9,640     6,396        43,839
+                12,025     3,654     2,273        17,952       99,001
+
+  Tennessee         89       363       163           615
+                    74       237        87           398
+                    79       281       119           479        1,492
+
+  Texas          1,784     4,703     1,287         7,774
+                 1,649     4,724       844         7,217
+                 1,012     2,171       942         4,125       19,116
+
+  Utah           2,304     7,227     8,300        17,831
+                 1,562     5,906    10,169        17,637
+                 1,643     3,930     8,142        13,715       49,183
+
+  Vermont          102     1,331       172         1,605
+                    41       905        74         1,020
+                    32       185        68           285        2,910
+
+  Virginia         311       368       239           918
+                   222       215       140           577
+                   164       138        95           397        1,892
+
+  Washington    28,363    32,195     7,804        68,362
+                18,486    18,244     4,988        41,718
+                 5,875     5,640     2,286        13,801      123,881
+
+  West Virginia     38       278        67           383
+                    10       196        51           257
+                    31       124        48           203          843
+
+  Wisconsin     56,999    25,739    16,454        99,192
+                71,681    23,268    15,903       110,852
+                29,020     6,379     5,958        41,357      251,401
+
+  Wyoming          623     2,497       962         4,082
+                   381     1,455       866         2,702
+                   245       598       521         1,364        8,148
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX II
+
+STATISTICS OF THREE MINNESOTA COUNTIES
+
+From the U. S. Census Reports
+
+  Chisago County                1860         1870         1880
+    White population            1,729        4,358        7,982
+    White native-born           1,209        2,164        4,017
+    White foreign-born            734        2,194        3,965
+    White foreign Danish        .....           14           50
+    White foreign Norwegian     .....        1,674        3,160
+    White foreign Swedish       .....        .....        .....
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                  3,468        8,004       31,198
+      Unimproved               18,484       34,593       72,595
+
+    Cash value of farms      $124,019     $477,720   $1,171,426
+
+  Chisago County                1890         1900
+    White population           10,359       13,248
+    White native-born           5,613        8,230
+    White foreign-born          4,746        5,018
+    White foreign Danish           67           55
+    White foreign Norwegian        50           69
+    White foreign Swedish       3,955        4,215
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                 43,476       85,277
+      Unimproved              101,649      129,501
+
+    Cash value of farms    $2,563,630   $3,419,310
+
+  Fillmore County               1860         1870         1880
+    White population           13,542       24,887       28,162
+    White native-born           9,045       15,178       19,243
+    White foreign-born          4,497        9,709        8,919
+    White foreign Danish        .....           13           96
+    White foreign Norwegian     .....         6,61        5,191
+    White foreign Swedish       .....        .....        .....
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                 75,542      185,087      361,100
+      Unimproved              216,454      214,459      134,333
+
+    Cash value of farms    $1,844,797   $6,636,880   $9,535,815
+
+  Fillmore County              1890          1900
+    White population          25,966        28,238
+    White native-born         19,034        22,378
+    White foreign-born         6,932         5,860
+    White foreign Danish          68            59
+    White foreign Norwegian    4,171         3,593
+    White foreign Swedish         66            53
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                357,083      389,386
+      Unimproved              117,670      131,875
+
+    Cash value of farms    $9,935,202  $14,240,595
+
+  Otter Tail County             1860         1870         1880
+    White population              178        1,968       18,675
+    White native-born             178          888       11,249
+    White foreign-born          .....        1,080        7,426
+    White foreign Danish        .....           41          214
+    White foreign Norwegian     .....          889        4,772
+    White foreign Swedish       .....        .....        .....
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                    306        3,632      131,804
+      Unimproved                2,118       28,898      340,355
+
+    Cash value of farms       $17,550     $151,281   $3,650,223
+
+
+  Otter Tail County             1890         1900
+    White population           34,232       45,375
+    White native-born          20,884       30,988
+    White foreign-born         13,348       14,387
+    White foreign Danish          345          372
+    White foreign Norwegian     5,955        5,738
+    White foreign Swedish       2,470        3,038
+
+    Acres in farms
+      Improved                311,175      505,358
+      Unimproved              405,380      439,374
+
+    Cash value of farms    $8,511,465  $12,478,640
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Aaker, L. K., 146-47.
+
+  Agriculture among Scandinavians, 95-98.
+
+  "America Book", influence on Norwegian emigration, 37-40.
+
+  Americanization, 106-111, 180-182.
+
+  Anderson, Paul, 116-117.
+
+  Anderson, R. B., 39, 155, 173.
+
+
+  Banks, Scandinavian, 104-5.
+
+  Baptist Church, work among Scandinavians, 118-120.
+
+  Behrens, Capt., 35-36.
+
+  Bennett Law (Wisconsin), 166-168.
+
+  Bibliography, 183-204.
+
+  Birth rate, 132-33.
+
+  Bishop Hill (Ill.), Swedish settlement, 54, 56-60.
+
+  Bremer, Frederika, quoted, 52-3, 82.
+
+  Bull, Ole, on the term "Scandinavian", 15-16.
+
+  Business, Scandinavians in, 102-5.
+
+
+  California, Scandinavian population, 72-4.
+
+  Capital:
+    brought by immigrants, 92-96;
+    investment, 94-97.
+
+  Chicago (Ill.):
+    Scandinavian population, 73-4;
+    Swedish settlement, 60.
+
+  Chisago Co. (Minn.), Swedish settlement, 97-98;
+    politics, 163.
+
+  Church, _see_ names of denominations, i. e., Baptist church.
+
+  Cities, Scandinavian element, 73-4.
+
+  Citizenship, 11, 83-4, 179-82.
+
+  Civil War, part played by Scandinavians, 75-8, 142, 149.
+
+  Clausen, C. L., 46-7.
+
+  Climate, influence upon distribution of immigration, 74-5.
+
+  Colleges, Scandinavian, 111-14.
+
+  Communism, in Bishop Hill settlement, 51-60.
+
+  Congregational church, work among Scandinavians, 116-19.
+
+
+  Dane Co. (Wis.) settlement, 110, 145.
+
+  Danes: character, 18;
+    in politics, 140-43;
+    settlements, 63, 65.
+
+  Danish immigration: 69, 73-4;
+    character of, 64;
+    statistics, 62, 67-74.
+    _See also_ Immigration.
+
+  Danish churches, 15, 63-65.
+
+  Davidson, J. O., 153.
+
+  Defectives, 134-45.
+
+  Delaware River (Swedish) colony, 11-13.
+
+  Delinquents, 134-35, 137-39.
+
+  Democratic party, 160-64, 166-70.
+
+  Denmark:
+    economic conditions, 18-19, 21, 62-63, 68.
+    emigration: 62, 64;
+      causes, 62, 63, 115;
+      statistics, 62, 67-74.
+    population:
+      distribution, 21;
+      increase, 69-70, 132.
+
+  Dietrichson, J. W. C., 47-8.
+
+  Duluth (Minn.), Scandinavian population, 74.
+
+
+  Eberhardt, A. O., 153.
+
+  Education, 65, 109-14, 166-70.
+    _See also_ English language; illiteracy.
+
+  Elk Horn (Ia.), Danish settlement, 63, 65.
+
+  Emigration, _see_ Immigration; Names of countries, e. g. Denmark.
+
+  English language, use among Scandinavians, 109-10, 113, 122-23, 131,
+    145, 166-72.
+
+  Ericsson, John, 78.
+
+  Esbjörn, Paul, 117-18.
+
+
+  Families, large, 14, 132-133.
+
+  Farmers' Alliance, 162-63.
+
+  Fillmore Co. (Minn.), 98-99, 110, 144.
+
+  Fox River (Ill.), Norwegian settlement, 28-29, 36.
+
+  Free Soil party, 158-59.
+
+
+  Greenback party, 161.
+
+  Grevstad, N. A., 156.
+
+
+  Hasselquist, T. N., 117-18.
+
+  Hedström, Jonas, and O. G., 50, 54, 116.
+
+  Heg, Even, 43, 44, 48.
+
+  Heg, H. C., 76.
+
+  Hesthammer, Peerson, _see_ Peerson Kleng.
+
+  Hovland, G. G., 30, 35.
+
+
+  Illinois:
+    Norwegian settlement, 27, 28-9, 32-3, 36;
+    politics, 161, 168-69;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4;
+    Swedish settlement, 53-4, 56-7, 60.
+
+  Illegitimacy, 134.
+
+  Illiteracy, 109.
+    _See also_ Education.
+
+  Immigrants, Americanization, 10, 107-108, 179-82;
+    classes, 11;
+    value to U. S., 9, 91-93, 179-82.
+
+  Immigration, Scandinavian:
+    causes, 18-21, 81-8;
+    distribution, 71-4;
+    promoted by railroads, 86-98;
+    promoted by states, 88-90;
+    statistics, 7-8, 67-74, 205;
+    value to U. S., 91-105;
+    westward expansion, 45, 66, 71, 75, 96.
+    _See also_ Names of peoples, i. e., Danes.
+
+  Independent party, 161.
+
+  Indiana, Norwegian settlement, 27.
+
+  Industry, Scandinavians in, 102-5.
+
+  Insanity, 135-37.
+
+  Intermarriage, 130-131.
+
+  Iowa:
+    Danish settlement, 63;
+    immigration promoted by state, 89-90;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4;
+    Swedish settlement, 53.
+
+
+  Janson, Eric, 55-9.
+
+  Jansonist colony, see Bishop Hill.
+
+  Jansonist movement, 55-61.
+
+  Jefferson Prairie (Wis.), Norwegian settlement, 41, 46.
+
+  Johnson, J. A., 152-53.
+
+  Johnson, John, 43.
+
+  Johnson, M. N., 154, 174-175.
+
+
+  Koshkonong (Wis.), Norwegian settlement, 44.
+
+  Kvelve, B. A., 32.
+
+
+  Labor, demand for, influence on immigration, 84-6.
+
+  Laborers, Scandinavian, compared with American, 100-1.
+
+  Land: value in North West, cause of immigration, 81-2, 99;
+    increase, 87.
+
+  Langeland, Knud, 35, 160.
+
+  Legislation, influenced by Scandinavians, 169-71.
+
+  Lind, John, 152, 154-55, 161.
+
+  Liquor traffic, attitude of Scandinavians, 171-72.
+
+  Listoe, Sören, 156.
+
+  Lutheran church:
+    among Scandinavians in U. S., 46-7, 63-5, 114-16, 120-23;
+    educational efforts, 110-14; 166-67.
+
+
+  Marriage, 131-32.
+
+  Martineau, Harriet, quoted, 28.
+
+  Mattson, Hans, 90, 146, 150-51, 156.
+
+  Merriam, W. R., 162, 176.
+
+  Methodist church, work among Scandinavians, 54, 116, 118-20.
+
+  Michigan, Scandinavian population, 74.
+
+  Minneapolis (Minn.), Scandinavian population, 73, 74, 134;
+    politics, 163 n.
+
+  Minnesota:
+    Danish settlement, 63;
+    economic development, promoted by Scandinavians, 97-9;
+    immigration promoted by state, 90-1;
+    politics, 144-56, 162-63;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4, 138.
+
+  Missionary work among Scandinavians, 46-48, 54, 115-20.
+
+  Morality, 133-34.
+
+  Mormons, influence upon Danish immigration, 63, 73, 115.
+
+  Muskego (Wis.), 42, 48.
+
+
+  Nattestad, Ansten, 37, 39-42.
+
+  Nattestad, Ole, 29, 31, 40.
+
+  Nebraska:
+    Danish settlement, 63;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-3, 74.
+
+  Nelson, Knute, 151, 154, 164.
+
+  New Sweden (Ia.), 53.
+
+  New York, Norwegian settlement, 26-7;
+    Swedish settlement, 60.
+
+  Newspapers, Scandinavian: 16, 124-9, 203-4;
+    importance, 124-5, 129, 183;
+    in politics, 128, 142, 159-60, 164-5, 173-4;
+    number, 128.
+
+  _Nordlyset_, 126, 148, 159.
+
+  North Dakota:
+    politics, 147, 149-51, 162-3, 174-5;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4.
+
+  Northwest, economic development, 79-105.
+
+  Norway:
+    economic conditions, 18-20, 30-1, 41-2, 68.
+    emigration: 22-3, 35, 40-2;
+      cost, 34;
+      difficulties, 33-4;
+      influenced by religious persecution, 24, 40;
+      influenced by settlers, 29-32, 37, 40;
+      statistics, 62, 67, 74.
+    population:
+      distribution, 19;
+      increase, 69-70, 132.
+
+  Norwegians:
+    character, 17, 93;
+    in politics, 140-56, 162.
+    immigration: 22-3, 32, 35-6, 93;
+      effects upon Norwegians, 107-8;
+      routes, 33-4, 36, 40-2;
+      statistics, 61, 67-74.
+      _See also_ Immigration.
+    settlements:
+      in Illinois, 28-9, 36;
+      in New York, 26-7;
+      in Wisconsin, 41, 42, 43-5.
+      _See also_ Scandinavians.
+
+
+  Occupations of immigrants, 84-7, 95-7, 102, 131-2.
+
+  Olson, Jonas, 55, 59, 60.
+
+  Olson, Olof, 56.
+
+  Otter Tail Co. (Minn.), 98-99, 126;
+    politics, 163.
+
+  Otteson, J. A., 125, 133.
+
+
+  Peerson, Kleng, 24, 25, 28.
+
+  Periodicals, religious, 127-9.
+
+  Pine Lake (Wis.) settlement, 51-53.
+
+  Place names of Scandinavian settlements, 99, 143-5.
+
+  Political parties, _see_ Names of parties.
+
+  Politics, Scandinavian: 140-56, 166-78;
+    influenced by newspapers, 164-6, 173-4.
+
+  Populist party, 161, 164.
+
+  Prohibition, _see_ Liquor traffic.
+
+
+  Quakers, influence upon Norwegian emigration, 23-5.
+
+
+  Racine Co. (Wis.) settlement, 42;
+    politics, 158.
+
+  Railroads, stimulus to immigration, 86-8.
+
+  Religion, among Scandinavians, 45-8, 114-20;
+    relation to politics, 161.
+
+  Religious persecution, 24, 40, 56.
+
+  Remittances to Europe, 94, 129.
+
+  Republican party, 157, 160-4, 166-8, 174-7.
+
+  "Restoration" (ship), 22, 25-6.
+
+  Reymert, J. D., 126, 148.
+
+  Rochester (N. Y.), Norwegian settlement, 26.
+
+  Rockford (Ill.), furniture industry, 103;
+    Swedish population, 73-4;
+    politics, 169.
+
+  Rynning, Ole, 36-7, 39.
+
+
+  St. Paul (Minn.), Scandinavian population, 74, 134.
+
+  "Scandinavian", objection to term, 15.
+
+  Scandinavian immigration, _see_ Immigration.
+
+  Scandinavians:
+    birth rate, 132-3;
+    character, 10, 16-7, 179-82;
+    in agriculture, 97-100;
+    in business, 102-4;
+    in cities, 73-4;
+    in Civil War, 75-8, 142, 149;
+    in domestic service, 131-2;
+    in industry, 103-4;
+    in politics, 140-56, 169-78;
+    morality, 133-4;
+    occupations, 84-7, 95-7, 102-5;
+    standard of living, 101-2;
+    value to U. S., 7, 11, 83-4, 91-105, 179-82;
+    wealth, 97-8, 102.
+    _See also_ Danes, Norwegians, Swedes.
+
+  Schröder, Johan, 125-6.
+
+  Settlers, propagandists of immigration, 29-32, 41.
+
+  Slavery, attitude of Scandinavians towards, 157-9.
+
+  South Dakota:
+    politics, 147, 149-51, 162-3, 175-6;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4.
+
+  Standard of living, 101-2.
+
+  Statistics, tables of, 67, 85, 205.
+
+  Sweden:
+    economic conditions, 18-20, 68.
+    emigration: 50-1, 53;
+      causes, 51, 53-4, 56, 61;
+      statistics, 67-74.
+    population:
+      distribution, 20;
+      increase, 69-70, 132.
+
+  Swedes:
+    character, 12;
+    in politics, 140-56, 161-2, 166-70;
+    value as citizens, 13, 14.
+
+  Swedish immigration: 12, 22, 50-1, 53, 56-7, 61;
+      routes, 51, 53, 56-7;
+      statistics, 67-74.
+      _See also_ Immigration.
+    settlements:
+      on Delaware River, 11-3;
+      in Illinois, 60;
+      in Iowa, 53;
+      in New York, 60;
+      in Wisconsin, 51-2.
+      _See also_ Scandinavians.
+
+  Swenson, L. S., 155.
+
+
+  Texas, Danish settlement, 63;
+    Swedish settlement, 61.
+
+  Timanson, Levor, 95.
+
+  Transportation in West, 80, 84, 87.
+
+
+  Unitarian Church, work among Scandinavians, 119.
+
+  United Norwegian Lutheran Church, 110, 120-121.
+
+  U. S., described for emigrants, 37-40;
+    economic conditions, influence on Scandinavian immigration, 68-9;
+    economic development, 7, 79-105;
+    population, increase, 70.
+
+  Unonius, G., 51, 53.
+
+  Utah, Scandinavian population, 73-4, 115.
+
+
+  Wages, in Scandinavian countries, 85, 131;
+    in U. S., 85, 131.
+
+  Wealth, possessed by Scandinavians, 97-8, 102.
+
+  Wisconsin:
+    Danish settlements, 63;
+    immigration promoted by state aid, 88-9;
+    Norwegian settlements, 40-46;
+    politics, 145, 148-51, 153-4, 160-1, 166-8;
+    Scandinavian population, 72-4, 138;
+    Swedish settlement, 51-3.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+Tables within a paragraph have been relocated to immediately above or
+below the relevant paragraph.
+
+Depending on available fonts, some tables may not line up vertically.
+
+Reference pages have been standardized with "ff" following the page
+number and a space (e.g., 789 ff) due to the preponderance of this
+style in the original work.
+
+Both "reelected" and "re-elected" appear in the original work. They
+have been standardized as "re-elected".
+
+Both "post-office" and "postoffice" appear in the original work. Both
+spellings have been retained.
+
+Page 59: "was sent out with eight others, in March, 1851" is
+inconsistent with "returned at once from California and became the head
+of the colony after February, 1851." This was verified with the page
+scan of the original work.
+
+Page 112, Footnote 261: There is no footnote reference in the original
+work.
+
+Appendix 1, Table V, Nebraska: 1st row totals are off by 1.
+
+This text has been preserved as in the original, including archaic and
+inconsistent spelling, punctuation and grammar, except as noted below.
+Spelling changes are shown within single quotes. Other changes are
+shown in curly brackets, { }, for clarity.
+
+Obvious printer's errors have been silently corrected.
+
+Page 37, Footnote 64: {1837."} changed to {1837.}.
+
+Page 75, Footnote 168: The footnote anchor is missing but it is
+believed that it should be on page 75 in the paragraph ending, {Swedes
+are found in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania.[168]}.
+
+Page 76: {men as General Stohlbrand} should probably be {men as General
+Stolbrand}.
+
+Page 87: {$86,000:} changed to {$86,000;}.
+
+Page 98: {rather are they} changed to {rather they are}.
+
+Page 127, Footnote 306: 'lutherke' changed to 'lutherske'.
+
+Page 153: 'reelection' changed to 're-election' for consistency.
+
+Page 185: {(especially vols. XV. (1901) and XIX (1902), contains}
+changed to {(especially vols. XV (1901) and XIX (1902)), contains}.
+
+Page 185: {(42 Cong., 1 Sess., H. Mis. Doc. No. 19, (1871); and}
+changed to {(42 Cong., 1 Sess., H. Mis. Doc. No. 19, (1871)); and}.
+
+Page 192: {(in _Proceedings_ of National Conference of Charities and
+Correction, (1899); F. H. B. MacDowell,} changed to {(in _Proceedings_
+of National Conference of Charities and Correction, (1899)); F. H. B.
+MacDowell,}.
+
+Page 202: 'Nordmaend' changed to 'Nordmænd'.
+
+Page 203: {(Emigranten, Inmansville, Wis., 1852; Janesville, 1856;
+Madison, 1857; La Crosse, 1864, and united with Fædrelandet.Q Norw.
+wkly.} changed to {(Emigranten, Inmansville, Wis., 1852; Janesville,
+1856; Madison, 1857; La Crosse, 1864, and united with Fædrelandet.Q
+Norw. wkly.)}.
+
+Page 220, Index: {Immigration, Scandinavian: causes, 18-21; 81-8;}
+changed to {Immigration, Scandinavian: causes, 18-21, 81-8;}.
+
+Appendix 1, Table I: The table was split into two sections in order to
+reduce the table width.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43939 ***