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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43910 ***
+
+The Danes in Lancashire
+
+
+[Illustration: Canute.]
+
+
+
+
+  The Danes in Lancashire
+  and Yorkshire
+
+  BY
+
+  S. W. PARTINGTON
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  SHERRATT & HUGHES
+  London: 33 Soho Square, W.
+  Manchester: 34 Cross Street
+  1909
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The story of the 'childhood of our race' who inhabited the counties
+of Lancashire and Yorkshire before the Norman Conquest, is an almost
+blank page to the popular reader of to-day. The last invaders of our
+shores, whom we designate as the Danes and Norsemen, were not the least
+important of our ancestors. The History of their daring adventures,
+crafts and customs, beliefs and character, with the surviving traces in
+our language and laws, form the subject of this book.
+
+From the evidence of relics, and of existing customs and traditions,
+we trace their thought and actions, their first steps in speech and
+handicraft, and the development of their religious conceptions. Our
+education authorities have realized the fact that "Local Names" contain
+a fund of history and meaning which appeals to the young as well as
+to the adults; and the county committees have been well advised to
+recommend the teaching of History and Geography from local features and
+events.
+
+Some articles written by the late Mr. John Just, M.A., of Bury, on
+our early races, and elements of our language and dialect, formed the
+incentive to the writer to continue the story of our Danish ancestors.
+
+To the following writers we are indebted for many facts and quotations:
+H. Colley March, Esq., M.D.; W. G. Collingwood, "Scandinavian Britain";
+W. S. Calverley, "Stone Crosses and Monuments of Westmorland and
+Cumberland"; Dr. W. Wagner's "Tales and Traditions of our Northern
+Ancestors"; Mr. Boyle, "Danes in the East Riding of Yorkshire"; Mr.
+J. W. Bradley, B.A., of the Salt Museum, Stafford, "Runic Calendars
+and Clog-Almanacs"; Rev. J. Hay Colligan, Liverpool; Professor W. A.
+Herdman, Liverpool; Mr. Jas. T. Marquis, of the Battle of "Brunanburh";
+Dr. Worsäac, "Danes in England."
+
+Messrs. Titus Wilson & Son, Kendal, Plates, "Map of Races," etc.; Swan,
+Sonnenschein & Co., London; Williams, Norgate & Co., London.
+
+To Charles W. Sutton, Esq., Free Reference Library, Manchester, for
+valuable advice and assistance grateful thanks are now tendered.
+
+  S. W. PARTINGTON.
+
+  BURY, _October 4, 1909_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                             PAGE
+  Invasion and Conquest                         1
+  Settlements                                  11
+  Place-Names                                  45
+  Patronymics                                  59
+  Physical Types still existing                77
+  Political Freemen                            87
+  Husbandry                                   109
+  Stone Crosses                               117
+  Runes                                       135
+  Memorials                                   161
+  Literature                                  167
+  Mythology                                   187
+  Superstitions                               203
+  Agriculture                                 213
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+  Canute                           _Frontispiece_
+                                             PAGE
+  Viking Settlements                           13
+  Extwistle Hall                               34
+  Brunanburh Map                               36
+  Old Dane's House                             40
+  Ancient Danish Loom                          80
+  Heysham Hogback                             120
+  Danish Ornaments, Claughton-on-brock        124
+  Halton Cross                                125
+  Ormside Cup                                 131
+  Clog Almanac Symbols                        144
+  Runic Calendar                              155
+  Carved Wood, with Runes                     170
+  Bractaetes                                  174
+  Halton Cup                                  176
+  Calderstones, No. I.                        184
+  Calderstones, No. II.                       185
+
+
+
+
+Invasion and Conquest
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+INVASION AND CONQUEST.
+
+
+A victorious people have always a wide-spreading influence over the
+people subdued by them. An inferior race never withstood a superior
+one. The very fact that the Danes gained not only an ascendancy in
+many parts of England during the Anglo-Saxon dynasties, but even the
+government of them all, is a proof that they were at that period a race
+of individuals superior to the natives of the land. The indigenous
+Britons felt the ameliorating influence of the Roman superiority and
+the civilisation which formed an element of the Roman sway. The Danes
+exercised and maintained an influence equal to the extent of their
+amalgamation for the general good of the country. The Romans were as
+much superior to the aboriginal Britons as the English of the present
+day are to the Africans and Sikhs. The Saxons were an advance on the
+Romanised Celt, while on the Saxons again, the Danes or Northmen
+were an advance in superiority and a great element of improvement.
+Leaving the Danes to tell their own tale and write their own histories
+in favour of their own fatherland, we undertake to sketch out their
+connection with our own county of Lancaster, with the permanent,
+and still existing, effects of that connection. Hitherto history
+has unfolded nothing as to the date when the "Vikings" first visited
+the Lancashire coast, plundering the county, and slaughtering the
+inhabitants. The Danes first visited the eastern coasts about the year
+A.D. 787, as narrated in the Saxon Chronicle. In the year 894 the city
+of Chester fell into their hands, under the redoubtable Hastings. This
+celebrated place the Danes fortified, and henceforward, along with
+the other cities of Derby, across the island, held at intervals until
+their power waned by the amalgamation which eventually constituted
+one people. Local names are the beacon lights of primeval history.
+The names of places, even at this remote period of time, suffice
+to prove that the Danes left an impression of superiority by their
+invasion. At this time the Danes invaded the coast of Lancashire, and
+formed settlements therein. Cumberland and Westmorland were under the
+dominion of Cumbrian Britons. At this early period the Danes have
+so intermingled with the Anglo-Saxons, as to influence the names of
+the hundreds into which the shire was sub-divided. No chronicle may
+register this fact, but the words do, and will do, so long as they
+constitute the signs and symbols of ideas and things. The northern
+hundred of the shire was named Lonsdale, and extended not only over
+the district of Lunesdale, but also included the territory north of
+the sands. The second hundred into which the shire was divided was
+Amounderness. If we allow "ness" to be of strictly Scandinavian origin,
+then this hundred has a strictly Danish or Norse name, "Amounder"
+being the first Viking who settled in the Fylde country. Blackburn,
+pronounced "Blakeburn," is the third name of a hundred which lies more
+inland, but having little or no coast line within the shire. Inland
+the Scandinavian influence diminished. Hence the genuine Anglo-Saxon
+name of this division; in the early times "Blagburnshire." The fourth
+hundred is that of Salford, also inland, hence under no Danish
+influence. The name is genuine Anglo-Saxon and perhaps this hundred
+includes natives less mixed with Scandinavian population than any
+other in the north of England. The broad Anglo-Saxon frame is seen to
+perfection in the country districts, and the light, ruddy complexion.
+The men were made for endurance and slow in movements. It would be a
+difficult task to get them to move if they felt disinclined to do so.
+The last hundred has much sea coast, and came therefore much under
+Danish influence. Hence the name, West Derby Hundred. No one who knows
+anything of our early history will hesitate to pronounce this name
+altogether Danish, so that three out of the five hundreds into which
+the county was apportioned were under Danish domination. "Bi," Danish,
+in modern English "by," was the common term given by Danish settlers to
+their residence. Derby or Deorby means not the residence or home of the
+deer, but a locality where the animals abounded. The Danes had, more
+than any other people, a reverence for the dead. Wherever a hero fell,
+even if but a short time sufficed to cover his remains, this was done;
+and if nothing better to mark the spot, a boat which brought him hither
+was placed over him, keel uppermost. Failing a boat, a "Haugr" or mound
+was raised over his grave. When Christianity upset these "Hofs," or
+sacred enclosures of Odin and Thor, then crosses were erected over the
+Christian graves. This accounts for the universal number of "Crosbys"
+in the Danish district of the kingdom. Conquered Rome converted and
+conquered its barbarian and heathen masters to the Cross. Anglo-Saxon
+converted his Danish neighbour, and subdued him to the Cross. The
+higher the superstitions of the Pagan the greater the devotee when he
+is converted.
+
+When the Danes were converted to Christianity by their intercourse
+with the Anglo-Saxons they transferred all their superstitious
+feeling to the emblems of Christianity. Churches were also built by
+the naturalised Danes in all places where they settled; and just as
+easy as it is to recognise their dwellings by their "bys," so it is
+to know the places where they reared their churches. Their name for
+a church was "kirkja." Hence in whatever compound name this word
+enters as a component, there it indicates a Danish origin. Hence
+Kirkby, Formby, Ormskirk, and Kirkdale are places appertaining to the
+early Anglo-Danish history. Dale is likewise a genuine appellative,
+as in Kirkdale as already noticed. Besides, in this hundred we find:
+Skelmersdale, Ainsdale, Cuerdale, and Birkdale. The only two places
+which the Danes seem to have noticed in their navigation of the Ribble
+were Walton-le-dale and the more important Cuerdale, now renowned in
+archæology for the richest find of ancient coins recorded in history.
+The Danes brought a treasure of 7,000 pieces to Cuerdale. Mingled with
+the coins were bars of silver, amulets, broken rings, and ornaments
+of various kinds, such as are recorded by Scandinavian Sagas. Many
+countries had been rifled for this treasure. Kufic, Italian, Byzantine,
+French, and Anglo-Saxon coins were in the booty; besides 3,000 genuine
+Danish pieces, minted by kings and jarls on the Continent. Another
+discovery of Danish treasure was made at Harkirke, near Crosby. The
+coins here found were of a more recent deposit, and contained but one
+of Canute the Great. From the Mersey to the Ribble was a long, swampy,
+boggy plain, and was not worth the Romans' while to make roads or to
+fix stations or tenements. From the Conquest until the beginning of
+the 18th century this district was almost stagnant, and its surface
+undisturbed. The Dane kept to the shore, the sea was his farm. He
+dredged the coast and the estuary, with his innate love of danger,
+till Liverpool sprang up with the magic of Eastern fable, and turned
+out many a rover to visit every region of the world. The race of
+the Viking are, many of them, the richest merchants of the earth's
+surface.[A]
+
+About half of England--the so-called "Danelag," or community of
+Danes, was for centuries subject to Danish laws. These laws existed
+for 200 years after the Norman Conquest. The Normans long retained a
+predilection for old Danish institutions and forms of judicature, and
+their new laws bear the impress and colour of the older time. This
+is established beyond doubt, in spite of the boast of the famous Sir
+Robert Peel in Parliament, that he was proud "The Danes tried in vain
+to overcome the institutions of England instead of securing them."
+
+The English word "by-law" is still used to denote municipal or
+corporate law, which is derived from the Danish "By-Lov." This shows
+they must have had some share in developing the system of judicature
+in English cities. The "Hustings" were well known in the seven cities
+under Danish rule.
+
+The earliest positive traces of a "jury" in England appear in the
+"Danelag," among the Danes established there; and that long before the
+time of William the Conqueror. The present village of Thingwall, in
+Cheshire, was a place of meeting for the "Thing" or "Trithing," a court
+held in the open air to settle laws and disputes in the same manner as
+that existing at Tynwald, Isle of Man. The division of "Ridings" in
+Yorkshire is also derived from this Danish custom.
+
+The "Trithing" was a Danish institution, so also was the wapentake.
+What are called "hundreds" in some counties, are called "wapentakes" in
+others, thus from the Norse "taka," which means a "weapon grasping."
+Tacitus says the ancients used to "express assent by waving or
+brandishing their weapons." If the sentence pleased they struck
+their spears together, "since the most honourable kind of assent is
+to applaud with arms." From this practice the word came to mean the
+sentence or decree had been thus authenticated. "Vapantak" in the
+grafas of Icelandic parliament means the breaking up of the session,
+when the men resumed their weapons which had been laid aside during the
+assembly. (Cleasby.)
+
+
+LOCAL NAMES.
+
+As a maritime race the Danes brought to our county not only a knowledge
+of the sea, how to navigate its perils, and the secret of successful
+trading, but also possessed the art and craft of shipbuilding to a
+higher degree than any then known. We still have the old Danish name
+in Liverpool of David Rollo and Sons, shipbuilders and engineers. The
+following Danish maritime terms have become part of our language: Vrag,
+a wreck; flaade, fleet; vinde, windlass; skibsborde, shipboard; mast,
+mast; seile, sails; styrmand, steersman.
+
+From the fact that "Thingwall" in Cheshire and "Tynwald" in the Isle
+of Man afford the memorial of the assizes, and that "wald" or "vold"
+signifies a "bank" or "rampart," where these courts were held in order
+to be safe from surprise, may we not presume the local name "The
+Wylde," in Bury, to be derived from the same source, as the "bank" or
+"rampart" would be used previous to the building of the old castle? The
+Danish "byr," or "by," means a settlement, town, or village, and as the
+word "berg" means a hill, and "borough," "bury," "brow," and "burgh"
+are similar terms for a fortified hill, we may suppose "Bury" to be
+taken from this source, instead of from the Saxon "byrig," a bridge,
+when no bridge existed.
+
+
+
+
+Settlements
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+SETTLEMENTS.
+
+
+From the year 876 the Danes became colonists and settlers. Raid and
+plunder gave place to peaceful pursuits. The English Chronicle says
+that in "this year Halfdene apportioned the lands of Northumbria;
+and they henceforth continued ploughing and tilling them." This
+colonisation of Deira by the Danes was soon followed in other
+districts. The greater part of central Britain with the whole of the
+north and east came entirely under Scandinavian rule.
+
+[Illustration: THE VIKING SETTLEMENTS]
+
+In 877 trading is recorded by the Sagas from Norway, in a shipload of
+furs, hides, tallow and dried fish, which were exchanged for wheat,
+honey, wine and cloth. Thus early was established the increase in
+comfort and wealth, as evidenced by the erection of Christian monuments
+early in the tenth century.
+
+The origin of "long-weight" and "long-hundred" count is traceable to
+the Danish settlements. This peculiar reckoning survives in the selling
+of cheese 120 lbs. to the cwt., and in the counting of eggs, 120 to the
+hundred. The timber trade counts 120 deals to the hundred. On the East
+Coast fish are counted 132 to the hundred. Six score to the hundred is
+still popular in Westmorland measure of crops and timber. This Danish
+method of count was derived from the Icelandic term "hundred" which
+meant 120.
+
+Professor Maitland, in his "Domesday Book and Beyond," says that the
+number of sokemen or free men, owing certain dues to the Hundred
+Court, or to a lord, who were masters of their own land, like the
+customary tenants of Cumberland, was greater in Norfolk and Suffolk
+than in Essex, and that in Lincolnshire they formed nearly half the
+rural population. At the time of Domesday the number of serfs was
+greatest in the West of England, but none are recorded in Yorkshire and
+Lincolnshire. In the manors bearing English names the sokemen numbered
+two-fifths of the population, while in those manors with Danish names
+they formed three-fifths of the population. (Boyle.)
+
+In the Danelaw they represent the original freeholders of the
+settlement and owed obedience to the local "Thing" or "Trithing Court."
+In those districts which were not conquered by Edward the Elder the
+freeholders settled and prospered, and with the spread of Christianity
+they became independent proprietors and traders.
+
+The presence of Danish place-names marks the district which they
+conquered, including the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby,
+Leicester, Rutland, and Northampton. In the rest of Mercia few of these
+names are to be found, viz., in Cheshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire,
+Worcester, Gloucester, Hereford and Oxfordshire. The eastern part
+of the Danish district came to be known as the Five Burghs, namely,
+Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Stamford and Nottingham. From the year
+880 when Halfdene divided the lands of Deira among his followers the
+conditions of life became those of colonists, and the Danes settled
+down to cultivate their own lands, learning the language of the earlier
+Angles, teaching them many words, and ways of northern handicraft, and
+gradually intermarrying and forming the vigorous character of body and
+mind which denotes the modern Englishman.
+
+From the middle of the tenth century men bearing Anglo-Danish names
+held high positions in the Church; Odo was Archbishop of Canterbury,
+his nephew Oswald was Bishop of Worcester and afterwards Archbishop of
+York in succession to Oskytel, and many Norse names appear as witnesses
+to Royal Charters.
+
+The hatred still existed against these barbarous Danes, and it is
+recorded in the Saxon Chronicle that the Saxons learned drunkenness
+from the Danes, a vice from which before they were free. This character
+is strangely contrasted by the story of John of Wallingford, that "they
+were wont, after the fashion of their country, to comb their hair
+every day, to bathe every Saturday, Laugardag, 'bath day,'--and to
+change their garments often, and to set off their persons by many such
+frivolous devices. And in this manner laid siege to the virtue of the
+women."
+
+If we are to accept the evidence of Lord Coke, we are indebted to the
+Danish invasion for our propensity to make Ale the national beverage.
+This eminent authority says that King Edgar, in 'permitting' the Danes
+to inhabit England, first brought excessive drinking among us.
+
+The word Ale came into the English language through the Danish öl.
+At any rate after the advent of the Norsemen, the English left off
+drinking water and began to drink ale as the regular everyday beverage
+of the people.
+
+The term 'beer' was used by the Anglo-Saxons, but seems to have fallen
+into desuetude until the name was revived to distinguish 'ale' from
+hopped ale.'--_From "Inns, Ales, and Drinking Customs of Old England,"
+by Frederick W. Hackwood_.
+
+Green the historian in his "Conquest of England" says the names of the
+towns and villages of Deira show us in how systematic a way southern
+Northumbria was parted among its conquerors.... "The English population
+was not displaced, but the lordship of the soil was transferred to
+the conqueror. The settlers formed a new aristocracy, while the older
+nobles sank to a lower position, for throughout Deira the life of an
+English thane was priced at but half the value of a 'northern hold.'"
+The inference to be drawn from this passage is that the English lords
+of the soil were replaced by Danish ones, the English settlers remained
+in possession of their ancient holdings. In the course of time the
+two races amalgamated, but at the Norman Conquest this amalgamation
+had only been partially effected. In the districts where the Danes
+settled they formed new villages, in which they lived apart from the
+general Anglian population. Had they not done so the memory of their
+settlement could never have been perpetuated by the Danish names given
+to their homes. Every group of isolated Danish place-names teaches the
+same fact, and there are many such groups. This is the case in the
+Wirral district of Cheshire, the peninsula between the Mersey and the
+Dee, where we find such names as Raby, Greasby, Frankby, Irby, Pansby,
+Whitby and Shotwick, and in the centre of the district the village
+called Thingwall. While throughout the rest of the county scarcely a
+Danish name can be found, and as these names were conferred by the
+Danish settlers it is impossible not to believe that under analogous
+conditions the names in other districts were conferred in the same way.
+Where a new village was planted midway between two older villages, its
+territory would be carved in varying proportions out of the lands of
+the earlier settlements. Sometimes certain rights of the older villages
+were maintained in the territory of which they had been deprived. Thus
+in a Danish village of Anlaby, the lands whereof were carved out of the
+adjoining townships of Kirk Ella and Hessle, the respective rectors
+of these parishes had curiously divided rights to both the great and
+the small tithes; whilst in the neighbouring instance of the Danish
+Willerby, carved out of Kirk Ella and Cottingham, the rector of Kirk
+Ella took all the great tithes, and the rector of Cottingham took all
+the small tithes. This method of Danish _village formation_ explains
+a curious point. The foundation of the earlier Anglian settlements
+preceded the development of the great road system of England. Leaving
+out of consideration the Roman roads and the comparatively few British
+roads, the former of which have relation to nothing but the military
+needs of that all conquering people, our existing road system is due
+to the Anglo-Saxon. Our old roads lead from one village to another and
+each village is a centre from which roads radiate. The Danish villages
+were, on the contrary, usually roadside settlements. New settlements
+were formed on the vast fringes of wood and waste which surrounded
+the cultivated lands of the older English villages. The road existed
+and the one village street was formed along the line. Such wayside
+settlements are Carnaby and Bessingby, on the road from Bridlington
+to Driffield. When, as was sometimes the case, the new settlement was
+planted at a little distance from the existing road a new road running
+at right angles from the old one and leading directly to the settlement
+was formed. Skidby, Towthorp, Kirby, Grindalbythe and many others
+are cases in point. One consequence of such conditions of formation
+would be that where the English settlements were most numerous the
+Danish settlements would be few and small, because there was less land
+available in such districts for their formation. While, on the other
+hand, where English settlements were more sparsely scattered the Danish
+settlements would be more numerous, and comparatively large. Taking a
+large district like the East Riding, the average area of the Danish
+townships may be expected to fall below that of the Anglo-Saxon. The
+facts comply with all these tests.
+
+Thus to take the townships with Danish names, and compare with similar
+districts of Anglo-Saxon names, we arrive at the conclusion as to
+whether the district was thickly populated before the coming of the
+Danes. Many Anglo-Saxon villages are to be found along the course of
+the Roman road, which coincides with the modern one of to-day. The two
+classes of population found only in Danish districts, the Sochmanni and
+the "liber tenentes," are wholly absent in purely English districts.
+Both held land exempt from villain services, which was a condition of
+tenure introduced by the Danes. This fact shatters the theory of Green
+that English settlers were communities of freemen. They were in fact
+communities of bondmen, villains, bordars, cottars, and serfs, the last
+holding no lands, but being bound to the soil as chattels, and the
+rest holding their lands, "at the will of the lord," and in return
+for actual services. What then was the Sochman? The lawyer of to-day
+will answer, "He is one who held land by 'socage,' tenure." Although in
+Domesday this "sochman" is confined to Danish districts, a fact which
+is recognised in the laws of Edward the Confessor. After the Conquest a
+type of tenure more or less closely corresponding to that by which the
+earlier sochman held his land, was gradually established over the whole
+kingdom.
+
+Tenants who owned such tenures were called "sochmen," and the tenure
+itself was called "socage." A distinction was drawn between "free
+socage" and "villain socage." The fuller development of the feudal
+system which followed the Conquest greatly complicated all questions
+of land tenure. New conditions of holding superior to that of "socage"
+were introduced. Thus in the pages of Britton, who always speaks in
+the person of the King, we read: "Sochmanries are lands and tenements
+which are not held by knights' fee, nor by grand serjeantries, but by
+simple services, as lands enfranchised by us, or our predecessors,
+out of ancient demesnes." Bracton is more explicit. He defines free
+socage as the tenure of a tenement, whereof the service is rendered in
+money to the chief lords, and nothing whatever is paid, "ad scutum et
+servitium regis." "Socage," he proceeds, "is named from soke, and hence
+the tenants who held in socage are called sochmanni, since they are
+entirely occupied in agriculture, and of whom wardship and marriage
+pertain to the nearest parents in the right of blood. And if in any
+manner homage is taken thereof, as many times is the case, yet the
+chief lord has not on this account, wardship and marriage, which do not
+always follow homage." He then goes on to define "villain socage." The
+essential principle of socage tenure is rent in lieu of services. It
+is to this fact no doubt that the vast impetus which was given to the
+coinage of England soon after the coming of the Danes is largely due.
+
+As Mr. Worsaäe says, the Danish coiners increased to fifty in number
+from the reign of Aethelred to Edward the Confessor, and the greater
+number exercised this vocation at York and Lincoln. Thus the sochmanni
+were found only in the settlements of the people who had created in
+England a tenure of land free from servile obligations.
+
+The manner of fixing these early settlements of land was the same in
+Ireland, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, and in Lincolnshire. The same
+custom is still observed by our modern colonists who launch out into
+the Australian bush. The land was staked out by the settler from the
+highest ridge downwards to the creek of the river or shore. By this
+means the settler obtained on outlet to the open sea. The homestead
+was built by the bondr or husbandman, on the sheltered ground between
+the marsh and hill. These settlements became byes, and were encircled
+by a garth, or farmyard. The names of some Norse farms and settlements
+became composed of a Norse prefix and Saxon ending. Thus we find Oxton
+"the farm of the yoke," in the hollow of a long ridge. Storeton, from
+stortun or "big field."
+
+Many of these names are repetitions of places which exist in
+Cumberland, Denmark, and the Isle of Man. Raby and Irby were smaller
+farms on the boundary of large byes, and were derived from the Danish
+chief Ivar. Each homestead had its pastures and woods, which are
+denoted by the terminals "well," "wall," and "birket," found in such
+names as Crabwall, Thelwall, Thingwall.
+
+"Thwaites" or "Hlither" were sloping pastures, cleared of wood,
+between the hill and marsh, used for grazing cattle and sheep. This
+system of agriculture is of Norse origin, and many such "thwaites"
+are to be found in Wallasey, Lancashire, and the Lake district.
+Calday and Calder, recorded in Domesday, "Calders," derived from
+kalf-gard, are names existing in Calderstones, at Wavertree, and
+Calday near Windermere, as well as at Eastham and in Scotland. Each
+large settler had summer pastures for cattle on the highland or moor,
+called "soeters" or "saetter," a shelter seat for the dairymaids. From
+this custom we derive the names Seacombe, Satterthwaite, Seathwaite,
+Seascale, and Sellafield. As the population increased the large estates
+were divided among the families of the early settlers, and these upland
+pastures became separate farms. Evidence that these early Norsemen
+were Christians is found in the name Preston, in Domesday. Prestune,
+the farm of the priest: who in these early days farmed his own land.
+From its position this farm became known as West Kirby.
+
+The stone crosses of Nelson and Bromborough prove that these churches
+were founded early in the eleventh century.
+
+The Danish character of Chester at this date is shown by the fact that
+it was ruled by "lawmen," in the same manner as the Five Boroughs
+(vide Round's "Feudal England," p. 465), and its growing wealth and
+importance was due to the trading intercourse through the Danish ships
+with Dublin.
+
+Coming from the north-east another Norse and Danish settlement sprang
+up round Liverpool. Though we have no distinct historical record,
+the place names indicate the centre was at Thelwall (Tingwall). Such
+names are Roby, West Derby, Kirkby, Crosby, Formby, Kirkdale, Toxteth,
+found in Domesday as "Stockestede," Croxteth, Childwall, Harbreck,
+Ravensmeols, Ormskirk, Altcar, Burscough, Skelmersdale.
+
+Out of forty-five names of places recorded in Domesday in West Derby
+Hundred, ten are Scandinavian, the rest might be interpreted in either
+dialect.
+
+All other names in Domesday in South Lancashire are Anglo-Saxon, which
+only amount to twelve: the reason for the small number of names being
+that the land was for the most part lying waste, and was thus free from
+assessment. Thus we find on the present map that Norse names form a
+large number which are not recorded in Domesday. Many of these would be
+later settlements. In West Derby the names of three landowners appear
+in this survey with Norse names, while three others are probably Norse,
+and seven Saxon.
+
+Following the fall of the Danish dynasty the districts of South
+Lancashire formed part of Cheshire and we find the names of six
+"Drengs" around Warrington, possessing Norman names, while only one
+bears a Norse name. The word "Dreng" being Norse, would infer that the
+tenure was of "danelaw" origin and not of Anglo-Saxon.
+
+The founder of the Abbey of Burton-on-Trent, Wulfric Spot, held great
+tracts of land in Wirral and West Lancashire, which are named in his
+Will dated 1002. Thus the "Bondr" here held his land under Mercian
+rules, from which the hides and hundreds were similar to those of the
+previous "danelaw."
+
+Lancashire was the southern portion of Deira, which was one of the
+two kingdoms, Bernicia being the other, into which the conquests of
+Ida, king of Northumbria, were on his death divided. In 559 A.D. Ida
+died, and Aella became King of Deira, and afterwards sole King of
+Northumbria, until 587 or 589. In 617, Edwin son of Ella was King
+of Northumbria, the greatest Prince, says Hume the historian, of the
+Heptarchy in that age. He was slain in battle with Penda of Mercia. In
+634 the kingdom was again divided, Eanfrid reigning in Bernicia, and
+Osric in Deira. Then Oswald, saint as well as king, appears to have
+reunited the two provinces again under his kingship of Northumberland.
+Authorities, in more than one instance, vary as to the exact dates,
+within a year or two.
+
+The Saxon kingdom of Northumbria reached from the Humber to the Forth,
+and from the North Sea to the Irish Sea. For two centuries after the
+death of Ecgfrith the Saxon king and the battle of Nectansmere, history
+only records a succession of plunder and pestilence.
+
+Green the historian says "King after king was swept away by treason and
+revolt, the country fell into the hands of its turbulent nobles, its
+very fields lay waste, and the land was scourged by famine and plague."
+
+The pirate Northmen or Vikings as they were called first, began to raid
+the coast of England with their fleets with the object of plunder. The
+English Chronicle records their first attacks in the year 787. "Three
+of their ships landed on the western shores, these were the first ships
+of Danish men that sought the land of Engle-folk."
+
+The Monastery of Lindisfarne was plundered six years later by their
+pirate ships, and the coast of Northumbria was ravaged, Jan., 793.
+
+The following year they returned and destroyed the monasteries of
+Wearmouth and Jarrow. This was the beginning of the Norse raids on our
+Eastern shores.
+
+In 875 Halfdan returned from his campaign against Alfred and the year
+after he divided the lands of Northumbria amongst his followers. In
+many parts we find groups of Scandinavian place-names so close and
+thick, says Mr. W. G. Collingwood in his "Scandinavian Britain," that
+we must assume either depopulation by war, or the nearly complete
+absence of previous population.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the earlier Vikings depopulated the
+country they ravaged. Spoil was their object and slaughter an incident.
+
+As Canon Atkinson has shown in his "Analysis of the Area of Cleveland
+under Cultivation at Domesday Period," very little of the country in
+that district was other than moor or forest at the end of the eleventh
+century, and that most of the villages then existing had Scandinavian
+names. His conclusion is that these districts were a wilderness
+since Roman and prehistoric days, and first penetrated by the Danes
+and Norse: except for some clearings such as Crathorne, Stokesley,
+Stainton, and Easington, and the old monastery at Whitby.
+
+This conclusion receives support, says Mr. Collingwood, from an
+analysis of the sculptured stones now to be seen in the old Churches
+and sites of Cleveland. It is only at Yarm, Crathorne, Stainton,
+Easington, and Whitby, that we find monuments of the pre-Viking age,
+and these are the products of the latest Anglian period.
+
+At Osmotherley, Ingleby, Arncliffe, Welbury, Kirklevington, Thornaby,
+Ormesby, Skelton, Great Ayton, Kirkdale, and Kirkby-in-Cleveland are
+tombstones of the tenth and eleventh centuries. It is thus evident
+that the Angles were only beginning to penetrate these northern parts
+of Yorkshire when the Vikings invaded and carried on the work of land
+settlement much further. Further extension was made by the Norse from
+the West Coast, as the place-names show. Monuments of pre-Viking art
+work exist at places with Scandinavian names, such as Kirkby-Moorside,
+Kirkby-Misperton, and Kirkdale; while in other cases only Viking age
+Crosses are found at places with names of Anglian origin, such as
+Ellerburn, Levisham, Sinnington, Nunnington.
+
+This would indicate that some Anglian sites were depopulated and
+refounded with Danish names, while others had no importance in Anglian
+times but soon became flourishing sites under the Danes.
+
+In the west of Yorkshire the great dales were already tenanted by
+the Angles, but the moors between them, and the sites higher up the
+valleys, were not the sites of Churches until the Danish period. (See
+"Anglian and Anglo-Danish Sculpture in the North Riding," by W. G.
+Collingwood. _Yorks. Arch. Journal_, 1907.)
+
+Yorkshire at the time of the Domesday survey was carucated and divided
+into Ridings and Wapentakes. Thingwall, near Whitby. (Canon Atkinson,
+site lost.) Thinghow, near Ginsborough (now lost), and Thinghow, now
+Finney Hill, near Northallerton. (Mr. William Brown, F.S.A.) Tingley,
+near Wakefield; Thingwall, near Liverpool; Thingwall in Wirral, may
+have been Thingsteads. (W. G. Collingwood.)
+
+Names of places ending in -ergh, and -ark are dairy-farms from setr and
+saetr. Names with ulls- as prefix, such as Ulpha, Ullscarth, Ullswater,
+record the fact that wolves inhabited the hills.
+
+Beacons were kept up in olden days on hills which bear the
+names of Warton, Warcop, Warwick and Warthole. Tanshelf, near
+Pontefract, is derived from Taddenesscylfe, Blawith and Blowick from
+Blakogr--blackwood. Axle, Acle, arcle from öxl, the shoulder.
+
+
+THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH.
+
+WAS IT FOUGHT IN LANCASHIRE?
+
+"There is one entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle which must be
+mentioned here as it throws light upon an archæological discovery of
+considerable importance. In 911 the Chronicle records that the Danish
+army among the Northumbrians broke the peace and overran the land of
+Mercia. When the King learned that they were gone out to plunder, he
+sent his forces after them, both of the West Saxons and the Mercians;
+and they fought against them and put them to flight, and slew many
+thousands of them...."
+
+"There is good reason to believe," as Mr. Andrew shows (Brit. Numis.
+Jour. i, 9), "that the famous Cuerdale hoard of Silver coins, which
+was found in 1840 in a leaden chest buried near a difficult ford of
+the Ribble on the river bank about two miles above Preston, represents
+the treasure chest of this Danish army, overtaken in its retreat to
+Northumbria at this ford and destroyed."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Then follows a process of reasoning in support of the above conclusion,
+based upon the place of minting and the dating of the coins.
+
+"The bulk of the coins, however, were Danish, issued by Danish Kings of
+Northumbria, many of them from York."
+
+Besides the Cuerdale find of 10,000 silver coins and 1,000 ounces
+of silver there are records given of other Danish finds.--From the
+Victoria County History of Lancashire, Vol. I., see Coins.
+
+Each historian of this important event has claimed a different site, in
+as many parts of England. In Grose's "Antiquities" we find the allied
+Scotch, Welsh, Irish, and Danes, the Northumbrian army, under Anlaf
+were totally defeated, in 938 at Brunanburgh (Bromridge, Brinkburn),
+in Northumberland, when Constantine, King of the Scots, and six petty
+Princes of Ireland and Wales, with twelve Earls were slain. This
+description is given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The honour of
+claiming the Lancashire site on the river Brun near Burnley, belongs
+to the late Mr. Thomas Turner Wilkinson, a master of Burnley Grammar
+School, who claimed it for Saxifield in 1856.
+
+We are indebted to Mr. Jas. T. Marquis, a member of the Lancashire and
+Cheshire Antiquarian Society, for the following summary of evidence
+which he placed before the above Society during the winter session of
+1908-9, and which will be found recorded in the Transactions of the
+Society. He says, "There is overwhelming testimony in favour of the
+site on the Lancashire Brun."
+
+The reasons for claiming this site are simply two. An old writer spells
+Brinkburn--Brincaburh, and there is an artificial mound proving a fight.
+
+Camden gives Brunford, near Brumbridge in Northumberland, as the place
+where "King Athelstane fought a pitched battle against the Danes." This
+might easily be, but not the battle we refer to. There is no reason
+given except the word "ford."
+
+Gibson suggests that it must have been "somewhere near the Humber,"
+although he finds a difficulty in carrying Constantine and the little
+King of Cumberland so high into Yorkshire. The other places suggested
+are Brumborough in Cheshire, Banbury in Oxfordshire, Burnham and Bourne
+in Lincolnshire, Brunton in Northumberland, but no good reason beyond
+a name, and an embankment in some cases, but not all. Brownedge in
+Lancashire has been suggested, with excellent reasons.
+
+Dr. Giles and others suggest that the name should be Brumby instead
+of Brunanburh. Ingram in his map of Saxon England places the
+site in Lincolnshire, near the Trent, but without assigning good
+reasons. Turner observes that the "Villare" mentions a Brunton in
+Northumberland, and Gibson states what may still be seen in maps of a
+century old, "that in Cheshire there is a place called Brunburh near
+the shores of the Mersey." This last would be a serious competitor if
+there was a river Brun, or tumuli, or ford, or battlefield: but nothing
+is claimed, only the name suggested.
+
+Brunsford or Brunford. Let us first establish the site of the "burh,"
+which is a hill that shields or protects a camp, town, or hamlet.
+The question is, where was the "tun" or village on the Brun? It was
+in Saxon times usual for the folk to settle near a "burh" for the
+protection afforded by an overlord who occupied it.
+
+It was also the custom of the early missionaries to establish a
+feldekirk by setting up a Cross near to the hamlet, where they used to
+preach Christianity and bury their dead.
+
+Tradition says it was intended to build the Church on the site of the
+Cross, but that God willed it otherwise. God-ley Lane would be the lane
+which led from the village in Saxon times to God's Lea or God-ley, on
+which was the new church and burial ground. Thus the new town would
+take its modern name from the ground on which the Church stood, namely
+Brun-ley, Bron-ley, and Burn-ley.
+
+The cross, built in Saxon times to mark the spot where Christianity was
+first preached, stood at the foot of the "burh" near the Brun, and thus
+the early name would be Brunford.
+
+The records of Domesday Book contain no mention of Burnley. To the
+east and west would be the vast forest of Boulsworth and Pendle, while
+the valleys would be marshes and swamps. The ancient roads went along
+the hill sides, and there is an ancient road from Clitheroe by Pendle
+passing along the east side of the hill, now almost obliterated,
+leading to Barrowford. The ancient road on this east side of the
+valley, was on the Boulsworth slope from Brunford, via Haggate and
+Shelfield, to Castercliffe, Colne, and Trawden which gave its name to
+the forest, and Emmott.
+
+Dr. Whitaker tells us that in his day, "in the fields about Red Lees
+are many strange inequalities in the ground, something like obscure
+appearances of foundations, or perhaps entrenchments, which the
+levelling operations of agriculture have not been able to efface.
+Below Walshaw is a dyke stretching across from 'Scrogg Wood' to 'Dark
+Wood.'"
+
+The ninth century annalist says, "The Northmen protected themselves
+according to custom, 'with wood and a heap of earth,'" A Walshaw
+would therefore be a wall of wood. Nothing was safer, when attacked
+by bowmen, than a wood. Such was the Brun-burh. This burh at Red Lees
+with mounds and ditches, in a half circle on each side of the Causeway,
+would have the same appearance on being approached from the east and
+south-east as the eleventh century "burh" at Laughton-en-le-Morthen in
+Yorkshire.
+
+The ancient way referred to in Dr. Whitaker, from Burnley to Townley,
+would be from the Market Cross, along Godley Lane to the Brunford
+Cross, up over the ridge to the top of Brunshaw, along the Causeway to
+Lodge Farm, through the Deer Park, through the Watch Gate at the foot
+of the hill, and up to Castle Hill at Tunlay.
+
+Although Egbert was called the first King of England, his son Alfred
+the Great at the height of his power only signed himself "Alfred of the
+West Saxons, King."
+
+England was still governed under the three provinces at the time of
+Henry I., namely Wessex, Mercia, and Danelagh. The latter province
+comprised the whole tract of country north and east of Watling Street.
+Mercia included the lands north of the Mersey. Danish Northumbria or
+Deira comprised the lands to the west of the Pennines.
+
+Amongst the hills north of the Ribble the hostile nations could meet
+in security. Saxon-Mercia north of the Mersey, surrounded by alien
+nations, and having been itself conquered from that claimed as the
+Danelaw, would be the most likely where those nations could meet in
+time of peace, and was the debatable land in time of war.
+
+After the death of Alfred, when Edward the Elder claimed overlordship,
+the Danes rose in revolt in the north. It is recorded that he and his
+warrior sister "the Lady of the Mercians" abandoned the older strategy
+of rapine and raid, for that of siege and fortress building, or the
+making and strengthening of burhs.
+
+Edward seems to have recovered the land between the Mersey and the
+Ribble, for soon after leaving Manchester, the Britons of Strathclyde,
+the King of Scots, Regnold of Bamborough who had taken York at this
+period, and the Danish Northumbrians take him to be father and lord.
+The place is not mentioned, but must be somewhere between Boulsworth
+and Pendle.
+
+[Illustration: Extwistle Hall, near Eamott, marks an ancient boundary.]
+
+The same thing happened when Athelstan claimed his overlordship.
+Profiting by following his father's example, he would travel from
+burh to burh, and his route would not be difficult to trace, namely,
+Thelwall, Manchester, Bacup, Broad Dyke, Long Dyke, Easden Fort, Copy
+Nook, Castle Hill, Watch Gate, Brunburh, Broadbank, Castercliffe,
+Shelfield, Winewall, Eamot.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle says that "A.D. 926, Sihtric perished, and
+King Athelstan ruled all the Kings in the Island, the Northumbrians,
+Constantine King of Scots, Ealdred of Bamborough, and others, which
+they confirmed by pledges and oaths at a place Eamot on the 4th of the
+ides of July and they renounced idolatry."
+
+Everything points to the fact that Brunanburgh gave its name to this
+battle. This part of the Saxon king's dominions being the one place
+where all the hostile nations could meet before the attack.
+
+There is no other river Brun in northern Mercia, and the Saxon
+Chronicle says the battle was fought near Brunanburh.
+
+Ethelward says Brunandune (river and dale). Simeon gives Wendune
+(Swindon). Malmesbury and Tugulf names Brunanburh or Bruford. Florence
+of Worcester "near Brunanburh." Henry of Huntingdon gives Brunesburh,
+and Gaimar has Brunswerc, which we have in Worsthorne, which is
+known to be derived from Wrthston, the town of Wrth. In the _Annales
+Cambriae_ it is styled the "Bellum Brun" (the Battles of the Brun).
+This would explain the many names.
+
+William of Malmesbury says that the field was "far into England." We
+have Brownedge and Brownside. In addition to all this we have "Bishops
+Leap," S'Winless Lane, Saxifield, Saxifield Dyke. We have also a
+Ruh-ley, a Red Lees, directly opposite to which we have a traditional
+battlefield and battlestone, also a High Law Hill, and Horelaw
+Pastures, a number of cairns of stones, a small tumuli; all of which
+may be said to be near the hillfort Brunburh.
+
+
+DESCRIPTIONS OF BATTLES FROM THE MAP.
+
+From the two Ordnance maps, "six inch to the mile," one of Briercliffe,
+and the other of Worsthorne, it may be seen that the roads from Slack,
+near Huddersfield, pass through the Pennine range, one by the long
+Causeway, on the south of the position and on the southern side, near
+Stipernden, is "Warcock Hill. From here running north, are a series
+of ridges, Shedden Edge, Hazel Edge, Hamilton Hill, to the other road
+from Slack, passing through the hills at Widdop, and immediately on the
+north side at Thursden is another Warcock Hill. From Warcock Hill to
+Warcock Hill would stretch the army of Anlaf in their first position.
+From the north end of the position a road north to Shelfield and
+Castercliffe, by means of which he would be joined by his Welsh allies,
+from the Ribble, via Portfield, and his Strathclyde and Cumbrian allies
+from the north. From this end of the position there is a road due west
+to the Broadbank, where there is the site of a small camp at Haggate.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+From here Anlaf would send his Welsh allies under Adalis, and his
+shipmen under Hryngri, for the night attack on the advancing Saxons
+as they crossed the Brunford. They fell on them somewhere on the site
+of Bishop's House Estate, but were afterwards beaten back across the
+estates known as Saxifield. Two days afterwards both sides prepared
+for the great struggle near the burh, and Anlaf, taking his cue from
+his opponent, advanced his left and took possession of the hill near
+Mereclough, afterwards called High Law (Round Hill), and the pastures
+behind still known as Battlefield, with a stone called Battlestone in
+the centre of it.
+
+Constantine and the Scots were in charge of the hill, and the Pict, and
+Orkney men behind. His centre he pushed forward at Brown Edge, to the
+"Tun of Wrst." While his right touched S'Winden Water under Adalis with
+the Welsh and shipmen.
+
+Two days before the great battle Athelstan marched out of Brunburh at
+the north end, and encamped somewhere on the plain called Bishop's
+House Estate, his route by the Brunford, and probably S'Winless Lane.
+
+We are told that Anlaf entered the camp as a spy, and ascertaining the
+position of Athelstan's tent, formed the night attack for the purpose
+of destroying him. Athelstan, however, leaving for another part of his
+position on the Brun, gave Wersthan, Bishop of Sherborne, the command.
+
+The Bishop met his death somewhere on the estate, the Pasture being
+known as Bishop's Leap, which undoubtedly gave its name to the estate.
+
+Adalis, the Welsh Prince, had done this in the night attack, probably
+coming by way of Walshaw, and Darkwood. Alfgier took up the command,
+with Thorolf on his right and Eglis in support in front of the wood.
+Alfgier was first assaulted by Adalis with the Welsh and driven off
+the field, afterwards fleeing the country. Thorolf was assaulted by
+Hryngr the Dane, and soon afterwards by Adalis also, flushed with
+victory. Thorolf directed his colleague Eglis to assist him, exhorted
+by his troops to stand close, and if overpowered to retreat to the
+wood. Thorolf or Thorold the Viking was the hero of this day, near the
+Netherwood on Thursden Water. He fought his way to Hryngr's standard
+and slew him. His success animated his followers, and Adalis, mourning
+the death of Hryngr, gave way and retreated, with his followers back
+over Saxifield to the Causeway camp at Broadbank.
+
+Whatever took place at Saxifield the enemy left it entirely, and the
+decisive battle took place at the other end of Brunburh. In walking
+up S'Windene, by S'Winden Water, the district on the right between
+that river and the Brun is called in old maps Roo-ley and in older
+manuscripts Ruhlie, marked in Thomas Turner Wilkinson's time, with a
+cairn and tumulus. Some distance further on we find Heckenhurst. The
+roads down from the burh are at Rooley and at Brownside and at Red Lees
+by the Long Causeway leading to Mereclough.
+
+Athelstan placed Thorolf on the left of his army, at Roo-ley, to oppose
+the Welsh and irregular Irish under Adalis. In front of Brownside
+(Burnside) was Eglis with the picked troops, and on Eglis' right
+opposite Worsthorne, Athelstane and his Anglo-Saxons.
+
+Across the original Long Causeway on the Red Lees, with the burh
+entrenchments immediately at his back, was the valiant Turketul, the
+Chancellor, with the warriors of Mercia and London opposite Round Hill
+and Mereclough.
+
+Thorolf began by trying to turn the enemy's right flank, but Adalis
+darted out from behind the wood, now Hackenhurst, and destroyed
+Thorolf, and his foremost friends on Roo-ley or Ruhlie. Eglis came up
+to assist his brother Viking, and encouraging the retreating troops by
+an effort destroyed the Welsh Prince Adalis, and drove his troops out
+of the wood. The memorial of this flight was a cairn and tumulus on
+Roo-ley.
+
+Athelstan and Anlaf were fighting in the centre for the possession
+of (Bruns) Weston, neither making much progress, when the Chancellor
+Turketul, with picked men, including the Worcester men under the
+magnanimous Sinfin, made a flank attack at Mereclough, and breaking
+through the defence of the Pict and Orkney men, got to the "Back o'
+th' Hill." He penetrated to the Cumbrians and Scots, under Constantine,
+King of the Grampians. The fight was all round Constantine's son, who
+was unhorsed. The Chancellor was nearly lost, and the Prince released,
+when Sinfin, with a mighty effort, terminated the fight by slaying the
+Prince.
+
+On Round Hill, down to one hundred years ago, stood a cairn called High
+Law. When the stones were made use of to mend the roads, a skeleton was
+found underneath. That would, I believe, be a memorial of the fight.
+
+At "Back o' th' Hill," a blind road leads through what in an old map,
+and in tradition is called "Battlefield," and the first memorial stone
+is called "Battlestone." Another similar stone is further on. Following
+the blind road through Hurstwood, the Chancellor would find himself at
+Brown End, near Brown Edge. At the other end of the position, Eglis
+having won the wood, would be in the neighbourhood of Hell Clough,
+ready to charge at the same time as Turketul, on the rear of Anlaf's
+army.
+
+[Illustration: Old Daneshouse]
+
+At this point of the battle, Athelstan, seeing this, made a successful
+effort and pushed back the centre. Then began the carnage, the
+memorials of which are still to be seen on Brown Edge, Hamilton
+Pasture, Swindene, Twist Hill, Bonfire Hill, and even beyond. Those
+who could get through the hills at Widdop would do so: others however
+would take their "hoards" from the camps at Warcock Hill and other
+places, and burying their "treasures" as they went along, pass in front
+of Boulsworth, and over the moor through Trawden Forest, between Emmott
+and Wycollar.
+
+If the Saxon description of the battle, in Turner's "History of the
+Anglo-Saxons" be read and compared with the Ordnance maps before named,
+the reader will see that there is no other place in England which
+can show the same circumstantial evidence nor any place, having that
+evidence, be other than the place sought for.
+
+Danes House, Burnley, is thus referred to by the late Mr. T. T.
+Wilkinson, F.R.A.S.:--"Danes House is now a deserted mansion situated
+about half-a-mile to the north of Burnley, on the Colne Road. It has
+been conjectured there was a residence on the same site A.D. 937, when
+Athelstan, King of the South Saxons, overthrew with great slaughter,
+at the famous battle of Brunanburgh, Anlaf, the Dane, and Constantine,
+King of the Scots. Tradition states that it was here that Anlaf rested
+on his way to the battlefield from Dublin and the Isles, hence the name
+Danes House. The present deserted mansion has undergone little change
+since it was re-erected about the year 1500." This house has now been
+pulled down.
+
+
+THE DYKE OR DYKES, BROADCLOUGH, BACUP.
+
+This mighty entrenchment is over 600 yards in length and for over 400
+yards of the line is 18 yards broad at the bottom. No satisfactory
+solution has yet been offered of the cause of this gigantic work or
+of the use to which it was put originally. Speaking of it Newbigging
+("History of Rossendale") says:--
+
+    "The careful investigations of Mr. Wilkinson have invested
+    this singular work with more of interest than had before been
+    associated with it, by his having with marked ability and
+    perseverance, collected together a mass of exhaustive evidence,
+    enforced by a chain of argument the most conclusive, with
+    regard to the much debated locality of the great struggle
+    between the Saxons and the Danes, which he endeavours, and
+    most successfully, to show is to be found in the immediate
+    neighbourhood of Burnley, and in connection with which the
+    earthwork in question constituted, probably, a not unimportant
+    adjunct."
+
+Again, he says:--
+
+    "If Saxonfield (Saxifield) near Burnley, was the scene of the
+    engagement between the troops of Athelstan and Anlaf, then it
+    is in the highest degree probable that one or other of the
+    rival armies, most likely that of the Saxon King, forced, or
+    attempted to force a passage through the valley of the Irwell
+    and that there they were encountered by the confederated hosts
+    intrenched behind the vast earthwork at Broadclough that
+    commanded the line of their march. Whether this was taken
+    in flank or rear by the Saxon warriors, or whether it was
+    successful in arresting their progress, or delaying a portion
+    of their army, it is impossible to determine; but that it
+    was constructed for weighty strategical purposes, under the
+    belief that its position was of the last importance, so much
+    of the remains of the extraordinary which still exists affords
+    sufficient evidence."
+
+
+
+
+Place-Names
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PLACE-NAMES.
+
+
+An eloquent modern writer has declared, with a good reason, that even
+if all other records had perished, "anyone with skill to analyse
+the language, might re-create for himself the history of the people
+speaking that language, and might come to appreciate the divers
+elements out of which that people was composed, in what proportion they
+were mingled, and in what succession they followed one upon the other."
+From a careful analysis of the names of the more prominent features
+of the land; of its divisions, its towns and villages, and even its
+streets, as well as the nomenclature of its legal, civil, and political
+institutions, its implements of agriculture, its weapons of war, and
+its articles of food and clothing,--all these will yield a vast fund of
+history.
+
+The place-name Liverpool has been the greatest puzzle to local
+etymologists. From the earliest known spelling--recorded in a deed
+of the time of Richard I. 1189-99, where the form is Leverpool--to
+the present, it has gone through more changes than any other local
+name. As the Norse element in the vicinity of Liverpool has been very
+great, we may assume the original derivation to come from "hlith,"
+the old Norse for a "slope." The north dialect also contains the word
+"lither" meaning sluggish. It is an adjective bearing the same meaning
+as the modern English "lithe," pliant, or gentle. The names Lithgoe,
+Lethbridge, Clitheroe, and Litherland may be derived from it.
+
+From the peaceful reign of Canute, or Knut, we derive the nautical
+term, some place-names--Knuts-ford, Knott End, Knot Mill, Knottingley.
+Knot, from old Norse "Knutr," and "Knotta," a ball, was the name given
+to the measurement of speed of a ship. Fifty feet was the distance
+allowed between the knots on the cord, and as many as ran out in half a
+minute by the sand-glass indicated the speed of the ship. And thus we
+speak of a 10 knot breeze blowing.[B]
+
+Hope, as a place-name, is common from the Orkneys to the Midlands, and
+is derived from an old Norse word "hoop," for a small land-locked bay,
+inlet or a small enclosed valley, or branch from the main dale. Hope is
+a common place-name, as well as a surname. In compounds we find it in
+Hopekirk, Hopeton, Hapton, Hopehead, Dryhope.
+
+From "Trow," a trough, we derive Trowbridge, Troughton, Trawden, and
+probably Rawtenstall.
+
+The battle of Brunanburg, which took place in the year 937, is supposed
+to have been fought on the site of the modern Burnley, on the river
+Brun. King Olaf brought his men over in 600 ships, many containing
+over 100 men each. He was defeated by Athelstane and his brother
+Edmund. There was until recently pulled down in Burnley a house called
+Danes-house. Though the Danes lost this battle, the northern bards
+recorded its bravery in their war songs, of which their Sagas or
+legends still preserve some remains.
+
+Among the chief followers of King Athelstane in 931, who subdued the
+Danish kingdom in England, we find the names of the following Jarls:
+Urm, Gudrum, Ingrard, Hadder, Haward, Healden, Rengwald, Scule,
+and Gunner. It is not difficult to recognise modern surnames from
+this list, such as Urmston, Guthrie, Hodder, Howard, Holden, Heald,
+Reynolds, Scholes, and Gunning.
+
+"Northumbria was the literary centre of the Christian world in Western
+Europe," says John Richard Green; and the learning of the age was
+directed by the Northumbrian scholar Baeda, the venerable Bede.
+
+
+YORKSHIRE.
+
+The population of Yorkshire, after the retreat of the Romans, was
+composed of Angles.
+
+When the Vikings invaded the county, the wide dales only had been
+occupied by these early settlers. The higher valleys were densely
+wooded, the broad moors and mosslands had not been penetrated until the
+coming of the Norse in 900 A.D.
+
+Some Anglian districts were refounded under Danish names, and became
+flourishing settlements. Canon Atkinson has shown by his analysis of
+Cleveland, that at Domesday, very little of that district was under
+cultivation. To the end of the eleventh century it consisted of moor
+and forest, and that many of the villages had then Danish names. The
+name Ingleby shows the passing of the Angles, by the addition of the
+Danish 'by.'
+
+At Domesday Yorkshire was divided into Ridings (thrithings), and
+Wapentakes.
+
+Such names as Thingwall near Whitby, Thinghow near Gainsborough,
+Thinghow near Northallerton, and Tingley near Wakefield, though some
+of the sites have disappeared, remain to show the centres of Danish
+government. The presence of many Scandinavian places and names suggests
+that the country before then was a wilderness. The condition of the
+country may be gathered from the records and traditions of Reginald
+and Symeon of Durham. In 875 Halfdan the Dane began his raid into
+Bernicia, and the Abbot of Lindisfarne, Eardwulf fled before him,
+taking the relics of St. Cuthbert. These wanderings, says Symeon,
+covered a period of nine years. The leader of this band was Eadred, the
+Abbot of Carlisle (Caer-Luel), whose monastery had been destroyed, and
+with the city, lay in ruins for two hundred years. At the places where
+these relics rested during their wanderings, Churches were afterwards
+erected, and dedicated to this Saint. The direction taken by the
+fugitives has been traced by Monsignor Eyre and the late Rev. T. Lees,
+first inland to Elsdon, then by the Reed and Tyne to Haydon Bridge,
+and up the Tyne valley; south by the Maiden way, and then through the
+fells by Lorton and Embleton to the Cumberland coast. At Derwentmouth,
+Workington, they determined to embark for Ireland, but were driven back
+by a storm and thrown ashore on the coast of Galloway, where they found
+a refuge at Whithorn.
+
+Mr. W. G. Collingwood says in his "Scandinavian Britain," that in this
+storm the MS. Gospels of Bishop Eadfirth (now in the British Museum)
+were washed overboard, but recovered. At Whithorn the bishop heard of
+Halfdan's death, and turned homewards by way of Kirkcudbright.
+
+The fact that the relics of St. Cuthbert found refuge in Cumberland and
+Galloway shows that the Danish invasion, from which they were saved,
+took very little hold of these parts. The Vikings of the Irish Sea were
+already under the influence of Christians, if not christianised, and
+were not hostile to the fugitive monks, while the natives welcomed them.
+
+The early historians relate the curious story of the election of
+Guthred, Halfdan's successor. Eadred, Abbot of Carlisle, who was with
+St. Cuthbert's relics at Craik, in central Yorkshire, on the way home,
+dreamt that St. Cuthbert told him to go to the Danish army on the
+Tyne, and to ransom from slavery, a boy named Guthred, son of Hardecnut
+(John of Wallingford says, "the sons of Hardecnut had sold him into
+slavery"), and to present him to the army as their king. He was also
+to ask the army to give him the land between the Tyne and the Wear, as
+a gift to St. Cuthbert and a sanctuary for criminals. Confident in his
+mission, he carried out its directions; found the boy, ransomed him,
+gained the army's consent, and the gift of the land, and proclaimed
+Guthred King at "Oswigedune." Eardwulf then brought to the same place
+the relics of St. Cuthbert, on which every one swore good faith. The
+relics remained until 999 at Chester-le-Street, and there Eardwulf
+re-established the bishopric.
+
+In these records of the Saxon historian Symeon, we have the curious
+illustration of the Viking raiders becoming rapidly transformed from
+enemies into allies and rulers chosen from among them. The history
+of Guthred's reign was peaceful, and he became a Christian King. His
+election took place about the year 880. During the reign of Guthred,
+his kingdom became christianised, the sees of Lindisfarne and York
+survived the changes. Guthred died in 894 and was buried in the high
+church at York.
+
+In 919 Ragnvald, called by Symeon "Inguald," became King of York. He
+was one of the most romantic figures of the whole Viking history. His
+name bore many forms of spelling: Ragnvald, Reignold, Ronald, Ranald,
+and Reginald.
+
+Coming from the family of Ivar in Ireland, Ragnvald mac Bicloch ravaged
+Scotland in 912, fought and killed Bard Ottarsson in 914 off the Isle
+of Man. Joined his brother at Waterford in 915 and set out for his
+adventure in North Britain. Landing in Cumberland, he passed along
+the Roman wall, and becoming King of York, was the first of the Irish
+Vikings who ruled until 954.
+
+The attacks of Vikings who were still Pagans continued, and many
+curious lights are shed by the chronicles of Pictish writers. The
+power of St. Cuthbert over the lands given for a sanctuary to Eadred
+the Abbot, is recorded in the legend of Olaf Ball (from 'ballr,' the
+stubborn), a Pagan who refused rent and service to St. Cuthbert,
+for lands granted to him by Ragnvald, between Castle Eden and the
+Wear. This Pagan came one day to the Church of St. Cuthbert at
+Chester-le-Street. He shouted to Bishop Cutheard and his congregation,
+"What can your dead man, Cuthbert, do to me? What is the use of
+threatening me with his anger? I swear by my strong gods, Thor and
+Uthan, that I will be the enemy of you all from this time forth." Then,
+when he tried to leave the Church, he could not lift his foot over the
+threshold, but fell down dead. "And St. Cuthbert, as was just, thus got
+his lands."
+
+The succession of races which gave many of our place-names, and the
+order in which they came, has been pointed out in the following names
+by the late Canon Hume, of Liverpool: Maeshir, now called Mackerfield,
+was called Maeshir by the Britons, meaning longfield; to which the
+Saxons added field, which now becomes Longfield-field, Wansbeckwater
+is Danish, Saxon, and English, three words meaning water. Then we have
+Torpenhowhill, a hill in Cumberland, composed of four words, each
+meaning hill.
+
+In addition to maritime terms, and terms of government, we derive from
+Danish sources titles of honour and dignity, such as king, queen, earl,
+knight, and sheriff.
+
+The Danes have left us traces of their occupation in the word gate,
+which is of frequent occurrence, and used instead of street in many of
+our older towns. The Saxons, who were less civilised, left many terms,
+such as ton, ham, stead, and stock. But they had no word to denote a
+line of houses. "Gata" was therefore not the English word used for
+gate, but a street of houses. From the Norman we have row, from rue, a
+street.
+
+The names of many of our streets and buildings are full of historical
+associations and information. In Bolton, Wigan, and Preston we find
+some streets bearing the name of gate, such as Bradshawgate, Wallgate,
+Standishgate, and Fishergate. In the towns of York, Ripon, Newcastle,
+and Carlisle many more of these gates are to be found. York has no
+less than twenty gates.
+
+To the roads of the Romans, the Danes gave the name of "a braut,"
+_i.e._, the broken course, or cleared way. (From this "a braut"
+comes the modern English word abroad, and the adjective broad.) The
+Anglo-Saxon took the name of street from the Roman strata. Thus we get
+the name of Broad Street, being two words of similar meaning.
+
+Lone, lonely, and alone come from "i laun," which means banishment, and
+those thus outlawed formed the brigands of the hill districts. We thus
+get Lunesdale, Lune, and Lancaster, from which John of Gaunt took his
+English title.
+
+Skipper was the Danish term for the master of a small vessel. In the
+game of bowls and curling the skipper is the leader or director.
+
+"Hay," the Norse for headland, pronounced hoy, furnishes us with
+several local place-names, such as Huyton, Hoylake, Howick.
+
+
+A NORSE FESTIVAL.
+
+Trafalgar Day is celebrated by the usual custom on October 21st--by
+the hoisting of the British flag on the public buildings and by the
+decoration of the Nelson Monuments in Liverpool and London. This
+battle was fought in 1805, and decided the supremacy of Britain as a
+sea power. Long may the deathless signal of our greatest hero continue
+to be the lode star of the man and the nation: "England expects that
+every man will do his duty."
+
+Let us trace the connection between Lord Nelson and the Danes in our
+own county. Admiral Nelson bore a genuine Scandinavian name, from
+"Nielsen," and was a native of one of the districts which were early
+colonised by the Danes, namely, Burnhamthorpe, in Norfolk. His family
+were connected with the village of Mawdesley, near Rufford, which still
+has for its chief industry basket-making. Fairhurst Hall, at Parbold,
+in the same district of Lancashire, was the home of a Nelson family for
+many centuries.
+
+This recalls the fact that we have still in existence a curious
+survival. "A strange festival" is celebrated each year on January 31st
+at Lerwick, or Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkney Isles. The festival
+called "Up-helly-a" seems to be growing in favour. Lerwick becomes
+the Mecca of the North for many days, and young people travel long
+distances to witness the revels that go to make up the celebration of
+the ancient festival. All former occasions were eclipsed by the last
+display. At half-past eight o'clock a crowd of about 3,000 people
+assembled in the square at the Market Cross. In the centre stood a
+Norse war galley or Viking ship, with its huge dragon head towering
+upwards with graceful bend. Along the bulwarks were hung the warriors'
+shields in glowing colours, the Norse flag, with the raven, floating
+overhead. On board the galley fiddlers were seated. Then a light
+flared below Fort Charlotte, which announced that the good ship Victory
+would soon be on the scene. And a stately ship she was, as she came
+majestically along, hauled by a squad in sailor costume, while a troop
+of instructors from the Fort walked alongside as a guard of honour to
+the good vessel. The Victory immediately took up her position, and the
+guizers began to gather. Torches were served out, the bugle sounded
+the call to light up, and then the procession started on its way round
+the town. The guizers who took part numbered over three hundred, and
+seen under the glare of the torches the procession was one of the
+prettiest. The Norse galley led the way, and the Victory occupied a
+place near the centre of the procession. The dresses were very tasteful
+and represented every age and clime. There were gay Cavaliers, Red
+Indians, Knight Templars, and squires of the Georgian period. The
+procession being over, the Victory and the Norse galley were drawn
+up alongside each other, near the market cross, while the guizers
+formed a circle round them. Toasts were proposed, songs were sung,
+and thereafter the proceedings were brought to a close by the guizers
+throwing their flaming torches on board the ships. As soon as the
+bonfire was thoroughly ablaze, the guizers formed themselves in their
+various squads, each headed by a fiddler, and began their house to
+house visitation. The guizer was costumed as an old Norse jarl, with
+a sparkling coat of mail, and carried a prettily emblazoned shield
+and sword. The squad of which he was chief were got up as Vikings.
+Curiously enough, these were followed by Dutch vrows.
+
+The Orkneys and Shetland Isles were ceded to James III. of Scotland,
+as the dowry of his wife, Margaret, in 1469, and became part of Great
+Britain on the union of Scotland with England. James I. married Ann
+of Denmark, and passed through Lancashire in August, 1617, when he
+visited Hoghton Tower. The effusiveness of the Prestonians was outdone
+at Hoghton Tower, where His Majesty received a private address in which
+he was apostrophised as "Dread Lord." He is reported to have exclaimed
+"Cot's splutters! What a set of liegemen Jamie has!"
+
+
+
+
+Patronymics
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+PATRONYMICS.
+
+
+We are sprung from the sea; a county of seaports is our dwelling-place,
+and the sea itself our ample dominion, covered throughout its vast
+extent with our fellow subjects in their "floating cities." These are
+filled with our wealth, which we commit to the winds and waves to
+distribute to the extremities of the four quarters of the world. We are
+therefore no common people, nor are they common events which form eras
+in our history; nor common revolutions which have combined and modified
+the elements of our speech.
+
+Though we have kept no genealogies to record to us from what particular
+horde of settlers we are sprung--no family chronicles to tell us
+whether Saxon, Dane, Norse, or Norman owns us as progeny--still our
+names serve partly to distinguish us, and "words" themselves thus still
+remind us of what otherwise would be totally forgotten. It has been
+claimed that two-thirds of us are sprung from the Anglo-Saxons and
+Danes, and had our language kept pace with our blood we should have had
+about two-thirds of our modern English of the same origin. But we have
+more. Our tongue is, hence, less mixed than our blood. It is therefore
+easier to trace out the histories of words than of families.
+
+It is difficult at first sight to determine whether family names have
+been derived from family residences or the residences have obtained
+their names from their first proprietors. The Romans imposed their
+military names upon the towns of the early Britons. The Danes added
+their own descrip-names, and previous to becoming converted to
+Christianity gave the names of their heathen deities to the mountains
+and landmarks. To these were added the names of Norse and Danish
+kings and jarls. After the Norman Conquest, when the land had been
+divided by William the Conqueror among his followers, comes the period
+when surnames were taken from the chief lands and residences. Pagan
+deities supply us with many surnames. From "Balder" comes Balderstone,
+Osbaldistone. "Thor" gives us Tursdale, Turton, Thursby, Thorley,
+Thurston, and Thurstaston, in the Wirral, near West Kirby. "Frëyer"
+supplies Frisby, Frankby, Fry, Fryer, Fraisthorpe, and Fraser. "Uller"
+or "Oller" gives Elswick, Ullersthorpe, Elston, Ulverston. From "Vé,"
+a sacred place, like "Viborg," the old Jutland assize town, we derive
+Wydale, Wigthorpe, Wythorpe, Willoughby, Wilbeforce, Wigton, and
+Wyre. Some of our earliest Lancashire names are derived from "Gorm,"
+"Billingr," "Rollo," who were Norse and Danish kings. Their names
+and their compounds show us that the Danes were Christianised, as
+"Ormskirk," which provides very many surnames, such as Orme, Oram,
+Ormsby, Ormerod, Ormeshaw; and another form of Gorm, "Grim" as Grimshaw
+and Grimsargh. Formby and Hornby may also be traced to this origin.
+From "Billingr" we get Billinge, the village near Wigan, standing on
+a high hill and having a beacon, Billington and other names of this
+construction. From "Rollo" we derive Roby, Raby, Rollo, Rollinson,
+Ribby. From "Arving," an heir, we get Irving, Irvin, and Irton. From
+"Oter" we have Otter, Ottley, Uttley. The Danes sailed up the river
+Douglas, and gave the name Tarleton, from "Jarlstown." Many Christian
+names come from the Danish--Eric, Elsie, Karl, Harold, Hugo, Magnus,
+Olave, Ralph, Ronald, Reginald. Surnames formed by the addition of
+"son" or "sen" are common to both Danes and English, but never appear
+in Saxon names. Thus we have Anderson, Adamson, Howson, Haldan,
+Matheson, Nelson, Jackson, Johnson, Thomson, and Stevenson.
+
+The different names we find given to the same trees arise from
+different settlers giving and using their own form of name: "Birch,"
+"Bracken," "Crabtree," and "Cawthorn." "Wil-ding" is also known in
+Westmorland and Yorkshire. "Whasset," which gives its name to a small
+hamlet near Beetham, in Westmorland, is Danish; "Wil-ding" is probably
+Flemish, and also Wild, Wilde, as this name dates from about the year
+A.D. 1338, when Edward III. encouraged numbers of Flemings to come
+over from the Netherlands to introduce and improve the manufacture of
+woollens. He located them in different parts of the country, and we
+find them settled in Kendal and in the vicinity of Bury and Rochdale.
+This will account for this surname being so frequently found in
+Lancashire.
+
+From Copenhagen "the harbour of merchants," we derive many important
+place-names and surnames. A Copeman was a Chapman, a merchant or
+dealer; and thus we derive Cheap, Cheapside, Chepstow, and Chipping.
+In surnames we get Copeland, Copley, Copethorne, and Capenhurst. The
+common expression "to chop or change," comes from this source. In the
+London Lyckpeny of 1430 we find: "Flemings began on me for to cry
+'Master, what will you copen or buy.'" In 1579, Calvin in a sermon
+said: "They play the copemaisters, and make merchandise of the doctrine
+of this Gospel." These early copmen remind us of the Lancashire
+merchant who had visited the States after the American Civil War. He
+said to the late John Bright: "How I should like to return here, fifty
+years after my death, to see what wonderful progress these people have
+made." John Bright replied: "I have no doubt, sir, you will be glad of
+any excuse to come back."
+
+To the abundance of surnames derived from Danish origin the following
+are important:--Lund, Lindsey, Lyster, Galt or Geld, and Kell. Lund was
+a grove where pagan rites were conducted. Lindsey is a grove by the
+sea. Lyster is Danish for a fishing fork composed of barbed iron spikes
+on a pole for spearing fish. Galt or Geld, an offering of the expiatory
+barrow pig to the god "Frëyer." From Kell, in Danish a "spring," we get
+Kellet and Okell.
+
+Surnames of a distinct Danish character, and customs derived from
+Viking days are to be met with in our local Fairs and Wakes. Writing
+on this subject, the Rev. W. T. Bulpit of Southport says that, "Robert
+de Cowdray, who died in 1222, was an enterprising Lord of Manor of
+Meols, and obtained a Charter from the King, with whom he was a
+_Persona-Grata_, for a weekly Wednesday market, and a yearly Fair,
+to be held on the Eve and Day of St Cuthbert, to whom the church is
+dedicated.
+
+The Charter probably did but legalise what already existed; Cowdray
+was a man of the world, and knew that it would be an advantage to his
+estate to have a fair.
+
+Soon after his death the Charter lapsed. Enemies said it interfered
+with pre-existing fairs.
+
+Though legally it had no existence the fair continued for centuries
+in connection with St. Cuthbert's wake in March. It was also the end
+of the civil year, when payments had to be made, and thus farm stock
+was sold. This caused the market and wake to be useful adjuncts, and a
+preparation for welcoming the New Year on March 25th, St. Cuthbert's
+Day, the anniversary of his death was held on March 23rd, and a Viking
+custom demanded a feast. The old name of the death feast was called
+Darval, and the name was transferred to the cakes eaten at the wake,
+and they were called Darvel Cakes.[C]
+
+Long after the event commemorated was forgotten Darvel Cakes were
+supplied in Lent to guests at Churchtown wakes.
+
+Connected with these fairs there was a ceremony of electing officials,
+and at these social gatherings of all the local celebrities a Mayor
+was elected who generally distinguished himself by being hospitable.
+Similar ceremonies still exist, where charters no longer survive, at
+such places as Poulton near Blackpool, and Norden near Rochdale.
+
+Traces of the Norman are found in Dunham Massey and Darcy Lever and a
+few others, but along the whole of the east and north of the county the
+Saxon and Danish landholder seems to have held in peace the ancestral
+manor house in which he had dwelt before the Conquest, and the haughty
+insolence of the Norman was comparatively unknown. Speke, the oldest
+manor house in South Lancashire, near Liverpool, is derived from
+"Spika," Norse for mast, which was used for fattening swine. "Parr"
+is a wooded hill, and this word enters into many compound names.
+"Bold," near St. Helens, signifies a stone house, and is the surname
+of one of the oldest Lancashire families. The Norse "Brecka," a gentle
+declivity, is much in evidence in West Lancashire, as in Norbreck,
+Warbrick, Swarbrick, Torbrick, Killbrick in the Fylde district, and
+also Scarisbrick, in the vicinity of Ormskirk. This name used to be
+spelt Scaursbreck, and is a compound of "Scaur," a bird of the seagull
+type, and "breck" from the natural formation of the land. Birkdale,
+Ainsdale, Skelmersdale, Kirkdale, Ansdell, Kirby, Kirkby, Crosby, are
+all place-names of Danish origin which provide many surnames in the
+county. Where Danish names abound the dialect still partakes of a
+Danish character.
+
+
+ENGLISH SURNAMES.
+
+A great majority are derived from trades and callings. Some may be
+traced from ancient words which have dropped out. "Chaucer"[D] and
+"Sutor" are now meaningless, but long ago both signified a shoemaker.
+A "pilcher" formerly made greatcoats; a "Reader," thatched buildings
+with reeds or straw; a "Latimer" was a writer in Latin for legal and
+such like purposes. An "Arkwright" was the maker of the great meal
+chests or "arks," which were formerly essential pieces of household
+furniture; "Tucker" was a fuller; "Lorimer" was a sadler; "Launder"
+or "Lavender," a washerman; "Tupper" made tubs; "Jenner" was a joiner;
+"Barker" a tanner; "Dexter," a charwoman; "Bannister" kept a bath;
+"Sanger" is a corruption of singer or minstrel; "Bowcher," a butcher;
+"Milner" a miller; "Forster," a forester; a "Chapman" was a merchant.
+The ancestors of the Colemans and Woodyers sold those commodities
+in former generations; "Wagners" were waggoners; and "Naylors" made
+nails. A "Kemp" was once a term for a soldier; a "Vavasour" held rank
+between a knight and a baron. Certain old-fashioned Christian names
+or quaint corruptions of them have given rise to patronymics which
+at first sight appear hard to interpret. Everyone is not aware that
+Austin is identical with Augustin; and the name Anstice is but the
+shortening of Anastasius. Ellis was originally derived from Elias. Hood
+in like manner is but a modern corruption of the ancient Odo, or Odin.
+Everett is not far removed from the once not uncommon Christian name
+Everard, while even Stiggins can be safely referred to the northern
+hero "Stigand." The termination "ing," signified son or "offspring."
+Thus Browning and Whiting in this way would mean the dark or fair
+children. A number of ancient words for rural objects have long ago
+become obsolete. "Cowdray" in olden days signified a grove of hazel;
+"Garnett," a granary. The suffix "Bec" in Ashbec and Holmbec is a
+survival of the Danish "by," a habitation. "Dean" signifies a hollow
+or dell, and the word "bottom" meant the same thing. Thus Higginbottom
+meant a dell where the "hicken" or mountain ash flourished. "Beckett"
+is a little brook, from the Norse "beck." "Boys" is a corruption of
+"bois," the French for wood. "Donne" means a down; "Holt," a grove,
+and "Hurst," a copse. "Brock" was the old term for a badger, hence
+Broxbourne; while "Gos" in Gosford signified a goose.
+
+
+ON DIALECT IN LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE.
+
+The district of England which during the Heptarchy was, and since has
+been known by the name of Northumbria, which consists of the territory
+lying to the north of the rivers Humber (whence the name North-humbria)
+and Mersey, which form the southern boundaries, and extending north
+as far as the rivers Tweed and Forth, is generally known to vary
+considerably in the speech of its inhabitants from the rest of
+England. Considering the great extent and importance of this district,
+comprising as it does more than one-fourth of the area and population
+of England, it seems surprising that the attention of philologists
+should not have been more drawn to the fact of this difference and
+its causes. From an essay on some of the leading characteristics of
+the dialects spoken in the six northern counties of England (ancient
+Northumbria) by the late Robert Backhouse Peacock, edited by the Rev.
+T. C. Atkinson, 1869, we learn that, when addressing themselves to
+the subject of dialect, investigators have essayed to examine it
+through the medium of its written rather than its spoken language.
+The characteristics to be found in the language now spoken have been
+preserved in a degree of purity which does not appertain to the English
+of the present day. It is therefore from the dialect rather than from
+any literary monuments that we must obtain the evidence necessary for
+ascertaining the extent to which this Northumbrian differs from English
+in its grammatical forms,--not to speak of its general vocabulary.
+
+The most remarkable characteristic is the definite article, or the
+demonstrative pronoun--"t," which is an abbreviation of the old Norse
+neuter demonstrative pronoun "hit"--Swedish and Danish "et." That this
+abbreviation is not simply an elision of the letters "he" from the
+English article "_the_," which is of old Frisian origin, is apparent
+from the fact that all the versions of the second chapter, verse 1, for
+instance, of Solomon's Song, "I am the rose of Sharon, and the lily of
+the valleys," the uniform abbreviation for all parts of England is the
+elision of the final letter "e," making _the_ into "th"; on the other
+hand, out of fourteen specimens of the same verse in Northumbria, eight
+give the "t" occurring three times in the verse, thus, "I's t' rooaz o'
+Sharon, an' t' lily o' t' valleys."
+
+The districts where the Scandinavian article so abbreviated prevails
+are found in the versions to be the county of Durham, Central and South
+Cumberland, Westmorland; all Lancashire, except the South-eastern
+district, and all Yorkshire; an area which comprehends on the map about
+three-fourths of all Northumbria.
+
+The next leading feature is the proposition--i, which is used for in.
+This is also a pure Scandinavianism, being not only old Norse, but used
+in Icelandic, Swedish and Danish of the present day. Two instances
+occur in the 14th verse of the same chapter, where for "O my dove, thou
+art in the clefts of the rock, in the secret places of the stairs,
+etc.," we have idiomatic version: "O my cushat, 'at 's i' t' grikes o'
+t' crags, i' t' darkin' whols o' t' stairs."
+
+Another word which occurs in six of the Northumbrian versions is
+also Scandinavian, viz., the relative pronoun _at_ for _that_. From
+this illustration of a short verse and a half of Scripture, we have
+established the Norse character of the dialect as distinguished from
+common English, of five of the most ordinary words in the English
+language, namely, the representatives of the words _the_, _in_, _that_,
+_art_ and _am_. These instances from the Etymology of the Dialects
+help to establish the following canon: That when a provincial word is
+common to more than one dialect district (that is, districts where in
+other respects the dialects differ from each other), it may, as a rule,
+be relied upon, that the word is not a corruption but a legitimate
+inheritance. Those referred to, we have seen, are the inheritance of a
+whole province, that province being formerly an entire kingdom.
+
+Proceeding in the usual order of grammars, having disposed of the
+article, we come next to the _substantives_. These differ from the
+ordinary English in that they recognise only one "case" where English
+has two. The Northumbrian dialect dispenses with the possessive or
+genitive case almost entirely, and for "my father's hat," or "my
+uncle's wife's mother's house," say, "my faddher hat," and "my uncle
+wife muddher house." Upon which, all that need be remarked is that they
+have gone further in simplifying this part of speech than the rest of
+their countrymen, who have only abolished the dative and accusative
+cases from the parent languages of their speech. Extreme brevity and
+simplicity are eminently Norse and Northumbrian characteristics.
+We have already seen some remarkable instances in the versions of
+Solomon's Song, where we saw that the first three words, "I am the,"
+are expressed in as many letters, namely, "I's t'"; and again in verse
+14, "thou art in the," by "at 's i t'." We have here another instance
+in the abolition of the genitive case-ending, out of many more that
+might be added.
+
+In pronouncing the days of the week we find: Sunnda for Sunday, Thorsda
+for Thursday, and Setterda for Saturday, always with the short da. The
+remaining days as in ordinary English.
+
+In pronouns we find "wer" for "our," in the possessive case, from old
+Norse vârr.
+
+  Relative--_At_ for who, which, that.
+
+  Demonstrative--T' The.
+                 That theyar--that one.
+                 Thoer--these or those.
+
+  Indefinites--Summat=something, somewhat. From old Norse sum-hvat,
+  somewhat.
+
+The two following are common at Preston and adjacent districts:
+
+  Sooawhaasse=whosoever.
+  Sooawheddersa=whethersoever.
+
+Correlative adjectival pronoun:
+
+  Sa mich=so much.
+  Swedish, Sâ mycket.
+
+Adverbs from Scandinavian:
+
+  Backerds--backwards.
+  Connily--prettily, nicely.
+  eigh--yes; forrùt, forrud--forwards;
+  helder--preferably; i mornin--to-morrow;
+  i now--presently; lang sen--long since;
+  lowsley--loosely; neddher--lower nether;
+  neya--no; noo--now;
+  reetly--rightly; sa--so; sen--since;
+  Shamfully--Shamefully.
+  Shaply--shapely; sooa--so.
+  tull--to; weel--well; whaar--where.
+
+_Interjections._
+
+  Ech!--exclamation of delight.
+
+  Hoity-toity!--what's the matter: from old Norse "hutututu."
+
+  Woe-werth!--woe betide.
+
+
+AN ILLUSTRATION.
+
+A good illustration of Danish terms may be gathered from the following
+conversation heard by a minister in this county between a poor man
+on his death-bed and a farmer's wife, who had come to visit him:
+"Well, John," she said, "when yo' getten theer yo'll may happen see
+eaur Tummus; and yo'll tell 'im we'n had th' shandry mended, un a new
+pig-stoye built, un 'at we dun pretty well beawt him." "Beli' me,
+Meary!" he answered, "dost think at aw's nowt for t' do bo go clumpin'
+up un deawn t' skoies a seechin' yo're Tummus!" The word "mun" also is
+in frequent use, and comes from the Danish verb "monne;" the Danish
+"swiga," to drink in, as "to tak a good swig," and "Heaw he swigged
+at it!" Many Danish words become purely English, as foul, fowl; kow,
+cow; fued, food; stued, stood; drown, drown; "forenoun" and "atternoun"
+became "forenoon" and "afternoon;" stalker, stalker; kok, cock; want,
+to want.
+
+In popular superstition the races had much in common. The Danish river
+sprite "Nok," imagined by some to be "Nick," or "Owd Nick," the devil;
+but properly "Nix," a "brownie." He wore a red cap and teased the
+peasants who tried to "flit" (Danish "flytter") in order to escape him.
+
+Though we have "Gretan," to weep, it also means to salute or bid
+farewell, from the Danish "grata." "Give o'er greeting," we hear it
+said to a crying child. While "greeting" is a popular word of Danish
+origin, so is "Yuletide" for Christmas, and "Yule Candles," "Yule
+Cakes," "Yule Log." The word "Tandle" means fire or light, and is given
+to a hill near Oldham. From this we derive our "Candle." "Lake," to
+play, is still used in our district, but never heard where Danish words
+are not prevalent. In the Danish, "Slat" means to slop, and it is said,
+"He slat the water up and down." A very common participle in Lancashire
+is "beawn." The Danish "buinn" is "prepared," or "addressed to," or
+"bound for," as "Weere ar't beawn furt' goo?" In Danish and Lancashire
+"ling" means heath; but it does not occur in Anglo-Saxon. From the
+Danish "Snig," to creep, we get "snig," eels.
+
+Locally we also have the name "Rossendale," which covers a large extent
+of our county. May we not suppose this to be from "rost," a torrent or
+whirlpool, and "dale," the Danish for valley?
+
+The names of places beginning or ending with "Garth," or "Gaard," shows
+that the people were settling in "Gaarde" or farms belonging to the
+chief, earl, or Udaller. With the Danish "Steen," for stone, we have
+Garston, Garstang, Garton, as well as Garswood and garden.
+
+The Danish having no such sound or dipthong as our "th," must account
+for the relic of the pronunciation "at" for "that," which is much used
+in our local dialect, as "It's toime at he were here,"--"at" being the
+Danish conjunction for "that." The word we use for sprinkling water, to
+"deg," does not come from the Anglo-Saxon "deagan," which means to dye
+or tinge with colour, but from "deog" or "deigr." Shakespeare uses the
+word in the "Tempest," where Prospero says: "When I have deck'd the sea
+with drops full salt." From "Klumbr," a mass or clod, we get "clump,"
+as clump of wood, and "clumpin' clogs." Stowe says, "He brought his
+wooden shoes or clumpers with him."
+
+
+
+
+Physical Types Still Existing
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+PHYSICAL TYPES STILL EXISTING.
+
+
+As early as the eleventh century the names of English towns and
+villages are written in the Domesday Book with the Danish ending "by"
+or "bi," and not with the Norwegian form of "böer" or "bö." This
+preponderance of Danish endings proves the widely extended influence
+of the Danes in the North. That they should have been preserved
+in such numbers for more than eight centuries after the fall of
+the Danish dominion in England, disproves the opinion that the old
+Danish inhabitants of the country were supplanted or expelled after
+the cessation of the Danish rule (1042), first by the Anglo-Saxons,
+and afterwards by the Normans. Mr. Wörsæ says: "The Danes must have
+continued to reside in great numbers in these districts, previously
+conquered by them, and consequently it follows that a considerable
+part of the present population may with certainty trace their origin
+to the Northmen, and especially to the Danes. The general appearance
+of the inhabitants is a weighty corroboration of the assertions of
+history. The black hair, dark eye, the prominent nose, and the long
+oval face to be found in the Southerners remind us of the relationship
+with the Romans, or a strong mixture of the British Anglo-Saxon and
+Norman races. The difference in physiognomy and stature of the Northern
+races are also easily be recognised. The form of face is broader, the
+cheekbones stand out prominently, the nose is flatter, and at times
+turned somewhat upwards. The eyes and hair are of a lighter colour, and
+even deep red hair is far from uncommon. The people are not very tall
+in stature, but usually more compact and strongly built than those of
+the South."
+
+[Illustration: Example of Ancient Danish Loom; from the Färoes, now in
+Bergen Museum.]
+
+The still existing popular dialect is an excellent proof that the
+resemblance of the inhabitants is not confined to an accidental or
+personal likeness. Many words and phrases are preserved in the local
+dialect which are neither found nor understood in other parts of the
+country. These terms are not only given to waterfalls, mountains,
+rivulets, fords, and islands, but are also in common use in daily life.
+The housewife has her spool and spinning wheel from "spole"; her reel
+and yarn-winder from "rock" and "granwindle"; her baking-board from
+"bagebord." She is about to knead dough, from "deig"; and in order
+to make oaten bread, or thin cakes beaten out by the hand, we have
+clap-bread or clap-cake, form "klapperbröd" and "klapper-kake." She
+spreads the tablecloth, "bordclaith," for dinner, "onden"; while the
+fire smokes, "reeks," as it makes its way through the thatch, "thack,"
+where in olden times the loft, "loft," was the upper room or bower,
+"buir." Out in the yard or "gaard," is the barn, "lade," where is
+stored the corn in "threaves." In the river are troughs, "trows," used
+to cross over. These were two small boats, cut out of the trunks of
+trees, and held together by a crosspole. By placing a foot in each
+trough the shepherd rowed himself across with the help of an oar. He
+goes up the valley, "updaal," to clip, "klippe," the sheep. It is said
+that Canute the Great crossed over the river Severn in this manner,
+when he concluded an agreement with Edmund Ironsides to divide England
+between them. Blether, from "Bladdra," is also a common expression,
+meaning to "blubber or cry," to gabble or talk without purpose. Another
+form of the word is "bleat," as applied to sheep.
+
+Other words now in use from the Norse are "twinter," a two-year-old
+sheep, and "trinter," a three-year-old. A "gimmer lamb" is a female
+lamb. The lug-mark, _i.e._, a bit cut out of a sheep's ear that it may
+be recognised by the owner, is from lögg mark." Lög is law, and thus
+it is the legal mark. The "smit" or smear of colour, generally red,
+by which the sheep are marked occurs in the Bible of Ulphilas in the
+same sense as smear. Another proof may be found on the carving in the
+knitting sticks made and used by the Northern peasantry of the present
+day. The patterns are decidedly Scandinavian.
+
+Of the people of this district, it may be said that in their physical
+attributes they are the finest race in the British dominions. Their
+Scandinavian descent, their constant exposure to a highly oxygenised
+atmosphere, their hereditary passion for athletic sports and exercises,
+their happy temperament, their exemption from privation, and many
+other causes, have contributed to develop and maintain their physical
+pre-eminence, and to enable them to enjoy as pastime an amount of
+exposure and fatigue that few but they would willingly encounter.
+Thomas de Quincey, who lived thirty years among them, observed them
+very closely, and knew them, well, after remarking that "it is the
+lower classes that in every nation form the 'fundus' in which lies
+the national face, as well as the national character," says: "Each
+exists here in racy purity and integrity, not disturbed by alien
+inter-marriages, nor in the other by novelties of opinion, or other
+casual effects derived from education and reading." The same author
+says: "There you saw old men whose heads would have been studies for
+Guido; there you saw the most colossal and stately figures among the
+young men that England has to show; there the most beautiful young
+women. There it was that sometimes I saw a lovelier face than ever I
+shall see again." The eloquent opium-eater gave the strongest possible
+proof that his admiration was real by taking one of these "beautiful
+young women" to wife.
+
+The men of our northern dales do not pay much respect to anyone who
+addresses them in language they are not accustomed to, nor do they
+make much allowance for ignorance of their own dialect. In a northern
+village we once stopped to speak to an old lady at her door, and
+began by remarking that the river was much swollen. "We call it a
+beck," said the old lady, turning her back upon us, and telling her
+granddaughter to bring out the scrapple. "Whatever may a scrapple be?"
+we asked, deferentially. "Why, that's what a scrapple may be," she
+said, indicating a coal-rake in the girl's hand. As we moved away,
+we overheard her say to a neighbour, "I don't know where he has been
+brought up. He calls th' beck a river, and doesn't know what a scrapple
+is!" They have a very quick sense of humour, and often practice a
+little mystification on inquisitive strangers. To a tourist who made
+the somewhat stupid inquiry, "Does it ever rain here?" the countrymen
+replied: "Why it donks, and it dozzles, and sometimes gives a bit of a
+snifter, but it ne'er comes in any girt pell," leaving the querist's
+stock of information very much as he found it.
+
+The first invasion of the Danes took place in the year 787, and to
+Scotland they gave the name of "Sutherland," and the Hebrides were the
+southern islands, or "Sudreygar," a name which survives in the title of
+the Bishop of Sodor and Man.
+
+The Forest of Rossendale contains eleven "vaccaries," or cow-pastures
+(we are told by Mr. H. C. March, M.D.), which were called "booths,"
+from the huts of the shepherds and cowherds. From this we trace
+Cowpebooth, Bacopbooth, and Crawshawbooth. Booth is derived from the
+old Norse "bûd," a dwelling, while from "byr" and "boer" we get the
+surnames Byrom, Burton, Buerton, Bamber, Thornber. "Forseti" was the
+judge of one of the Norse deities, and the word supplies us with
+Fawcett, Facit, or Facid as it was spelt in 1781, and Foster. Unal
+was a Danish chief, whose name survives as a surname Neal, Niel, and
+O'Neil. From the old Norse "yarborg," an earthwork, we get Yarborough,
+Yerburgh, Sedburg, and Sedberg. Boundaries have always been matters of
+great importance, and "twistle" is a boundary betwixt farms. Endrod
+was King of Norway in 784, and his name furnishes Endr, whose boundary
+becomes Entwistle, and also Enderby. Rochdale is derived from "rockr,"
+old Norse for rock, and dale from the Norse "daal," a wide valley;
+thus the Norsename Rochdale supplanted Celtic-Saxon name of "Rachdam."
+"Gamul," meaning old, was a common personal name among Norsemen. In a
+grant of land dated 1051, fifteen years before the Conquest, appears
+the name of Gouse Gamelson, which is a distinct Norse patronymic.
+Gambleside was one of the vaccaries or cow-pastures of Rossendale
+Forest, and was spelt Gambulside. In Anglo-Saxon and Teutonic dialects
+"ing" is a patronymic, as in Bruning, son of Brun, says Mr. Robert
+Ferguson, M.P., in his "Surnames as a Science." But it has also a wider
+sense. Thus, in Leamington it signifies the people of the Leam, on
+which river the place is situated. From a like origin comes the name
+of the Scandinavian Vikings, Vik-ing; the people from Vik, a bay. Sir
+J. Picton, in his "Ethnology of Wiltshire," says: "When the Saxons
+first invaded England they came in tribes, and families headed by their
+patriarchal leaders. Each tribe was called by its leader's name, with
+the termination 'ing,' signifying family. Where they settled they gave
+their patriarchal name to the mark, or central point round which they
+clustered."
+
+Considering the great number of these names, amounting to over a
+thousand in England, and the manner in which they are dispersed, it
+is impossible to consider them as anything else than the everyday
+names of men. This large number will serve to give an idea of the very
+great extent to which place-names are formed from the names of men
+who founded the settlements. It must be remembered that the earlier
+date now generally assigned for the Teutonic settlements tends to give
+greater latitude to the inquiry as to the races by whom the settlements
+were made, as well as the fact that all our settlements were made in
+heathen times. From the neighbouring tribe of Picts we retain one form
+"pecthun," from which we derive the surnames of Picton, Peyton, and
+Paton. This may suggest that we owe the name peat to the same origin.
+We have also the word pictures, probably formed from "pict," and
+"heri," a warrior.
+
+
+
+
+Political Freemen
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+POLITICAL FREEMEN
+
+
+Under the reign of Ethelred II. the supremacy of the Anglo-Saxons had
+already passed away. As a people they sank, and left only a part of
+their civilisation and institutions to their successors, the Danes
+and Normans. The development of a maritime skill unknown before, of a
+bold manly spirit of enterprise, and of a political liberty which, by
+preserving a balance between the freedom of the nobles and of the rest
+of the people, ensured to England a powerful and peaceful existence.
+
+Danish settlers in England conferred a great benefit on the country,
+from a political point of view, by the introduction of a numerous class
+of independent peasantry. These people formed a striking contrast to
+the oppressed race of Anglo-Saxons. Turner says: "The Danes seem to
+have planted in the colonies they occupied a numerous race of freemen,
+and their counties seem to have been well peopled." The number of these
+independent landowners was consequently greatest in the districts which
+were earliest occupied by the Danes, where they naturally sprung up
+from the Danish chiefs parcelling out the soil to their victorious
+warriors. Twenty years after the Norman Conquest there was a greater
+number of independent landed proprietors, if not, in the strictest
+sense of the word, freeholders, in the districts occupied by the Danes,
+and under "Danelag," than in any other of the Anglo-Saxon parts of
+England. The smaller Anglo-Saxon agriculturists were frequently serfs,
+while the Danish settlers, being conquerors, were mostly freemen, and
+in general proprietors of the soil.
+
+Domesday Book mentions, under the name of "Sochmanni," a numerous class
+of landowners or peasants in the Danish districts of the north, while
+in the south they are rarely to be found. They were not freeholders in
+the present sense of the term. They stood in a feudal relation to a
+superior lord, but in such a manner that the "Sochmanni" may best be
+compared with our present "hereditary lessees." Their farm passed by
+inheritance to their sons, they paying certain rents and performing
+certain feudal duties; but the feudal lord had no power to dispose of
+the property as he pleased.
+
+The following is an abstract of a paper on Tithe and Tenure in the
+North, by the Rev. J. H. Colligan:--
+
+    DANISH INFLUENCE ON LAND TENURE
+
+    was originally a military one. In Westmorland the manors were
+    granted round several great baronies or Fees. The barons held
+    their estates "in capite" from the king, upon conditions that
+    were mainly military, while the lords of the manors held of
+    the barons, their chief duty being, to keep a muster-roll of
+    their tenants for the discharge of the military claims of the
+    barons. The tenants held of the lord by fines and services,
+    the latter being, until the close of the XVIth century, of a
+    military character. This baronial system, perfected by William
+    the Conqueror, gave enormous power into the hands of the barons.
+
+    The Hudlestons, of Millum Castle, Lancashire, exercised the
+    prerogative of "jura regalia" for twenty-two generations. They
+    also had the privileges of "wreck of the sea." Some of the
+    barons had the power of capital punishment, others, again, had
+    the right to nominate sheriffs. They held their own courts and
+    could be either friends or rivals of the king, to whom alone
+    they owed homage, with service at home or abroad. The authority
+    thus obtained by the barons was distributed to the knights and
+    lords of the manors, who, in their turn, levied conditions upon
+    their dependants.
+
+    This system of devolution of power received from the king was
+    enjoyed also by the church, and kept the counties always ready
+    for war. When the martial spirit began to forsake the land,
+    and peaceful and sporting pleasures arose, we find a new form
+    of tenure. Lands and tenements are given for the apparently
+    trifling conditions of keeping up eyries of hawks for the
+    baron, or of providing a gilt spur, or of producing a rose,
+    sometimes out of season but generally in the time of roses, or
+    of making presents of pepper, ginger, cloves, or some other
+    tasty trifle. A number of these rents require no explanation,
+    as they are only the reflex of the passion of the age. Horses,
+    dogs and hawks for the knight, pepper, ginger and cloves for
+    the monks, are easily understood. The reasons for the rose and
+    stirrup, the spur and the glove are not so apparent. It is
+    possible that originally they were symbolical of real rent or
+    service. The transition from the actual to the symbolical must
+    have taken place in the XIVth and XVth centuries.
+
+    We have hitherto been speaking of the relationship between
+    the barons and the monks, the knights and the lords of the
+    manor. There is no reference to tenants, because there was no
+    such thing as a free individual tenure before the middle of
+    the XVIth century. The soldier-tenants clung round the barony
+    of the manor, and their position was defined as "tenantes ad
+    voluntatem." It was only in Elizabeth's reign that the demands
+    of the tenants began to be formulated, and the unique form of
+    tenure called "tenant right" appeared on the border. It is
+    difficult to discover when and how the movement for freedom on
+    the part of the tenants began, but it certainly is associated
+    with the Reformation, and is seen plainly in those places where
+    protestantism was vigorous.
+
+    We shall examine the growth of this form of tenure as it
+    appeared in a Cumberland manor. In the neighbourhood under
+    consideration we find three kinds of tenants. At the one
+    extreme were the Drenges, who were probably Saxon slaves; at
+    the other were tenants by right, who were probably equal in
+    dignity and privilege in the early days to the lord of the
+    manor himself. In Cumberland and Westmoreland traces of the
+    Drengage tenements may be found, and the Bondgate, Appleby, is
+    an illustration of Drengage dwellings. The tenants by right are
+    found in Cumberland, where they are now called yeomen, and in
+    Westmorland, where they are known as statesmen (steadsmen), and
+    in North Lancashire, where, to the regret of the writer in the
+    Victoria County History, the yeomen are gradually disappearing.
+    Mr. J. Brownbill says that tenant right was frequently urged
+    all over Furness and Cartmel and in Warton and the northern
+    border of Lancashire. He refers to the particulars in West's
+    "Antiquities of Furness."
+
+    We have not been able to ascertain the origin of the tenure as
+    it applies to North Lancashire, but on the borders it is the
+    outcome of an interesting and unique form of service called
+    Cornage. It is still a disputed point as to the origin of the
+    word. Some holding it to from the fact that the lord gave
+    notice of the enemies' approach by winding a horn; others that
+    it was much earlier in its origin, and arises from the horn or
+    cattle tax, still known in Westmorland as neat- or nowt-geld.
+    Whichever origin be taken, it is clear that, from the time of
+    Queen Elizabeth, the keeping of the borders was an important
+    service, and is seen from the fact that the tenant could not
+    hire another to take his place.
+
+    In regard to this border service, known as Cornage, the lord
+    had several privileges which included wardship or control
+    over the heir, until he was 21 years of age; marriage, which
+    gave him the right of arranging a marriage if the inheritance
+    had devolved upon a female; and relief, which was the payment
+    of a certain sum by the heir upon taking possession of the
+    inheritance. The chief privilege which the "tenant-by-right"
+    possessed for his border service was that of devising his
+    tenement by _will_, a privilege which is much prized until
+    this day. At the Restoration the "Drengage tenure" was raised
+    into a Socage tenure, and it was under this tenure, with that
+    of Cornage, and sometimes with a combination of these forms,
+    that most of the tenements of the manors of Cumberland and
+    Westmorland were held. These holders came to be described
+    as customary tenants. The customary tenant is distinguished
+    from the freeholder, and the copyholder, in that he is not
+    seised of his land in fee simple, as is the freeholder, and
+    is not subject to the disabilities of the copyholder, nor
+    are his customary dues considered derogatory to the nobility
+    of his tenure. The customary tenant is therefore between the
+    freeholder and the copyholder, with a number of well defined
+    privileges. The two most important duties of the average tenant
+    in Cumberland and Westmorland were those of warfare and the
+    watching of the forests. The former depended entirely upon the
+    attitude of the other kingdoms, especially Scotland; the latter
+    was a long and laborious service laid upon the tenant until
+    the middle of the XVIth century. The counties of Cumberland
+    and Westmorland were dense forests until long after the Norman
+    Conquest, and the timber for the royal shipyards was grown in
+    these highlands of England. The forests were full of game, and
+    the regulations in connection with the preservation of game and
+    the upkeep of the forests were most exacting upon the people.
+
+    From the middle of the XVIth century, however, these ancient
+    laws and services began to lose their force, and a new set
+    of regulations arose to meet the new environment. Slowly but
+    surely the feudal system had passed away. Here and there a
+    relic remained, but it was impossible to ignore the rights of
+    men who could no longer be bought and sold with a tenement.
+    From the first year of the reign of Elizabeth the border
+    service is well defined and the claims of the tenants became
+    fixed. Several years before, Lord Wharton, as Deputy-General
+    of the West Marches, drew up a series of regulations for the
+    protection of that part of the border. In an interesting
+    article by Mr. Graham, we find how the men of Hayton, near
+    Carlisle, turned out every night with their spears, and
+    remained crouched on the river bank in the black darkness or
+    the pouring rain. It is a typical example of borderers engaged
+    upon their regular service. This system had superseded the
+    feudal system. The feudal tenure survived in many instances
+    where a power. Like one of their own tumultuous forces, when
+    once directed into the right stream, they went to form that new
+    product which we call an Englishman. The documents, which were
+    discovered at Penruddock in the township of Hutton Soil--the
+    "kist" is in the possession of Mr. Wm. Kitchen, Town Head,
+    Penruddock--relate to a struggle between the lord and the
+    tenants of Hutton John, Cumberland, on the subject of tenant
+    right. So far as we are aware these documents are unique. The
+    various authorities on Cumberland history give reference to a
+    number of these disputes but no mention is made of the Hutton
+    John case, so that we have here for the first time a full
+    knowledge of what was probably the most important of all these
+    trials. In addition, while there are no documents relating to
+    the other cases, we have here every paper of the Hutton John
+    case preserved. The story of the discovery is that the writer
+    (the Rev. J. Hay Colligan) was searching for material for a
+    history of the Penruddock Presbyterian Meeting House when he
+    came across a kist, or chest, containing these documents. (A
+    calendar of these documents may be found in the Cumberland
+    and Westmorland Transactions for 1908.) The manor of Hutton
+    John had long been in the possession of the Hutton family when
+    it passed in 1564 to a son of Sir John Hudleston of Millum
+    Castle by his marriage with Mary Hutton. Her brother Thomas
+    had burdened the estate on account of his imprisonment lasting
+    about fifty years. It was the son of this marriage, Joseph by
+    name, who became the first lord of the manor, and most of the
+    manorial rights still remain with the Hudleston family. After
+    Joseph Hudleston came three Andrews--first, 1603-1672; second,
+    1637-1706; third, 1669-1724--and it was with these four lords
+    that the tenants carried on their historical dispute. The death
+    of Thomas Hutton took place some time after 1620 and was the
+    occasion for raising a number of questions that agitated the
+    manor for almost a century afterwards. It flung the combustible
+    topic of tenure into an atmosphere that was already charged
+    with religious animosity, and the fire in the manor soon was as
+    fierce as the beacon-flare on their own Skiddaw.
+
+    The position of the parties in the manor may be summed up by
+    saying that Joseph Hudleston insisted that the tenants were
+    tenants-at-will, and the tenants on the other hand claimed
+    tenant right. Whatever may have been the origin of cornage,
+    it is clear that by the XVIIth century it was synonymous
+    with tenant right. The details in the dispute cannot here be
+    treated, but the central point was the subject of a general
+    fine. This fine, frequently called gressome, was the entrance
+    fine which the tenant paid to the lord upon admittance. In
+    some manors it was a two years' rent, in others three. An
+    unusual form in the manor of Hutton John was a seven years'
+    gressome, called also a running fine or a town-term. This was
+    the amount of two years' rent at the end of every seven years.
+    The contention of the tenants was, that as this was a running
+    fine, no general fine was due to the lord of the manor on the
+    death of the previous lord. From this position the tenants
+    never wavered, and for over seventy years they fought the
+    claim of the lord. Upon the death of Thomas Hutton the tenants
+    claiming tenant right refused to pay the general fine to Joseph
+    Hudleston. After wrangling with the tenants for a few years,
+    Joseph brought a Bill against them in 1632. He succeeded in
+    obtaining a report from the law lord, Baron Trevor, which
+    plays an important part in the case unto the end. He apparently
+    disregarded the portion which applied to himself, and pressed
+    the remainder upon the tenants. The tenants thereupon decided
+    to send three of their number with a petition to Charles I.
+    and it was delivered to the king at Newmarket. He ordered
+    his judges to look into the matter. The civil war, however,
+    had begun, and the whole country was about to be filled with
+    smoke and flame. Needless to say the tenants took the side of
+    Parliament, while the lord of the manor, the first Andrew, was
+    described in the records as a Papist in arms. During the civil
+    war the whole county of Cumberland was in action. The manor of
+    Hutton John was mainly for the Parliament. Greystoke Castle,
+    only two miles from the manor, surrendered to the Parliamentary
+    troops. The termination of the civil war in 1651 was the date
+    for the beginning of litigation between the Hudleston family
+    and the Parliament on the subject of the manor. After this was
+    over the struggle between the lord and the tenants began again.
+    In their distress the tenants sent a letter to Lord Howard
+    of Naworth Castle, whose Puritan sympathies were well known.
+    This is a feature of the case that need not be dwelt upon,
+    but without which there can be no complete explanation of the
+    story. The struggle was in fact a religious one. The occasion
+    of it was the entrance into a Cumberland manor of a Lancashire
+    family, and the consequent resentment on the part of the
+    adherents of the manor, who boasted that they had been there
+    "afore the Hudlestons." The motives which prompted each party
+    were those expressed in the words Puritan _v._ Papist. The
+    year 1668 was a memorable one in the history of the dispute.
+    In that year the tenants brought a Bill of complaint against
+    the lord at Carlisle Assizes. The judge, at the opening of
+    the court, declared that the differences could be compounded
+    by some gentlemen of the county. All the parties agreed, and
+    the court made an order whereby Sir Philip Musgrave, Kt. and
+    Bart., and Sir John Lowther, Bart., were to settle the case
+    before September 21st. If they could not determine within that
+    time they were to select an umpire within one week, who must
+    make his award before Lady-day. Sir Philip Musgrave and Sir
+    John Lowther accepted the responsibility placed upon them by
+    the court and took great pains to accommodate the differences,
+    but finding themselves unable to furnish the award within the
+    time specified they elected Sir George Fletcher, Bart., to be
+    umpire. Sir George Fletcher made his award on March 3rd, 1668.
+    The original document, written, signed and sealed with his own
+    hand, is here before us. Its tattered edges prove that it has
+    been frequently referred to. Sir George Fletcher's award was
+    on the whole in favour of the tenants, and especially on the
+    subject of the general fine, which he declared was not payable
+    on the death of the lord. Other important matters were dealt
+    with, including heriots, widows' estates, the use of quarries
+    on the tenements, the use of timber, the mill rent, together
+    with the subject of boons and services. All the tenants
+    acquiesced in the award, and the lord paid the damages for
+    false imprisonment to several of the tenants.
+
+    In the year 1672 Andrew Hudleston the first died, and
+    Andrew the second, 1637-1706, succeeded to the lordship. He
+    immediately began to encroach. He demanded the general fine
+    in addition to rents and services, contrary to the award.
+    The struggle therefore broke out afresh as fiercely as ever,
+    and both parties returned to the old subject of tenure. The
+    matter became a religious one owing to the Restoration and the
+    rigid acts which followed between 1662-1689. An extraordinary
+    incident occurred at this time in the conversion of the lord
+    to the protestant cause, but this did not affect the dispute
+    between him and the tenants. In 1699 the tenants moved again.
+    They requested the court to put into operation the award of
+    Sir George Fletcher. From that year until 1704 the strife
+    was bitterer than ever, and the kist contains more documents
+    relating to this period than to any other. In the year 1704,
+    after several judgments had previously been made against the
+    third Andrew Hudleston and his late father, the former appealed
+    to the House of Lords, and the case was dismissed in favour of
+    the tenants.
+
+    Although the struggle lasted until the year 1716, the climax
+    was reached in 1704. The historical value of the case is the
+    way in which it illustrates the conditions of tenure in the
+    North-West of England, and at the same time pourtrays the
+    pertinacity in spite of serious obstacles of the yeoman class
+    in asserting its rights.
+
+    _Tithe._ The subject of Tithe is one that can only be dealt
+    with in a restricted way and from one point of view. It
+    is well known that, through the influence of George Fox
+    in North Lancashire, Quakerism spread with frenzied force
+    through Westmorland and Cumberland. Many of those who had
+    been previously content with Puritan doctrines seceded to
+    the Quakers. The practice of declining to pay the tithe, in
+    the case which the documents before us illustrate, was of a
+    different character. It occurs in the parish of Greystoke,
+    in which the manor of Hutton John was situated. Five years
+    after the award of Sir George Fletcher on the tenure case, the
+    nonconforming section of the tenants of Hutton John raised
+    another question of a tithe called "Bushel Corn." This had
+    been regularly paid to the Rector of Greystoke from time
+    immemorial. Even the Puritan rectors had received this tithe
+    down to that great Puritan, Richard Gilpin, who was ejected
+    from the Rectory of Greystoke in 1661. The point in dispute was
+    not a deliberate refusal of the tithe, it was a declaration
+    of the parishioners that the _measure_ was an unjust one. The
+    contest was carried on by John Noble, of Penruddock, and Thos.
+    Parsons, the steward of the Countess of Arundel and Surrey,
+    Lady of the Barony of Greystoke. Associated with Parsons was
+    John Robson, a servant and proctor of the rector. Parsons and
+    Robson were farmers of the tithe, but the case had the full
+    consent of the rector, the Rev. Allan Smallwood, D.D.
+
+    The immediate cause of the dispute was the question of the
+    customary measure. It resulted in the settlement of a vexatious
+    subject which was as to the size of a _bushel_. The matter was
+    one of contention throughout the country until standard weights
+    and measures were recognised and adopted. In Cumberland the
+    most acute form was upon the subject of the corn bushel. The
+    deviations in quantity were difficult to suppress, and several
+    law cases upon this matter are on record. In the Parish of
+    Greystoke the case was first begun in 1672. The bushel measure
+    had been gradually increased from sixteen gallons, which amount
+    the parishioners acknowledged and were prepared to pay, until
+    it reached twenty-two gallons. The case passed through the
+    assizes of three counties, being held at Carlisle, Lancaster
+    and Appleby, and a verdict for the parishioners was eventually
+    given.
+
+    The documents, apart from their intrinsic worth, have thus
+    an inestimable value, in that they shed light upon and give
+    information in regard to the doings in a Cumberland manor
+    where hitherto there has been but darkness and silence, as far
+    as the records of the people were concerned. We are able now
+    to follow with interest and satisfaction a story that is equal
+    in courage and persistence with the best traditions of English
+    love of justice and fair play.
+
+The documents in this case were numerous but small, and were in many
+cases letters and scraps of paper. As a piece of local history it is
+not to be compared with the tenure case, but it contains valuable items
+of parish life in the XVIIth century. Perhaps the best of the letters
+are those from Sir John Otway, the well-known lawyer. John Noble the
+yeoman has several letters full of fine touches. The depositions of the
+witnesses at Cockermouth in 1672 are picturesque. The lawyers' bills,
+of which there are many, are not so illuminating. There are several
+letters of Henry Johnes of Lancaster, who was Mayor of that town on two
+occasions.
+
+Public men regard it as a great honour to represent the northern
+districts of England in Parliament, merely from the intelligent
+political character of the voters; and it was certainly through the
+adherence of the love of freedom in the north that Cobden and Bright
+were able to struggle so successfully for the promotion of Free Trade
+and for financial reform. Sir E. Bulwer Lytton, the great English
+writer, says: "Those portions of the kingdom originally peopled by the
+Danes are noted for their intolerance of all oppression, and their
+resolute independence of character, to wit, Yorkshire, Lancashire,
+Norfolk, and Cumberland, and large districts in the Scottish lowlands."
+
+Memorials of the Danes are mixed up with England's freest and most
+liberal institutions; and to the present day the place where the
+candidate for a seat in Parliament addressed the electors bears
+throughout England the pure Danish name of the "Husting." When William
+I. began to conquer England, and to parcel it out among his warriors,
+it was the old Danish inhabitants who opposed him; who would have
+joined him, their kinsman the Norman, especially as he gave it out
+that one of their objects in coming to England was to avenge the Danes
+and Norwegians who were massacred by Ethelred, but the Normans aimed
+at nothing less than the abolition of the free tenure of estates and
+the complete establishment of a feudal constitution. This mode of
+proceeding was resented, which would rob the previously independent
+man of his right to house and land, and by transferring it to the
+powerful nobles shook the foundation of freedom. The Danes turned from
+them in disgust, and no longer hesitated to join the equally oppressed
+Anglo-Saxons. The Normans were obliged to build strong fortifications,
+for fear of the people of Scandinavian descent, who abounded both in
+the towns and rural districts. What the Normans chiefly apprehended was
+attacks from the Danes who, there was good reason to suppose, might
+come over with their fleets, to the assistance of their countrymen in
+the North of England.
+
+The Norman kings who succeeded William the Conqueror dwelt in perfect
+safety in the southern districts, but did not venture north without
+some fear, and a chronicler who lived at the close of the twelfth
+century assures us that they never visited this part of the kingdom
+without being accompanied by a strong army.
+
+
+ABOLITION OF SLAVERY.
+
+In those districts where the Danes exercised complete dominion the
+custom of slavery was abolished. This fact is established by a
+comparison of the population of those districts colonised by the Danes
+with that of the older English districts. The population returns given
+in Domesday Book prove that no "servi" existed in the counties where
+Danish influence was greatest. Both in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire at
+this time there is no record of slavery. In the counties where this
+influence was less, such as Nottingham, the returns show that one serf
+existed to every 200 of the population. In Derbyshire 1 per cent.,
+in Norfolk and Suffolk 4 per cent., in Leicestershire 6 per cent.,
+in Northamptonshire 10 per cent., in Cambridge, Hertford and Essex
+11 per cent. Outside the influence of the Danelagh the proportion is
+much greater. In Oxfordshire 14 per cent. were slaves, in Worcester,
+Bucks, Somerset and Wiltshire 15 per cent., in Dorset and Hampshire
+16 per cent., in Shropshire 17 per cent., in Devonshire 18 per cent.,
+in Cornwall 21 per cent., and in Gloucestershire 24 per cent., or
+almost one-fourth of the whole population. These records were not made
+by Danish surveyors, but Norman officials, and explode the theory
+of historians like Green who assert that the English settlers were
+Communities of free men. These conditions of tenure were introduced by
+the Danes, and became so firmly established that the names given to
+such freeholders as "statesmen" in Cumberland, "freemen" and "yeomen"
+in Yorkshire, Westmorland and North Lancashire still exist at the
+present day.
+
+As we have seen, records of struggles for tenant rights have come to
+light in recent years which prove that feudal conditions were imposed
+by successive landlords, and were resisted both before and after the
+Commonwealth.
+
+
+INVASION AND SETTLEMENT.
+
+The Norse settlement at the mouth of the Dee dated from the year 900
+when Ingimund, who had been expelled from Dublin, was given certain
+waste lands near Chester, by Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians. This
+colony extended from the shore of Flint, over the Wirral peninsula
+to the Mersey, and it is recorded in Domesday by the name of their
+Thingwall or Tingvella. Along with the group of Norse names in the
+Wirral is Thurstaston, or Thors-Stone, or Thorstun-tun. This natural
+formation of red sandstone has been sometimes mistaken for a Tingmount
+or Norse monument. Several monuments of the tenth century Norse colony
+are to be found in the district, such as the Hogback Stone in West
+Kirby Museum, and the gravestone bearing the wheel-shaped head. A
+similar monument was found on Hilbre Island, and other remains of cross
+slabs occur at Neston and Bromborough.
+
+The Norse place-names of Wirral prove that these lands were waste and
+unoccupied, when names of Danish origin were given, such as Helsby,
+Frankby, Whitby, Raby, Irby, Greasby and Pensby. Some Wirral names are
+composed of Celtic and Norse, as the settlers brought both Gælic and
+Norse names from Ireland. These are found in the Norse Runes in the
+Isle of Man and north of Lancaster.
+
+Socmen were manorial tenants who were free in status, though their land
+was not held by charter, like that of a freeholder, but was secured to
+them by custom. They paid a fixed rent for the virgate, or part of a
+virgate, which they generally held; and, taking the Peterborough Socmen
+as examples, they were bound to render farm produce, such as fowls and
+eggs, at stated seasons; to lend their plough teams thrice in winter
+and spring; to mow and carry hay; to thresh and harrow, and do other
+farm work for one day ... and to help at the harvest for one or two
+days. Their services contrasted with the _week-work_ of a villein, were
+little more than nominal and are comparable to those of the Radmanni.
+The Peterborough socmen reappear under the "Descriptio Militum" of the
+abbey, where it is said they were served "cum militibus," but this
+appears to be exceptional. Socmen were like "liber tenentes" frequently
+liable to "merchet, heriot and tallage." Their tenure was the origin of
+free socage, common in the thirteenth century, and now the prevailing
+tenure of land in England. Socmen held land by a fixed money payment,
+and by a fixed though trivial amount of base service which would seem
+to ultimately disappear by commutation." All socmen as customary
+tenants required the intervention of the steward of the manor in the
+transfer or sale of their rights. ("Palgrave's Dictionary of Political
+Economy," p. 439.)
+
+_Merchet._ Of all the manorial exactions the most odious was the
+"Merchetum," a fine paid by the villain on giving his daughter in
+marriage. It was considered as a mark of servile descent, and the man
+free by blood was supposed to be always exempted from it, however
+debased his position was in every other respect.
+
+In the status of socmen, developed from the law of Saxon freemen there
+was usually nothing of the kind. "Heriot" was the fine or tax payable
+to the lord or abbot on the death of the socman. The true Heriot
+is akin in name and in character to the Saxon "here-great"--to the
+surrender of the military outfit supplied by the chief to his follower.
+In feudal time and among peasants it is not the war-horse and armour
+that is meant, but the ox and harness take their place. (Vinogradoff,
+"Mediæval Manors": Political Exactions, Chap. V., 153.)
+
+_Mol-men._ Etymologically, there is reason to believe that this term
+is of Danish origin, and the meaning has been kept in practice by the
+Scotch dialect (_vide_ "Ashley, Economic History," i, pp. 56-87.)
+
+_Tallage._ The payment of arbitrary tallage is held during the
+thirteenth century to imply a servile status. Such tallage at will is
+not very often found in documents, although the lord sometimes retained
+his prerogative in this respect even when sanctioning the customary
+form of renders and services. Now and then it is mentioned that tallage
+is to be levied once a year although the amount remains uncertain.
+("Villianage in England," Chap. v, 163, Vinogradoff.)
+
+
+
+
+Husbandry
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HUSBANDRY.
+
+
+The influence of the Norse has been felt in terms connected with land.
+"God speed the plough" has been the toast of many a cup at many a
+merry meeting for many a century past in this realm. Yet we seem not
+generally to know by whom the name of the plough was introduced amongst
+us. The Anglo-Saxon knew nothing of such an implement and its uses ere
+they settled in the land. This is apparent from their not having a term
+for it in their own tongue. Even when they were accustomed to the use
+of the so-called plough of the Romans, which they found in the hands
+of the British at their settlement in the country, they so confounded
+the terms of husbandry that they gave the name of "syl" or "suhl" to
+the Roman-British implement, from the furrow "sulcus," which it drew,
+without attending in the least to the Roman-British name. The work
+of one such plough during a season they have called a "sulling" or
+furrowing.
+
+This so-called plough, from the figures left of it in the Anglo-Saxon
+MSS., seems to have been but a sorry kind of an article, not fit to
+be brought into comparison with the worst form of our plough in the
+neglected districts of England. We owe both the framework and the
+origin of the modern plough to the Northerners. We meet with the word
+in the old Norse "plogr." In Swedish it is "plog"; while in Danish it
+occurs both as "plov" and "ploug," as in English, and it was in all
+probability introduced by that people during the eleventh century,
+at the latter part of their dynasty within the island. There is no
+root either in the Teutonic or Scandinavian tongues from which it is
+deducible. The British name for their plough was "aradr," their mode of
+pronouncing the Latin "aratum," the word for the Roman plough. The sort
+of agriculture which was known in the very early times must have been
+extremely simple, if we are to judge it by the terms which have reached
+our times.
+
+Ulphilas, in his translation of the Greek Testament construes the word
+for plough with the Gothic word "hôha," the origin of our modern term
+"hoe." We may therefore surmise that in these primitive times natives
+hoed the ground for their crops for want of better implements to turn
+up the soil.
+
+While we owe to the Norse the name for plough, we are also indebted to
+them for the term "husbandry." Among the Scandinavians, the common name
+for the peasantry was "bondi," the abstract form of "buondi," dwelling
+in, or inhabiting a country. As intercourse with more civilised nations
+began to civilise the inhabitants of these northern climes, certain
+favoured "bondi" had houses assigned to them, with plots of ground
+adjoining for the use of their families. As the culture of such private
+plots was distinct from the common culture of other land, the person
+so favoured, separated from the general herd, obtained the name of
+"husbondi," and the culture of their grounds "husbondri." When such
+families obtained settlements in England, they brought over with
+them the habits and names of the North; and from mingling with the
+Anglo-Saxon natives, with whom adjuncts to introduced terms and titles
+were common, the suffix of "man" was applied to the name of "husbondi,"
+who thus became "husbandmen," a term still kept up in the northern
+counties for labourers on farms, who are styled husbandmen to this day.
+
+Names from trades and handicrafts were given to persons employed
+therein both by Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Such names keep up their
+distinction to the present day. The general name of artizans of every
+kind was Smith. Simple "Smiths" are Anglo-Saxon, "Smithies" are Norse.
+"Millars," from the trade of millers, are Anglo-Saxon. "Milners" for
+the same reason are Norse. "Ulls," "Woolley" is Anglo-Saxon, "Woolner"
+is Norse; "Fullers" and "Towers" are Anglo-Saxon; "Kilners" and
+"Gardners," Norse. Some names derived from offices as "Gotts" from
+"Gopr," a priest, or one who had charge of a "hof," or heathen temple
+in the north. "Goods" comes from "Gopa," and "barge" from "bargr."
+
+As further instances we may notice the names of buildings. "Bigging,"
+applied to a building, shows it to be Norse, as in "Newbiggin" and
+"Dearsbiggin." Such buildings were built of timber, and had an opening
+for the door and an eyelet for a window. In the Norse this opening
+was called "vindanga," or windeye, which term we have adopted, and
+modernised it into our word "window." We have also chosen several
+Norse names for our domesticated animals. "Bull" we have formed from
+the Norse "bole." "Gommer," or "Gimmer" we retain in the northern
+dialect for ewe lamb, from the Norse "Gimber." "Stegg," the name for
+a gander, is in Norse "Stegger." In the north nicknames were general,
+and every man had his nickname, particularly if there was aught
+remarkable in his appearance or character. Some obtained such names
+from their complexions, as the "Greys," "Whites," "Blacks," "Browns,"
+"Blakes." Short and dwarfish persons took the nicknames of "Stutts,"
+nowadays called "Stotts." Before Christianity found its way among the
+natives, some bore fanciful names, as may be instanced in "Bjorn," a
+bear, now "Burns." Prefixes to such fanciful names were also common,
+as in "Ashbjorn," the bear of the Osir or gods, in modern times spelt
+"Ashburns"; and "Thorbjorn," the bear of Thor, whence came "Thornber"
+and "Thorburn." The name of "Mather" is Norse for Man, and as Norse
+names are general, we may produce the following: "Agur" from "Ager";
+"Rigg" from "Rig"; "Grime" from "Grimr"; "Foster" from "Fostr";
+"Harland" from "Arlant"; "Grundy" from "Grunrd"; "Hawkes" from "Hawkr";
+and "Frost" from "Frosti," which are of frequent occurrence in the old
+Norse Sagas.
+
+In the Vale of the Lune the Danes have left numerous traces. North of
+Lancaster is Halton, properly "Haughton," named from the tumulus or
+Danish "haugh," within the village. These are the names of the "bojais"
+or farms belonging to "byes," or residences of their greatmen. Near
+Hornby we find such places at "Whaitber," "Stainderber," "Threaber,"
+"Scalaber." Within the manor of Hornby are "Santerfell," "Romsfell,"
+"Litherell," or fell of the hillside. The name of fell for mountain
+bespeaks Norse or Danish influence.
+
+The Raven was the national symbol of the Danes. We have Ravenstonedale
+and Ravenshore, and we also find the name in Rivington Pike, from
+Raven-dun-pike. Pike is a common name for a hill or spur standing away
+from the mountain range, and is derived from the Picts. The derivation
+of our common pronoun "same" is to be traced through the old Norse
+"samt," "sama," and "som," and has been selected into our tongue from
+the definite form "sama," the same. While we might expect to meet
+with this word, in the Lowland Scotch, where the Norse influence was
+greater, the people use the Anglo-Saxon "ilia" or "ylea," while in
+the general English, where the influence of the Northmen was less, we
+have adopted the Norse word "same," to the exclusion of the word we
+might expect to consider as our own. Many a good word do we owe to the
+Norsmen, whatever we may think about their deeds.
+
+
+
+
+Stone Crosses
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+STONE CROSSES.
+
+
+The Parish Church of St. Peter, Bolton, was rebuilt entirely by Mr.
+Peter Ormrod, whose surname is Danish, and was consecrated on St.
+Peter's Day, 1871. Among the pre-Norman stones discovered during the
+re-building were the broken head of a supposed Irish cross, of circular
+type, probably of the tenth century; part of the shaft of a cross
+bearing a representation of Adam and Eve, with the apple between their
+lips, and an upturned hand; and a stone with carving of a nondescript
+monster. At this period the Danes were the rulers of Ireland and the
+Isle of Man, whose Bishops were men bearing Danish names, and therefore
+we may assume that this memorial was erected under their influence and
+direction.
+
+Some crosses, says Fosbrooke, in his Dictionary of Antiquities, owe
+their origin to the early Christians marking the Druid stones with
+crosses, in order to change the worship without breaking the prejudice.
+Some of the crosses presumed to be Runic rather belong to the civilised
+Britons, were erected by many of the Christian kings before a battle or
+a great enterprise, with prayers and supplication for the assistance
+of Almighty God. At a later period, not probably earlier than the
+tenth century, a Scandinavian influence shows itself, and to a very
+appreciable extent modifies the ornamentation of these monuments. It
+went even further, and produced a representation of subjects, which,
+however strange it may appear, are only explained by a reference to
+the mythology of that part of Europe. The grave covers, to which, on
+account of their shape, the name of hog-backed stones has been applied,
+appear to have occurred very rarely beyond the counties of Cumberland,
+Durham, York, and Lancaster, though some not quite of the ordinary type
+have been found in Scotland, as, for instance, at Govan, on the Clyde,
+near Glasgow. They developed ultimately, through a transitional form,
+into the coped stone with a representation of a covering of tiles, the
+roof of man's last home, and were a common grave cover of the twelfth
+century.
+
+
+STONE CROSSES.
+
+In pre-Reformation times there was scarcely a village or hamlet in
+England which had not its cross; many parishes, indeed, had more than
+one. We know that at Liverpool there were the High Cross, the White
+Cross, and St. Patrick's Cross. While many of these crosses are of
+undoubted Saxon origin, others bear distinct traces of Scandinavian
+mythology.
+
+[Illustration: Heysham Hogback.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+NORTH LANCASHIRE RELICS.
+
+In the churchyard of Halton, near Lancaster, is the shaft of an
+ancient cross. In 1635 the upper part was removed by the rector, in
+order that the portion remaining might be converted into a sundial.
+On the east side are two panels, one showing two human figures, in a
+sitting posture, engaged in washing the feet of a seated figure; the
+other showing two figures on either side of a tall cross. This is the
+Christian side of a cross erected at a time of transition. On the west
+side is a smith at work with a pair of bellows. He is forging a large
+pair of pincers, as he sits on a chair. Below the chair is the bust
+of a man, or a coat of mail. Above him is a sword of heavy type, also
+a second hammer, a second pair of pincers, and a human body, with a
+"figure of eight" knot, intertwined in a circle, in place of a head,
+and an object at his feet representing the head. The half-panel above
+has reference to some event in the Sagas.
+
+At Heysham, near Lancaster, also in the churchyard, is an example of a
+hog-backed stone, a solid mass six feet long and two feet thick, laid
+over some ancient grave. On the stone is a stag, with broad horns,
+and as it is not a reindeer it is said to be a rude representation of
+an elk. The scene on this side of the stone depicts an animal hunt.
+The termination at each end is a rude quadruped on its hind quarters.
+A fragment of a beautifully-sculptured cross is still remaining,
+evidently part of a cross which fitted into the socket of the stone.
+
+In the churchyard of St. Mary's, Lancaster, was a fine cross with a
+Runic inscription, meaning "Pray for Cynebald, son of Cuthbert." This
+cross has been removed to the British Museum.
+
+
+OTHER ANCIENT REMAINS.
+
+At Whalley are three fine specimens of reputed Saxon crosses. Tradition
+says they commemorate the preaching of Paulinus in 625. Although they
+have no remaining inscriptions, their obelisk form and ornaments of
+fretwork were used in common by the Norwegians, Saxons, and Danes.
+
+In Winwick Churchyard is a great fragment of a crosshead, consisting of
+the boss and two arms. On the arms are a man with two buckets and a man
+being held head downwards by two ferocious-looking men, who have a saw
+beneath them, and are either sawing him asunder or are preparing to saw
+off his arms. This evidently relates to Oswald, for he was dismembered
+by order of Pemba, and the buckets might refer to the miracle-working
+well which sprang up where his body fell.
+
+At Upton, Birkenhead, is a sculptured stone bearing a Runic
+inscription. Dr. Browne takes the inscription to mean: "The people
+raised a memorial: Pray for Aethelmund."
+
+At West Kirby is a nearly complete example of a hog-backed stone. The
+lower part is covered on both sides by rough interlacing bands, and
+the middle and upper part with scales, the top being ornamented with a
+row of oblong rings on each side, with a band running through each row
+of rings. The work at the top, which looks like a row of buckles, is
+very unusual. The stone, which is of harder material than any stone in
+the neighbourhood, must have been brought from a distance, and in the
+memorial of some important person, probably Thurstan, as we find the
+name Thurstaston in the locality. There is also at West Kirby a flat
+slab on the face of which a cross is sculptured. This is very unusual
+in England, though not rare in Scotland and Ireland.
+
+At Hilbree, the island off West Kirby, there is a cross of like
+character.
+
+Principal Rhys says that in the eleventh and twelfth centuries the
+Norsemen were in the habit of largely recruiting their fleet in
+Shetland and the Orkneys, not merely with thrales, but with men of a
+higher position. They infused thus a certain amount of Pictish blood
+into the island. The "Shetland bind"--Oghams distributed over the
+island, in such places as Braddan, Turby, Michael, Onchan, and Bride.
+The Norwegian language, says Mr. C. Roeder, was spoken practically from
+890-1270; it was introduced by the Shetland and Orkney men, and from
+Norway, with which connection was kept, as shown by the grammatical
+structure of the Runic stones in the island, which falls between 1170
+and 1230. It was the only language of the rulers, and used at "Thing"
+and Hall, resembling in this old Norman barons and their counts in King
+William the Conqueror's time.
+
+The spirit of the Norsemen lives in the legal constitution of the
+Government, an inheritance that produced a free Parliament, and
+particularly in its place-names. The sea fringe, with its hundreds of
+Norse rocks, creeks, and forelands, and caves, have left imperishable
+evidence of the mighty old seafarers, the track they took, and the
+commingling and fusion they underwent in blood and speech, and their
+voyages from the Shetlands and Western Isles.
+
+[Illustration: Hammer.]
+
+[Illustration: Brooch.]
+
+[Illustration: Fibula of White Metal from Claughton.]
+
+
+SOME HUMAN REMAINS.
+
+Claughton-on-Brock, near Preston, is named Clactune in Domesday Book.
+The Danes have also left relics of their presence and influence as they
+have done all over the Fylde district. The late Monsignor Gradwell,
+a great student of local nomenclature and a Lancashire historian of
+considerable repute, wrote: "In Claughton the Roman road crosses the
+Fleet, a small brook in the Sixacre. About seventy years ago a barrow
+was found on the west of the New Lane, about half a mile south of
+the street. In it were found an earthenware urn containing the burnt
+remains of a human body, with some delicately wrought silver brooches,
+some beads and arms, a dagger and a sword. The brooch of fretwork was
+precisely similar to many ancient Danish brooches still preserved
+in the Copenhagen Museum, and this proves that the Claughton deposit
+was also Danish. That the Danes were strong in Claughton and in the
+neighbourhood is proved by the many Danish names. Thus, we have Dandy
+Birk, or Danes Hill; Stirzacre, and Barnacre, respectively Stirs
+land and Biorn's land. The Danish relics were carefully deposited at
+Claughton Hall by the finder, Mr. Thomas Fitzherbert Brockholes."
+
+
+THE HALTON CROSS.
+
+Now what is to be said about the subjects carved on these crosses and
+about the date of the work? One of the subjects is most remarkable,
+and gives a special interest to this cross; for here on the west face
+and north we have the story of Sigurd Fafnir's bane; here is his sword
+and the forging of it, his horse Grani, which bore away the treasure;
+the roasting of the dragon's heart; the listening to the voice of the
+birds, and the killing of Regin the smith.
+
+[Illustration: Halton Cross.]
+
+The story so far as it relates to our subject is this: We all know
+that the love of money is the root of all evil. Now there were two
+brothers, Fafnir and Regin. Fafnir held all the wealth, and became a
+huge monster dragon, keeping watch over his underground treasure-house.
+Regin, his brother, had all skill in smith's work, but no courage. He
+it was who forged the sword wherewith the hero Sigurd went forth to
+kill the dragon and take the treasure. This he did with the help of
+his wonderful horse Grani, who, when the heavy boxes of treasure were
+placed on his back, would not move until his master had mounted, but
+then went off merrily enough. This story, Anglicised and Christianised,
+is the story of our English patron saint St. George, the horse rider
+and the dragon slayer. Here is the story written in stone.
+
+We know the ancient belief that the strength of every enemy slain
+passes into the body of the conqueror.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATION OF HOG-BACK STONE.
+
+The stone is perhaps more than a thousand years old, and has been a
+good deal knocked about. It was once the tomb of a great Christian
+Briton or Englishman, before the Norman Conquest; and you may still
+see four other "hog-backed Saxon" uncarved tombstones in Lowther
+Churchyard, marking the graves of the noble of that day. When a stone
+church was built, our sculptured shrine was built into the walls of
+the church, and some of the mortar still sticks to the red sandstone.
+When this old church was pulled down to give place to a new one this
+same stone, covered with lime and unsightly, was left lying about.
+You will see something twisted and coiled along the bottom of each
+drawing beneath the figures, and you will see some strange designs
+(they are sacred symbols used long ago) on either side of one of the
+heads in the lower picture; but what will strike you most will be the
+long curls of hair, and the hands pressed to the breast or folded and
+pressed together as if in prayer; and, above all, you will notice that
+all these people seem to be asleep; their eyes are closed and their
+hands folded or pressed to their breast, and they all look as if they
+were either asleep or praying, or very peaceful and at perfect rest.
+These people are not dead; look at their faces and mark generally the
+attitudes of repose.
+
+Now let us find something worth remembering about all this.
+
+The tombstone is made like a little house to represent the home of
+the dead. But at the time I am speaking of the people believed that
+only those who died bravely fighting would have a life of happiness
+afterwards; other people who were not wicked people at all--but all
+who died of sickness or old age--went to the cold, dark world ruled
+over by a goddess called "Hel," who was the daughter of the Evil one.
+"Such is the origin of our word Hell, the name of a goddess applied
+to a locality. Her domains were very great and her yard walls very
+high. Hunger is her dish, starvation her knife, care is her bed, a
+beetling cliff is the threshold of her hall, which is hung with grief."
+All, except the warriors who died fighting, however good, went to her
+domain. It might be thought that to be with such a goddess after death
+was bad enough, but there was a worse place. For the wicked another
+place was prepared, a great hall and a bad one; its doors looked
+northward. It was altogether wrought of adders' backs wattled together,
+and the heads of the adder all turned inwards, and spit venom, so that
+rivers of venom ran along the hall, and in those rivers the wicked
+people must wade for ever.
+
+The Christian wished to show that this terrible idea of man's future
+state was to fire away to something better through the Lord of
+Life, our Lord Jesus Christ, and so they set up crosses and carried
+triquetra, the sign of the ever blessed Trinity, on their sculptured
+tombs to teach the people to believe no longer in gods and goddesses of
+darkness, but to look to one God, the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, to
+drive away all evil spirits from their hearts, and to give them a quiet
+time and a perfect end. Was there any wonder that years afterwards,
+when the bright light shone forth from the Cross to disperse the dark
+clouds of paganism, that men said that holy men, such as Patrick,
+Kentigern and Cuthbert had driven all poisonous snakes out of the land?
+The twisted and coiling thing beneath the figures is no doubt the old
+serpent. The Cross of Christ and the ash tree Yggdrasil of the northern
+tribes bore a like meaning at a certain time to the mixed peoples on
+this coast. (W. S. Collingwood.)
+
+
+ANGLO-DANISH MONUMENTS.
+
+The great variety of ornament found in the North Riding Monuments shows
+that in four centuries many influences were brought to bear upon the
+sculptors' art, and much curious development went on, of which we may
+in the future understand the cause.
+
+Our early sculptors, like the early painters, were men trying hard
+to express their ideals, which we have to understand before we can
+appreciate their work. The Anglian people included writers and thinkers
+like Bede and Alcuin, and that their two centuries of independence
+in the country of which the North Riding was the centre and heart,
+were two centuries of a civilization which ranked high in the world
+of that age. The Danish invasion, so lamentable in its earlier years,
+brought fresh blood and new energies in its train, and up to the Norman
+Conquest this part of England was rich and flourishing.
+
+In writing the history of its art, part of the material will be found
+in these monuments.
+
+The material of which these sculptures are made is usually of local
+stone. They were carved on the spot and not imported ready made.
+
+In the progress of Anglian art we have the development which began with
+an impulse coming from the north, and ending with influence coming from
+the south.
+
+The monuments were possibly executed by Anglian sculptors under the
+control of Danish Conquerors. Even under the early heathen rule of the
+Danes, Christians worked and lived, and as each succeeding colony of
+Danes became Christianised, they required gravestones, and Churches to
+be carved for them.
+
+Following a generation of transition, at the end of the ninth century,
+monuments are found displaying Danish taste. The close connection
+of the York kingdom with Dublin, provides a reason for the Irish
+influence. Abundant evidence is found in the chain pattern, and ring
+patterns, the dragons, and wheelheads, which are hacked and not
+finished into a rounded surface by chiselling.
+
+The Brompton hogbacks are among the finest works of this period.
+
+The Stainton bear, and the Wycliffe bear, are also of this period.
+
+The Pickhill hogback has an Irish-Scandavian dragon, and other dragons
+are to be seen at Gilling, Crathorne, Easington, Levisham, Sinnington,
+and Pickering.
+
+New influences came from the Midlands into Yorkshire, after the fall
+of the Dublin-York kingdom, about the year 950. One instance of this
+advance in the sculptor's art is to be seen in the round shaft, trimmed
+square above, at Gilling, Stanwick, and Middleton, which came from
+Mercia, and passed on into Cumberland, where it is to be found at
+Penrith and Gosforth. These latter have Edda subjects and appear to be
+late tenth century.
+
+Gilling has a curious device, which may possibly be the völund wing
+wheel, and völund appears on the Leeds cross, and also at Neston in
+Cheshire.
+
+The Scandinavian chain pattern, frequent on the _stones_ of the North
+Riding, and in Cumberland, is entirely absent in manuscripts. There
+must have been books at Lastingham, Hackness, Gilling, and other great
+monasteries, but the stone-carvers did not copy them.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: Base and Side of the Ormside Cup.]
+
+The Ormside cup, on the other hand, has close analogies with the two
+important monuments at Croft and Northallerton, which seem to be the
+leading examples of the finest style, from which all the rest evolve,
+not without influence from abroad at successive periods. It is to
+relief work rather than to manuscripts that we must look for the
+inspiration of the sculptors.
+
+In these monuments linked together we can trace the continuation of
+the Viking age style during the later half of the tenth century and
+the early part of the eleventh centuries. The stone carver's art was
+reviving, stones were becoming more massive, which means that they were
+more skilfully quarried, the cutting is more close and varied, and on
+its terms the design is more decorative and artistic, though still
+preserving its northern character among impulses and influences from
+the south. But there is no room here for the Bewcastle cross or the
+Hovingham stone. We have an example of this period's attempt to imitate.
+
+It is probable that the stone carving was a traditional business,
+began by St. Wilfrid's, and Benedict Bishop's imported masons, and
+carried on in a more or less independent development as it is to-day.
+
+With the Danish invasion began a period of new influences which were
+not shaken off until after the Norman Conquest.
+
+The interlaced work was abandoned in the tenth century by southern
+sculptors, remained the national art of the north. The Manx, Irish,
+and Scotch kept it long after the eleventh century, and so did the
+Scandinavians.
+
+The Bewcastle cross in the Gigurd shaft of the cross at Halton in
+Lancashire, and if this development has been rightly described the
+Halton shaft is easily understood.
+
+In the period covered by the eleventh century dials inscribed with
+Anglo-Danish names date themselves. Interlacing undergoes new
+development, becoming more open and angular, until we get right lined
+plaits like Wensley, it is better cut, as the later part of the century
+introduces the masons who rebuilt the churches and began the abbeys. No
+longer was the work hacked but clean chiselled, and intermingled with
+new grotesques; we find it at Hackness, in the impost, and in the fonts
+at Alne and Bowes, where we are already past the era of the Norman
+Conquest.
+
+  Anglian work of the simpler forms and earlier types date 700 A.D.
+
+  Full development of Anglian art, middle of eighth century to its
+    close.
+
+  Anglian work in decline, or in ruder hands, but not yet showing
+    Danish influence, early ninth century.
+
+  Transitional, such as Anglian carvers might have made for Danish
+    conquerors, late ninth century.
+
+  Anglo-Danish work showing Irish influence, early half of the
+    tenth century.
+
+  Anglo-Danish work with Midland influence, later part of tenth and
+    beginning of eleventh century.
+
+  Eleventh century, Pre-Norman.
+
+  Post-Conquest, developed out of pre Norman art.
+
+Recumbent monuments were grave-slabs, which may have been coffin lids,
+such as must have fitted the Saxon rock graves at Heysham, Lancashire,
+while other forms may have simply marked the place under which a burial
+was made. They are found with Anglian lettering at Wensley, another has
+been removed from Yarm, and those of the Durham district are well known.
+
+The two stones at Wensley may have been recumbent, like the Melsonby
+stones. The Spennithorne slab bears crosses of the earlier Northumbrian
+type, seen again in the West Wilton slab. At Crathorne are two slabs,
+with "Maltese" crosses apparently late, all the preceding being of the
+fine style.
+
+Levisham slab has an Irish Scandinavian dragon.
+
+Grave slabs are found of all periods and styles. Shrine-shaped tombs
+are known in various parts of England, with pre-Viking ornament. (W. S.
+Collingwood).
+
+
+
+
+Runes
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+Runes.
+
+
+Before dealing with the Norse and Danish antiquities of Lancashire,
+of which we have some remains in the form of sculptured stones, and
+ancient crosses, it would be profitable to inquire into the origin
+and development of that mysterious form of letters known as Runes or
+Runic. How many of the thousands who annually visit the Isle of Man are
+aware that the island contains a veritable museum of Runic historical
+remains? A brief survey of these inscriptions, which have yielded
+definite results, having been deciphered for us by eminent scholars,
+will help us to understand the nature of those to be found in our own
+county.
+
+We are told by Dr. Wägner that Runes were mysterious signs. The word
+Rune is derived from rûna, a secret. The form of the writing would
+appear to be copied from the alphabet of the Phoenicians. The Runes
+were looked upon, for many reasons, as full of mystery and supernatural
+power. In the fourth century Ulphilas made a new alphabet for the
+Goths by uniting the form of the Greek letters to the Runic alphabet,
+consisting of twenty-five letters, which was nearly related to that of
+the Anglo-Saxons. The Runes gradually died out as Christianity spread,
+and the Roman alphabet was introduced in the place of the old Germanic
+letters. The Runes appear to have served less as a mode of writing than
+as a help to memory, and were principally used to note down a train of
+thought, to preserve wise sayings and prophecies, and the remembrance
+of particular deeds and memorable occurrences.
+
+Tacitus informs us that it was the custom to cut beech twigs into small
+pieces, and then throw them on a cloth, which had been previously
+spread out for the purpose, and afterwards to read future events by
+means of the signs accidentally formed by the bits of wood as they lay
+in the cloth.
+
+In his catalogue of Runic inscriptions found on Manx crosses, Kermode
+says that "of the sculptors' names which appear all are Norse. Out
+of a total of forty-four names, to whom these crosses were erected,
+thirty-two are those of men, eight of women, and four are nicknames.
+Of men, nineteen names are Norse, nine Celtic, three doubtful, and one
+Pictish." This proves the predominance of Norse and Danish chiefs to
+whom these monuments were erected. Runes are simply the characters in
+which these inscriptions are carved, and have nothing to do with the
+language, which in the Manx inscriptions is Scandinavian of the 12th
+Century.
+
+To speak of a stone which bears an inscription in Runes as a Runic
+stone is as though we should call a modern tombstone a Roman stone
+because the inscription is carved in Roman capitals. Canon Taylor
+traces the origin of Runes to a Greek source, namely, the Thracian or
+second Ionian alphabet, which, through the intercourse of the Greek
+colonists at the mouth of the Danube with the Goths south of the
+Baltic, was introduced in a modified form into Northern Europe, and had
+become established as a Runic "Futhork" as early as the Christian era.
+The main stages of development are classified by Canon Taylor as the
+Gothic, the Anglican, and the Scandinavian.
+
+The Rune consists of a stem with the twigs or letters falling from
+left or right. This is the most common form to be found, allowing for
+difference of workmanship, of material, and space. The progress in the
+development of the Rune may be observed from the most simple plait
+or twist, to the most complex and beautiful geometric, and to the
+zoomorphic. The latter has the striking features of birds and beasts of
+the chase, and also of men, many being realistic; and except the latter
+are well drawn. The forms of the men are sometimes found with heads of
+birds or wings. In addition to decorative work we find on three of the
+cross slabs illustrations from the old Norse sagas. On a large cross
+at Braddan is a representation of Daniel in the lion's den; and at
+Bride, on a slab, is a mediæval carving of the fall of Adam, in which
+the serpent is absent. Both Pagan and Christian emblems derive their
+ornamentation from the same source, "basket work."
+
+Long after the introduction of Christianity we find the Pagan symbols
+mixed up in strange devices on the same stones, which were erected as
+Christian monuments. In the "Lady of the Lake," Sir Walter Scott gives
+an account of the famous fiery cross formed of twigs.
+
+    "The grisly priest, with murmuring prayer,
+    A slender crosslet framed with care,
+    A cubit's length in measure due;
+    The shaft and limbs were rods of yew."
+
+    "The cross, thus formed, he held on high,
+    With wasted hand and haggard eye."
+
+Basketmaking is the parent of all modern textile art, and no other
+industry is so independent of tools. It is the humble parent of the
+modern production of the loom, and the most elaborate cloth is but the
+development of the simple wattle work of rude savages. Plaiting rushes
+is still the earliest amusement of children, the patterns of which are
+sometimes identical with the designs engraved by our earliest ancestors
+on their sculptured stones. Interlaced ornament is to be met with on
+ancient stones and crosses all over our islands. Ancient pottery also
+shows that the earliest form of ornament was taken from basket designs.
+
+The Lough Derg pilgrim sought a cross made of interwoven twigs,
+standing upon a heap of stones, at the east end of an old church. This
+was known as St. Patrick's Altar. This is recorded by a certain Lord
+Dillon in 1630, who visited the island known as St. Patrick's Purgatory
+on the Lough Derg, in Ireland. The wicker cross retained its grasp upon
+the superstitious feelings of the people after the suppression at the
+Reformation. He says of this miserable little islet that the tenant
+paid a yearly rent of £300, derived from a small toll of sixpence
+charged at the ferry. This was probably the last of the innumerable
+crosses of the same wicker and twigs. (Lieut.-Col. French, Bolton.)
+
+
+RUNIC ALMANACS.
+
+When the northern nations were converted to Christianity the old
+Pagan Festivals were changed to Christian holidays, and the old Pagan
+divinities were replaced by Christian Saints. The faith placed in the
+early deities was transferred to the latter. As certain deities had
+formerly been supposed to exercise influence over the weather and the
+crops; so the days dedicated to them, were now dedicated to certain
+Saints.
+
+The days thus dedicated were called Mark-days, and as it may be
+supposed it became the office of the Clergy to keep account of the time
+and to calculate when the various holidays would occur.
+
+Owing to the fact that many Christian feasts are what are called
+movable, that is, are not fixed to a certain date but depend on Easter,
+the reckoning was more difficult for the laity than it had been in
+Pagan times.
+
+In those days the fixed holidays could be easily remembered. An
+ordinary man without knowing how to read or write could keep a list of
+them by cutting marks or notches on strips of wood.
+
+The successors of these are called Messe, and Prim Staves. The Messe
+staves are the more simple--_Messe-daeg_ means Mass day, and the stave
+only denoted such days. The Prim stave contained besides the marks
+for Sundays and the moon's changes. Hence their name from Prima-Luna,
+or first full moon after the equinox. The Messe-daeg staves are
+frequently met with. They consist generally of flat pieces of wood
+about a yard or an ell long, two inches wide, and half an inch thick,
+and have frequently a handle, giving them the appearance of a wooden
+sword. The flat side is divided into two unequal portions by a line
+running lengthways. In the narrow part, the days are notched at equal
+distances, half the year on each side, or 182 marks on one side and 183
+on the other. In the wider space and connected with the days are the
+signs for those which are to be particularly observed: on the edges the
+weeks are indicated. The marks for the days do not run from January
+to July and from July to December, but on the winter side (Vetr-leid)
+from October 14 to April 13, and in the summer side (Somar-leid) from
+April 14 to October 13. The signs partly refer to the weather, partly
+to husbandry, and partly the legends of the Saints. Seldom are two
+staves formed exactly alike. Not only do the signs vary but the days
+themselves. Nor are they always flat, but sometimes square, _i.e._,
+with four equal sides: when of the latter shape they are called clogs,
+or clog almanacs.
+
+They are called Cloggs, _i.e._, Logg, Almanacks = Al-mon-aght, viz.,
+the regard or observation of all the Moons, because by means of these
+squared sticks, says Verstegan, they could certainly tell when the new
+Moons, full Moons, or other changes should happen, and consequently
+Easter and the other movable feasts. They are called by the Danes
+Rim-stocks, not only because the Dominical letters were anciently
+expressed on them in Runic characters, but also because the word Rimur
+anciently signified a Calendar. By the Norwegians with whom they are
+still in use, they are called Prim-staves, and for this reason, the
+principal and most useful thing inscribed on them being the prime or
+golden number, whence the changes of the moon are understood, and also
+as they were used as walking sticks, they were most properly called
+Prim-staves.
+
+The origin of these Runic or Clog-calendars was Danish (vide Mr. J. W.
+Bradley, M.A., Salt Library, Stafford). They were unknown in the South,
+and only known by certain gentry in the North. They are quite unknown
+in Ireland and Scotland, and are only known from the few examples
+preserved in the Museums.
+
+Owing to the changes of custom in modern times these wooden perpetual
+almanacs have become quite superseded by the printed annuals.
+
+The inscriptions read proceeding from the right hand side of the
+notches, are marks or symbols of the festivals expressed in a kind of
+hieroglyphic manner, pointing out the characteristics of the Saints,
+against whose festivals they are placed, others the manner of their
+Martyrdom; others some remarkable fact in their lives; or to the work
+or sport of the time when the feasts were kept.
+
+Thus on January 13 the Feast of St. Hiliary is denoted by a Cross or
+Crozier, the badge of a Bishop.
+
+
+EXPLANATION OF THE CLOG ALMANAC.
+
+The edges of the staff are notched chiefly with simple angular
+indentations but occasionally with other marks to denote the date of
+certain special Festivals.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+  Jan. 1.--The Feast of the Circumcision. Sometimes a circle.
+
+  Jan. 2, 3, 4, 5.--Ordinary days.
+
+  Jan. 6.--The Feast of the Epiphany. Twelfth day. In some examples
+      the symbol is a star.
+
+  Jan. 7.--Ordinary day.
+
+  Jan. 8-12.--The first day of the second week is shown by a larger
+      notch.
+
+  Jan. 13.--Feast of St. Hilary. Bishop of Poictiers, with double
+      cross.
+
+  Jan. 14.--Ordinary day.
+
+  Jan. 15, 16.--First day of third week.
+
+  Jan. 17.--Feast of St. Anthony. Patron Saint of Feeders of Swine.
+      This is the Rune for M.
+
+  Jan. 18.--F. of St. Prisca, A.D. 278. Not noticed.
+
+  Jan. 20.--F. of S. Fabian. Not noticed. F. of S. Sebastian. Not
+      noticed.
+
+  Jan. 21.--F. of S. Agnes.
+
+  Jan. 22.--F. of S. Vincent. Not noticed.
+
+  Jan. 25.--Conversion of St. Paul. Symbol of decapitation.
+
+  No other Saints days are noticed in Jan.
+
+  Feb. 2.--Candlemas. Purification of Virgin Mary.
+
+  Feb. 3.--St. Blaise, bishop and martyr. The Patron Saint of
+      Woolcombers. Bp. Sebasti. Armenia. A.D. 316.
+
+  Feb. 4.--St. Gilbert. Not noticed.
+
+  Feb. 5.--St. Agatha. Palermo. Patroness of Chaste Virgins.
+
+  Feb. 6.--St. Dorothea. Not noticed.
+
+  Feb. 9.--St. Apolmia. A.D. 249. Alexandria.
+
+  Feb. 14.--St. Valentine (historian). M. A.D. 271. Plot gives
+
+  Feb. 16.--St. Gregory. Pope X. A.D. 1276.
+
+  Feb. 20, 22, 23.--St. Mildred, St. Millburgh, sisters.
+
+  Feb. 24.--St. Matthias, Apostle.
+
+  Mar. 1.--St. David, Bishop. Symbol a harp. Patron Saint of Wales,
+      A.D. 544.
+
+  Mar. 2.--St. Chad. A.D. 672.
+
+  Mar. 12.--St. Gregory the Great, A.D. 604.
+
+  Mar. 17.--S. Patrick, Patron of Ireland.
+
+  Mar. 20.--S. Cuthbert. Not noticed.
+
+  Mar. 21.--S. Benedict. Not noticed, A.D. 543.
+
+  Mar. 25.--Feast of Annunciation. Blessed Virgin Mary. Usual
+      symbol heart.
+
+These complete one edge of the staff.
+
+Thus each edge contains three months or one quarter of the year.
+
+Turning the staff over towards the reader who holds the loop or ring in
+the right hand.
+
+  April 1.--All Fools Day. Custom. Not noticed. S. Hugh. A.D. 1132.
+
+  April 2, 3.--S. Francis of Paula, A.D. 1508. S. Richard, Bishop
+      of Chichester, A.D. 1262.
+
+  April 4.--St. Isidore, Bishop of Seville.
+
+  April 5.--St. Vincent. Terrer Valentia. 1419.
+
+  April 9.--S. Mary of Egypt. Not noticed.
+
+  April 11.--St. Gultitae, Abbot of Croyland.
+
+  April 19.--St. Ælphege, Archbishop of Canterbury. 1012.
+
+  April 23.--St. George, Patron Saint of England. Of Garter legend.
+
+  April 25.--St. Mark. Alexandria. Apostle and Evangelist.
+
+  April 30.--St. Catherine of Siena.
+
+  May 1.--May Day. St. Philip and St. James the Less.
+
+  May 3.--Invention or discovery of the Holy Cross.
+
+  May 5.--St. Hilary of Arles. A.D. 449.
+
+  May 7.--St. John Beverlev. A.D. 721.
+
+  May 8.--St. Michael Archangel.
+
+  May 19.--St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury. A.D. 988.
+
+  June 8.--St. William, Archbishop of York. 1144. Note the W. on
+      the line.
+
+  June 11.--St. Barnabas, Apostle. Commencement of the Hay harvest,
+      hence the rake.
+
+  June 24.--Nativity of John Baptist.
+
+Turnover staff for rest of June.
+
+  June 29.--St. Peter, symbol of key.
+
+  July 2.--Visitation of S. Elizabeth.
+
+  July 7.--S. Ethelburgh.
+
+  July 15.--S. Swithin, symbol as A.D. 862. Bishop of Winchester.
+      Shower of rain.
+
+  July 20.--St. Margaret.
+
+  July 22.--St. Mary Magdalene.
+
+  July 25.--St. James, Apostle the Great.
+
+  July 26.--St. Anne.
+
+  August 1.--Lammas Day.
+
+  August 5.--St. Oswald.
+
+  August 10.--St. Lawrence.
+
+  August 15.--Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
+
+  August 24.--St. Bartholomew.
+
+  August 29.--St. John Baptist.
+
+  Sept. 1.--St. Giles. Patron of Hospitals.
+
+  Sept. 6.--
+
+  Sept. 8.--Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
+
+  Sept. 14.--Exaltation of the Cross.
+
+  Sept. 21.--St. Matthew, Apostle.
+
+  Sept. 29.--Feast of S. Michael the Archangel.
+
+  Oct. 9.--St. Denis.
+
+  Oct. 13.--St. Edward the Confessor.
+
+  Oct. 18.--St. Luke the Evangelist.
+
+  Oct. 25.--St. Crispin, Patron of Shoemakers.
+
+  Oct. 28.--St. Simon and St. Jude.
+
+  Nov. 1.--All Saints.
+
+  Nov. 2.--All Souls.
+
+  Nov. 6.--St. Leonard.
+
+  Nov. 11.--St. Martin. Bishop of Tours, A.D. 397.
+
+  Nov. 17.--S. Hugh. Bishop of Lincoln, A.D. 1200.
+
+  Nov. 20.--St. Edmund, King of East Anglia.
+
+  Nov. 23.--St. Clement.
+
+  Nov. 25.--St. Catherine of Alexandria.
+
+  Nov. 30.--St. Andrew, Apostle.
+
+  Dec. 6.--St. Nicholas.
+
+  Dec. 8.--Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
+
+  Dec. 13.--St. Lucia. Patroness Saint of diseases of the eye.
+
+  Dec. 21.--St. Thomas, Apostle. Shortest day.
+
+  Plot 25.--Christmas Day.
+
+  Plot 26.--St. Stephen, First Martyr.
+
+  Plot 27.--St. John the Evangelist.
+
+  Plot 28.--Innocents.
+
+  Plot 29.--St. Thomas of Canterbury, 1171.
+
+  Plot 31.--St. Sylvester, Pope 335. Made a general Festival 1227.
+
+The more ancient almanac called Runic Primitare, so named from the
+Prima-luna or new moon which gave the appellation of Prime to the Lunar
+or Golden Number, so called because the Number was marked in gold on
+the stave. The Rim Stocks of Denmark so called from Rim, a calendar and
+stock a staff. The marks called Runic characters were supposed to have
+magical powers and so were regarded with dread by the Christians and
+were often destroyed by the priests and converts to Christianity.
+
+They were derived from rude imitations of the Greek letters. Two of
+these staves now in the Museum at Copenhagen are 4 feet 8-1/2 inches
+and 3 feet 8 inches long respectively. They are hand carved and not
+in any sense made by machinery. This accounts from them being rarely
+alike, and often very different from one another.
+
+The Sun in his annual career returns to the same point in the Zodiac in
+365 days, 6 hours, nearly. The Moon who is really the month maker, as
+the Sun is the year maker, does 12 of her monthly revolutions in 354
+days. So that a lunar year is 11 days shorter than the solar, supposing
+both to start from the same date. The actual lunar month contains about
+29-1/2 days. Therefore in order to balance the two reckonings, it was
+agreed at a convention of Scientist Christians of Alexandria in the
+year A.D. 323, two years previous to the Council of Nice, to make the
+distances between the new moon alternately 29 and 30 days, and to place
+the golden number accordingly. Now these Egyptian scholars observed
+that the new moon nearest the vernal Equinox in 323 was on the 27th day
+of the Egyptian month Phauranoth, corresponding with our 23rd of March,
+so the cycle was commenced on this day. This is the reason why the
+golden number 1 is placed against it, 29 days from this brought them
+to the 21st April, and 30 days from this to the 21st May, and so on
+through the year.
+
+
+RUNIC CALENDAR.
+
+The explanatory engraving of the Calendar shows the year begins on the
+23rd December. That this date is correctly given for the first day of
+the year is proved by the agreement between the Saints days and the
+days of the month on which they fall and the Christian Sunday Letters.
+
+In thus beginning the year this Calendar exhibits a rare peculiarity.
+No other Runic Calendar begins the year in the same manner, while
+numbers could be shown which begin the year at Yuletide, commencing on
+the 25th December.
+
+Of the two modes of beginning it there is no question that the one here
+exhibited is the genuine heathen while the other is genuine Christian.
+It is worth noticing that as Winter takes precedence of Summer in the
+sense of a year: so night takes precedence of day generally in the
+sense of a civil day of 24 hours in old Icelandic writers, a manner of
+speech which to this day is far from having gone out of use.
+
+Considering the heathen tradition preserved in this Calendar in
+the number of days given to the year and in the date given to the
+commencement of the year, in which it stands unique, in the fact that
+the interval between 1230 and 1300, _i.e._, out of 160 years rich in
+famous local and famous general Saints, not one should be recorded
+here: that Saints of universal adoration in the Catholic Church, such
+as St. Thomas of Canterbury, St. Benedict, and others, should not have
+a place here: we cannot escape referring it to an age when it may be
+fairly supposed that these heathen traditions were still believed in by
+at least a considerable number of the community.
+
+Anterior to 1230 it cannot be, long posterior to that date it can
+scarcely be. That it must be a layman's Calendar, is shown because
+it exhibits no golden numbers, and gives consequently no clue to
+the Paschal cycle or movable feasts. It is a very valuable piece of
+antiquity and ought to be well taken care of.
+
+On 2nd February were anciently observed all over the Pagan north
+certain rites connected with the worship of fire. In some places the
+toast or bumper of the fire was drunk by the whole family kneeling
+round the fire, who at the same time offered grain or beer to the
+flames on the hearth. This was the so-called Eldborgs-skäl, the toast
+of fire salvage, a toast which was meant to avert disaster by fire for
+the coming year.
+
+Fire and Sun worship mingled together, no doubt in observance of this
+feast: for where it was most religiously observed amongst the Swedes
+it was called Freysblôt and was a great event. In early Christian
+times only wax candles which had received the blessing of the
+priest, were burnt in the houses of the people, in the evening. Hence
+Candlemas,--see illustration in Stephens' Scandinavian Monuments. From
+a remarkable treatise by Eirikr Magnusson, M.A., on a Runic Calendar
+found in Lapland in 1866, bearing English Runes. (Cambridge Antiq. Soc.
+Communications, Vol. X., No. 1, 1877.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+THIS ENGLISH (?) OR NORWEGIAN RUNIC CALENDAR IS DATED ABOUT A.D.
+1000-1100.
+
+What distinguishes this piece is that seemingly from its great age
+and its having been _made in England_, it has preserved in the outer
+or lower lines several of _the olden Runes_. These are the "Notae
+Distortae" spoken of by Worm. Some of these as we can plainly see are
+provincial _English_ varieties of the old northern Runes.
+
+The Calendar before us is of bone, made from the jaw-bone of the
+porpoise. We know nothing of its history. Worm says, "Probably to this
+class must be assigned the peculiar Calendar carved on a concave bone,
+part of the jaw-bone of some large fish." Although it shows three rows
+of marks the signs of Festivals, the Solar Cycle and the Lunar Cycle,
+this last is here very imperfect and has even some distorted marks as
+we see in the engraving.
+
+Each side, the concave as well as the convex, bears near the edge
+its girdling three rows of marks, so that every series comprehends a
+quarter of a year, beginning with the day of Saint Calixtus. As Worm
+has only given one side of this curious Rune-blade, we cannot know the
+peculiarities of the other half, which contained the Solar Cycle, and
+the three sign lines for two quarters.
+
+On the side given, the Runes on the right hand are reversed and read
+from top to bottom; those on the left hand are not retrograde. It may
+often have been carried on the person, being only 18 inches long. The
+clog calendars range in length from 3 to 4 feet, to as many inches.
+
+Whenever we light upon any kind of _Runic_ pieces, we are at once
+confined _to the north_, Scandinavia and England. Though so numerous in
+the Northern lands, no Runic Calendar has ever yet been found in any
+Saxon or German province, except a couple bought or brought by modern
+travellers, as curiosities from Scandinavia.
+
+Stephens says this whole class of Antiquities has never yet been
+properly treated. It offers work for one man's labours during a long
+time and many journeys. It would produce a rich harvest as to the signs
+and symbols, and Runes as modified by local use and clannish custom.
+All the symbol marks should be treated in parallel groups. The various
+and often peculiar Runes should be carefully collected and elucidated.
+All this is well worthy of a competent Rune-Smith, Computist, and
+Ecclesiologist. On many of the _old_ Runic Calendars, especially in
+Sweden, we find a "_lake_" or game long famous all over Europe, but
+now mostly known to children, called "the Lake" or game of Saint Peter.
+This is an ingenious way of so placing 30 persons, that we may save
+one half from death or imprisonment, by taking out each ninth man as a
+victim, till only one half the original number is left. These 15 are
+thus all rescued. Of course the man thus taken must not be counted a
+second time.
+
+Formerly the favoured 15 were called Christians and the other Jews.
+Carving this in one line, we get the marks so often found on Rune-clogs:
+
+  xxxx|||||xx|xxx|x||xx|||x||xx|
+
+The story about it is this: Saint Peter is said to have been at sea
+in a ship in which were 30 persons, the one half Christians and the
+other half Jews. But a storm arose so furious that the vessel had to be
+lightened, and it was resolved to throw overboard half the crew. Saint
+Peter then ranged them in the order we see, every ninth man was taken
+out. The crosses betoken the Christians and the strokes the Jews. In
+this way all the Jews were cast into the deep while all the Christians
+remained. Herewith the old were wont to amuse themselves.
+
+_Folk-lore of children in rhyme and ritual._ The child is surrounded by
+an ancient circle of ritualism and custom. Visitors to see the infant
+must take it a threefold gift. In some districts in Yorkshire the
+conditions are a little tea, sugar, and oven-cake. Another Yorkshire
+practice is to take an egg, some salt, and a piece of silver. The child
+must not be brought downstairs to see the visitor, for to bring it
+downstairs would be to give it a start in life in the wrong direction.
+The form of this idea is to be found in certain (Japanese) customs. The
+child's finger-nails must not be cut with scissors, for iron had such
+close association with witchcraft. The nails must be bitten off with
+the teeth. This practice survives in some adults, much to the disgust
+of their friends.
+
+Of children's games, that known as "Hopscotch" was originally a
+religious rite practised at funerals. It was symbolical of the passage
+of the soul from the body to heaven or the other place to which the
+ancients gave various names. The pattern which is drawn for the purpose
+of this game has been found on the floor of the Roman Forum.
+
+Another game called "Cat's Cradle" was played by the North American
+Indians, and has recently found on an island north of Australia. When
+children could not play on account of the rain they recited a little
+rhyme which is still known to-day by the people of Austria and in the
+wilds of Asia. The game of "Ring o' Roses" is the survival of an old
+incantation addressed to the Corn Spirit. When the wind rippled across
+the cornfield the ancient harvesters thought the corn god was passing
+by, and would recite the old rhyme, closing with the words, "Hark the
+cry! hark the cry! all fall down!" Sometimes the corn spirit was
+supposed to become incarnated in the form of a cow, hence the line in
+the nursery jingle, "Boy Blue! the cow's in the corn." When the boy
+donned his first pair of breeches he must pass through a ritual. He
+must be nipped. The significance of the nip was a test to see whether
+the boy in the new breeches was the same boy, or whether he had been
+changed by the fairies or evil spirits. This idea of a change by evil
+spirits might seem far-fetched, but so recently as 1898, in the records
+of the Irish courts there was a case in which an Irishman was tried
+for accusing his wife of not being the same person as when he married
+her, and of the woman being branded in consequence. Superstitions as
+to the cure of certain childish complaints survive in the cure for
+whooping cough, to take the sufferer "over t' watter." That is the only
+medicinal use of the river Aire, near Leeds.
+
+
+
+
+Memorials
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+MEMORIALS.
+
+
+At the time of the Conquest the population in some of the largest
+and most important cities is said to have been almost exclusively of
+Scandinavian extraction.
+
+In the north the Norwegian saint, "St. Olave," has been zealously
+commemorated in both towns and country. This proves that churches were
+built and Christian worship performed during the Danish dominion, and
+that these Northmen continued to reside here in great numbers after the
+Danish ascendancy ended.
+
+In the city of Chester there is a church and parish which still bears
+the name of St. Olave, and by the church runs a street called St.
+Olave's Lane. This is opposite the old castle and close to the river
+Dee. In the north-west part of York there is a St. Olave's Church, said
+to be the remains of a monastery founded by the powerful Danish Earl
+Sieward, who was himself buried there in the year 1058. Long before the
+Norman Conquest, the Danes and Northmen preponderated in many of the
+towns of the North of England, which they fortified, and there erected
+churches dedicated to their own sainted kings and warriors. Olave
+is derived from "Olaf the White," who was a famous Norse Viking. He
+subdued Dublin about the middle of the ninth century, and made himself
+king of the city and district. From this time Ireland and the Isle of
+Man were ruled by Norwegian kings for over three centuries.
+
+It may therefore be inferred, by a natural process of deductive
+reasoning, that during this period the Danes were founding their
+settlements in Lancashire. Although we have no distinct traces of
+buildings erected by them, the names given by them to many places
+still survive. In these compound names the word "kirk" is often met
+with. This must establish the fact that the Danes erected many other
+churches besides St. Olave's at Chester and York. From Chester and
+West Kirby, in the Wirral district, to Furness, in the North, we
+have abundant evidence in the name of Kirk, and its compound forms,
+that many Christian churches were erected. At Kirkdale, Ormskirk,
+Kirkham, Kirkby Lonsdale, Kirby Moorside, and Kirkby Stephen Norman
+churches have superseded Danish buildings. Kendal was known formerly
+as Kirkby-in-Kendal, or the "Church-town in the valley of Kent."
+And further memorials here survive in the names of streets, such as
+Stramongate, Gillingate, Highgate, and Strickland-gate.
+
+The name Furness is distinctly Scandinavian, from "Fur" and "Ness,"
+or Far promontory. The abbot of Furness was intimate with the Danish
+rulers of Manxland, for he got a portion of land there in 1134 to
+build himself a palace. He was followed by the Prior of Whithorn and
+St. Bede. In 1246 the monks of Furness obtained all kinds of mines in
+Man, and some land near St. Trinian's. By the industry and ability of
+these monks Furness became one of the wealthiest abbeys in England, and
+thus were laid the foundations of one of the greatest industries in
+Lancashire, viz., the smelting of iron ore.
+
+
+
+
+Literature
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+
+During that period when the Danes were making their conquests and
+settlements in the North of England, art and literature did not hold
+any high position in Europe. The fall of the Roman Empire gave a shock
+to the pursuits of learning which had not recovered when Christian art
+was in its infancy. The Northmen early distinguished themselves in the
+art of shipbuilding, and also in the manufacture of ornaments, domestic
+utensils, and weapons. This taste had arisen from the imitation of the
+Roman and Arabesque articles of commerce which they brought up into the
+North. Some Scandinavian antiquities have been discovered belonging
+to the period called "the age of bronze," and also the later heathen
+times, known as "the iron age." The Sagas record that the carving of
+images was skilfully practised in the north, and the English Chronicles
+provide records of richly carved figures on the bows of Danish and
+Norse vessels. The Normans from Denmark who settled in Normandy were
+first converted to Christianity, and early displayed the desire to
+erect splendid buildings, especially churches and monasteries.
+
+Long before the Norman Conquest, the Danes devoted themselves to
+peaceful occupations. Several of the many churches and convents
+were erected by Danish princes and chiefs, in the northern parts of
+England, which have now been re-built, or disappeared; but their names
+survive to distinguish their origin. It has been said that these
+early buildings were composed of wood. This is proved from the work
+recently issued by Mr. J. Francis Bumpus, in his "Cathedrals of Norway,
+Sweden, and Denmark." The touching life story of the martyred Saint
+Olaf is there told. A wooden chapel was built over his grave about the
+year 1047. This became the centre of the national religion, and the
+sanctuary of the national freedom and independence. Trondhjem, says Mr.
+Bumpus, is the eloquent expression in stone of Norway's devotion to the
+beloved St. Olaf. Despoiled of much of its ornamentation by Protestant
+zeal, it retains in the octagon of its noble choir a true architectural
+gem, equal in delicate beauty to the Angel Choir of Lincoln.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Danish Carved Wood-work, with Runes, from
+Thorpe Church, Hallingdal, Denmark.]
+
+The phrase "skryke of day" is common to South Lancashire, and is the
+same as the old English "at day pype," or "peep of day." "There is a
+great intimacy," says Dr. Grimm, "between our ideas of light and sound,
+of colour and music, and hence we are able to comprehend that rustling,
+and that noise, which is ascribed to the rising and setting Sun."
+Thomas Kingo, a Danish poet of the seventeenth century, and probably
+others of his countrymen, make the rising of the Sun to pipe
+(pfeifen), that is to utter a piercing sound.
+
+Tacitus had long before recorded the Swedish superstition, that the
+rising Sun made a noise. The form in which our skryke of day has come
+down to us is Scandinavian. Grimm says, "Still more express are the
+passages which connect the break of day, and blush of the morning, with
+ideas of commotion and rustling." Goethe has in "Faust" borrowed from
+the Pythagorean and Platonic doctrine of the harmony of the spheres,
+and illustrated Grimm's proposition of the union of our ideas of light
+and sound by describing the course of the Sun in its effulgence as a
+march of thunder. Jonson regarded noise as an essential quality of the
+heavenly bodies--
+
+    "Come, with our voices let us war,
+      And challenge all the spheres,
+    Till each of us be made a star,
+      And all the world turned ears."
+
+The noise of daybreak may be gathered from the fracture of metal, and
+applied to the severance of darkness and light, may well have sound
+attributed to it. The old meaning of "peep (or pype) of day" was the
+joyful cry which accompanied the birth of light. "Peep," as sound is
+most ancient, and a "nest of peepers," that is, of young birds, is now
+almost obsolete English. Milton, in "Paradise Lost," shows the setting
+Sun to make a noise from its heated chariot axles being quenched in
+the Atlantic. Once, at Creation, the morning stars sang for joy; but
+afterwards moved in expressive silence.
+
+
+BALLADS AND WAR SONGS.
+
+As a consequence of the Danish and Norman conquests, a peculiar
+composition arose called Anglo-Danish and Anglo-Norman. These
+legends and war songs were produced by the Danish wars, and were
+the expressions of an adventurous and knightly spirit, which became
+prevalent in England. The most celebrated of them were the romances
+of "Beowulf," "Havelock, the Dane," and "Guy, Earl of Warwick." In
+the older romances of Scandinavian songs and sages, combats against
+dragons, serpents, and plagues are celebrated; in later romances of
+the age of chivalry, warriors are sung who had fallen in love with
+beautiful damsels far above them in birth or rank, and whose hand
+they could only acquire by some brilliant adventure or exploit. The
+heathen poems of the Scandinavian North are all conceived in the same
+spirit, and it is not unreasonable to recognise traces of Scandinavian
+influence in English compositions. In later times, even to the middle
+ages, this influence is still more apparent in the ballads and popular
+songs, which are only to be found in the northern or old Danish parts
+of England.
+
+Many parts of the Edda or Sagas have been founded on songs in honour
+of the gods and heroes worshipped in Scandinavia.
+
+In Shakespeare's "Hamlet" the young prince is sent to Britain with a
+letter carried by his two comrades. But he re-writes the letter and
+saves his life.
+
+In the original Amleth legend of Saxo Grammaticus the two companions of
+Amleth, carry a wooden rune-carvel. But he cuts away some of the staves
+and adds others, so that the letter now tells the British king to slay
+the messengers, and to give his daughter in marriage to Amleth.
+
+In the "Historie of Hamlet," London, 1608, we read, "Now to bear him
+company were assigned two of Fengons' ministers, bearing letters
+engraved on wood, that contained Hamlet's death, in such sort as he
+had advertised to the King of England. But the subtle Danish prince,
+being at sea, whilst his companions slept, raced out the letters that
+concerned his death, and instead thereof graved others."
+
+
+LAY OF THE NORSE GODS AND HEROES.
+
+    Step out of the misty veil
+      Which darkly winds round thee;
+    Step out of the olden days,
+      Thou great Divinity!
+    Across thy mental vision
+      Passes the godly host,
+    That Brugi's melodies
+      Made Asgard's proudest boast.
+    There rise the sounds of music
+      From harp strings sweet and clear,
+    Wonderfully enchanting
+      To the receiving ear.
+    Thou wast it, thou hast carried
+      Sagas of Northern fame,
+    Didst boldly strike the harp strings
+      Of old Skalds; just the same
+    Thou span'st the bridge of Birfrost,
+      The pathway of the Gods:
+    O name the mighty heroes,
+      Draw pictures of the Gods!
+
+These fairy tales of the giants, dwarfs, and heroes, are not senseless
+stories written for the amusement of the idle; but they contain the
+deep faith or religion of our forefathers, which roused them to brave
+actions, and inspired them with strength and courage. These Sagas
+existed for over four hundred years, until they exchanged their
+hero-god for St. Martin, and their Thumar, for St. Peter or St. Oswald,
+when their glory in Scandinavia fell before the preaching of the Cross.
+
+
+ART.
+
+[Illustration: Bractaetes.]
+
+Previous to their conquest of England, the Danes are said to have been
+unacquainted with the art of coining money. They are said to have
+imitated the Byzantine coins, by making the so-called "Bractaetes,"
+which were stamped only on the one side, and were mostly used as
+ornaments. The art of coinage was very ancient in England. It
+was the custom of the Anglo-Saxon coiners to put their names on the
+coins which they struck. In the eighth and ninth centuries the names
+of the coiners are purely Anglo-Saxon. But in the tenth century, and
+especially after the year 950, pure Danish or Scandinavian names begin
+to appear; for instance, Thurmo, Grim, under King Edgar (959-975), and
+Rafn, Thurstan, under King Edward (975-978); also Ingolf, Hargrim, and
+others.
+
+These Scandinavian names are mostly found in the coins minted in the
+North of England, or in districts which were early occupied by the
+Danes. Under King Ethelred II., who contended so long with Canute the
+Great before the Danish conquest of England was completed, the number
+of Scandinavian coiners arose rapidly, with the Danish power, and the
+names of forty or fifty may be found on the coins of Ethelred alone.
+Even after the fall of the Danish power, they are to be met with in
+almost the same number as before on the coins of the Anglo-Saxon
+King, Edward the Confessor. These coins prove much and justify us in
+inferring a long continued coinage.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The great hoard of silver coins found at Cuerdale in 1840, some two
+miles above Preston, were buried in a leaden chest, near an ancient
+ford of the river Ribble. This treasure composed the war chest of
+the Danish army, which was defeated at this ford early in the tenth
+century, on its retreat into Northumbria. It contained nearly one
+thousand English coins of Alfred the Great, and some forty-five of
+Edward the Elder. The latest date of any of these coins being of the
+latter reign, the date of the hoard being buried may be fixed between
+the years 900 and 925. Many of the coins were continental, belonging
+to the coast of Western France, and from the district round the mouth
+of the river Seine. The appearance of this money agrees with the early
+records of the Saxon Chronicle, that of the year 897, which tells us
+that "the Danish army divided, one part went into the Eastern Counties,
+and the other into Northumbria, and those who were without money,
+procured ships and went southwards over the sea to the Seine."
+
+The other Chronicle of 910 states that, "a great fleet came hither
+from the south, from Brittany, and greatly ravaged the Severn, but
+there they afterwards nearly all perished." It may be supposed that the
+remnant of this band became united with the main Danish army, and would
+account for the large proportion of foreign money. The bulk of the
+coins were Danish, minted by Danish kings of Northumbria.
+
+[Illustration: Halton Cup.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+From these circumstances, we may believe, this hoard to have been the
+treasure or war chest of this retreating army. This Cuerdale hoard is
+by far the largest found in Lancashire; it contained 10,000 silver
+coins, and nearly 1,000 ounces of silver ingots. A smaller find,
+made at an early date, was the hoard of 300 silver pennies, discovered
+in 1611 at Harkirke, which lies on the sea coast between Crosby and
+Formby. Of this collection, some 35 coins were engraved at the latter
+part of the tenth century.
+
+This engraving shows that these coins were minted by Alfred, Edward the
+Elder, and the Danish king Canute, and the ecclesiastical coinages of
+York and East Anglia. These coins were buried within a few years of the
+deposit at Cuerdale. We have numerous records of other Danish finds.
+
+At Halton Moor, five miles above Lancaster, the discovery was made in
+1815 of a silver cup of graceful design, containing 860 silver coins
+of Canute, with ornaments, which included a torque of silver wire. Mr.
+J. Coombe, of the British Museum, describes the coins as 21 Danish,
+and 379 of Canute. The latter being nearly all of one type, having on
+the obverse side the Head of the King with Helmet and Sceptre, and on
+the reverse a cross, within the inner circle, with amulets in the four
+angles.
+
+The silver cup found on Halton Moor contained, in addition to the
+coins of Canute, a silver torque, which had been squeezed into the
+vessel. Both these silver articles are highly decorated and of great
+interest. The cup weighed over ten ounces, and was composed of metal
+containing three parts silver with one part copper. It appeared to
+have been gilt originally, some of the gold still remaining, which
+was of very pale colour. The ornamentation consisted of four circular
+compartments, divided by branches which terminated in the heads of
+animals, in Arabesque style. In these compartments are a panther and
+a butting bull alternately. This ornament is included inside two
+beautiful borders, which encircle the cup in parallel lines. The torque
+is of equal interest, and is a peculiar example of Danish wire-work
+metal rings, twisted and plated, with the ends beaten together for a
+double fastening. The face of this portion of the necklace, which is
+flattened, was decorated with small triangular pieces fixed by curious
+rivets. It was of pure silver and weighed six ounces six penny-weights.
+
+Along with these deposits were some gold pieces, struck on one side
+only, with a rough outline of a human head. Similar pieces have been
+found in Denmark, and the Danish element is predominant in the whole
+decoration.
+
+
+THE VIKING AGE.
+
+Before the Normans came our district was Scandinavian. From the year
+876 they began to settle and behaved not as raiders but as colonists.
+They wanted homes and settled quietly down.
+
+In the course of 200 years their descendants became leading landowners,
+as we see from the Norse names of the 12th century records.
+
+Naturally the art of the district must have been influenced by such
+people: especially by the Scandinavians who had lived in Ireland, till
+then a very artistic country. Whether Irish taught Norse or _vice
+versa_, we see that there was a quantity of artistic work produced
+especially along the seaboard, and we are lucky in having analogies not
+far to seek.
+
+In the Isle of Man the earliest series of Crosses have 11th century
+runes and figure subjects from the Edda and the Sigurd story which were
+late 11th century. Mr. Kermode, F.S.A., Scot., dates them 1050-1150
+(Saga book of Viking Club, Vol. I., p. 369). We have them in the
+remains in Man a kindred race to ours in the age before the Normans
+came: and we find resemblances between these Manx Crosses and some of
+ours both in subject and in style. In subjects the 11th century Crosses
+of Kirk Andreas, Jurby, and Malew find a parallel at Halton, which Mr.
+Calverley places late in 11th century and attributes to people under
+strong Scandinavian influence: but Danish as it happens rather than
+Norse.
+
+The Halton Crosses are not Norse in style. They are like the late
+pre-Norman work in Yorkshire where the Danes lived.
+
+Then the Hogback stones have to be placed. We have fixed the Gosforth
+and Plumland examples by their dragonesque work as of the Viking
+settlement.
+
+All these have the chain pattern, which Mr. Calverley called the Tree
+Yggdrasil or Tree of Existence, which shows that these monuments are of
+Viking origin.
+
+From what models or pattern did these early sculptors copy their
+designs? It is sometimes said that they imitated MSS.: assuming that
+MSS. were fairly common and placed in the stone carver's hands. This is
+far less likely than that sculptors, at a distance from good models in
+stone, copied patterns from metal work which were the most portable,
+and most accessible of all forms of art, in the days before printing
+was invented.
+
+Suppose, to make it plainer, the sorrowing survivor bids the British
+workman carve a Cross for the dead. "What like shall I work it?" says
+the mason. "Like the fair Crosses of England or Ireland, a knot above,
+and a knot below, and so forth." "But," says the mason, and he might
+say it in the 10th century, "I have never been in England or Ireland
+or seen your Crosses." Then answers the patron, "Make it like this
+swordhilt." (Calverley.)
+
+The earlier Irish Christians were highly intellectual and literary, but
+not at first artistic. Literature in all races precedes art; it would
+be contrary to all historical analogy if Patrick and Columba had lived
+in the artistic atmosphere of the eighth and ninth century in Ireland.
+Patrick's bell is no great credit to Assicus his coppersmith: his
+crosier was a plain stick. There is no indication in our remains that
+Irish missionaries of the seventh century brought a single art idea
+into the country. It was the Irish Viking Christians of the twelfth
+century who did.
+
+Mr. George Stephens, in his "Old Northern Runic Monuments of
+Scandinavia and England," vol. iii., under the heading "Runic Remains
+and Runic Writings," says:--
+
+"I believe these stones, however altered and conventionalised, were
+all originally made for worship as gods or fetishes, elfstones, or
+what not, but in fact, at first as phallic symbols, the Zinga and the
+Zoni, creation and preservation, placed on the tumulus as triumphant
+emblems of Light out of Darkness, Life after Death. And the _priapus_
+and _cups_ sometimes seen on burial-urns, must have the same meaning.
+Several of the grave minnes bearing old Norse runes were worship
+stones, carved with regular cups, etc., _ages before_ they were used a
+second time for funereal purposes."
+
+Prof. J. F. Simpson, M.D., Edinburgh, has a paper "On the Cup Cuttings
+and Ring Cuttings on the Calder Stones near Liverpool," in the
+Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, vol.
+xvii., 1865, in which he states that--
+
+"The Calder Stones near Liverpool afford an interesting and remarkable
+example of these cup and ring carvings upon this variety of
+stones--or, in words, upon the stones of a small megalithic circle.
+Some of the Calder Stones afford ample evidence of modern chiselling
+as marked by the sharpness and outray figurings. But in addition to
+these there are cut upon them, though in some parts greatly faded
+away, sculpturings of cups and concentric rings similar to those found
+in various parts of England and Scotland, remarkable for not only
+their archaic carvings, perfect and entire similarity to those found
+elsewhere, but still more from the fact that we have here presented
+upon a single circle almost every known and recognised type of these
+cuttings.
+
+The Calder circle is about six yards in diameter, consists of five
+stones which are still upright and one that is fallen. The stones
+consists of slabs and blocks of red sandstone, all different in size
+and shape. The fallen stone is small, and shows nothing on its exposed
+side, but possibly if turned over some markings might be discovered on
+its other surface. Of the five standing stones the largest of the set,
+No. 1, is a sandstone slab between 576 feet in height and in breadth.
+On its outer surface, or the surface turned to the exterior of the
+circle, there is a flaw above from disintegration and splintering of
+the stone: but the remaining portion of the surface presents between
+30 and 40 cup depressions varying from 2 to 3 and a half inches in
+diameter, and at its lowest and left-hand corner is a concentric
+circle about a foot in diameter, consisting of four enlarging rings,
+but apparently without any central depression. The opposite surface of
+this stone (No. 1) is that directed to the interior of the circle, has
+near its centre a cup cut upon it, with the remains of one surrounding
+ring. On the right side of this single-ringed cup are the faded remains
+of a concentric circle of three rings. To the left of it there is
+another three-ringed circle with a central depression, but the upper
+portions of the ring are broken off. Above it is a double-ringed cup,
+with this peculiarity, that the external ring is a volute leading from
+the central cup, and between the outer and inner ring is a fragmentary
+line of apparently another volute making a double-ringed spiral which
+is common on some Irish stones, as on those of the great archaic
+mausoleum at New Grange, but extremely rare in Great Britain. At the
+very base of this stone towards the left are two small volutes, one
+with a central depression or cup, and the other seemingly without it.
+One of these small volutes consists of three turns, the other of two.
+
+The cup and ring cuttings have been discovered in a variety of
+relations and positions. Some are sculptured on the surface of rocks
+_in situ_--on large stones placed inside and outside the walls of old
+British cities and camps, on blocks used in the construction of the
+olden dwellings and strongholds of archaic living man, in the interior
+of the chambered sepulchres and kistvaens of the archaic dead, on
+monoliths and on cromlechs, and repeatedly in Scotland on megalithic or
+so-called "Druidical" circles.
+
+The name Calder Stones is derived from Norse Calder or Caldag, the
+calf-garth or yard enclosed to protect young cattle from straying.
+
+
+NORSE AND DANISH GRAVE MOUNDS.
+
+Amongst the ancient monuments of Britain the well-known remains called
+Druidical Circles hold a foremost place, though their use, and the
+people by whom they were erected, are questions which still remain
+matters of dispute. The Stone enclosures of Denmark, which resemble the
+Circles of Cumbria in many respects, mainly differ from them, in that
+they are found in connection with burial chambers, whilst the latter
+are generally situated on the flat surface of moors, with nothing
+to indicate that they have ever been used for sepulchural purposes.
+Therefore wherever no urns or other remains have been found, we have
+negative evidence that the place was not intended for a place of
+sepulture.
+
+[Illustration: CALDER STONE No 1
+
+OUTER SURFACE.]
+
+[Illustration: INNER SURFACE.]
+
+Cairns which are the most undisputed form of a Celtic burial place
+were once very numerous in the northern districts: but a great many
+have long since been removed. The graves of Norway bear an outward
+resemblance to the Celtic Cairn, but the main cause appears to be
+that in mountainous countries stones are more easily procurable than
+earth. Where a doubt exists as to the proprietorship of these mounds,
+the only means of deciding is by an examination of the interior. The
+Norse Cairn should enclose a stone chest or wooden chamber and iron
+weapons. The Norwegians burned the body until about their conversion to
+Christianity.
+
+[Illustration: CALDER STONE No 2.
+
+OUTER ASPECT, TWO SIDES.]
+
+[Illustration: INNER SIDE.]
+
+[Illustration: CALDER STONE No 3.
+
+OUTER ASPECT TWO SIDES.]
+
+[Illustration: INNER SIDE]
+
+Tumuli or barrows still remain in great numbers. As far as records
+have been kept of those removed, nearly all must be claimed for the
+Bronze age, and the main part of those yet standing are essentially of
+a Danish character. In the description of this class of graves, we have
+no actual mention of iron antiquities.
+
+The Cairn called Mill Hill, Westmoreland, appears to have been a Celtic
+burial place, whilst Loden How was more probably Danish than Norse.
+Four different names are found in connection with sepulchres of this
+kind, viz., "how, raise, barrow, and hill," but the distinction is
+principally that of age, and the order of the words as here placed
+indicates the period to which each belongs.
+
+Few traces of the Iron age can be regarded as exclusively Norwegian
+wherever the body has been burned. Ormstead, near Penrith, was possibly
+a Norse burial place; while Thulbarrow, in the same neighbourhood, was
+in all probability Danish.
+
+Memorial stones still remain in considerable numbers, the most
+remarkable of which is the Nine Standards in Westmoreland. Several
+villages called Unthank take their names from Monuments no longer in
+existence, the word being in English "onthink," and the phrase "to
+think on" is still current in the dialect.
+
+
+
+
+Mythology
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+MYTHOLOGY.
+
+
+The religious conceptions of the most famous nations of antiquity
+are connected with the beginnings of civilisation. We are told by
+Dr. Wägner, in his work "Asgard and the Gods," of the traditions of
+our northern ancestors, the story of the myths and legends of Norse
+antiquity. The first of their heroes was Odin, the god of battles,
+armed with his war spear, followed by the Walkyries, who consecrate the
+fallen heroes with a kiss, and bear them away to the halls of the gods,
+where they enjoy the feasts of the blessed. Later, Odin invents the
+Runes, through which he gains the power of understanding and ruling all
+things. He thus becomes the spirit of nature, the all-father. Then the
+ash tree, "Yggdrasil," grew up; the tree of the universe, of time, and
+life. The boughs stretched out to heaven, and over-shadowed Walhalla,
+the hall of the heroes. This world-tree was evergreen, watered daily by
+the fateful Norns, and could not wither until the last battle should be
+fought, where life, time, and the world were all to pass away. This was
+related by a skald, the northern bard, to the warriors while resting
+from the fatigue of fighting, by tables of mead.
+
+The myths were founded on the belief of the Norse people, regarding the
+creation of the world, gods, and men, and thus we find them preserved
+in the songs of the "Edda. The vague notion of a Deity who created and
+ruled over all things had its rise in the impression made upon the
+human mind by the unity of nature. The sun, moon, and stars, clouds
+and mists, storms and tempests, appeared to be higher powers, and took
+distinct forms in the mind of man. The sun was first regarded as a
+fiery bird which flew across the sky, then as a horse, and afterwards
+as a chariot and horses; the clouds were cows, from whose udders the
+fruitful rain poured down. The storm-wind appeared as a great eagle
+that stirred the air by the flapping of his enormous wings. These
+signs of nature seemed to resemble animals. On further consideration
+it was found that man was gifted with the higher mental powers. It
+was then acknowledged that the figure of an animal was an improper
+representation of a divine being. They thus inverted the words of Holy
+writ, that "God created man in his own image," and men now made the
+gods in their own likeness, but still regarded them as greater, more
+beautiful, and more ideal than themselves.
+
+From the titles of these pagan gods we derive the names of our days
+of the week, and thus we continue to perpetuate in our daily life the
+story of Norse mythology. The first day of the week was dedicated to
+the worship of the sun. The second day to that of the moon. The third
+day was sacred to Tyr, the god of war. The fourth day was sacred to
+Wodin, or Odin, the chief deity. The fifth day was sacred to Thor,
+the god of thunder. The sixth day of the week, Friday, was sacred to
+Frigga, the wife of the great Odin. The seventh or last day of the week
+was dedicated by the Romans to Saturn, one of the planets, their god of
+agriculture, whose annual festival was a time of unrestrained enjoyment.
+
+The "Eddas" were two Scandinavian books, the earlier a collection
+of mythological and heroic songs, and the other a prose composition
+of old and venerable traditions. These books were meant for the
+instruction of the Norse skalds and bards. It is believed that the
+learned Icelander, Saemund, the Wise, compiled the older Edda in 1056
+from oral traditions, and partly from runic writings. The younger Edda
+is supposed to have been compiled by Bishop Snorri Sturlason in 1178,
+and this collection goes by the name of Snorra-Edda. The language was
+developed by means of the sagas and songs which had been handed down
+among the people from generation to generation.
+
+The Norns were the three fatal sisters, who used to watch over the
+springs of water, and appeared by the cradle of many a royal infant
+to give it presents. On such occasions two of them were generally
+friendly to the child, while the third prophesied evil concerning it.
+In the pretty story of the "Sleeping Beauty" these Norns appear as the
+fairies.
+
+
+MYTHICAL GODS.
+
+Bragi was the son of the wave maidens and the god of poetry. He was
+married to the blooming Induna, who accompanied him to Asgard, where
+she gave the gods every morning the apples of eternal youth.
+
+Tyr, the god of war, was tall, slender as a pine, and bravely defended
+the gods from the terrible Fenris-Wolf. In doing so he lost his hand,
+and was held in high honour by the people. Baldur, the holy one, and
+the giver of all good, was the son of Odin. His mother Frigga entreated
+all creatures to spare the well-beloved, but she overlooked the weak
+mistletoe bough. The gods in boisterous play threw their weapons at
+Baldur, and the dart made of the fatal bough was thrown by the blind
+Hödur with deadly effect.
+
+Forseti, the son of Baldur, resembled his father in holiness and
+righteousness, was the upholder of eternal law. The myth shows him
+seated on a throne teaching the Norsemen the benefits of the law,
+surrounded by his twelve judges.
+
+Loki, the crafty god, was the father of the Fenris-Wolf, and the snake.
+He was the god of warmth and household fire, and was held to be the
+corrupter of gods, and the spirit of evil. It was Loki who formed the
+fatal dart, which he placed in the hands of the blind Hödur, which
+caused the death of Baldur. After the murder of Baldur, Loki conceals
+himself on a distant mountain, and hides himself under a waterfall.
+Here the avengers catch him in a peculiar net which he had invented
+for the destruction of others. They bind him to a rock, where a snake
+drops poison upon his face, which makes him yell with pain. His
+faithful wife, Sigyn, catches the poison in a cup; but still it drops
+upon him whenever the vessel is full. From this myth it is supposed
+that Shakspere derived the story of his greatest drama and tragedy,
+"Hamlet," of the Prince of Denmark. Our forefathers notion of the last
+battle, the single combats of the strong, the burning of the world,
+are all to be read in ancient traditions, and we find them described
+in the poems of the Skalds. The Norse mythology makes amends for the
+tragic end of the divine drama by concluding with a description of the
+renewal of the world. The earth rises fresh and green out of its ruin,
+as soon as it has been cleansed from sin, refined and restored by fire.
+The gods assemble on the plains of Ida, and the sons of Thor bring with
+them their father's storm-hammer, a weapon no longer used for fighting,
+but only for consecrating what is right and holy. They are joined by
+Baldur and Hödur, reconciled and united in brotherly love.
+
+Uller is recorded in the Edda as the cheery and sturdy god of winter,
+who cared nothing for wind and snowstorm, who used to go about on long
+journeys on his skates or snow-shoes. These shoes were compared to a
+shield, and thus the shield is called Uller's Ship in many places. When
+the god Uller skated over the ice he carried with him his shield, and
+deadly arrows and bow made from the yew-tree. He lived in the Palace
+Ydalir, the yew vale. As he protected plants and seeds from the severe
+frosts of the north, by covering the ground with a coating of snow,
+he was regarded as the benefactor of mortal men, and was called the
+friend of Baldur, the giver of every blessing and joy. Uller meant
+divine glory, as Vulder, the Anglo-Saxon god, was also characterised.
+This was probably because the glory of the northern winter night,
+which is often brilliantly lighted by the snow, the dazzling ice, and
+the Aurora-borealis, the great northern light. The myths exist in the
+present like the stately ruins of a past time, which are no longer
+suitable for the use of man. Generations come and go, their views,
+actions, and modes of thought change:
+
+    "All things change; they come and go;
+    The pure unsullied soul alone remains in peace."
+
+Thousands of years ago our ancestors prayed to Waruna, the father in
+heaven; thousands of years later the Romans entered their temple and
+worshipped Jupiter, the father in heaven, while the Teutonic races
+worshipped the All-father. After the lapse of centuries now we turn in
+all our sorrow and adversities to our Father which is in heaven. In the
+thousands of years which may pass we shall not have grown beyond this
+central point of religion.
+
+    "Our little systems have their day;
+    They have their day and cease to be;
+    They are but broken lights of Thee,
+    And Thou, O Lord, art more than they.
+
+    We have but faith; we cannot know;
+    For knowledge is of things we see;
+    And yet we trust it comes from Thee,
+    A beam in darkness, let it grow!"
+
+In his masterly work on "Hero-Worship," Carlyle traces the growth of
+the "Hero as Divinity" from the Norse Mythology in the following words:
+"How the man Odin came to be considered a god, the chief god? His
+people knew no limits to their admiration of him; they had as yet no
+scale to measure admiration by. Fancy your own generous heart's love
+of some greatest man expanding till it transcended all bounds, till it
+filled and overflowed the whole field of your thought.
+
+Then consider what mere Time will do in such cases; how if a man was
+great while living, he becomes tenfold greater when dead.
+
+What an enormous 'camera-obscura' magnifier is Tradition! How a
+thing grows in the human memory, in the human imagination, when love,
+worship, and all that lies in the human heart, is there to encourage
+it. And in the darkness, in the entire ignorance; without date or
+document, no book, no Arundel marble: only here and there some dumb
+monumental cairn. Why! in thirty or forty years, were there no books,
+any great man would grow 'mythic,' the contemporaries who had seen him,
+being once all dead: enough for us to discern far in the uttermost
+distance some gleam as of a small real light shining in the centre of
+that enormous camera-obscura image: to discern that the centre of it
+all was not a madness and nothing, but a sanity and something.
+
+This light kindled in the great dark vortex of the Norse mind, dark
+but living, waiting only for the light, this is to me the centre of
+the whole. How such light will then shine out, and with wondrous
+thousand-fold expansion spread itself in forms and colours, depends not
+on _it_, so much as in the National Mind recipient of it. Who knows
+to what unnameable subtleties of spiritual law all these Pagan fables
+owe their shape! The number twelve, divisiblest of all, which could be
+halved, quartered, parted into three, into six, the most remarkable
+number, this was enough to determine the Signs of the Zodiac, the
+number of Odin's sons, and innumerable other twelves.
+
+Odin's Runes are a significant feature of him. Runes, and the miracles
+of "magic" he worked by them, make a great feature in tradition. Runes
+are the Scandinavian alphabet; suppose Odin to have been the inventor
+of letters as well as "magic" among that people. It is the greatest
+invention man has ever made, this of marking down the unseen thought
+that is in him by written characters. It is a kind of second speech,
+almost as miraculous as the first.
+
+You remember the astonishment and incredulity of Atahaulpa the Peruvian
+king; how he made the Spanish soldier, who was guarding him, scratch
+Dios on his thumb nail, that he might try the next soldier with it, to
+ascertain whether such a miracle was possible. If Odin brought letters
+among his people, he might work magic enough! Writing by Runes has some
+air of being original among the Norsemen; not a Phoenician alphabet,
+but a Scandinavian one.
+
+Snorro tells us farther that Odin invented poetry; the music of human
+speech, as well as that miraculous runic marking of it.
+
+Transport yourself into the early childhood of nations; the first
+beautiful morning light of our Europe, when all yet lay in fresh young
+radiance, as of a great sunrise, and our Europe was first beginning to
+think,--to be!
+
+This Odin, in his rude semi-articulate way, had a word to speak. A
+great heart laid open to take in this great universe, and man's life
+here, and utter a great word about it. And now, if we still admire
+such a man beyond all others, what must these wild Norse souls,
+first awakened with thinking, have made of him! The rough words he
+articulated, are they not the rudimental roots of those English words
+we still use? He worked so, in that obscure element. But he was as a
+light kindled in it, a light of intellect, rude nobleness of heart, the
+only kind of lights we have yet: he had to shine there, and make his
+obscure element a little lighter, as is still the task of us all.
+
+We will fancy him to be the type Norseman; the finest Teuton whom that
+race had yet produced. He is as a root of many great things; the fruit
+of him is found growing, from deep thousands of years, over the whole
+field of Teutonic life. Our own Wednesday, is it not still Odin's day?
+Wednesbury, Wansborough, Wanstead, Wandsworth: Odin grew into England
+too, these are still the leaves from that root. He was the chief god to
+all the Teutonic peoples; their pattern Norsemen.
+
+The essence of the Scandinavian, as indeed of all Pagan mythologies, we
+found to be recognition of the divineness of nature; sincere communion
+of man with the mysterious invisible powers, visibly seen at work in
+the world around him.
+
+Sincerity is the great characteristic of it. Amid all that fantastic
+congeries of associations and traditions in their musical mythologies,
+the main practical belief a man could have was of an inflexible
+destiny, of the valkyrs and the hall of Odin, and that the one thing
+needful for a man was to be brave. The Valkyrs are choosers of the
+slain, who lead the brave to a heavenly hall of Odin: only the base
+and slavish being thrust elsewhere, into the realms of Hela, the Death
+goddess. This was the soul of the whole Norse Belief. Valour is still
+valour. The first duty of a man is still that of subduing Fear. Snorro
+tells us they thought it a shame and misery not to die in battle; and
+if a natural death seemed to be coming on, they would cut wounds in
+their flesh that Odin might receive them as warriors slain. Old kings
+about to die had their body laid into a ship, the ship sent forth with
+sail set and slow fire burning in it; that once out at sea, it might
+blaze up into flame, and in such a manner bury worthily the old hero,
+at once in the sky and in the ocean."
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF ODIN.
+
+(From the Norse Tongue.)
+
+By THOMAS GRAY.
+
+         Up rose the king of men with speed,
+         And saddled straight his coal black steed.
+         Down the yawning steep he rode
+         That leads to Hela's drear abode.
+         Him the Dog of Darkness spied;
+         His shaggy throat he opened wide,
+         While from his jaws with carnage fill'd,
+         Foam and human gore distill'd;
+         Hoarse he bays with hideous din,
+         Eyes that glow and fangs that grin,
+         And long pursues with fruitless yell
+         The father of the powerful spell.
+         Onward still his way he takes,
+         (The groaning earth beneath him shakes)
+         Till full before his fearless eyes
+         The portals nine of Hell arise.
+         Right against the eastern gate
+         By the moss grown pile he sate,
+         Where long of yore to sleep was laid
+         The dust of the prophetic maid,
+         Facing to the northern clime,
+         Thrice he traced the Runic rhyme,
+         Thrice pronounced in accents dread,
+         The thrilling verse that wakes the dead.
+         Till from out the hollow ground
+         Slowly breathed a sullen sound.
+         What call unknown, what charms presume
+         To break the quiet of the tomb?
+         Who thus afflicts my troubled sprite
+         And drags me from the realms of night?
+         Long on these mouldering bones have beat
+         The winter's snow, the summer's heat.
+         The drenching dews, and driving rain,
+         Let me, let me sleep again.
+         Who is he with voice unbless'd
+         That calls me from the bed of rest?
+  Odin:  A traveller to the unknown
+         Is he that calls; a warrior's son,
+         Thou the deeds of light shall know;
+         Tell me what is done below.
+         For whom yon glittering board is spread,
+         Dress'd for whom yon golden bed?
+  Proph: Mantling in the goblet see
+         The pure beverage of the bee,
+         O'er it hangs the shield of gold:
+         'Tis the drink of Balder bold:
+         Balder's head to death is given:
+         Pain can reach the sons of heaven!
+         Unwilling I my lips unclose:
+         Leave me, leave me to repose.
+  Odin:  Once again my call obey;
+         Prophetess! arise and say
+         What dangers Odin's child await,
+         Who the author of his fate?
+  Proph: In Hoder's hand the hero's doom;
+         His brother sends him to the tomb,
+         Now my weary lips I close,
+         Leave me, leave me to repose.
+  Odin:  Prophetess! my spell obey;
+         Once again arise and say
+         Who th' avenger of his guilt,
+         By whom shall Hoder's blood be spilt?
+  Proph: In the caverns of the west,
+         By Odin's fierce embrace compress'd,
+         A wondrous boy shall rind a bear,
+         Who ne'er shall comb his raven hair,
+         Nor wash his visage in the stream,
+         Nor see the sun's departing beam,
+         Till he on Hoder's corpse shall smile,
+         Flaming on the funeral pile.
+         Now my weary lips I close,
+         Leave me, leave me to repose.
+  Odin:  Yet awhile my call obey;
+         Prophetess awake and say
+         What virgins these in speechless wo,
+         That bent to earth their solemn brow,
+         That their flaxen tresses tear,
+         And snowy veils that float in air?
+         Tell me whence their sorrows rose,
+         Then I leave thee to repose.
+  Proph: Ha! no traveller art thou:
+         King of Men I know thee now:
+         Mightiest of a mighty line.
+  Odin:  No boding maid of skill divine,
+         Art thou, no prophetess of good,
+         But mother of a giant brood!
+  Proph: Hie thee hence, and boast at home,
+         That never shall enquirer come
+         To break my iron sleep again,
+         Till Lok his horse his tenfold chain,
+         Never till substantial Night,
+         Has re-assumed her ancient right,
+         Till wrapped in fumes, in ruin hurl'd,
+         Sinks the fabric of the world.
+
+
+
+
+Superstitions
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+SUPERSTITIONS.
+
+
+The most remarkable instance of the tenacity of superstitions is the
+survival of the practice of "bringing in the New Year." Not only does
+it exist among the poor and uneducated, but even amongst educated
+people at this festive season. It is considered an omen of misfortune
+if the first person who enters your house on New Year's morning has a
+fair complexion or light hair. This popular prejudice has never been
+satisfactorily accounted for, says the late Mr. Charles Hardwick, in
+his "Traditions and Superstitions." He says: "I can only suggest that
+it most probably arose from the fact that amongst the Keltic tribes,
+who were the earliest immigrants, dark hair prevailed. This dark
+characteristic still prevails amongst the Welsh, Cornish, and Irish
+of the present day. When these earlier races came in contact with the
+Danes and Norse as enemies, they found their mortal foes to possess
+fair skins and light hair. They consequently regarded the intrusion
+into their houses, at the commencement of the year, of one of the hated
+race, as a sinister omen. The true Kelt does not only resent, on New
+Year's Day, the red hair of the Dane, but the brown and flaxen locks
+of the German as well." An old writer, Oliver Matthew, of Shrewsbury,
+writing in the year 1616, at the age of 90 years, says it was the
+custom of the Danes to place one of their men to live in each homestead
+of the conquered race, and this was more resented than the tribute
+they had to pay. This affords another proof that these fair-haired men
+were the cause of this present superstition. It is also considered
+unlucky to allow anything to be taken out of the house on New Year's
+Day, before something had been brought in. The importation of the most
+insignificant article, even a piece of coal, or something in the nature
+of food, is sufficient to prevent this misfortune, which the contrary
+action would render inevitable. This sentiment is well expressed in the
+following rhyme:--
+
+    Take out, and then take in,
+    Bad luck will begin.
+    Take in, then take out,
+    Good luck comes about.
+
+It would be rash to speculate how long superstitions of this kind will
+continue to walk hand in hand with religion; how long traditions from
+far-off heathen times will exercise this spell not only in our remote
+country places but in enlightened towns. In the realms of folk-lore,
+many were firm believers in witchcraft, in signs and omens, which
+things were dreaded with ignorant awe, while the romantic race of
+gipsies look upon occult influences from the inside, as a means of
+personal gain.
+
+The prophetic character of the weather during this period is a
+superstition common to all the Aryan tribes. So strongly is this
+characteristic of the season felt in Lancashire at the present day,
+that many country people may be met with who habitually found their
+"forecast" on the appearances of the heavens on Old Christmas Day.
+The late Mr. T. T. Wilkinson relates a singular instance of this
+superstition, which shows the stubbornness of traditional lore, even
+when subjected to the power and influence of legislative enactments.
+He says: "The use of the old style in effect is not yet extinct in
+Lancashire. The writer knows an old man of Habergham, near Burnley,
+about 77 years of age, who always reckons the changes of the seasons in
+this manner. He alleges the practice of his father and grandfather in
+support of his method, and states with much confidence that 'Perliment
+didn't change t' seasons wen they chang'd day o't' month.'" A work
+named "The Shepherd's Kalender," published in 1709, soberly informs us
+that "if New Year's Day in the morning opens with dusky red clouds,
+it denotes strife and debates among great ones, and many robberies to
+happen that year."
+
+
+THE HELM WIND.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Kirkoswald, on the Eden in Cumberland, a
+district prolific in Arthurian legends, it is said that a "peculiar
+wind called the 'Helm Wind,' sometimes blows with great fury in that
+part of the country. It is believed by some persons to be an electrical
+phenomenon." This fact may have some remote connection with the
+superstition under consideration. Sir Walter Scott's version of the
+legend is as follows: "A daring horse jockey sold a black horse to a
+man of venerable and antique appearance, who appointed the remarkable
+hillock upon the Eildon Hills, called the Lucken Hare, as the place
+where at twelve o'clock at night he should receive the price. He came
+and his money was paid in ancient coin, and he was invited by his
+customer to view his residence. The trader in horses followed his guide
+in the deepest astonishment through several long ranges of stalls, in
+each of which a horse stood motionless, while an armed warrior lay
+equally still at the charger's feet. 'All these men,' said the Wizard
+in a whisper, 'will awaken at the battle of Sheriffmoor.' At the
+extremity of this extraordinary depôt hung a sword and a horn, which
+the Prophet pointed out to the horse dealer, as containing the means of
+dissolving the spell. The man in confusion, took the horn and attempted
+to wind it. The horses instantly started in their stalls, stamped and
+shook their bridles; the men arose, and clashed their armour; and the
+mortal terrified at the tumult he had excited, dropped the horn from
+his hand. A voice like that of a giant, louder even than the tumult
+around, pronounced these words:
+
+    "Woe to the coward that ever he was born
+    That did not draw the sword before he blew the horn!"
+
+The mistletoe was supposed to protect the homestead from fire and
+other disaster, and, like other mysterious things, was believed to
+be potent in matters relating to courtship and matrimony. It is to
+this sentiment we owe the practice of kissing under the bush formed
+of holly and mistletoe during Christmas festivities. This matrimonial
+element in the mistletoe is artistically presented in the Scandinavian
+mythology. Freigga, the mother of Baldr, had rendered him invulnerable
+against all things formed out of the then presumed four elements, fire,
+air, earth, and water. The mistletoe was believed to grow from none of
+these elements. But she overlooked the one insignificant branch of the
+mistletoe, and it was by an arrow fashioned from it that the bright
+day-god Baldr, the Scandinavian counterpart of Apollo and Bel, was
+killed by the blind Hodr or Heldr. The gods, however, restored him to
+life, and dedicated the mistletoe to his mother, who is regarded as the
+counterpart of the classical Venus. Hence its importance in affairs
+of love and courtship. It is not improbable that the far-famed dart
+of Cupid may have some relation to the mistletoe arrow, to which the
+beautiful Baldr succumbed.
+
+The medicinal qualities of the mistletoe tree were also in high repute.
+Its healing power was shared by the ash tree, which was the "Cloud
+tree" of the Norsemen. The ash (Norse "askr,") was the tree out of
+which the gods formed the first man, who was thence called Askr. The
+ash was among the Greeks, an image of the clouds, and the mother of men.
+
+Other Christmas customs and superstitions are peculiar to Lancashire.
+The white thorn is supposed to possess supernatural power, and
+certain trees of this class, in Lancashire called Christmas thorns,
+are believed to blossom only on Old Christmas Day. Mr. Wilkinson
+says that in the neighbourhood of Burnley many people will yet
+travel a considerable distance "at midnight, in order to witness the
+blossoming." The Boar's Head yet forms a chief object amongst the
+dishes of Christmas festivities. Among the impersonations of natural
+phenomena, the wild boar represented the "ravages of the whirlwind that
+tore up the earth." In all mythologies the boar is the animal connected
+with storm and lightning. There yet exists a superstition prevalent in
+Lancashire to the effect that pigs can "see the wind." Dr. Kuhm says
+that in Westphalia this superstition is a prevalent one. The tradition
+is at least three or four thousand years old. Lancashire has many
+stories of the pranks played by the wild boar or demon pig, removing
+the stones in the night on the occasion of the building of churches.
+Stories of this nature are to be found respecting Winwick, where a rude
+carving resembling a hog fastened to a block of stone, by a collar,
+is to be seen built into the tower of the present Church. Burnley and
+Rochdale Churches, and Samlesbury Church, near Preston, possess similar
+traditions.
+
+All Celtic nations have been accustomed to the worship of the Sun. It
+was a custom that everywhere prevailed in ancient times to celebrate
+a feast at the Winter Solstice, by which men testified their joy at
+seeing this great luminary return again to this part of the heavens.
+This was the greatest solemnity of the year. They called it in many
+places "Yole," or "Yuul," from the word "Hiaul" and "Houl," which even
+at this day signifies sun in the language of Cornwall. "Heulo" in
+modern Welsh means to "shine as the Sun." And thus we may derive our
+word halo. Some writers, including the Venerable Bede, derive Yule from
+"hvoel," a wheel, meaning the return of the Sun's annual course after
+the Winter Solstice.
+
+
+
+
+Agriculture
+
+A COMPARISON OF PROGRESS BETWEEN DANISH AND BRITISH
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+AGRICULTURE.
+
+
+While the Scandinavian element is regarded by modern writers as the
+predominating feature in the composition of Englishmen, the Danish
+has been the pre-eminent force in forming the character of the race
+which dominates the Lancashire people of to-day. In our survey of
+the progress of the race, from the earliest settlement of the Danes,
+we find the impression of their footprints in the place-names of the
+county, which are our oldest and most enduring monuments. Following
+their character of daring and venture, we have established a maritime
+power which is the envy of the world. The same spirit which formed our
+early settlements in Lancashire has founded colonies in every quarter
+of the globe. The enterprise of the early "copemen" has developed into
+our mercantile fleet, which controls the carrying trade of the seas.
+The voice of their language still resounds in the names of our laws,
+the "hundreds" of the county, and in our system of administration, and
+also in the political freedom which has established the saying that
+"What Lancashire says to-day, England will say to-morrow."
+
+In the earliest record of agricultural progress we find the Danes have
+given us the name of "husbandry," and the modern implement called the
+"plough." Therefore, in forming an estimate of the benefits which have
+resulted from our intercourse with the Danes, the primary industry
+of agriculture and dairy produce must not be omitted. In all other
+branches of commercial activity, by the application of scientific
+methods, unbounded progress has been achieved. Has the oldest industry
+of the county had a share in this attainment of wealth, or its rural
+population derived advancement? For a period of half-a-century our
+agricultural leaders have held competitions known as agricultural
+shows, where valuable prizes have been given for live stock of all
+descriptions, and rewards for every design of mechanical appliance for
+agriculture. To a stranger visiting these shows, it would appear that
+we brooked no rival in the production of dairy produce. What are the
+facts disclosed by the figures for the past 25 or 50 years? In the
+"Year Book of the Lancashire Past Agricultural Students' Association"
+we are told that Parliament handed over, in the year 1890, to local
+authorities, large sums of money for purposes of technical instruction,
+and that "this marks the really substantial beginning of agricultural
+education in Lancashire."
+
+With this statement, made at the opening of the twentieth century, it
+may be interesting to notice the increase of our imports of Danish
+dairy produce for a period of eleven years:--
+
+  Year.       Imports.        Exports.
+  1897      £10,968,397      £3,476,663
+  1898      £11,703,384      £3,919,326
+  1899      £12,432,977      £4,399,025
+  1900      £13,187,667      £4,724,181
+  1901      £14,234,102      £4,163,478
+  1902      £15,556,780      £4,033,897
+  1903      £16,594,565      £4,398,088
+  1904      £15,911,615      £3,925,836
+  1905      £15,416,456      £4,476,624
+  1906      £16,433,648      £5,162,428
+  1907      £18,262,542      £6,124,039
+
+
+DANISH AGRICULTURE.
+
+During the past ten years, says Mr. Consul L. C. Liddell in his report
+for 1908, Denmark has witnessed a considerable increase.
+
+The exports of agricultural produce, which in 1904 were worth
+£18,400,000, reached £22,400,000 in 1908. The amount of butter exported
+to the United Kingdom reaches 96.1 per cent. of the total; of bacon,
+97.5 per cent.; and of eggs, 98.8 per cent. The remainder of the butter
+and bacon goes principally to Germany. Nearly the entire export of
+horses and cattle is absorbed by the German market, whilst three-fifths
+of the beef also finds its way thither, the remainder going to Norway.
+
+The labour question has, as in other years, attracted much attention.
+The number of Swedish and Finnish labourers is decreasing, and it is
+from Galicia that Denmark would now appear to recruit her farm hands.
+The number of Galician "season" labourers in 1908 reached 8,000,
+or about 1,000 more than in 1907. The co-operative organisations
+approached the Prime Minister with the proposal that free passes should
+be granted on the State railway system to any unemployed at Copenhagen
+having a knowledge of field work to help in farming. This attempt to
+organise a "back to the land" movement is not expected to be attended
+with success.
+
+These figures show an increase of nearly double in eleven years, or an
+increase of eight millions, and an increase of two millions from 1906
+to 1907.
+
+It must be remembered that the bulk of Danish produce comes to the
+Manchester market, and is distributed from that centre. An analysis
+of the 1907 imports from Denmark gives the following details:--Butter
+£10,192,587, eggs £1,774,319, fish £91,031, lard £17,723, bacon
+£5,385,275, pork £200,000. The item of bacon for 1907 shows an increase
+of one million pounds over the year 1906.
+
+The import of Danish produce began in the early sixties of last
+century, and the quality was so indifferent that we are told it
+was fortunate if two casks of butter were good out of every five.
+Even then the quality was superior to Irish butter in its taste and
+appearance. The population of Denmark is two and a half millions, and
+the cultivated area of land is seven million acres. The yield of crops
+to the acre is 28 bushels of wheat, while in England it is 33 bushels.
+In barley the yield is 30 bushels to our 35 bushels, and in oats it is
+33 bushels to our 42. These figures show the comparative fruitfulness
+of the land to be in favour of England. The live stock per 1,000
+population in Denmark is 711 cattle to our 267, and pigs 563 to our 82.
+The total imports for twenty years show that our dairy produce from
+abroad has doubled, and is increasing at a rapid rate.
+
+Comparisons of Danish methods of farming to-day cannot be made with
+the present conditions existing in Lancashire or Yorkshire, but can
+only be made by the modern conditions now obtaining in Essex under Lord
+Rayleigh.
+
+
+CROPS DIMINISHING.
+
+What has been the course of our agriculture for the past sixty
+years? Mr. Cobden maintained that Free Trade would do no injury to
+agriculture. The following is a comparison of prices in the years 1845
+and 1907:--
+
+                             1845.    1907.
+  [E]4lbs. loaf of Bread      6d.      5-1/2d.
+  [F]1lb. Butter              7d.      1/1.
+  [F]1lb. Cheese              2d.      9d.
+  [F]1lb. Bacon               3d.      9d.
+  [F]1lb. Beef                4d.      8d.
+
+Sixty years ago home-grown wheat produced flour for twenty-four
+millions of our population.[G] To-day it produces flour for four and
+a half millions. The acreage under wheat has been reduced in the
+last thirty years to one-half in England, to one-third in Scotland,
+and to one-fifth in Ireland. The same is true of green crops. Nine
+hundred thousand acres less are under crops than were thirty years
+ago. The same may be said of the area under hop cultivation, which has
+been reduced every year. The only bright spot in the review of our
+agricultural position, extending over many years, is to be found in the
+growth of fruit, although this has not increased as rapidly as foreign
+importations.
+
+The result of these changes during the last thirty years has been an
+increase of imports of agricultural produce of eighty millions. Our
+imports of wheat have increased by thirty-two millions, our imports
+of dairy produce have increased by twenty-one millions, and eggs
+alone have increased by four millions sterling a year; while fruit
+and vegetables have increased by ten and a half millions. The effect
+of this must be the increased dependence of our population on foreign
+supplies. Agriculture finds employment for a million less than it did
+sixty years ago. These are facts and not opinions, and we are compelled
+to use the figures of the general national imports, as the details of
+the counties are not available.
+
+
+NATIONAL SAVINGS.
+
+Statesmen tell us that the Post Office Savings Bank deposits are a fair
+indication of the industrial prosperity. In the report of these Post
+Office Savings Banks we find that Denmark heads the list with £15 11s.
+per head of the population, while the United Kingdom comes ninth in the
+list with a sum of £4 11s. per head of the population.
+
+The economy of waste has been the keynote of wealth to many industries,
+and the adaptability of labour to changed conditions has marked the
+survival of more than one centre of commercial activity. Individual
+cases are not wanting to prove that men who have been found unfit to
+follow their work in mills and town employments through weak health or
+the effect of accidents, have succeeded, by the aid of a small capital,
+in becoming model farmers, and have demonstrated the variety of crops
+and stock which can be raised on a single farm. The bye-products of the
+manufacturers are often the source of success, and these are the most
+neglected in the itinerary of the farmer.
+
+The greatest problem which confronts our municipal authorities is the
+profitable disposal of sewage. Where sewage farms are maintained they
+are invariably conducted at a heavy loss to the ratepayers, while the
+adjoining farm tenants often succeed in making profits. To reclaim
+the land which has gone out of cultivation, by the application of
+unemployed labour and the disposal of waste and sewage, provides the
+solution of a difficulty which may become a source of wealth, and
+restore the prosperity of a lost industry.
+
+
+COST OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.
+
+A White paper just issued by the Board of Education gives particulars
+as to the amount spent by County Councils in England and Wales on
+agricultural education.
+
+The amounts vary considerably in the different counties for the year
+ending March, 1908. In England, Lancashire takes the lead with £7,485,
+and in Wales the county of Carmarthen is prominent with £597.
+
+The gross total amounted to £79,915, of which £21,662 was in grants to
+schools and colleges, £9,876 for scholarships, and £12,433 for dairy
+instruction.
+
+The figures are approximate owing to the difficulty of analysing
+education accounts.
+
+There are not wanting those who say that farming cannot be made to pay
+in England. Essex has quite a different experience. For here farms,
+varying in size from 250 acres to 5,000 and over, have been made to
+return very good profits. The whole secret lies in the work being
+conducted on scientific principles, and the careful watching of every
+penny expended, as well as giving the labourers a direct interest
+in getting good results. On Lord Rayleigh's estate, Terling, which
+comprises about 5,000 acres, striking results have been obtained during
+the past twenty years, his successes being attributed to the use of
+business and scientific methods. For many years past his lordship's
+brother, the Hon. E. G. Strutt--probably one of the most experienced
+practical farmers in England--has had the management of the property,
+and has shown that farming can be carried on with a profit in this
+country.
+
+Essex is described as flat, but in the neighbourhood of Terling, which
+abuts on the Great Eastern Railway line at Witham, there are numerous
+gently undulating plains, and even at this time of the year a stroll
+along the lanes in the neighbourhood reveals many pleasant surprises.
+Here and there the hedgerows are already bursting into delicate green
+buds, and in some places the crops sown during the early winter for
+spring are showing above the rich dark brow soil. And many are the
+birds which are already, as it were, getting into voice for the spring.
+The county hereabouts is heavily wooded, the chief trees being oak,
+ash, and elm. Many of these are veritable giants and monarchs of the
+forest, now standing out alone on the sky-line in all their nakedness
+of winter outline, then in small groups, again in such numbers as to
+become forests. On every hand are signs of activity. Ploughing for the
+moment is all over, though there are still fields of stubble which have
+to be turned over and prepared for crops in the near future. Fields
+which have already been ploughed are being heavily manured in readiness
+for sowing. And herein lies one of the secrets of the successful
+farming prevailing in this favoured neighbourhood. Everyone knows, but
+not everyone acts upon the knowledge, that as the fertility of the soil
+is exhausted fresh nutriment must be given. The observance of this rule
+brings its own reward, as many have learned to their advantage. Hedging
+and ditching are in progress, and by the time that all hands will be
+required on the land for ploughing, scarifying, harrowing, and sowing,
+hedges will have been trimmed and ditches cleaned.
+
+Some eighteen or twenty years ago Lord Rayleigh decided to offer all
+his farm labourers, who number about 250, bonuses on the profits of
+their industry. This scheme proved eminently successful; so much so,
+indeed, that Lord Rayleigh has now gone a step further and offered
+to give every man who cares to invest his savings in his farms 4 per
+cent. interest on such money, and a share in any profits which may
+accrue after that dividend has been paid. A very large proportion of
+the men employed have taken advantage of this offer, which gives them
+close upon 2 per cent. more than they were getting from the Post Office
+Savings Bank, where they had been in the habit of putting their money,
+for they are a thoroughly respectable, self-respecting, and frugal
+community. It is now just a year since this offer was first made, and
+the employees put up over £1,000, in sums ranging from £1 to £100, the
+latter sum coming from a man who had banked all the bonuses he earned,
+along with savings from twenty-five years' earnings.
+
+Lord Rayleigh's idea was to get the men not only to study thrift,
+but to take a keener interest in their daily work. It has been said
+that that man is a public benefactor who gets two blades of grass to
+flourish where but one grew before. His lordship has a far higher
+satisfaction in advancing the position of the men in his employment.
+In effect this is what he said to them: "My farms represent so much
+money to me; now for every £1 which you put in I will guarantee you 4
+per cent. After we have all had our 4 per cent., such surplus profit
+as may be left, if any, will be divided between us _pro rata_." The
+result of the first year's farming under this form of co-partnership
+has been very satisfactory. Everyone has not only been paid the
+guaranteed 4 per cent., which was distributed recently, but each
+labourer has also received a share in the sum which was over after
+paying out that amount. While Mr. Strutt declined to disclose the exact
+amount of the remaining profit, he hinted that the extra interest
+might quite possibly be as much as a further 4 per cent. Whatever it
+is, every labourer who put his savings into Lord Rayleigh's hands is
+congratulating himself upon his good fortune, and, as saving begets
+saving, there is a prospect that none of these beneficiaries will ever
+need the old age pension.
+
+Lord Rayleigh has made only two stipulations with his men, both aimed
+at unity of administration. One is that they cannot have any voice in
+the management of the estate, which Mr. Strutt naturally works to the
+best advantage, and the other is that only the savings of the labourer
+himself and his wife may be offered for investment in the farms.
+
+Probably there is no farm where such intricate or such useful books are
+kept as on the Terling estates. Practically every field is treated as a
+separate farm in itself. Say, for instance, a field is to be sown with
+wheat. It has to be ploughed, the cost of which is charged in the book
+against that field, as also the value of the manure used, the price of
+the seeds sown, and all the time occupied in preparing the land, and,
+later on, in cutting the wheat, threshing, and sending it to market.
+On the opposite page of the ledger is put the amount obtained for the
+grain, and the value of the straw, whether sold or used on the farms. A
+balance can then be struck, and the profit or loss shown at a glance.
+On the profit shown, those who did the various necessary labours
+receive their bonus. So with every field. But the system does not end
+here. A most careful record is kept, for example, of every cow--the
+original cost, if bought, the amount of milk she yields per year, of
+her calves, and what they fetch when sold, or their value if retained
+on the estate. Every Friday, the morning and evening milkings are
+accurately measured, and at the end of the year these figures are added
+up and multiplied by seven for the seven days of the week. In this way
+it is known exactly how much milk each cow gives. The annual average
+should be about 800 gallons, which is regarded as a very fair amount.
+There is, however, one cow, Lilac by name, which seems to despise that
+average. Last year her yield of milk was no less than 1,457 gallons,
+which is a big record, even on the Terling estates.
+
+Mr. Strutt reckons that a cow should give on an average 650 gallons of
+milk per year, and the cowmen get a bonus when the yield of the cows
+in their charge average that amount. The advantage of such records are
+enormous. If a cow does not give 650 gallons of milk per annum, she is
+at once sold, as she does not pay for her keep. As there are no less
+than 800 cows on the estate, the keeping of such records involves an
+enormous amount of work, but it is work which has a profitable result,
+facilitating, as it does, the weeding out of poor dairy stock.
+
+The same attention is paid to other departments. Records are kept of
+the sheep, of which there are considerable flocks scattered over the
+fifteen farms comprised in the estate. It is the same with poultry,
+of which there are thousands roaming about the farms, grubbing much
+of their food, but, of course, some is thrown down for them in the
+various poultry yards. No hens are penned up on the estate. While that
+course is necessary where prize-show birds are reared, in the case of
+table poultry and poultry kept for eggs pens are neither essential
+nor profitable. With freedom the birds lay more regularly, and are
+generally in better condition for the table.
+
+Asked as to whether eggs were not lost owing to the hens laying in the
+hedges, Mr. Isted, who is in charge of the office where all the various
+books of record are kept, said that few, indeed, if any, are overlooked
+by those responsible, because of the system of bonuses given by Lord
+Rayleigh, to which reference has already been made. Those in charge of
+the hens receive a reward on every score of eggs brought in. Every head
+of poultry reared also means a monetary benefit to the workers.
+
+Daily between 60 and 80 17-gallon churns of milk are despatched to
+London. It is said that from no station along the Great Eastern
+Railway line is more milk sent to the Metropolis than from Witham. At
+present about 100 of these churns leave the station every day, all
+the milk coming from the immediate neighbourhood. Eggs are also sent
+to the Rayleigh Dairies in vast quantities. Every egg is carefully
+tested before it leaves the estate. The poultry is disposed of through
+middlemen. Other produce is sold in the Essex markets--at Chelmsford,
+Colchester, Witham, and Braintree. This would include all the cereals
+not used on the farm, and such hay as was not required for the stock
+during winter.
+
+Down in Essex wages are regarded as generally good by the farm
+labourers. At least there is a distinct tendency on the part of the
+men to remain on the soil. Horsemen receive 14s. a week, cowmen 14s.
+and 15s., the head cowmen getting generally 18s. and 20s., while other
+farm hands earn from 13s. to 15s. Living is very cheap, and rents are
+low. A good, comfortable cottage, with a decent bit of garden, where
+vegetables can be grown, can be had for £4 or £5 a year. Should a man
+require more ground he can get it at a nominal annual rent of 3d. per
+rod--that is, a piece of ground measuring 5-1/2 yards each way. Quite
+a number of men avail themselves of this offer, and as they knock off
+work at five p.m., they put in their evenings on their own "estate."
+
+It is true that Lord Rayleigh has only tried his new system of
+investment, as well as interest in the farms, for a year, but the
+results amply justify the experiment. So satisfied are the men
+themselves that many have asked to be allowed to invest their share
+of the interest earned and their new bonuses in the estate. It would
+seem that here, at least, is a possible project for checking the
+ever-increasing rush of young men to the towns, where, while wages
+may be higher, the conditions are not conducive to either personal or
+patriotic well-being. The great feature of Lord Rayleigh's plan is
+that it is a distinctly profit-sharing one, for no reform, however
+attractive, can be economically good unless it is financially sound.
+
+With wheat in a rising market at 50s. a quarter, the granaries of the
+world holding back supplies a considerable proportion of which are
+already cornered in America--and bread dearer than it has been for many
+years, the question of the moment is, Can England become her own wheat
+grower?
+
+Fourteen weeks after harvest the home supplies are exhausted. Britain
+needs altogether, both home and foreign, 30,000,000 quarters of wheat
+per annum to provide her people with bread. Out of the total area of
+32,000,000 acres under crops of all sorts in the country only 1,625,000
+acres are devoted to the growth of wheat. English climatic conditions
+can be relied upon to allow an average production of three and a half
+quarters per acre.
+
+The solution of the problem, therefore, is simplicity itself. A matter
+of 8,000,000 acres taken from those devoted meantime to other crops, to
+pasturage (to say nothing of deer forests, grouse moors, golf links),
+or even lying waste, and developed for wheat growing would produce,
+roughly speaking, the extra 28,000,000 necessary to our annual national
+food supply.
+
+Millions of acres of the land at present in other crops has grown
+wheat at a profit in the past. In the sixties and seventies the staple
+commodity was at its most remunerative price. In 1867 it touched the
+enormous average of 64s. 5d. per quarter, while later, in 1871 and
+1873, it stood at 56s. 8d. and 58s. 8d. per quarter.
+
+With the countries of the East--India, China, Japan--awakening to the
+potentialities of wheat as a food in place of rice, with America's
+prairies becoming used up and her teeming millions multiplying, and
+with Canada, Australia, and Argentina remaining at a standstill as
+regards wheat production, it is clear that England ought to become
+self-sufficing.
+
+To attain the desired end the vast possibilities of the agricultural
+science of to-day must be appreciated and developed by every possible
+means.
+
+What can be done within England's own borders is the chief point to be
+considered, and some experiments and experiences may point the way.
+
+The first question is, would home produced wheat pay? Farmers tell
+us that at 30s. a quarter wheat is just worth growing, but that each
+shilling over 30s. means about 5s. clear profit. Would not wheat at
+40s. an acre be worth cultivating?
+
+As to the practical ways and means of obtaining this sum out of the
+soil, I must detail some of the more modern scientific methods in
+agriculture.
+
+I have said that 8,000,000 acres of the present area under crops could
+make us independent of foreign supplies. By applying certain simple
+rules of selection regarding seeds, a much smaller area of land would
+give the same result.
+
+Instead of 3-1/2 quarters per acre--the present average--the yield
+could be doubled, or even trebled. Thirty years ago, in France, three
+quarters an acre was considered a good crop, but the same soil with
+improved methods of cultivation nowadays yields at least four quarters
+per acre; while in the best soils the crop is only considered good when
+it yields five quarters to six quarters an acre.
+
+The work of the Garton brothers and of Professor Biffen, of Cambridge
+University, has clearly shown that by careful selection and crossing of
+the best breeds of wheat the yield can be actually quadrupled.
+
+Hallet's famous experiments in selection demonstrate that the length of
+the wheat ear can be doubled, and the number of ears per stalk nearly
+trebled. The finest ear he developed produced 123 grains, as against 47
+in the original ear, and 52 ears to one plant, as against ten in the
+original.
+
+In agriculture, as in other matters in which England claims to take a
+leading part, we have something to learn from the Continent. France,
+Belgium, and Germany have adopted a system of co-operation which has
+reduced the cost of farming to the smallest possible limit. From a fund
+supplied partly by the Governments of these countries and partly by the
+farmers themselves, small farms, manures, seeds, machinery, etc., are
+provided on a co-operative basis. Would not a system on similar lines
+have far-reaching results in this country?
+
+Perhaps the most interesting suggestion, the newest in the fields of
+scientific agriculture research, is the inoculation of the soil with
+bacteria. Through these wonder-working germs which live in the nodules
+of plant roots multiplication of the free nitrogen in the air goes
+on with great rapidity, and this, united with other elements, forms
+valuable plant food.
+
+Recent experiments, the results of which have not yet been made public,
+show that good crops of wheat may be grown in the poorest soil; indeed,
+the Scriptural injunction about sowing seeds in waste places no longer
+bears scientific examination. On an area which was little more than
+common sand crops inoculated with bacteria gave an increased yield of
+18 per cent.
+
+Wheat grown on the lines I have touched upon within the United Kingdom,
+and paying the grower 40s. per quarter, would go far to solve every
+social and economic problem known. There would be work for all in
+the country districts, and consequently less poverty in the towns,
+and to the nation's resources would be conserved the enormous annual
+expenditure on foreign wheat of £67,000,000.
+
+
+OCCUPYING OWNERSHIP.
+
+    "A time there was, ere England's griefs began,
+    When every rood of ground maintained its man,"
+    Behold a change; where'er her flag unfurled,
+    It presaged forth--goods-maker to the world.
+    Then wealth from trade, pure farming handicapped
+    While glittering towns the youthful swain entrapped.
+    In trade, no longer, England stands alone,
+    Indeed, too oft, John Bull gets "beaten on his own."
+    Dependent on the world for nearly every crumb,
+    Is this a time when patriots should be dumb?
+    For England needs to guard 'gainst future strife
+    That backing up which comes from rural life.
+    Though all indeed may use both book and pen,
+    The nation's weal depends on robust men
+    Inured to toil--a hardy, virile band.
+    And these are bred where owners till the land.
+
+
+SUPPLY OF WHEAT.
+
+STRIDES IN THE SCALE OF LIVING.
+
+Earl Carrington, President of the Board of Agriculture, presided at
+a meeting of the Society of Arts, when a paper upon the production
+of wheat was read by Mr. A. E. Humphries. His lordship gave some
+very interesting jottings from family history, showing the great
+advance that had taken place in the scale of living. The subject
+of the lecture, he said, reminded him that over 100 years ago his
+grandfather, who was President of the Board of Agriculture, made a
+speech in which he said that one of the most important subjects with
+which the Board had to deal was the scarcity of wheat. It was curious
+that they were discussing the same subject to-day. His father, who
+was born 103 years ago, had often told him that in the early part of
+last century they did not have white bread at every meal, as it was so
+scarce. If that happened at the table of old Robert Smith, the banker,
+at Whitehall, what must the bread of the working classes have been like!
+
+In the five years from 1878 to 1882, said Mr. Humphries in his lecture,
+we produced 117 lb. of wheat per head per annum, and imported 238
+lb., while in the years from 1903 to 1907 we produced only 68 lb.
+per head, and imported 284 lb. For many years British wheat had been
+sold at substantially lower prices than the best foreign, and in the
+capacity of making large, shapely, well-aerated and digestible loaves
+the home-grown grain was notably deficient. It was commonly attributed
+to our climate, and people said that Great Britain was not a wheat
+producing country. The real reason was that farmer did not grow the
+right kind of wheat. It was not a matter of climate or of soil, but
+of catering for the particular kind of soil in which the grain was to
+be grown. The crux of the whole question was to obtain a variety of
+seed that would suit the environment. Farmers, instead of aiming at
+quality, had striven to get as large a yield per acre as possible.
+
+The Hon. J. W. Taverner, Agent-General for Victoria, said that he had
+heard a lot of talk about the efficiency of the Territorial Army and
+the safety of the country. If only the men were fed on bread baked from
+Australian wheat England had nothing to fear, for the men would be
+equal to anything.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+
+[A] From an article by the late John Just, M.A., of Bury.
+
+[B] Knott is also used for the name of a mountain or hill, as in
+Arnside Knott, in Westmoreland, but near the Lancashire border.
+
+[C] From Darvel--death and öl--feast.
+
+[D] The ancestors of the poet were, however, more likely "Chaussiers,"
+makers of long hose.
+
+[E] From "Free Trader," issued by the Liberal Free Traders, Dec., 1904.
+
+[F] From "The Hungry Forties," written by Mr. Cobden's daughter.
+
+[G] From Report of Agricultural Committee of the Tariff Commission.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Acle, 28.
+
+  Adamson, 63.
+
+  Adalis, 32, 38, 39.
+
+  Aella, King, 24.
+
+  Agriculture, 215.
+
+  Ainsdale, 7.
+
+  Aire, 159.
+
+  Ale, 16.
+
+  Alexandria, 152.
+
+  Alfgier, 38-39.
+
+  Alfred the Great (illust.), 26, 33.
+
+  Altcar, 23.
+
+  Amleth, 173.
+
+  Amounderness, 5.
+
+  Anastasius, 68.
+
+  Anderson, 63.
+
+  Angel choir of Lincoln, 170.
+
+  Anglian population, 17.
+
+  Anlaby, 13.
+
+  Anlaf, 25, 32, 35, 36, 37, 41.
+
+  Anstice, 68.
+
+  Aradr, 112.
+
+  Aratum, 112.
+
+  Arcle, 28.
+
+  Arnside Knott, 48.
+
+  Arncliffe, 27.
+
+  Art, 174.
+
+  Athelfloed, Lady of the Mercians, 104.
+
+  Athelstan, 26, 30, 33, 34, 35, 37, 49.
+
+  Asia, 158.
+
+  Augustin, 68.
+
+  Austin, 68.
+
+  Australia, 158.
+
+  Austria, 158.
+
+  Axle, 28.
+
+  Ayton (great), 27.
+
+
+  Back o'th' hill, 40.
+
+  Bacup, 34.
+
+  Balder, 62.
+
+  Ball (Olaf), 53.
+
+  Ballads and War Songs, 172.
+
+  Ballr, 53.
+
+  Balderstone, 62.
+
+  Bamber, 84.
+
+  Banbury, 31.
+
+  Bannister, 68.
+
+  Barker, 68.
+
+  Barrowford, 32.
+
+  Basket making, 140.
+
+  Bath-day, 15.
+
+  Battlefield, 37.
+
+  Battlestone, 37.
+
+  Beck, 69.
+
+  Beckett, 69.
+
+  Bede, 49.
+
+  Beer, 16.
+
+  Bellum Brun, 35.
+
+  Bernicia, 24, 25, 50.
+
+  Bessingby, 18.
+
+  Billingr, 62.
+
+  Birkdale, 7.
+
+  Birket, 22.
+
+  Bishop's House Estate, 37.
+
+  Bishop's leap, 31, 35.
+
+  Blagburnshire hundred, 5.
+
+  'Blakogr,' 28.
+
+  Blawith, 28.
+
+  Blowick, 28.
+
+  'Boer,' 84.
+
+  'Bois,' 69.
+
+  'Bondr,' 24.
+
+  Bonfire hill, 40.
+
+  Booth, 84.
+
+  Boulsworth, 32.
+
+  Boys, 69.
+
+  Bractaetes, 174.
+
+  'Breck,' 67.
+
+  Bridlington, 18.
+
+  Britons, 1.
+
+  ---- of Strathclyde, 34.
+
+  Broadclough Dykes, 41.
+
+  Broad Dyke, 34.
+
+  Broadbank, 35.
+
+  Brock, 69.
+
+  Brincaburh, 30.
+
+  Brinkburn, 30.
+
+  Bromborough, 31.
+
+  Brownedge, 35, 40.
+
+  Brownend, 40.
+
+  Brownside, 35.
+
+  Brun, 28, 29.
+
+  Brunanburh, 28, 31.
+
+  Brunford, 30.
+
+  Brunton, 31.
+
+  Brumbridge, 30.
+
+  Brumby, 31.
+
+  'Bud,' 84.
+
+  Buerton, 84.
+
+  'Burh,' 31.
+
+  Burnley, 29, 48.
+
+  Burscough, 23.
+
+  Burton, 84.
+
+  Burton-on-Trent, 24.
+
+  Bushel-corn, 99.
+
+  'By-law,' 8.
+
+  'Byr,' 84.
+
+  Byrom, 84.
+
+  Byzantine Coins, 174.
+
+
+  Cairns, 185.
+
+  Calday, 22.
+
+  Calders, 22.
+
+  Calderstones, 22, 182.
+
+  Canute, 5, 177.
+
+  Candlemas, 155.
+
+  Capenhurst, 64.
+
+  Castle hill--Tunlay, 33-34.
+
+  Cat's cradle, 158.
+
+  Causeway, 33.
+
+  Carnaby, 18.
+
+  Castercliffe, 32, 35.
+
+  Celtic burial, 185.
+
+  Chapman, 64.
+
+  Cheap, 64.
+
+  Cheapside, 64.
+
+  Chepstow, 64.
+
+  Chester, 4, 23, 163-164.
+
+  Chester-le-street, 53.
+
+  Children's games, 158.
+
+  Childwall, 23.
+
+  Christian 'Sunday Letters,' 153.
+
+  Churches, 163-164.
+
+  Churchtown, 164.
+
+  Claughton-on-brock, 124.
+
+  Clitheroe, 32, 48.
+
+  Clog almanacs, 143.
+
+  ---- ---- symbols, 144.
+
+  Coinage, 175.
+
+  Colne, 32.
+
+  Constantine, King of Scots, 30.
+
+  Copeland, 64.
+
+  Copeman, 64.
+
+  Copenhagen, 64.
+
+  Copethorn, 64.
+
+  Copley, 64.
+
+  Copynook, 34.
+
+  Corn spirit, 158.
+
+  Cottingham, 13.
+
+  Craik, Yorkshire, 51.
+
+  Crathorne, 26.
+
+  Crosby, 6, 23.
+
+  Crosses, 195.
+
+  Croxteth, 19.
+
+  Cuerdale, 7, 28, 175.
+
+  Cumberland, 53.
+
+  Cuthbert, Saint, 50, 53.
+
+  Cutherd, Bishop, 53.
+
+  Cup-cuttings, 182.
+
+
+  'Dale,' 7.
+
+  Danelag, 8.
+
+  Danes house, 41.
+
+  Darvel cakes, 66.
+
+  Darvel deathfeast, 66.
+
+  Dean, 69.
+
+  Deira, 9, 11, 12, 24.
+
+  Dell, 69.
+
+  Derby, 5.
+
+  Dialect, 69.
+
+  Drengs, 24.
+
+
+  Eadred, Abbot of Carlisle, 50.
+
+  Eanfrid, 25.
+
+  Easden Fort, 34.
+
+  Easington, 26.
+
+  Ecclesiologist, 156.
+
+  Ecfrith, 25.
+
+  Edward the Elder, 34.
+
+  Edwin, King, 24.
+
+  Egbert (illust.), 33.
+
+  Eglis, 39.
+
+  Egyptian scholars, 152.
+
+  Ellerburn, 27.
+
+  Elston, 62.
+
+  Elswick, 62.
+
+  Emmott, 41.
+
+  Enderby, 84.
+
+  'Endr,' 84.
+
+  Endrod, 84.
+
+  Entwistle, 84.
+
+  Equinox, vernal, 152.
+
+  Ernot, 35.
+
+  Everett, 68.
+
+  Everard, 68.
+
+  Extwistle Hall, 35.
+
+
+  Facid, 84.
+
+  Facit, 84.
+
+  Fairs and Wakes, 65.
+
+  Fawcett, 84.
+
+  'Feldkirk,' 31.
+
+  Fire and sun worship, 154.
+
+  Folklore for children, 157.
+
+  Formby, 6, 23.
+
+  Forseti, 84.
+
+  Foster, 84.
+
+  Fraisthorpe, 62.
+
+  Frankby, 62.
+
+  Fraser, 62.
+
+  Freyer, 62.
+
+  Frisby, 62.
+
+  Fry, 62.
+
+  Fryer, 62.
+
+  Furness, 164.
+
+  Fylde, 5.
+
+
+  'Gaard,' 75.
+
+  Galt, 65.
+
+  Gamelson, 84.
+
+  Gambleside, 84.
+
+  Gamul, 84.
+
+  'Gata,' 54.
+
+  Garnett, 68.
+
+  Garstang, 75.
+
+  Garswood, 75.
+
+  Garth, 75.
+
+  Garton, 75.
+
+  Geld, 65.
+
+  Godley, 32, 33.
+
+  Golden numbers, 144.
+
+  'Gos,' 69.
+
+  Gosford, 69.
+
+  Grave mounds, 184.
+
+  Grindalbythe, 18.
+
+  Guthred, King, 51, 52.
+
+
+  Hackenhurst, 39.
+
+  Haggate, 36.
+
+  Halfdan's death, 51.
+
+  Halfdene, 13, 15, 26.
+
+  Halton, 121, 125, 177-179.
+
+  ---- Crosses, 179.
+
+  ---- Torque, 177.
+
+  Hamilton Hill, 36, 40.
+
+  Hamlet, 173.
+
+  Hapton, 48.
+
+  Harbreck, 19.
+
+  Harkirke, 7, 177.
+
+  'Haugr,' 6.
+
+  Hay, 55.
+
+  Haydon Bridge, 51.
+
+  Hazel Edge, 36.
+
+  Hell Clough, 40.
+
+  Helm Wind, 208.
+
+  Heptarchy, 25.
+
+  Heriot, 107.
+
+  Hessle, 18.
+
+  Heysham, 121.
+
+  Highlawhill, 36.
+
+  'Hofs,' 6.
+
+  Horelaw pastures, 36.
+
+  'Hlith,' 48.
+
+  Hoe, 112.
+
+  Hogback stone, 105, 121, 179.
+
+  Hoop, 48.
+
+  Hope, 48.
+
+  Hopehead, 48.
+
+  Hopekirk, 48.
+
+  Hopeton, 48.
+
+  Howick, 55.
+
+  Hoylake, 55.
+
+  Hudleston, 96.
+
+  Hundred Court, 14.
+
+  Hutton John, 96.
+
+  Hurstwood, 35.
+
+  Husbandry, 111, 112.
+
+  Hustings, 8.
+
+  Huyton, 55.
+
+  Hyngr, the Dane, 37, 38.
+
+
+  Ida, King, 24.
+
+  Ingleby, 50.
+
+  Invasion and Conquest, 1, 2, 3.
+
+  Irby, 22.
+
+  Ireland, 180.
+
+  Irish Christians, 180.
+
+  Ivar, 22.
+
+
+  Jarls, 49.
+
+  Jarrow, 26.
+
+
+  Kell, 65.
+
+  Kellet, 65.
+
+  Kendal, 164.
+
+  Kingo, poet, 170.
+
+  Kirk Ella, 17, 18.
+
+  Kirk Levington, 27.
+
+  Kirkby, 6, 18.
+
+  Kirkby in Cleveland, 27.
+
+  Kirkby Lonsdale, 164.
+
+  Kirkby Misperton, 27.
+
+  Kirkby Moorside, 27, 164.
+
+  Kirkby Stephen, 164.
+
+  Kirkdale, 5, 6, 19, 27.
+
+  'Kirkja' Church, 6.
+
+  Knott End Mill, 48.
+
+  'Knotta,' 48.
+
+  Knottingley, 48.
+
+  Knut, 48.
+
+  'Knutr,' 48.
+
+  Knutsford, 48.
+
+
+  'Lake,' game, 157.
+
+  Land Tenure, 90.
+
+  Laugardag, bath day, 15.
+
+  Lawmen, 23.
+
+  Lay of Norse gods, 173.
+
+  Leamington, 84.
+
+  Lethbridge, 48.
+
+  Levishan, 27.
+
+  Lindsey, 65.
+
+  Lindisfarne, 25.
+
+  Litherland, 48.
+
+  Literature, 168.
+
+  ---- 'skryke of day,' 170.
+
+  ---- sunrise, 170.
+
+  Lithe, 48.
+
+  Lithgoe, 48.
+
+  Liverpool, 23, 47.
+
+  Log-law, 81.
+
+  Long hundred, 13.
+
+  Long weight, 13.
+
+  Lonsdale, 4.
+
+  Loom, Danish, 80.
+
+  Lorton, 51.
+
+  Lorton-en-le-Morthen, Yorks., 33.
+
+  'Lug-mark,' 81.
+
+  Lunar cycle, 155.
+
+  Lund, 65.
+
+  Lyster, 65.
+
+
+  Mackerfield, 54.
+
+  Maeshir, 54.
+
+  Maiden Way, 51.
+
+  Manchester, 34.
+
+  Manorial exaction, 106.
+
+  Manx Inscriptions, 138.
+
+  Memorials, 161.
+
+  'Merchet,' 106.
+
+  Mercia, 25.
+
+  Mercians, Lady of, 34.
+
+  ---- rule, 24.
+
+  Mereclough, 39.
+
+  Mersey, 34.
+
+  'Messe staves,' 142.
+
+  Moons, changes, 143.
+
+  Mythology, 189.
+
+
+  Names, Norse and Anglo-Saxon, 113.
+
+  Neilson, 56.
+
+  Nelson, Admiral, 56.
+
+  Norns, 189.
+
+  Norse Festival, 55.
+
+  Northumberland, --.
+
+  Northumbria, 25, 27, 70.
+
+  Nunnington, 23, 27.
+
+
+  'Occupying ownership,' 234.
+
+  Odin, 6, 197.
+
+  ---- 'The descent of,' 199.
+
+  'Ol,' 16.
+
+  'Oller,' 62.
+
+  Olave, Saint, 63.
+
+  Oram, 63.
+
+  'Orm,' 63.
+
+  Orme, 63.
+
+  Ormerod, 63.
+
+  Ormesby, 27.
+
+  Ormeshaw, 63.
+
+  Ormside cup, 131.
+
+  Ormskirk, 23, 63.
+
+  Ormstead, 185.
+
+  Osmotherley, 27.
+
+  'Osric,' 25.
+
+  'Oswald,' 25.
+
+  'Oter,' 63.
+
+  Otter, 63.
+
+  Ottley, 63.
+
+  'Oxl,' 28.
+
+  Oxton, 22.
+
+
+  Paton, 85.
+
+  Patronymics, 60.
+
+  'Pecthun,' 85.
+
+  Penda, 25.
+
+  Peyton, 85.
+
+  Phauranoth, 152.
+
+  Physical types, 79.
+
+  Picton, 85.
+
+  Picts, 85, 115.
+
+  Picture, 85.
+
+  Piko, 115.
+
+  Place names, 14-47.
+
+  'Plogr. plov.,' 112.
+
+  Plough, 112.
+
+  Political Freemen, 89.
+
+  Preston, 23.
+
+  Prestune, 23.
+
+  Prim-staves, 142.
+
+  Prima-luna, 142.
+
+
+  Quakers, 99.
+
+
+  Raby, 22.
+
+  Rachdam, 84.
+
+  Ragnvald, 52.
+
+  Raven, 115.
+
+  Ravenshore, 115.
+
+  Ravensmeols, 23.
+
+  Rawtenstall, 48.
+
+  Red-Lees, 33-36.
+
+  Regnold of Bamborough, 34.
+
+  Ribble, 29-34.
+
+  'Ridings,' Yorkshire, 9.
+
+  Rimstock, 143-144.
+
+  'Rimur,' 143.
+
+  Rivington Pike, 115.
+
+  Roby, 23.
+
+  Rochdale, 84.
+
+  Roman days, 26.
+
+  Rooley, 39.
+
+  Rossendale, 84.
+
+  Round Hill, 40.
+
+  Royal Charters, Norse witnesses, 15.
+
+  Rûnâ, 137.
+
+  Runes, 137.
+
+  Runic Almanacs, 141.
+
+  ---- Calender, 155.
+
+  ---- Characters, 143, 153.
+
+  ---- 'Futhork,' 139.
+
+  ---- Inscriptions, 138.
+
+  ---- Monuments, 181.
+
+  'Ruthlie,' 39.
+
+
+  'Saetter,' 22.
+
+  Sagas, 169, 174.
+
+  Salford hundred, 5.
+
+  Satterthwaite, 22.
+
+  Saxifield, 30, 35, 42.
+
+  Scarisbrick, 67.
+
+  Seacombe, 22.
+
+  Seascale, 22.
+
+  Seathwaithe, 22.
+
+  Sellafield, 22.
+
+  'Servi,' 103.
+
+  Settlements, 12.
+
+  Shakespere, 193.
+
+  Sherborne, 37.
+
+  Sheffield, 35.
+
+  Shotwick, 17.
+
+  Sieward, Earl, 163.
+
+  Sigurd-Story, 179.
+
+  Sinnington, 23.
+
+  'Sinfin,' 39, 40.
+
+  'Sithric,' King, 35.
+
+  Skelmersdale, 78.
+
+  Skelton, 27.
+
+  Skidby, 18.
+
+  Skipper, 55.
+
+  Slavery abolition, 103.
+
+  'Socage,' 16, 20, 21.
+
+  Sochman, 14, 20.
+
+  Sochmanni, 19, 91.
+
+  Sochmanries, 20.
+
+  Socmen of Peterboro', 105.
+
+  Sodor and Man, 83.
+
+  Solar cycle, 155.
+
+  Speke, 66.
+
+  'Spika,' 65.
+
+  Statesmen, 104.
+
+  Stainton, 26-7.
+
+  Steadsmen, 104.
+
+  Stigand, 68.
+
+  Stiggins, 68.
+
+  'Stockstede,' Croxteth, 23.
+
+  Stokesley, 26.
+
+  Stone Crosses, 119.
+
+  Storeton, 22.
+
+  Sudreyjar, 83.
+
+  Sun, 152.
+
+  Superstitions, 159, 205.
+
+  Sutherland, 83.
+
+  Swarbrick, 67.
+
+  Sweden 'lake' game, 156.
+
+  Swindene, 40.
+
+  S'winden water, 37.
+
+  S'winless lane, 35, 37.
+
+
+  Tacitus, historian, 138.
+
+  'Tallage,' 107.
+
+  Tanshelf, Taddnesscylfe, 28.
+
+  Thane, 16.
+
+  Thelwall, 23, 34.
+
+  'Thing,' trithing, 8.
+
+  Thinghow, 28, 50.
+
+  Thingstead, 28.
+
+  Thingwall, 8, 13, 28, 50.
+
+  'Thor,' 62.
+
+  Thorley, 62.
+
+  Thornaby, 27.
+
+  Thorold, 38.
+
+  Thorolf, 38.
+
+  Thursby, 62.
+
+  Thurstaston, 62.
+
+  Thurston water, 38.
+
+  Tingley, 28, 50.
+
+  Torque, 177.
+
+  Towneley, 33.
+
+  Towthorp, 18.
+
+  Toxteth, 23.
+
+  Trawden, 48.
+
+  Tree-yggdrasil, 180.
+
+  'Trithing,' 7, 10.
+
+  Trithing Court, 14.
+
+  Troughton, 48.
+
+  Trowbridge, 48.
+
+  'Trow'-trough, 48.
+
+  Turketul, Chancellor, 39.
+
+  Turton, 62.
+
+  Tursdale, 62.
+
+  Twist hill, 40.
+
+  Tynwald, 8.
+
+
+  Ullersthorpe, 62.
+
+  Ullscarth, 28.
+
+  Ullswater, 28.
+
+  Ulpha, 23.
+
+  Ulverston, 62.
+
+  Unthank, 22.
+
+
+  Valkyrs, 199.
+
+  Valour, 199.
+
+  'Vë,' 62.
+
+  Verstigan, 143.
+
+  'Viborg,' 62.
+
+  Viking age, 178.
+
+
+  Wallhalla, 189.
+
+  Walkyries, 189.
+
+  Wallasey, 22.
+
+  Walshaw, 33.
+
+  Walton le dale, 5.
+
+  Wandsworth, 198.
+
+  Wansborough, 198.
+
+  Wanstead, 198.
+
+  Wapentake, 8-9.
+
+  Warcock, 28.
+
+  Warcock-hill, 36.
+
+  Warthole, 28.
+
+  Warton, 28.
+
+  Warwick, 28.
+
+  Warrington, 24.
+
+  Watling street, 33.
+
+  Wavertree, 22.
+
+  Wearmouth, 26.
+
+  Wednesbury, 198.
+
+  Wednesday, 198.
+
+  Wellborough, 27.
+
+  West Derby, 23.
+
+  ---- ---- hundred, 5.
+
+  West Kirby, 23.
+
+  Whasset, 63.
+
+  Whitby, 17, 26, 27.
+
+  Whithorn, 51.
+
+  ---- prior of, 165.
+
+  Wigton, 62.
+
+  Wigthorpe, 62.
+
+  Wilbeforce, 62.
+
+  Wild, 64.
+
+  Wilde, 64.
+
+  Wilding, 63.
+
+  Willerby, 13.
+
+  Willoughby, 62.
+
+  Windermere, 22.
+
+  Winewall, 35.
+
+  Winter Solstice, 211.
+
+  Widdop, 36.
+
+  Wirral, 12, 24.
+
+  Woollen manufacture, 64.
+
+  Worsthorne, 37.
+
+  Worsthorne, 36.
+
+  Wulfric Spot, 24.
+
+  Wycollar, 41.
+
+  Wydale, 62.
+
+  Wylde, 10.
+
+  Wyre, 62.
+
+
+  Yarborg, 84.
+
+  Yarborough, 84.
+
+  Yarm, 27.
+
+  Yerburgh, 84.
+
+  Yggdrasil, 189.
+
+  Yorkshire children's folklore, 114.
+
+  Yule, origin, 211.
+
+
+  Zinga, 181.
+
+  Zodiac, 152.
+
+  Zoni, 181.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+
+Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
+preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.
+
+Simple typographical errors were corrected; frequent unbalanced
+quotation marks not remedied except as noted below.
+
+Page 16: "hopped ale.'" either is missing an opening quotation mark or
+has a superfluous ending one.
+
+Page 36: 'is "Warcock Hill.' either is missing a closing quotation mark
+or has a superfluous opening one.
+
+Page 62: "descrip-names" was printed that way; may be misprint for
+"descriptive names".
+
+Page 65: Text beginning with '"Robert de Cowdray, who died in 1222' has
+no closing quotation mark.
+
+Page 71: "proposition" probably should be "preposition".
+
+Page 72: Ending quotation mark added to "I's t'".
+
+Page 73: "helder--preferably;" the semi-colon was printed as a colon,
+but changed here for consistency with the rest of the list.
+
+Page 80: "are also easily be recognised" was printed that way.
+
+Page 80: "or clap-cake, form" probably should be "from".
+
+Page 81: 'lögg mark."' either is missing an opening quotation mark or
+has a superfluous closing one.
+
+Page 106: Likely superfluous quotation mark after 'by commutation."'
+
+Page 114: Missing quotation mark added after 'is in Norse "Stegger."'
+
+Page 117: There is no "CHAPTER VIII" in this book, but the chapter
+names match the Table of Contents.
+
+Page 132: Paragraph beginning "The Bewcastle cross in the Gigurd shaft"
+was printed as shown here.
+
+Pages 144-151: Runic symbols appeared to the left of each entry in
+the Clog Almanac on these pages, and between some of them. To avoid
+clutter, this eBook does not indicate where those symbols appeared.
+
+Page 147: "St. John Beverlev" may be alternate spelling for "Beverley".
+
+Page 149: No entry for Sept. 6.
+
+Page 158: "and has recently found" was printed that way.
+
+Page 172: "songs and sages" may be misprint for "sagas".
+
+Page 181: '"The Calder Stones near Liverpool' has no closing quotation
+mark.
+
+Page 182: "between 576 feet" is a misprint, possibly for "5&6".
+
+Page 190: 'songs of the "Edda.' either is missing a closing quotation
+mark or has a superfluous opening one.
+
+Page 195: '"How the man Odin' is missing a closing quotation mark, or
+its mate is on page 199.
+
+Page 199: 'the sky and in the ocean."' is missing an opening quotation
+mark, or its mate is on page 195.
+
+Page 220: "last thirty years" was misprinted as "vast"; changed here.
+
+Page 223: "rich dark brow soil" probably should be "brown".
+
+Page 234: Unclear whether "Occupying Ownership" is a Section heading or
+just the title of the poem.
+
+Page 235: "but of catering" contained a duplicate "of"; changed here.
+
+Some alphabetizing errors in the Index corrected here. Index references
+were not checked for accuracy.
+
+Page 243: No page reference given in the Index for "Northumberland, --".
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Danes in Lancashire and Yorkshire, by 
+S. W. Partington
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43910 ***