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diff --git a/43900.txt b/43900.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a6765a2..0000000 --- a/43900.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,26339 +0,0 @@ -Project Gutenberg's History of the Jews, Vol. IV (of VI), by Heinrich Graetz - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: History of the Jews, Vol. IV (of VI) - -Author: Heinrich Graetz - -Release Date: October 6, 2013 [EBook #43900] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. IV *** - - - - -Produced by David Edwards, Charlie Howard, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - - HISTORY OF THE - JEWS - - BY - HEINRICH GRAETZ - - VOL. IV - - FROM THE RISE OF THE KABBALA (1270 C. E.) TO THE - PERMANENT SETTLEMENT OF THE MARRANOS - IN HOLLAND (1618 C. E.) - - [Illustration] - - PHILADELPHIA - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - 5717-1956 - - - - - Copyright, 1894, by - - THE JEWISH PUBLICATION SOCIETY OF AMERICA - - _All rights reserved. No part of this book may be - reproduced in any form without permission in - writing from the publisher: except by a reviewer - who may quote brief passages in a review to be - printed in a magazine or newspaper._ - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - CULTIVATION OF THE KABBALA, AND PROSCRIPTION OF SCIENCE. - - Progress of the Kabbala--Todros Halevi and his Sons--Isaac - Allatif and his Kabbalistic Doctrines--Adventurous Career - of Abraham Abulafia--He assumes the Character of Messiah - --Opposition of Ben Adret--The Prophet of Avila--Joseph - Jikatilla and his Kabbalistic Mazes--The Impostor Moses de - Leon--Forgeries of the Kabbalists--Origin of the Zohar-- - Its Doctrines and Influence--Shem-Tob Falaquera--Isaac - Albalag--Levi of Villefranche--Samuel Sulami and Meiri-- - Abba-Mari's Exaggerated Zeal--Jacob ben Machir Profatius and - the Controversy regarding the Study of Science--Asheri--The - Poet Yedaya Bedaresi _page 1._ - - 1270-1328 C.E. - - - CHAPTER II. - - THE FIRST EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM FRANCE, AND ITS - CONSEQUENCES. - - Philip le Bel--The Jews of France plundered and banished-- - Estori Parchi; Aaron Cohen; Laments of Bedaresi--Eleazar - of Chinon, the Martyr--Return of the Jews to France; their - Precarious Position--Progress of the Controversy regarding - the Study of Philosophy--Abba-Mari and Asheri--Death of Ben - Adret--Rabbinical Revival in Spain--Isaac Israeli II-- - Samuel and the Queen Maria Molina--Don Juan Emanuel and Judah - Ibn-Wakar--The Jews of Rome--Robert of Naples and the Jews - --Peril of the Jews in Rome--Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, his - Satires--Immanuel and Dante--The Poet Judah Siciliano-- - Leone Romano and King Robert--Shemarya Ikriti--Position of - Karaism--Aaron the Elder and the Prayer-Book of the Karaites - _page 46._ - - 1306-1328 C.E. - - - CHAPTER III. - - THE AGE OF THE ASHERIDES AND OF GERSONIDES. - - Condition of Palestine--Pilgrims and Immigrants--Shem - Tob Ibn-Gaon--Favorable Position of the Jews in Castile - under Alfonso XI--Persecution in Navarre--Joseph de Ecija - and Samuel Ibn-Wakar--Increase of Anti-Jewish Feelings - --Abner-Alfonso of Burgos, Convert to Christianity, and - Persecutor of the Jews--Gonzalo Martinez--Fall of Martinez - and Deliverance of the Jews--Decline of the Study of Science - --The Study of the Talmud prosecuted with Renewed Vigor-- - Jacob and Judah Asheri--Isaac Pulgar, David Ibn-Albilla-- - The Provencal Philosophers Ibn-Kaspi, Leon de Bagnols, and - Vidal Narboni--Decline of the Study of the Talmud in Germany - --Emperor Louis of Bavaria and the Jews--Persecution by the - "Leather-Arms" _page 73._ - - 1328-1350 C.E. - - - CHAPTER IV. - - THE BLACK DEATH. - - Rise of the False Accusation against Jews of Poisoning the - Wells--Massacres in Southern France and Catalonia--The - Friendly Bull of Pope Clement VI--Terrible Massacres in all - Parts of Germany--Confessions wrung from the Jews on the Rack - --The Flagellants as a Scourge for the Jews--King Casimir of - Poland--Persecution in Brussels--The Black Death in Spain - --Don Pedro the Cruel and the Jews--Santob de Carrion and - Samuel Abulafia--Fall of Don Pedro and its Consequences for - the Jews--Return of the Jews to France and Germany--The - "Golden Bull"--Manessier de Vesoul--Matathiah Meir Halevi - --Synod at Mayence _page 100._ - - 1348-1380 C.E. - - - CHAPTER V. - - THE AGE OF CHASDAI CRESCAS AND ISAAC BEN SHESHET. - - The Jews of Spain after the Civil War--Joseph Pichon and - Samuel Abrabanel--The Apostates: John of Valladolid-- - Menachem ben Zerach, Chasdai Crescas, and Isaac ben Sheshet - --Chayim Gallipapa and his Innovations--Prevot Aubriot - and the Jews of Paris--The French Rabbinate--Revival - of Jewish Influence in Spain--The Jews of Portugal--The - Jewish Statesmen, David and Judah Negro--Rabbis and Clergy - --Persecutions in Germany and Spain--The First Germs of the - Inquisition--Second Expulsion of the Jews from France--The - Convert Pessach-Peter--Lipmann of Muehlhausen _page 136._ - - 1369-1380 C.E. - - - CHAPTER VI. - - JEWISH APOSTATES AND THE DISPUTATION AT TORTOSA. - - The Marranos--The Satirists--Pero Ferrus of Alcala, Diego - de Valencia, and Villasandino--Astruc Raimuch and Solomon - Bonfed--Paul de Santa Maria and his Zealous Campaign against - the Jews--Joshua Ibn-Vives--Profiat Duran (Efodi)--Meir - Alguades--The Philosophy of Crescas--Death of Henry III of - Castile and Unfavorable Change in the Position of the Jews-- - Messianic Dreams of the Kabbalists--Jews seek an Asylum in - Northern Africa--Simon Duran--Geronimo de Santa Fe, Vincent - Ferrer and Benedict XIII--Anti-Jewish Edict of Juan II-- - Special Jewish Costume--Conversion of Jews owing to Ferrer's - Violent Efforts--Disputation at Tortosa--The Jewish - Spokesmen at the Conference--Incidents of the Meeting-- - Geronimo instigates the Publication of a Bull for the Burning - of the Talmud--Pope Martin V befriends the Jews _page 179._ - - 1391-1420 C.E. - - - CHAPTER VII. - - THE HUSSITES. PROGRESS OF JEWISH LITERATURE. - - The Hussite Heresy--Consequences for the Jews involved in - the Struggle--Jacob Moelin--Abraham Benveniste and Joseph - Ibn-Shem Tob in the Service of the Castilian Court--Isaac - Campanton, the Poet Solomon Dafiera--Moses da Rieti-- - Anti-Christian Polemical Literature--Chayim Ibn-Musa-- - Simon Duran and his Son Solomon--Joseph Albo as a Religious - Philosopher--Jewish Philosophical Systems--Edict of the - Council of Basle against the Jews--Fanatical Outbreaks in - Majorca--Astruc Sibili and his Conversion to Christianity - _page 221._ - - 1420-1442 C.E. - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - CAPISTRANO AND HIS PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS. - - Pope Eugenius IV, under the Influence of Alfonso de Cartagena, - changes his Attitude towards the Jews--His Bull against the - Spanish and Italian Jews in 1442--Don Juan II defends the - Jews--Pope Nicholas V's Hostility--Louis of Bavaria--The - Philosopher Nicholas of Cusa and his Relation to Judaism-- - John of Capistrano--His Influence with the People is turned - against the Jews--Capistrano in Bavaria and Wuerzburg-- - Expulsion of the Breslau Community--Expulsion of the Jews - from Bruenn and Olmuetz--The Jews of Poland under Casimir IV - --Capture of Constantinople by Mahomet II--The Jews find - an Asylum in Turkey--The Karaites--Moses Kapsali--Isaac - Zarfati--Position of the Jews of Spain--Persecutions - directed by Alfonso de Spina--The Condition of the Marranos - _page 248._ - - 1442-1474 C.E. - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE JEWS IN ITALY AND GERMANY BEFORE THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN. - - Position of the Jews of Italy--The Jewish Bankers--Yechiel - of Pisa--His Relations with Don Isaac Abrabanel--Jewish - Physicians, Guglielmo di Portaleone--Revival of Learning - among Italian Jews--Messer Leon and Elias del Medigo-- - Pico di Mirandola, the Disciple of Medigo--Predilection of - Christians for the Kabbala--Jochanan Aleman--Religious - Views of Del Medigo--German Rabbis immigrate into Italy-- - Joseph Kolon, his Character and his Feud with Messer Leon - --Judah Menz, an Antagonist of Del Medigo--Bernardinus - of Feltre--Jews banished from Trent on a False Charge of - Child-Murder--The Doge of Venice and Pope Sixtus IV befriend - the Jews--Sufferings of the Jews of Ratisbon--Israel Bruna - --Synod at Nuremberg--Emperor Frederick III _page 285._ - - 1474-1492 C.E. - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN. - - Jewish Blood in the Veins of the Spanish Nobility--The - Marranos cling to Judaism and manifest Unconquerable Antipathy - to Christianity--Ferdinand and Isabella--The Dominicans, - Alfonso de Ojeda, Diego de Merlo, and Pedro de Solis--The - Catechism of the Marranos--A Polemical Work against the - Catholic Church and Despotism gives a Powerful Impulse to the - Inquisition--The Tribunal is established in 1480--Miguel - Morillo and Juan de San Martin are the first Inquisitors-- - The Inquisition in Seville--The "Edict of Grace"--The - Procession and the Auto-da-fe--The Numbers of the Accused and - Condemned--Pope Sixtus IV and his Vacillating Policy with - Regard to the Inquisition--The Inquisition under the first - Inquisitor General, Thomas de Torquemada; its Constitutions - --The Marranos of Aragon--They are charged with the Death - of the Inquisitor Arbues--Persecutions and Victims-- - Proceedings against two Bishops Favorable to the Jews, - De Avila and De Aranda _page 308._ - - 1474-1483 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XI. - - EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN. - - Friendship of Marranos and Jews--Torquemada demands of - the Rabbis of Toledo the Denunciation of Marranos--Judah - Ibn-Verga--Jewish Courtiers under Ferdinand and Isabella - --Isaac Abrabanel: his History and Writings--The Jews - of Portugal under Alfonso V--The Ibn-Yachya Brothers-- - Abrabanel's Flight from Portugal to Spain--The Jews of - Granada: Isaac Hamon--Edict of Banishment promulgated by - Ferdinand and Isabella--Its Consequences--Departure from - Spain--Number of the Exiles--Decline in the Prosperity - of Spain after the Banishment of the Jews--Transformation - of Synagogues and Schools into Churches and Monasteries-- - The Inquisition and the Marranos--Deza, the Successor of - Torquemada _page 334._ - - 1483-1492 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XII. - - EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM NAVARRE AND PORTUGAL. - - The Exiles from Navarre--Migration to Naples--King - Ferdinand I of Naples and Abrabanel--Leon Abrabanel-- - Misfortunes of the Jews in Fez, Genoa, Rome, and the Islands - of Greece--The Sultan Bajazet--Moses Kapsali--Spanish - Jews in Portugal--The Jewish Astronomers, Abraham Zacuto - and Jose Vecinho--The Jewish Travelers, Abraham de Beya and - Joseph Zapateiro--Outbreak of the Plague among the Spanish - Jews in Portugal--Sufferings of the Portuguese Exiles-- - Judah Chayyat and his Fellow-Sufferers--Cruelty of Joao II-- - Kindly Treatment by Manoel changed into Cruelty on his Marriage - --Forcible Baptism of Jewish Children--Levi ben Chabib and - Isaac Caro--Pope Alexander VI--Manoel's Efforts on Behalf - of the Portuguese Marranos--Death of Simon Maimi and Abraham - Saba _page 357._ - - 1492-1498 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - RESULTS OF THE EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. - GENERAL VIEW. - - Widespread Consequences of the Expulsion--The Exiles--Fate - of the Abrabanel Family--Leon Medigo--Isaac Akrish--The - Pre-eminence of Jews of Spanish Origin--The North-African - States: Samuel Alvalensi, Jacob Berab, Simon Duran II--The - Jews of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis--Abraham Zacuto and Moses - Alashkar--Egypt: Isaac Shalal, David Ibn-Abi Zimra--The - Jews of Cairo--Selim I--Cessation of the Office of Nagid-- - Jerusalem--Obadyah di Bertinoro--Safet and Joseph Saragossi - --The Jews of Turkey--Constantinople--Elias Mizrachi: - the Karaites--The Communities of Salonica and Adrianople-- - The Jews of Greece--Elias Kapsali--The Jews of Italy and - the Popes: Bonet de Lates--The Ghetto in Venice--Samuel - Abrabanel and Benvenida Abrabanela--Abraham Farissol--The - Jews of Germany and their Sorrows--Expulsion of the Jews from - Various Towns--The Jews of Bohemia--Jacob Polak and his - School--The Jews of Poland _page 382._ - - 1496-1525 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - REUCHLIN AND THE TALMUD. - - Antecedents of the Convert John Pfefferkorn--Pfefferkorn and - the Dominicans of Cologne--Hoogstraten, Ortuinus Gratius - and Arnold of Tongern--Victor von Karben--Attacks on the - Talmud and Confiscation of Copies in Frankfort--Reuchlin's - Hebrew and Kabbalistic Studies--The Controversy concerning - the Talmud--Activity on both Sides--Public Excitement-- - Complete Victory of Reuchlin's Efforts in Defense of Jewish - Literature--Ulrich von Hutten--Luther--Revival of Hebrew - Studies _page 422._ - - 1500-1520 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XV. - - THE KABBALA AND MESSIANIC FANATICISM. THE MARRANOS AND THE - INQUISITION. - - Internal Condition of Judaism--Division in the Communities-- - The Lack of Interest in Poetry--Historical Studies---Leon - Medigo's "Dialogues of Love"--Supremacy of the Kabbala-- - Messianic Hopes--The Marranos and the Inquisition--Henrique - Nunes--The Traveler David Reubeni in Rome--Solomon Molcho - --His Relations with David Reubeni--Joseph Karo and his - "Maggid"--Clement VII--Molcho in Ancona and Rome--His - Favor with the Cardinals--Death of Molcho--The Enthusiastic - Regard in which he was held--Duarte de Paz--Paul III-- - Charles V and the Jews--Emanuel da Costa _page 477._ - - 1500-1538 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - STRIVINGS OF EASTERN JEWS FOR UNITY. SUFFERING IN THE WEST. - - Efforts towards Unity--Jacob Berab proposes the - Re-introduction of Rabbinical Ordination into Palestine-- - Successful Opposition of Levi ben Chabib--Joseph Karo--His - Connection with Solomon Molcho and his Messianic Visions-- - Karo's Religious Code--Converts to Judaism at the Era of the - Reformation--Expulsion of the Jews from Naples and Prague-- - Their Return to the latter Town--Dr. Eck--Martin Luther and - the Jews--Moses Hamon--Jewish Histories by Joseph Cohen, - the Ibn-Vergas, and Samuel Usque--Elegy of Samuel Usque-- - Reaction in the Catholic Church; Loyola establishes the Order - of Jesuits--The Censorship of Books--Eliano Romano and - Vittorio Eliano--Fresh Attacks on the Talmud--Paul IV and - his anti-Jewish Bulls--Persecution of the Marranos by the - Inquisition in Ancona--Joseph Nassi--The Levantine Jews-- - Expulsion of the Jews from Austria and Bohemia--Relations - of Pope Pius IV and V to the Jews _page 529._ - - 1538-1566 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - THE JEWS IN TURKEY. DON JOSEPH NASSI. - - Joseph Nassi's Favor with Sultan Solyman--His Friendship for - Prince Selim--Hostility of Venice and France to Nassi-- - Joseph Nassi restores Tiberias, and is created Duke of Naxos - --The Vizir Mahomet Sokolli--The Turks, at the Instigation - of Nassi, conquer Cyprus--Rebellion against Philip II in - the Netherlands--Solomon Ashkenazi--Election of Henry - of Anjou as King of Poland--Ashkenazi negotiates a Peace - between Venice and Turkey--Gedalya Ibn-Yachya and Jewish - Literature in Turkey--Joseph Karo compiles the "Shulchan - Aruch"--Azarya dei Rossi--Isaac Lurya--The Jewish "Dark - Age"--Spread of the Kabbala--Lurya's Disciple, Chayim Vital - Calabrese--Death of Joseph Nassi--Esther Kiera and the - Influence of Jewish Women in Turkey _page 593._ - - 1566-1600 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - THE JEWS IN POLAND. - - Condition of Poland--Favorable Situation of the Jews in - that Country--Anti-Jewish Party in Poland--The Jewish - Communities--Judaizing Poles--Studies of the Jews-- - The Talmud in Poland--Solomon Lurya--Moses Isserles-- - The Historian, David Gans--"Zemach David"--Supremacy of - the Polish Authorities in Rabbinical Matters--The Jewish - Seminaries in Poland--The Disputations at the Fairs-- - Chiddushim and Chillukim--Stephen Bathori--His Kindness - towards his Jewish Subjects--Sigismund III--Restriction - on the Erection of Synagogues--Jewish Synods--Vaad Arba - Arazoth--Mordecai Jafa--Christian Sects in Poland--The - Socinians or Unitarians--Simon Budny--The Reformers and the - Jews--Isaac Troki--"The Strengthening of Faith" _page 631._ - - 1566-1600 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - SETTLEMENT OF JEWS IN HOLLAND. FEEBLE ATTEMPTS AT - ENFRANCHISEMENT. - - Revival of Catholicism--Decay in European Culture-- - Ill-treatment of Jews in Berlin--Emperor Rudolph II of - Austria--Diminution in the Numbers of Italian Jews--Pope - Gregory XIII--Confiscation of Copies of the Talmud-- - Vigorous Attempts at the Conversion of Jews--Pope Sixtus V-- - The Jewish Physician David de Pomis--Renewal of Persecution - by Clement VIII--Expulsion from Various Italian States--The - Censors and the Talmud--The Jews at Ferrara--Settlement - of Jews in Holland--Samuel Pallache--Jacob Tirado and the - Marranos in Amsterdam--Tolerant Treatment--The Poet, David - Jesurun--Moses Uri--Hebrew Printing in Amsterdam _page 650._ - - 1593-1618 C.E. - - - CHAPTER XX. - - THE DUTCH JERUSALEM AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. - - The Amsterdam Jewish Community--Its Wealth, Culture, and - Honored Position--Zacuto Lusitano--Internal Dissensions - --The Talmud Torah School--Saul Morteira, Isaac Aboab, and - Manasseh ben Israel--The Portuguese Congregation in Hamburg - --The First Synagogue--Lutheran Intolerance--John Miller - --Jewish Colony in Brazil--The Chief Communities in Germany - --Persecution in Frankfort--Dr. Chemnitz--The Vienna - Congregation--Lipmann Heller--Ferdinand II's Zeal for the - Conversion of Jews--Influence of the Thirty Years' War on - the Fortunes of the Jews _page 676_ - - 1618-1648 C.E. - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - - - -HISTORY OF THE JEWS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -CULTIVATION OF THE KABBALA, AND PROSCRIPTION OF SCIENCE. - - Progress of the Kabbala--Todros Halevi and his Sons--Isaac - Allatif and his Kabbalistic Doctrines--Adventurous Career - of Abraham Abulafia--He assumes the Character of Messiah - --Opposition of Ben Adret--The Prophet of Avila--Joseph - Jikatilla and his Kabbalistic Mazes--The Impostor Moses de - Leon--Forgeries of the Kabbalists--Origin of the Zohar-- - Its Doctrines and Influence--Shem-Tob Falaquera--Isaac - Albalag--Levi of Villefranche--Samuel Sulami and Meiri-- - Abba-Mari's Exaggerated Zeal--Jacob ben Machir Profatius and - the Controversy regarding the Study of Science--Asheri--The - Poet Yedaya Bedaresi. - -1270-1328 C.E. - - -The secret science of the Kabbala, which hitherto had assumed a modest -deportment and been of a harmless character, began to foment discord -in Ben Adret's time, ensnare the intelligence and lead astray the -weak. What it lacked in intrinsic truth and power of conviction, it -endeavored to supply by presumptuousness. It had already spread from -Gerona, its original seat, and from northern Spain by way of Segovia -to southern Spain, as far as the Castilian capital, Toledo, the Jewish -community of which had before strenuously opposed obscurantism. In the -city of Toledo the Kabbala won the adherence, among others, of one man -who, by his noble birth, his princely state, his high position, his -wealth and learning, gave it great weight. This man, whose influence -is even now not fully recognized, was Todros ben Joseph Halevi, of -the noble Toledan family of Abulafia (born 1234, died after 1304). -He was a nephew of that Meir Abulafia who had been so obstinate an -adversary of Maimuni and rationalistic thought. Todros Abulafia took -as a model his uncle, who in his old age had laid his hands on his -head, and blessed him. When he grew up, he applied himself to the -Talmud and to secret lore; but he must have been a man of affairs, -too, for he obtained an honorable position at the court of Sancho IV, -and was in special favor with the wise queen, Maria de Molina, as a -physician and financier. By the Jews he was esteemed and venerated as -their prince (Nasi). When the king and queen of Spain held a meeting in -Bayonne with the king of France, Philip le Bel, to settle their mutual -hostilities (1290), Todros Abulafia was in the train of the former, and -received the most flattering homage from the Jews of southern France. -Todros, like his uncle, was a determined opponent of philosophy and -its devotees. He had no words bitter enough against the would-be wise -people who hold everything which appears incompatible with logic as -incredible and impossible. Even Maimuni, whom he highly respected, he -censured for undervaluing the importance of the sacrifices so greatly -as to explain them merely as a concession to the heathen propensities -of the people, and for calling the offering of incense an expedient for -purifying the air. He waged vehement warfare against the philosophy -which denies the existence of evil spirits, which to him was identical -with doubting the existence of angels. Having been initiated into -the secret science by one of the earliest Kabbalists, perhaps by -Jacob of Segovia, who formed a school of his own, Todros valued it -as divine wisdom, to uncover whose veil to laymen was fraught with -danger. The recognition of the secret doctrine by a person of so high a -position could not but produce some effect. His sons, Levi and Joseph, -likewise plunged headlong into its study. Two of the four Kabbalists -of his time, who developed the Kabbala, and extended its influence, -ranged themselves under the banner of Todros Abulafia, and dedicated -their compositions to him. These four Kabbalists of the first rank, -who established new theories with more or less success, were Isaac -Ibn-Latif, Abraham Abulafia, Joseph Jikatilla, and Moses de Leon, all -Spaniards. They obscured the mental light, with which men of intellect, -from Saadiah to Maimuni, had illumined Judaism, and substituted for -a refined religious belief, fantastic and even blasphemous chimeras. -The intellectual degradation of the Jews in the following centuries -is to a large extent their work. They led astray both their own times -and posterity through designed or unintentional imposition, and the -injuries which they inflicted on Judaism are felt even at the present -day. - -The least harmful of these four was Isaac ben Abraham Ibn-Latif or -Allatif (born about 1220, died about 1290). He no doubt owed his origin -to the south of Spain, for he was acquainted with Arabic. Nothing is -known of his history beyond the fact that he was on friendly terms -with Todros Abulafia, to whom he dedicated one of his works. His -writings, as has been said by one who came after him, seem to "stand -with one foot on philosophy and with the other on the Kabbala." But -Allatif only toyed with philosophical formulae, their meaning does -not seem to have become known to him. He was not of a thoughtful -nature, and did not enrich the Kabbala, although he attempted to give -himself the appearance of following original methods, and avoided -the usual Kabbalistic expressions. Allatif started with the thought -that a philosophical view of Judaism was not the "right road to the -sanctuary," and that it was, therefore, needful to seek a higher -conception, but, instead of making the way clear, he concealed it by -empty allusions and unmeaning phrases. Allatif laid more weight than -his predecessors on the close connection between the spiritual and the -material world--between God and His creation. For the Godhead is in -all, and all is in it. In soul-inspiring prayers the human spirit is -raised to the world-spirit (Sechel ha-Poel), to which it is united "in -a kiss," and, so influencing the Divinity, it draws down blessings on -the sublunar world. But not every mortal is capable of such spiritual -and efficacious prayer; therefore, the prophets, the most perfect -men, were obliged to pray for the people, for they alone knew the -power of prayer. The unfolding and revelation of the Deity in the -world of spirits, spheres and bodies, were explained by Isaac Allatif -in mathematical formulae. Isaac Allatif must, however, be considered -a clear thinker, when compared with his enthusiastic contemporary, -Abraham Abulafia, who endeavored to establish a new order of things by -Kabbalistic sophisms. - -Abraham ben Samuel Abulafia (born 1240, in Saragossa, died 1291) was -an eccentric personage, full of whims, and fond of adventures. Endowed -with a lively mind and with more than a moderate amount of knowledge, -he renounced the ways of common sense to throw himself into the arms of -enthusiasm. His whole life from his entry into manhood was a succession -of adventures. His father, who had instructed him in the Bible and -the Talmud, died when his son was a youth of eighteen, and two years -later Abraham undertook a journey of adventure, as he relates, in order -to discover the mythical river Sabbation or Sambation, and to become -acquainted with the supposed Israelite tribes dwelling on its banks, no -doubt with a Messianic purpose. His mind was in a constant tumult. He -wrestled for clearness, but fell ever deeper into mazes and illusions. -One thing, however, became evident to him, that the philosophy -with which he had much occupied himself offered no certainty, and, -therefore, no satisfaction to the religious mind thirsting after truth. -Even the trite Kabbala as commonly accepted, with its doctrine about -the Sefiroth, did not satisfy his soul, since both only nursed the -pride of knowledge. He, a Kabbalist, criticised the unsoundness of this -mystic theory so severely and correctly that it is surprising that -he should have conceived still more insane notions. Abraham Abulafia -sought after something higher, for prophetic inspiration, which alone -opens the fountain of truth, without traversing the laborious path of -systematic application. - -At length Abulafia believed that he had found what his soul was -yearning for, and that through divine inspiration he had come upon a -higher Kabbala, in relation to which the lower mystical doctrine and -philosophy were only handmaids. This Kabbala alone, he maintained, -offers the means of coming into spiritual communion with the Godhead, -and of obtaining prophetic insight. This means was far from new, but -the firm conviction of its effectiveness and his application of it are -peculiar to Abulafia. To decompose the words of Holy Writ, especially -the all-hallowed name of God, to use the letters as independent notions -(Notaricon), or to transpose the component parts of a word in all -possible permutations, so as to form words from them (Tsiruf), or -finally to employ the letters as numbers (Gematria), these are the -means of securing communion with the spirit-world. But this alone is -not sufficient. He who desires to render himself worthy of a prophetic -revelation, must adopt an ascetic mode of living, must remove himself -from the turmoil of the world, shut himself up in a quiet chamber, -deliver his soul from earthly cares, clothe himself in white garments, -wrap himself up with Talith and Phylacteries, and devoutly prepare -his soul, as if for an interview with the Deity. Besides, he must -pronounce the letters of God's name at intervals, with modulations of -the voice, or write them down in a certain order, at the same time -making energetic movements, writhing and bending forward till the -mind becomes dazed, and the heart filled with a glow. Then the body -will be surprised by sleep, and a sensation will arise, as if the soul -were released from the body. In this condition, if it become lasting -through practice, the divine grace is poured into the human soul, -uniting with it in a kiss, and the prophetic revelation follows quite -naturally. This means of working himself up into a state of ecstasy -Abulafia certainly practiced, exciting his heated fancy to delirium. He -considered his Kabbala to be prophetic inspiration, by means of which -he alone could penetrate into the secrets of the Torah. For the plain -sense of the words and the simple practice of the religious precepts -were merely for the uninitiated, like milk for children. Experts, on -the other hand, find the higher wisdom in the numerical value of the -letters and in the manifold changes of the words. - -In this way he laid down his Kabbala, in antithesis to the superficial -or baser Kabbala, which occupies itself with the Sefiroth, and, -as he gibingly said, erects a sort of Decem-unity instead of the -Christian Trinity. He lectured on his Kabbala in Barcelona, Burgos, -and Medina-Celi. So low was the general intelligence, that this -half-insane enthusiast found old and young to listen to him. Two -of his disciples, Joseph Jikatilla, and Samuel, alleged to be a -prophet, both of Medina-Celi, proclaimed themselves to be prophets and -workers of miracles. Abulafia appears, nevertheless, to have aroused -opposition in Spain, or at least not to have found any real sympathy; -he left his native country a second time, betaking himself once more -to Italy, where he reckoned upon stronger support. In Urbino for the -first time he produced prophetic writings, and alleged that God had -spoken with him. At last he conceived the mad idea of converting the -pope to Judaism (Sabbath-eve, 1281). The attempt cost him dear. He -was arrested two days later in Rome, languished twenty-eight days in -prison, and escaped the stake only through the circumstance that God, -as he expressed it, had caused a double mouth (or tongue?) to grow in -him. Possibly he told the pope that he, too, taught the doctrine of -the Trinity. After this he was allowed to walk about Rome in freedom. -Thence Abulafia proceeded to the island of Sicily, and in Messina -he met with a favorable reception, gaining six adherents. Here he -finally proclaimed that he was not only a prophet but the Messiah, -and set forth his claims in writing (November, 1284). God, he said, -had revealed to him His secrets, and had announced to him the end of -the exile and the beginning of the Messianic redemption. The gracious -event was to take place in the year 1290. Mysticism has always been the -ground on which Messianic fancies have thriven. - -Through strictly moral deportment, ascetic life and revelations veiled -in obscure formulae, perhaps also through his winning personality and -boldness, Abraham Abulafia found many in Sicily who believed in him, -and began to make preparations for returning to the Holy Land. But the -intelligent part of the Sicilian congregation hesitated to join him -without investigation. They addressed themselves to Solomon ben Adret, -to obtain information from him respecting Abraham Abulafia. The rabbi -of Barcelona, who was acquainted with Abulafia's earlier career, sent -an earnest letter to the community of Palermo, in which he severely -condemned the self-constituted Messiah as illiterate and dangerous. -Naturally, Abulafia did not allow this attack to remain unanswered, -but proceeded to defend himself from the denunciation. In a letter he -justified his prophetic Kabbala, and hurled back Ben Adret's invectives -in language so undignified that many thought the letter not genuine. - -But his abusive retort was of no avail, for other congregations and -rabbis, who may have feared that a persecution might be the consequence -of his fantastic doctrines, also expressed themselves against Abulafia. -He was harassed so much in Sicily that he had to leave the island, and -settle in the tiny isle of Comino, near Malta (about 1288). Here he -continued to publish mystical writings, and to assert that he would -bring deliverance to Israel. Persecution had embittered him. He leveled -charges against his brethren in faith, who in their stubbornness would -not listen to him: "Whilst the Christians believe in my words, the Jews -eschew them, and absolutely refuse to know anything of the calculation -of God's name, but prefer the calculation of their money." Of those -who exclusively occupied themselves with the Talmud, Abulafia said -that they were seized by an incurable disease, and that they were far -inferior to those skilled in the higher Kabbala. Abraham Abulafia, -besides twenty-six on other subjects, composed at least twenty-two -so-called prophetic works, which, although the product of a diseased -brain, were used by the later Kabbalists. What at last became of the -prophetic and Messianic enthusiast and adventurer is not known. - -His extravagant conduct did not fail to produce evil consequences, even -in his own time, and was as infectious as an epidemic. About the same -time there arose in Spain two enthusiasts, of whom one was probably -Abraham Abulafia's disciple. One of them made his appearance in the -small town Ayllon (in the district of Segovia), the other in the large -congregation of Avila. Both proclaimed themselves to be prophets, and -announced in mystic language the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Both -found followers. The adherents of the prophet of Avila related, that -in his youth he had been ignorant, and could neither read nor write; -that an angel, who appeared to him in his sleeping, and sometimes -also in his waking moments, suddenly endowed him through higher -inspiration, with the power of writing a comprehensive work, full of -mystical ideas, and a diffuse commentary (without which at that time -no fairly respectable book could be conceived). When the people of -Avila and remote congregations heard of this they wondered greatly. The -story excited extraordinary interest, and the representatives of the -congregation of Avila consulted Solomon ben Adret, the last commanding -authority of that time, as to whether they should accept this new -prophecy. - -Himself a partial follower of the secret science, subscribing only -to the Biblical and the Talmudical miracles, the rabbi of Barcelona -replied that he would have considered the affair of the prophet of -Avila as arrant fraud, if trustworthy people had not attested its -truth. Still he could not possibly recognize him as a prophet, for he -lacked the principal conditions which the Talmud lays down as essential -to prophecy: outside of Palestine, prophecy is altogether impossible; -the age is not suitable for prophetic revelation, and the prophetic -spirit can not rest upon a perfectly ignorant person. It was incredible -that a man should go to bed an idiot and get up a prophet. The story -required the most painstaking and impartial investigation. - -In spite of the warning of the most honored rabbi of the time, the -prophet of Avila pursued his course, and fixed the last day of the -fourth month (1295) as the beginning of the Messianic redemption. The -easily influenced and ignorant multitude made preparations for its -coming, fasted, and spent money lavishly in alms, that they might be -found acceptable in the Messianic kingdom, and be permitted to partake -of its bliss. On the appointed day, the deluded people, dressed as on -the Day of Atonement, hastened to the synagogues, and waited there -to hear the trumpet-blasts announcing the Messianic advent. But the -expected Messiah did not show himself, nor was there any sign of him. -Instead, they are said to have noticed on their garments small crosses, -for which they were totally unprepared, and which partly sobered and -partly terrified them. It is possible that some of the incredulous in -the congregation had fastened the crosses secretly on their garments, -either to practice a joke upon their credulous brethren, or to point -out to what end Messianic charlatanry was destined to lead them, and -thus cure them of their delusion. Some of the impostor's followers -are said to have gone over to Christianity in consequence of this -incident; others, to have been plunged into melancholy, because they -could not explain the presence of the crosses. What became of the -prophets, or beguiled deceivers, of Ayllon and Avila is not related. -Like Abraham Abulafia they were lost sight of, and have importance -only as the excrescences of a diseased state. It is possible that -another disciple of Abulafia, Joseph Jikatilla, who also was looked -upon as a performer of miracles, and had his dwelling not far from -Ayllon, played a part in the mad or deceitful pranks of the prophets of -Ayllon and Avila. Joseph ben Abraham Jikatilla (born in Medina-Celi, -died in Penjafiel, after 1305), heard, at the age of twenty years, an -exposition of the bewildering secret doctrine of Abulafia, and whilst -the latter still was in Spain, he composed a Kabbalistic book of his -own, in which he exhibits the same eccentricities as his master. He, -too, occupied himself with the mysticism of letters and numbers, and -with the transposition of letters. Joseph Jikatilla's writings are in -reality only an echo of Abraham Abulafia's fancies; the same delusion -is apparent in both. But far more influential and more pernicious -than these three Kabbalists, Allatif, Abulafia, and Jikatilla, was -Moses de Leon, whose ascendancy was felt both by his contemporaries -and posterity. Although a contemporary and fellow-specialist unmasked -his performances, Moses de Leon succeeded in introducing into Jewish -literature and thought a book which gave the Kabbala a firm foundation -and wide extension, in brief, raised it to the zenith of its power. The -question about Moses ben Shem Tob de Leon (born in Leon about 1250, -died in Arevalo, 1305) is only whether he was a selfish or a pious -impostor. His intention was certainly to deceive and lead astray, and -in this respect he appears much baser than Abulafia, who at all events -was sincere and naive in his delusion. A sciolist, who had mastered -neither the Talmud nor any other subject thoroughly, Moses possessed -the skill to use deftly the little that he knew, to write easily and -fluently, to discover a connection between the most remote things and -verses of Scripture piled up in the chamber of his memory, and to -couple them with playful wit. Even the Kabbala was not present to him -as a system; he knew merely its forms and technical terms, and employed -them in a skillful manner. - -Of careless prodigality, Moses de Leon expended everything that he -had without reflecting what would remain for the morrow; he made use -of the Kabbala which had come into fashion to procure for himself a -rich source of revenue. He led a wandering life, lived a long time in -Guadalaxara, then in Viverro, in Valladolid, and finally in Avila. At -first he published his intellectual productions under his own name -(about 1285). His writings, however, were not sufficiently noticed, and -brought him but little fame and money. Moses de Leon then hit upon a -much more effective means for opening hearts and purses. He commenced -the composition of books under feigned but honored names. If he put -the doctrines of the Kabbala, worn threadbare, to be sure, into the -mouth of an older, highly venerated authority, some imposing name from -the dazzling past,--taking care, of course, to make the coloring and -the method of presentation archaic--would not such a composition -be eagerly swallowed? Would he not be richly rewarded if he hinted -that he was in possession of so costly a treasure? Moses de Leon knew -well the credulity of those who devoted themselves with more or less -earnestness to the study of the Kabbala; how they eagerly sought for -every word which they were led to think originated from ancient times. -For, since the secret science had been promulgated, and had striven for -recognition, doctrines which sounded Kabbalistic had been fathered upon -old and illustrious names, and thus had found acceptance. But Moses de -Leon did his work much more cleverly than most forgers. He found the -most likely author for the secret doctrine, against whom there could be -little or no objection, in the person of the Tanaite Simon bar Yochai, -who is said to have spent thirteen years in a cave, solitary and -buried in profound reflection, and whom ancient mysticism represented -as receiving revelations. Simon bar Yochai was assuredly the right -authority for the Kabbala. But he must not be permitted to write or -speak Hebrew, for in this language the Kabbalists would recognize the -echo of their own voices. He must express himself in Chaldee, in a -half obscure language, peculiarly fit for secrets, and sounding as if -from another world. And thus there came into the world a book, the -book Zohar (brilliancy), which for many centuries was held by Jews -as a heavenly revelation, and was and partly is even now regarded by -Christians as an old tradition. But seldom has so notorious a forgery -so thoroughly succeeded. Moses de Leon well knew how to produce the -proper effect on credulous readers. He made Simon bar Yochai appear -in splendor, surrounded by a halo, in the book Zohar, and impart his -revelation to a circle of select pupils (sometimes twelve, sometimes -six), "scholars who shine with heaven's light." "When they assembled -to compose the Zohar, permission was granted to the prophet Elijah, to -all the members of the celestial conclave, all the angels, spirits, -and higher souls to act in sympathy with them, and the ten spiritual -substances (Sefiroth) were charged with the duty of revealing to them -deeply hidden secrets, reserved for the time of the Messiah." Or in -another version: Simon bar Yochai summoned his followers to a great -council, and heard the flapping of the wings of the celestial host, who -also had assembled to listen to the disclosure of mysteries till then -unknown even to the angels. The Zohar glorifies its author excessively. -It calls him the holy light, who stands higher than the greatest -prophet, Moses, "the faithful shepherd." "I swear by the holy heavens -and the holy earth," the Zohar makes Simon bar Yochai exclaim, "that -I behold now what no other mortal since Moses ascended Sinai for the -second time has beheld, aye, even more than he. Moses knew not that -his countenance shone; I, however, know that my countenance shines." -On account of God's love for the writer of the Zohar, his generation -merited the revelation of truths till then hidden. As long as he who -illumines everything lives, the sources of the world are opened and -all secrets are disclosed. "Woe to the generation forsaken by Simon -bar Yochai." He is almost deified in the Zohar. His disciples once -broke out into ecstatic praise that he had mounted the degrees to -heavenly wisdom, which none of his predecessors had done; and of him -it is written in Scripture, "All men are to appear before the lord," -_i.e._, before Simon bar Yochai. This extravagant glorification and -self-deification, sufficient to mark a forgery, are not without design. -They were to meet the objection, how the Kabbala, so long unknown, and -kept secret by the prudent Kabbalists--for they had hesitated to -impart any of it in writing--how this mysterious wisdom could all at -once come to light, and be revealed to every one's knowledge. The Zohar -frequently uses the following excuse: As the time in which Simon bar -Yochai lived was especially meritorious and rich in grace, and as the -Messianic period was near, the veil which had concealed the book so -long could now be drawn aside. - -There are certainly very few compositions which have exercised so much -influence as the Zohar, or which can be compared with it in regard to -the remarkable nature of its contents and form. It is a book without -beginning or end, of which it is unknown whether it once formed part -of a whole, whether the extant portions originally belonged to it, -or were added later, or whether at an earlier period more of it was -in existence. It consists of three principal parts, with appendices -and explanatory comments. The absence of form in this farrago made -it possible for certain portions to be imitated. It is so easy and -tempting to imitate its wild though sonorous style. Thus the forgery -was counter-forged. It is not positively certain whether the Zohar -is to be regarded as a running commentary to the Pentateuch, as a -theosophic manual, or as a collection of Kabbalistic sermons. And its -contents are just as curious, confused and chaotic as its form and -external dress. The Zohar with its appendages in no wise develops -a Kabbalistic system like Azriel's, neither does it unfold an idea -like Abraham Abulafia, but plays with the Kabbalistic forms as with -counters--with the En-Sof, with the number of the Sefiroth, with -points and strokes, with vowels, accents, with the names of God and -the transposition of their letters, as well as with the Biblical -verses and Agadic sayings--casts them about in eternal repetition, -and in this manner produces sheer absurdities. Occasionally it gives a -faint suggestion of an idea, but in a trice it evaporates in feverish -fancies, or dissolves in childish silliness. - -The underlying principle of the Zohar (if we may speak of principles in -reference to this book) is that the historical narratives and religious -statutes of the Bible were never intended to be understood in a plain, -simple sense, but that they contain something higher, mysterious, -supernatural. "Is it conceivable," the Zohar makes one of Simon bar -Yochai's circle exclaim, "that God had no holier matters to communicate -than these common things about Esau and Hagar, Laban and Jacob, -Balaam's ass, Balak's jealousy of Israel, and Zimri's lewdness? Does a -collection of such tales, taken in their ordinary sense, deserve the -name of Torah? And can it be said of such a revelation that it utters -the pure truth?" "If that is all the Torah contains," remarks Simon bar -Yochai (or Moses de Leon), "we can produce in our time a book as good -as this, aye, perhaps better. No, no! the higher, mystical sense of the -Torah is its true sense. The Biblical narratives resemble a beautiful -dress, which enraptures fools so that they do not look beneath it. This -robe, however, covers a body, _i.e._, the precepts of the Law, and this -again a soul, the higher soul. Woe to the guilty, who assert that the -Torah contains only simple stories, and therefore look only upon the -dress. Blessed are the righteous, who seek the real sense of the Law. -The jar is not the wine, so stories do not make up the Torah." Thus -the secret lore of Moses de Leon naturally has free play to pervert -everything and anything, and give it the seal of sublimity, and in this -manner to promulgate a false doctrine, not only absurd, sometimes even -blasphemous and immoral. All laws of the Torah are to be considered -as parts and constituents of a higher world; they resolve themselves -into the mysteries of the masculine and feminine principle (positive -and negative). Only when both parts meet, does the higher unity arise. -Consequently, whenever any one transgresses one of the laws, he -obscures the brilliant image of the higher world. - -It is almost impossible to give an idea of the abuse which the Zohar, -or Moses de Leon, practices in the interpretation of Holy Writ, and -how he twists the sense of the words. In the verse, "Raise your eyes to -heaven, and see who has created this," a profound mystery is supposed -to reside, which the prophet Elijah learned in the celestial school, -and revealed to Simon bar Yochai; namely, that God had been unknown -and obscure before the creation of the world, in a manner existing, -and still not existing. He was the "Who" (the unknown subject). The -creation is part of His self-revelation. It was by the creation that He -first proclaimed Himself as God. - -The Zohar is particularly concerned with that side of man which is an -eternal riddle to man,--the soul, its origin and end. Like the older -Kabbalists, the Zohar assumed the pre-existence of the souls in the -brilliant world of the Sefiroth. They are there wrapped in a spiritual -robe, and entranced in the contemplation of God's light. When the souls -are about to enter this world they assume an earthly garment, the body; -but as soon as they are to leave the earth, the angel of death divests -them of this earthly garment. If a soul lives piously and morally here -below, it receives its former heavenly robe, and can once more enjoy -the blissful ecstasy of God's presence; if not, particularly if it -departs from the world impenitent, it wanders about naked and ashamed -till purified in hell. The nakedness of the soul, paradise and hell ---depicted in fantastic, baroque, and terrible images--are themes -for which the Zohar often and gladly makes digressions. What happens -to the soul during sleep, and the shadows of life--sin, impurity in -small and great things--are likewise favorite subjects for discussion -in the Zohar, to which it frequently reverts, presenting them in the -greatest variety of guises and repetitions. One of the older Kabbalists -arrived at the notion that to the higher world, the world of light, -of holiness, and of angels, there was a sharp antithesis--a world -of darkness, of unholiness, of Satan, in short the principle of evil, -which was likewise developed into ten degrees (Sefiroth) at the -creation of the world. In spite of their opposite characters, the two -worlds are of one origin, forming opposite poles, and are in the same -relation to each other as the right side is to the left. Accordingly, -evil is called in the language of the Kabbalists the left or other -side. The Kabbalists gave another representation of the Satanic -empire. On the border of the world of light, the world of darkness is -situated, and encompasses it as the shell surrounds the kernel of the -fruit. Hence the Zohar metaphorically designates evil, or sin, with -its ten degrees, as shell (Kelifa). This side is the favorite topic -of the Zohar; for here it can apply its peculiar exposition of the -Scriptures. The ten Sefiroth of the left side, the Satanic kingdom, are -enumerated and denominated by names which savor of barbarism. The names -sound like those of the princes of the demons in the book of Enoch, -and are perhaps borrowed thence: Samael or Samiel, Azael, Angiel, -Sariel, Kartiel. The Zohar identifies all blasphemers and wicked -people with the evil principle of the "shells" (Kelifoth)--the first -serpent, Cain, Esau, Pharaoh, and Esau's empire, Rome, and the civil -and spiritual power of Christendom in the Middle Ages, which rested -on violence and injustice. Israel and righteous people, on the other -hand, belong to the world of light, the right Sefiroth. "He who goes -after the left side (sin), and defiles his actions, draws upon himself -the impure spirits; they attach themselves to him, nor do they ever -leave him." The laws of the Torah have no other object than to effect -and cherish the union of the souls with the world of light. Every -transgression of them brings the souls to the world of darkness, evil -spirits, and impurity. The Zohar coarsely represents the connection of -the souls with light or with darkness by the image of wedded union, -as, in general, it asserts the masculine and feminine principle in the -higher world, even in reference to the Deity. As long as Israel lives -in exile, the divine unity is deficient and disrupted; God will become -one only in those days when the Mistress (Matronita) will espouse the -King. - -Moses de Leon would have left a gap, if he had not spoken of the -Messianic period--the keynote of the Kabbala--and determined its -date. In fact, the sudden revelation of the doctrine so long held -secret rests on the assumption that the time of the Messiah is near. -But here the forger betrays himself. Instead of indicating a period or -a year for the appearance of the Messiah approximating the age of Simon -bar Yochai (in the second century), the Zohar, with its casuistical -playing with letters and numbers, demonstrated that it would happen in -the beginning of the fourteenth century, therefore in the lifetime of -the author. "When the sixtieth or the sixty-sixth year will pass the -threshold of the sixth thousand, the Messiah will show himself;" but -some time will pass before all nations will be conquered, and Israel -be gathered together. The Messiah will first be summoned to appear on -earth from his secret abode in Paradise, "the bird's nest," where he -has been dwelling in bliss since the beginning of the world. A bloody -conflict will then break out in the world. Edom and Ishmael (Christian -and Mahometan nations) will vehemently contend with one another, and -eventually both will be annihilated by a mightier conquering people. -Signs and miracles will presage the time, and the resurrection of the -dead and a general diffusion of the Kabbalistic knowledge of God will -constitute the end of the world. Moses de Leon intended to arouse -in the minds of his contemporaries the hope that they would behold -the time of the Messiah with their own eyes. He was perhaps as much -a victim to Messianic enthusiasm as Abraham Abulafia. Despite the -Zohar's endeavor to exalt rabbinical Judaism and its law, and by a -mystical explanation to give every custom, however trivial, a special -signification and higher import, it carps at and criticises the Talmud -and its method, though in an obscure, equivocal manner, and with the -most innocent air in the world. It represents the study of the Kabbala -as of much higher importance than the study of the Talmud, and even -of the Bible. The Kabbala has the power of soaring, and is able to -follow the flight of the Deity in His inscrutable guidance of things; -the Talmud, on the other hand, and its adherents, have clipped wings, -and cannot elevate themselves to higher knowledge. The Zohar compares -the Mishna (Talmud) with a lowly slave; the Kabbala, on the other -hand, with a powerful mistress. The former has to do with inferior -matters, with "clean and unclean," with "permitted and prohibited," -with "what is and is not fit to be used." As long as this woman rules -with her "now pure, at another time impure blood," the union of the -Father with the Matrona (God with Israel) cannot take place. In the -Messianic period, on the other hand, when the higher knowledge will -awake, and gain the ascendency, the Kabbala will once more assert -its dominion over the slave (Talmud), as in the time of the lawgiver -Moses. The Zohar lastly compares the study of the Talmud with a rugged, -unproductive rock which, when struck, gives out scanty drops of water, -causing only disputes and discussions. The Kabbala, on the other hand, -is like a spring flowing abundantly, to which only a word needs to be -spoken to cause it to pour out its refreshing and vivifying contents. - -When the Zohar or Midrash of Simon bar Yochai was published, it aroused -the greatest wonder among the Kabbalists. They seized upon it with -avidity. Moses de Leon received vast multitudes of orders to send -copies. The question, whence all at once had come so comprehensive -a work of an old teacher of the Mishna, not a trace of which had -been known till then, was thus answered: Nachmani had exhumed it in -Palestine, had sent it to his son in Catalonia, by a whirlwind it had -been carried to Aragon or Alicante (Valencia), where it had fallen into -the hands of Moses de Leon, who alone possessed the original document. -The repute of the newly discovered Kabbalistic treasure soon spread -through the whole of Spain. The school of Abulafia at once gave the -Zohar the tribute of its acknowledgment, and considered it indisputably -genuine. Moses de Leon's wildest hopes were more than realized. There -were, of course, Kabbalists who doubted that the Zohar had originated -with Simon bar Yochai and his school, but none the less did they pay -homage to the book as to a pure source for Kabbalistic theories. When -the Kabbalist Isaac of Accho, who had escaped the massacre that had -ensued upon the capture of that city, arrived in Spain, and saw the -Zohar, he was staggered, and became desirous of coming to the root -of the question, whether this alleged ancient Palestinian work was -really genuine, as he had been born and educated in the Holy Land, had -associated with Nachmani's pupils, and yet had never heard a syllable -about it. When he met Moses de Leon in Valladolid, the latter took a -solemn oath that he had in his house at Avila an old copy of the book -from the hand of Simon bar Yochai, and pledged himself to submit it to -Isaac of Accho for examination. But Moses de Leon became ill on his -journey home, and died in Arevalo (1305). The veil around the origin -of the Zohar was wrapped still closer. Two influential men of Avila, -David Rafan and Joseph de Avila, had indeed discovered the simple -truth from Moses de Leon's wife and daughter. Moses de Leon had never -possessed the original copy, but had evolved it out of his own inner -consciousness, and had written it with his own hand. His wife frankly -related that she had often asked her husband why he published the -productions of his own intellect under a strange name, and that he had -answered that the Zohar would not, under his own name, have brought him -any money, but assigned to Simon bar Yochai it had been a lucrative -source of income. - -Thus wife and daughter, without being aware of the full gravity of -their assuredly unassailable testimony, unmasked Moses de Leon as a -forger. Nevertheless, the Zohar met with the unqualified applause -of the Kabbalists, because it supplied a want which would have had -to be provided for in one way or another. The Kabbalistic doctrine, -which had already gained so much weight, had hitherto been without -firm basis; it had no other authority than the very doubtful one of -Isaac the Blind. Now the dignified figure of a teacher of the Mishna -in communion with departed spirits and celestial hosts and angels -confirmed the truths which were not only doubted by many at the time, -but absolutely ridiculed. Should they, then, not cling to it and defend -it? What Moses de Leon put into the mouth of Simon bar Yochai, "Many -will range themselves round the book Zohar, when it becomes known, and -nourish their minds with it at the end of days," actually happened soon -after his death. If the Zohar did not bring the Kabbalists anything -essentially new, it exhibited to them what they did know in so peculiar -a form and language, that they were wonderstruck. Everything in it -is contrived for effect, for illusion, and for fascination. The long -discussions which Simon bar Yochai holds with his circle or with the -"faithful shepherd," have dramatic power, especially the scene in -which, in premonition of his speedy dissolution, he imparts once more -what he so often had proclaimed. Full of effect, and, upon minds -easily accessible to faith, of transporting and overwhelming influence, -are the oft-recurring exclamations in the Zohar: Woe, woe to those -who believe, or do not believe, or fail to respect, this and that. -Sometimes short prayers are interspersed, which, being elevated and -imaginative, are peculiarly fitted to fill the soul with mysterious -awe. Even the characteristic terms introduced instead of the usual -Kabbalistic forms are calculated to arouse interest by their double -sense. The author designated God and the higher spiritual substances -(Sefiroth) collectively or in their single parts and effects, as -father, mother, the prototype of man, bride, matron, the white head, -the large and the small face, the mirror, the higher heaven, the higher -earth, lily, apple-orchard, and so on. The pious were gained over to -the side of the Zohar, as it attributes to every religious custom and -every practice a higher import, a higher sanctity, and a mysterious -effect. - -So a new text-book of religion was by stealth introduced into Judaism. -It placed the Kabbala, which a century before had been unknown, on the -same level as the Bible and the Talmud, and to a certain extent on a -still higher level. The Zohar undoubtedly produced good, in so far as -it opposed enthusiasm to the legal dry-as-dust manner of the study of -the Talmud, stimulated the imagination and the feelings, and cultivated -a disposition that restrained the reasoning faculty. But the ills which -it has brought on Judaism outweigh the good by far. The Zohar confirmed -and propagated a gloomy superstition, and strengthened in people's -minds the belief in the kingdom of Satan, in evil spirits and ghosts. - -Through its constant use of coarse expressions, often verging on the -sensual, in contradistinction to the chaste, pure spirit pervading -Jewish literature, the Zohar sowed the seeds of unclean desires, and -later on produced a sect that laid aside all regard for decency. -Finally, the Zohar blunted the sense for the simple and the true, and -created a visionary world, in which the souls of those who zealously -occupied themselves with it were lulled into a sort of half-sleep, -and lost the faculty of distinguishing between right and wrong. Its -quibbling interpretations of Holy Writ, adopted by the Kabbalists and -others infected with this mannerism, perverted the verses and words -of the Holy Book, and made the Bible the wrestling-ground of the most -curious, insane notions. The Zohar even contains utterances which -seem favorable to the Christian dogma of the Trinity of the Godhead. -The mystics dismembered the fair form of Holy Writ, indulged in mad -sport, and stupefied all sense for truth, but they were scarcely -more guilty in this respect than the so-called philosophers of the -time. Maimuni's attempt to bring Judaism and its religious literature -into consonance with reason, to give certain too realistic verses -of the Bible a philosophical, or at least a tolerable sense, and -place religious precepts on the basis of an intelligible, acceptable -purpose, encouraged half-learned men to explain everything and -anything in the same way. Hence the allegorizing of the Scriptures, -the Agada, and the rites, was carried to an incredible extreme. These -pseudo-philosophers divested the stories of the creation and of the -patriarchs of their historical character, and interpreted them as -philosophical commonplaces, in which they sported with Aristotelian -and Maimunist terms, as the Zohar with Kabbalistic terms. Abraham and -Sarah, for example, denote to the allegorists matter and form, Pharaoh -denotes vicious desires, Egypt the body, the land of Goshen the heart, -Moses the divine spirit, and the Urim and Thummim, which the High -Priest wore on his breast in the Temple, were the astrolabe of the -astronomers, with which they calculated time, longitude and latitude. -If there had been at that time any Jewish thinkers of the first rank, -they would have made serious efforts to put a stop to this childish -proceeding, whether Kabbalistic or pseudo-philosophical. But the age of -Ben Adret happened to be poor in great intellects. Even the two chief -representatives of the philosophy of that time, Shem-Tob Falaquera and -Isaac Albalag, were not above mediocrity, and were themselves tainted -with the current errors. - -There were, however, certain men of bolder spirit, who from -philosophical premises drew conclusions endangering the stability of -Judaism. Like their predecessors, the Alexandrine allegorists, many -intelligent and consistent thinkers were induced at this time to -disregard the ceremonies of Judaism by assigning erroneous purposes to -religious precepts. As the ceremonies are intended simply to awaken -certain religious, philosophical, or moral feelings, they argued, it -is sufficient to call up these thoughts, to be penetrated by them, -to occupy one's mind constantly with them, while the observance of -religious customs is superfluous. Several members of this school denied -Moses' prophetic character, accepting him only as an ordinary lawgiver, -such as other nations had, and thus rejected the divinity of the Torah. -The pseudo-philosophers cast a doubt upon the very fundamentals of -Judaism, and thereby provoked a reaction injurious to free inquiry. - -The chief authority of this allegorical school was a man of vast -erudition, but full of crotchets, who, without desiring it, -occasioned violent conflicts. This was Levi ben Abraham ben Chayim, -of Villefranche, not far from Perpignan (born about 1240, died after -1315). Coming from a respectable family of scholars, he was deeply -read in the Talmud; but he was more attracted by Maimuni's philosophy -and Ibn-Ezra's astrology, being a warm adherent of the belief of the -latter in the influence of the stars over human destiny. Of a volatile -rather than a solid mind, Levi ben Chayim had no perfect conception -of Maimuni's aims. To him Judaism resolved itself into philosophical -platitudes, which, preposterous and childish as they sound to us, were, -strange to say, regarded by the people of early times as profound -wisdom. Ben Chayim was the disseminator of that superficial method -satisfied with formulae instead of thoughts. He composed two chief -works, one in verse, the other in prose, a kind of encyclopaedia, in -which he applied the theory derived from Maimuni to all branches of -knowledge. In these books he translated the historical narratives in -the Bible into philosophical generalities, explained the standing -still of the sun on the occasion of Joshua's victory as a natural -occurrence, and in general, adopted any method of expounding which -depends on word-twisting. Levi ben Chayim repudiated the allegorical -interpretations of laws; in fact, he denounced the allegorists as -heretics, and desired to preserve the historical character of the -biblical narratives as much as possible. Like his prototype, Ibn-Ezra, -he tried to keep secret his deepest convictions, so that not even his -friends could fathom his ideas. This Judaism, disfigured by absurd -philosophical interpretations, was not only privately taught, but -preached in the synagogues. - -The home of this pseudo-philosophy was the not insignificant -congregation of Perpignan, the capital of the province of Roussillon, -which belonged to the kingdom of Aragon. Although the Jews had no -enviable lot, and were compelled to live in the most miserable part of -the town, that assigned to lepers, they nevertheless preserved a taste -for science and free inquiry, and eagerly awaited the new theories -taught by the exponents and followers of Maimuni's philosophy. Here -poor Levi of Villefranche had found a place of refuge at the house -of a rich and influential man, Don Samuel Sulami or Sen Escalita, -whose piety, learning and liberality were praised beyond measure -by his contemporaries. "From Perpignan to Marseilles there is not -another who can be compared with Samuel Sulami in knowledge of the -Law, benevolence, piety and humility. He gives charity in secret, his -house is open to every traveler; and he is indefatigable in getting -books for his collection." He corresponded on learned topics with -Ben Adret, and took interest in the philosophical interpretation of -the Bible and the Agada. Even the rabbi of Perpignan was a friend of -free thought and a determined enemy of mummified orthodoxy and the -unreflecting faith of the literalist. This was Don Vidal Menachem ben -Solomon Meiri (born Elul, 1249, died about 1306), little celebrated -in his own time, but none the less of great importance. Though not of -commanding influence, he possessed an attractive personality. He had -what nearly all his contemporaries sorely lacked, moderation and tact. -These qualities are revealed particularly in Meiri's style. Nearly all -the Jewish authors of Spain and Provence wrote their prose and verse -in a redundant, bombastic style, as if the whole literary thesaurus of -the Bible were needed to express a meager idea. The much-admired model -of this time, the moral poet Yedaya Bedaresi, is so prolix in saying -the most ordinary platitude, that one has to peruse whole pages of his -apology, reflections, and miscellaneous writings before coming across -a tolerable idea. The style in vogue, a mosaic of Biblical phrases, -favored verbosity. But Don Vidal Meiri forms a glorious exception to -this practice, his style being terse and clear. In his commentaries -to the tractates of the Talmud which relate to ceremonial duties, he -proceeds throughout in a methodical manner, advances from the general -to the particular, arranges his material in lucid order, and seeks to -give the reader information, not to confuse him. Of a similar character -is Meiri's exposition of Holy Writ. The philosophers and mystics always -endeavored to find some higher meaning in it, the simple explanation -being too prosaic for them, and accordingly they put upon the Bible -their own extravagant nonsense. Not so Meiri. He certainly assumed -that there are many commands and narratives in the Bible which point -to something higher than the literal meaning, but the majority of them -must, he maintained, be taken quite literally. Meiri was naturally -dissatisfied with the extravagant mannerisms of the allegorists, but -it did not enter his mind to reject the good together with the bad, to -interdict learning because of its abuse. - -These proceedings were not regarded quite so calmly by certain bigots, -dwelling in the city which had produced the obscurantist Solomon of -Montpellier, the proscriber of Maimuni and his compositions, and -author of so much dissension and evil. Although pseudo-philosophical -extravaganzas were not more dangerous than the follies of the -Kabbalists, the watchers of Zion nevertheless overlooked the latter, -and waged energetic warfare with the former, so that the philosophers -obtained more weight than they would otherwise have had. The bigots of -Montpellier well-nigh kindled the fire of discord in Jacob. The first -instigator of this ill-timed zeal belonged to that class of men who -mark off the province of faith according to an exact rule, denounce -every movement and opinion which transgress their limit as heresy, -and desire to have them rooted out with anathemas and scourges, where -possible with fire and sword--a class of men in whom fanatical zeal -cannot be separated from a kind of egoism. To this category belonged -Abba-Mari ben Moses, of Montpellier, or, as his aristocratic title -ran, Don Astruc En-Duran de Luenel. Of a respectable family, and of -great influence in the capital of Languedoc, Abba-Mari was certainly -not without culture, and he had great veneration for Maimuni and his -compositions; but he had irrevocably attached himself to the Jewish -creed as laid down by Nachmani, and was indignant if any one ventured -to consider it from the point of view of another system. He did not -object to miraculous tales; on the contrary, the more the better. The -conclusions of philosophy and science, which denied the possibility -of these miracles, in no way disturbed him. In the choice between -Moses and Aristotle, or between the authorities of the Talmud and the -upholders of philosophy, he was not for a moment doubtful to whom to -give the preference. To be sure, this narrow-minded point of view is -justifiable; but Abba-Mari wanted to thrust his opinion upon every -one else, and to persecute all who thought otherwise. Not only did he -hold in abomination the allegorical exegesis publicly preached, but he -reprobated the study of all profane literature as the cause of this -aberration. He regretted that the scourge could no more be brought into -requisition to silence those who filled their minds with such learning -as endangered religion. - -Abba-Mari, however, did not possess sufficient authority to proceed -against Levi of Villefranche and his school. He addressed himself to -the most influential rabbi of the time, Ben Adret of Barcelona, and -charged that their perversities would accomplish the dissolution of -Judaism, if a restraint were not put upon them. He importuned Ben -Adret to exercise his great influence. The rabbi naturally found the -circumstance deplorable that "strangers had forced their way through -the gates of Zion." He exhorted Abba-Mari to organize a party to oppose -this extravagant movement, but positively refused his support, as he -did not like to interfere in the affairs of congregations abroad. Other -bigots, however, took up the cause, and hurried it to a crisis, among -them Don Bonafoux Vidal, of Barcelona, and his brother, Don Crescas -Vidal, who had moved to Perpignan, both highly respected and learned, -but as intolerant as Abba-Mari. Don Crescas made a proposition, -which met with much applause. The study of science, and the reading -of profane literature in general, was to be prohibited to Jewish -youths till their thirtieth year. Only men of mature age, "who had -filled their minds with the Bible and the Talmud, were to be allowed -to warm themselves by the strange fires of philosophy and the natural -sciences." Although Ben Adret did not feel disposed to take measures -against the study of science, he nevertheless considered it his duty -to persecute the provoker of so much animosity. He took umbrage at the -pious Samuel Sulami for granting a heretic shelter in his house, thus -giving him an opportunity to spread his pernicious views. He harassed -Samuel Sulami so unmercifully, and subjected his conscience to such -torment, that the man, not very remarkable for strength of character, -became shaken in his previous convictions. When a daughter of his died -he believed that it was a punishment for his sinfulness, and renounced -his hospitality to Levi. Many members of the congregation of Perpignan -bitterly resented the suspicion of heresy cast upon Levi, and as they -knew Ben Adret to be a man of stainless character, they vented their -dissatisfaction on the instigator, Abba-Mari, to whom they imputed -sordid ulterior designs and personal motives. - -Abba-Mari and his allies, who felt themselves helpless without -powerful support, labored without intermission to inflame the zeal of -the Barcelona rabbinate, that it might forbid free inquiry and the -study of science. At the same time they promised the co-operation of -the whole congregation of Montpellier, which, being the chief one in -southern France, would draw other communities after it. Ben Adret and -his college, imagining from Abba-Mari's exaggerated description that -Judaism was in the greatest danger, were at last determined to take up -the matter, but desired first to sound the congregation of Montpellier -as to its feeling on the subject, and for this purpose sent a letter -to be read before the members in case they felt disposed to join them -in interdicting the study of the natural sciences. But as soon as the -proposed ban against the sciences became known, decided opposition -arose among the most important men of the congregation. - -There was at that time in Montpellier a man, who by reason of his -family, position, wealth and knowledge, was held in high estimation -by his people, and who had imbibed a love for the sciences with his -mother's milk. Jacob ben Machir Tibbon, known in Christian circles -as Don Profiat, or Profatius (born about 1236, died after 1312), was -descended on one side from the celebrated Meshullam of Luenel, the first -to promote a revival of learning in southern France, and on the other -side he was related to the Tibbonides. From his birth he was taught to -look upon Judaism and science as twin sisters, dwelling together in -the utmost harmony. Like all educated Jews of his time, he was well -grounded in Jewish literature, the Bible, and the Talmud, practiced -medicine as his profession, but devoted himself with particular zeal to -mathematics and astronomy. His accurate observation of the inclination -of the earth's axis to the orbit was taken by later master astronomers -as the basis of their investigations. As he had acquired a knowledge -of Arabic, he was able to translate useful scientific works from that -language into Hebrew. His wealth of knowledge was not employed as a -means of gratifying his vanity or ambition, but he properly regarded it -as the distinction of man, enabling him to arrive at self-knowledge. -Jacob Tibbon maintained that in the happy time of the Jewish people -science had its home in their midst, but exile and suffering had -banished it, and its former exponents now had to become students in -order to learn the results arrived at by foreign nations. In his -scientific labors Jacob ben Machir had a very noble end in view. He -aimed at elevating his co-religionists in the eyes of the Christian -world, and silencing the sneers of their enemies, who tauntingly said -that they were destitute of all knowledge. - -This man was now asked to assist in banishing science from the Jewish -world. If Abba-Mari wished to carry out in Montpellier his scheme of -holding the Jewish youth aloof from the study of the sciences, he was -bound to take Jacob ben Machir into consideration. For he was held -in high esteem by his congregation on account of his many excellent -traits and his meritorious achievements, and had the greatest influence -with the members entitled to a vote. Indeed, he was the first to whom -Abba-Mari disclosed the project, supported by the Barcelona rabbinate, -against the study of the profane sciences, and he reckoned upon Jacob's -co-operation. With impressive decisiveness, Profiat not only refused -participation, but pointed out the sad consequences of so serious a -step, and importuned him to omit the public reading of Ben Adret's -letter. Abba-Mari and his ally, Todros of Beaucaire, nevertheless -persisted in their determination, and summoned the members of the -congregation to an important conference in the synagogue on a Sabbath -(Elul-August, 1304). It was immediately apparent that the zealots had -deceived themselves, or had been too confident in their assertion that -the Jews of Montpellier would give unanimous consent to the interdict -to be laid on science. A portion of the congregation even abstained -from taking part in the deliberations, and Jacob ben Machir raised an -emphatic protest against the proposed enslaving of the intellect. A -violent discussion ensued, and the meeting dispersed without coming to -a resolution. Soon a party, consisting of advocates of science, and -of friends, adherents and parasites of the highly esteemed leader, -rallied round Jacob Machir, the most distinguished representative of -science. The obscurantists and the simple-minded attached themselves -to Abba-Mari, so that the congregation became a prey to division and -conflict. Each party endeavored to gain supporters, both within and -without the community. - -It became a point of honor with Abba-Mari to bring the affair to a -conclusion conformable to his own views, for his defeat had exposed his -true position to Ben Adret and the Barcelona congregation. After the -unfavorable issue of the first deliberation in the synagogue, he hardly -ventured to answer the man whom he had assured of a unanimous adoption -of his proposal. He, therefore, worked very energetically in collecting -at least twenty-five signatures of members of the congregation, to give -Ben Adret proof that he did not stand alone in his extreme views. - -It was no less a point of honor with Jacob Tibbon not to allow the -interdiction of science to come into force. For he and the Tibbonides -believed that the attacks were directed chiefly against their -highly-venerated ancestors, Samuel Ibn-Tibbon and Jacob Anatoli, -because the latter's book of sermons (Malmed) had been the first to -explain away Biblical tales and religious laws, and at that time -was used in certain quarters for Sabbath devotions. Ben Adret, at -Abba-Mari's instigation, did, indeed, treat Anatoli, the favorite of -the Tibbonides, with scorn. Of Samuel Ibn-Tibbon, the translator of -Maimuni's works, and propagator of his theories, the austere bigots -had not a good word to say. Judah ben Moses, his great-grandson, -consequently became the soul of what may be called the Tibbonide party, -which agitated against Abba-Mari's plan. To attract outsiders, the -Tibbonides gave out that the adversaries of science once more had in -view the denunciation of Maimuni and his compositions as heretical, -and that Abba-Mari wanted to take up the position of Solomon of -Montpellier. This was a very happy party manoeuvre; it won over even -those who had shown indifference to the burning topic of the day, -for they thought themselves in duty bound to take up arms on behalf -of Maimuni's honor. The Tibbonide party, thus strengthened, sent a -trenchant and pointed letter to Ben Adret and the Barcelonians, to -ask them to reconsider their decision. It is true, they were not able -to offer any convincing reasons for the admission of science into the -Jewish curriculum; but the arguments which they set forth in its favor -were considered satisfactory in a superficial age. They appealed to -King Solomon's wisdom, "from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop on the -wall," which, they said, referred to nothing but natural science. From -the Talmud, too, reasons were adduced for the study of science. They -would not admit the validity of the reply that it was not intended -to interdict research generally, only to prohibit immature young men -from its pursuit. That, they said, was an evasion of the main point at -issue. For a man not familiar with science before his thirtieth year -was permanently incapable of engaging in its study, and in advanced -age could never retrieve the loss. The Tibbonides, moreover, protested -that they were branded as heretics, because along with the Torah -they paid homage to the profane sciences. They did not recognize the -superiority of any one in piety and orthodoxy. Lastly, the Tibbonides -exhorted Ben Adret and his college to bury the hatchet of denunciation -and discord. The spirited and defiant tone assumed by Jacob ben Machir -and his adherents greatly provoked the Barcelonians. The tension -increased. Bitter and caustic letters flew hither and thither. Both -sides labored to gain new adherents in other congregations, and to draw -over the waverers. The communities of Argentiere, Aix, Avignon and -Luenel, through their representatives, declared in favor of Abba-Mari -and his followers. In Perpignan, the chief seat of the much-assailed -enlightenment, a relative of Abba-Mari agitated in his favor. The -latter was particularly desirous of securing the assistance of a man -who, by reason of his noble birth and highly honorable position, had -powerful influence in Perpignan and elsewhere. This was Kalonymos -ben Todros of Narbonne, thought to be a descendant of the house of -King David. Kalonymos did not at first appear inclined to take part -in the proscription of science; but Abba-Mari from the one side and -Ben Adret from the other assailed him with such pertinacity that at -length he promised his consent and co-operation. As the Tibbonide party -had also gained new adherents, Ben Adret himself shrank from pushing -the controversy to extremes, and decided not to issue the decree -of excommunication till at least twenty congregations had declared -themselves unequivocally in favor of it. - -Whilst in southern France and Spain the balance was inclining now to -one side, now to the other, in the dispute about the admission of -scientific studies into Jewish circles, the German communities were -passing through a series of the most deplorable events, which drove to -Spain a man who spoke the deciding word in favor of the excommunication -and proscription of free inquiry. He was of high morality, rare -disinterestedness, of pure aspiration and sincere piety, and possessed -profound Talmudical learning, but was filled with the fanatical hate -of his countrymen against profane knowledge. The emigration of Asheri -or Asher from Germany to Spain inaugurates an unhappy period for the -Spanish and Provencal Jews in their efforts for the progress of culture. - -Asher ben Yechiel (born about 1250, died 1327) of the Rhine district, -sprang from ancestors who centered their whole world in the Talmud. A -disciple of the celebrated Meir of Rothenburg, Asher acquired the acute -Tossafist method, composed Tossafist works, but had a finer sense -of system and order than this school. After the death of his master, -whose corpse the unprincipled emperor, Adolph of Nassau, refused to -give up for burial without remuneration, Asheri was reckoned among -the most influential rabbinical authorities of Germany. A paroxysm -of persecutions of the Jews broke out in his time, far worse than -those during the crusades; it robbed thousands of innocent men of -their lives, or sentenced them to a lot worse than death. A civil war -raged at that time in Germany between Adolph of Nassau and Albrecht -of Austria, who were contending for the empty glitter of the German -crown. This strife promised impunity for audacious attacks on the Jews, -who were proscribed by the church and society, and an opportunity was -easily found. A report was spread that the Jews of the little town -of Roettingen (in Franconia) had desecrated a sacramental wafer and -pounded it in a mortar, and blood was said to have flowed from it. A -nobleman of the place, named Rindfleisch, took up the cause of the -host alleged to have been desecrated, declared that he had received -a mission from heaven to root out the accursed race of Jews, and -gathered a credulous, besotted mob around him to assist in his bloody -intentions. He and his troops first of all consigned the Jews of -Roettingen to the flames (7th Iyar-20th April, 1298). From this place -the rabble of slaughterers, under Rindfleisch's leadership, traveled -from town to town, always swelling their numbers with others of their -description, and destroyed all the Jews who fell into their hands, even -those converted to Christianity. Rindfleisch, impelled by audacity and -spurious enthusiasm, fairly forced the inhabitants of various towns to -ill-treat their Jewish fellow-citizens brutally. The great community of -Wuerzburg was completely blotted out (12th Ab-24th July). In Nuremberg -the Jews had at first fled for refuge into the fortress, but being -attacked there, too, they took to arms, and though assisted by humane -Christians, were overpowered at last, and all butchered (22d Ab-1st -August). Asheri's relative and fellow-student, Mordecai ben Hillel, -who had compiled a very important rabbinical work, fell at about the -same time, together with his wife and five children. Many parents, lest -their children from fear of death should renounce their faith, threw -them with their own hands into the flames, and plunged in after them. -In Bavaria the congregations of Ratisbon and Augsburg were the only -ones to escape the slaughter. In the first city, where they had the -right of citizenship from time immemorial, the mayor protected them -with great zeal. In Augsburg, too, the mayor and council defended them -against the destroyers, Rindfleisch and his horde. - -This bloody persecution spread from Franconia and Bavaria to Austria, -swept away more than a hundred and forty congregations and more than -100,000 Jews, and lasted nearly half a year. The Jews of Germany all -trembled, and were prepared to meet destruction. This would certainly -have come if the civil war in Germany had not been brought to an -end by the death of Emperor Adolph, and the election of Albrecht. -The second Habsburger energetically restored the country to a state -of peace, brought to book the perpetrators of the outrages on the -Jews, and imposed fines on the towns which had participated in them, -on the ground that he had suffered losses in his purse through the -immolation of his "servi camerae" and their goods. The majority of -the Jews baptized through fear returned to Judaism, apparently with -the connivance of the emperor and the representatives of the church. -The after-throes of this massacre were likewise bitter enough. The -wives of those who had perished could not authenticate the death of -their husbands through Jewish witnesses, as no men remained alive -competent to give testimony. They could appeal only to the statement -of baptized Jews, whose evidence was considered by many rabbis to be -invalid according to the Talmudical marriage laws. Asheri, however, was -sensible enough to unbend from this strictness, and allowed the widows -to marry again on the evidence of baptized Jews returned to Judaism. - -Asheri did not feel very secure in Germany after this bloody massacre, -or perhaps he was threatened with danger on the part of Emperor -Albrecht. It was said that the emperor demanded of him the sum of -money which the Jews were to pay as ransom for the imprisoned Meir -of Rothenburg, for which Asheri had become security. He accordingly -left Germany (summer of 1303), and traveled from one country to -another with his wife, his eight sons and grandsons, and on account -of his reputation, he was everywhere treated with the utmost respect, -especially in Montpellier, even before the breaking out of the -controversy. He finally settled in Toledo, the largest city of Spain -(January, 1305). With joy the illustrious German rabbi was installed by -the Toledo congregation in the vacant rabbinate. With Asheri the dismal -spirit of over-piety, so hostile to knowledge, entered into the Spanish -capital. - -Asheri did not conceal his antipathy to profane culture. He could not -conceive how pious Jews, in southern France and in Spain, could occupy -themselves with subjects outside of the Talmud. With the utmost scorn -he discountenanced the very aspiration of the Spanish and Provencal -Jews on which they prided themselves. He thanked his Creator that -He had protected him from the baneful influence of science. He did -not give the southern Frenchmen and the Spanish Jews credit for -thoroughness even in knowledge of the Talmud, and maintained that the -German and northern French Jews alone had inherited wisdom from the -time of the destruction of the Temple. A man like this, incapable of -appreciating the sciences, and harboring enmity to everything not -in the Talmud, was bound to exercise an influence prejudicial to -knowledge. Next to him Solomon ben Adret himself appeared more or less -of a freethinker. Abba-Mari forthwith availed himself of the man, from -whom he expected effectual support for his party. He requested him to -express his views on the pending question. Asheri, of course, gave -Abba-Mari his unqualified approval, but was of opinion that he did not -go far enough, for the evil would not be eradicated, if the pursuit -of the sciences were allowed at a ripe age. The poison of heresy had -spread too far, every one was infected by it, and the pious were open -to the reproach that they shut their eyes to it. His proposal was -that a synod should be convoked, and a resolution be taken that study -was to be devoted solely to the Talmud, while the sciences were to be -pursued only when it was neither day nor night--that is, not at all. -This exclusive fidelity to the Talmud, which rejected all compromise, -advocated by an energetic man of pure character, made an overpowering -impression on the unsettled minds of Spanish Jews. Ben Adret himself, -who had hitherto always hesitated to lead the movement, all at once -declared that he was prepared to pronounce the ban, if Abba-Mari and -the prince, Kalonymos, would prepare it. An officious zealot, Samson -ben Meir, disciple of Ben Adret, took upon himself to collect assenting -signatures from twenty congregations. Toledo was especially reckoned -upon, having been swayed by Asheri's mind, and next, Castile generally, -which as a rule followed the guidance of the head community. - -How artificial and opposed to the sentiment of the majority this zeal -was, became apparent especially in the congregation of Montpellier, -styled the tower of Zion by Abba-Mari's party. In this congregation -the zealots did not venture to collect signatures for the sentence of -excommunication. As if in defiance, one of the Tibbonides announced -that he would give a reading from Anatoli's book of sermons on a -certain Sabbath, and immediately drew a numerous audience. Abba-Mari, -who had repeatedly boasted to Ben Adret of his mighty influence, and -had persuaded him that the whole congregation, except a few deluded -people, were on his side, now had to admit that Montpellier was not -to be reckoned upon in this affair. In the consciousness that their -party was in a minority in southern France, the two leaders, Abba-Mari -and Kalonymos, of Narbonne, made the ecclesiastical ban unexpectedly -mild, both as to wording and contents. First, the reading of works on -natural science and of metaphysical books only was to be prohibited, -all other branches of learning being expressly allowed. Secondly, the -writings of Jewish authors, even those dealing with natural science -or metaphysics, were to be excluded from the inhibition. Abba-Mari, -with a view to meeting his adversaries half-way, had made the proposal -to fix the period when the study of every department of learning was -to be allowed, not at the thirtieth, but at the twenty-fifth year -of the student's age. Ben Adret, however, who could not tolerate -half-measures nor brook retreat, had now become more severe. He who -formerly had to be driven and urged on, now became the propeller. -Asheri's influence is not to be mistaken. On the Sabbath of Lamentation -in commemoration of the destruction of Jerusalem, he and his colleagues -ordered the anathema against the study of the sciences to be read -amid solemn ceremonies, the scroll of the Law in the arms of the -reader (4th Ab-26th July, 1305). Whoever read any scientific book -before the twenty-fifth year of his age was liable to the penalty of -excommunication. The ban was to remain in force for half a century. -The philosophical expounders of Holy Writ were doomed in the hereafter, -and in this world subjected to excommunication, and their writings -condemned to be burnt. As no exception was made of scientific works -composed in Hebrew, according to the formulation of the ban, not -only Anatoli's book of sermons was exposed to proscription, but also -Maimuni's philosophical writings. Ben Adret and his college allowed -only the study of medicine, on the ground that its practice is -permitted in the Talmud. This was the first heresy-tribunal in Jewish -history, and Ben Adret was at its head. The Dominicans had found docile -emulators among the Jews. - -According to the communal system in the Middle Ages, every congregation -was independent, and the resolutions of one congregation had no force -with another. The ban accordingly had validity only in Barcelona, -unless some other congregation confirmed it. Ben Adret, however, -labored to have it adopted by other congregations. The sentence, -signed by Ben Adret, his two sons, and more than thirty of the most -influential members of the Barcelona congregation, was dispatched to -the congregations of Spain, Languedoc, northern France, and Germany. -But the ban was not so readily adopted as the authorities of Barcelona -had flattered themselves it would be. Jacob ben Machir and his party -had already received notice that a blow was being meditated against -them, and accordingly made preparations for a countermove. They -resolved from the first to frustrate the effect of the ecclesiastical -interdict of the study of science. They drew up a resolution in -Montpellier which contained three important points. A sentence of -excommunication was to fall upon those who, out of religious scruples, -ventured to debar or withdraw their sons, whatever their youth, from -the study of any science whatsoever, regardless of the language in -which it was treated; secondly, upon those who presumed to utter an -irreverent or abusive word against the great Maimuni, and, lastly, -also upon those who presumed to denounce a religious author on account -of his philosophical system. The last point was introduced for the -sake of Anatoli's memory, which his opponents had vilified. Thus -there was ban against ban. Jacob Tibbon and his friends caused their -resolution in favor of science and its advocates to be announced -in the synagogue, and the great majority of the congregation of -Montpellier took his side. Party zeal, however, impelled the Tibbonides -to take an ill-advised step, which threatened to produce the same -evil consequences as had ensued at the time of the first conflict in -Montpellier with the obscurantists. As Jacob ben Machir Profatius -and others of his party had influence with the governor of the city, -they wished to secure his assistance in the event of their opponents' -endeavoring violently to carry the Barcelona interdict into effect. The -governor, however, explained to them that he was interested only in -one point: that the Jewish youth should not be prevented from reading -other than Talmudical works. He should strongly deprecate any attempt -to discourage the study of extra-Talmudical literature, because, as he -frankly expressed himself, he would not consent to their being deprived -through fear of excommunication of the means to potential conversion to -Christianity. To the other points he was indifferent. - -Abba-Mari and his party were now in despair on account of the activity -of their opponents. As the resolution in favor of the unrestricted -study of science had been adopted by the majority of the community, -according to rabbinical law it was binding on the minority as well, -and therefore on their leader, and they could not legally stand by -the interdict of Barcelona. Thus the zealots, the provokers of the -conflict, had their hands tied, and were caught in their own net. -They did what they could; they protested against the resolution of -the Tibbonides, and advertised their protest far and wide. But they -could not conceal that they had suffered a defeat, and were obliged -to consult certain authorities as to whether the resolutions of the -Tibbonides were binding on them. Ben Adret was thus placed in an -embarrassing position. The party of Jacob ben Machir believed, or -wished to have it believed, that the prohibition of the rabbis of -Barcelona in reference to the study of scientific books, was meant -to apply to Maimuni's works, too. They obtained the credit of having -taken up the cudgels in behalf of Maimuni's honor, and of contending -for the glory of Judaism; whilst their opponents, Ben Adret included, -through their narrow-mindedness and obstinacy, were exposing their -religion to the scorn of educated Christians. The vindicators of -science seemed to be continually gaining in public opinion. There now -appeared on their side a young poet, whose eloquent defense, written -in a highly imaginative style, made a great impression. It gives a -faithful picture of the feeling and excitement which agitated the -souls of the champions of science, and, therefore, awakens interest -even in the present day. In a modest manner, but with manly spirit, -the poet tells Ben Adret truths which he never had the opportunity of -hearing in his own circle. This young poet, more famous through his -letter than through his verses, was Yedaya En-Bonet ben Abraham, better -known under the name of Bedaresi (of Beziers) and under the poetical -pseudonym of Penini (born about 1280, died about 1340). Yedaya Penini, -son of the bombastic poet, Abraham Bedaresi, had more talent as a poet -than his father. He possessed a lively imagination and overflowing -wealth of language, and lacked only restraining tact, and a dignified, -universally acceptable, uplifting aim for poetry. This deficiency gave -his poems the appearance of empty grandiloquence and artificiality. -He had inherited the defect of his father, inability to control the -superabundance of words by the law of beauty. He was too ornate, and -he moralized, instead of elevating and impressing. In his seventeenth -year Yedaya Bedaresi wrote a book of morals (Pardes), and in his -earliest years, whilst his father was still alive, he composed a prayer -of about one hundred verses, in which all the words begin with the -same letter (Bekashoth ha-Memin), and which his father, and perhaps -his contemporaries, admired, but which is nevertheless very insipid. -An admirer of Maimuni and Ibn Ezra, Bedaresi considered science and -philosophy of equal importance with Judaism, or, like most thoughtful -men of that time, he believed that the one contained the other. - -Bedaresi conceived that his deepest convictions had been assailed -by Ben Adret's anathema, and that it had in reality been directed -against Maimuni's name, and, therefore, he could not restrain himself -from addressing a sharp rebuke to the excommunicators. As he lived in -Montpellier and was certainly attached to Jacob ben Machir's party, it -is quite probable that he wrote the defense of Maimuni and of science, -sent to Ben Adret, at their instigation (December, 1305, or January, -1306). This missive, like most of those written in this controversy, -was intended not only for the individual addressed, but for the Jewish -reading public in general. After Bedaresi had expressed his respect for -the upright, learned rabbi of Barcelona, he remarked that he and his -friends were not indignant about the ban, for science was invulnerable, -and could not be injured by the fulmination of excommunicators. They -were only hurt that Ben Adret should brand the Jewish congregations -of southern France as heretics and renegades, and expose them to -contempt in his message to many congregations and countries. Ben Adret, -he continued, had allowed himself to be taken in tow by Abba-Mari, -and had made a mountain of a mole-hill. From time immemorial, from -Saadiah's age, science was not only tolerated in Judaism, but cherished -and fostered, because its importance in religious knowledge was -indisputable. Moreover, the denouncers of heresy were not consistent; -they excluded the science of medicine from the ban, although this -science, like every other, had a side which was in conflict with -religion. How could they dare impugn the writings of Maimuni, whose -dazzling personality outshone all his great predecessors? At the end, -Yedaya Bedaresi observed that violent faction fights had broken out in -Montpellier. Did they wish to continue to foment party strife, that -the absence of unity among the Jews might occasion the Christians -unholy satisfaction? "We cannot give up science; it is as the breath -to our nostrils. Even if Joshua would appear and forbid it, we could -not obey him, for we have a warranty, who outweighs you all, Maimuni, -who has recommended it, and impressed it upon us. We are ready to -set our goods, our children, and our very lives at stake for it." In -conclusion, he invited Ben Adret to advise his friends in Montpellier -to relinquish heresy hunting, and desist from stirring the fire of -discord. - -At the same time, furious disputes broke out in the church, between -King Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII, but here the subject -of the dispute was not ideal good, not science and free research, but -purely dominion, power and mammon. There was war to the knife between -the chiefs of the two parties. The king accused the pope of heresy, -simony, covetousness, perjury, and impurity. And the pope released the -subjects from their oath to their hereditary king, and gave away his -empire. The Jewish hostilities had neither the same wide range, nor yet -the same bottomless wickedness. - -Ben Adret and several who had signed the decree of excommunication, -Moses Iskafat Meles and Solomon Gracian, were so unpleasantly affected -by Bedaresi's letter, and feared its effect so much, that they hastened -to offer the explanation that they had in no wise animadverted upon -Maimuni's writings, whom they revered in the highest degree. They even -exhorted Abba-Mari's party to make peace with their opponents, to -vindicate their dignity before their common enemy. But the controversy -was now at a stage when it could no longer be settled peaceably. The -mutual bitterness was too violent, and had become too personal. Each -party claimed to be in the right from its own standpoint; neither could -consent to a compromise nor make concessions. Each adhered to its own -principles; the one sought to enforce the freedom of science, the other -protested that Jewish youth, before maturity, must be guarded from the -deleterious poison of knowledge. Whilst the adherents of Abba-Mari -were seeking legal decisions to prove the ban of their opponents -unauthorized, a sad event happened, which, like a whirlwind, tore -friends asunder, and dashed enemies against each other. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE FIRST EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM FRANCE, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. - - Philip le Bel--The Jews of France plundered and banished-- - Estori Parchi; Aaron Cohen; Laments of Bedaresi--Eleazar - of Chinon, the Martyr--Return of the Jews to France; their - Precarious Position--Progress of the Controversy regarding - the Study of Philosophy--Abba-Mari and Asheri--Death of - Ben Adret--Rabbinical Revival in Spain--Isaac Israeli II-- - Samuel and the Queen Maria Molina--Don Juan Emanuel and - Judah Ibn-Wakar--The Jews of Rome--Robert of Naples and the - Jews--Peril of the Jews in Rome--Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, - his Satires--Immanuel and Dante--The Poet Judah Siciliano-- - Leone Romano and King Robert--Shemarya Ikriti--Position of - Karaism--Aaron the Elder and the Prayer-Book of the Karaites. - -1306-1328 C.E. - - -Philip IV, le Bel, at that time the king of France, one of those -monarchs who made arrogant and unprincipled despotism familiar to -Europe, suddenly issued a secret order (21st January, 1306), imposing -the strictest silence, to the higher and lower officials throughout -his kingdom, to put all the Jews of France under arrest on one and -the same day, without warning of any kind. Before the Jews had fully -recovered from fasting on the Day of Lamentation in remembrance of the -destruction of Jerusalem, and as they were about to begin their daily -business, the constables and jailors appeared, laid hands upon them, -and dragged young and old, women and children, to prison (10th Ab-22d -July). There they were told that they had to quit the country within -the space of a month, leaving behind both their goods and the debts -owing to them. Whoever was found in France after that time was liable -to the penalty of death. What could have induced this prudent rather -than clerical prince so suddenly to change his sentiments towards the -Jews? It was certainly not clerical intolerance, nor was it yielding -to the will of the people. For the French, even in the Middle Ages, -were not bigoted, and it was not their wish to remove the Jews to free -themselves from usurers. Avarice was the first motive of this cruel -order. For Philip's feud with the pope, and his war with the rebellious -Flemish, had so exhausted his treasury, and had rendered necessary -so unsparing an extortion of money that, as the ballads of the time -scoffingly said, "The fowl in the pot was not secure from the king's -grasp." The king wanted to replenish his coffers from the property -of the Jews. Another circumstance is said to have moved him to this -hard-hearted resolution. The German emperor Albrecht, who at that time -was not on good terms with Philip, had demanded the surrender of the -kingdom of Arles; further, that he should deliver up Jesus' supposed -crown of thorns, and lastly, that he should acknowledge the authority -of the successor of Vespasian, Titus, and Charlemagne over the French -Jews, _i.e._, yield to him a portion of the hard-earned property of the -Jews. Philip is said to have consulted his lawyers, to decide to whom -the authority over the Jews appertained, and as they adjudged it to the -German emperor, the idea occurred to him to fleece the Jews of their -property, and to send his "servi camerae" naked and bare to Albrecht. -Before the world the king covered his act of violence, inhuman as it -was unstatesmanlike, with the excuse that incredible outrages of the -Jews had rendered their expulsion imperative. That he had aimed at the -possessions of the Jews was shown by his relentless plundering. The -officials left the unhappy Jews nothing beyond the clothes they wore, -and to everyone not more than seemed necessary for a day's living (12 -gros Tournois). Wagonfuls of the property of the Jews, gold, silver -and precious stones were transported to the king; and less valuable -objects were sold at a ridiculously low price. At the appointed time -(September, 1306), they were banished, about 100,000 souls, from the -country which their ancestors had inhabited, in part at the time of the -Roman republic, long before Christianity had spread into France. Some -who could not separate themselves from their property and the country -which they loved went over to Christianity. The whole congregation of -Toulouse is said to have been guilty of this cowardice, which scarcely -seems credible. The celebrated seats, at which so much intellect had -been displayed, the colleges of Rashi, Tam, and the Tossafists: Troyes, -Paris, Sens, Chinon, Orleans; the places in which a higher culture had -had its temple: Beziers, Luenel, Montpellier, whence the combatants -for and against science were plunged into common misery,--all these -schools and synagogues were sold to the highest bidder or given away. -A German or an English king might have destroyed the holy places of -the Jews--King Philip le Bel made a present of a synagogue to his ---coachman. An approximate idea can be formed of the sums which the -expulsion and robbery of the Jews brought in to the king, if it is kept -in mind that the sale of the Jewish goods in the house of the prefect -of Orleans alone brought in 337,000 francs. - -How many of the refugees, reduced to beggary, fell victims to the -hardships of their journey cannot be known. The bitter plaints of -those oppressed by the heavy affliction sound mournful and touching -even at this distance of time. Estori Parchi, then a youth of many -accomplishments and noble heart, a relative of Jacob ben Machir, whose -parents had emigrated from Spain to southern France, thus describes his -sorrow: "From the house of study have they torn me; naked was I forced -as a young man to leave my ancestral home, and wander from land to -land, from people to people, whose tongues were strange to me." Parchi -at length found a resting-place in Palestine. Another fugitive, the -learned Aaron Cohen of Narbonne, poured forth this elegy: "Unhappy me, -I saw the misery of the banishment of the sons of Jacob, like a herd -of cattle driven asunder. From a position of honor I was thrown into a -land of darkness." The sudden turn of fortune which changed rich men -into beggars, and exposed the delicate and those used to the comforts -of life to bitter privation, filled the bombastic poet Yedaya Bedaresi -with gloomy reflections. In vivid colors he painted the trouble and -pain of life, and man's helplessness and nothingness. His "Trial of the -World" (Bechinath Olam), suggested by personal observation and bitter -experience, consequently makes a depressing and mournful impression, -and reflects faithfully the melancholy feelings of the ill-starred race. - -The expulsion of the Jews from France by the stony-hearted Philip le -Bel did not come off without martyred victims. Those who transgressed -the time of grace, yet rejected solicitations to abjure their faith, -were punished by death. A martyr of this time, Eleazar ben Joseph of -Chinon, is specially famous. He was a learned, noble-minded man, a -correspondent of Ben Adret, master of many distinguished disciples, -among them the youthful Parchi, one of the last of the Tossafist -school. He was condemned to the stake, although no crime could be laid -at his door except that he was a Jew. With him died two brothers. The -expatriated Jews dispersed in all parts of the world; many traveled -to Palestine. But the majority remained as near as possible to the -French borders, in Provence proper, at that time partly under German -suzerainty, in the province of Roussillon, which belonged to the -Aragonian king of Majorca, and in that island. Their intention was to -wait for a favorable change of fortune, which would permit them to -return to the land of their birth. They had not speculated falsely. -King Philip himself was induced by avarice to unbend from his severity. - -The vehement struggle in Montpellier about permitting Jewish youth to -engage in the study of the sciences, remarkable to relate, continued -after the banishment from France (September, 1306), and the mutual -hatred of the two parties was in no way abated by suffering. A portion -of the Tibbonide party had settled in Perpignan, which belonged to the -king of Majorca, who was no favorer of the Jews. At his command copies -of the Talmud were once more delivered up to the _auto-da-fe;_ but -as he hoped to gain some advantage by the settlement of intelligent, -industrious Jews, he suffered them. Abba-Mari and another portion of -the congregation of Montpellier at first took up their abode in the -town of Arles, but as he could not stay there, he, too, emigrated to -Perpignan (January, 1307). But the opposing party, which had influence -with the king or governor, endeavored to hinder his settlement in that -place. Abba-Mari's partisans, by making representations to the king, -succeeded in obtaining permission for him to live in Perpignan. Here -the controversy raged anew. Solomon ben Adret and Asheri, particularly -the latter, whose decision of character had acquired for him the chief -authority, again interfered. Asheri declared that he had given his -signature in a half-hearted manner to the decree prohibiting young -men from occupying themselves with profane studies; for, according to -his opinion, it was too great a concession to permit it at the age -of twenty-five. Science ought to be prohibited altogether, for it -inevitably lures on to unbelief. The defenders of science were to be -condemned without mercy, since the afflictions of exile had made no -impression on them, suffering had not broken their spirit of defiance, -and had not chastened their hardness of heart. - -This view, that qualities prejudicial to Judaism were inherent in -science, gained supremacy after Ben Adret's death (1310), when Asheri -was acknowledged in Spain and in the neighboring countries as the only -authority in religious matters. Asheri, his sons and companions who -had migrated with him from Germany, transplanted from the Rhine to -vivacious Toledo that spirit of honest, but tormenting, narrow-minded -and intolerant piety; that gloomy disposition which regards even -harmless joy as a sin; that feeling of abjectness, which characterized -the German Jews of the Middle Ages, and they inoculated the Spanish -Jews with it. The free activity of the mind was checked. Asheri -concentrated all his mental power on the Talmud and its exposition. -His chief work was a compilation of the Talmud for practical use -(1307-1314). On all occasions he endeavored to enforce a difficult, -painful, and severe discipline. If any one desired to express his -thoughts on any department of knowledge whatsoever, he had to array -his subject in the garments of contrite orthodoxy. When the erudite -Isaac ben Joseph Israeli II, of Toledo, published an astronomical work -(1310), he had to adjust it to Talmudical standards, and introduce it -by a confession of faith, for only in this manner could he find grace -in Asheri's eyes. - -At about this time, during Asheri's rabbinate in Toledo, prominent Jews -once more obtained influence at court. King Ferdinand IV (1295-1312) -had a Jewish treasurer named Samuel, whose counsels he followed in -political matters too. The dowager queen, Maria de Molina, who had -held the reins of government during her son's minority, with feminine -passionateness hated the favorite Samuel, who is said to have nourished -the enmity between mother and son. One day, when Samuel was in Badajos, -and was preparing to accompany the king to Seville, he was attacked by -an assassin, and so severely wounded that he was left for dead. It is -not known who instigated the deed. The king had such care and attention -devoted to Samuel, that he recovered from his wounds. - -Don Ferdinand's death brought in its train a time of unquiet, of civil -war, and social anarchy for Spain. As the Infante Alfonso was still -a child in the cradle, several persons, the clever Maria de Molina, -the young queen-mother Constantia, and the uncles of the young king -contended for the guardianship and the regency, and provoked faction -feuds in the country (1312-1326). Donna Maria de Molina, who conducted -the government, did not extend her hate against her son's Jewish -counselor to the community to which he belonged. As in the lifetime of -her husband she had had a Jewish favorite, Todros Abulafia, so during -her regency she had a Jewish treasurer, Don Moses. When the council of -Zamora (1313) renewed canonical laws hostile to the Jews, the cortes of -Burgos demanded the exclusion of Jews from all honors and offices, and -the pope issued a bull that Christians were to be absolved from their -debts to Jews on account of usury, the wise regent submitted only in -part. She ordered that Jews should not bear high-sounding Christian -names, nor enter into close intercourse with Christians; but she most -emphatically declared herself against the unjust abolition of debts, -and published a law that no debtor could make himself free of his -obligation to professors of the Jewish faith by appealing to a papal -bull. - -The regency of Don Juan Emanuel inaugurated an improvement in the -condition of the Castilian Jews (1319-1325). The regent was a friend -of learning, himself an author and poet, and was consequently held in -esteem by educated Jews. A Jew of Cordova, Jehuda ben Isaac Ibn-Wakar, -found high favor in his eyes, and probably acted as his treasurer. At -his solicitation Juan Emanuel once more invested the rabbinate with -penal jurisdiction, which the Jews had partly lost during the regency -of Maria de Molina, and had practiced only privately. - -Jehuda Ibn-Wakar, however, was an admirer of Asheri, and, like -the latter, of excessive piety, desiring to have every religious -transgression punished with the utmost severity. When a Cordovan -uttered a blasphemy in Arabic, Ibn-Wakar asked Asheri what was to be -done with him, and the latter replied that his tongue should be cut -out. A beautiful Jewess having had intercourse with a Christian, Don -Juan Manuel resigned her to the punishment of the Jewish court, and -Jehuda Ibn-Wakar condemned her to have her face disfigured by the -removal of her nose, and Asheri confirmed the sentence. - -The southern Spanish and Castilian congregations still lived in peace, -and in the undisturbed possession of their goods; on the other hand, -the northern Spanish, and still more the southern French congregations -were exposed to bloody attacks by fanatical hordes, which the church -had unfettered, and then could not restrain. Jews once more lived in -France. Louis X had recalled them nine years after their banishment -(1315). This king, himself seized by a desire to abrogate the -ordinances of his father and indict his counselors, had been solicited -by the people and the nobility, who could not do without the Jews, to -re-admit them into France. He accordingly entered into negotiations -with them in reference to their return. But the Jews did not accept -his proposal without deliberation, for they well knew the inconstancy -of the French kings, and the fanatical hatred of the clergy against -them. They hesitated at first, and then submitted their conditions. -These were, that they be allowed to reside in the same places as -before; that they should not be indictable for former transgressions; -that their synagogues, churchyards, and books be restored to them, -or sites be granted for new places of worship. They were to have the -right of collecting the money owing to them, of which two-thirds -should belong to the king. Their former privileges, as far as they -were still in force, were to be again extended to them, or new ones -conceded. King Louis accepted all these conditions, and granted them -also the right of emigration under certain restrictions. In order to -conciliate the clergy, he, on his side, imposed the conditions that -they wear a badge of a certain size and color, and hold neither public -nor private disputations on religion. Two high officials (prud'hommes, -auditeurs des Juifs) were appointed to superintend the re-settlement -of the Jews. Their residence in France was fixed for twelve years; if -the king should resolve to expel them again after the expiration of -that period, he put himself under the obligation to give them a year's -warning that they might have time to make their preparations. The king -published this decree, declaring that his father had been ill-advised -to banish the Jews. As the voice of the people solicited their return, -as the church desired a tolerant policy, and as the sainted Louis had -set him the precedent of first banishing and then readmitting them, -he had, after due consultation with the prelates, the barons, and -his high council, permitted the return of the Jews. The French Jews -streamed back in masses to their former dwelling-places, regarding -this event as a miraculous redemption. When Louis X died a year after, -and his brother Philip V, the Long, ascended the throne, he extended -their privileges, and protected them especially from the enmity of the -clergy; so that they and their books could be seized only by royal -officers. But they were not free from vexation by the degenerate -clergy, who insisted that the Jews of Montpellier, who thought they -could venture on certain liberties, should re-affix the Jew-badge on -their dress. At one time they accused the Jews of Luenel with having -publicly outraged the image of Christ on the Purim festival; at -another time they ordered that two wagonfuls of copies of the Talmud -be publicly burned in Toulouse. Such occurrences, however, were mere -child's play compared with what they had to endure from the bigoted -multitude. - -Philip V had the idea, repugnant to the spirit of the time, of -undertaking a crusade to wrest the Holy Land, after so many vain -attempts, from the hands of the infidels. This enterprise appeared so -foolish to the discerning, that even Pope John XXII, the second of the -popes that resided in Avignon instead of at Rome, dissuaded him from -it. Nevertheless, the fancy, as soon as it was known, inflamed the -minds of the rude populace. A young man of excited imagination gave out -that a dove had settled at one time on his head, at another, on his -shoulder, and when he had sought to seize it, it had transformed itself -into a beautiful woman, who urged him to gather a troop of crusaders, -assuring him of victory. His utterances found credulous hearers, and -the lower people, children, and swine-herds attached themselves to him. -A wicked priest and an unfrocked Benedictine monk used the opportunity -to force their way to the front, and thus arose in northern France -(1320) a numerous horde of forty thousand shepherds (Pastoureaux, -Pastorelli, Roim), who moved in procession from town to town carrying -banners, and announced their intention of journeying across the sea to -deliver the so-called holy sepulcher. Their attention was immediately -turned to the Jews, possibly because they wanted to raise money for the -purchase of weapons by robbing the Jews of their possessions, or a Jew, -as is related, had made sport of their childish heroism. The massacre -of the Jews by the shepherds (Gesereth-ha-Roim) is another bloody page -in Jewish history. - -Nearly all the crusading enterprises had commenced with the murder of -Jews; so this time. The shepherd-gangs which had collected near the -town of Agen (on the Garonne) cut down all the Jews they met on their -march from this place to Toulouse, if they refused to be baptized. -About five hundred Jews had found refuge in the fortress of Verdun (on -the Garonne), the commandant having placed a strong tower at their -disposal. The shepherds took it by storm, and a desperate battle took -place. As the Jews had no hopes of rescue, they had recourse in their -despair to self-destruction. The unhappy people selected the oldest and -most respected man of their number to slay them one after the other. -The old man picked out a muscular young assistant in this ghastly -business, and both went to work to rid their fellow-sufferers of their -miserable lives. When at last the young man, after slaying his aged -partner, was left alone, the desire of life came strong upon him; he -declared to the besieging shepherds that he was ready to go over to -them, and asked to be baptized. The latter were just or cruel enough -to refuse the request, and tore the renegade to pieces. The Jewish -children found in the tower were baptized by force. The governor of -Toulouse zealously espoused the cause of the Jews, and summoned the -knights to take the approaching shepherds prisoners. Thus many of them -were brought in chains to the capital, and thrown into prison. But the -mob, which sympathized with them, banded together, and set them at -liberty, the result being that the greater part of the congregation -of Toulouse was destroyed. A few seceded to Christianity. On the -capture of the shepherds near Toulouse, the Jews in the neighborhood, -who had been granted shelter in Castel-Narbonnais, thought that they -were now free of all danger, and left their place of refuge. They were -surprised by the rabble, and annihilated. Thus perished almost all -the Jews in the neighborhood of Bordeaux, Gascogne, Toulouse, Albi, -and other towns of southern France. Altogether, more than 120 Jewish -congregations in France and northern Spain were blotted out through -the rising of the Shepherds, and the survivors were so impoverished by -spoliation that they were dependent upon the succor of their brethren -in other parts, which flowed to them in abundance even from Germany. - -The following year, too, was very unfortunate for the Jews, the trouble -again beginning in France. This persecution was occasioned by lepers, -from whom it has its name (Gesereth Mezoraim). The unhappy people -afflicted by leprosy in the Middle Ages were banished from society, -declared dead as citizens, shut up in unhealthy quarters, and there -tended after a fashion. Once, when certain lepers in the province of -Guienne had been badly provided with food, they conceived and carried -into effect the plan of poisoning the wells and rivers, through which -many people perished (1321). When the matter was traced back to the -lepers, and they were examined under torture, one of them invented, -or somebody suggested to him, the lying accusation that the Jews had -inspired them with the plan of poisoning the waters. The charge was -generally believed; even King Philip V had no doubt about it. Sometimes -it was asserted that the Jews wanted to take revenge for the sufferings -experienced at the hands of the Shepherds the year before; again, that -they had been persuaded by the Mahometan king of Granada to cause the -Christians to be poisoned; or it was suggested that they had done it -in league with the Mahometan ruler of Palestine, to frustrate the -intended crusade of King Philip. In several places Jews were arrested -on this accusation, unmercifully tortured, and some of them burnt -(Tammuz--July, 1321). In Chinon a deep pit was dug, fire kindled in -it, and eight Jewish men and women thrown in, who sang whilst dying. -The mothers had previously cast in their children, to save them from -forcible baptism. Altogether five thousand are said to have suffered -death by fire in that year. Many were banished from France, and robbed -by the heartless populace. Philip was convinced later on of the untruth -of the accusation; but as the Jews had been accused, he seemed to think -that the opportunity might be used to swell the treasury. Accordingly, -the congregations were condemned by Parliament to a penalty of one -hundred and fifty thousand pounds (Parisian); they were to apportion -the contributions among themselves. Deputies (procureurs) from northern -France (de la langue francaise) and from Languedoc, met and enacted -that the southern French Jews, decimated and impoverished by the -previous year's massacre, were to contribute forty-seven thousand -pounds, and the remainder was to be borne by the northern French Jews. -The wealthiest Jews were put under arrest as security for the payment -of the fine, and their goods and debts distrained. - -In the same year a great danger threatened the oldest of the European -communities. Misfortune came upon it the more unexpectedly as till -then it had tasted but little of the cup of misery which the Jews of -England, France and Spain so often had to drink to the dregs. It was -because Rome did not belong to the pope, but to the families of Orsini -and Colonna, to the Ghibellines and Guelphs--the great and minor -lords, who fought out their party feuds in that city--that the Jews -were left untouched by papal tyranny. It was well for them that they -were little considered. - -At about this time the Roman Jews had made an advance in material -welfare and intellectual culture. There were some who possessed houses -like palaces, furnished with all the comforts of life. Since the time -when, through the concurrence of favorable circumstances, they had -tasted of the tree of knowledge, learning and poetry were cherished -by the Italian Jews. The seeds which Hillel of Verona, Serachya ben -Shaltiel and others had scattered, commenced to bear fruit. When the -flower of intellectual glory in southern France began to decay through -the severity of Talmudical rigorists and the bloody persecutions, -it unfolded itself in Italy, especially in Rome. At that time the -first rays of a new cultural development, breaking through the gloom -of priestcraft and the rude violence of the Middle Ages, appeared -in Italy. A fresh current of air swept the heavens in Italy in the -beginning of the fourteenth century, the epoch of Dante, thawing the -icy coat of the church and of knightdom, the two pillars of the Middle -Ages. A sense of citizenship, the impulse towards liberty, enthusiastic -love for science, were the striking symptoms of a new spirit, of a -striving for rejuvenescence, which only the emperor, the embodiment -of rude, ungainly knighthood, and the pope, the incarnation of the -stern, unbending church, failed to perceive. Every greater or lesser -Italian lord made it a point of honor to encourage art and science, -and patronize poets, artists and learned men at his court. Nor were -the Jews overlooked at this juncture. One of the most powerful Italian -princes, Robert of Anjou, king of Naples, count of Provence (Arelat), -vicar-general of the Papal States and for some time titular lieutenant -of the Holy Roman empire, was a friend of science, a warm admirer also -of Jewish literature, and consequently a protector of the Jews. Several -Jewish litterateurs were his teachers, or at his instance undertook -scientific and theological works. - -Either in imitation of the current practice or from sincere interest -in Jewish literature, rich Jews, who played the part of small -princes, invited Jewish authors into their circle, lightened their -material cares by liberal support, and stimulated their activity by -encouragement. Thus it came to pass that three Jewish Italian men of -letters had the courage to compete with the Spaniards and Provencals. -These were Leo Romano, Judah Siciliano, and above all the poet Immanuel -Romi, who once more ennobled neo-Hebrew poetry, and raised it to a -higher level. The Roman congregation at that time displayed exceptional -interest in Jewish writings. Of Maimuni, the embodiment of science -for them as for the rest of the Jewish world, they possessed the -copious Religious Codex, and the translation of his "Guide;" but of -his luminous Mishna commentary, composed originally in Arabic, only -those parts which Charisi and Samuel Ibn-Tibbon had done into Hebrew. -The representatives of the Roman congregations, to whom probably the -poet Immanuel also belonged, wished to have a complete edition of the -work, and sent a messenger to Barcelona to Ben Adret expressly for the -purpose of procuring the remaining parts. The affair was not so simple -as the Roman Jews had imagined. The greater portion of the anxiously -desired commentary of Maimuni on the Mishna, on account of peculiar -difficulties, was not yet rendered into Hebrew. The greatest obstacle -was the circumstance that the Spanish Jews, except those in Toledo and -in the neighborhood of the kingdom of Granada, had forgotten Arabic. -Ben Adret, who wished to oblige the Roman congregation, endeavored -to get the required portions translated into Hebrew. He encouraged -scholars, learned both in Arabic and the Talmud, to undertake this -difficult task, and Joseph Ibn-Alfual and Jacob Abbassi of Huesca, -Solomon ben Jacob and Nathaniel Ibn-Almali, the last two physicians -of Saragossa, and others divided the labor among themselves. Jewish -literature is indebted for the possession of this most valuable work of -Maimuni to the zeal of the Roman congregation, of Ben Adret, and these -translators. - -The Roman community was roused from its peaceful occupations and -undisturbed quiet by a rough hand, and awakened to the consciousness -that it existed under the scourge of priestcraft and the caprice of its -rulers. - -It is related that a sister of the pope (John XXII), named Sangisa, -had repeatedly exhorted her brother to expel the Jews from the holy -city of Christendom. Her solicitations had always been fruitless; she -therefore instigated several priests to give testimony that the Jews -had ridiculed by words and actions a crucifix which was carried through -the streets in a procession. The pope thereupon issued the command -to banish all the Jews from Roman territory. All that is certain is -that the Jews of Rome were in great danger during that year, for they -instituted an extraordinary fast, and directed fervent prayers to -heaven (21 Sivan-18 June, 1321), nor did they fail to employ worldly -means. They sent an astute messenger to Avignon to the papal court -and to King Robert of Naples, the patron of the Jews, who happened to -be in that city on state affairs. The messenger succeeded, through -the mediation of King Robert, in proving the innocence of the Roman -Jews in regard to the alleged insulting of the cross and the other -transgressions laid to their charge. The twenty thousand ducats, which -the Roman community is said to have presented to the sister of the -pope, silenced the last objections. The Jews of Rome entered their -school of trouble later than the Jews of other countries. For that -reason it lasted the longer. - -Whilst King Robert was residing in southern France, he seems to have -made the acquaintance of a learned, genial Jewish satirist, Kalonymos -ben Kalonymos, and to have taken him into his service. This talented -man (born 1287, died before 1337) possessed solid knowledge, was -familiar with the Arabic language and literature (which was very -remarkable in a Provencal), and in his youth (1307-1317) translated -medical, astronomical, and philosophical writings from that language -into Hebrew. Kalonymos ben Kalonymos was not merely a hewer of wood -and drawer of water, an interpreter in the realm of science; he had -intellect enough to make independent observations. Disregarding -the province of metaphysical speculation, he was more interested -in pure ethics, which he especially wished to inculcate in his -co-religionists, "because neglect and ignorance of it leads men to all -kinds of perversities and mutual harm." He did not treat the subject -in a dry, uninteresting style, but sought to clothe it in attractive -garments. With this end in view, Kalonymos adapted a part of the Arabic -encyclopedia of science (which was in circulation under the name of -"Treatises of the Righteous Brethren") for a dialogue between man and -beasts, giving the theme a Jewish coloring. - -In another work, "Touchstone" (composed at the end of 1322), Kalonymos -ben Kalonymos held up a mirror for his Jewish contemporaries, in which -they could recognize their perversities, follies, and sins. To avoid -giving himself the appearance of an irreproachable censor of morals, he -enumerated his own sins, more in satire than as a confession. Kalonymos -whimsically satirized even Judaism. He wished he had been born a woman, -for then he would not have had to bear the burden of six hundred and -thirteen religious laws, besides so many Talmudical restrictions and -rigorous ordinances, which could not possibly be fulfilled, even when -a man tried with the most exacting conscientiousness. As a woman, -he would not have to trouble himself with so much reading, to study -the Bible, the Talmud, and the subjects belonging to it, nor torment -himself with logic, mathematics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. By -and by Kalonymos' satire grew deeply serious. The degradation of his -Jewish co-religionists, and the bloody persecutions occasioned by the -Shepherds and the lepers, dispelled his mocking humor, and satire was -changed into lamentation. In Rome, which King Robert assigned to him as -a place of residence, Kalonymos, having been furnished with letters of -recommendation, obtained entry into a joyous, vivacious, imaginative -circle of men, by whom he was stimulated to write a peculiar parody. -He composed a treatise for the Jewish carnival (Purim), in which he -imitated the tenor and spirit of the Talmud, its method, controversies, -and digressions, with considerable wit. It is a fine parody, exciting -laughter at every step, and one can not tell whether it was intended -as a harmless carnival joke or as a satire on the Talmud. Kalonymos -occupied a position of importance in the Roman congregation. Handsome -in form, of abundant accomplishments, solid character, all his -excellencies enhanced by the good opinion of King Robert of Naples, -he was everyone's favorite. The Italian Jews were proud of him. But -Kalonymos was not a true poet, still less an artist. - -Much more gifted, profound, and imaginative was his older friend -and admirer, Immanuel ben Solomon Romi (born about 1265, died about -1330). He was an anomaly in the Jewish society of the Middle Ages. He -belonged to that species of authors whose writings are all the more -attractive because not very decent. Of overflowing wit, extravagant -humor, and caustic satire, he is always able to enchain his readers, -and continually to provoke their merriment. Immanuel may be called the -Heine of the Jewish Middle Ages. Immanuel had an inexhaustible, ready -supply of brilliant ideas. And all this in the holy language of the -Prophets and Psalmists. Granted that the neo-Hebrew poets and thinkers, -the grammarians and Talmudists, had lent flexibility to the language, -but none of Immanuel's predecessors had his power of striking from -it showers of sparkling wit. But if, on the one side, he developed -the Hebrew language almost into a vehicle for brilliant repartee, -on the other side, he robbed it of its sacred character. Immanuel -transformed the chaste, closely-veiled maiden muse of Hebrew poetry -into a lightly-clad dancer, who attracts the attention of passers-by. -He allows his muse to deal with the most frivolous and indelicate -topics without the slightest concealment or shame. His collection of -songs and novels tends to exert a very pernicious and poisonous effect -upon hot-blooded youth. But Immanuel was not the hardened sinner, as -he describes himself, who thought of nothing but to carry on amours, -seduce the fair, and deride the ugly. He sinned only with the tongue -and the pen, scarcely with the heart and the senses. - -Though he often indulges in unmeasured self-laudation, this simple -description of his moral conduct must still be credited: "I never -bear my enemies malice, I remain steadfast and true to my friends, -cherish gratitude towards my benefactors, have a sympathetic heart, -am not ostentatious with my knowledge, and absorb myself in science -and poetry, whilst my companions riot in sensual enjoyments." Immanuel -belonged to those who are dominated by their wit, and cannot refrain -from telling some pointed witticism, even if their dearest friends are -its victims, and the holiest things are dragged in the mire by it. -He allowed himself to be influenced by the vivacity of the Italians -and the Europeanized Jews, and put no curb upon his tongue. What -is remarkable in this satirist is that his life, his position, and -occupation seem to have been in contradiction with his poetical craft. -In the Roman community he filled an honorable position, was something -like a president, at all events a man of distinction. He appears to -have belonged to the medical profession, although he made sport of -the quackery of physicians. In short, he led the domestic life of his -time, a life permeated by morality and religion, giving no opportunity -for excess. But his honorable life did not prevent him from singing -riotous songs, and from writing as though he were unconscious of the -seriousness of religion, of responsibility and learning. Immanuel -was acquainted, if not on intimate terms, with the greatest poet of -the Middle Ages, the first to open the gates of a new epoch, and to -prognosticate the unity of Italy in poetic phrase. Probably they came -to know each other on one of Dante's frequent visits to Rome, either -as ambassador or exile. Although their poetic styles are as opposite -as the poles--Dante's ethereal, grave, and elevated; Immanuel's -forcible, gay, and light--they, nevertheless, have some points of -contact. Each had absorbed the culture of the past; Dante the catholic, -scholastic, and romantic elements; Immanuel the biblical, Talmudical, -Maimunist, philosophical, and neo-Hebraic products. Both elaborated -this many-hued material, and molded it into a new kind of poetry. The -Italians at that time were full of the impulse of life, and Immanuel's -muse is inspired by the witchery of spring. He wrote ably in Italian, -too, of which a beautiful poem, still extant, gives evidence. Immanuel -was the first to adapt Italian numbers to the neo-Hebraic lyre. He -introduced the rhyme in alternate lines (Terza rima in sonnet form), -by which he produced a musical cadence. His poems are not equally -successful. They are wanting not in imagination, but in tenderness -and grace. His power lies in poetical prose (Meliza), where he can -indulge in free and witty allusions. In this style he composed a host -of short novels, riddles, letters, panegyrics, and epithalamia, which, -by clever turns and comic situations, extort laughter from the most -serious-minded readers. - -In one of his novels he introduces a quarrelsome grammarian of the -Hebrew language, a verbal critic who takes the field in grammatical -campaigns, and is accompanied by a marvelously beautiful woman. -Immanuel enters into a hair-splitting disputation that he may have -the opportunity of coquetting with the lovely lady. He suffers defeat -in grammar, but makes a conquest in love. Immanuel's description of -hell and paradise, in which he imitated his friend Dante, is full of -fine satire. Whilst the Christian romantic poet shows gravity and -elevation in his poetical creation, represents sinners and criminals, -political opponents and enemies of Italy, cardinals and popes, as -being tortured in hell, metes out, as it were, the severe sentences of -judgment day; his Jewish friend, Immanuel, invents scenes in heaven -and hell for the purpose of giving play to his humorous fancy. Dante -wrote a divine, Immanuel a human, comedy. He introduces his pilgrimage -to heaven and hell by relating that he once felt greatly oppressed by -the burden of his sins, and experienced compunction; at this juncture -his young friend Daniel, by whose untimely death he had lately been -deeply affected, appeared to him, and offered to guide him through the -dismal portals of hell and the elysian fields of the blessed. In the -chambers of hell Immanuel observes all the wicked and godless of the -Bible. Aristotle, too, is there, "because he taught the eternity of -the world," and Plato, "because he asserted the reality of species" -(Realism). Most of all he scourges his contemporaries in this poem. -He inflicts the torment of the damned upon the deriders of science; -upon a Talmudist who secretly led a most immoral life; upon men who -committed intellectual thefts, and upon those who sought to usurp all -the honors of the synagogue, the one to have his seat by the Ark of -the Covenant, the other to read the prayers on the Day of Atonement. -Quack doctors are also precipitated into hell, because they take -advantage of the stupidity and credulity of the multitude, and bring -trusting patients to a premature grave. His young, beatified guide -goes with him through the gates of Paradise. How the departed spirits -rejoice at the poet's approach! They call out, "Now is the time to -laugh, for Immanuel has arrived." In the description of paradise and -its inhabitants, Immanuel affects to treat his theme very seriously; -but he titters softly within the very gates of heaven. Of course, he -notices the holy men, the patriarchs, the pious kings and heroes of the -Jewish past, the prophets and the great teachers, the poets, Jehuda -Halevi and Charisi, the Jewish philosopher Maimuni. But next to King -David, who fingers the harp and sings psalms, he observes the harlot -Rahab who concealed the spies in Jericho, and Tamar who sat at the -cross-roads waiting. Dante excludes the heathen world from paradise, -because it did not acknowledge Christ, and had no share in the grace -of salvation. Immanuel sees a troop of the blessed, whom he does not -recognize, and asks their leader who they are. "These are," answers -the latter, "righteous and moral heathens, who attained the height of -wisdom, and recognized the only God as the creator of the world and the -bestower of grace." The pious authors, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezekiel, -on seeing Immanuel, darted forward to meet him; each one thanks him for -having expounded his writings so well, and here older and contemporary -exegetists come in for their share of Immanuel's sly satire. - -Neo-Hebraic poetry, which began with Jose ben Jose, and reached its -zenith in Ibn-Gebirol and Jehuda Halevi, attains its final stage of -development in Immanuel. The gamut had now been run. After Immanuel, -the Hebrew muse became silent for a long time, and it required a fresh -and powerful stimulus to awaken it from slumber to new energy. Verses -were, of course, written after his days, and rhymes polished, but they -are as far removed from poetry as a street-song from a soul-stirring -melody. The fate of Hebrew poetry is illustrated in Immanuel's career. -For a long period he was popular, every one sought his friendship, but -in old age he fell into neglect and poverty. His own statement is that -his generosity dissipated his means. He was as much derided as he had -formerly been praised. He left Rome with his family, traveled about, -and found repose at length at the house of a wealthy, influential -friend of art (Benjamin?) in Fermo, who interested himself in him, and -encouraged him to arrange the verses and poems written at different -periods of his life into a symmetrical whole. - -The praises which Immanuel bestows on his own productions, and his -boast that he casts the old poets into the shade, certainly tend to -produce a bad impression. Nevertheless, like every expert in his -profession, he was far removed from that repulsive vanity which -perceives its own depreciation in the recognition of another. To true -merit Immanuel gave the tribute of his warmest praise, and modestly -conceded precedence to it. Not only did he extol the highly honored -Kalonymos, basking in the sunshine of the king's favor, with the most -extravagant figures of speech, but he praised almost more heartily the -poet Jehuda Siciliano, who lived in straitened circumstances. He gave -him the palm for poetical verse, maintaining his own superiority in -poetical prose. But for Immanuel, nothing would have been known of this -poet. Poor Siciliano had to waste his power in occasional poems for -his subsistence, and was thus unable to produce any lasting work. With -glowing enthusiasm Immanuel eulogizes his cousin, the young and learned -Leone Romano, Jehuda ben Moses ben Daniel (born about 1292), whom he -calls the "Crown of Thought." In paradise he allots to him the highest -place of honor. Leone Romano was the teacher of King Robert of Naples, -and instructed him in the original language of the Bible. He knew the -language of learned Christendom, and was probably the first Jew to pay -attention to scholastic philosophy. He translated for Jewish readers -the philosophical compositions of Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, -and others. Leone Romano composed original works of exegesis, set -forth in philosophical method. Greatly as his contemporaries admired -his learning and intellect, which had achieved so much when he had -scarcely arrived at man's estate, he exercised no influence whatever on -posterity. - -The Roman society which promoted science and poetry may be said to -have included also the grandson of a Roman emigrant who took up his -abode in Greece, Shemarya Ikriti (Cretan) of Negroponte (flourished -1290-1320). He stood in close relation with the Roman community and -King Robert. Familiar with Talmudical literature, as he probably was -rabbi in Negroponte, he devoted himself to philosophical speculations, -and was, perhaps, well read in the Greek philosophical literature -in its original language. In his youth, Ikriti, like many of his -contemporaries, occupied himself with translations of philosophical -works. Later on he conceived a plan of practical utility, in which -he thought he could turn his knowledge to account. He sought to -smooth over the difference between the Rabbanites and the Karaites, -and lastingly to reconcile the sects at enmity with each other -for centuries, "that all Israel may once more be united in one -fraternal bond." Shemarya of Negroponte was the first, perhaps the -only Rabbanite, who, if he did not extend the hand of reconciliation -to Karaism, at least showed a friendly disposition towards it. He -recognized that both parties were in error; Karaism was wrong in -rejecting Talmudical traditions unconditionally; but the Rabbanites -sinned against truth in placing the Talmud in the forefront, and -overlooking the Bible. In Greece there may have been Karaites at that -time who had come from Constantinople. To these Shemarya Ikriti -addressed himself to incline their minds towards union with the mother -community. - -For the difficult task of bringing discordant faiths into harmony, -much intelligence and energy were required, and Shemarya could -furnish only good will. He was not deficient in knowledge, but his -mental grasp was not sufficiently powerful. At the instance of King -Robert, who interested himself in Jewish literature, he wrote a -commentary on the Bible, and forwarded to him, with a dedication, the -books first completed (1328). It read as follows: "To our noble king -Robert, adorned like King Solomon with the crown of wisdom and the -diadem of royalty, I send this exposition of the cosmogony and the -Song of Songs." His Biblical commentaries were set forth with great -diffuseness, covered a great range, and were not calculated to appeal -to the Karaites, and draw them over to the side of rabbinical Judaism. -His attempt at reconciliation miscarried, perhaps was not made in the -proper spirit; for there was a disposition on the part of some Karaites -to treat his overtures favorably, and his efforts would not have -failed, if they had been conducted with skill. Nevertheless, Ikriti was -held in such esteem in his time that the Roman congregation took an -interest in his labors, entered into correspondence with him, while the -Karaites assiduously read his works, and in later times considered him -a member of their own party. - -Karaism was still dragging itself along in its decaying, stiffening -form. Internal schisms remained unaccommodated. Different Karaite -congregations celebrated the festivals at different times: the -Palestinians, according to the observation of the new moon, and the -extra-Palestinian congregations, in common with the Rabbanites. Their -extremely severe marriage laws were not finally settled even at this -epoch. Karaism at that time had three centers--Cairo in Egypt, -Constantinople in the Byzantine Empire, and Sulchat (Eski-Crim) in the -Crimean peninsula. Some importance was possessed by Aaron ben Joseph -the Elder, physician in Constantinople (flourished about 1270-1300). He -came originally from the Crimea, made extensive voyages, and acquired -a knowledge of medicine and philosophy. Aaron I also made himself -intimate with Rabbanite literature to a degree that few of his sect -attained. He made use of Nachmani's commentary on the Pentateuch, and -from this circumstance arose the mistake of later Karaites, that Aaron -had sat at Nachmani's feet. His familiarity with Rabbanite literature -had a beneficial effect on his style; he wrote much more clearly and -intelligibly than most of the Karaite authors. He was even disposed to -accept the tradition of the Talmud. - -He completely fixed the Karaite prayer book (Siddur Tefila), hitherto -in an unsettled condition, incorporating into it hymns written by -Gebirol, Jehuda Halevi, Ibn-Ezra, and other Rabbanite liturgical -poets. Aaron himself possessed very little poetical genius, and his -metrical prayers, with which he enriched the prayer book of the -Karaites, have no great poetical merit, but by the admission of hymns -written by Rabbanites into his compilation, he showed that he knew -how to appreciate the devout sublimity in the prayers of the Spanish -Jews, and that he was not altogether devoid of taste. If Shemarya, -of Negroponte, had undertaken to effect a reconciliation between -the Rabbanites and the Karaites in a more intelligent and energetic -manner, there can be no doubt that Aaron would willingly have offered -his assistance, provided, of course, that he had known of Shemarya's -attempt. There was not wanting among Karaites a strong inclination for -union. Owing to the activity of Abraham Maimuni II, a great-grandson -of the renowned Maimuni, who had succeeded to the post of Chief -(Nagid) of the Rabbanite communities in Egypt after the death of his -father David, an important Karaite congregation in Egypt on one day -openly acknowledged the teachings of the Rabbanites. In Palestine, -too, frequent conversions of Karaites to Talmudical Judaism took -place. On this account the rabbis of the time were more favorably -disposed towards them. On the one hand, the strict Talmudist Samson -of Sens denounced the Karaites as heathens, whose wine was not to be -partaken of by orthodox Jews; on the other hand, Estori Parchi, who -had been banished from Provence, and who, emigrating to Palestine, had -settled in Bethshan, recognized them as co-religionists, led astray by -erroneous notions, but not to be rejected. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE AGE OF THE ASHERIDES AND OF GERSONIDES. - - Condition of Palestine--Pilgrims and Immigrants--Shem Tob - Ibn-Gaon--Favorable Position of the Jews in Castile under - Alfonso XI--Persecution in Navarre--Joseph de Ecija and Samuel - Ibn-Wakar--Increase of Anti-Jewish Feelings--Abner--Alfonso - of Burgos, Convert to Christianity, and Persecutor of the - Jews--Gonzalo Martinez--Fall of Martinez and Deliverance of the - Jews--Decline of the Study of Science--The Study of the Talmud - prosecuted with Renewed Vigor--Jacob and Judah Asheri--Isaac - Pulgar, David Ibn-Albilla--The Provencal Philosophers - Ibn-Kaspi, Leon de Bagnols, and Vidal Narboni--Decline of the - Study of the Talmud in Germany--Emperor Louis of Bavaria and - the Jews--Persecution by the "Leather-Arms." - -1328-1350 C.E. - - -The Holy Land was once more accessible to its children. The Egyptian -sultans, into whose power it passed after the fall of Accho and the -expulsion of the Christians, were more tolerant than the Christian -Byzantine emperors and the Frankish crusading kings. They did not -hinder the coming of Jewish pilgrims who desired to lighten their -over-burdened hearts by praying and weeping over the ruins of the past, -so rich in recollections, or at the graves of their great men there -interred; nor did they oppose the settlement of European exiles, who -again cultivated the soil of the land of their fathers. The long, firm, -yet mild, reign of the Mameluke sultan, Nassir Mahomet (1299-1341), -was a happy time for the Jews who visited Palestine. Whilst under the -rule of the Christian governors of the country no Jew was permitted to -approach the former capital, at this time Jewish pilgrims from Egypt -and Syria regularly came to Jerusalem, to celebrate the festivals, as -in the time when the Temple shone in all its splendor. The Karaites -established special forms of prayer for those who went on pilgrimages -to Jerusalem: at their departure, the whole congregation assembled to -give utterance in prayer to the bitter-sweet emotions connected with -Zion. The immigrants who settled in Palestine engaged in agriculture. -They came to feel so thoroughly at home there that the question was -mooted whether the laws of tithes, of the year of release, and others -ought not to be again carried into effect. In consequence of the -freedom and tolerance which the Jews were enjoying, many enthusiastic -spirits were again seized by the ardent desire to kiss the dust of the -Holy Land. Emigration to Palestine, especially from the extreme west, -became very common at this time. - -A pupil of Meir of Rothenburg, named Abraham, a painstaking copyist -of holy writings, considered his dwelling in the Holy Land a mark of -divine grace. Two young Kabbalists, Chananel Ibn-Askara and Shem Tob -Ibn-Gaon from Spain, also traveled thither, probably to be nearer -the source of the mystic doctrines, which fancy assigned to this -country, and took up their residence in Safet. But instead of obtaining -fresh information upon the doctrines of the Kabbala, one of them-- -Ibn-Askara died in his youth--introduced new features of the science. -Shem Tob ben Abraham Ibn-Gaon, from Segovia (born 1283, died after -1330), whose teacher in the Talmud had been Ben Adret, and in the -Kabbala Isaac ben Todros, was a zealous adherent of the secret science, -and described even Maimuni as a Kabbalist. - -The congregation of Jerusalem was at this time very numerous. A -large portion of the Rabbanite community led a contemplative life, -studied the Talmud day and night, and became engrossed with the secret -lore of the Kabbala. There were also handicraftsmen, merchants, and -several acquainted with the science of medicine, with mathematics and -astronomy. The artistic work of the famous calligraphers of Jerusalem -was in great demand, far and near. Hebron, too, possessed a vigorous -community, whose members engaged chiefly in the weaving and dyeing of -cotton-stuffs, and in the manufacture of glass wares, exported in large -quantities. In the south of Palestine, in company with Mahometans, -Jewish shepherds again pastured their flocks after the manner of the -patriarchs. Their rabbi was also a shepherd, and delivered discourses -upon the Talmud in the pasture fields for such as desired to obtain -instruction. - -Although the Holy Land was the goal of ardent, longing hearts, yet -it was no more a center for the dispersed of the Jewish race than it -had been for a long time previous. It could not produce an original -leader of any sort, and lived upon the crumbs of culture dropped by -the Jews in Europe. The Kabbala, studied in Palestine since the time -of Nachmani, was an exotic plant which could never flourish very well -there, and degenerated into rankest superstition. The Holy Land did -not even produce a Talmudical authority of widespread renown; also -for earnest rabbinical studies it had become dependent upon Europe. -The leadership of Judaism in the days after the death of Ben Adret -and Asheri remained with Spain, not as formerly Aragon, but Castile, -where the family of Asheri and their views prevailed. Here lived -Talmudical authorities whose decisions were considered final. Here was -still to be found, if not a flourishing state of science, at least -appreciation of scientific research. In Castile, under the rule of the -powerful and intelligent Alfonso XI, the Jews were in so prosperous a -condition that, compared with other countries in Europe, this period -may be called a Golden Age. Several clever Jews in succession, under -the modest title of ministers of finance (Almoxarif), exercised an -influence upon the course of politics. Not only the court, but also -the great nobles, surrounded themselves with Jewish counselors and -officers. In place of the humble, servile bearing, and the degrading -badge which the church decreed for the Jews, the Jewish Spaniards -still bore their heads erect, and clothed themselves in gold and -silk. Dazzled by the glitter of this favorable state of affairs, some -recognized the fulfillment of the old prophecy, "the scepter shall not -depart from Judah," which Christians had so often employed in their -attacks on Judaism. - -It is scarcely to be wondered at, if the Spanish Jews were unduly -elated because of the promotion of a few from their midst to state -offices. Such prominent public men were for the most part a protecting -shield for the communities against the avaricious and turbulent lower -orders of the nobility, against the stupid credulity and envy of the -mob, and the serpent-like cunning of the clergy, lying concealed but -ready to attack the Jews. Jewish ministers and counselors in the -service and the retinue of the king, clothed in the costume of the -court, and wearing at their sides the knightly sword, by these very -circumstances, without special intercession, disarmed the enemies -of their brethren in faith and race. The impoverished nobles, who -possessed nothing more than their swords, were filled with envy of -the rich and wise court Jews; but they were compelled to stifle their -feelings. The masses, guided by appearances, did not venture, as was -done in Germany, to ill-treat or slay any Jew they chanced across, as -an outlaw and a pariah, because they knew that the Jews were held in -high favor at court. They often overrated their influence, believing -that the Jews at court could obtain a hearing with the king at any -time. Even the haughty clergy were obliged to restrain themselves -so long as Joseph of Ecija, Samuel Ibn-Wakar, and others, were in a -position to counteract their influence. - -If the Castilian Jews compared the condition of their brethren in -neighboring countries with their own, they must certainly have felt -exalted, and entitled to be proud of their lot. In Aragon, at this -time united into one kingdom with the islands of Majorca and Sicily, -the persecuting spirit of the church, which Raymond de Penyaforte had -stirred up, and Jayme I had perpetuated by means of oppressive laws, -was rampant. In Navarre, which for half a century had belonged to the -crown of France, the hatred against the Jews burned with a frenzy -hitherto to be met with only in Germany. The last of the Capets, -Charles IV, was dead, and with the accession of Philip VI to the French -throne the House of Valois began. It is noteworthy that even Christians -believed that the extinction of the lineal successors of Philip le Bel -was retribution for his merciless expulsion of the Jews from France. -The people of Navarre strove to separate themselves from the rule of -France, and form an independent state. It is not known in how far the -Jews stood in the way of their project. Anyhow it is certain that -suddenly, throughout the whole country, a bloodthirsty enmity arose -against the Jews, prompted by envy of their riches, and fostered by the -monks. A Franciscan, named Pedro Olligoyen, made himself most prominent -in goading on the deluded mob against the innocent Jews. In the large -congregation of Estella a most horrible massacre began on a Sabbath -(23d Adar-5th March, 1328). The infuriated mob raised the cry, "Death -to the Jews, or their conversion." - -In vain did the Jews attempt to defend themselves in their streets; -the inhabitants of the city, strengthened by troops from other places, -besieged them, and took by storm the walls which surrounded the Jewish -quarter, breaking them down and slaying almost all the Jews of the -city. They also set fire to the Jewish houses, and reduced them to -ashes. The description by an eye-witness of his own sufferings gives -only a feeble idea of the horrors of this savage massacre in Estella. -The murderers had slain the parents and the four younger brothers of -Menachem ben Zerach, then barely twenty years old, afterwards a scholar -of commanding influence. He himself was wounded by the murderers and -knocked down, lying on the ground unconscious, from evening till -midnight, beneath a number of corpses. A compassionate knight, a friend -of Menachem's father, searched for him beneath the pile of corpses, -took him to his house, and had him carefully tended till he recovered -from his wounds. Similar scenes of barbarity were enacted in other -parts of the country, especially in Tudela, the largest community in -Navarre, and in the smaller ones of Falcos, Funes, Moncilla, Viana -and others, but nowhere to so frightful an extent as in Estella. Over -six thousand Jews perished in these massacres. Only the Jews of the -capital, Pampeluna, appear to have escaped these savage attacks. The -people of Navarre at length succeeded in their desire; their country -was separated from France, and obtained a king of its own, Philip -III, Count of Evreux and Angouleme. As soon as he was crowned, the -relatives of the murdered entreated him to mete out justice. At first, -Philip prosecuted the guilty persons in real earnest; he ordered the -ringleaders, the Franciscan Pedro Olligoyen and others to be cast into -prison, and laid a fine upon the cities in which these crimes had been -committed. But, in course of time, he liberated all the imprisoned, and -remitted the fine as an act of grace. He took good care, too, not to -let the stolen property and the possessions of persons without heirs -escape him; they had to be surrendered to him, just as in Germany. -There was no objection to the Jews' being slaughtered, but the royal -treasury was not to suffer loss on that account. This king and his -successors imposed new burdens upon the wretched people. The Jews of -Navarre now began to sink into degradation like those of Germany. - -The sun that was shining upon them in Castile at this time was, -strictly speaking, only a false sun, but its glimmer, compared with the -gloom wherein the congregations of other countries were steeped, gives -at least momentary pleasure. Alfonso XI, as soon as he came of age, -and obtained the sovereignty (1325-1380), had two Jewish favorites, -Don Joseph of Ecija and Samuel Ibn-Wakar. The former, whose full name -was Joseph ben Ephraim Ibn-Benveniste Halevi, had a pleasing exterior, -understood music, and knew how to ingratiate himself with those in -power. At the recommendation of his uncle, the king had made him -not only minister of finance (Almoxarif), but also his confidential -counselor (privado), whose opinion he highly valued. Joseph of Ecija -possessed a state carriage, knights accompanied him as an escort on -his journeys, and hidalgos dined at his table. On one occasion the -king dispatched him on a very important and honorable mission which -almost cost him his life. He was besieged by the citizens of Valladolid -in the palace of the Infanta, and they demanded his surrender with -tumultuous clamor. Some of Joseph's retinue succeeded in escaping from -the city, and they hastened at full speed to the king, to whom they -related what had taken place. Alfonso rightly considered this a revolt -against his sovereignty. He marched rapidly against Valladolid, and -summoned the knights of Old Castile to join him. For the sake of his -Jewish favorite, he besieged the former capital of his kingdom, burnt -many houses, and would have destroyed the place entirely, had not more -moderate persons intervened, and explained to the king that the people -were not so much embittered against Don Joseph as against Don Alvar -Nunez, whose influence was most hateful to them. Don Alfonso thereupon -condescended to remove Alvar from his public offices, whilst Don Joseph -continued in favor with the king. - -The other favorite of King Alfonso was his physician, Don Samuel -Ibn-Wakar (Abenhuacar). This man had a scientific education, was an -astronomer, and perhaps the astrologer of his master. Although he -occupied no public office, and took no part in state affairs, yet, -through the favor of the king, he possessed very great influence. There -existed between Don Joseph of Ecija and Ibn-Wakar the jealousy which is -common among courtiers who bask in the rays of the same sun. On account -of their rivalry, these two favorites sought to injure each other, and -thus they and their co-religionists incurred the hatred of the people. - -Some wealthy Jews, probably relying upon the favorable position -of their friends at court, carried on money transactions in an -unscrupulous manner. They extorted a high rate of interest, and -mercilessly persecuted their dilatory Christian debtors. The king -himself encouraged the usury of the Jews and Moors, because he gained -advantage therefrom. The complaints of the people against the Jewish -and Mahometan usurers grew very numerous. The cortes of Madrid, -Valladolid and other cities made this point the subject of petitions -presented to the king, demanding the abolition of these abuses, and the -king was compelled to yield to their entreaty. - -The minds of the people, however, remained embittered against the Jews. -The cortes of Madrid thereupon called for several restrictive laws -against the Jews, such as, that they should not be allowed to acquire -landed property, and that Jewish ministers of finance and farmers -of taxes should not be appointed (1329). Alfonso replied, that, in -the main, things should continue as they had been before. Don Samuel -Ibn-Wakar rose even higher in the royal favor. Don Alfonso intrusted -him with the farming of the revenues derived from the importation -of goods from the kingdom of Granada. He, moreover, obtained the -privilege empowering him to issue the coinage of the realm at a lower -standard. Joseph of Ecija now became jealous and offered a higher -sum for the right of farming the import-taxes from Granada. When he -thought he had supplanted his rival, the latter dealt him a severe -blow. Ibn-Wakar succeeded in persuading the king that it would be more -advantageous to the people of Castile to carry the protective system -to its uttermost limits, and prohibit all imports from the neighboring -Moorish kingdom (1330-1331). - -Whilst the two Jewish courtiers were striving to injure each other, the -enemies of the Jews were busily at work to imperil their reputation -and the existence of all the Castilian congregations. They inflamed -the minds of the people by representing to them that, owing to the -depreciation in the value of money, brought about by the farmer of the -coinage, Ibn-Wakar, the price of the necessaries of life had risen, -these articles being exported to the neighboring countries, where they -were bartered for silver, which had a higher value in their own land. -The enemies of the Jews also brought the influence of the church to -bear to arouse the prejudices of the king against all the Jews. Their -champion was a Jew, who no sooner had embraced Christianity, than he -became a fanatical persecutor of his brethren. This was the infamous -Abner, the forerunner of the baptized and unbaptized Jew-haters, who -prepared, and at length accomplished, the humiliation and banishment of -the Spanish Jews. - -Abner of Burgos, or as he was afterwards called, Alfonso Burgensis de -Valladolid (born about 1270, died about 1346), was well acquainted -with biblical and Talmudical writings, occupied himself with science, -and practiced medicine. His knowledge had destroyed his religious -belief, and turned him not only against Judaism, but against all -faiths. Troubled by cares for his subsistence, Abner did not obtain -the desired support from his kinsmen in race. He was too little of a -philosopher to accept his modest lot. His desires were extravagant, -and he was unable to find the means to satisfy them. In order to be -able to live in ease and splendor, Abner determined, when nearly sixty -years of age, to adopt Christianity, although this religion was as -little able to give him inward contentment as that which he forsook. -As a Christian, he assumed the name of Alfonso. The infidel disciple -of Aristotle and Averroes accepted an ecclesiastical office; he became -sacristan at a large church in Valladolid, to which a rich benefice was -attached, enabling him to gratify his worldly desires. He attempted -to excuse his hypocritical behavior and his apostasy by means of -sophistical arguments. - -Alfonso carried his want of conscientiousness so far that not long -after his conversion to Christianity he attacked his former brethren -in faith and race with bitter hate, and showed the intention of -persecuting them. Owing to his knowledge of Jewish literature, it -was easy for him to discover its weak points, employ them as charges -against Judaism, and draw the most hateful inferences. Alfonso was -indefatigable in his accusations against the Jews and Judaism, and -composed a long series of works, in which he introduced arguments -partly aggressive, partly defensive of his new faith against the -attacks upon it by the Jews. In his abuse of Judaism, the Hebrew -language, in which he composed with much greater ease than in Spanish, -was made to do service. - -Alfonso had the brazen impudence to send one of his hateful writings -to his former friend, Isaac Pulgar. The latter replied in a sharply -satirical poem, and pressed him close in his polemical writings. The -Jews of Spain had not yet become so disheartened as to suffer such -insolent attacks in silence. Another less renowned writer also answered -Alfonso, and thus a violent literary warfare broke out. - -Alfonso of Valladolid, however, did not content himself with polemical -writings; he boldly presented himself before King Alfonso XI, and -laid his accusations against the Jews before him. He raked up anew -the remark of the Church Father Jerome and others, that the Jews had -introduced into their book of prayer a formula of imprecation against -the God of the Christians and his adherents. The representatives of -the Jewish community in Valladolid, probably summoned by the king to -justify themselves, emphatically denied that the imprecation originally -leveled against the Minim (Nazarenes) referred to Jesus and his -present followers. Alfonso, however, would not admit the validity of -this exculpation, and pledged himself to prove his charges against -the Jews in a disputation. The king of Castile thereupon commanded -the representatives of the Valladolid community to enter upon a -religious discussion with the sacristan. It took place in the presence -of public officials and Dominicans. Here Alfonso Burgensis repeated -his accusations, and was victorious, inasmuch as, in consequence of -this disputation, King Alfonso issued an edict (25th February, 1336) -forbidding the Castilian communities, under penalty of a fine, to use -the condemned prayer or formula of imprecation. Thus the enemies of the -Jews succeeded in winning over the king, who was really well-disposed -towards the Jews. More ominous events were to happen. - -King Alfonso was not very constant; he transferred his favor from one -person to another. He took into his confidence a man unworthy of the -distinction, named Gonzalo Martinez (Nunez) de Oviedo, originally -a poor knight, who had been promoted through the patronage of the -Jewish favorite, Don Joseph of Ecija. Far from being grateful to his -benefactor, he bore deep hatred against him who had thus raised him, -and his hostile feeling extended to all Jews. When he had risen to -the post of minister of the royal palace, and later to that of Grand -Master of the Order of Alcantara (1337), he revealed his plan of -annihilating the Jews. He lodged a formal charge against Don Joseph and -Don Samuel Ibn-Wakar, to the effect that they had enriched themselves -in the service of the king. He obtained the permission of the king to -deal with them as he chose, so as to extort money from them. Thereupon -Gonzalo ordered both of them, together with two brothers of Ibn-Wakar, -and eight relatives with their families, to be thrown into prison, and -confiscated their property. Don Joseph of Ecija died in prison, and -Don Samuel died under the torture to which he was subjected. This did -not satisfy the enemy of the Jews. He now sought to destroy two other -Jews, who held high positions at court--Moses Abudiel and (Sulaiman?) -Ibn-Yaish. He implicated them in a charge, pretending all the while -to be friendly towards them. Through their downfall Gonzalo Martinez -thought to carry into effect his wicked plan against the Castilian Jews -without difficulty. - -The Moorish king of Morocco, Abulhassan (Alboacin), whose help was -implored by his oppressed co-religionists in Granada, had sent a very -large army under the command of his son, Abumelik, over the straits -to undertake a vigorous campaign against Castile. On the reception -of this news, terror spread throughout Christian Spain. King Alfonso -forthwith appointed Gonzalo Martinez, Master of the Order of Alcantara, -as general in charge of this war, and invested him with plenary power. -But funds were wanting; at the deliberation on ways and means of -procuring them, Gonzalo propounded his plan for depriving the Jews of -their wealth, and then expelling them from Castile. By this means, -large supplies of money would flow into the royal treasury; for all -the Christians who were dunned by the Jews would willingly pay large -sums of money to rid themselves of their enemies. Fortunately this -proposal met with opposition in the royal council, and even from the -most prominent clergyman in Castile, the archbishop of Toledo. The -latter urged that the Jews were an inexhaustible treasure for the king, -of which the state should not deprive itself, and that the rulers -of Castile had guaranteed them protection and toleration. Don Moses -Abudiel, who obtained information concerning the council held to decide -on the weal or woe of the Jews, advised the congregations to institute -public fasts, and to supplicate the God of their fathers to frustrate -the wickedness of Gonzalo. The latter marched to the frontier against -the Moorish army, and secured an easy victory. It happened, fortunately -for the Spaniard, that the Moorish general, Abumelik, fell pierced by -an arrow, and his army, filled with dismay at this event, was defeated -and put to rout. The vainglory of the Grand Master of Alcantara now -attained a high pitch. He thought to obtain such great importance in -Spanish affairs that the king would be compelled to approve of all -measures proposed by him. He was, indeed, filled with that pride which -precedes a fall. - -The feeble hand of a woman was the cause of his downfall. The beautiful -and sprightly Leonora de Guzman, who had so enthralled the king with -her charms that he was more faithful to her than to his wife, hated the -favorite Gonzalo Martinez, and succeeded in making the king believe -that he spoke ill of him. Alfonso desiring to learn the real truth of -the matter sent a command to Gonzalo to present himself before him -in Madrid; he, however, disobeyed the royal command. To be able to -defy the anger of the king, he stirred up the knights of the Order of -Alcantara and the citizens of the towns assigned to his government, -to rebel against his sovereign, entered into traitorous negotiations -with the king of Portugal and with the enemy of the Christians, the -king of Granada. Alfonso was forced to lead his nobles against him, and -besiege him in Valencia de Alcantara. In mad defiance, Gonzalo directed -arrows and missiles to be aimed at the king, which mortally wounded a -man in the vicinity of Alfonso. But some of the knights of the Order of -Alcantara forsook their Grand Master, and surrendered the stronghold to -the king. There remained nothing for Gonzalo except to yield. He was -condemned to death as a traitor, and was burnt at the stake (1336), and -thus ended the man who had sworn to annihilate the Jews. The Castilian -congregations thereupon celebrated a new festival of deliverance, in -the same month in which the evil plans of Haman against the Jews had -recoiled on his own head. Alfonso again received the Jews into his -favor, and raised Moses Abudiel to a high position at his court. From -this time till the day of his death, Alfonso XI acted justly towards -his Jewish subjects. - -It may be thought that, under these on the whole favorable -circumstances, the Jews occupied themselves with their intellectual -culture, which had already developed its full blossom; but it was not -so. Castile in particular, and all Spain, at this epoch, were very -deficient in men who cultivated Jewish science. The Talmud constituted -the only branch of study which intellectual men attended to, and even -here there was no particular fertility. Decrease in strength manifested -itself even in the study of the Talmud. The most famous rabbis of -this period had so great a mistrust of their own powers that they no -longer dared take an independent view of anything, and relied more -and more upon the conclusions of older authorities. They made it very -convenient for themselves by slavishly following Maimuni's Code in -practical decisions, deviating from it only in such particulars as -Asheri had objected to. The latter had pretty well succeeded, if not -in altogether destroying the inclination of the Spanish Jews to engage -in scientific inquiry, at least in bringing science into disrepute, and -thus weakening its study. The distinguished supporters of philosophy -henceforth no more came from Spain; the few that came into prominence -were from southern France. These were Ibn-Kaspi, Gersonides and -Narboni. Asheri and his sons, who inherited his hostility to science, -in causing the view to become general throughout Spain, that a man -should not engage in higher questions concerning Judaism and its -connection with philosophy, did not consider that by this means the -spirit of the Spanish Jews would become enfeebled and incapacitated -for Talmudical investigations, too. The Jewish sons of Spain were -not so well suited for the study of narrow Talmudism as the German -Jews. Prevented from occupying themselves with science, they lost -their buoyancy of spirit, and became unfit for the studies permitted. -Even their pleasure in song and their poetical talents died away. -Occasionally a poem was still produced, but it consisted merely of -rude and unimaginative rhymes. In time they were no better than the -German Jews, whom they had before so greatly despised. Even their prose -style, on which the Spanish Jews had formerly bestowed so much care, -degenerated for the most part into spiritless verbosity. The charming -writer, Santob de Carrion, who as early as the time of Alfonso XI had -clothed his thoughts in beautiful Spanish verse, was a solitary poet, -whose song awoke no echo. - -The eight sons of Asheri, his relatives, who had emigrated with -him from Germany to Toledo, together with his numerous grandsons, -dominated Spanish Judaism from this time onwards. They introduced -a one-sided Talmudical method of instruction deeply tinged with a -gloomy, ascetic view of religion. The most famous of the sons of Asheri -were Jacob (Baal ha-Turim) and Jehuda, both intensely religious, -and of unselfish, self-sacrificing dispositions; they were, however, -limited to a very narrow range of ideas. Both were as learned in the -Talmud as they were ignorant in other subjects, and possessed every -quality calculated to bring the decay of religion into accord with the -increasing sufferings of the Jews in this third home of their race. - -Jacob ben Asheri (born about 1280, died 1340) was visited by bitter -misfortunes. His life was one chain of sufferings and privations; but -he bore all with patience, without murmur or complaint. Although his -father, Asheri, had brought much wealth with him to Spain, and had -always been in good circumstances, yet his son, Jacob, had to suffer -the bitterest pangs of poverty. Nevertheless, he received no salary as -a rabbi: in fact, he does not appear to have filled that post at any -time. As with all the family of Asheri, both sons and grandsons, the -Talmud constituted his exclusive interest in life; but he displayed -more erudition than originality. His sole merit consists in the fact -that he brought the chaos of Talmudical learning into definite order, -and satisfied the need of the time for a complete code of laws for -religious practice. - -Owing to his German origin and to his residence in Spain, Jacob Asheri -became familiar with the productions of the different schools and -authorities in their minutest details. He was thus well suited to -control this chaotic mass and reduce it to order. On the basis of the -labors of all his predecessors in this field, especially of Maimuni, -Jacob compiled a second religious code (in four parts, Turim, shortened -to Tur, about 1340). This work treated solely of religious practice, -that is, of the ritual, moral, marriage and civil laws. He omitted all -such things as had fallen into disuse since the destruction of the -Temple and because of altered circumstances. With the composition of -this work, a new phase in the inner development of Judaism may be said -to begin. - -Jacob's code forms part of a graduated scale, by means of which it -can be ascertained to how low a level official Judaism had sunk since -the time of Maimuni. In Maimuni's compilation thought is paramount; -every ritual practice, of whatever kind, whether good or bad, is -brought into connection with the essence of religion. In Jacob's -code, on the other hand, thought or reasoning is renounced. Religious -scrupulousness, which had taken so firm a hold of the German Jewish -congregations, inspires the laws, and imposes the utmost stringency -and mortifications. Maimuni, in accepting religious precepts as -obligatory, was guided entirely by the Talmud, and but seldom included -the decisions of the Geonim as invested with authority. Asheri's -son, on the contrary, admitted into his digest of religious laws -everything that any pious or ultra-pious man had decided upon either -out of scrupulosity or as a result of learned exposition. In his -code, the precepts declared to be binding by rabbinical authorities -far outnumbered those of Talmudic origin. One might almost say that -in Jacob Asheri's hands, Talmudical Judaism was transformed into -Rabbinism. He even included some of the follies of the Kabbala in his -religious digest. - -Jacob's code is essentially different from that of Maimuni, not only in -contents, but also in form. The style and the language do not manifest -the conciseness and lucidity of Maimuni's. Notwithstanding this, his -code soon met with universal acceptance, because it corresponded to -a want of the times, and presented, in a synoptical form, all the -ordinances relating to the ritual, to marriage, and civil laws binding -on the adherents of Judaism in exile under the rule of various nations. -Rabbis and judges accepted it as the criterion for practical decisions, -and even preferred it to Maimuni's work. A few of the rabbis of that -age refused to forego their independence, and continued to pronounce -decisions arrived at by original inquiry, and therefore paid little -heed to the new religious code. The great majority of them, on the -other hand, not only in Spain, but also in Germany, were delighted to -possess a handy book of laws systematically presenting everything worth -knowing, making deep, penetrative research superfluous, and taxing -the memory more than the understanding. Thus Jacob's Tur became the -indispensable manual for the knowledge of Judaism, as understood by the -rabbis, for a period of four centuries, till a new one was accepted -which far surpassed the old. - -His brother, Jehuda Asheri, was on a par with Jacob in erudition and -virtue, but did not possess similar power of reducing chaos to order. -He was born about 1284, and died in 1349. After the death of his -father, the community of Toledo elected him as Asheri's successor in -the rabbinate of the Spanish capital. He performed the functions of his -office with extraordinary scrupulousness, without respect of persons, -and was able to call the whole community to witness that he had never -been guilty of the slightest trespass. When Jehuda Asheri, on account -of some small quarrel with his congregation, resolved to take up his -abode in Seville, the entire community unanimously begged of him to -remain in their midst, and doubled his salary. In spite of this show of -affection, he did not feel comfortable in Spain, and in his will he is -said to have advised his five sons to emigrate to Germany, the original -home of his family. The persecution of the German Jews, during the year -of the epidemic pestilence, probably taught them that it was preferable -to dwell in Spain. By reason of his position in the most important -of the congregations and of his comprehensive rabbinical learning, -Jehuda Asheri was regarded as the highest authority of his age, and was -preferred even to his brother Jacob. - -Seeing that even the study of the Talmud, so zealously pursued -in Spain, had fallen into this state of stagnation and lassitude, -the other branches of science could not complain that they made no -progress, or were not attentively cultivated. The study of the Bible, -Hebrew grammar, and exegesis were entirely neglected; we can recall -hardly a single writer who earnestly occupied himself with these -subjects. Owing to the energetic zeal of Abba-Mari, the interdict -of Ben Adret, and the pronounced aversion of Asheri, reasoning had -fallen into disrepute and decay. The truly orthodox shunned contact -with philosophy as the direct route to heresy and infidelity, and -pseudo-pious people behaved in a yet more prudish fashion towards -it. It required courage to engage in a study inviting contempt and -accusations of heresy. The Kabbala, too, had done its work, in dimming -the eyes of men by its illusions. There were but few representatives of -a philosophical conception of Judaism in those days; these were Isaac -Pulgar, of Avila, David Ibn-Albilla of Portugal, and Joseph Kaspi of -Argentiere, in southern France. - -Levi ben Gerson, or Leon de Bagnols, was more renowned and more -talented than any of these. He was also called Leo the Hebrew, but -more usually by his literary name Gersonides (born 1288, died about -1345). He belonged to a family of scholars, and among his ancestors -he reckoned that Levi of Villefranche who had indirectly caused the -prohibition of scientific study. In spite of the interdict of Ben -Adret forbidding the instruction of youths in science, Gersonides was -initiated into it at a very early age, and before he had reached his -thirtieth year he was at work at a comprehensive and profound work -upon philosophy. Gersonides was gifted with a versatile and profound -intellect, and averse to all superficiality and incompleteness. In -astronomy he corrected his predecessors, and made such accurate -observations that specialists based their calculations upon them. He -invented an instrument by means of which observations of the heavens -could be made more certain. This discovery filled him with such ecstasy -that he composed a Hebrew poem, a kind of riddle, upon it, though he -was an unpoetical man, and had his head filled with dry calculations -and logical conclusions. He also wrote works upon the science of -medicine, and discovered new remedies. At the same time he was held in -very high repute by his contemporaries as a profound Talmudist, and -inspired by his love for systematic arrangement, wrote a methodology of -the Mishna. - -Maestro Leon de Bagnols, as he was called as a physician, fortunately -did not belong to the Jews of France proper: he successively lived -in Orange, Perpignan, and in Avignon, at this time the home of -popedom. Therefore, he had not been a sufferer in the expulsion of his -co-religionists from this land; but his heart bled at the sight of the -sufferings which the exiles were made to undergo. He moreover escaped -from the effects of the rising of the Shepherds, and the subsequent -bitter calamities. At about the same time, his fertile powers of -production began to put forth fruit, and he began the series of -writings which continued for more than twenty years (1321-1343). None -of his writings created such a sensation as his work on the philosophy -of religion (Milchamoth Adonai). In this he set forth the boldest -metaphysical thoughts with philosophical calmness and independence, as -if paying no heed to the fact that by his departure from the hitherto -received notions upon these questions, he was laying himself open to -the charges of heresy and heterodoxy. "If my observations are correct," -he remarked, "then all blame leveled against me, I regard as praise." -Leon de Bagnols belonged to a class of thinkers seldom met with, who, -with majestic brow, seek truth for its own intrinsic value, without -reference to other ends and results which might cause conflict. Levi -ben Gerson thus expressed his opinion upon this subject: Truth must be -brought out and placed beneath the glare of open daylight, even if it -should contradict the Torah in the strongest possible manner. The Torah -is no tyrannical law, which desires to force one to accept untruth as -truth, on the contrary, it seeks to lead man to a true understanding of -things. If the truth arrived at by investigation is in harmony with the -utterances of the Bible, then so much the better. In his independence -of thought, the only parallel to Gersonides among Jewish inquirers -is Spinoza. Unlike many of his predecessors, he would not look upon -science as a body of occult doctrines designed for an inner circle of -the initiated. He moreover refused to follow slavishly the authorities -in philosophy regarded as infallible. He propounded independent views -in opposition not only to Maimuni and Averroes, but also to Aristotle. -Leon de Bagnols did not establish a perfect and thoroughly organized -system of the philosophy of religion, but treated of the difficulties -which interested the thinkers of the age more incisively than any of -his predecessors. - -In spite of his great ability, Gersonides exercised very little -influence upon Judaism. By the pious, he was denounced as a heretic, -because of his independent research, and his ambiguous attitude towards -the doctrine of the creation. They took the title of his chief work, -"The Battles of the Lord," to mean "Battles against the Lord." So much -the warmer was his reception by Christian inquirers after truth. Pope -Clement VI, during the lifetime of the author, commanded his treatise -upon astronomy and the newly-invented instrument to be translated into -Latin (1342). - -Of a similar nature was another representative of philosophical Judaism -of this age, Moses ben Joshua Narboni, also called Maestro Vidal (born -about 1300, died 1362). His father Joshua, who belonged to a family -in Narbonne, but resided in Perpignan, was so warmly interested in -Jewish, that is to say Maimunistic, philosophy, that in spite of the -interdict hurled against all who studied the subject, he instructed -his son therein when he was thirteen years old. Vidal Narboni became -an enthusiastic student. He divided his admiration between Maimuni -and Averroes, his writings consisting chiefly of commentaries upon -their works. His travels from the foot of the Pyrenees to Toledo and -back again to Soria (1345-1362) enriched and amended his knowledge. He -was interested in anything worth knowing, and made observations with -great accuracy. No calamities or troubles succeeded in damping his -zeal in the inquiry after truth. In consequence of the Black Death, -an infuriated mob fell upon the community at Cervera. Vidal Narboni -was compelled to take to flight with the rest of the congregation; he -lost his possessions, and, what was more painful to him, his precious -books. These misfortunes did not disturb him; he took up the thread of -his work where it had been interrupted. He accomplished no entirely -independent or original work; he was a true Aristotelian of Averroist -complexion. Narboni conceived Judaism as a guide to the highest degree -of theoretical and moral truth: the Torah has a double meaning-- -the one simple, direct, for the thoughtless mob, and the other of a -deeper, metaphysical nature for the class of thinkers--a common -opinion in those times, Gersonides alone demurring. Narboni, too, gave -expression to heretical views, that is, such as are contrary to the -ordinarily accepted understanding of Judaism, but not with the freedom -and openness of Levi ben Gerson. He rejected the belief in miracles, -and attempted to explain them away altogether, but defended man's -freedom of will by philosophical arguments. Death overtook him in the -very midst of his labors when, advanced in years, he was on the point -of returning to his native land from Soria, on the other side of the -Pyrenees, where he had spent several years. - -Though the Karaite, Aaron ben Elia Nicomedi, may be reckoned among the -philosophers of this time, he can scarcely be admitted into the company -of Levi ben Gerson and the other Provencal thinkers. His small stock of -philosophical knowledge was a matter of erudition, not the result of -independent thought. Aaron II, of Nicomedia (in Asia Minor, born about -1300, died 1369), who probably lived in Cairo, was indeed superior -to his ignorant brother Karaites, but several centuries behind the -Rabbanite philosophers. His thoughts sound like a voice from the grave, -or as of one who has slumbered for many years, and speaks the language -of antiquity, not understood by the men of his own day. - -Aaron ben Elia was not even able to indicate the end aimed at by his -work, "The Tree of Life." Without being himself fully conscious of his -motives, he was guided in its composition by jealous rivalry of Maimuni -and the Rabbanites. It vexed him sorely that Maimuni's religious -philosophical work, "The Guide," was perused and admired not only by -Jews, but also by Christians and Mahometans, whilst the Karaites had -nothing like it. Aaron desired to save the honor of the Karaites by his -"Tree of Life." He sought to detract from the merits of the work of -Maimuni, and remarked that some of the statements to be found in the -book had been made by Karaite philosophers of religion. Notwithstanding -this, he followed Maimuni most minutely, and treated only of those -questions which the latter had raised; but he sought to solve them not -by the aid of philosophy, but by the authority of the Bible. - -The history of this period, when dealing with events in Germany, has -nothing but calamities to record: bloody assaults, massacres, and -the consequent intellectual poverty. Asheri and his sons were either -deluded or unjust when they preferred bigoted Germany to Spain, at that -time still tolerable, and cast longing looks thitherwards from Toledo. -From the time of Asheri's departure till the middle of the century, -misfortune followed upon misfortune, till nearly all the congregations -were exterminated. On account of this state of affairs, even the study -of the Talmud, the only branch of learning pursued in Germany with -ardor and thoroughness, fell into decay. How could the Germans gather -intellectual strength, when they were not certain about one moment -of their lives, or their means of sustenance? Their state in a most -literal way realized the prophetical threat of punishment: "Thy life -shall hang in doubt before thee; and thou shalt fear day and night. -In the morning thou shalt say, Would God it were even! and at even -thou shalt say, Would God it were morning! for the fear of thine heart -wherewith thou shalt fear." Emperor Louis, the Bavarian, is reported to -have been favorably inclined towards the Jews, which is said to have -made them proud. But this is idle calumny both against the emperor and -the Jews. No German ruler before him had treated his "servi camerae" -so badly, pawned them and sold them, as Louis the Bavarian. He also -imposed a new tax upon the Jews, the so-called golden gift-pence. As -the emperors had gradually pawned all the revenues derived from their -"servi camerae" to enable them to satisfy their immediate necessity for -money, Louis the Bavarian was driven to cogitate upon some new means -of obtaining supplies from them. He promulgated a decree (about 1342), -which commanded that every Jew and Jewess in the German Empire above -the age of twelve, and possessed of at least more than twenty florins, -should pay annually to the king or the emperor a poll-tax of a florin. -He probably derived his right, if, indeed, the question of right was -considered in reference to the treatment of Jews, from the fact that -the German emperors were in possession of all the prerogatives once -claimed by those of Rome. As the Jews, since the days of Vespasian and -Titus, had been compelled to pay a yearly tax to the Roman emperors, -the German rulers declared themselves the direct heirs to this golden -gift-pence. - -Hitherto the massacres of Jews in Germany had taken place only at -intervals, and in a few places; but now, under the reign of Louis, -owing to riots and civil wars, they became much more frequent. -During two consecutive years (1336-1337), a regularly organized -band of peasants and rabble, who called themselves "the beaters of -the Jews," made fierce attacks upon them with unbridled fury and -heartless cruelty. Two dissolute noblemen were at the head of this -troop; they gave themselves the name of Kings Leather-arm (Armleder) -from a piece of leather which they wore wound round the arm. In this -persecution, as in that of Rindfleisch, the fanaticism and blind -superstition inculcated by the church played an important part. One of -the Leather-arms announced that he had received a divine revelation -which directed him to visit upon the Jews the martyrdom and the wounds -which Jesus had suffered, and to avenge his crucifixion by their -blood. Such a summons to arms seldom remained unanswered in Germany. -Five thousand peasants, armed with pitchforks, axes, flails, pikes, -and whatever other weapons they could lay hands upon, gathered around -the Leather-arms, and inflicted a bloody slaughter upon the Jewish -inhabitants of Alsace and the Rhineland as far as Suabia. As frequently -happened during such barbarous persecutions, numbers of Jews, on this -occasion also, put an end to their own lives, after having slain -their children to prevent their falling into the hands of the Church. -Emperor Louis the Bavarian did indeed issue commands to protect the -heretic Jews (April, 1337), but his help came too late, or was of -little effect. At length the emperor succeeded in capturing one of the -Leather-arms, whom he ordered to be executed. - -At about the same time a bloody persecution, prompted by the frenzy -of avarice, was set on foot in Bavaria. The councilors of the city -of Deckendorf (or Deggendorf) desired to free themselves and all the -citizens from their debts to the Jews, and enrich themselves besides. -To carry out this plan, the fable of the desecration of the host by the -Jews, with the accompaniment of the usual miracles, was spread abroad. -When the populace had been incited to a state of fanatical frenzy, the -council proceeded to execute the project which it had secretly matured -outside the town, so as not to arouse any suspicion among the Jews. On -the appointed day (30th September, 1337), at a signal from the church -bell, the knight Hartmann von Deggenburg, who had been initiated in -the conspiracy, rode with his band of horsemen through the open gates -into Deckendorf, and was received with loud rejoicing. The knight and -the citizens thereupon fell upon the defenseless Jews, put them to -death by sword and fire, and possessed themselves of their property. In -honor of the miracles performed by the host that had been pierced by -the knives of the Jews, a church of the Holy Sepulcher was erected, and -appointed as a shrine for pilgrims; and the puncheons which the Jews -had used, together with the insulted host, were placed beneath a glass -case, and guarded as relics. For many centuries they were displayed for -the edification of the faithful,--perhaps are still displayed. The -lust for slaughter spread abroad into Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, and -Austria. Thousands of Jews perished by different forms of torture and -death. Only the citizens of Vienna and Ratisbon protected their Jewish -inhabitants against the infuriated mob. The friendly efforts of Pope -Benedictus XII were of little avail against the brutal spirit of the -then Christian world. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE BLACK DEATH. - - Rise of the False Accusation against Jews of Poisoning the - Wells--Massacres in Southern France and Catalonia--The - Friendly Bull of Pope Clement VI--Terrible Massacres in all - Parts of Germany--Confessions wrung from the Jews on the Rack - --The Flagellants as a Scourge for the Jews--King Casimir of - Poland--Persecution in Brussels--The Black Death in Spain - --Don Pedro the Cruel and the Jews--Santob de Carrion and - Samuel Abulafia--Fall of Don Pedro and its Consequences for the - Jews--Return of the Jews to France and Germany--The "Golden - Bull"--Manessier de Vesoul--Matathiah Meir Halevi--Synod at - Mayence. - -1348-1380 C.E. - - -The assistance of the pope was of very little use to the Jews, and -the protection of the German emperor was like the support of a broken -reed. Within ten years they learned this comfortless experience; for -soon came most mournful days for the Jewish communities in most parts -of Europe where the cross held sway, to which the slaughter by the -Leather-arms and the brutal atrocities of Deckendorf were but a weak -prelude. - -The glimpse of good fortune which the Spanish Jews enjoyed under -Alfonso XI served only to bring down upon their brethren in the -other Christian countries a widespread, intense, indescribably cruel -persecution with which none of the massacres that had hitherto taken -place can be compared. The destroying angel called the Black Death, -which carried on its ravages for over three years, made its way from -China across lands and seas into the heart of Europe, heralded by -premonitory earthquakes and other terrifying natural phenomena. Sparing -neither rank nor age, it left a devastated track behind, sweeping -away a fourth part of all mankind (nearly 25,000,000) as with a -poison-laden breath and stifling every noble impulse. In Europe the -invisible Death with its horrors turned the Christians into veritable -destroying angels for the Jews. Those whom the epidemic had spared -were handed over to torture, the sword, or the stake. Whilst neither -Mahometans nor Mongols who suffered from the plague attacked the Jews, -Christian peoples charged the unhappy race with being the originators -of the pestilence, and slaughtered them _en masse_. The church had so -often and impressively preached that infidels were to be destroyed; -that Jews were worse than heretics, even worse than unbelieving -heathens; that they were the murderers of Christians and the slayers -of children, that at last its true sons believed what was said, and -carried its doctrines into effect. Owing to the prevailing misery, -discipline and order, obedience and submissiveness were at an end, and -each man was thrown upon his own resources. Under these circumstances, -the effects of the education of the church appeared in a most hideous -form. The Black Death had indeed made itself felt among Jews also; but -the plague had visited them in a comparatively milder form than the -Christians, probably on account of their greater moderation, and the -very careful attention paid their sick. Thus the suspicion arose that -the Jews had poisoned the brooks and wells, and even the air, in order -to annihilate the Christians of every country at one blow. - -It was charged that the Spanish Jews, supposed to be in possession -of great power and influence over the congregations of Europe, had -hit upon this diabolical scheme; that they had dispatched messengers -far and wide with boxes containing poison, and by threats of -excommunication had coerced the other Jews to aid in carrying out their -plans, and that these directions issued from Toledo, which might be -viewed as the Jewish capital. The infatuated populace went so far as -to name the man who had delivered these orders and the poison. It was -Jacob Pascate, said they, from Toledo, who had settled in Chambery -(in Savoy), from which as a center he had sent out a troop of Jewish -poisoners into all countries and cities. This Jacob, together with a -Rabbi Peyret, of Chambery, and a rich Jew, Aboget, was said to have -dealt largely in the manufacture and sale of poisons. The poison, -prepared by the Jewish doctors of the black art in Spain, was reported -to be concocted from the flesh of a basilisk, or from spiders, frogs -and lizards, or from the hearts of Christians and the dough of the -consecrated wafers. These and similar silly stories invented by -ignorant, or, perhaps, malicious people, and distorted and exaggerated -by the heated imagination, were credited not alone by the ignorant mob, -but even by the higher classes. The courts of justice earnestly strove -to learn the real truth of these rumors, and employed the means for -confirming a suspicion used by the Christians of the Middle Ages with -especial skill--torture in every possible form. - -As far as can be ascertained, these tales concerning the poisoning of -the brooks and wells by Jews first found credence in southern France, -where the Black Death as early as the beginning of the year 1348 had -obtained many victims. In a certain town of southern France, on one -day (the middle of the month of May), the whole Jewish congregation, -men, women, and children, together with their holy writings, were cast -into the flames. From that place the slaughter spread to Catalonia and -Aragon. In these provinces, in the same year, anarchy was rife, because -the nobles and people had revolted against the king, Don Pedro, in -order to secure certain of their privileges against the encroachments -of the monarch. When the tales of the poisoning of the wells had taken -firm root in the minds of the people of these countries also, the -inhabitants of Barcelona gathered together on a Saturday (towards -the end of June), slew about twenty persons, and pillaged the Jewish -houses. The most distinguished men of the city received the persecuted -people under their protection, and aided by a terrible storm, loud -thunder and flashes of lightning, they made a successful attack upon -the deluded or plunder-seeking assailants of the Jews. - -A few days later the community at Cervera was attacked in a similar -manner, eighteen of its members killed, and the rest compelled to -flee. The Jewish philosopher, Vidal Narboni, happened to be in the -town, and in the assault he lost his possessions and his books. All -the congregations of northern Spain knew themselves in danger of being -attacked; they instituted public fasts, implored mercy from heaven, -and barricaded those of their quarters which were surrounded by walls. -In Aragon, however, the higher classes came to the help of the Jews. -Pope Clement VI, who had taken so much interest in the astronomical -works of Gersonides, and who, terrified at the approach of death, -had shut himself up in his room, still felt for the sufferings of -an innocent, persecuted people. He issued a bull in which, under -pain of excommunication, he prohibited anyone from killing the Jews -without proper judicial sentence, or from dragging them by force to -be baptized, or from despoiling them of their goods (the beginning -of July). This bull was probably of some use in southern France, but -in the other parts of the Christian world it produced no effect. One -country followed the example of another. The ideally beautiful region -surrounding Lake Geneva next became the scene of a most frightful -persecution. At the command of Amadeus, duke of Savoy at that time, -several Jews suspected of poisoning were arrested and imprisoned in -two small towns, Chillon and Chatel, on Lake Geneva. A commission of -judges was appointed to inquire into the charges brought against the -prisoners, and, if convicted, they were to be severely punished. -In this country, then, a prince and his tribunal believed the -preposterous fable of the poisoning by Jews. On the Day of Atonement -(15th September, 1348), three Jews and a Jewess in Chillon were made -to undergo torture: the surgeon Valavigny, from Thonon, Bandito and -Mamson, from Ville-Neuve, and, three weeks later, Bellieta and her son -Aquet. In their pain and despair, they told the names of the persons -from whom they had received the poison, and admitted that they had -scattered it in different spots near wells and brooks. They denounced -themselves, their co-religionists, their parents and their children as -guilty. Ten days later the merciless judges again applied the torture -to the enfeebled woman and her son, and they vied with each other in -their revelations. In Chastelard five Jews were put to the torture, and -they made equally incredible confessions of guilt. Aquet made the wild -statement that he had placed poison in Venice, in Apulia and Calabria, -and in Toulouse, in France. The secretaries took down all these -confessions in writing, and they were verified by the signatures of -their authors. To remove all doubts concerning their trustworthiness, -the crafty judges added that the victims were only very lightly -tortured. In consequence of these disclosures, not only the accused who -acknowledged their crime, but all the Jews in the region of Lake Geneva -and in Savoy were burnt at the stake. - -The report of the demonstrated guilt of the Jews rapidly made its way -from Geneva into Switzerland, and here scenes of blood of the same -horrible description were soon witnessed. The consuls of Berne sent -for the account of the proceedings of the courts of justice at Chillon -and Chastelard. They then put certain Jews to the torture, extracted -confessions from them, and kindled the funeral pyre for all the Jews -(September). - -The annihilation of the Jews on the charge of poisoning was now -systematically carried out, beginning with Berne and Zofingen (canton -Aargau). The consuls of Berne addressed letters to Basle, Freiburg, -Strasburg, Cologne, and many other places, with the announcement that -the Jews had been found guilty of the crime imputed to them; and also -sent a Jew, bound in chains, under convoy, to Cologne, that every one -might be convinced of the diabolical plans of the Jews. In Zurich the -charge of poisoning the wells was raised together with that of the -murder of a Christian child. There, also, those who appeared to be -guilty were burnt at the stake, the rest of the community expelled -from the town, and a law passed forbidding them ever to return thither -(21st September). The persecution of the Jews extended northwards with -the pestilence. Like the communities around Lake Geneva, Jews in the -cities surrounding Lake Constance, in St. Gall, Lindau, Ueberlingen, -Schaffhausen, Constance (Costnitz), and others, were burnt at the -stake, put to the wheel, or sentenced to expulsion or compulsory -baptism. Once again Pope Clement VI took up the cause of the Jews; he -published a bull to the whole of Catholic Christendom, in which he -declared the innocence of the Jews regarding the charge leveled against -them. He produced all possible reasons to show the absurdity of the -accusation, stating that in districts where no Jew lived the people -were visited by the pestilence, and that Jews also suffered from its -terrible effects. It was of no avail that he admonished the clergy to -take the Jews under their protection, and that he placed the false -accusers and the murderers under the ban (September). The child had -become more powerful than its parent, wild fancy stronger than the -papacy. - -Nowhere was the destruction of the Jews prosecuted with more -thoroughness and more intense hatred than in the Holy Roman Empire. -In vain the newly-elected emperor, Charles IV, of Luxemburg, issued -letter after letter forbidding the persons of the Jews, his "servi -camerae," to be touched. Even had he possessed more power in Germany, -he would not have found the German people willing to spare the Jews. -The Germans did not commit their fearful outrages upon the Jews merely -for the sake of plunder, although a straightforward historian of that -epoch, Closener of Strasburg, remarks that "their goods were the poison -which caused the death of the Jews." Sheer stupidity made them believe -that Jews had poisoned the wells and rivers. The councils of various -towns ordered that the springs and wells be walled in, so that the -citizens be not poisoned, and they had to drink rain water or melted -snow. Was it not just that the Jews, the cause of this evil, should -suffer? - -There were some too sensible to share the delusion that the Jews were -the cause of the great mortality. These few men deserve a place in -history, for, despite their danger, they could feel and act humanely. -In the municipal council of Strasburg, the burgomaster Conrad (Kunze) -of Wintertur, the sheriff, Gosse Sturm, and the master workman, Peter -Swaber, took great trouble to prove the Jews innocent of the crimes -laid at their door, and defended them against the fanatical attack -of the mob and even against the bishop. The councilors of Basle and -Freiburg likewise took the part of the unhappy people. The council of -Cologne wrote to the representatives of Strasburg that it would follow -the example of the latter town with regard to the Jews; for it was -convinced that the pestilence was to be considered as a visitation -from God. It would, therefore, not permit the Jews to be persecuted -on account of groundless reports, but would protect them with all its -power, as in former times. In Basle, however, the guilds and a mob -rose in rebellion against the council, repaired with their flags to -the city hall, insisted that the patricians who had been banished on -account of their action against the Jews, should be recalled, and the -Jews banished from the city. The council was compelled to comply with -the first demand; as to the second, it deferred its decision until -a day of public meeting, when this matter was to be considered. In -Benfelden (Alsace) a council was actually held to consider the course -to be followed with regard to Jews. There were present Bishop Berthold -of Strasburg, barons, lords, and representatives of the towns. The -representatives of Strasburg bravely maintained the cause of the -Jews, even against the bishop, who either from malice or stupidity -was in favor of their complete destruction. Although they repeatedly -demonstrated that the Jews could not be the cause of the pestilence, -they were out-voted, and it was decided to banish the Jews from all the -cities on the upper Rhine (towards the close of 1348). - -The Jews of Alsace, through the decision of Benfelden, were declared -outlaws, and were either expelled from the various places they visited, -or burnt. A hard fate overtook the community of Basle. On an island -of the Rhine, in a house especially built for the purpose, they were -burnt to death (January 9th, 1349), and it was decided that within the -next two hundred years no Jew should be permitted to settle in that -city. A week later all the Jews of Freiburg were burnt at the stake -with the exception of twelve of the richest men, who were permitted to -live that they might disclose the names of their creditors, for the -property of the victims fell to the community. The community of Speyer -was the first sacrifice amongst the communities of the Rhineland. The -mob rose up and killed several Jews, others burning themselves in their -houses, and some going over to Christianity. The council of Speyer -took the property of the Jews, and confiscated their estates in the -neighborhood. The council of Strasburg remained firm in its protection -of the Jews, sending out numerous letters to obtain proofs of their -innocence. But from many sides came unfavorable testimony. The council -of Zaehringen said that it was in possession of the poison the Jews had -scattered. When tried it proved fatal to animals. The council would not -let it go out of its hands, but would show it to a messenger. - -A castellan of Chillon had the confessions of the Jews tortured in -the district of Lake Geneva copied, and sent them to the council of -Strasburg. Only the council of Cologne encouraged Wintertur to support -the cause of the Jews, and to take no notice of the demands of their -enemies. At length the trade-guilds rose against Wintertur and his two -colleagues, who were deposed from office. A new council was chosen that -favored the persecutions of the Jews. In the end, the entire community -of Strasburg--2,000 souls--were imprisoned. The following day, on -a Sabbath (14th February, 1349), they were all dragged to the burial -ground. Stakes were erected, and they were burnt to death. Only those -who in despair accepted the cross were spared. The new council decreed -that for a period of a hundred years no Jew should be admitted into -Strasburg. The treasures of the Jews were divided amongst the burghers, -some of whom were loth to defile themselves with the money, and, by the -advice of their confessors, devoted it to the church. - -Next came the turn of Worms, the oldest Jewish community in Germany. -The Jews of this town had the worst to fear from their Christian -fellow-citizens, Emperor Charles IV having given them and their -possessions to the town in return for services, so that "the city -and the burghers of Worms might do unto the Jews and Judaism as they -wished, might act as with their own property." When the council -decreed that the Jews should be burnt, the unfortunates determined to -anticipate the death which awaited them from the hangman. Twelve Jewish -representatives are said to have repaired to the town hall and begged -for mercy. When this was refused to them, they are said to have drawn -forth the weapons concealed in their clothes, to have fallen on the -councilors, and killed them. This story is legendary; but it is a fact -that nearly all the Jews of Worms set fire to their houses, and that -more than 400 persons were burned to death (10th Adar-1st March, 1349). -The Jews of Oppenheim likewise burnt themselves to death to escape -being tortured as poisoners (end of July). The community of Frankfort -remained secure so long as the rival emperors, Charles IV and Gunther -of Schwarzburg, were fighting in that neighborhood; the latter holding -his court in Frankfort. When he died, and the contest was ended, the -turn of the Jews of Frankfort came to be killed. On being attacked they -burned themselves in their houses, causing a great conflagration in the -city. In Mayence, where the Jews had hitherto been spared, a thief, -during a flagellation scene, stole his neighbor's purse. An altercation -arose, and the mob seized the opportunity to attack the Jews. They -had, no doubt, been prepared, and 300 of them took up arms, and -killed 200 of the mob. This aroused the anger of the entire Christian -community, which likewise took to arms. The Jews fought a considerable -time; at length, overpowered by the enemy, they set fire to their -houses (24th August). Nearly 6,000 Jews are said to have perished in -Mayence. In Erfurt, out of a community of 3,000 souls, not one person -survived, although the council, after their slaughter in the whole of -Thuringia, including Eisenach and Gotha, had long protected them. In -Breslau, where a considerable community dwelt, the Jews were completely -destroyed. Emperor Charles gave orders to seize the murderers and give -them their due punishment. But he had taken no steps to hinder the -horrible slaughter enacted everywhere, although informed of the plots -against the Jews. In Austria, also, the outcry was made that the Jews -were poisoners, and terrible scenes ensued. In Vienna, on the advice -of Rabbi Jonah, all the members of the congregation killed themselves -in the synagogue. In Krems, where there was a large congregation, the -populace of the town, assisted by that of a neighboring place named -Stein and the villages, attacked the Jews, who set fire to their houses -and died (September, 1349), only a few being saved. - -In Bavaria and Suabia, persecution was also rife, and the communities -of Augsburg, Wuerzburg, Munich, and many others succumbed. The Jews -of Nuremberg, through its extensive commerce, possessed great riches -and grand houses, and were the especial objects of dislike to the -Christians. Their destruction was so imminent that Emperor Charles IV -freed the council from responsibility if they should be injured against -its wish. - -At length their fate was fulfilled. On a spot afterwards called -Judenbuehl (Jews' hill), the followers of the religion of love erected -a pile, and all those who had not emigrated were burnt or killed. -The council of Ratisbon did its utmost to save the community, the -oldest in the south of Germany. For here also the mob demanded the -annihilation or banishment of the Jews. The dukes of Bavaria, the sons -of Emperor Louis, who favored the persecution of the Jews, had given -the people permission in writing to "treat the Jews as they liked, -according to honor or necessity, and banish them with or without -justice." Margrave Louis of Brandenburg, son of Emperor Louis, one of -the partisans of the rival emperor, Gunther of Schwarzburg, showed his -religious feeling by giving orders to burn all the Jews of Koenigsberg -(in Neumark), and to confiscate their goods. So inhuman were people -in those days that the executioner boasted of his deed, and gave -documentary evidence that Margrave Louis had commanded the Jews to be -burnt. In North Germany there lived but few Jews, except in Magdeburg, -but there, too, they were burnt or banished. In Hanover (in 1349) the -flagellants were rampant. Outside of Germany, amongst the nations -still uncivilized, there were comparatively few persecutions. Louis, -King of Hungary, an enthusiast for his faith, drove the Jews out of -his land, not as poisoners, but as infidels, who opposed his scheme of -conversion, although he had given them equal rights with the Christians -and privileges besides. The Hungarian Jews who remained true to their -faith emigrated to Austria and Bohemia. In Poland, where the pestilence -also raged, the Jews suffered but slight persecution, for they were -favored by King Casimir the Great. At the request of some Jews who had -rendered services to him, the king, after his ascent upon the throne -(October 9th, 1334) confirmed the laws enacted nearly a century before -by Boleslav Pius, duke of Kalish, or rather by Frederick the Valiant, -archduke of Austria, and accepted by the king of Hungary and various -Polish princes. Holding good only in the dukedom of Kalish and Great -Poland, they were extended by Casimir to the whole of the Polish -empire. Thirteen years later, Casimir altered the laws by which the -Jews were permitted to lend money at interest, but we must not deduce -that he was inimical to the Jews, for he expressly states that he made -this limitation only at the request of the nobility. In the years of -the pestilence, too, Casimir appears to have protected the Jews against -the outbreaks of the misguided multitude, for the accusation of the -poisoning of wells by the Jews had traveled from Germany across the -Polish frontier, and had roused the populace against them. Massacres -occurred in Kalish, Cracow, Glogau, and other cities, especially on -the German frontier. If the number of Jews stated to have been killed -in Poland (10,000) be correct, it bears no relation to the enormous -multitudes who fell as victims in Germany. Later (1356) Casimir is said -to have taken a beautiful Jewish mistress named Esther (Esterka), who -bore him two sons (Niemerz and Pelka) and two daughters. The latter are -said to have remained Jewesses. In consequence of his love to Esther, -the king of Poland is supposed to have bestowed special favors and -privileges on some Jews, probably Esther's relations. But the records, -handed down by untrustworthy witnesses, cannot be implicitly believed. - -At all events, the Jews of Poland fared better than those of Germany, -seeing that they were placed on an equality, if not with the Roman -Catholics, yet with the Ruthenians, Saracens, and Tartars. The Jews -were permitted to wear the national costume and gold chains and swords, -like the knights, and were eligible for military service. - -As on the eastern frontier of Germany, the Jews on the western side, -in Belgium, were also persecuted at the period of the Black Death. -In Brussels a wealthy Jew stood in great favor with the duke of -Brabant, John II. When the flagellants came, and the death of his -co-religionists was imminent, this Jew entreated his patron to accord -them his protection, which John willingly promised. But the enemies -of the Jews had foreseen this, and ensured immunity from punishment -through the duke's son. They attacked the Jews of Brussels, dragged -them into the streets, and killed all--about 500. - -In Spain, the congregations of Catalonia, which, after those of -Provence, supplied the first victims, conceived a plan to prevent the -outrages of fanaticism. They determined to establish a common fund in -support of their people who should become destitute through a mob or -persecution. They were to choose deputies to entreat the king (Don -Pedro IV) to prevent the recurrence of such scenes of horror. Other -concessions were to be sought, but the plan was never carried into -effect, owing to delay on the part of the Jews of Aragon, and also -probably because too much was expected of the king. The Jews under -Aragonian rule were still behind those in the kingdom of Castile. - -In Castile also the Black Death had held its gruesome revelries; but -here the population, more intelligent than elsewhere, did not dream of -holding the Jews responsible for its ravages. In Toledo and Seville -the plague snatched away many respected members of the community, -particularly from the families of Abulafia, Asheri, and Ibn-Shoshan. -The grief of the survivors is vividly depicted in such of the tombstone -inscriptions of the Toledo Jewish cemetery as have come down to us. -King Alfonso XI was amongst the victims of the insidious plague, but -not even a whisper charged the Jews with responsibility for his death. -During the reign of Don Pedro (1350-1369), Alfonso's son and successor, -the influence of the Castilian Jews reached a height never before -attained. It was the last luster of their splendid career in Spain, -soon to be shrouded in dark eventide shadows. The young king, only -fifteen years of age when called to the throne, was early branded by -his numerous enemies with the name of "Pedro the Cruel." His favors to -the Jews had a share in procuring him this nickname, although he was -not more cruel than many of his predecessors and successors. Don Pedro -was a child of nature with all the good and the bad qualities implied; -he would not submit to the restrictions of court etiquette, nor allow -himself to be controlled by political considerations. Through the -duplicity and faithlessness of his bastard brothers, sons of Alfonso's -mistress, Leonora de Guzman--the same who had unconsciously saved the -Jews from imminent destruction--the king was provoked to sanguinary -retaliation. The instinct of self-preservation, the maintenance of his -royal dignity, filial affection, and attachment to an early love, had -more to do with his reckless, bloody deeds than inherent cruelty and -vengeance. The young king, destined to come to so sad an end, involving -the Castilian Jews in his fall, was from the beginning of his reign -surrounded by tragic circumstances. His mother, the Portuguese Infanta -Donna Maria, had been humiliated and deeply mortified by her husband at -the instigation of his mistress, Leonora de Guzman. Don Pedro himself -had been neglected for his bastard brothers, and particularly for his -elder half-brother, Henry de Trastamara. The first important duty of -his reign, then, was to obtain justice for his humiliated mother, and -degrade the rival who had caused her so much misery. That he tolerated -his bastard brothers is a proof that he was not of a cruel disposition. -His severity was felt more by the grandees and hidalgos, who trampled -on justice and humanity, and ill-treated the people with cavalier -arrogance. Only in these circles Don Pedro had bitter enemies, not -amongst the lower orders, which, when not misled, remained faithful to -him to death. The Jews also were attached to him. They risked property -and life for their patriotism, because he protected them against -injustice and oppression, and did not treat them as outcasts. The Jews -certainly suffered much through him, not in the character of patient -victims, as in Germany and France, but as zealous partisans and fellow -combatants, who shared the overthrow of their leader with his Christian -followers. - -Shortly after Don Pedro had ascended the throne, when the grief -caused by the death of King Alfonso XI was still fresh, a venerable -Jewish poet ventured to address to the new monarch words of advice in -well-balanced Spanish verses. This poet, Santob (Shem Tob) de Carrion, -from the northern Spanish town of that name (about 1300-1350), a -member of a large community, has been entirely neglected in Jewish -literature. Christian writers have preserved his memory and his verses. -Santob's (or as abbreviated, Santo's) poetical legacy deserves to -be treasured. His verses flow soft and clear as the ripples of an -unsullied spring, dancing with silvery brightness out of its rocky -hollow. He had not only thoroughly mastered the sonorous periods of the -Spanish language, at that time in a transition state between tenderness -and vigor, but had enriched it. Santob embodied the practical wisdom of -his time in beautiful strophes. His "Counsels and Lessons," addressed -to Don Pedro, have the character of proverbs and apothegms. He drew -upon the unfailing wealth of maxims of the Talmud and later Hebrew -poets for his verse, and the sweetness of his poetry was derived from -various sources. - -Santob's verses are not always of this gentle, uncontroversial -character. He did not hesitate to speak sternly to those of his -co-religionists who had become wealthy by the king's bounty, and he -denounced the prejudice with which Spanish Christians regarded whatever -was of Jewish origin. Even to the young king he was in the habit of -indulging in a certain amount of plain speaking; and in his stanzas, -more than 600 in number, he often drew for his majesty's benefit -suggestive pictures of virtue and vice. He reminded the king, too, of -promises made to Santob by his father, and bade him fulfill them. From -this it would appear that our Jewish troubadour, who wooed the muse so -successfully, was not a favorite of fortune. Little, however, is known -of him beyond his verses, and we have no knowledge of the reception -which his representations met at the hands of Don Pedro. - -To other prominent Jews the king's favor was unbounded. Don Juan -Alfonso de Albuquerque, his tutor and all-powerful minister, -recommended for the post of minister of finance a Jew who had rendered -him great services, and the king appointed Don Samuel ben Meir Allavi, -a member of the leading family of Toledo, the Abulafia-Halevis, to a -state situation of trust, in defiance of the decision of the cortes -that Jews should no longer be eligible. Samuel Abulafia not only became -treasurer-in-chief (Tesoreo mayor), but also the king's confidential -adviser (privado), who had a voice in all important consultations and -decisions. Two inscriptions referring to Don Samuel, one written during -his lifetime, the other after his death, describe him as noble and -handsome, instinct with religious feeling, a benevolent man, "who never -swerved from the path of God, nor could he be reproached with a fault." - -Another Jew who figured at Don Pedro's court was Abraham Ibn-Zarzal, -the king's physician and astrologer. Don Pedro was, indeed, so -surrounded by Jews, that his enemies reproached his court for its -Jewish character. Whether the protection he extended to his Jewish -subjects was due to the influence of these Jewish favorites or to his -own impulses is unknown. On opening for the first time the cortes of -Valladolid (May, 1351), he was presented with a petition, praying him -to abolish the judicial autonomy enjoyed by the Jewish communities and -their right to appoint their own Alcaldes; he replied that the Jews, -being numerically a feeble people, required special protection. From -Christian judges they would not obtain justice, or their cases would be -delayed. - -Whilst the relatives of the young king were intriguing to arrange -a marriage between him and Blanche, daughter of the French Duc de -Bourbon, he fell in love with Maria de Padilla, a clever, beautiful -lady of a noble Spanish family. It is said that he was formally -married to her in the presence of witnesses. At any rate, he caused -the marriage proposals to Blanche to be withdrawn; but the Bourbon -princess, either of her own accord, or at the instance of her ambitious -relatives, insisted on coming to Spain to assume the diadem. Her -resolve brought only sorrow to herself and misfortune to the country. -The nearest relatives of the king strained every nerve to procure -the celebration of the marriage, and in this they succeeded; but Don -Pedro remained with his bride only two days. The result of this state -of things was that to the old parties in the state another was added, -some grandees taking part with the deserted queen, others with Maria de -Padilla. To the latter belonged Samuel Abulafia and the Jews of Spain. -The reason assigned was that Blanche, having observed with displeasure -the influence possessed by Samuel and other Jews at her husband's -court, and the honors and distinctions enjoyed by them, had made the -firm resolve, which she even commenced to put into execution, to -compass the fall of the more prominent Jews, and obtain the banishment -of the whole of the Jewish population from Spain. She made no secret of -her aversion to the Jews, but, on the contrary, expressed it openly. -For this reason, it is stated, the Jewish courtiers took up a position -of antagonism to the queen, and, on their part, lost no opportunity of -increasing Don Pedro's dislike for her. If Blanche de Bourbon really -fostered such anti-Jewish feelings, and circumstances certainly seem -to bear out this view, then the Jews were compelled in self-defense to -prevent the queen from acquiring any ascendency, declare themselves for -the Padilla party, and support it with all the means in their power. -Dissension and civil war grew out of this unhappy relation of the king -to his scarcely recognized consort. Albuquerque, who was first opposed -to the queen, and then permitted himself to be won over to her side, -fell into disgrace, and Samuel Abulafia succeeded him as the most -trusted of the king's counselors. Whenever the court moved, Samuel, -with other eminent grandees, was in attendance on the king. - -One day Don Pedro's enemies, at their head his bastard brothers, -succeeded in decoying him, with a few of his followers, into the -fortress of Toro. His companions, among whom was Samuel Abulafia, were -thrown into prison, and the king himself was placed under restraint -(1354). Whilst a few of the loyal grandees and even the Grand Master -of Calatrava were executed by the conspirators, the favorite Samuel -was, strange to say, spared. Later on he succeeded in escaping with -the king. Having shared his royal master's misfortune, he rose still -higher in his favor, and the esteem in which he was held by the king -was largely increased by his successful administration of the finances, -which he had managed so as to accumulate a large reserve, of which few -of Don Pedro's predecessors had been able to boast. The treacherous -seizure of the king at Toro formed a turning point in his reign. Out -of it grew a fierce civil war in Castile, which Don Pedro carried on -with great cruelty. In this, however, the Jewish courtiers had no hand; -even the enemies of the Jews do not charge the Jewish minister with any -responsibility for Don Pedro's excesses. The bastard brothers and their -adherents endeavored to seize the chief town, Toledo. Here Don Pedro -had numerous partisans, amongst them the whole of the Jewish community, -and they contested the entrance of the brothers. One of the gates was, -however, secretly opened to them by their friends, and they immediately -attacked the quarters in which the Jews lived in large numbers. In -Alcana street they put to the sword nearly 12,000 people, men and -women, old and young. But in the inner town they failed to make any -impression, the Jews having barricaded the gates and manned the walls, -together with several noblemen belonging to the king's party (May, -1355). A few days later Don Pedro entered Toledo. By his adherents -in the city he was received with enthusiasm, but he dealt out severe -retribution to all who had assisted his brothers. - -Samuel Abulafia, by the wisdom of his counsels, his able financial -administration, and his zeal for the cause of Maria de Padilla, -continued to rise in the favor of the king. His power was greater -than that of the grandees of the realm. His wealth was princely, and -eighty black slaves served in his palace. He seems to have lacked -the generosity which would have suggested employing some portion of -his power and prosperity for the permanent benefit of his race and -religion. He certainly "sought to promote the welfare of his people," -as an inscription tells us; but he failed to understand in what this -welfare consisted. Against injustice and animosity he protected -his brethren, promoted a few to state employment, and gave them -opportunities for enriching themselves, but he was far from being -what Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut and Samuel Ibn-Nagrela had been to their -co-religionists. Samuel Abulafia appears to have had little sympathy -with intellectual aspirations, or with the promotion of Jewish science -and poetic literature. He built synagogues for several of the Castilian -communities, and one of especial magnificence at Toledo, but not a -single establishment for the promotion of Talmudic study. - -The Abulafia synagogue at Toledo which, transformed into a church, is -still one of the ornaments of the town, was, like most of the Spanish -churches of that period, built partly in the Gothic, partly in the -Moorish style. It consisted of several naves separated from each other -by columns and arches. The upper part of the walls is decorated with -delicately cut arabesques, within which, in white characters on a green -ground, the eightieth Psalm may be read in Hebrew. On the north and -south sides are inscriptions in bas-relief, reciting the merits of -Prince Samuel Levi ben Meir. The community offers up its thanks to God, -"who has not withdrawn His favor from His people, and raised up men to -rescue them from the hands of their enemies. Even though there be no -longer a king in Israel, God has permitted one of His people to find -favor in the eyes of the king, Don Pedro, who has raised him above the -mighty, appointed him a councilor of his realm, and invested him with -almost royal dignities." The name of Don Pedro appears in large and -prominent letters, suggesting that this prince, in intimate relations -with the Jews, belonged, one may say, to the synagogue. In conclusion, -the wish is expressed that Samuel may survive the rebuilding of the -Temple, and officiate there with his sons as chiefs of the people. - -This large and splendid synagogue was completed in the year 1357. For -the following year the beginning of the Messianic period had been -predicted, a century before, by the astronomer Abraham ben Chiya -and the rabbi and Kabbalist Nachmani, and, a few decades before, by -the philosopher Leon de Bagnols. As this prophecy was not literally -fulfilled, many Jews began to regard the eminence attained by Samuel -and other leading Jews as a suggestion of the scepter of Judah. It -was a dangerous aberration, whose pitfalls were fully appreciated by -Nissim Gerundi ben Reuben (about 1340-1380), rabbi of Barcelona, the -most important rabbinical authority of his day. Justly fearing that -the belief in the coming of a Messiah would suffer discredit by the -non-fulfillment of such prophecies, he preached against the calculation -of the end of the world from expressions in the book of Daniel. - -Don Samuel exercised too decided an influence over the king to avoid -making enemies. Even had he been a Christian, the court party would -have devised schemes to bring about his fall. Attempts were made to -stir up the Castilian population against the Jews, particularly -against the Jewish minister, not only by Don Pedro's bastard brother, -Don Henry, and Queen Blanche, but by all formerly in the king's -service. Don Pedro Lopez de Ayala, poet, chronicler, and the king's -standard-bearer, has given us, in one of his poems, a picture of the -feelings of the courtiers for favored Jews: "They suck the blood -of the afflicted people; they lap up their possessions with their -tax-farming. Don Abraham and Don Samuel, with lips as sweet as honey, -obtain from the king whatever they ask." Samuel's fall was desired -by many. It is even said that some Toledo Jews, envious of his good -fortune, charged him with having accumulated his enormous wealth at his -royal master's expense. Don Pedro confiscated Samuel's entire fortune -and that of his relatives, 170,900 doubloons, 4,000 silver marks, 125 -chests of cloth of gold and silver and 80 slaves from the minister, -and 60,000 doubloons from his relatives. According to some writers, -an extraordinary quantity of gold and silver was found buried under -Samuel's house. Don Pedro ordered his former favorite to be imprisoned -at Toledo and placed upon the rack at Seville, in order to force him -to disclose further treasures. He, however, remained firm, revealed -nothing, and succumbed under the torture (October or November, 1360). -His gravestone recites in simple phrase how high his position had been, -and how his soul, purified by torture, had risen to God. Concerning Don -Pedro, the inscription has not a single condemnatory expression. - -Samuel Abulafia's death did not change the friendly relations between -the king and the Jews. They remained faithful to him, and he continued -to confer important distinctions on members of their body. They -consequently came in for a share of the hatred with which the enemies -of the king regarded him. The king resolved to put to death his -detested consort (1361). Whatever the character of the queen, whether -she was a saint or the reverse, whether or not she had deserved her -fate, the method of her death must ever remain a stain on Don Pedro's -memory. In spite of the animosity with which De Ayala regarded the -Jews, there is no intimation in his chronicle that any of Don Pedro's -Jewish favorites were concerned in this crime. It was reserved for -a later period to invent fables identifying them with the king's -guilt. A story was forged to the effect that a Jew had administered -poison to the queen on the king's order, because she had insisted -on the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. A French romance, in which -an endeavor is made to varnish the deeds and misdeeds of the French -adventurers who fought against Don Pedro and the Jews, attributes the -queen's death to a Jewish hand. - -Don Pedro announced publicly, before the assembled cortes at Seville, -that his marriage with Blanche of Bourbon had been illegal, inasmuch -as he had been previously married to Maria de Padilla. He called -witnesses, among them a few of the clergy, and these confirmed his -statement on oath. Through the murder of Blanche, and its consequences, -an opportunity offered itself to Don Henry de Trastamara to obtain -allies for the dethronement of the king, and of this he was not slow -to avail himself. The Bourbons in France and the king promised him -aid, and allowed him to enlist the wild lances of the so-called great -or white company, who, at the conclusion of the war with England, were -rendering France insecure. The pope, displeased at the favors shown by -Don Pedro to the Jews, also supported Don Henry, and placed the king of -Spain under the ban. - -To invest his rebellion with a tinge of legality and win the feelings -of the people, Don Henry blackened his brother's character, picturing -him as an outcast who had forfeited the crown because he had allowed -his states to be governed by Jews, and had himself become attached to -them and their religion. Don Henry carried his calumnies so far as to -state that not only his mistress, Maria de Padilla, was a Jewess, but -that Don Pedro himself was of Jewish extraction. - -With the mercenaries of the "white company," graceless banditti, Henry -crossed the Pyrenees to make war on and, if possible, depose his -brother. At the head of these French and English outlaws stood the -foremost warrior of his time, the hero and knight-errant, Bertrand du -Guesclin (Claquin), celebrated for his deeds of daring, his ugliness, -and his eccentricity, who, like the Cid, has been glorified by legend. -The Jews consistently cast in their fortunes with those of the Don -Pedro party, and supported it with their money and their blood. They -flocked to its standard in the field, and garrisoned the towns against -the onslaughts of Don Henry and Du Guesclin. The wild mercenaries -to whom they were opposed avenged themselves not only on the Jewish -soldiers, but also on those who had not borne arms. - -The approach of the enemy compelled Don Pedro to abandon Burgos, the -capital of Old Castile, and at an assembly of the inhabitants it was -prudently resolved not to contest Don Henry's entrance. On taking -possession of the town, where he was first proclaimed king (March, -1360), Henry levied a fine of 50,000 doubloons on the Jewish community, -and canceled all outstanding debts due from Christians to Jews. The -Jews of Burgos, unable to pay this large contribution, were compelled -to sell their goods and chattels, even the ornaments on the scrolls of -the Law. Those who could not make up their share of the contribution -were sold into slavery. The whole of Spain fell to the conqueror in -consequence of Don Pedro's neglect to concentrate round himself that -portion of the population on which he could rely, or to buy over the -free lances of the "white company," as he had been advised. The gates -of Toledo, the capital, were opened to the victor, although Don Pedro's -party, to which the Jews belonged, strongly counseled defense. Upon the -Toledo community Don Henry also levied a heavy fine for its fidelity to -the legitimate king. Don Pedro's last refuge was Seville, which he also -lost. - -Once again fortune smiled on Don Pedro, after he was compelled to cross -the Pyrenees as a fugitive, and leave the whole of his country in the -hands of the enemy. The heroic Prince of Wales, called the Black Prince -from the color of his armor, being in the south of France, undertook -to come to the aid of the deposed monarch both for the sake of a -legitimate cause, and in expectation of rich rewards in money and land. -Henry de Trastamara was compelled to leave Spain (1367). The whole -of the peninsula hailed the victor Don Pedro and his ally, the Black -Prince, with enthusiasm, as it had previously rejoiced at the triumph -of his brother and the wild Constable of France, Bertrand du Guesclin. -Soon, however, the scene changed. The Black Prince left Don Pedro, and -Don Henry returned with new levies from France. The northern towns of -Spain again fell before his arms. The citizens of Burgos opened their -gates to the conqueror, but the Jews remained true to the unfortunate -Don Pedro. Assisted by a few loyal noblemen, they bravely defended the -Jewry of Burgos, and were subdued only by the superior strength of the -enemy. They obtained a favorable capitulation, providing for their -undisputed continuance in the town, but they were forced to pay a war -indemnity of one million maravedis. - -This time the Christian population was desirous of profiting by the -revolt against Don Pedro. The cortes of Burgos represented to Henry -that the Jews, having been favorites and officials under the former -king, were largely responsible for the civil war, and that he should -sanction a law to exclude them in future from all state employment, -including the post of physician to the king or queen, and also from the -right of farming taxes. To this Don Henry replied that such a practice -had not been countenanced by any former king of Castile. He would, -however, not consult with the Jews at his court, nor permit them the -exercise of functions which might prove detrimental to the country. -From this it is evident that Henry had no particular aversion to the -Jews. Possibly, he feared that by oppressing them he might drive them -to acts of desperation. - -Don Pedro still counted many adherents in the country. Most of the -Jewish communities remained true to him, and Jews served in his army, -and fought against the usurper for the king, who to the last treated -them with special favor. Even when in despair he was obliged to call to -his assistance the Mahometan king of Granada, he impressed upon that -monarch the duty of protecting the Jews. Notwithstanding this, the Jews -endured indescribable sufferings at the hands of both friend and foe. -Don Pedro being entirely dependent on the auxiliaries of the Black -Prince and on those of the Mahometan king, his wishes with respect to -the Jews were not regarded. The community of Villadiego, celebrated for -its benevolence and the promotion of learning, was utterly destroyed -by the English. The same evil fortune befell Aguilar and other -communities. The inhabitants of Valladolid, who paid allegiance to Don -Henry, plundered the Jews, demolished their eight synagogues, despoiled -them of their treasures, and tore up the sacred writings. A period of -shocking degeneracy followed. Wherever Don Henry came, he laid the -Jews under heavy contributions, precipitating them into poverty, and -leaving them nothing but their lives. The Mahometan king, Don Pedro's -ally, carried three hundred Jewish families as prisoners from Jaen to -Granada. Still worse was the treatment of the violent Du Guesclin. A -prey to French Jew-hatred, he could not look upon Jews as his equals in -party strife and war, but only as slaves who had dared draw the sword -against their masters. The misery was so great at this time that many -Jews became converts to Christianity. - -The community of Toledo suffered most severely. In emulation of Don -Pedro's Christian adherents, they made the greatest sacrifices for the -defense of the town, and endured a long and frightful siege. The famine -during the investment was so great that the unfortunates consumed, -not only the parchment of the Law, but even the flesh of their own -children. Through hunger and war the greater portion of the Toledo -community perished--according to some 8,000 persons, according to -others more than 10,000. At last, at Montiel, Don Henry defeated his -brother, who had been abandoned by all his partisans (14th March, -1369). Don Pedro's end was tragic. When the brothers met, Henry is -said to have hurled these insulting words in his face: "Where is the -Jew, the son of a harlot, who calls himself king of Castile?" They -then closed in a struggle. Don Pedro was overcome, and beheaded by his -brother's general, Du Guesclin. Pope Urban V could not contain his -delight on hearing the news of Don Pedro's death. "The church must -rejoice," he wrote, "at the death of such a tyrant, a rebel against the -church, and a favorer of the Jews and Saracens. The righteous exult in -retribution." The humiliation and abasement of the Spanish Jews, which -the papacy had so long failed to accomplish, was obtained unexpectedly -by the civil war in Castile. At Montiel they suffered a defeat pregnant -with consequences fatal to their future. - -Had a traveler, like Benjamin of Tudela, journeyed through Europe in -the latter half of the fourteenth century, with the object of visiting, -enumerating, and describing the various Jewish communities, he would -have had a dismal picture to give us. From the Pillars of Hercules and -the Atlantic Ocean to the banks of the Oder or the Vistula, he would -have found in many districts no Jews at all, and elsewhere only very -small, poverty-stricken, wretched communities, still bleeding from -the wounds inflicted by the plague-maddened populace. According to -human calculation, the destruction of the Jews in western and central -Europe was imminent. Those who had survived the pitiless massacre, -or been spared a desperate suicide, had lost courage. Communal ties -were for the most part rent asunder. The recollection of the scenes of -horror through which they had passed long agitated the small number of -surviving Jews, and left them no hope of better times. Lord Byron's -elegiac lines-- - - "The wild dove hath her nest, the fox his cave, - Mankind their country--Israel but the grave," - -are applicable to the whole of the mediaeval history of the Jews, but -to no period more than to this. Western and central Europe had become -for the descendants of the patriarchs and the prophets one vast grave, -which insatiably demanded new victims. - -It is remarkable that the Jews had become indispensable to the -Christian population, in spite of the venomous hatred with which the -latter regarded them. Not only princes, but cities, and even the -clergy, had a mania for "possessing Jews." A few years after the -terrible frenzy which followed the Black Death, German citizens and -their magistrates hastened to re-admit the Jews; they soon forgot -their vow, that for a hundred or two hundred years no Jew should dwell -within their walls. The bishop of Augsburg applied to Emperor Charles -IV for the privilege "to receive and harbor Jews." The electors, -ecclesiastical as well as secular, were bent upon curtailing the -exclusive right of the German emperor to possess serfs of the chamber -(servi camerae), and upon acquiring the same right for themselves. -Gerlach, archbishop of Mayence, especially exerted himself to wrest -this privilege from Emperor Charles IV, his success being to no small -extent due to the desire of the emperor to retain his popularity -amongst the electors. At an imperial Diet held at Nuremberg in -November, 1355, where a kind of German constitution, known as the -"Golden Bull," was promulgated, the emperor conferred on the electors, -in addition to the right of discovery of metal and salt mines, the -privilege to hold Jews; that is to say, he yielded to them this source -of revenue in addition to such sources as deposits of metal and salt. -But it was only to the electors that the emperor conceded this right; -he retained his rights over the "servi camerae" living under the rule of -the minor princes and in cities. The archiepiscopal elector of Mayence -lost no time in utilizing the new privilege, and immediately employed -a Jew to obtain others for him. Thus the Jews were at once repelled -and attracted, shunned and courted, outlawed and flattered. They were -well aware that it was not for their own sake that they were tolerated, -but solely on account of the advantages they afforded the authorities -and the population. How, then, could they be expected not to devote -themselves to money-making, the sole means by which they were enabled -to drag out a miserable existence? - -In France, as in Germany, financial considerations induced the rulers -to consent to the re-admission of the Jews. The embarrassments -resulting from frequent wars with England, particularly felt after -the captivity of King John (September, 1356), threatened to reduce -this chivalrous land to the condition of a province of the English -crown. Money especially was wanting. Even to ransom the imprisoned -king the assembled States-General did not vote supplies, or they -burdened their grant with heavy conditions. The third estate rose in -rebellion, and encouraged the peasants to throw off the yoke of the -nobles. Anarchy reigned throughout the country. At this juncture the -Jews, with their financial skill, appeared to the dauphin Charles, -who acted as regent during the captivity of the king, as providential -deliverers of the state. A clever Jew, Manessier (Manecier) de Vesoul, -actively negotiated the return of the Jews to France, whence they had -been so frequently banished. The dauphin-regent had granted permission -to a few Jews to return, but if the impoverished state or court was -to reap any real benefit from such return, it was necessary that it -should take place on a large scale. Hence, the plan which Manessier -submitted to the prince was approved in every detail, and the return -of the Jews for twenty years was authorized under the most favorable -conditions. Neither the Jews nor their representative, Manessier, -cared to take advantage of so important an offer without the consent -of the imprisoned king. The plan was accordingly submitted to him -for confirmation. At the instance of Manessier de Vesoul, the Jews -at the same time laid before the king a memorial setting forth that -they had been unjustly expelled from France, and that they could not -forget the land of their birth. The imprisoned monarch then issued a -decree (March, 1360), by which, with the consent of the higher and -lower clergy, the higher and lower nobility, and the third estate, -permission was granted to all Jews to enter France and reside there -for twenty years. They were allowed to take up their abode in any part -of the country, in large and small towns, villages and hamlets, and to -possess, not only houses, but also lands. - -The head of every Jewish family was, however, compelled, on entering -the country, to pay a sum of fourteen florins (florins de Florence) for -himself, and one florin for each child or other member of his family; -besides this, he became liable to an annual Jew tax of seven florins, -and one for each individual of his household. On the other hand, the -emigrants were to enjoy extensive privileges. They were not amenable -to the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts or officials, but had a -special justiciary in the person of Count d'Etampes, a prince of the -blood royal, who acted as their protector (gardien, conservateur), and -whose duty it was to appoint investigating judges and commissioners, -and to safeguard the interests of the community when endangered. Cases -of misdemeanor and crime amongst themselves were to be tried by two -rabbis and four assessors. From the decisions of this tribunal there -was no appeal. The property of the convicted Jewish criminal, however, -became forfeited to the king, to whom, in addition, the rabbis had to -pay the sum of one hundred florins. For past misdemeanors and crimes -the king granted them a complete amnesty. They were protected against -the violence of the nobles and the petty annoyances of the clergy. -They could not be forced to attend Christian services or discourses. -Their furniture, cattle, and stores of grain and wine, as well as their -sacred books, not merely the Bible, but copies of the Talmud also, were -to be guaranteed against confiscation, so that the public burning of -the Talmud at Paris could not be repeated. The amplest protection was -given their trade. They were allowed to charge 80 per cent interest (4 -deniers on the livre) on loans, and to take pledges, their rights upon -which were safeguarded by a fence of laws. Manessier de Vesoul himself, -the active and zealous negotiator of these privileges, was appointed -to a high position at court. He became receiver general (procureur -or receveur-general), and in this capacity was responsible for the -punctual payment of the Jew taxes, his commission being nearly 14 per -cent. The result of the granting of these privileges was that the Jews -entered France in large numbers, even foreigners being permitted to -settle there, or take up a more or less protracted residence. - -The extensive privileges granted to the Jews excited envy. The -Christian physicians, exposed to the competition of Jewish doctors, -complained that the latter had not passed a public examination, and -denounced them as charlatans. The judges and officials, without power -over the Jews and having no opportunity for extorting money from them, -complained that they abused their privileges. The clergy, indignant -at the favored position of the Jews, but having no real grievance, -complained that they no longer wore the prescribed badge. The feeble -king allowed an order to be extorted from him, to some extent in -contradiction of his own decree, by which only such Jews were to be -permitted to practice medicine as had passed an examination, and -all Jews, not excepting those even who enjoyed especial privileges -(Manessier and his family), were to wear a red and white wheel-shaped -badge (rouelle) of the size of the royal seal. Finally the Jews were -re-committed to the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts, and the -earlier arrangements annulled. - -As soon as the politic dauphin ascended the throne, under the title -of Charles V, and adopted a strict system of government, to deliver -himself from dependence on the States-General (May, 1364), he proceeded -to assure himself of the sources of revenue possessed by the Jews. He -restored the privileges partly abolished by his father, lengthened the -period of residence by six years, and secretly granted permission to -Hebrew money dealers to exceed the charge of 80 per cent on loans. At -the instance of Manessier de Vesoul, always zealous in the interests -of his co-religionists, the Jews were again withdrawn from the -jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals, and committed to the care of -their official protector, Count d'Etampes. The clergy, whose hatred of -the Jews bordered on inhumanity, were rendered powerless. In the south -of France, the heads of the church had threatened with excommunication -any Christians who should trade with Jews, or provide them with fire, -water, bread, or wine, and by this means, had so stirred up the -fanaticism of the people, that the lives and property of the Jews were -imperiled. To counteract this, the governor of Languedoc issued, in the -name of the king, an ordinance informing the officials, both lay and -ecclesiastical, that all who exhibited hostility toward the Jews would -be unsparingly punished in person and substance. - -During the reign of Charles V (1364-1380), then, the condition of -the Jews was at least endurable. Manessier remained receiver general -of the Jew taxes for the north of France (Langue d'Oyl), and the -same functions were discharged by Denis Quinon in Languedoc. On the -complaint of the latter that a few Jewish converts, in conjunction -with the Christian clergy, had forced their former brethren to attend -the churches to hear sermons, the king issued a rescript (March, 1368) -severely prohibiting all such unseemly compulsion. Subsequently, -Charles prolonged the period for remaining in the country by ten -years, and later on by six more. All this was brought about by the -indefatigable Manessier (1374). His zeal in the Jewish cause and -the advantages the king derived from his exertions were rewarded -by the exemption of himself and his family from every kind of tax, -contribution and service to the crown (1375). - -Although the German and French Jews appeared to revive after their -dreadful sufferings, it was only a material revival; their spirit -remained dead. Their intellectual powers had disappeared. In France, -where, during more than two centuries, from Rashi to the last of the -Tossafists, the study of the Talmud had been carried to its most -flourishing point, and where remarkable acuteness and intellectual -depth had been developed, the new emigrants exhibited so astonishing -an ignorance that they were obliged to commence their studies anew. -The indulgences of the kings, John and Charles, certainly spoke of -rabbis who should be invested with authority to try Jewish criminals; -but there was not a single profound Talmudist among them; indeed, -according to the avowal of contemporary writers, not more than five -of even mediocre attainments. The only devotee of Talmudical study, -Matathiah ben Joseph Provenci, has left nothing in writing to testify -to his ability. Held in such esteem by Charles V that he and his -family were exempted from wearing the distinctive badges prescribed -by law, and apparently related to the receiver general, Manessier de -Vesoul, Matathiah was in the best position to deal with the prevailing -ignorance. He re-established a college at Paris, assembled pupils, -expounded the Talmud to them, ordained them to rabbinical offices, -and caused copies of the Talmud to be written. In consequence of his -energy and his comparatively great learning, he was chosen by the newly -established French communities to the office of chief rabbi and chief -justice in civil and penal cases, his appointment being confirmed by -the king. His school had to supply the communities with rabbis, but his -pupils enriched rabbinical literature by their contributions as little -as he himself. Even Provence, once so fruitful of Jewish literature, -had become intellectually impoverished. - -In Germany, where the rabbis had once been so proud of their -traditional knowledge, the Black Death, with its attendant -persecutions and banishments, had so thinned the ranks of the Jews -that extraordinary intellectual decay had set in. The illiterate and -the superficial, in the absence of better men, were inducted into -rabbinical offices. This mischievous practice was vigorously opposed by -Meir ben Baruch Halevi, a rabbi, who, in his time, passed for a great -authority in Germany (1370-1390). Rabbi at Vienna, as his father had -been before him, Meir Halevi (Segal) ordered that no Talmudical student -should exercise rabbinical functions unless authorized by a rabbi of -standing. Until then it had been the practice for anyone who felt able -and willing to assume the rabbinical office without further ceremony, -or, if he perchance settled in the neighborhood of his teacher, to -obtain permission from him. As from the time of Gershom of Mayence -there had always been great Talmudists in Germany, public opinion -counteracted the abuse of this liberty; for had an unqualified person -arrogated to himself the exercise of rabbinical functions, he would -have incurred general derision and contempt. After the Black Death, -however, this deterrent lost much of its force through the scarcity of -Talmudists. The order of Meir of Vienna, that every rabbi should be -ordained, that he should earn the title (Morenu), and that, without -such preparation, he should be precluded from dealing with matrimonial -matters, marriages and divorces, was dictated by the exigencies of the -times, not the presumptuousness of its author. The insignificance of -even the most respected of the German rabbis of this period is apparent -from the fact that not one of them has left any important Talmudical -work; that, on the contrary, they all pursued a course productive of -mental stagnation. Meir Halevi, his colleague Abraham Klausner, and -Shalom, of Austria, rabbi at Neustadt, near Vienna, devoted themselves -exclusively to writing down and perpetuating the customs of the -communities (Minhagim), to which, formerly, but very little attention -had been given. They and their disciples, Isaac Tyrnau of Hungary, and -Jacob Moelin (Maharil) have left behind them nothing but such insipid -compilations. If the Austrian school, which at this time preponderated, -was so wanting in intellectuality, how much more the Rhenish, from -which only names have come down to us. - -Through the disasters that resulted from the Black Death, the memories -of old times had become so obliterated that the Rhenish rabbis found -themselves compelled, in consequence of differences of opinion on -points of marriage law, to convene a synod, exclusively for the purpose -of restoring old regulations. At the meeting at Mayence (15th Ab-5th -August, 1381) a few of the rabbis, together with some of the communal -leaders, renewed the old decisions of Speyer, Worms and Mayence -(Tekanoth Shum); as, for instance, that the childless widow should be -released, without extortion or delay, from the obligation of marrying -her brother-in-law, and should receive a definite portion of the -property left by her husband. Among the rabbis who took part in this -synod there is not one name of note. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE AGE OF CHASDAI CRESCAS AND ISAAC BEN SHESHET. - - The Jews of Spain after the Civil War--Joseph Pichon and - Samuel Abrabanel--The Apostates: John of Valladolid--Menachem - ben Zerach, Chasdai Crescas, and Isaac ben Sheshet--Chayim - Gallipapa and his Innovations--Prevot Aubriot and the Jews of - Paris--The French Rabbinate--Revival of Jewish Influence in - Spain--The Jews of Portugal--The Jewish Statesmen, David and - Judah Negro--Rabbis and Clergy--Persecutions in Germany and - Spain--The First Germs of the Inquisition--Second Expulsion of - the Jews from France--The Convert, Pessach-Peter--Lipmann of - Muehlhausen. - -1369-1380 C.E. - - -The heart of the Jewish race had become not less crippled and sickly -than its members. In Spain disintegrating forces were at work on -the firm nucleus of Judaism, which had so long defied the corroding -influences of ecclesiastical and civil animosity. The prince, whom -the Jews at the dictates of their loyalty had so sturdily resisted, -against whom they had even taken up arms; the bastard, Don Henry de -Trastamara; the rebel who had brought civil war upon his native land, -and flooded it with a marauding soldiery; the fratricide, who had burst -the bonds alike of nature and law, had, after the victory of Montiel, -seized the scepter with his blood-stained hands, and placed the stolen -crown of Castile on his guilty head. Of the large Jewish population, a -considerable proportion had, during the protracted and embittered civil -war, met death on the field of battle, in the beleaguered towns, and, -armed and unarmed alike, at the swords of the mercenaries of the "white -company." - -The Jewish community of Toledo, the Castilian capital--the "Crown -of Israel" of the Middle Ages, and, in a measure, the Jerusalem of -the Occident--did not number, after the raising of the siege, as -many hundreds of Jews as previously thousands. The remainder of the -Jews of Castile had been reduced to beggary by the depredations and -confiscations of friend and foe. Not a few, in their despair, had -thrown themselves into the arms of Christianity. A striking picture of -the unhappy condition of the Castilian communities at this period is -furnished by a contemporary writer, Samuel Carca: "In truth, plunderers -followed on plunderers, money vanished from the purse, souls from the -bodies; all the precursory sufferings of the Messianic period arrived ---but the Redeemer came not!" - -After Don Henry's victory, the Jews had good reason to tremble. One -pretext for making war on his brother was the favor shown by Don Pedro -to Jews. Now he had become the arbiter of their destinies. Would he -not, like another Vespasian or Hadrian, place his foot on the necks of -the vanquished? The gloomiest of their anticipations, however, were not -realized. Don Henry II was as little able to dispense with the Jews as -his predecessors, or the French and German princes. Jews were the only -financiers able to keep the state exchequer in prosperity and order, -and for this purpose Don Henry stood in need of them more than ever. -During the war he had incurred debts for the payment of the troops with -which Du Guesclin had assisted him, and for help received in other -quarters he had made promises which had to be redeemed. The country -had become impoverished by the protracted war. Who was to procure -the necessary sums, and provide for the systematic collection of the -taxes, if not the Jews? Henry was not blind to the merits of the Jews -exemplified in their constancy to his brother. Instead of punishing the -conquered, he appreciated their fidelity, saying: "Such subjects a king -must love and reward, because they maintained proper loyalty to their -conquered king unto death, and did not surrender to the victor." - -Don Henry, then, was guilty of the conduct which, in the case of his -brother, he branded as a crime in the eyes of all Christendom; he -employed able Jews in the service of the state, confiding to them the -finances in particular. Two Jews from Seville, Don Joseph Pichon and -Don Samuel Abrabanel, he appointed to important posts, the former as -receiver general of taxes, and Almoxarif to the king, by whom he was -held in high esteem. Other Jews, distinguished for their ability or -their wealth, had access to Don Henry's court. - -If the king bore the Jews no grudge for the part they had taken in the -war against him, the general population was not so magnanimous. The -nobility and the commonalty could not forgive their having confronted -them as foes in the besieged towns and on the open battle-fields. A -passion for vengeance, linked with the usual Jew-hatred, blinded them -to the benefits which the Jews contributed to the welfare of the state, -and their only thought was how to gratify their resentment. The Jews, -being the vanquished, ought, as they thought, to be reduced to a kind -of serfdom. The hostile feeling of the populace manifested itself on -the assembling of the first cortes at Toro (1371). Here the enemies -of the Jews opened the attack. The cortes expressed to the king their -displeasure that this "evil, audacious race," these enemies of God -and Christendom, were employed in "high offices" at court and by the -grandees of the realm, and that the farming of the taxes was confided -to them, by which means feeble Christians were held in subjection and -fear. The cortes accordingly made explicit demands upon the crown -with respect to the Jews. From that time forward they were not to -be eligible for any kind of state employment; they were to live in -Jewish quarters separated from the Christian population, be forced -to wear Jew-badges, be prohibited from appearing in public in rich -apparel, from riding on mules, and from bearing Christian names. To -Don Henry these demands were very unwelcome, but he dared not refuse -some concessions. The majority he dismissed with the remark that in -his treatment of Jews he only followed the example of his ancestors, -especially that of his father, Alfonso XI. The two restrictions -conceded were, if not of material significance, yet calculated to -have a sinister effect. These were that the Castilian Jews should -don the degrading badges, and give up their Spanish names. The pride -of the Jews, equal to that of the grandees and the hidalgos, was -deeply wounded. A century and a half had elapsed since the canonical -law concerning the Jew-badge, the outcome of papal intolerance and -arrogance, had been promulgated. During the whole of that period the -Jews of Castile had been able to prevent its application to themselves, -but now they also were to be compelled to wear the stigma on their -garments. They who had been accustomed to hold their heads high, and -rejoice in sounding titles, were, like the German Jews, to slink along -with downcast eyes, and be called by their Oriental names. They could -not accustom themselves to this humiliating situation. - -In consequence of an outcry made by some of his subjects, who had been -ruined by loans from Jewish creditors, and complained of usurious -interest, Don Henry made encroachments upon their private rights. He -decided that if the Christian debtors discharged their obligations -within a short space of time, they need refund only two-thirds of the -principal borrowed. - -The misery resulting from the civil war and the new restrictions -exercised a depressing effect on the Castilian Jews. Their most -prominent men, those who had access to court, and possessed wealth and -influence, especially Samuel Abrabanel, exerted themselves to remedy -the gloomy state of affairs. They particularly endeavored to restore -the abased, impoverished, and disorganized community of Toledo; but it -was beyond their power to revive the scholarly culture and intellectual -distinction to which the Toledo community had been as much indebted -for its leading position as to the prosperity of its members. The -unhappy war, and the evils following in its trail, had stunted the -Jewish mind, and diverted it from intellectual to material interests. -Disorganization proceeded with great strides. Indifference to -scientific work resulted in so general an ignorance, that what formerly -every tyro was familiar with now passed for transcendent wisdom. We -have an example of the mawkishness to which the new Hebrew poetry had -fallen in the verses of the poetaster Zarak (Zerach) Barfat, who, in a -poetical paraphrase of the book of Job, completely marred the beauties -of that work of art. Just at this period men of learning and ability -were urgently required, for representatives of Christianity began to -make earnest and energetic attacks on Judaism to obtain converts from -amongst its adherents. - -Don Henry had much to thank the clergy for; they had sanctified his -usurpation, and acquiesced in his arrogated succession. From gratitude -and a false conception of religiousness, he conceded much to them. At -his command, Jews were again forced to take part in religious debates, -in which there was much to lose and nothing to gain. - -Two baptized Jews received from the king the privilege of holding -religious discussions in every province and town of Castile, which they -might compel Jews to attend. - -One of these apostates was John of Valladolid. At Burgos the discussion -took place before Archbishop Gomez of Toledo. At Avila the whole -community was compelled to repair to the great church (1375), where -the debate was carried on in the presence of many Christians and -Mahometans. Moses Cohen de Tordesillas, who was as familiar with -Christian as with Jewish theological authorities, appeared on behalf of -the Jews. He entered upon his dangerous enterprise with trepidation, -for he had had an opportunity to form an estimate of Christian charity. -During the civil war, Christian marauders had robbed him of all his -possessions, and had even personally ill-used him in order to force -him to embrace Christianity. All these trials he had suffered with the -courage of strong convictions, but he had become so poverty-stricken -that he had to accept support from the community of Avila. - -Moses de Tordesillas did not find his part in the discussion too -difficult. The apostate John of Valladolid laid stress on the -proposition that the dogmas of Christianity--the Messianic claim, the -Divinity and Incarnation of Jesus, the Trinity, and the Virginity of -the "Mother of God"--could be demonstrated from the Old Testament. -It was consequently not difficult for his Jewish opponent to confute -his arguments. After four debates John was obliged to abandon his task, -vanquished. This, however, did not conclude the matter. A pupil of the -apostate, Abner-Alfonso, appeared soon after, and challenged Moses de -Tordesillas to a debate on the Talmud and Agadic texts. In case of -refusal, he threatened publicly to impeach the Talmud as the source of -anti-Christian sentiments. Moses was again forced to meet a series of -silly assertions and charges, and to drag himself through the thorny -length of another controversy. By the advice of the Avila community, he -committed to writing the principal arguments used in these discussions -under the title, "Ezer ha-Emuna," and sent them to his Toledan -brethren for use under similar circumstances. Moses de Tordesillas' -disputations, notwithstanding the difficulties of his position, were -characterized by calmness and equanimity. Not a word of abuse or -invective escaped him, and he counseled his Toledo brethren not to -permit themselves to be tempted by their zeal to vexatious expressions, -"for it is a fact," he said, "that the Christians possess the power and -disposition to silence truth by force." Toledo, formerly recognized as -the teacher of Jewry, was now obliged to play the part of pupil, and -follow formularies in the disputations to which its members might be -invited. - -As if the more far-seeing Jews had anticipated the approach of the -gloomiest era of Spanish Judaism, they provided their co-religionists -for the coming struggle with casque and buckler, so that the inexorable -foe might not surprise them unarmed. A Spanish Jew, contemporary with -Moses de Tordesillas, compiled a polemical work, more exhaustive than -its predecessor, defending Judaism and attacking Christianity. Shem-Tob -ben Isaac Shaprut of Tudela had at an early age been forced into the -position of a defender of his brethren against proselytizing attempts. -Cardinal Don Pedro de Luna, who later on, as Pope Benedict XIII, -brought so much confusion into the church and evil on the Jews, was -possessed of a perfect mania for conversion and religious controversy. -At Pampeluna he summoned Shem-Tob ben Shaprut to a debate on original -sin and salvation, and the latter was compelled to sustain his part in -the presence of bishops and learned prelates. The war between England -and Castile, the scene of which was Navarre, obliged Shem-Tob ben -Shaprut, with many other Jews, to quit the country (1378) and settle -in the neighboring town of Tarazona, in Aragon. Observing here that -Jews of the stamp of John de Valladolid were extremely zealous in the -promotion of religious discussions, the conversion of weaklings, and -the maligning of Jewish literature, he published (1380) a comprehensive -work ("Eben Bochan"), unmasking the speciousness of the arguments -deduced by Christian controversialists from the Bible and the Talmud. -The work is written in the form of a discussion between a believer in -the unity of God and a Trinitarian. To enable the Jews to use weapons -out of the Christian armory, Shem-Tob ben Shaprut translated into -Hebrew extracts from the four Gospels, with incisive commentaries. -Subsequently the anti-Jewish work of the apostate Abner-Alfonso fell -into his hands, and he refuted it, argument by argument. - -These polemical works did not prove of far-reaching importance; at any -rate, their effect was not what their authors had expected. The Jews -of Spain did not so much stand in need of writings as of men of force -of character, commanding personality and dignity, able to raise, if -not the masses, at least the half-educated classes, and imbue them -with somewhat of their own spirit. The ban against scientific studies, -pronounced by excessive fear and extreme religiousness, notably avenged -itself. It dwarfed the intelligence of the people, and deprived them -of that capacity for appreciating the signs of the times which only a -liberal education can develop. Even faith suffered from this want of -culture in the rising generation. Only one Jew of profound philosophic -genius stands out prominently in the history of this period, and the -influence he exerted over a rather small circle was due less to his -superior intelligence than to his position and Talmudic knowledge. -The majority of the Spanish rabbis, if not actually hostile, were -indifferent to the sciences, especially to religious philosophy. Only -laymen devoted themselves to such pursuits, and they were neither -exhaustive in their inquiries nor creative in their speculations. -It is characteristic of this period that Maimuni's philosophical -"Guide of the Perplexed" was entirely neglected, the fashion being -to read and discuss Ibn-Ezra. The fragmentary nature of the writings -of this commentator, the ingenuity and acuteness, the disjointedness -of thought, the variety of matter, which characterize his work, -appealed to the shallowness of this retrograde generation. Shem-Tob ben -Shaprut, Samuel Carca, Joseph Tob-Elem, Ezra Gatino, and others wrote -super-commentaries on Ibn-Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch. The -solution of riddles propounded by Ibn-Ezra, and the discovery of his -secrets, and explanations of his obscurities, seriously exercised the -minds of large circles of students. - -The Talmud, with which the more thoughtful minds, prompted by a -religious bias, continued to be engaged, fared no better than secular -learning. Here, also, a state of stagnation, if nothing worse, had -supervened. The rabbis of some large communities were not even able -to discharge one of their chief duties, the explanation of the Talmud -to their disciples. A French Talmudist, Solomon ben Abraham Zarfati, -who had settled at Majorca, could venture to speak slightingly of -the Spanish rabbis, not excepting the celebrated Nissim Gerundi, and -compare them disparagingly with the French and German rabbis. A measure -of the average intelligence of the rabbis of this period is yielded by -the works of Menachem ben Zerach, chief rabbi of Toledo, even after its -misfortunes a very important Jewish community. - -Menachem ben Aaron ben Zerach (born 1310, died 1385) counted several -martyrs in his family. His father, Aaron, was one of the unfortunates -whom the cupidity and tyranny of a French king had banished. With the -limited means spared by legalized robbery he had settled in Estella, a -not inconsiderable Navarrese community. His father, mother, and four -brothers perished in the massacre of Jews instigated by a Dominican -friar. Young Menachem was severely wounded in this outbreak, and might -have succumbed but for the assistance of a nobleman of his father's -acquaintance. On his recovery he devoted himself daily to Talmudical -study, and later on attended the celebrated school of the Asheride -Judah of Toledo. After he had passed his fortieth year, Menachem ben -Zerach became chief of an academy, the care of which was confided to -him by the Alcala (de Henares) community. During the civil war in -Castile he was wounded and plundered by the lawless soldiery, and of -his entire fortune, only his house, field, and collection of books -remained. Don Samuel Abrabanel assisted him in his distress, so that -he was enabled to recover somewhat from his misfortunes. Through his -interposition Menachem was called from Alcala to assume the rabbinate -of Toledo, where he opened an academy. As the disciple and successor -of Jehuda Asheri, considerable Talmudical attainments were with -justice expected of him. But he did not rise above the mediocrity of -his times. To remedy the increasing ignorance of religious forms and -duties, he wrote a compendium of theoretic and practical Judaism ("Zeda -la-Derech," 1374), as comprehensible as it was short, for the use of -prominent Jews, who, employed at court and by the grandees, had not -sufficient leisure to search an extensive literature for instruction. -His work is interspersed with scientific elements--psychological -and religio-philosophical--but it is weak and commonplace, full of -platitudes, and its several parts do not cohere. Even the Talmudical -elements are neither profound nor original. The only redeeming feature -is that it is conceived in a warm, sympathetic spirit, distinguishing -it from the usually dry rabbinical disquisitions. - -Only two men of this time are raised by their character and learning -above the dead level of prevailing mediocrity: Chasdai Crescas and -Isaac ben Sheshet. They both lived in the kingdom of Aragon, where the -Jews under Pedro IV and Juan I were neither so poor nor so oppressed as -their brethren in Castile. Chasdai Crescas and Isaac ben Sheshet were -not sufficiently great to dominate their contemporaries, or prescribe -their own views as rules of conduct; they were, however, the foci of -large circles, and were frequently appealed to for final decisions on -complicated and difficult questions. Both worked earnestly for the -maintenance and furtherance of Judaism, for the preservation of peace -in the communities at home and abroad, and for the consolation and -re-animation of the broken in spirit, notwithstanding that their means -were limited, and the times unpropitious. - -Chasdai ben Abraham Crescas (born 1340, died 1410), originally of -Barcelona, and subsequently of Saragossa, where he ended his days, did -not belong to the class of ordained rabbis, but he had been educated -on Talmudical lines, and was an accomplished Talmudist. His wealth -and his occupations seem to have indisposed him for this honorable -position. Chasdai Crescas was in close relation with the court of Juan -I, of Aragon, was frequently consulted on important state questions, -and also had much intercourse with the grandees of the kingdom. In the -views of the various schools of philosophy he was well versed; the -independence and depth of thought he evinced in dealing with them stamp -him an original thinker. His ideas, of course, were largely based upon -religious, or rather Jewish convictions, which, however, he presented -in an original form. Chasdai Crescas was the first to recognize the -weak points of the prevailing Aristotelianism, and he attacked it with -irresistible force. Of his youth nothing is known, and it is impossible -to say under what influences those ripe powers of mind were developed -which enabled him to question the authority not only of Maimonides -and Gersonides, but of Aristotle himself. His ancestors were learned -Talmudists, and his grandfather enjoyed a reputation equal to that of -the famous Asheri family. In Talmudical studies he was a disciple of -Nissim Gerundi, of Barcelona. Chasdai Crescas was kind and gentle, a -friend in need, and a faithful defender of the weak. During the unhappy -days which broke upon the Jews of Spain in his lifetime, he devoted all -his powers to the mitigation of the disasters which befell his brethren. - -Similar in character, but fundamentally opposed to him in the -disposition of his mind, was his friend and senior, Isaac ben Sheshet -Barfat (Ribash, born 1310, died about 1409). A native of Barcelona, and -having studied under Ben Adret's son and pupils, Isaac ben Sheshet may, -in a measure, be considered a disciple of Ben Adret. He acquired his -teacher's capacity for seizing the spirit of the Talmud and expounding -it lucidly, and far surpassed him in hostility to secular studies. Ben -Adret had permitted the circumstances of his times to extort from him -the prohibition of such studies, as far as raw youths were concerned; -Ben Sheshet, in his rigid orthodoxy, took the view that even mature -men should hold aloof from them, although at that period there was but -little fear of heresy. The physical sciences and philosophy, he held, -should be completely avoided, as they were calculated to undermine the -two essential supports of the Torah, the doctrines of the creation, and -of a Providence; because they exalted reason over faith, and generated -doubts of miracles. In Gersonides, and even Maimuni, Ben Sheshet found -illustrations of the pernicious effects of philosophic speculation. -He granted that they were men of incomparable genius, but he insisted -that they had been seduced by philosophy to adopt heterodox views, and -explain certain miracles of the Bible rationalistically. Ben Sheshet -was of high moral character; his disposition was kindly, and on several -occasions he willingly sacrificed his personal interests to advance the -common good and to promote peace. But when he suspected the violation -of a Talmudical precept or the non-observance of even an unessential -custom, his mildness was immediately transformed into most obdurate -severity. - -On account of his Talmudical learning, his clear, penetrating -intellect, and his irreproachable character, he was much sought -after. The important community of Saragossa elected him its rabbi. -Immediately on taking office, Isaac ben Sheshet gave an illustration -of the tenacity with which he clung to the letter of the Law, even -when it conflicted with the spirit. He observed, with regret, that the -practice obtained of reading the book of Esther on the feast of Purim -in a Spanish translation, for the benefit of the women. This practice -had been introduced into other Spanish communities, and was not only -applauded by all men of common sense, but had even been authorized by a -few rabbis, who considered it unobjectionable from a Talmudical point -of view. Ben Sheshet raised a cry of alarm, as if Judaism had been -threatened with ruin. He called to his assistance the authority of his -teacher, Nissim Gerundi, and together they opposed the excellent custom -with sophistical argument. They appear to have been successful in -abolishing it. - -Still more characteristic of Isaac ben Sheshet is his quarrel with -Chayim ben Gallipapa, a rabbi, stricken in years, whose opinions -differed from those of the rabbi of Saragossa. This man (born 1310, -died 1380), rabbi of Huesca and Pampeluna, was a singular figure in the -Middle Ages, whom it is difficult to classify. Whilst the rabbis of the -time, particularly since the rise of the Asheride teaching, exceeded -all bounds in the imposition of burdensome observances, and always, in -cases of doubt, decided in favor of their most rigorous fulfillment, -Gallipapa took the opposite view, and maintained that the aim of all -Talmudical exegesis should be to disencumber life. The times, he -considered, had improved, and neither the ignorance of the people -nor the fear of defection was so great as to warrant such severity. -This principle was no mere theory with Gallipapa, for he followed it -practically. The freedom he suggested concerned matters of comparative -insignificance, but at that time every trifle was regarded as -important. On certain dogmas, also, Gallipapa held independent views. -The Messianic belief which, since the time of Maimonides, had become -an article of faith, to deny which was heresy, he boldly set aside. -Gallipapa considered that the prophecies, in Isaiah and Daniel, of the -great prosperity of Israel in the future, had been fulfilled in the -days of the Maccabees, and wrote a work on the subject. Against this -hardy innovator, a storm naturally arose. A neighboring rabbi, Chasdai -ben Solomon, of Tudela, a man of not over-fine sensibilities, denounced -him to Isaac ben Sheshet, and the latter lectured the venerable -Gallipapa, who had sent disciples into the world, as if he had been a -mere schoolboy. He adjured Chayim Gallipapa to avoid scandal and give -no opportunity for schism amongst his brethren. The modest attempt at -reform went no further. - -This severe tendency in matters of religion was the natural outcome -of the prevailing spiritual needs; and it must be confessed that the -more rigorous, the better it was adapted to them. Isaac ben Sheshet -and his friend Chasdai Crescas, who, although no enemy of secular -learning, entertained the same view as his colleague, and defended his -orthodoxy on philosophic grounds, were considered, after the death -of Nissim Gerundi, the most eminent rabbinical authorities of their -day, not in Spain only. From far and near, inquiries were addressed to -them, principally to Isaac ben Sheshet, but also to Chasdai Crescas. -The proudest rabbis and the largest communities invoked their counsel, -and were content to abide by their decisions. The court of Aragon -also regarded them as the leaders of the Jewish communities, but this -operated to their disadvantage. In consequence of the denunciation -of some malevolent person, the ground of which is unknown, the king, -Don Pedro IV, ordered Chasdai Crescas, Isaac ben Sheshet, his brother, -Crescas Barfat, the aged Nissim Gerundi of Barcelona, and two others, -to be thrown into prison. After a long time, they were released on -bail. We may believe Isaac ben Sheshet, when he assures us that he and -his fellow-prisoners were all innocent of the offense or crime laid -to their charge. Their innocence must have come to light, for they -afterwards remained unmolested. - -The authority of Chasdai Crescas and Isaac ben Sheshet was appealed to -by the French communities to settle an important point in a dispute -about the chief rabbinate of France. A change, largely the outcome of -the political condition of the country, had come over the circumstances -of these communities. Manessier de Vesoul, the zealous defender and -protector of his co-religionists, was dead (about 1375-1378). Of his -four sons--Solomon, Joseph, Abraham, and Haquinet--the eldest -succeeded to his father's post of receiver general of the Jew taxes -and political representative of the French Jews, and the second became -a convert to Christianity. Solomon and his brothers enjoyed the same -esteem at the royal court as their father. They were exempted from -wearing the humiliating Jew badge, and they diligently cared for the -interests of their brethren. Among Jews, however, they do not seem -to have obtained the consideration that their father had enjoyed. On -the death of the king, Charles V, their importance ceased altogether. -The regent Louis, Duke of Anjou, confirmed, for a consideration, the -privileges acquired by the French Jews (14th October, 1380), and -prolonged their term of sufferance in the land by another five years. -His protection, however, did not reach far, or rather it involved the -Jews in his own unpopularity. The impoverished population of Paris, -driven to despair by burdensome taxation, loudly and stormily demanded -redress of the young king and the regent. Egged on by a nobility -involved in debt, they included the Jews in their outcry, and demanded -that the king should expel from the country "these shameful usurers -who have ruined whole families." The people did not stop at words; at -the instigation of the nobles, they attacked the houses of the Jews -(November 16th, 1380), robbed the exchequer of the receiver general -(of the Vesoul family), pillaged their dwelling-houses, destroyed the -bonds of the debtors, appropriated the accumulated pledges, murdered -a few Jews, and tore children from the arms of fleeing and weeping -Jewish mothers to baptize them forthwith. A large number of Jews -saved themselves by flight to the fort Chatelet. The regent was much -irritated by this violent outbreak, but was unable to punish the -offenders at once on account of the excited state of the people. He -ordered that the Jews be reinstated in their homes, and the plunder -restored to them. Few complied with the order. The prevot of Paris, -Hugues Aubriot--a man of considerable energy, who had beautified and -enlarged the French capital--also interested himself in the Jews. -In particular, he brought about the restitution of the stolen and -baptized children. For this he was violently attacked by men whose -learning should have taught them better. Aubriot, by his orderly -administration, had made enemies of the university professors and -students, who denounced as criminal his interference for the benefit -of the Jews. He was accused before the bishop of Paris of having held -intercourse with Jewish women, and even of being a secret adherent of -Judaism. He was found guilty of heresy and infidelity, and made to pay -with imprisonment for his humane conduct towards the Jews. Not only -in Paris, but also in other towns where the people rose against heavy -taxation, Jews fell victims to the popular excitement. Four months -later, similar bloody scenes were enacted in Paris and the provinces -when the rising of the Maillotins (so called from the mallets with -which the insurgents were armed) took place. For three or four days in -succession Jews were again plundered, ill-treated, and murdered (March -1st, 1381). The king, Charles VII, or rather the regent, attempted to -protect the Jews and to obtain some indemnification of their losses. -They were, however, unable to recover from the blow they had received. -In these tumults the sons of Manessier de Vesoul appear either to have -lost their lives, or, at any rate, their position of influence. - -This change in the fortunes of the French Jews brought in its train -a violent communal dispute, the excitement of which extended far and -wide. The chief rabbi, Matathiah Provenci, had been gathered to his -fathers. The communities had elected his eldest son, Jochanan, in his -place, and the king had confirmed their choice. He had been in office -five years, and was projecting the establishment of an academy, when -a former pupil of his father, one Isaiah ben Abba-Mari, arrived in -France from Savoy with the authorization of the German chief rabbi, -Meir ben Baruch Halevi, granting to him alone the right to maintain -an academy and ordain pupils as rabbis. Whoever exercised rabbinical -functions without his authority and, especially, meddled with marriages -and divorces, was threatened with excommunication. All unauthorized -documents were declared null and void. By virtue of his authority, and -in consequence of Jochanan's refusal to subordinate himself to him, -Isaiah relieved him of his office (about 1380-1390). The Vesoul family -being extinct or having lost prestige, Jochanan found himself without -influential support. Many of the French Jews, however, were extremely -wroth at this violent, imperious behavior of the immigrant rabbi. They -condemned the presumptuousness of the German rabbi, Meir Halevi, in -treating France as though it were a German province, and protested -against his dictating laws to the French communities, as it had always -been the custom to regard each community, and certainly the Jews of -each country, as independent. The result was a storm of indignation, -which increased considerably when Isaiah proceeded to appoint his own -relatives to the various rabbinates. It being impossible to settle -the dispute by an appeal to the home-authorities, Jochanan turned -with his grievance to the two foremost representatives of Spanish -Judaism, Chasdai Crescas and Isaac ben Sheshet. Both these "Catalonian -grandees," as they were called, pronounced in favor of Jochanan. This -decision, however, was not destined to bring about lasting peace, for -the days of the Jews in France were numbered. - -The storm on this occasion arose in Spain, and convulsed for a time -the entire Jewish race. The golden age of the Spanish Jews had passed -away; still they were more firmly established in the Peninsula than in -any other country. It required a series of violent shocks, extending -over an entire century, to completely uproot them, whilst in France -they were swept away by a breath, like twigs planted in quicksand. For -the sanguinary drama which commenced towards the end of the fourteenth -century, and ended in the latter part of the fifteenth, the Spanish -Jews were themselves largely to blame. It is true that the many had -to suffer for the few, for when the enemies of the Jews complained of -their obsequious attendance at court and on the grandees, of their -wealth accumulated by usury, and their flaunting in silks and satins, -blame was due only to a few of the most prominent, for whose follies -and extravagances the masses were not responsible. Indeed, there were -Jews who complained that their moral sense was deeply wounded by the -selfishness and covetousness of their wealthy brethren. "For these -troubles," says one, "the titled and wealthy Jews are greatly to be -held responsible; their only consideration is for their position and -money, whilst for their God they have no regard." In fact, the union -that had previously been the chief source of strength among the Spanish -Jews, was broken up. Jealousy and envy among the Jewish grandees had -undermined fraternal feeling, which formerly had induced each to merge -his interests in those of the community at large, and all to combine -for the defense of each. Generosity and nobility of mind, once the -brilliant qualities of the Spanish Jews, had now become almost extinct. -A contemporary writer pictures their degeneracy in darkest hues, and if -only one half of what he tells us is true, their decline must have been -grave indeed. - -"The majority of wealthy Jews," says Solomon Alami in his "Mirror of -Morals," or "Letter of Warning," "who are admitted to royal courts, and -to whom the keys of public exchequers are confided, pride themselves -on their dignities and wealth, but give no thought to the poor. They -build themselves palaces, drive about in splendid equipages, or ride -on richly caparisoned mules, wear magnificent apparel, and deck their -wives and daughters like princesses with gold, pearls, and precious -stones. They are indifferent to their religion, disdain modesty, hate -manual labor, and live in idleness. The wealthy love dancing and -gaming, dress in the national costume, and go about with sleek beards. -They fill themselves with dainties, whilst scholars starve on bread -and water. Hence, the rabbis are despised, for all classes prefer to -have their sons taught the lowest of handicrafts to bringing them up to -the study of the Law. At sermon time, the great resign themselves to -sweet slumber, or talk with one another, and the preacher is frequently -disturbed by men and women at the back of the synagogue. On the other -hand, how devout are the Christians in their houses of worship! In -every town the noble live at variance with one another, and stir up -discord on the most trivial questions. Still worse is the jealousy with -which they regard each other; they slander one another before the king -and the princes." - -It is certainly true that at this period secret denunciations, once -almost unknown among the Jews, were exceedingly rife, even rabbis -being occasionally the victims. As the aged Nissim Gerundi, Isaac -ben Sheshet, Chasdai Crescas, and their friends were victimized by -the conspiracy of some miserable calumniator, so an attempt was made -to ruin the rabbi of Alkolea de Cinca, En-Zag Vidal de Tolosa, by -representations to the queen of Aragon. - -The rabbis, who, with one or two assessors, constituted courts of -justice for criminal cases, dealt severely with such traitors, and -even sentenced them to death. In the communities of Castile, Aragon, -Valencia, and Catalonia, the privilege of passing death-sentences -was of great antiquity. The Jewish courts required for the execution -of such sentences special sanction from the king in a sealed letter -(Albala, Chotham); but, if necessary, this could be obtained through -the medium of Jewish courtiers, or by bribery. Such proceedings, -however, only increased the evil they were designed to cure. The -accused were made short work of without exhaustive inquiry, or -sufficient testimony, and this naturally infuriated their relatives and -friends. It did not unfrequently occur that utterances were construed -as treasonable which had no such character. The ill-advised action -of the Jewish court of Seville (or Burgos) on an unfounded charge of -disloyalty to the community preferred against an eminent and beloved -co-religionist was, if not the actual cause, at any rate the occasion -of the first widespread and sanguinary persecution of the Jews in -Spain, the final result being the total expulsion of the Jews from the -Peninsula. - -Joseph Pichon, of Seville, high in favor with the king of Castile, -Don Henry II, whose receiver general of taxes he had been, was -accused of embezzlement by some jealous Jewish courtiers. He was -imprisoned by the king, condemned to pay a fine of 40,000 doubloons, -and then set free. He afterwards retrieved his reputation, and became -extraordinarily popular among the Christian population of Seville. To -avenge his wrongs, or possibly with a view to his own vindication, he -had entangled his enemies in a serious accusation, when Don Henry died. -His son, Don Juan I, was crowned at Burgos, the capital of Old Castile -(1379). During the coronation festivities, a Jewish court of justice -(at Burgos or Seville) condemned Pichon as an enemy to the community -and a traitor (Malshim, Malsin), without affording him an opportunity -of being heard in defense. Some Jews, having access to the court, asked -permission of the young king to execute a dangerous member of their own -body without mentioning his name. Confidants of the king are said to -have been bribed to obtain the royal signature to this decree. Provided -with the king's warrant and the death sentence of the rabbinical -college, Pichon's enemies repaired to the chief of police (Alguacil), -Fernan Martin, and obtained his assistance at the execution. Early -on the morning of the 21st August, two or three Jews, together with -Martin, entered Pichon's house whilst he was yet asleep, and awoke him -under the pretext that his mules were to be seized for debt. As soon as -he appeared at the door of his dwelling, he was arrested by the Jews -intrusted with the carrying out of the sentence, and, without a word, -beheaded. - -Whether Pichon had deserved death, even according to rabbinical law, -or whether he fell a victim to the intrigues of his enemies, is not -known. It is not difficult to understand that so cruel an act should -have stirred up widespread indignation. The anger of the young king -knew no bounds when he learnt that his coronation festivities had been -stained with the murder of one who had rendered his father substantial -services, and that his own sanction had been surreptitiously obtained. -He immediately ordered the execution of the Jews who had carried -out the sentence, and of a Jewish judge of Burgos. Even the chief -of police, Fernan Martin, was ordered to be put to death for the -assistance he had given; but at the intercession of some nobles, his -life was spared, and his punishment commuted to the chopping off of -one hand. This incident had other grave consequences. The king at -once deprived the rabbis and Jewish courts of justice of jurisdiction -in criminal cases, on the ground of their abuse of the privilege. -At the first meeting of the cortes at Soria (1380), he made this -restriction a permanent statute. By its terms the rabbis and communal -leaders were thenceforth prohibited from decreeing punishments of -death, dismemberment, or exile, and in criminal cases were to choose -Christian judges. One of the reasons assigned was that, according to -the prophets, the Jews were to be deprived of all power and freedom -after the advent of Jesus. The still exasperated king then arraigned -the Jews on other charges. He accused them particularly of cursing -Christians and the Christian church in their prayers, and with -receiving Mahometans, Tartars, and other foreign persons into the pale -of Judaism, and having them circumcised. These alleged practices were -forbidden under heavy penalties. The feeling against the Jews was -not limited to the king and the court circle. The entire population -of Castile was roused by the apparently unjust execution of Joseph -Pichon, and by the circumstance that his death was not the work of -irresponsible individuals, but of the foremost leaders of the Jewish -community. In Seville, where Pichon had been very popular, the fury -against the Jews rose to such a height that, had the opportunity -presented itself, summary vengeance would have been taken. - -Accusations against the Jews and petitions for the restriction of their -liberties became the order of the day at the meetings of the cortes, -as formerly at the councils of the Visigothic kings. The infuriated -Don Juan acquiesced in this agitation, in so far as it did not tend -to the detriment of the royal finances. At the cortes of Valladolid -(1385), he granted the petition for the legalization of the canonical -restrictions, presented by the clergy, and accordingly prohibited the -living together of Jews and Christians, and the suckling of Jewish -infants by Christian nurses, under pain of public whipping. He also -consented to the passing of a law excluding Jews (and Mahometans) from -the post of treasurer to the king, queen, or any of the royal family. - -Curiously, it was the quarrel over the chief rabbinate of Portugal that -snatched the crown of that country, at the moment when it was within -his grasp, from this monarch, who cannot be said to have been wholly -hostile to the Jews. By a treaty with King Ferdinand of Portugal, -it had been agreed that, male heirs to the crown failing, he, or -rather his second wife, the Portuguese Infanta Beatrice (Brites), -should have the first right to the succession. In Portugal the Jews -had always been tolerated, and, up to the time of their expulsion -from the country, suffered no persecution. During the reign of King -Ferdinand (1367-1383), their position was exceptionally happy. Since -the thirteenth century (1274), the government of the community had -been more completely in its own hands than in any other European -country. Some of their peculiar institutions dated even further back. -At the head of the Portuguese Jews was a chief rabbi (Ar-Rabbi Mor), -possessing almost princely privileges. On account of the importance of -the office he was always appointed by the king, who conferred it as a -reward for services rendered to the crown, or to add to the dignity -of some particular favorite. The chief rabbi used a special signet, -administered justice in all its branches, and issued decrees under -his own sign-manual with the addendum: "By the grace of my lord, the -king, Ar-Rabbi Mor of the communities of Portugal and Algarve." It was -his duty to make an annual circuit of all the Portuguese communities, -to investigate their affairs, invite individuals to lay before him -their grievances, even against the rabbis, and remedy abuses wherever -they existed. On these journeys he was accompanied by a Jewish judge -(Ouvidor), a chancellor (Chanceller) with his staff, a secretary -(Escrivao), and a sheriff (Porteiro jurado), to carry out the sentences -of his court. The chief rabbi or Ar-Rabbi Mor, appointed in each of -the seven provinces of the kingdom provincial rabbis (Ouvidores) -subject to him. These rabbis were established in the seven principal -provincial Jewish centers, Santarem, Vizeu, Cavilhao, Porto, Torre de -Montcorvo, Evora and Faro. They governed the provincial communities, -and were the judges of appeal for their several districts. The local -rabbis were elected by the general body of contributing members of the -community; but the confirmation of their election and their investiture -proceeded from the chief rabbi, under a special deed issued in the -name of the king. The judicial authority of the rabbis extended to -criminal cases, and they retained this privilege much longer than their -Spanish brethren. Public documents had to be written in the vernacular. -The Jewish form of oath was very simple, even in litigation with -Christians; it required nothing but the presence of a rabbi and the -holding up of the Torah. - -The king, Don Ferdinand, had two Jewish favorites, who supervised his -monetary affairs: Don Judah, his chief treasurer (Tesoreiro Mor), -and Don David Negro, of the highly-respected Ibn-Yachya family, his -confidant and counselor (Almoxarif). When this frivolous and prodigal -monarch died, and the regency was undertaken by the queen, Leonora--a -princess whose beauty rendered her irresistible, but who was hated for -her faithlessness and feared for her vindictiveness and craft--the -municipal authorities of Lisbon approached her with an urgent prayer -for the abolition of sundry unpopular measures of the late king. Among -other things they asked that Jews and Moors should no longer be allowed -to hold public offices. Leonora craftily replied that during the -lifetime of the king she had exerted herself to procure the exclusion -of Jews from public offices, but her representations had always been -unheeded. Immediately after the king's death she had removed Judah -and David Negro from the public service, and dismissed all the Jewish -receivers of taxes. She nevertheless retained Judah in her immediate -circle, anticipating that, on account of his wealth and experience, -he might prove of use to her. Leonora's scheme to obtain absolute -authority and share the government with her paramour was frustrated by -the still craftier bastard Infante Don Joao, Grand Master of Avis. In -the art of winning public favor and turning it to account, Don Joao -was a master, and he soon brought things to such a pass that the queen -regent was forced to leave the capital. Burning for revenge, Leonora -invoked the aid of her son-in-law, King Don Juan of Castile, with the -result that a sanguinary civil war was commenced. In opposition to the -aristocratic faction, supporting the queen regent and the Castilians, -there arose a popular party, which enthusiastically espoused the cause -of Don Joao of Avis. Leonora was obliged to fly before the hatred of -her people and take refuge in Santarem. Among her escort were the two -Jewish grandees, Judah and David Negro, who had escaped from Lisbon -in disguise. Hither came King Juan of Castile; and Leonora, in order -to be enabled to take full vengeance on her enemies, renounced the -regency in his favor, and placed at his disposal all her adherents, -comprising the entire Portuguese nobility, together with a large number -of fortresses. The idea of the Castilian king in undertaking this -enterprise was to unite the crowns of Portugal and Castile; but for the -realization of this project a thorough understanding between Leonora -and her son-in-law and her ungrudging co-operation were indispensable. -This important harmony was disturbed by a question as to the -appointment of a chief rabbi, and owing to this dispute their agreement -was transformed into bitter and disastrous enmity. - -The rabbinate of Castile became vacant in 1384. Leonora, desiring to -obtain the appointment for her favorite Judah, made application to the -king on his behalf. At the instance of his wife Beatrice, he conferred -the dignity upon David Negro. Leonora's anger at this rebuff was -expressed with vehemence. She is reported to have said to her circle -of adherents: "If the king refuses so trivial a favor, the first I -have asked of him, to me, a woman, a queen, a mother, one who has -done so much for him, what have I and what have you to expect? Even -my enemy, the Grand Master of Avis, would not have treated me thus. -You will do better to go over to him, your legitimate master." Leonora -transferred to her son-in-law, King Juan, all the hatred with which -she had formerly regarded the Grand Master of Avis. She organized a -conspiracy to murder him, the details of which she confided to the -former treasurer Judah. The plot was, however, discovered by the -chief rabbi elect, David Negro, who saved the king's life. Don Juan -immediately caused the queen dowager to be arrested and thrown into -prison. Judah also was imprisoned, and ordered to be executed, but at -the energetic intercession of his rival, David Negro, his life was -spared. This quarrel with and imprisonment of his mother-in-law cost -Don Juan all support in Portugal. Thenceforth he encountered resistance -on every side, and was obliged to resort to forcible measures for the -subjugation of the country. His plans, however, all failed, and in the -end he found himself compelled to renounce his hope of a union of the -two lands. - -A few rabbis intrigued to obtain rabbinical office, and involved -their several communities in much unseemly strife, as, for example, -David Negro and Judah, Isaiah ben Abba-Mari and Jochanan in France, -Solomon Zarfati and En-Vidal Ephraim Gerundi in the Island of Majorca, -and Chasdai ben Solomon and Amram Efrati in Valencia, but it must -be acknowledged that such incidents were of rare occurrence. To the -majority, the rabbinate was as a holy priesthood, the duties of which -they sought to discharge in all purity of heart and deed, with devotion -and self-denial. They were generally examples to their communities, not -only in learning and piety, but in high-mindedness, conscientiousness, -and the purity of their morals. Even the less worthy cannot be charged -with anything more serious than a desire for place, and a certain -degree of irascibility. It would be a gross libel on their memory to -compare them with the servants of the church during the same period. -At no time in its history had Christianity more reason to be ashamed -of its representatives than during the fourteenth and the succeeding -century. Since the papacy had established itself at Avignon, it had -become a perfect hot-bed of vice, the contagion of which spread over -the clergy down to the lowliest friar. Besides, there arose passionate -strife between pope and anti-pope, between one college of cardinals -and another, dividing the whole of Christendom into two huge, bitterly -hostile camps. It was only natural that the clergy should infect the -lay world with their immeasurable dissoluteness and vice. Yet these -degenerate, inhuman and degraded Christian communities presumed to -treat the modest, virtuous, pious Jews as outcasts and accursed of God. -Although superior in everything save wickedness and the virtues of a -robber chivalry, they were denied the commonest rights of man. They -were baited and slaughtered like beasts of the field. In Noerdlingen the -entire Jewish community, including women and children, was murdered -(1384). All over Suabia they were persecuted, and in Augsburg they were -imprisoned until a ransom of 20,000 florins was paid. A characteristic -illustration is furnished by the following occurrence: The rabbis and -communal leaders of central Germany had determined to hold a synod at -Weissenfels, in Saxony, for the purpose of deliberating upon certain -religious questions, and adopting resolutions of public utility -(1386). They had provided themselves with safe-conduct passes from -the Saxon princes, it being unsafe for Christians to travel on the -public highroads, and, of course, much more so for Jews. Nevertheless, -a party of German robber-nobles, anticipating rich booty, waylaid the -travelers on their return journey, and, having plundered and ill-used -them, threw them into prison, and liberated them only on the payment of -a ransom of 5,000 groschen. The rabbis and their companions complained -to the princes of this attack, and the latter, indignant at the -disrespect with which their authority had been treated, summoned the -noble marauders to answer the charges urged against them. The line of -defense adopted by the spokesman of the accused was that they had no -idea of disregarding the safe-conduct passes of the princes, but that -they held the opinion that the Jews, the enemies of the church, did not -deserve the protection of Christian authorities. The speaker continued -that, for his own part, wherever he met the enemies of Christ, he would -give them no quarter. A defense of this kind could not fail to obtain -applause. Its spirit was that of the majority of the Christians of -that day. The accused were absolved from blame, and the Jews dismissed -without redress, "for the defense captivated the princes." - -The art of poetry, which should beautify life, began to work like -poison on the moral atmosphere of the Jews. For some centuries past -romantic works had variously portrayed the character of a creditor, -who, as equivalent for a debt, claimed a certain portion cut from -the body of his creditor, either a liege lord from his vassal, or -a nobleman from a burgher. At first this was harmless fiction, but -afterwards it was turned against the Jews, as though only a Jewish -Shylock could be capable of such hardness of heart as to insist on the -payment of a pound of flesh from a Christian. Thus cannibal hatred of -Christians was foisted on the Jews, and received credence. Romances -took up the theme, and made it popular. - -The depraved, dissolute clergy--a class of men who, in an age of -public decency, would have been objects of universal contempt, or might -have earned the corrections of a Bridewell--affected to feel insulted -by contact with the Jews, and, under the pretext that their cloth was -disgraced by them, caused new scenes of horror and cruelty. In Prague, -since the time of Charles IV the chief city of Germany, a bloody -persecution was set on foot by their agency. A local priest--perhaps -one of those whom Emperor Wenceslaus had caused to be pilloried with -their concubines--passed through the Jewish quarter on Easter Sunday -(April 18th, 1389) with the host, to visit a dying person. Jewish -children playing in the street--it was one of the latter days of the -Passover feast--were throwing sand at one another, and a few grains -happened to fall upon the priest's robe. His attendants immediately -turned upon the children, and cruelly beat them. Their cries quickly -brought their parents to their rescue, whereupon the priest fled to -the market-place, loudly proclaiming that his holy office had been -profaned by Jews. To invest the incident with the necessary importance, -he exaggerated it, and said that he was pelted with stones until forced -to drop the host. The citizens and lower orders of Prague immediately -banded themselves together, and, armed with murderous weapons of every -description, made a violent attack upon the houses of the Jews. As -usual, they offered their victims the choice between death and baptism, -but they found them steadfast in their faith. Many thousands perished -in the massacre, which lasted a whole day and night. Several of the -Jews, among them their venerable rabbi, first took the lives of their -wives and children, and then their own, to escape the cruelties of -their enemies. The synagogue was laid in ashes, and the holy books and -scrolls torn and trodden under foot. Not even the burial ground escaped -the fury of these Christian zealots. The corpses in the streets were -stripped of their clothing, left naked, and then burnt. - -For the same offense--that is, for no offense at all--the -communities in the vicinity of the Bohemian capital were "confined, -oppressed, ill-treated and persecuted." The reigning pope issued a bull -condemning the outrages (July 2d, 1389), and based his action upon -the edict of Pope Innocent IV, which enacted that Jews should not be -forcibly baptized, nor disturbed in the observance of their festivals; -but he failed to produce an impression on the consciences of the -faithful. It was in vain, too, that the Jews appealed to their liege -lord, the German emperor Wenceslaus, in whose capital the persecution -had originated. This prince--who, had he not been an emperor, would -certainly have been a freebooter--was a man of sense only on the rare -occasions when he was not intoxicated. His reply to the representations -of his Jewish subjects was that they had deserved the attacks made upon -them, as they had had no right to show themselves outside their houses -on Easter Sunday. For the goods and chattels they had left behind them -he exhibited more concern, promptly ordering them to be appropriated -to his empty exchequer. This was the measure of his general attitude -towards the Jews. During several years he attempted to possess himself -of their monetary claims on his Christian subjects, and to carry out -his design he convened (1385) a conference of representatives of the -Suabian cities, which met at Ulm. Despite the impoverishment of the -German communities, he exacted from every Jew, even from every Jewish -youth and maiden, the so-called "golden penny" poll-tax, amounting to -one gulden annually. He openly declared that the possessions of the -Jews were his personal property, and forbade them to sell or mortgage -anything. And still Emperor Wenceslaus was not the worst of rulers in -the eyes of the Jews. The rabbi, Avigedor Kara, of Prague, boasted his -friendship; and the Jews of Germany whispered significantly to one -another that his allegiance to the teaching of Christ was very weak. - -This storm of spoliation and persecution had no far-reaching -consequences in the history of the German Jews. It could not affect -their abject condition, for they had been too long accustomed to turn -their cheeks submissively to the smiter. Quite different were the -effects of a contemporary persecution in Spain. Here the very heart -of the Jewish race was attacked, and the results made themselves felt -in the history of the whole Jewish people. The Spanish Jews had until -then been more hated than despised; the horrors of this persecution, -however, so thoroughly cowed their spirits, so paralyzed their -energies, and humbled their pride, that they, too, became the scorn -of their oppressors. As in Prague, the outbreak was the work of an -ecclesiastic and a mob, but here it assumed the vastest proportions, -and developed permanent results, the operations of which were -disastrous in the extreme. It arose in Seville through the agitation -of a fanatical priest, Ferdinand (Ferrand) Martinez, who seemed to -consider implacable hatred of the Jews as the essence of his religion. -His discourses were devoted to stirring up the populace against them, -and he thundered against their hardened infidelity, their pride, their -heaped-up riches, their greed, and their usury. In Seville he found -the people only too ready to listen to him, for there the Jews were -hated with special intensity. The citizens could not forgive them the -important part they had played in the civil war between Don Pedro -and Don Henry II, and particularly the suspicious circumstances of -the death of Joseph Pichon, who had been so popular among them. As -long as Don Juan I lived, Martinez took care to restrain the mob from -open violence, for though the king regarded the Jews with but little -affection, he was in the habit of punishing lawless outbreaks with -the utmost severity. No sooner was he dead, however, than the bigoted -cleric thought he might dare the utmost. The circumstances of the -government were favorable to the development of his plans. The new -monarch, Henry III, was a boy of only eleven years of age, and in the -council of regency discord reigned, threatening to involve the country -in another civil war. - -One day (March 15, 1391)--a memorable day, not only for the Jews and -for Spain, but for the history of the entire world, for on that day -the first germ of the monstrous Inquisition was created--Martinez, -preaching as usual against the Jews, deliberately incited the mob to -riot in the expectation that many Jews would abjure their religion. -The passions of the multitude became inflamed, and broke out in wild -uproar. The authorities of the city, the Mayor (Alguacil mayor), Don -Alvar Perez de Guzman, and two of the magistrates interposed to -protect the Jews, arresting two of the ringleaders in the riot, and -ordering them to be flogged. This proceeding excited the fanatical -mob only the more. In their fury they put a large number of Jews to -death, and threatened with a like fate the governor of the city, Don -Juan Alfonso, and the officials who were attempting to shield the -unfortunate Hebrews. A few of the leading Jews of Seville, perceiving -that the local authorities were not strong enough to grapple with the -rising, hurried to the court of the young king, and appealed to the -council of regency to stop the slaughter of their brethren. Their -representations were favorably received. Messengers were dispatched -forthwith to Seville with instructions to tell the populace to abstain -from further outrage. The local nobility seconded the action of the -king, and, ranging themselves on the side of the Jews, succeeded -in mastering the rioters. When the Christian inhabitants of the -neighboring towns showed a disposition to imitate the scenes enacted -in Seville, the council of regency also sent messengers thither armed -with the same powers. Thus, for a brief moment, the threatened Jew-hunt -was delayed, but by no means suppressed. It was soon renewed with -greater violence, and on a far more extended scale. The young king and -a few of the members of the council of regency were probably earnest -in their desire not to permit the massacres, but, unfortunately, -they were not sufficiently interested to take adequate precautions -against them. One such precaution should have been to silence the -outrage-monger, Ferdinand Martinez, or at least to prohibit his -inflammatory harangues; but they did nothing of the kind. They left -him perfectly free to level his poisonous eloquence at the Jews, and -he was not slow to take advantage of their inaction. Encouraged by the -dissensions in the government, and the disorder which consequently -reigned throughout the entire land, he again set himself to stir up -the rabble of Seville, and this time with greater success. Hardly three -months after the last outbreak, the mob resumed (June 6th, 1391) its -holy work of massacre by setting fire to the Jewish quarter (Juderia) -and slaughtering its inhabitants. The result was that, of the important -and wealthy community of Seville, which had numbered 7,000 families, -or 30,000 souls, but few remained. Murder counted not more than 4,000 -victims, but to escape death the majority permitted themselves to be -baptized. Women and children were sold into Mahometan slavery by the -bloody rioters. Of the three synagogues of Seville two were transformed -into churches. Among the large number who sought refuge from fire and -sword at the baptismal font was Samuel Abrabanel, the ancestor of -the afterwards celebrated Abrabanel family, and an ornament of his -community in the reign of Don Henry II, with whom he possessed great -influence. He adopted the Christian name of Juan de Sevilla. - -From Seville the persecution swept like a raging torrent over a large -portion of Spain. Its progress was stimulated more by a craving for -plunder than by fanatical eagerness to proselytize. Cordova, the parent -community of the Peninsula, the mold in which the high character of -Spanish Judaism had been cast, was the next scene of its activity. -Here also many Jews were cruelly murdered, and a large number forced -to embrace Christianity. On the fast day commemorating the fall of -Jerusalem (Tammuz 17th-June 20th) the population of the capital, -Toledo, rose against the largest Jewish community in Spain. The blood -of the believers in the unity of God, who steadfastly refused to change -their faith, deluged the streets. Among the many martyrs who fell at -Toledo were the descendants of the Asheri family. They met death with -the same unflinching courage as their German brethren. Jehuda ben -Asher II, one of Asheri's great-grandsons, who lived in Burgos, but -happened to be at Toledo, took with his own hands the lives of his -mother-in-law and wife, and then his own. Here also a large number -went over to Christianity. About seventy communities were visited by -this terrible persecution, among them those of Ecija, Huete, Logrono, -Burgos, Carrion, and Ocana. At Ascalona not a single Jew remained -alive. The thoroughly maddened Christian population meditated a similar -fate for the Moors, or Mahometans, living in the kingdom of Seville. -The more prudent among them, however, pointed out the danger of such -a step, reminding them that the Christians living in the Mahometan -kingdom of Granada, or held as prisoners by the Moors on the other side -of the straits of Gibraltar, might be sacrificed in retaliation. The -massacre of the Moors was consequently abandoned. The Jews alone were -made to drain the cup of bitterness to the dregs, because they were -too weak to protect themselves. Nothing demonstrates more impressively -that the clergy had succeeded in transforming the people into a race of -cut-throats. - -In the kingdom of Aragon, where both ruler and people were opposed to -Castile, and, as a rule, held that to be wrong which in the latter -state was considered right, the hatred and persecution of the Jews -were promoted with the same zeal. Here the government was in the -hands of the weak but well-meaning king, Juan I, who, absorbed by his -love of music and the chase, wielded but little authority, and was -the laughing-stock of his generally uncultured subjects. About three -weeks after the outbreak at Toledo, the inhabitants of the province of -Valencia rose against the Jews (Ab 7th-July 9th). Of the 5,000 souls -that constituted the Jewish community in the city of Valencia, not one -was left. Some 250 were murdered, a few saved themselves by flight, -and the rest embraced Christianity. Throughout the length and breadth -of the kingdom the defenseless Jews were attacked with fire and sword, -the community of Murviedro alone being spared. - -The sanguinary madness then crossed the sea, and alighted on the island -of Majorca. In the capital, Palma, a crowd of roughs and sailors -paraded the Monte-Zion street, in which the Jews resided, and holding -aloft a cross, rudely formed by tying together two cudgels, shouted -"Death to the Jews" (August 2d-Ellul 1st). One sturdy Jew, assaulted -by the rabble, ventured to defend himself, and severely punished his -assailants. Hereupon the mob broke out in uncontrollable violence, and -300 martyrs fell to its fury. Among the victims was the rabbi, En-Vidal -Ephraim Gerundi, whose controversy with Solomon Zarfati has already -been referred to. A large number of Jews here also sought safety in -baptism. - -Three days later, as if by previous arrangement, the Jew-massacres -began in Barcelona, one of the proudest homes of Jewish intelligence. -The great wealth which the Jews of this city had acquired by their -extensive maritime commerce appears to have excited the envy of the -Christians, and tempted them to outrage. On the 5th August, a Sabbath, -on which was held a minor festival in honor of Mary, the mob attacked -the Jews as if to honor their queen of heaven with human sacrifices. -In the first assault, close upon 250 victims fell. The larger portion -of the community were harbored and cared for in the citadel by the -governor of the town; but here again the rabble opposed the nobility. -They attacked the citadel with crossbows, laid siege to it in due form, -and ultimately set it on fire. When the imprisoned Jews saw that there -was no longer a chance of being saved, a large number slew themselves -with their own hands, or threw themselves from the walls. Others -sallied forth from the fortress to meet their assailants in the open -field, and fell in honorable combat. Among the martyrs was the noble -Chasdai Crescas' young and only son, then on the eve of his marriage. -Eleven thousand Jews are said to have been baptized on this occasion. -Only a very few escaped, and not one remained in Barcelona. The same -fate befell the communities of Lerida, Gerona, and other towns, in -each case a large number of Jews being murdered, some being baptized, -and a very few escaping by flight. In Gerona, where the community was -distinguished for rigid piety, the number of converts to Christianity -was exceedingly small, the rabbis setting their flocks an example -by their steadfastness and contempt for death. In Catalonia, as in -Valencia, but few Jews were spared, and they owed their good fortune to -the protection received--in exchange, of course, for large sums of -money--in the castles of the nobility. In Aragon itself the outbreaks -were not so serious, as the Jewish communities had made a timely and -prudent offer of all their wealth for the protection of the court. - -For three months fire and sword raged unresisted in the majority of -the Spanish Jewries. When the storm abated, the Jews remaining were -so broken in spirit that they did not venture forth from their places -of refuge. The sad occurrences were described in a heart-breaking, -tearful epistle to the community of Perpignan, which Chasdai Crescas, -who had been robbed of an only son and his entire fortune, penned in -answer to their sympathetic inquiries. Thus, to Spanish Jews came -the tragical fate which had befallen their German brethren, hardly -half a century before, at the time of the Black Death. They also had -acquired materials for bitter songs of lamentation, which they inserted -in the Jewish liturgy. But the consequences of the persecution were -even more terrible than the persecution itself. Their pride was -completely crushed, and their spirit permanently darkened. They who -had formerly held their heads so proudly aloft, now slunk timidly -along, anxiously avoiding every Christian as a possible murderer or -instigator of murderous assaults. If hundred Jews were assembled, and a -single rough abused them, they fled like a flock of frightened birds. -This persecution gave them their first experience of the bitterness -of exile, for, notwithstanding many untoward circumstances, they had -always imagined themselves secure and at home in Spain. Now, for the -first time, their haughty demeanor was humbled. They were no longer -the men who had so valiantly wielded the sword in the armies of Don -Pedro. In Portugal alone the Jews were free from fanatical attacks. -Its king, Don Joao I, enjoyed a popularity to which, in a crisis, he -was able to appeal. As his instructions were cheerfully obeyed, he was -able to preserve order and put down outbreaks with a firm hand. The -chief rabbi, Don Moses Navarro, brought under his notice the two bulls -of the popes Clement VI and Boniface IX, in which force was forbidden -in converting Jews. The king immediately issued an order (July 17th, -1392) prohibiting persecutions. Wide publicity was given to the bulls -in every town in Portugal, and they were inserted among the statutes of -the realm. Portugal thus became an asylum for the persecuted Jews of -Spain. - -The Jews of the south of France were not entirely exempted from the -horrors of this persecution. The tempest which had crossed the sea to -the island of Majorca also whirled over the snow-capped Pyrenees, and -caught up the Jews of Provence in its deadly eddies. No sooner was -intelligence received of the bloody massacres of the Jews of Spain than -the populace of Provence rose, and began to plunder and murder their -Jewish neighbors. - -The Jews in France had been permitted to settle in the country only -for a specified time, and, although this term was frequently extended, -their thoughts were necessarily always directed towards possible -banishment. They were compelled to amass and keep in readiness -sufficient money to enable them, at any moment, to start life afresh -in another land. Like their ancestors in Egypt, they were ready for an -exodus, their loins girded, their shoes on their feet, and their staffs -in their hands. Although the acquisition of land was allowed them, -they were obliged to concentrate themselves on the money business, -and pursue the advantages offered by each moment. Necessity made -them usurers. Some among them charged a higher rate of interest than -permitted by the privileges granted them, and exacted even compound -interest from dilatory debtors. But it was the king himself who forced -them to immoderate, exasperating usury, by the extravagant demands -he made upon their purses to meet the expenses of his wars, and the -Jews could fulfill his demands only by transgressing the laws, but -their exactions naturally rendered them hateful in the eyes of the -general public. That Jewish creditors frequently had ill-intentioned -or tardy Christian debtors imprisoned to force them to discharge their -liabilities tended to increase the bitterness. The exercise of this -right was regarded as a triumph of "the children of the devil over the -children of heaven." The public became so angered at their possessing -the privilege that the king, Charles VI, was obliged to abolish it. On -the other hand, the necessity of maintaining the privilege was shown to -be so imperative--the Jews being threatened with the entire loss of -their outstanding debts--that the king and parliament had to grant it -a month later in a modified form. They permitted the Jews to imprison -only the debtors who, in their bonds, made themselves answerable with -their bodies. - -A trifling circumstance sufficed to kindle into a flame these embers -of Jew-hatred in France. A wealthy Israelite, Denys Machault, of -Villa-Parisis, became a convert to Christianity, and then suddenly -disappeared. The affair became the subject of strange rumors. Some said -that he had been murdered by Jews; others that he had been hurried -abroad with a view to providing him with an easy means of returning to -Judaism. The clergy interested themselves in the mystery, fanatical -appeals were made to the people, and, eventually, the Paris tribunals -prosecuted seven prominent Hebrews. A commission of priests and -lawyers subjected the accused to the rack, and extorted the confession -that they had advised Denys Machault to abandon his new faith. The -commission condemned them to the stake as promoters of apostasy from -Christianity. Parliament substituted an apparently milder punishment. -It ordered the accused to be scourged in three of the public places -of Paris, kept in goal until Denys Machault re-appeared, and then, -stripped of all their possessions, expelled the country. From the -publicity given to this affair, it created an extraordinary sensation, -and still further inflamed the popular passions against the Jews. - -For about three months the court extended a protecting wing over -the unfortunate Jews, but soon withdrew it in face of the stormy, -menacing clamor of the clergy and people. At last the enemies of the -Jews prevailed upon the king to promulgate the order of banishment. -Doubtless with malice aforethought the day chosen for the issue of -the decree was the solemn Fast of Atonement (September 17th, 1394), -when the Jews were afflicting their souls during the entire day in the -synagogues. The prolonged term granted for their sojourn in the country -not having expired, it became necessary to put forward an excuse for -ignoring the convention. The royal decree was not able to impute to -the Jews specific crimes or misdemeanors, and, consequently, confined -itself to vague generalities. It had been reported to his majesty -by trustworthy persons, including many of his lieutenants and other -officials, that complaints had been made concerning offenses committed -by the Jews against the Christian religion and the special laws drawn -up for their control. That meant that they had encouraged baptized -Jews to recant, and had practiced extortionate usury--the latter -Charles had partly approved and partly condoned. The decree then stated -that his majesty had made the irrevocable law that henceforth no Jews -should be allowed to reside or tarry in any part of France, either in -Languedoil or Languedoc (northern and southern France). - -Thus, ninety years after their first expulsion by Philip le Bel, and -after a second sojourn of thirty-four years, the French Jews were -compelled once more to grasp the wanderer's staff. Charles, however, -dealt more leniently with them than his heartless ancestor. They were -not, as before, robbed of all their possessions, and turned adrift -stripped to the skin. On the contrary, Charles VI issued orders to -the prevot of Paris and his provincial governors, instructing them to -see that no harm come to the Jews, either in their persons or their -chattels, and that they cross the frontier safely. Time was also -allowed them up to the 3d November to collect their debts. They did not -leave France until the end of 1394 or the beginning of the following -year. To some of the nobility and towns the expulsion was not a welcome -measure. Thus, the Count de Foix wished at all hazards to retain the -community of Pamier, and had to be forced by royal officers to expel -the Jews. In Toulouse twelve Jewish families, and in the vicinity -seven more, remained behind, so that they must have received special -indulgences. Jews also remained in the provinces not directly dependent -on the French crown--in the Dauphine, in Provence proper, and in -Arles, these being fiefs of the German empire. The flourishing seaport, -Marseilles, possessed a Jewish community for a long time after the -expulsion. Even the popes of Avignon tolerated Jews in Avignon and -Carpentras, the chief towns of their small ecclesiastical province -of Venaissin; and here they remained until very recent times, using -a ritual of their own, which differed from that of their Spanish and -their French brethren. The papacy had now little to fear from the -helpless, enfeebled Jews; hence, doubtless, this parade of toleration. - -The exiles who failed to find an asylum in the tolerant principalities -of France emigrated to Germany and Italy; only a few directed their -steps to Spain, formerly the most hospitable refuge for persecuted -Jews. Since the massacres of 1391 that country had become a purgatory -to the native Jews, and so long as foreign Jews could find a shelter -elsewhere, they naturally avoided its frontiers. French communities -migrated in a body to Piedmont, and settled in the towns of Asti, -Fossano, and Moncalvo, where they could maintain unchanged their old -synagogue ritual. The fate of the larger number of the French exiles -may be described in the words of Amos: "As if a man did flee from -a lion, and a bear met him; or went into the house, and leaned his -hand on the wall, and a serpent bit him." Almost everywhere they were -met with a storm of barbarity, not unfrequently stirred up against -them by baptized Jews. In Germany an apostate named Pessach, who, -with Christianity, had adopted the name of Peter, brought serious -accusations against his brethren in race, with a view to bringing -about another persecution. To the usual charges that the Jews called -Jesus the crucified or the hanged, and that they cursed the Christian -clergy in one of their prayers, Pessach-Peter added others. He stated -that an abusive allusion to Jesus was contained in the sublime Alenu -prayer, which pictures the future reign of God on earth, and he made -other lying and ludicrous charges. The result was that a large number -of the Jews of Prague were arrested and imprisoned (August 3d, 1399). -Among them was the foremost and, perhaps, only really learned German -Jew of the Middle Ages, Lipmann (Tab-Yomi) of Muehlhausen, a scholar -accomplished alike in Biblical and Talmudical lore, who had read not -only Karaite authors, but also the New Testament in a Latin version. -The clergy called upon him to answer Pessach-Peter's charges. His -defense was forcible, but seems to have had little effect, for on -the day Emperor Wenceslaus was deposed, and Rupert of the Palatinate -elected his successor (August 22d, 1400), seventy-seven Jews were -executed, and three weeks later three more led to the stake. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -JEWISH APOSTATES AND THE DISPUTATION AT TORTOSA. - - The Marranos--The Satirists--Pero Ferrus of Alcala, Diego - de Valencia, and Villasandino--Astruc Raimuch and Solomon - Bonfed--Paul de Santa Maria and his Zealous Campaign against - the Jews--Joshua Ibn-Vives--Profiat Duran (Efodi)--Meir - Alguades--The Philosophy of Crescas--Death of Henry III of - Castile and Unfavorable Change in the Position of the Jews-- - Messianic Dreams of the Kabbalists--Jews seek an Asylum in - Northern Africa--Simon Duran--Geronimo de Santa Fe, Vincent - Ferrer and Benedict XIII--Anti-Jewish Edict of Juan II-- - Special Jewish Costume--Conversion of Jews owing to Ferrer's - Violent Efforts--Disputation at Tortosa--The Jewish Spokesmen - at the Conference--Incidents of the Meeting--Geronimo - instigates the Publication of a Bull for the Burning of the - Talmud--Pope Martin V befriends the Jews. - -1391-1420 C.E. - - -The baptized Jews who had abandoned their faith during the terrible -persecution of 1391 became a source of considerable trouble to their -Spanish brethren. They had embraced the cross only to save their lives, -or the lives of those dear to them; for, surely, they had found no -convincing demonstration of the truth of the Christian religion in -the violence of its missionaries, or in the death agonies of their -brethren in race who had perished rather than apostatize. Dazed and -broken-hearted, these forced converts (Anusim) to Christianity felt -more intense antipathy to their new religion than when they had been -openly opposed to it. It was natural for them to resolve to take the -first opportunity of casting away their disguise, and returning to -Judaism with increased zeal. Many of these new Christians emigrated to -the neighboring Moorish countries; to Granada or across the straits -to Morocco, Tunis, or Fez, where the people, wiser and more tolerant -than Christian Europe, gladly opened their doors to a wealthy and -industrious race. The majority, unable to leave Spanish territory, -yet averse to wholly discarding their ancient faith, joined in Jewish -ceremonies and celebrations whilst outwardly appearing Christians. -The kings of Castile, Aragon and Majorca, who had disapproved of -conversions by mob violence, allowed the Jews to do as they pleased. -The authorities either did not or would not see their relapse into -Judaism, and the Inquisition had not yet been established in Spain. -These forced converts gradually formed themselves into a peculiar -class, outwardly Christians, at heart Jews. By the populace, who -nicknamed them Marranos, or "The Damned," they were regarded with -more distrust and hatred than the openly observant Jews, not because -of their secret fidelity to Judaism, but on account of their descent -and inborn intelligence, energy, and skill. Baptized Jews, who had -been glad to disencumber themselves of their Judaism, shared in these -feelings of aversion. They were the worldlings who valued wealth, rank, -and luxury above religion, or the over-educated whose philosophy had -led them to skepticism, and whose selfishness induced them to welcome -a change which brought them out of the narrow confines of a small -community, and opened up a wider world to them. Their hearts had never -been with Judaism, and they had adhered to it only out of respect -or a certain compunction. To them, forced baptism was a relief from -chafing fetters, a welcome coercion to overcome scruples which had -always sat lightly upon them. For their own advantage they simulated -devotion to Christianity, but were on that account neither better nor -more religious men. The unscrupulous among them found special pleasure -in the persecution of their former religion and its followers. To -gratify their malice, they brought charges against rabbis and other -representative Jews, or any member of the community, thus endangering -the existence of the whole body of Jews in the country. It was bad -enough that the latter had been robbed of so many able and learned men ---physicians, authors, poets--and that the church had been enriched -by their wealth and intelligence; but these very forces were used to -inflict further mischief on the Jews that had remained steadfast. -Knowing the faults of their former brethren, the converts could easily -attack them. Don Pero Ferrus, a baptized Jew, made the community and -rabbis of Alcala the target for his ridicule. In a poem he represents -himself exhausted from want of sleep finding repose at last in the -synagogue of this town, when suddenly he is disturbed, and scared away -without mercy by "Jews with long beards and slovenly garments come -thither for early morning prayer." A sharp rejoinder to this effort of -Ferrus' "buffoon tongue" was put forth by a Jewish poet in the name -of the Alcala community. Spanish poetry reaped considerable advantage -from these passages at arms. Verse, up to that period starched, solemn, -and stately as the punctilious ceremonial of the Madrid court, in the -hands of Judaeo-Christian satirists acquired the flexibility, wit and -merriment of neo-Hebraic poetry at its best. This tone and style were -gradually adopted by Christian poets, who borrowed expressions from -Jewish writers to give point to their epigrams. Not only the apostate, -the monk, Diego de Valencia, used Hebrew words in lampoons on the Jews, -but the same practice was adopted with surprising dexterity by the -Christian satirist, Alfonso Alvarez de Villasandino, the "poet prince" -of his day. A malicious critic might have been inclined to say that -Spanish poetry was in process of being Judaized. - -A few of the new-Christians showed as active a zeal in the propagation -of Christianity as if they had been born Dominicans, or as if they felt -isolated in their new faith among the old Christians, and yearned for -the companionship of their former friends. A newly-baptized physician, -Astruc Raimuch, of Fraga, who, as a Jew, had been a pillar of -orthodoxy, exerted himself to make converts, taking to himself the name -of Francisco God-flesh (Dios-Carne). He spread his snares particularly -with a view to entrapping one of his young friends. A fluent writer of -Hebrew, Astruc-Francisco drew up a letter in that language, dwelling on -the decline of Judaism and enthusiastically propounding the dogmas of -Christianity. His applications of Biblical texts to the doctrines of -the Trinity, Original Sin, Redemption, and the Lord's Supper, appear -almost droll in Hebrew. His friend's answer was meek and evasive, every -word carefully weighed to avoid offending the delicate sensibilities -of the church and its zealous servants. More spirited was the reply -of the satirical poet, Solomon ben Reuben Bonfed, who in rhymed prose -set himself to confute Astruc-Francisco's arguments with unsparing -incisiveness. Apologizing in his introduction for interfering between -two friends, he proceeded to point out that as a Jew the questions -discussed concerned him nearly, whilst the misstatements made rendered -it impossible for him to remain silent. Solomon Bonfed examined -somewhat minutely the dogmas of the Incarnation, Original Sin, and -Transubstantiation, showing them to be irrational and untenable. He -justly said: "You twist and distort the Bible text to establish the -Trinity. Had you a Quaternity, you would demonstrate it quite as -strikingly and convincingly from the books of the Old Testament." - -Of all the Jews baptized in 1391, however, none inflicted so much -injury on his former brethren as Rabbi Solomon Levi of Burgos (born -1351-1352, died 1435), who as a Christian rose to very important -ecclesiastical and political dignities under the name of Paul -Burgensis, or de Santa Maria. Previous to his change of creed he -had been a rabbi, and he was well versed in Biblical, Talmudical, -and Rabbinical literature. As a Jew he was extremely orthodox and -punctilious, passing in his own circle for a pillar of the faith. His -nature was, however, shrewd and calculating. Ambitious and vain to the -last degree, he soon began to regard as too narrow his sphere of action -within the walls of the college, which during a long period counted him -amongst its students and teachers. He longed for a life of bustling -activity. To obtain a state appointment, he sought access to court, and -began to live like a grandee, with equipage and horses and numerous -retinue. It was his ambition to become a Jewish Almoxarif or even to -obtain a higher appointment. His occupations bringing him into daily -contact with Christians, and frequently involving him in religious -controversies, he devoted some attention to church literature, in -order to be able to make a display of learning. The massacres of 1391 -dissipated his last hope of obtaining high preferment as a Jew, and -he consequently resolved, in his fortieth year, to be baptized. To -derive the best advantage from his conversion, the new Christian, -Paul de Santa Maria, caused it to be understood that he had embraced -Christianity willingly, as a result of the convincing arguments put -forth in the theological writings of the schoolman Thomas Aquinas. The -Jews received such protestations with distrust. Knowing him well, they -did not scruple to ascribe his conversion to a craving for rank and -power. After his change of creed, his family, wife and sons, renounced -him. - -For a commoner, the only road to high office lay through the church. -Solomon-Paul knew this well, and at once proceeded to Paris and -attended the University, where he pursued theology. His knowledge -of Hebrew gave him a great advantage, and helped him to distinguish -himself. It was not long before the quondam rabbi became a duly -ordained Catholic priest. Then he betook himself to the papal court -at Avignon, where the haughty, obstinate, and proselytizing cardinal, -Pedro de Luna, reigned as anti-pope under the title of Benedict XIII. -Here, during the stormy church schism, favorable opportunities for -intrigue and personal advancement presented themselves. Paul won the -pope's favor by his shrewdness, zeal, and eloquence. He was appointed -archdeacon of Trevinjo and canon of Seville, his first steps on the -ladder of the Catholic hierarchy. He abandoned himself to the most -ambitious dreams: he might become a bishop, a cardinal, and why not -the pope? The times were propitious. He boasted that he was descended -from the most ancient and the noblest branch of the Hebrew race, the -tribe of Levi, the same that had given birth to Mary, the mother of -Jesus. He was not an ordinary priest sprung from the people, but had -ancestors bound to be acknowledged and distinguished by the church. On -the recommendation of the pope, he was later on overwhelmed with honors -and favors by the king of Castile, Don Henry III, and his ambition was -satisfied. - -The apostasy of so respected a rabbi as Solomon Burgensis not only -created the greatest astonishment among Jews, but filled them with -anxiety. Would this example not find imitators in a time of so much -trouble and temptation? Would it not bias waverers, or at least -encourage pretending Christians to persevere in the course begun? The -prevailing disquietude was increased when it was found that after -his own conversion Paul considered it his duty to convert his former -co-religionists. To this end he left no stone unturned. With voice -and pen he assailed Judaism, seeking his weapons in Jewish literature -itself. Not long after his conversion he addressed a letter to his -former acquaintance, Joseph (Jose) Orabuena, physician in ordinary -to King Charles III of Navarre, and chief rabbi of the Navarrese -communities, in which he stated that he acknowledged and honored Jesus -as the Messiah whose advent had been foretold by the prophets, and -invited Orabuena to follow his example. To another chief rabbi, Don -Meir Alguades, physician in ordinary to the Castilian king, Don Henry -III, Paul de Santa Maria addressed a Hebrew satire in prose and verse, -in which he ridiculed the innocent celebration of the Jewish feast of -Purim. As if grudging the Jews the moderate pleasures in which they -indulged during this festival, he exaggerated their love of drink, and -boasted of his own sobriety. Paul evinces in this satire considerable -skill in handling the new-Hebrew language, but, notwithstanding his -opportunities, he exhibits little wit. - -As soon as he had acquired a position at the papal court at Avignon, he -devoted himself to calumniating the Jews with a view to bringing about -new persecutions. His purpose became so obvious that the cardinal of -Pampeluna himself, and other ecclesiastics, ordered him to desist. It -is true the Jews had to pay dearly for his silence. He also intrigued -against Chasdai Crescas. So far did this apostate carry his enmity -to Judaism that he advised the king, Don Henry III, to abstain from -employing both Jews and new-Christians in state offices. Did he wish -to render impossible the rivalry of some fellow-Hebrew, his superior -in adroitness? In his writings Paul de Santa Maria exhibited as much -hatred of Judaism as of Jews. While the Franciscan monk, Nicholas -de Lyra, a born Christian, held up the works of Jewish commentators -like Rashi as models of simple exegesis, the former rabbi found -every observation of a Rabbinical writer insipid, nonsensical, and -scandalous. On the other hand, the most ridiculous commentary of a -church writer was to him a lofty, unsurpassable work. - -Thoughtful Jews were not slow to recognize their bitterest foe in -this new-Christian, and they prepared for a severe struggle with him, -notwithstanding that their choice of weapons was limited. Christians -were not only free to say what they pleased in demonstration and -defense of their doctrines, but could appeal to the summary authority -of the sword and the dungeon. Jews were forced to all kinds of -circumlocution and ambiguity to avoid provoking the violence of their -adversaries. The gallant stand of a mere handful of Jews against power -and arrogance should excite the admiration of all whose sympathies are -not with victorious tyranny, but with struggling right. - -The campaign against Paul de Santa Maria was opened by a young man, -Joshua ben Joseph Ibn-Vives of Lorca (Allorqui), a physician and an -Arabic scholar, who had formerly sat at the feet of the renegade -rabbi. In an humble epistle, as though a docile pupil were addressing -an illustrious master, Joshua Allorqui administered many a delicate -reproof to his apostate teacher, and at the same time, by his naive -doubts, dealt destructive blows at the fundamental doctrines of -Christianity. He observes in his introduction that the conversion of -his beloved teacher had to him more than to others been a source of -astonishment and reflection, as his example had been a main support -of his own religious belief. He was at a loss to conceive the motives -of the sudden change. He could not think that he had been led away by -desire for worldly distinction, "for I well remember," he says, "how, -surrounded by riches and attendants, thou didst yearn for thy former -humble state with its life of retirement and study, and how it was thy -wont to speak of thy high position as empty mockery of happiness." Nor -could he suppose that Paul's Jewish convictions had been disturbed -by philosophic doubt, as up to the moment of his baptism he had -conscientiously observed all the ceremonial laws, and had known how to -discriminate between the kernel of philosophic truth which harmonizes -with religion and the pernicious shell which so often passes for the -real teaching. Could it be that the sanguinary persecution of the Jews -had led him to doubt the possibility of the enduring power of Judaism? -But even this theory was untenable, for Paul could not be unaware -of the fact that only a minority of Jews live under Christian rule, -that the larger numbers sojourn in Asia, and enjoy a certain degree -of independence; so that if it pleased God to allow the communities -in Christian lands to be extirpated, the Jewish race would not by any -means disappear from the face of the earth. There remained, continued -Joshua Vives of Lorca, the assumption that Paul had carefully studied -Christianity, and had come to the conclusion that its dogmas were well -founded. He begged him, therefore, to impart to him the convictions at -which he had arrived, and thus dissipate the doubts which he (Joshua) -still entertained as to the truth of Christianity. Allorqui then -detailed the nature of his doubts, covertly but forcibly attacking the -Christian system. Every sentence in this epistle was calculated to cut -the Jew-hating new-Christian to the quick. The evasive and embarrassed -reply, which Paul indited later on, clearly indicated how he had winced -under this attack. - -The philosopher, Chasdai Crescas, also came forward in gallant defense -of the religion of his fathers. He composed (1396) a polemical treatise -(Tratado), in which he tested philosophically the Christian articles of -faith, and demonstrated their untenableness. This work was addressed -to Christians more than to Jews, and was particularly intended for the -perusal of Spaniards of high rank whose friendship Chasdai Crescas -enjoyed. Hence it was written not in Hebrew but in Spanish, which -the author employed with ease, and its tone was calm and moderate. -Chasdai Crescas set forth the unintelligibility of the doctrines of -the Fall, the Redemption, the Trinity, the Incarnation, the Immaculate -Conception, and Transubstantiation, and examined the value of baptism, -the coming of Jesus, and the relation of the New Testament to the Old, -with dispassionate deliberation, as if he did not know that he was -dealing with questions which might at any moment light the fires of an -auto-da-fe. - -At about the same time an accomplished Marrano, who had relapsed -into Judaism, published a pungent attack on Christianity and the -new-Christians. In the entire history of Judaeo-Christian controversy no -such stinging satire had been produced on the Jewish side as that now -issued by the physician, astronomer, historical student, and grammarian -Profiat Duran. During the bloody persecution of 1391 in Catalonia, -Profiat Duran, otherwise Isaac ben Moses, or, as he called himself in -his works, Efodi (Ephodaeus), had been forced to simulate conversion -to Christianity. He was joined by his friend David Bonet Buen-Giorno. -Both resolved at a convenient opportunity to abandon their hated -mask and emigrate to Palestine, where they could freely acknowledge -Judaism. Their affairs being arranged, Profiat Duran traveled to a -seaport town in the south of France, and there awaited his friend. -The latter, in the meantime, was sought out by or came across the -Jew-hating apostate, Solomon Paul de Santa Maria, and was prevailed -upon to remain a Christian. What was Profiat Duran's astonishment when -he received a letter announcing, with much exultant vaporing, the -definite acknowledgment of Christianity by En Bonet, who exhorted him -also to remain in the pale of his adopted faith. The letter contained -an enthusiastic panegyric of Paul de Santa Maria, who had been taken -into the favor of the king of Castile. Profiat Duran could not remain -silent. In reply, he inflicted punishment on his friend, and more -particularly on the proselytizing Paul, in an epistle characterized -by the keenest irony, which has not yet lost its sting. It pretends -to assent to everything advanced by Bonet, and to confirm him in his -resolve to remain a Christian. "Be not ye like your fathers" (Altehi -ka-Abothecha) is the refrain throughout, and so artfully is this -admonition employed that Christians used it (under the title Alteca -Boteca) as an apology for Christianity. Whilst thus pretending to -criticise the errors of the older faith, Profiat Duran dwells on the -Christian dogmas, naively describing them in their most reprehensible -form. He concentrates on the weaknesses of Christianity the full light -of reason, Scriptural teaching and philosophic deduction, apparently -with no desire to change his friend's intention. A portion of the -satire is directed against the Jew-hater Paul de Santa Maria, upon -whom Bonet had bestowed unstinted praise. "Thou art of opinion that he -may succeed in becoming pope, but thou dost not inform me whether he -will go to Rome, or remain at Avignon"--a cutting reference to the -papal schism distracting the church. "Thou extollest him for having -made efforts to free Jewish women and children from the obligation of -wearing the Jew badge. Take the glad tidings to the women and children. -For myself, I have been told that he preached mischief against the -Jews, and that the cardinal of Pampeluna was compelled to order him -to be silent. Thou art of opinion that he, thy teacher, will soon -receive the miter or a cardinal's hat. Rejoice, for then thou also -must acquire honors, and wilt become a priest or a Levite." Towards -the end Profiat Duran changes irony into a tone of seriousness: he -prays his former friend not to bear as a Christian the name of his -respected father who, had he been alive, would sooner have had no son -than one faithless to his religion. As it is, his soul in Paradise -will bewail the faithlessness of his son. This satirical epistle was -circulated as a pamphlet. Its author sent copies not only to his former -friend, but also to the physician of the king of Castile, the chief -rabbi, Don Meir Alguades. So telling was the effect produced, that the -clergy, as soon as they discovered its satirical character, made it the -subject of judicial inquiry, and committed it to the flames. At the -request of Chasdai Crescas, Profiat Duran wrote another anti-Christian -work, not, however, a satire, but in the grave language of historical -investigation. In this essay he showed, from his intimate acquaintance -with the New Testament and the literature of the church, how in course -of time Christianity had degenerated. - -Favored and promoted by the anti-pope, Benedict XIII, of Avignon, Paul -of Burgos rose higher and higher; he became bishop of Carthagena, -chancellor of Castile and privy counselor to the king, Don Henry III. -His malice did not succeed in prejudicing the king against the Jews, -or inducing him to bar them from state employment. Don Henry had two -Jewish physicians, in whom he reposed especial confidence. One, Don -Meir Alguades, an astronomer and philosopher, he appointed, perhaps in -imitation of Portugal, to the chief rabbinate of the various Castilian -communities. He was always in the king's train, and it is probable that -to some extent he influenced him favorably towards his co-religionists. -The other was Don Moses Zarzel (Carcal), who celebrated in rich Spanish -verse the long wished for birth of an heir to the Castilian throne, -borrowing the beauties of the neo-Hebraic poetry to do honor to the -newly-born prince, in whose hands, he prophesied, the various states -of the Pyrenean Peninsula would be united. The calm, as between two -storms, which the Spanish Jews enjoyed during the reign of Don Henry -was favorable to the production of a few literary fruits, almost the -last of any importance brought forth in Spain. None of these works was -epoch-making; they were useful, however, in keeping alive the spirit -of better times, and in preventing the treasures of Jewish literature -from being forgotten. Profiat Duran managed to make people forget -his baptism and to settle down quietly in Spain or Perpignan, where -he commentated Maimuni's philosophy, and some of Ibn-Ezra's works. -He also composed a mathematical and calendarial essay (Chesheb-Efod) -and an historical account of the persecutions to which his race -had been subjected since the dispersion. His best work is a Hebrew -grammar ("Maase Efod," written about 1403), in which he summarizes the -results of older writers, rectifies their errors, and even attempts to -formulate the principles of Hebrew syntax. - -A production of more than common merit was written by Chasdai Crescas, -now on the brink of the grave, his spirits shattered by persecution. He -was a profound, comprehensive thinker, whose mind never lost itself in -details, but was forever striving to comprehend the totality of things. -His scheme for a work treating, in the manner of Maimuni, of all phases -and aspects of Judaism, investigating the ideas and laws out of which -Jewish teaching had gradually developed, and reharmonizing the details -with the whole where the connection had ceased to be apparent, bears -witness to the extraordinary range of his learning and the perspicacity -of his mind. The work was to be at once a guide to Talmudical study -and a practical handbook. Death appears to have prevented the -accomplishment of this gigantic enterprise, only the philosophic -portion, or introduction, being completed. In this introduction Chasdai -Crescas deals, on the one hand, with the principles of universal -religion, the existence of God, His omniscience and providence, -human free-will, the design of the universe, and, on the other, with -the fundamental truths of Judaism, the doctrines of the creation, -immortality, and the Messiah. - -Crescas was less dominated by the Aristotelian bias of mediaeval -philosophy than his predecessors. It had lost its halo for him; he -perceived its weaknesses more clearly than others, and probed them more -deeply. With bold hands he tore down the supports of the vast edifice -of theory constructed by Maimuni on Aristotelian grounds to demonstrate -the existence of God and His relation to the universe, and, conversant -with the whole method of scholastic philosophy, he combated it with -destructive force. - -While the philosophy of his day appeared to him thus vague and -illusory, he considered the foundations of Judaism unassailable, and -set himself to show the futility of the criticisms of the former. The -acknowledgment of Divine omniscience led him to the daring statement -that man in his actions is not quite free, that everything is the -necessary result of a preceding occurrence, and that every cause, back -to the very first, is bound to determine the character of the final -action. The human will does not follow blind choice, but is controlled -by a chain of antecedent circumstances and causes. To what extent can -the doctrine of reward and punishment be admitted, if the will is not -free? Chasdai Crescas' answer to this is that reward and punishment -wait on intentions, not on actions. He who, in purity of heart, wishes -to accomplish good--which must, of course, necessarily follow-- -deserves to be rewarded, as the man who willingly promotes evil, -deserves punishment. The highest good to which man can aspire, and the -end of all creation, is spiritual perfection, or bliss everlasting, -not to be obtained, as the philosophers imagine, by filling the mind -with metaphysical theories, but only through the active love of God. -This is the substance of all religion and particularly of Judaism. From -this point of view it may with justice be said that "the world was -created for the sake of the Torah," for the aim of the Law is to lead -to immortality by means of ideas and commandments and the guidance of -thoughts and actions. - -Chasdai Crescas, the first to distinguish between universal religion -and specific forms, such as Judaism and Christianity, propounded, -deviating from Maimuni's system, only eight peculiarly Jewish tenets. -His just objection to Maimuni's thirteen articles of faith was that -they were either too many or too few, inasmuch as they blended -indiscriminately fundamental truths common to all religions, and -teachings peculiar to Judaism. - -Together with Profiat Duran and Chasdai Crescas, Don Meir Alguades, -the Castilian chief rabbi, appeared, in the brief interval between -two bloody persecutions in Spain, as a writer of philosophic works. -He was not an independent inquirer; he merely translated the ethics -of Aristotle (1405, in collaboration with Benveniste Ibn-Labi) into -Hebrew, making the work accessible to Jews, who, in practical life, -lived up to its principles better than the Greeks, who produced them, -or the Christians, who, in the pride of faith and church doctrine, -considered themselves above the necessity of conforming to the -requirements of morality. - -Throughout the reign of Don Henry III of Castile the life of the Jews -was tolerable. The young but vigorous monarch severely punished Fernan -Martinez, the prime mover in the massacres of 1391, as a warning -against further excesses. He permitted the Jews to acquire land, -renewed the law of his ancestor, Alfonso XI, and relieved his Jewish -tax-farmers and finance administrators from restrictions. As soon -as he died (the end of 1406) the affairs of the Jews again took an -unfavorable turn, foreshadowing unhappy times. The heir to the crown, -Juan II, was a child, barely two years old. The regency devolved on -the queen-mother, Catalina (Catherine) of Lancaster, a capricious, -arrogant and bigoted young woman, who imagined that she ruled, while -she was herself ruled by her various favorites. The co-regent, Don -Ferdinand, later king of Aragon, who was intelligent and kind, allowed -himself to be guided by the clergy. By his side in the council of -state sat the apostate rabbi, Solomon _alias_ Paul de Santa Maria, -another and more mischievous Elisha-Acher, in whose eyes Judaism was -an abomination, and every Jew a stumbling-block. The deceased king, -Don Henry III, had appointed him executor of his will and tutor to -his heir; he consequently had an influential voice in the council of -the regency. What a prospect for the Jews of Castile! It was not long -before they were made to feel the hostile spirit of the court. First it -exhibited itself in attempts to humiliate the more notable Jews who had -intercourse with the court circle and the grandees of the kingdom, and -occupied positions of distinction. The intention was to dismiss them -from these positions with the reminder that they belonged to a despised -caste. - -An edict was issued (October 25th, 1408), in the name of the infant -king, reviving the anti-Jewish statutes of the code of Alfonso the -Wise. "Whereas the exercise of authority by Jews may conduce to the -prejudice of the Christian faith," their occupation of posts in which -they might possess such authority was forbidden for all future time. -Every Jew permitting himself to be invested with official functions, -either by a nobleman or a municipality, was to be fined twice the -amount of the revenue of such post, and, if his fortune did not suffice -to make up the required amount, it would be confiscated, and the -delinquent become liable to a punishment of fifty lashes. A Christian -appointing a Jew to a post of influence would also be punished with -a fine. To insure the working of the edict, it was enacted that the -informer and the court of law concerned in a case should secure each -one-third of the confiscated estates. Officials were charged to make -the edict known everywhere, and carefully to watch that its injunctions -were carried out. It is impossible not to suspect the hand of Paul de -Santa Maria in this decree. No one knew better than he the strong and -the weak points in the character of the Spanish Jews, and he doubtless -calculated that Jewish notables, in danger of losing their official -employment and high social position, would go over to Christianity, -while the faithful, excluded from intercourse with Christian society -and from participation in the public life of the country, would suffer -a decline similar to that of the German Jews. - -At the same time he vented his hate on Meir Alguades, the physician -of the dead king. The queen-regent had no cause to injure this Jewish -notable; only Paul could desire his ruin, because he was the mainstay -of his opponents and the leader of those who held him up to contempt. -With the object of procuring his downfall, a vindictive accusation -was trumped up against him. While the queen-mother, with the infant -king, was staying at Segovia, some priests charged a Jew of the town -with having bought a consecrated host from the sacristan, in order -to blaspheme it. They further stated that the holy wafer had worked -such terrible wonders while in the possession of the Jew, that in fear -and trembling he had delivered it up to the prior of a monastery. -Whether this story was fabricated, or whether there was a grain of -truth in a bushel of fiction, it is impossible to say; it sufficed, -however, to attract the serious attention of the bishop, Velasquez de -Tordesillas, who caused a number of Jews to be arrested as accomplices -in the crime, among them Don Meir Alguades. Criminal proceedings were -formally commenced by order of the queen-regent, and Alguades and -his fellow-prisoners were subjected to torture, and confessed their -guilt. It is stated that in his agony Meir Alguades made a confession -of another kind--that the king, Henry III, had come by his death -at his hands. Although everybody knew that the king had been ailing -from his youth, Don Meir--who must have been specially interrogated -while under torture as to whether he had poisoned the king--was put -to death in the most inhuman manner. He was torn limb from limb. The -same fate befell the other prisoners. Still not satisfied, the bishop -of Segovia accused some Jews of having bribed his cook to poison his -food, and they also were put to death. At about this time one of the -synagogues in Segovia was transformed into a church. - -The troubled times, projecting shadows of a still more unhappy future, -produced the melancholy phenomenon of another Messianic frenzy. Again -it arose in the minds of mystics. The Zohar having adroitly been raised -to the dignity of an approved authority, the Kabbala daily acquired -more influence, although it was not studied in proportion to the -zeal with which its authority was advocated. Three Kabbalists were -particularly active in exciting the emotions and turning the heads -of the people--Abraham of Granada, Shem Tob ben Joseph, and Moses -Botarel. The first composed (between 1391 and 1409) a Kabbalistic work, -a farrago of strange names of the Deity and the angels, of transposed -letters, and jugglery with vowels and accents. Abraham of Granada -had the hardihood to teach that those who could not apprehend God -by Kabbalistic methods belonged to the weak in faith, were ignorant -sinners, and like the depraved and the apostate were overlooked by -God, and not found worthy of His special providence. He thought that -the relinquishment of their religion by cultured Jews was explained by -their fatal application to scientific study, and their contempt for the -Kabbala. On the other hand, he professed to see in the persecutions of -1391, and in the conversion of so many prominent Jews to Christianity, -the tokens of the Messianic age, the suffering that must precede it, -and the approach of the redemption. Shem Tob ben Joseph Ibn-Shem Tob -(died 1430) accused the Jewish philosophers, Maimuni, Gersonides, and -others, of seducing the people to heresy and infidelity, and with -being the real cause of apostasy in troubled times. In a work entitled -"Emunoth" he made violent attacks on Jewish thinkers and philosophic -studies generally, and taught that the salvation of Israel lies in the -Kabbala, the oldest Jewish tradition, and the genuine, pure truth. The -entire book is composed of grave charges against the more enlightened -school of Jewish thinkers, and panegyrics of Kabbalistic nonsense. - -These two men, Abraham of Granada and Shem Tob, though narrow-minded, -were sincere, differing in this respect from Moses Botarel (or -Botarelo), also a Spaniard, from Cisneros, in Castile, who pursued his -course with fraudulent intent. He gave out that he was a thaumaturge -and prophet; he announced himself even as the Messiah. He prophesied -that in the spring month of 1393 the Messianic age would be ushered -in by extraordinary marvels. Later on he wrote a work full of lies -and delusions. In his pride and boastfulness, he addressed a circular -letter to all the rabbis of Israel, declaring that he was in a position -to solve all doubts, and throw light on all mysteries, that he was -the chief of the great Synhedrin, and a great deal more in the same -charlatanic strain. - -As in the days of the oppression by the Visigothic kings, an asylum for -persecuted Jews was formed on that portion of the African coast facing -Spain. Many of the north African towns, such as Algiers, Miliana, -Constantine, Buja, Oran, Tenes, and Tlemcen, were filled with Jews -fleeing from the massacres of 1391, and with new-Christians anxious to -get rid of the Christianity which they had been forced to embrace, -but which they hated cordially. Almost daily there came fresh troops -of refugees from all parts of Spain and Majorca. They transplanted -to their new fatherland their intelligence, wealth, industry, and -commercial enterprise. The Mahometan Berber princes, then more tolerant -and humane than the Christians, received them without imposing a poll -tax. At first the Mahometan population grumbled a little at so sudden -and considerable an increase in the number of inhabitants, fearing -that the price of provisions would be raised. When, however, the -narrow-mindedness and selfishness of their complaints were pointed out -to them by an intelligent kadi they were satisfied, and the Jews were -allowed to settle in their midst in peace. The small Berber communities -formed since the cessation of the Almohade persecution a century -before, acquired greater importance through this immigration. The -new-comers preponderated in numbers over the native Jews, so that the -latter, to a certain extent, were forced to adopt the Spanish communal -organization and the Sephardic ritual. The Spaniards, in fact, became -the leading element in the old African communities. - -The distinguished rabbi, Isaac ben Sheshet-Barfat, who had escaped -from Spain and settled in Algiers, was recognized by the king of -Tlemcen as chief rabbi and judge of all the communities. This he owed -to the influence of one of his admirers, Saul Astruc Cohen, a popular -physician and an accomplished man, who not only practiced his art -gratuitously, but spent his fortune in relieving both Mahometan and -Jewish poor. In the name of the king the local rabbis were forbidden -to assume clerical or judicial functions without the authority of -the chief rabbi, Isaac ben Sheshet. This in no way detracted from -the esteem in which Ben Sheshet was held, and applications for the -decision of difficult questions continued to pour in upon him. In -Algiers he continued to oppose wrong-doing with the conscientiousness -and impartiality that had always characterized him. Among the members -of his community was a mischievous personage (Isaac Bonastruc?), who -had considerable influence with the Algerian authorities. Actuated -by self-interest he was desirous of stopping the daily increasing -immigration of Marranos, and to this end persuaded the kadi to -impose a tax of one doubloon on every immigrant. Finding that troops -of fugitives continued to arrive, he set himself to work upon the -selfishness of the community, so that they might oppose any further -influx of their brethren. Fifty-five new-Christians, who had recanted, -from Valencia, Barcelona, and Majorca, were waiting to land in the -harbor of Algiers, but were refused permission by Jews. This was -tantamount to throwing them on the mercy of Christian executioners. -Such selfishness and injustice the chief rabbi, Isaac ben Sheshet, -could not tolerate, and he laid the ban on the heartless Jews, who -tried to escape the punishment. So determined was his attitude that, -with the assistance of Astruc Cohen and his brother, the Marranos were -ultimately brought safe to land. In Africa Ben Sheshet-Barfat worked -for nearly twenty years, promoting the welfare of his co-religionists -and the interests of religion and morality. His declining years were -embittered by the persistent attacks of a young rabbi, Simon ben Zemach -Duran, an able Talmudist, who had emigrated from Majorca. - -Ben Sheshet was succeeded on his death by Simon Duran (born 1361, died -1444). The community of Algiers elected him on condition that he did -not seek a ratification of his appointment from the king, probably -because the authority derived by his predecessor from the royal -confirmation had been too uncontrolled. Simon Duran, an accomplished -mathematician and physician, was the first Spanish-Jewish rabbi to -take pay. He publicly excused himself for doing so, on the ground of -his necessitous circumstances. During the persecutions in Majorca a -portion of his large fortune had been lost, and the remainder had been -sacrificed in bribing the informers who threatened to deliver him as a -Judaizing Christian to the Dominican Moloch. He had arrived in Algiers -almost a beggar, and the healing art, by which he had hoped to earn a -subsistence, had brought him nothing, physicians enjoying but little -consideration among the Berbers. Subsequently Simon Duran justified -the payment of rabbis from the Talmud. Were the abbots, bishops, and -princes of the church equally conscientious? - -As if the Jews of Spain had not had enough enemies in the poor, -indolent burghers and nobles, who regarded their opulence with so much -jealousy, in the clergy, who cloaked their immorality with zeal for -the propaganda of the faith, or in the upstart converts, who sought -to disguise their Jewish origin by a show of hatred of their former -brethren, there arose at about the beginning of the fifteenth century -three new Jew-haters of the bitterest, most implacable type. One was -a baptized Jew, another a Dominican friar, and the third an abandoned -anti-pope. On these three men, Joshua Lorqui, Fra Vincent Ferrer, and -Pedro de Luna, or Benedict XIII, the responsibility must rest for the -events which directly conduced to the most terrible tragedy in the -history of the Jews of Spain. Joshua Lorqui of Lorca assumed on his -baptism the name Geronimo de Santa Fe, became physician in ordinary -to the Avignon pope, Benedict, and, like his teacher, Solomon-Paul -de Santa Maria, considered it his mission in life to draw his former -brethren over to Christianity by every possible means. Vincent Ferrer, -afterwards canonized, was one of those gloomy natures to whom the -world appears a vale of tears, and who would wish to make it one. In -saint-like virtue, indeed, he stood alone among the clergy and monks -of his day. The pleasures of life had no charm for him; for gold -and worldly distinction he thirsted not; he was penetrated with true -humility, and entered on his work with earnestness. Unfortunately, the -degeneracy and foulness of society had impressed him with the fantastic -idea that the end of the world was at hand, and that mankind could -be saved only by adopting the Christian faith and a monastic mode of -life. Vincent Ferrer consequently revived flagellation. He marched -through the land with a troop of fanatics who scourged their naked -bodies with knotted cords, and incited the masses to adopt the same -form of penance, believing that it would bring about the salvation of -the world. Gifted with a sympathetic voice, an agreeable manner, and -considerable eloquence, this Dominican friar soon obtained ascendancy -over the public mind. When amid sobs he recalled the sufferings of -Jesus, and depicted the approaching end of the world, the emotions of -his auditors became violently agitated, and he could lead them to good -or to evil. He had given up a high position at the papal court to lead -the life of a flagellant and barefooted friar. This helped to increase -the number of his admirers and disciples, for renunciation of position -and wealth on the part of an ecclesiastic was without parallel. Ferrer, -however, abused his power by the promotion of sanguinary deeds. -He directed his fanatical denunciations not only against Jews and -heretics, but even against friends who had helped to raise him from the -dust. The terrible demoralization of the church is illustrated in this -monk. The wrangling of three contemporary popes, each declaring himself -to be the vicegerent of God, one of whom, John XXIII (1410-1415), -had exhausted the catalogue of vices and deadly sins, a pirate, a -trafficker in indulgences, an assassin, and a debauchee--all this did -not so strikingly indicate the prevailing degeneracy as the fanatical -excesses of one really pure, moral nature like Vincent Ferrer. The -dove had become transformed into a venomous snake, the lamb into a -rapacious beast. So much viciousness cannot be spontaneous in human -character, in the adherents of Christianity; it must have been derived -from the Christian teaching itself. - -Unlike Wycliffe and other reformers, Ferrer did not raise his voice -against the shortcomings of the church, but devoted himself to Jews -and heretics, whom he hated as adversaries of Christianity and -opponents of the infallibility of the pope. With pen and voice he -opened a crusade against Jews, which he sustained for several years. -His most vehement invective was aimed at the Spanish new-Christians, -who during the massacres of 1391 had gone over to the church, but -still largely conformed to Judaism. Partly from fear of incurring the -severe punishment attaching to apostasy, partly won over by the fiery -eloquence of the preacher, the Marranos made a contrite confession -of faith, which Ferrer regarded as a great victory for the church, a -triumph for the truths of Christianity, leading him to hope that the -conversion of the entire body of Jews might be vouchsafed to him. By -his influence with the people, who honored him as a saint, he was very -useful to the kings of Spain in putting down popular risings during the -civil wars without bloodshed. Encouraged by the consideration of the -Castilian royal family, Ferrer craved permission not only to preach -in the synagogues and mosques, but to force Jews and Mahometans to -listen to his addresses. A crucifix in one arm, the Torah in the other, -escorted by flagellants and spearmen, he called upon the Jews, "with a -terrible voice," to enrol themselves under the cross. - -Seraphic as he was, Vincent Ferrer was not averse to the employment of -force. He represented to the Spanish rulers that the Jews should be -strictly isolated, as their intercourse with the Christian population -was calculated to injure the true faith. His suggestions met with -too ready a response. Through him and the other two conversionists, -unspeakable sorrows were brought upon the Spanish Jews; indeed, -the years from 1412 to 1415 may be reckoned among the saddest in -the sorrowful history of the Jewish people. Shortly after Ferrer's -appearance at the most Christian court, the regent Donna Catalina, the -Infante Don Ferdinand, and the apostate Paul Burgensis de Santa Maria, -in the name of the child-king, Juan II, issued an edict of twenty-four -articles (January 12th, 1412), the aim of which was to impoverish -and humiliate the Jews, and reduce them to the lowest grade in the -social scale. It ordered that they should live in special Jew-quarters -(Juderias), provided with not more than one gate each, under pain of -confiscation of fortune and personal chastisement. No handicraft was to -be exercised by them; they were not to practice the healing art, nor -transact business with Christians. It goes without saying that they -were forbidden to hire Christian servants and fill public offices. -Their judicial autonomy was abolished, not only in criminal cases, in -which they had long ceased to exercise it, but also in civil disputes. -The edict prescribed a special costume for the Jews. Both men and women -were to wear long garments, in the case of males, of coarse stuffs. -Whoever dressed in the national costume, or in fine materials, became -liable to a heavy fine; on a repetition of the offense, to corporal -punishment and confiscation of property. The wearing of the red Jew -badge was, of course, insisted upon. Males were prohibited from shaving -the beard or cutting the hair under pain of one hundred lashes. No Jew -was to be addressed, either in conversation or in writing, by the title -"Don," to the infringement of which a heavy fine was also attached. -They were interdicted from carrying weapons, and might no longer move -from town to town, but were to be fixed to one place of abode. The Jew -detected in an evasion of the latter restriction was to lose his entire -property, and be made a bondman of the king. Grandees and burghers were -sternly enjoined to afford not the slightest protection to Jews. - -It is not unwarrantable to assume the influence of the apostate Paul -de Santa Maria in the details of these Jew-hating laws. They singled -out the most sensitive features of the Jewish character, pride and -sense of honor. Wealthy Jews, in the habit of appearing in magnificent -attire and with smoothly-shaven chins, were now to don a disfiguring -costume, and go about with stubbly, ragged beards. The cultivated, who -as physicians and advisers of the grandees had enjoyed unrestricted -intercourse with the highest ranks, were to confine themselves to -their Jew quarter, or be baptized, baptism being the hoped-for result -of all these cruel restrictions, enforced with merciless vigor. A -contemporary writer (Solomon Alami) describes the misery caused by the -edict: "Inmates of palaces were driven into wretched nooks, and dark, -low huts. Instead of rustling apparel we were obliged to wear miserable -clothes, which drew contempt upon us. Prohibited from shaving the -beard, we had to appear like mourners. The rich tax-farmers sank into -want, for they knew no trade by which they could gain a livelihood, and -the handicraftsmen found no custom. Starvation stared everyone in the -face. Children died on their mothers' knees from hunger and exposure." - -Amid this tribulation the Dominican Ferrer invaded the synagogues, -crucifix in hand, preached Christianity in a voice of thunder, offering -his hearers enjoyment of life and opportunities of preferment, or -threatening damnation here and hereafter. The Christian populace, -inflamed by the passionate eloquence of the preacher, emphasized his -teaching by violent assaults on the Jews. The trial was greater than -the unhappy Castilian Jews could bear. Flight was out of the question, -for the law forbade it under a terrible penalty. It is not surprising, -then, that the weak and lukewarm among them, the comfort-loving and -worldly-minded, succumbed to the temptation, and saved themselves by -baptism. Many Jews in the communities of Valladolid, Zamora, Salamanca, -Toro, Segovia, Avila, Benavente, Leon, Valencia, Burgos, Astorga, and -other small towns, in fact, wherever Vincent Ferrer preached, went -over to Christianity. Several synagogues were turned into churches -by Ferrer. In the course of his four months' sojourn (December, -1412-March, 1413) in the kingdom of Castile, this proselyte-monger -inflicted wounds upon the Jews from which they bled to death. - -When, however, he repaired to the kingdom of Aragon--summoned thither -to advise on the rival claims of several pretenders to the throne-- -and when through his exertion the Castilian Infante, Don Ferdinand, -was awarded the Aragonese crown (June, 1414), a trifling improvement -took place in the condition of the Castilian Jews. The regent, Donna -Catalina, issued a new edict in the name of her son (17th July). -In this document the Jews were still interdicted the exercise of -handicrafts, but were allowed, under a multitude of conditions, to -visit markets with their merchandise. The prohibition to hire Christian -or Mahometan domestics was confirmed; but, on the other hand, the -employment of day-laborers and gardeners for the fields and vineyards -of Jews, and shepherds for their flocks, was permitted. The new law -triflingly allowed Jews to trim their hair and to clip with shears, but -not entirely remove, their beards; a fringe of hair was ordered to be -left on the chin, and shaving with the razor was forbidden, as though -the queen-regent and her sage counselors were anxious that Jewish -orthodoxy should not be wronged. The new decree conceded the wearing of -dress materials of a value of sixty maravedis (under the former edict -the value had been fixed at half this sum), but imposed a funnel-shaped -head-covering, to which it was forbidden to attach tassels. The -vehemence with which the edict declaimed against the ostentation of -Jewish women disclosed its female authorship. Under this decree, -freedom of domicile was once more accorded to Jews. It is noteworthy -that the new edict applied only to Jews, whereas its predecessor -restricted Mahometans as well. - -With the transfer of the fanatical Ferrer to Aragon, the communities -of that kingdom began to experience trials and misfortunes. The -newly-elected king, Don Ferdinand, owed his crown to Ferrer, for as -arbitrator between the rival pretenders he had warmly espoused his -cause, proclaimed him king, and united the populace in his favor. -Ferdinand consequently paid exceptional veneration to his saintliness, -appointed him his father-confessor and spiritual adviser, and granted -him his every wish. Foremost among Ferrer's aspirations was the -conversion of the Jews, and to advance it the king commanded the Jews -of Aragon to give every attention to his discourses. The zealous -proselytizer made a tour of the kingdom, vehemently denouncing the Jews -in every town he visited. His intimidations succeeded in converting a -large number, particularly in Saragossa, Daroca, Tortosa, Valencia, and -Majorca. Altogether Ferrer's mission to the Jews of Castile and Aragon -is said to have resulted in not less than 20,500 forced baptisms. - -This, however, did not end the woes of Spanish Jews. Pope Benedict XIII -had still worse troubles in store for them, employing as his instrument -his newly-baptized Jewish physician, Joshua Lorqui, otherwise Geronimo -de Santa Fe. This pope, deposed by the council of Pisa as schismatic, -heretic and forsworn, deprived of his spiritual functions and put -under the ban, projected the conversion of the entire body of Jews in -Spain to the church, at that time the object of universal opprobrium. -On the Pyrenean peninsula he was still regarded as the legitimate pope, -and from this base of operations he used every effort to procure a -general acknowledgment of his authority. He was not slow to perceive -that the general conversion of the Jews would powerfully assist his -design. If it were vouchsafed to him to overcome at last the obstinacy, -blindness and infidelity of Israel, and to bring it under the -sovereignty of the cross--would it not be the greatest triumph for -the church and for himself? Would it not put all his enemies to shame? -Would not the faithful range themselves under the pope who had so -glorified the church? What better proof could he give that he was the -only true pontiff? - -To promote this scheme, Benedict, by the authority of the king, Don -Ferdinand, summoned (towards the end of 1412) the most learned rabbis -and students of Scripture in the kingdom of Aragon to a religious -disputation at Tortosa. The apostate Joshua Lorqui, who was well read -in Jewish literature, was to prove to the Jews, out of the Talmud -itself, that the Messiah had come in the person of Jesus. The design -was to operate on the most prominent Jews, the papal court being -convinced that, their conversion effected, the rank and file would -follow of their own accord. Geronimo carefully selected the names of -those to be invited, and the pope or the king attached a punishment to -their non-attendance. What were the Jews to do? To come or to remain -away, to accept or to refuse, was equally dangerous. About twenty-two -of the most illustrious Aragonese Jews answered the summons. At their -head was Don Vidal ben Benveniste Ibn-Labi (Ferrer), of Saragossa, a -scion of the old Jewish nobility, a man of consideration and culture, -a physician and neo-Hebrew poet. Among his companions were Joseph -Albo, of Monreal, a disciple of Chasdai Crescas, distinguished for his -philosophic learning and genuine piety; Serachya Halevi Saladin, of -Saragossa, translator of an Arabic philosophic work; Matathias Yizhari -(En Duran?), of the same town, also a polished writer; Astruc Levi, of -Daroca, a man of position; Bonastruc Desmaestre, whose presence was -most desired by the pope, because he was learned and distinguished; the -venerable Don Joseph, of the respected Ibn-Yachya family, and others of -lesser note. - -Although the Jewish notables summoned to the disputation were men -of liberal education, and Don Vidal even spoke Latin fluently, none -of them possessed that stout-heartedness and force of character -which impress even the most vindictive enemy, and which Nachmani so -conspicuously displayed when alone he encountered two of the bitterest -adversaries of Judaism--the Dominican General De Penyaforte and -the apostate Pablo Christiani. A succession of humiliations and -persecutions had broken the manhood of even the proudest in Jewry, and -had transformed all into weaklings. They were no match for perilous -times. When Benedict's summons reached them, they trembled. They -agreed to act with circumspection and calmness, not to interrupt -their opponent, and, above all, to be united and harmonious, but they -disregarded these resolutions, exposed their weakness, and eventually -broke up into factions, each of which took its own course. - -Duly commissioned by his schismatic master, the renegade Geronimo drew -up a program. In the first place, proofs were to be adduced from the -Talmud and cognate writings that the Messiah had already come in the -person of Jesus of Nazareth. The papal court flattered itself that -this would bring about widespread conversion of the Jews, but, in -case of failure, there was to follow a war of extermination against -the Talmud on account of the abominations it contained, and the -support it afforded the Jews in their blindness. Geronimo de Santa Fe -accordingly composed a treatise on the Messianic character and Divinity -of Jesus as illustrated in Jewish sacred writings. He collected all -the specious arguments, the sophistries and text twistings which his -predecessors had developed from their obscure, senseless, Scriptural -interpretations, added nonsense of his own, declared playful Agadic -conceits to be essential articles of faith, and refuted Jewish views -of the questions discussed. He enumerated twenty-four conditions of -the coming of the Messiah, and exerted himself to show that they had -all been fulfilled in Jesus. His fundamental contention was that the -Christians constituted the true Israel, that they had succeeded the -Jewish people in Divine favor, and that the Biblical terms, mountain, -tent, temple, house of God, Zion and Jerusalem were allegorical -references to the church. An instance of his ridiculous arguments -may be mentioned. Like John of Valladolid, he saw in the irregular -formation of a letter in a word in Isaiah a deep mystery, indicating -the virginity of Mary, and the realization of the Messianic period by -the advent of Jesus. From another prophetic verse he expounded the -immaculate conception of Jesus in so indecent a manner that it is -impossible to repeat his explanation. This treatise, which blended the -Patristic and the Rabbinic spirit, having been examined by the pope and -his cardinals, was ordered to serve as the theme of the disputation. - -No more remarkable controversy was ever held. It occupied sixty-eight -sittings, and extended, with few interruptions, over a year and nine -months (from February, 1413, until the 12th November, 1414). In the -foreground stands a pope, abandoned by almost the whole of Christendom, -and hunted from his seat, anxious for a favorable issue, not for the -glorification of the faith, but for his own temporal advancement; by -his side, a baptized Jew, combating Rabbinical Judaism with Rabbinical -weapons; and in the background, a frenzied Dominican preacher with his -escort of flagellants, promoting a persecution of the Jews to give -force to the conversionist zeal of Tortosa. The helpless, bewildered -Jews could only turn their eyes to heaven, for on earth they found -themselves surrounded by bitter enemies. When, at their first audience -with Pope Benedict (6th February, 1413), they were asked to give their -names for registration, they were seized with terror; they imagined -their lives in jeopardy. The pope quieted them with the explanation -that it was only a customary formality. On the whole he treated -them at first with kindness and affability, the usual attitude of -princes of the church when they have an end to attain. He assured -them that no harm would befall them; that he had summoned them merely -to ascertain whether there was any truth in Geronimo's statement -that the Talmud attested the Messianic character of Jesus, and he -promised them the fullest freedom of speech. At the end of the first -audience he dismissed them graciously, assigned quarters to each of -the notables, and gave instructions that their comfort should be cared -for. A few prophesied from this friendly reception a successful issue -for themselves and their cause, but they knew little of Rome and the -vicegerents of God. - -A few days later the disputation began. When the Jewish notables -entered the audience hall, they were awe-struck by the splendor of -the scene: Pope Benedict, on an elevated throne, clad in his state -robes; around him the cardinals and princes of the church, resplendent -in jeweled vestments; beyond them nearly a thousand auditors of the -highest ranks. The little knot of defenders of Judaism trembled before -this imposing and confident array of the forces of Christianity. -The pope himself presided, and opened the sitting with an address -to the Jews. He informed them that the truth of neither Judaism -nor Christianity was to be called into question, for the Christian -faith was above discussion and indisputable, and Judaism had once -been true, but had been abrogated by the later dispensation. The -disputation would be confined to the single question, whether the -Talmud recognized Jesus as the Messiah. The Jews were consequently -limited to mere defense. At a sign from the pope, the convert Geronimo -stood forth, and, after a salutation of the papal toe, delivered -himself of a long-winded harangue, abounding in Christian, Jewish, and -even scholastic subtleties, and full of praise of the magnanimity and -graciousness of the pope in endeavoring to bring the Jews into the way -of salvation. His text, applied to the Jews, was a verse from Isaiah: -"If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall eat the good of the land; but -if ye refuse and rebel, ye shall be devoured with the sword"--which -disclosed the final argument of the church. In reply, Vidal Benveniste, -who had been elected spokesman by the notables, delivered a speech -in Latin, which evoked a compliment from the pope. Don Vidal exposed -Geronimo's malignity in threatening the sword and other punishments -before the arguments on either side were heard. The pope acknowledged -the justice of the reproof, and said in extenuation that Geronimo had -still the boorishness derived from his Jewish origin. The notables -plucked up courage to petition the pope to release them from further -controversy, giving as their reason that their opponent employed -scholastic methods of reasoning, in which it was impossible for them -to follow him, as their faith was founded not on syllogisms but on -tradition. The pope naturally declined to accede to this request, but -invited them to continue the discussion on the following day, and had -them escorted to their quarters by officers of high rank. - -Overwhelmed with anxiety, the Jewish notables and the entire community -of Tortosa assembled in the synagogue to implore help of Him who had so -often stood by their fathers in their hours of need, and to pray that -acceptable words might be put into their mouths, so that by no chance -expression they should provoke the wild beasts seeking to devour them. -Serachya Halevi Saladin gave expression to the gloomy feelings of the -congregation in his sermon. - -For a time the controversy retained its friendly character. Geronimo -quoted obscure Agadic passages from the Talmud and other Hebrew -writings to establish his astounding contention that the Talmud -attests that Jesus was the Messiah. Generally the pope presided at the -disputations, but occasionally grave matters affecting his own position -necessitated his absence. The maintenance of his dignity was threatened -by the convening of the council of Constance by the Christian princes, -which constituted itself the supreme court in the conflict between the -three popes. Consequently, Benedict had to hold frequent consultations -with his friends. On these occasions, his place was taken by the -general of the Dominicans or the chamberlain of the papal palace. -The proofs adduced by Geronimo in support of his statements were so -absurd that it should have been easy for the Jewish delegates to refute -them. But their words were wilfully misinterpreted, so that in several -instances it was recorded in the protocol that they had conceded the -point under discussion. A few of them consequently committed their -refutations to writing; but they still met with arbitrary treatment. -Some points raised by them were condemned as not pertinent to the -discussion. The Jewish delegates, who had entered on the controversy -with unwilling hearts, were exhausted by the talking and taunting, -and were anxious to avoid retort. Suddenly the pope threw aside his -mask of friendliness, and showed his true disposition by threatening -them with death. Sixty-two days the war of tongues had lasted, and -the representatives of Judaism showed no sign of their much-hoped-for -conversion. Their power of resistance appeared to grow with the battle. -So, in the sixty-third sitting, the pope changed his tactics. At his -command Geronimo now came forward as the censor of the Talmud, accusing -it of containing all kinds of abominations, blasphemy, immorality and -heresy, and demanding its condemnation. A few new-Christians, among -them Andreas Beltran (Bertrand) of Valencia, the pope's almoner, -valiantly seconded this demand. - -Geronimo had prepared, at the instance of the pope, a treatise -with this purpose in view. He had collected all the extravagances -accidentally uttered by one or two of the hundreds of Agadists figuring -in the Talmud. Shameless malice or ignorance dictated manifestly -false accusations against the Talmud. Thus, he stated that it -permitted the beating of parents, blasphemy, and idolatry, also the -breaking of oaths, provided that on the previous Day of Atonement the -precaution had been taken to declare them invalid. Conscientiousness -in respect to oaths and vows he thus construed as perfidy, and, like -Nicholas-Donin, drew the conclusion that the Jews did not fulfill their -obligations towards Christians. Of course, he revived the calumny of -Alfonso of Valladolid, that the Jews cursed the Christians in their -daily prayers. Every inimical reference in the Talmud to heathens or -Jewish Christians, Geronimo interpreted as applying to Christians, -a fabrication with disastrous consequences, inasmuch as the enemies -of the Jews repeated these deadly charges without further inquiry. -When the attacks on the Talmud unexpectedly became the subject of -discussion, the Jewish representatives defended the arraigned points, -but were so hard pressed that they split up into two parties. Don -Astruc Levi handed in a written declaration, setting forth that he -ascribed no authority to the Agadic sentences quoted incriminating the -Talmud; that he held them as naught, and renounced them. The majority -of the notables supported him. To save the life of the whole they -sacrificed a limb. Joseph Albo and Ferrer (Don Vidal) alone maintained -their ground, declaring that the Talmudic Agada was a competent -authority, and that the equivocal passages had a different meaning from -that ascribed to them, and were not to be interpreted literally. So the -machinations of the pope and his creatures had at least succeeded in -bringing about a division in the ranks of the defenders of Judaism. - -The principal object of the disputation--the conversion of the -Jews _en masse_ through the example of their most prominent leaders ---was not attained. All the means employed failed--the benignant -reception, the threats of violence, the attack on Jewish convictions. -An expedient, calculated entirely for effect, had also been tried, -which, it was thought, would so mortify the notables that, dazed -and overwhelmed, they would throw down their arms and surrender at -discretion. The fanatical proselytizer Vincent Ferrer had returned -from Majorca to Catalonia and Aragon, and, surrounded by his -terror-inspiring band of flagellants, had renewed his mission to the -Jews, amid dismal chants and fiery exhortations to embrace the cross. -Again he succeeded in winning over many thousands to Christianity. -In the great Jewish communities of Saragossa, Calatajud, Daroca, -Fraga and Barbastro, the conversions were limited to individuals; -but smaller congregations, such as those of Alcaniz, Caspe, Maella, -Lerida, Alcolea and Tamarite, hemmed in by hostile Christians, who -spared neither limb nor life, went over in a body to Christianity. All -these proselytes were gradually brought, in small and large troops, to -Tortosa, and conducted, at the order of the pope, into the audience -hall, where, before the entire assembly, they made public profession -of the Christian faith. Living trophies, they were intended to shadow -forth the impending victory of the church, dishearten the defenders of -Judaism, and press upon them the conviction that, as in their absence -the Jewish communities were melting away, all resistance on their part -was in vain. It is no small merit that Don Vidal, Joseph Albo, Astruc -Levi, and their companions refused to yield to the pressure. The pope -saw his hopes shattered. Not a single notable wavered, and conversions -of large masses did not take place. The great communities of Aragon and -Catalonia remained true to their faith, with the exception of a few -weaklings, amongst them some relations of Vidal Benveniste. The council -of Constance would soon meet, and Benedict would be unable to appear -before it as the triumphant conqueror of Judaism--would have no -special claim to preference over the other two competing popes. - -In his disappointment he vented his spleen on the Talmud and the -already restricted liberties of the Jews. At the last sitting of the -disputation he dismissed the Jewish notables with black looks, from -which they easily divined his evil intentions. Various obstacles -prevented him from putting them into force for six months, when (May -11th, 1415) they were embodied in a bull of eleven clauses. The Jews -were forbidden to study or teach the Talmud and Talmudic literature; -all copies of the Talmud were to be sought out and confiscated. -Anti-Christian works, written by Jews, especially one entitled -"Mar Mar Jesu," were not to be read under pain of punishment for -blasphemy. Every community, whether large or small, was prohibited -from possessing more than one simple, poorly appointed synagogue. The -Jews were to be strictly separated from Christians, were not to eat, -bathe, or do business with them. They were to occupy no official posts, -exercise no handicrafts, not even practice medicine. The wearing of the -red or yellow Jew badge was also enjoined by this bull. Finally, all -Jews were to be forced to hear Christian sermons three times a year-- -during Advent, at Easter, and in the summer. In the first sermon the -Prophets and the Talmud were to be used to prove that the true Messiah -had come; in the second, their attention was to be directed to the -abominations and heresies contained, according to Geronimo's treatise, -in the Talmud, alone responsible for their infidelity; and in the third -it was to be impressed upon them that the destruction of the temple and -the dispersion of the Hebrew people had been predicted by the founder -of Christianity. At the close of each sermon the bull was to be read -aloud. The strict execution of this malignant edict was confided by the -pope to Gonzalo de Santa Maria, son of the apostate Paul, who had been -taken over to Christianity by his father. - -Fortunately, the vindictive schemes of Pope Benedict never came into -active operation. While he was still engaged in tormenting the Jews, -the council of Constance decreed his deposition. As he had obstinately -opposed the advice of the king, Don Ferdinand, and the German emperor, -Sigismund, to lay aside the tiara of his own initiative, he was -abandoned by his Spanish protectors. The weapons he had employed -recoiled upon himself. His last adherents were drawn from him by -Vincent Ferrer's fanatical preaching. The flagellant priest not only -exhorted the king of Aragon to renounce "this unfrocked and spurious -pope," but he held forth everywhere--in the churches and the open -streets--that "a man like this pope deserves to be pursued to death -by every right-thinking Christian." Deserted by his protectors, his -friends, and even his proteges, there now remained to Pedro de Luna, -of all his possessions, only the small fortress of Peniscola, and even -here King Ferdinand, urged on by Santa Maria, the pope's creature, -threatened him with a siege. In the end this ambitious and obstinate -man covered himself with ridicule by attempting to continue to play -the part of pope in his tiny palace. He appointed a college of four -cardinals, and pledged them before his death not to recognize the pope -elected at Constance, but to choose a successor from among their own -body. When he died, his college elected two popes instead of one. Such -was the infallibility of the church, into the pale of which it was -sought to force the Jews. What became of the malicious apostate, Joshua -Lorqui-Geronimo de Santa Fe, after the fall of his master, is not -known. In Jewish circles he was remembered by the well-earned sobriquet -of "The Calumniator" (Megadef). King Ferdinand of Aragon, who had -always allowed himself to be influenced by enemies of the Jews, died in -1416. His death was followed, after a short interval, by that of the -Jew-hating regent, Catalina of Castile, the instrument of Vincent's -Jew-hunt (1418), and finally by that of Vincent himself (1419), who had -the mortification to see the flagellant movement, to which he owed his -saintly reputation, condemned by the council of Constance, he himself -being compelled to disband his "white troop." - -Although the chief persecutors of the Jews had disappeared, the -unhappy conditions created by them remained. The exclusive laws of -Castile and the bull of Pope Benedict were still in force. Ferrer's -proselytizing campaigns had severely crippled the Spanish, and even -foreign communities. In Portugal alone they met with no success. The -Portuguese ruler, Don Joao I, had other interests to pursue than the -conversion of Jews. He was then occupied in that first conquest on -the coast of Africa, opposite to Portugal, which laid the foundation -of the subsequent maritime supremacy of the Portuguese. When Vincent -Ferrer petitioned King Joao for permission to come to Portugal in order -to make the pulpits and streets resound with his dismal harangues on -the sinfulness of the world and the blindness and obstinacy of the -Jews, the Portuguese king informed him that he "might come, but with -a crown of red-hot iron on his head." Portugal was the only refuge on -the Pyrenean peninsula from the proselytizing rage of the flagellant -preacher, and many Spanish Jews who had the means of escaping fled -thither. Don Judah Ibn Yachya-Negro, held in high esteem by King Joao -I, and, perhaps, appointed by him chief rabbi of Portugal, represented -to him the horrors of enforced baptism, and the necessary insincerity -of the professions of unwilling converts. The king consequently issued -his commands that the immigrant new-Christians should not be interfered -with or delivered up to Spain. - -In other parts of Europe, where the fanatical Dominican had been, or -whither reports of his deeds or misdeeds had penetrated, the Jews -were forced to drain the cup of bitterness to the dregs. In Savoy, -which Vincent Ferrer had visited, they were obliged to hide themselves -with their holy books in mountain caves. In Germany, persecutions of -Jews had always found a congenial soil, and they were promoted by the -anarchy which prevailed during the reign of Sigismund and the sessions -of the council of Constance. Even the Italian communities, though -for the most part undisturbed, lived in continual anxiety, lest the -movement strike a responsive chord in their politically distracted -land. They convened a great synod, first at Bologna, then at Forli -(1416-1418), to consider what measures might be adopted to avert the -threatened danger. - -Happily, at this moment, after a long schism, bitter strife and a -plurality of anti-popes, the council of Constance elected a pope, -who, though full of dissimulation, was not the most degraded in the -college of cardinals. Martin V, who was said by his contemporaries -to have appeared simple and good before his election, but to have -shown himself afterwards very clever and not very kind, received the -Jews with scant courtesy when, during his progress through Constance, -they approached him carrying lighted tapers in festive procession, -and offered him the Torah with a prayer for the confirmation of their -sufferance. From his white palfrey with silk and gold trappings he -answered them: "You have the law, but understand it not. The old has -passed away, and the new been found." (The blind finding fault with the -seeing.) Yet he treated them with leniency. At the request of Emperor -Sigismund, he confirmed the privileges granted to the Jews of Germany -and Savoy by the preceding emperor, Rupert, denouncing attacks on their -persons and property, and the practice of converting them by force. The -emperor, who may be accused of thoughtlessness but not of a spirit of -persecution, thereupon issued his commands to all the German princes -and magistrates, cities and subjects, to allow his "servi camerae" -the full enjoyment of the privileges and immunities which had been -given them by the pope (February 26th, 1418). A deputation of Jews, -commissioned by the Italian synod, also waited upon the now generally -acknowledged pope, and craved his protection. Even the Spanish Jews -appear to have dispatched an embassy to him, consisting of two of their -most distinguished men, Don Samuel Abrabanel and Don Samuel Halevi. -When the Jews complained of the insecurity of their lives, the attacks -on their religious convictions, and the frequent desecration of their -sanctuaries, the pope issued a bull (January 31st, 1419), with the -following preamble: - - "Whereas the Jews are made in the image of God, and a remnant - of them will one day be saved, and whereas they have besought - our protection, following in the footsteps of our predecessors - we command that they be not molested in their synagogues; that - their laws, rights, and customs be not assailed; that they - be not baptized by force, constrained to observe Christian - festivals, nor to wear new badges, and that they be not - hindered in their business relations with Christians." - -What could have induced Pope Martin to show such friendly countenance -to the Jews? Probably he had some idea of checkmating by this means -the Jew-hating Benedict, who still played at being pope in his obscure -corner. The principal consideration probably was the rich gifts with -which the Jewish representatives approached him. Although at the -council of Constance no cardinal was poorer than Martin, and his -election was in great measure owing to this fact, on the throne of St. -Peter he showed no aversion to money. On the contrary, everything might -be obtained from him if money were paid down; without it, nothing. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE HUSSITES. PROGRESS OF JEWISH LITERATURE. - - The Hussite Heresy--Consequences for the Jews involved in the - Struggle--Jacob Moelin--Abraham Benveniste and Joseph Ibn-Shem - Tob in the Service of the Castilian Court--Isaac Campanton, - the Poet Solomon Dafiera--Moses Da Rieti--Anti-Christian - Polemical Literature--Chayim Ibn-Musa--Simon Duran and his - Son Solomon--Joseph Albo as a Religious Philosopher--Jewish - Philosophical Systems--Edict of the Council of Basle against - the Jews--Fanatical Outbreaks in Majorca--Astruc Sibili and his - Conversion to Christianity. - -1420-1442 C.E. - - -Meanwhile history received a fresh impulse, which, although coming -from weak hands, produced a forward movement. The spreading corruption -in the church, the self-deifying arrogance of the popes and the -licentiousness of priests and monks revolted the moral sense of the -people, opened their eyes, and encouraged them to doubt the very -foundations of the Roman Catholic system. No improvement could be -expected from the princes of the church, the jurists and diplomatists -who met in council at Constance to deliberate on a scheme of thorough -reform. They had only a worldly object in view, seeking to gloss over -the prevailing rottenness by transferring the papal power to the high -ecclesiastics, substituting the rule of an aristocratic hierarchy -for papal absolutism. A Czech priest, John Huss, of Prague, inspired -by the teachings of Wycliffe, spoke the magic word that loosened the -bonds in which the church had ensnared the minds of men. "Not this -or that pope," he said in effect, "but the papacy and the entire -organization of the Catholic church constitute the fundamental evil -from which Christendom is suffering." The flames to which the council -of Constance condemned this courageous priest only served to light -up the truth he had uttered. They fired a multitude in Bohemia, who -entered on a life and death struggle with Catholicism. Whenever a -party in Christendom opposes itself to the ruling church, it assumes -a tinge of the Old Testament, not to say Jewish, spirit. The Hussites -regarded Catholicism, not unjustly, as heathenism, and themselves as -Israelites, who must wage holy war against Philistines, Moabites, and -Ammonites. Churches and monasteries were to them the sanctuaries of a -dissolute idolatry, temples to Baal and Moloch and groves of Ashtaroth, -to be consumed with fire and sword. The Hussite war, although largely -due to the mutual race-hatred of Czechs and Germans, and to religious -indignation, began in a small way the work of clearing the church -doctrine of its mephitic elements. - -For the Jews, this movement was decidedly calamitous, the -responsibility for which must rest, not with the wild Hussites, but -with the Catholic fanaticism stirred up against the new heresy. The -former went little beyond denunciations of Jewish usury; at the most, -sacked Jewish together with Catholic houses. Of special Hussite -hostility to the Jews no evidence is forthcoming. On the other hand, -Catholics accused Jews of secretly supplying the Hussites with -money and arms; and in the Bavarian towns near the Boehmerwald, they -persecuted them unmercifully as friends and allies of the heretics. The -Dominicans--the "army of anti-Christ" as they were called--included -the Jews in their fierce pulpit denunciations of the Hussites, and -inflamed the people and princes against them. The crusades against the -Hussites, like those against the Mahometans and Waldenses, commenced -with massacres of Jews. Revived fanaticism first affected the Jews in -Austria--a land which, like Spain, passed from liberal tolerance -of Jews to persecution, and in bigotry approximated so close to the -Iberian kingdom that it ultimately joined it. The mind of Archduke -Albert, an earnest and well-intentioned prince, was systematically -filled with hatred against the "enemies of God." Fable after fable -was invented, which, devoid even of originality, sufficed to drive to -extreme measures a man of pure character, ignorant of the lying devices -of the Jew-haters. Three Christian children went skating in Vienna; -the ice broke through, and they were drowned. When the anxious parents -failed to find them, a malicious rumor was set on foot that they had -been slaughtered by Jews, who required their blood for the ensuing -Passover celebration. Then a Jew was charged with a crime calculated -to incense the populace to a still greater degree. The wife of the -sacristan of Enns was said to have purloined the consecrated host from -the church, and sold it to a wealthy Jew named Israel, who had sent -it to a large number of Jewish communities in and out of Austria. The -charges of Jewish murders of Christian children and Jewish profanations -of hosts had not lost their charm in the fifteenth century, and their -inventors could calculate their effect with accuracy. By order of the -archduke, the sacristan's wife and her two accomplices or seducers, -Israel and his wife, were brought to Vienna, examined, and forced to -confess. The records of the case are silent as to the means employed to -obtain the avowal of guilt; but the procedure of mediaeval Christendom -in such trials is well known. - -Archduke Albert issued the order that in the early morning of the 23d -May, 1420 (10th Sivan), all the Jews in his realm should be thrown into -prison, and this was promptly done. The moneyed Jews were stripped -of their possessions, and the poor forthwith banished the country. -In the gaols, wives were separated from their husbands, and children -from their parents. When from helplessness they fell to hopelessness, -Christian priests came to them with crosses in their hands and honeyed -words on their lips to convert them. A few of the poorer-spirited saved -their lives by accepting baptism. The more resolute slew themselves and -their kinsfolk by opening their veins with straps, cords, or whatever -they found to hand. The spirit of the survivors was broken by the -length and cruelty of their imprisonment. Their children were taken -from them, and immured in cloisters. Still they remained firm, and on -the 13th March (9th Nisan), 1421, after nearly a year's confinement, -they were committed to the flames. In Vienna alone more than a hundred -perished in one field near the Danube. Another order was then issued by -Archduke Albert, forbidding Jews to stay thenceforth in Austria. - -The converts proved no gain to the church. The majority seized the -first opportunity of emigrating and relapsing into Judaism. They bent -their steps to Bohemia, rendered tolerant by the Hussite schism, -or northwards to Poland and southwards to Italy. How attached the -Austrian Jews were to their religion is shown by the conduct of one -clever youth. Having received baptism, he had become the favorite of -Duke Frederick, afterwards the German emperor, but, although living -in luxury, he was seized with remorse for his apostasy, and boldly -expressed his desire to return to Judaism. Frederick exerted himself -to dissuade his favorite from this idea. He begged, entreated, and -even threatened him; he sent a priest to advise him; all, however, in -vain. Finally, the duke handed the "obstinate heretic and backslider" -over to the ecclesiastical authorities, who condemned him to the stake. -Unfettered and with a Hebrew song on his lips the Jewish youth mounted -the scaffold. - -In the meantime, the devastating war broke out between the fierce -Hussites and the not less barbarous Roman Catholics, between the -Czechs and the Germans. A variety of nationalities participated in -the sanguinary struggle as to the use of the cup by the laity in -the eucharist. Emperor Sigismund, who found it impossible to subdue -the insurrection with his own troops, summoned the imperial army to -his standard. Wild free-lances, men of Brabant and Holland, were -taken into his pay. From all quarters armed troops poured into the -Bohemian valleys and against the capital, Prague, where the blind -hero, Zisca, bade defiance to a world of foes. On the way, the German -imperial army exhibited its courage by attacks on the defenseless -Jews. "We are marching afar," exclaimed the mercenaries, "to avenge -our insulted God, and shall those who slew him be spared?" Wherever -they came across Jewish communities, on the Rhine, in Thuringia and -Bavaria, they put them to the sword, or forced them to apostatize. The -crusaders threatened, on their return from victory over the Hussites, -to wipe the Jewish people from the face of the earth. Jewish fathers -of families true to their faith gave orders that, at a certain signal, -their children should be killed to avoid falling into the hands of -the bloodthirsty soldiery. Letters of lamentation over the threatened -disaster, calling upon him to implore the intervention of heaven, were -addressed from far and near to the illustrious rabbi of Mayence, Jacob -ben Moses Moelin Halevi (Maharil, born 1365, died 1427), the most pious -rabbi of his time. His arrangement of the synagogue ritual and melodies -is used to this day in many German communities, and their colonies in -Poland and Hungary. Jacob Moelin ordered a general fast, accompanied by -fervent prayer, and his instructions were circulated from one community -to another throughout the land. The German congregations forthwith -assembled for solemn mourning and humiliation, and fasted during four -days between New Year and Atonement (8th-11th September, 1421), and -for three successive days after Tabernacles, the observance being -as strict as on the most sacred fast days of the Jewish calendar. It -was a time of feverish tension for the German Jews. In their despair -they prayed that victory might be vouchsafed to the Hussites, and it -seemed as if their supplications were heard. For, shortly afterwards, -the imperial army and its mercenary allies assembled near Saatz were -stricken with such terror at the news of Zisca's approach, that they -sought safety in disorderly flight, disbanding in all directions, and -hurrying home by different routes. Famished and footsore, a few of the -very men who had vowed death and extirpation to the Jews, appeared at -the doors of their houses, begging for bread, which was gladly given -them. Privation had so reduced the fugitives that they could not have -harmed a child. - -The Dominican clergy commissioned to preach against the Hussites -did not cease to foster Catholic hatred of Jews. From their pulpits -they thundered against heretics and Jews alike, cautioning the -faithful against holding intercourse with them, and consciously and -unconsciously inciting to attacks on their persons and property. The -Jews flew for help to the pope, Martin V--doubtless not with empty -hands--and again obtained a very favorable bull (23d February, -1422), in which Christians were enjoined to remember that their -religion had been inherited from Jews, who were necessary for the -corroboration of Christian truth. The pope forbade the monks to preach -against intercourse between Jews and Christians, and declared null -and void the ban with which transgressors had been threatened. He -recommended to Catholics a friendly and benevolent attitude towards -their Hebrew fellow-citizens, severely denounced violent attacks upon -them, and confirmed all the privileges which had from time to time -been granted by the papacy. This bull was, however, as ineffectual as -the protection which Emperor Sigismund had so solemnly promised the -Jews. A persecuting spirit continued to animate the Christian church. -The monks did not cease to declaim against the "accursed" Jewish -nation; the populace did not refrain from tormenting, injuring and -murdering Jews; even succeeding popes ignored the bull, and restored -the odious canonical restrictions in all their stringency. Turning a -deaf ear to both pope and emperor, the citizens of Cologne expelled -the Jewish community, perhaps the oldest in Germany. The exiles took -up their abode at Deutz (1426). In the South German towns, Ravensburg, -Ueberlingen and Lindau, the Jews were burnt because of a lying blood -accusation (1431). - -The literary work of the German Jews was, as a consequence, poor -and inconsiderable. Anxiety and persecution had deadened their -intellect. Even in Talmudical study the German rabbis hardly rose above -mediocrity, and gave nothing of consequence to the world. Some rabbis -were installed by the reigning prince; at least Emperor Sigismund -commissioned one of his Jewish agents, Chayim of Landshut, "to -appoint three rabbis (Judenmeister) in Germany." Under such auspices, -appointments were probably determined less by merit than by money. -For a college, in which students were prepared for the rabbinate, a -heavy tax had to be paid, notwithstanding that the instruction was -given gratuitously. Besides Jacob Moelin, only one name of importance -emerges from the darkness of this period, Menachem of Merseburg, or, -as he was generally called, Meil Zedek. He wrote a comprehensive work -on the practice of the Talmudic marriage and civil law, which the -Saxon communities adopted for their authoritative guidance. He, at -least, departed from the beaten track of his older contemporaries or -teachers, Jacob Moelin and Isaac Tyrnau, who attached value to every -insignificant detail of the liturgy. By and by Menachem of Merseburg -was recognized as an authority, and an excellent regulation drawn up by -him received universal assent. Among the Jews at that period, marriages -took place at a very early age; girls in their teens were hurried into -matrimony. According to Talmudical law a girl, under age, who had been -given in marriage by her mother or brothers and not by her father, was -permitted, on attaining her majority, in her twelfth year, and even -much later under some circumstances, to dissolve her union without -further ceremony than a declaration of her intention to do so, or the -contracting of another marriage (Miun). Menachem of Merseburg felt the -indecency of so sudden and often capricious a dissolution of marriage, -and he decided that formal bills of divorce should be required. - -The literary achievements of the Spanish Jews during this period were -not of a higher character; they exhibited unmistakable signs of decay, -notwithstanding that their situation had become more tolerable since -the death of the bigoted and wanton queen regent, Catalina, and the -fall of the anti-pope, Benedict XIII, and his Jewish accomplices. -Don Juan II--or, rather, his favorite, Alvaro de Luna, to whom the -management of the state was confided--stood too much in need of the -assistance of Jewish financiers during the frequently recurring civil -wars and insurrections to do anything to offend them. Hence, during his -reign, restrictive laws against the Jews seem to have been enacted only -to be broken. Jews were again admitted to public employment, regardless -of the fact that such appointments had been sternly forbidden both -by kings and popes. An influential Jew, Abraham Benveniste, surnamed -Senior, distinguished for his intelligence and wealth, was invested -with a high dignity at the court of Don Juan, and was thus in a -position to frustrate threatened persecutions of his co-religionists. -Also Joseph ben Shem Tob Ibn-Shem Tob, a cultivated and fruitful -writer, proficient in philosophic studies, was in the service of the -state under Juan II. On the one hand, the cortes did not fail to remind -the king that by his father's laws and by papal decrees the Jews were -excluded from public offices, and, on the other hand, Pope Eugenius -IV, successor to Martin V, strained every effort to humiliate the Jews -and harden their lot, even forbidding Don Juan to befriend them; but -these representations were of no avail. To the cortes of Burgos the -king replied evasively that he would cause an examination to be made of -the laws promulgated in regard to the Jews by his father, and of the -papal bulls, and he would take care to observe everything calculated to -promote the service of God and the welfare of the state. Against the -pope's interference with his crown-rights he entered a protest. - -This king gave permission to the no less noble than wealthy rabbi, -Abraham Benveniste, to hold a meeting of delegates from various -communities in the royal palace of Avila (1432). These delegates were -to bring harmony into the state of moral and religious disorder caused -by the attacks of the masses in 1412-1415. The smaller communities were -without teachers, the large ones without rabbis and preachers. Many of -them had been reduced to poverty, and the richer members were unwilling -to contribute to the support of religious institutions. Evil ways and -denunciations by the unscrupulous had acquired the upper hand, because -the representative men and the few rabbis did not venture to punish the -evildoers. Abraham Benveniste, therefore, framed a statute (the law of -Avila), which compelled people to establish schools and colleges, to -introduce order into the communities, and to punish miscreants. Juan II -confirmed this statute. - -The literature of the Spanish Jews, however, was powerless to recover -itself. Despite the calm succeeding the storm, it seemed to wither -like autumn leaves. The decline was most marked in the department -of Talmudic study. After the emigration of Isaac ben Sheshet and the -death of Chasdai Crescas, no Spanish rabbi obtained more than local -authority and reputation. The only upholder of the traditions of -the rabbinate was Isaac ben Jacob Campanton, who lived to be more -than a hundred years old (born 1360, died at Penafiel 1463); but he -produced only one work (Darke ha-Talmud), which exhibited neither -genius nor learning. Still, in his day, Campanton passed for the Gaon -of Castile. Neo-Hebraic poetry, which had blossomed so profusely on -Spanish soil, faded and drooped. Of those who cultivated it during -this period only a few are remembered--Solomon Dafiera, Don Vidal -Benveniste, the leading speaker on the Jewish side at the disputation -of Tortosa, and Solomon Bonfed. The most gifted was the last. He was -ambitious to emulate Ibn-Gebirol; but he possessed little more than the -sensitiveness and moroseness of his great exemplar, like him imagining -himself to be the sport of fortune, with a prescriptive right to -lamentation. - -The Jews of Italy failed to distinguish themselves in poetry even -during the Medici period, in spite of the high culture which, with -the Hussite movement, was eating away the foundations of mediaeval -Catholicism. Since Immanuel Romi, the Jews of Italy had produced but -one poet; even he was not a poet in the noblest sense of the word. -Moses ben Isaac (Gajo) da Rieti, of Perugia (born 1388, died after 1451 -), a physician by profession, a dabbler in philosophy, and a graceful -writer in both Hebrew and Italian, might have passed for an artist if -poetry were a thing of meter and rhyme, for in his sublimely conceived -poem both were faultless. His desire was to glorify in poetry Judaism -and Jewish antiquity, the sciences, and the illustrious men of all -ages. He employed an ingenious form of verse, in which the stanzas -were connected by threes by means of cross-rhymes. But Da Rieti's -language is often rough, many of his allusions show want of taste, and -where he should rise to lofty thought he sinks into puerilities. Only -in one respect does his work mark an advance in neo-Hebrew poetry. He -breaks entirely with the traditional Judaeo-Arabic method of a single -rhyme. There is variety in his versification; the ear is not wearied -by monotonous repetition of the same or similar sounds, and the lines -fall naturally into stanzas. He also avoids playing on Biblical verses, -the objectionable habit of Judaeo-Spanish poets. In a word, Da Rieti -supplied the correct form for neo-Hebrew poetry, but he was unable to -vivify it with an attractive spirit. Yet the Italian Jews adopted a -part of his poem into their liturgy, and recited extracts daily. - -From the Apennine Peninsula let us turn back to the Pyrenean, where -the pulsation of historic life among the Jews, though gradually -becoming weaker, still was stronger than in the other countries in -which they were dispersed. The two branches of intellectual activity -which formerly, in their palmy days, had exercised every mind--the -severe study of the Talmud and the airy pursuit of the poetic muse-- -had lost their predominance in the Spanish Jewries. The systematic -study of the Scriptures also was no longer properly cultivated. The -literary activity of this period was almost exclusively directed -towards combating the intrusiveness of the church, repelling its -attacks on Judaism, and withstanding its proselytizing zeal. Faithful -and strong-minded Jewish thinkers held it a duty to proclaim their -convictions aloud, and to admonish waverers and strengthen them. The -more the preaching monks, especially apostates of the stamp of Paul de -Santa Maria, Geronimo de Santa Fe, and Pedro de la Caballeria, exerted -themselves to prove that the Christian Trinity was the true God of -Israel, taught and typified in the Bible and the Talmud, and the more -the church stretched forth its tentacles towards the Jews, straining -every nerve to fold them in its fatal embrace, the more necessary was -it for the synagogue to watch over its sacred trust, and guard its holy -of holies from idolatrous desecration. It was especially necessary -that the weaker-minded should be spared confusion in religious and -doctrinal matters. Hence Jewish preachers devoted themselves more than -ever to expounding the doctrine of the unity of God in their pulpits. -They pointed out the essential and irreconcilable difference between -the Jewish and the Christian conception of the Deity, and characterized -their identification as false and impious. The time resembled that -other epoch in Jewish history when Hellenized Jews tried to induce -their brethren to deny God, and were supported by the secular arm. -Some preachers, in their zeal, went to extremes. Instead of relying -exclusively on the convincing demonstrations in the Bible text, or on -the attractive illustrations of the Agada, they resorted to the armory -of scholasticism, employing the formulae of philosophy and, in the -presence of the Torah, and by the side of the Hebrew prophets and the -Talmudical sages, quoted Plato, Aristotle, and Averroes. - -This controversial literature, cultivated on a large scale, was -designed to defend Judaism against calumny and abuse, rather than -to convert a single Christian soul. Its aim was to open the eyes of -Jews, so that ignorance or credulity might not lead them into the -snares prepared for them. Doubtless it also desired to stir up the -new-Christians, and to re-animate their Jewish spirit beneath the -disguise they had assumed to save their lives. Hence the majority of -the polemical writings of the day were merely vindications of Judaism -from the old charges fulminated by Nicholas de Lyra a century before, -or more recently by Geronimo de Santa Fe and others, and widely -circulated by the Christian clergy. Solomon-Paul of Burgos, who had -been appointed bishop of his native town, wrote, in his eighty-second -year (1434, a year before his death), a venomous tract against Judaism ---"Searching the Scriptures" (Scrutinium Scriptuarum)--in the form -of a dialogue between a teacher and his pupil, the unbelieving Saul and -the converted Paul. Solomon-Paul does not seem to have retained much -of the wit which, according to Jewish and Christian panegyrists, had -at one time distinguished him--it had probably become blunted amid -the luxurious ease of the episcopal palace--for his tract, devoutly -Christian and Catholic in tone, is pointless and dull. Another ex-rabbi -who devoted himself to attacking Judaism was Juan de Espana, also -called Juan the Old (at Toledo), a convert who in old age had embraced -Christianity under the influence of Vincent Ferrer's proselytizing -efforts. He wrote a treatise on his own conversion and a Christian -commentary on the seventy-second Psalm, in both of which he asserted -the genuineness of his change of creed, and urged the Jews to abjure -their errors. How many weak-minded Jews must have been influenced by -the zeal, earnest or hypocritical, of such men as these, belonging to -their own race, and learned in their literature! - -It is impossible to exaggerate the services of the men who, deeply -impressed with the gravity of the crisis, threw themselves into -the breach, with exhortations to their co-religionists to remain -faithful to their creed. In defiance of the dangers which menaced -them, they scattered their inspiriting discourses far and wide. -Foremost among them were the men who had distinguished themselves -at the Tortosa disputation by their unyielding attitude and their -courage in withstanding the unjustifiable attacks upon the Talmud-- -Don Vidal (Ferrer) Ibn-Labi and Joseph Albo. The former drew up in -Hebrew a refutation of Geronimo's impeachment of the Talmud (Kodesh -ha-Kodashim), and the latter circulated, in Spanish, an account of -a religious controversy he had sustained with an eminent church -dignitary. Isaac ben Kalonymos, of a learned Provencal family named -Nathan, who associated a great deal with learned Christians, and -frequently had to defend his religious convictions, wrote two polemical -works, one entitled "Correction of the False Teacher," directed against -Geronimo's libelous essay, and the other, called "The Fortress," -of unknown purpose. He also compiled a laborious work of reference -intended to assist others in defending Judaism from attack. Isaac -Nathan, in his intercourse with Christians, often had to listen to -criticisms of Judaism, or evidences drawn from the Hebrew Bible, in -favor of Christian dogmas, which he found were always based on false -renderings of Hebrew words. To put an end to these illusory outgrowths -of prevailing ignorance of the original text of the Scriptures, or, -at least, to lighten the labors of his brethren in refuting them, he -resolved to compile a comprehensive digest of the linguistic materials -of the Bible, by which the actual meaning of each word should be made -clear. According to the plan adopted, any one can ascertain, at a -glance, both how often a certain word occurs in the Bible, and its -varying meanings according to the contexts. The work thus undertaken -by Isaac Nathan was of colossal scope, and occupied a long series of -years (September, 1437-1445). It was a Bible concordance, that is, the -verses were grouped alphabetically under the reference words according -to roots and derivations. The existing Latin concordances served in a -measure as models, although their purpose was the less ambitious one of -assisting preachers to find texts. Isaac Nathan, who produced various -other works, by this concordance rendered inestimable and lasting -service to the study of the Bible, although his labor was of a purely -mechanical kind. Originating from the temporary needs of the polemical -situation, it has been, and will ever remain, a powerful weapon for -ensuring the triumph of Judaism in its struggles with other religious -systems. - -The philosopher, Joseph Ibn-Shem Tob (born 1400, died a martyr 1460), -who was a voluminous writer, a popular preacher, and a frequenter of -the Castilian court, also entered the lists against Christianity to -expose the fallacy and unreasonableness of its dogmas. In his frequent -intercourse with Christians of distinction, both clerical and lay, he -found it necessary to make himself thoroughly acquainted with Christian -theology that he might adduce cogent arguments in reply to those who -wished to convert him, or in his presence made the oft-reiterated -statement of the falsity of Judaism. Occasionally a regular controversy -in defense of his creed was forced upon him. The fruits of his studies -and thought he committed to writing in the shape of a small treatise, -entitled "Doubts of the Religion of Jesus," in which he criticised -with unsparing logic the dogmas of Original Sin, Salvation, and -Incarnation. Besides, he wrote, for the instruction of his brethren, a -detailed commentary on Profiat Duran's satire on Christianity, and made -available for them, by means of a Hebrew translation, Chasdai Crescas' -polemical work against the Christian religion, originally written in -Spanish. Strange to say, the Spanish Jews preferred, as a rule, Hebrew -books to those in the language of their adopted country. - -Among the authors of polemical works against Christianity a -contemporary of Joseph Ibn-Shem Tob deserves special mention. History -has hitherto forgotten Chayim Ibn-Musa, from Bejar, in the neighborhood -of Salamanca (born about 1390, died about 1460), a physician, -versifier and writer, who had access to the Spanish court and the -grandees through his medical skill, and so, frequent opportunities -of discussing questions of doctrine with ecclesiastics and learned -laymen. A colloquy preserved by Chayim Ibn-Musa illustrates the spirit -which prevailed in Spain before the hateful Inquisition silenced all -freedom of speech. A learned ecclesiastic once asked Ibn-Musa why, -if Judaism, as he maintained, was the true faith, the Jews could not -possess themselves of the Holy Land and Jerusalem? Ibn Musa replied -that they had lost their country through the sins of their fathers, and -could regain it only by perfect atonement and purgation. He, in turn, -propounded a question: Why are the Christians no longer in possession -of the Holy Sepulcher? and why does it, together with all the sites -associated with the Passion, continue in the hands of Mahometan -infidels, notwithstanding that Christians, by means of confession and -absolution, and through the medium of the nearest available priest, -can free themselves at any moment from sin? Before the ecclesiastic -could bethink himself of a suitable reply, a knight, who had formerly -been in Palestine, interposed: The Mahometans are the only people -who deserve to possess the site of the Temple and the Holy Land, for -neither Christians nor Jews hold houses of prayer in so much honor -as they. The Christians, during the night before Easter (Vigils), -perpetrate shameful abominations in the churches at Jerusalem, abandon -themselves to debauchery, harbor thieves and murderers, and carry on -bloody feuds within their precincts. They dishonor their character in -the same way as the Jews profaned their Temple. Therefore, God, in His -wisdom, has deprived the Jews and the Christians of the Holy City, and -has intrusted it to the Mahometans, because, in their hands, it is -safe from desecration. To his observation the Christian priest and the -Jewish physician could oppose only abashed silence. - -Chayim Ibn-Musa devoted himself to the task of discrediting the chief -sources of the materials of Christian attacks on Judaism, the writings -of the Franciscan Nicholas de Lyra. He not only refuted the assertions -put forward in those works, but deprived them of the soil upon which -they fed. The ever-recurring controversies between Jews and Christians -led to no conclusions, and left each party in the belief that it had -gained a victory, because they generally turned on secondary questions, -the disputants never discussing fundamental premises, but wrangling, -each from his undemonstrated basis. Chayim Ibn-Musa wished to introduce -method into these controversies, and to lay down clear principles for -the defense of Judaism. Accordingly, he drew up rules which, strictly -observed, were bound to lead to a definite result. In the first -place, he advised Jews invariably to hold fast in a disputation to -the simple meaning of the Scriptures, always to take the context into -account, and especially to avoid allegorical or symbolical methods -of interpretation, which left Christian polemics free to introduce -arbitrary theories. Further, Jewish disputants were to announce that -they ascribed no authority in matters of belief either to the Chaldaic -translation of the Bible (Targum) or to the Greek (Septuagint), these -being the sources of the false proofs adduced by Christians. He -counseled them to abandon even Agadic exegesis, and not to hesitate to -declare that it had no weight in determining the doctrines of Judaism. -These and similar rules Chayim Ibn-Musa applied to the writings of -Nicholas de Lyra, successfully refuting them from beginning to end in a -comprehensive work, justly entitled "Shield and Sword." - -The anti-Christian polemical literature of this period was further -enriched by two writers, father and son, living in Algiers, far -removed from the scenes of the Christian propaganda. But Simon ben -Zemach Duran and his son, Solomon Duran, were Spaniards by birth and -education. In his philosophic exposition of Judaism, the former devoted -a chapter to Christianity, maintaining, in answer to Christian and -Mahometan objections, the inviolability of the Torah. This chapter, -entitled "Bow and Buckler," and described as being "for defense and -attack," proves the contention of older writers, and more recently of -Profiat Duran, that Jesus' intention was not to abolish Judaism. The -rabbi of Algiers exhibits extraordinarily wide acquaintance with the -literature of the New Testament and thorough familiarity with church -doctrine, combats each with weapons taken from its own arsenal, and -criticises unsparingly. - -Solomon Duran I (born about 1400, died 1467), who succeeded his father -in the Algerian rabbinate, combined with profound Talmudic knowledge -a decided leaning towards a rationalistic apprehension of Judaism. -Unlike his father and his ancestor, Nachmani, he was a sworn enemy of -the Kabbala. During his father's lifetime and at his request, he wrote -a refutation of the shameless, lying accusations brought against the -Talmud by Geronimo de Santa Fe. In an exhaustive treatise ("Letter on -the Conflict of Duties") he deals sharply with Geronimo's sallies. He -repels the accusation that the Talmud teaches lewdness, and proves -that it really inculcates extreme continence. Jews who regulate their -lives according to Talmudical prescriptions scrupulously abstain from -carnal sins, holding them in great abhorrence, and pointing with scorn -at persons guilty of them. How, asks Solomon Duran, can Christians -reproach Jews with unchastity--they, whose holiest men daily commit -sins which dare not be mentioned to modest ears, and which have become -proverbial as "Monk's sin" (peccato dei frati). - -Religious philosophy, which had been raised to the perfection of a -science only by Jewish-Spanish thinkers, had its last cultivators in -Spain during this period. The same men who protected Judaism against -the onslaughts of Christianity defended it against benighted Jews who -wished to banish light, and, like the Dominicans, desired to establish -blind faith in the place of reason and judgment. Zealots like Shem Tob -Ibn-Shem Tob and others, biased by their narrow Talmudical education, -and misled by the Kabbala, saw in scientific inquiry a byroad to -heresy. Perceiving that for the most part cultivated Jews succumbed to -the proselytizing efforts of Vincent Ferrer and Pope Benedict, men of -the stamp of Shem Tob were confirmed in their belief that philosophic -culture, nay, reflection on a religious topic, irretrievably lead -to apostasy. The logical result of religious impeachment of science -was the condemnation of Maimuni and all the Jewish thinkers who -had allowed reason to have weight in religious questions. Against -this form of bigotry Joseph Albo entered the lists with a complete -religio-philosophical work (Ikkarim, "fundamental teachings"), in which -he attempted to separate the essential doctrines of Judaism from the -non-essential, and to fix the boundary line between belief and heresy. - -Joseph Albo (born about 1380, died about 1444), of Monreal, one of -the principal representatives of Judaism at the Tortosa disputation, -who, probably through the intolerance of Pope Benedict, had emigrated -to Soria, was a physician and a pupil of Chasdai Crescas, hence well -acquainted with the physical sciences and the philosophic thought of -his time. Although a strict adherent of Talmudical Judaism, he was, -like his teacher, not averse to philosophic ideas. Indeed, he tried to -reconcile them, without, of course, permitting Judaism to yield a jot -to philosophy. Albo had not, however, the profundity of his teacher; as -a thinker he was superficial, commonplace, and incapable of writing -with logical sequence. On the advice of his friends, he undertook to -investigate in how far freedom of inquiry in religious matters was -possible within the limits of Judaism. At the same time he wished to -fix the number of articles of faith and to decide the question whether -the number thirteen adopted by Maimuni was correct, or whether it could -be increased or lessened without justly bringing a charge of heresy -on him who made the change. Thus originated his religio-philosophical -system, the last on Spanish soil. Albo's style differs widely from -that of his predecessors. He was a preacher--one of the cleverest -and most graceful--and this circumstance exercised marked influence -on his method of exposition. It is easy, comprehensible, popular and -captivating. Albo has the knack of explaining every philosophic idea by -a striking illustration, and of developing it by skillful employment -of Bible verses and Agadic aphorisms. What his style thus gained, on -the one hand, in intelligibility and popularity, it lost, on the other, -through a certain redundancy and shallowness. - -It is a remarkable fact that Albo, who thought that he was developing -his religio-philosophical system exclusively in the native spirit -of Judaism, placed at its head a principle of indubitably Christian -origin; so powerfully do surroundings affect even those who exert -themselves to throw off such influence. The religious philosopher -of Soria propounded as his fundamental idea that salvation was the -whole aim of man in this life, and that Judaism strongly emphasized -this aspect of religion. His teacher, Chasdai Crescas, and others, -had considered man's aim the bliss of the future life, to be found -in proximity to the Deity and in the union of the soul with the -all-pervading spirit of God. According to Albo highest happiness -consists not so much in the exaltation of the soul as in its salvation. -That is the nucleus of Albo's religio-philosophical system. Man -attains only after death the perfection for which he is destined by -God; for this higher life his mundane existence is but a preparation. -How can he best utilize his term of preparation? There are three -kinds of institutions for the reclamation of man from barbarism and -his advancement to civilization. The first is Natural Law, a sort of -social compact to abstain from theft, rapine and homicide; the second -is State Legislation, which cares for order and morals; and the third -is Philosophical Law, which aims at promoting the enduring happiness of -man, or, at least, at removing obstacles in the way of its realization. -All these institutions, even when highly developed, are powerless -to assist the real welfare of man, the redemption of his soul, his -beatitude; for they concern themselves only with actions, with proper -conduct, but do nothing to inculcate the views or supply the principles -which are to be the mainsprings of action. If the highest aim of man -be eternal life or beatitude after death, then there must be a Divine -Legislation, without which man in this world must always be groping -in darkness and missing his highest destiny. This Divine Legislation -must supply all the perfections lacking in its mundane counterpart. It -must have for its postulate a perfect God, who both wishes and is able -to promote the redemption of man; it must further bear witness to the -certainty that this God has revealed an unalterable Law calculated to -secure the happiness of man; and finally it must appoint a suitable -requital for actions and intentions. Hence this Divine Legislation has -three fundamental principles: the Existence of God, the Revelation of -His Will, and just Retribution after Death. These are the three pillars -on which it rests, and it requires none other. - -Judaism, then, according to Albo, is a discipline for eternal -salvation. It is "the Divine Legislation" (Dath Elohith), and, as -such, comprises many religious laws--613 according to the customary -calculation--to enable each individual to promote his own salvation. -For even a single religious precept fulfilled with intelligence -and devotion, and without mental reservation or ulterior motive, -entitles man to salvation. Consequently, the Torah, with its numerous -prescriptions, is not intended as a burden for its disciples, nor are -the Jews threatened, as Christian teachers maintain, with a curse in -the event of their not observing the entire number of commandments. -On the contrary, the object is to render easy the path to higher -perfection. Therefore, the Agada says that every Israelite has a share -in Eternal Life (Olam ha-ba), for each one can obtain this end by the -fulfillment of a single religious duty. - -Arrived at this point, the religious philosopher of Soria propounds -the question whether Judaism can ever be altered as previous -dispensations were by the Sinaitic Revelation. This question required -specially careful consideration, as Christians always maintained that -Christianity was a new revelation, as Judaism had been in its time; -that the "New Covenant" took the place of the "Old," and that by the -Gospel, the Torah had been fulfilled, _i. e._, abrogated. Albo had -acknowledged the existence of rudimentary revelations previous to that -of Sinai, and to avoid being entrapped by the consequences of his -own system he put forward a peculiar distinction. That which God had -once revealed by His own mouth direct to man was, by virtue of that -fact, unalterable and binding for all time; but that which had been -communicated only by a prophetic intermediary might suffer change or -even annulment. The Ten Commandments which the Israelites had received -direct from God, amid the flames of Sinai, were unalterable; in them -the three cardinal principles of a divine legislation are laid down. -On the other hand, the remaining prescriptions of Judaism, imposed on -the people solely through the mediation of Moses, were open to change -or even revocation. But this instability of a portion, perhaps a large -portion, of the Jewish religious law was only a theory, propounded -simply as a possibility. In practice the obligations of the Torah were -to be regarded as binding and unalterable, until it should please God -to reveal other laws through the medium of a prophet as great as Moses, -and in as open and convincing a manner as on Sinai. Hitherto no prophet -had made good his claim so far as to render necessary the rescinding of -any portion of Judaism. - -Albo's religious system is far from satisfactory. Based upon the -Christian doctrine of salvation, it was compelled to regard faith, in -a Christian sense, as the chief condition of the soul's redemption, -and the ordinances of Judaism as sacraments, similar to baptism or -communion, upon which salvation was dependent. Nor is the development -of his theory strictly logical. Too often the arts of the preacher take -the place of severe reasoning, and for the illustration of his ideas he -indulges in prolix sermons in exposition of Biblical and Agadic texts. - -A bolder thinker than Albo, but, like him, a preacher, was his junior -contemporary, Joseph Ibn-Shem Tob. At one time, when in disgrace with -the king of Castile, and leading a wandering life, he held forth every -Sabbath to large audiences. He had been well schooled in philosophy. -His Kabbalistical, gloomy and fanatical father, who denounced -philosophy as a primary source of evil, damned Aristotle to hell, and -even accused Maimuni of heterodoxy, must have been scandalized when -his son Joseph plunged deep, and with all his heart, into the study -of Aristotle and Maimuni. But Joseph did not hesitate to stigmatize -the error of his father and of those who thought the employment of -philosophic methods opposed to the interests of religion. He, on the -contrary, held that they were essential for the attainment of the -higher destiny to which all men, especially Israelites, are called. -The cultured, philosophical Jew who intelligently discharges all the -religious duties of Judaism obviously realizes his high aim much sooner -than the Israelite who practices his ceremonial blindly, without wisdom -or understanding. Science is also of great value in enabling human -intelligence to discriminate error. It is the nature of man's imperfect -intellect to foster truth and error side by side; but knowledge teaches -how to distinguish between the true and the false. On the other hand, -gaps in philosophical teaching are bridged over by the Sinaitic Law. -In so far as the latter conceives the happiness of man in the survival -of the spirit after the destruction of the body, it is immeasurably -the superior of philosophy. Judaism also names the means of attaining -eternal happiness--the conscientious fulfillment of religious -obligations. On this point, Joseph Shem Tob's view approximates that -of Joseph Albo. In his eyes, also, the commandments of Judaism have a -sacramental character, but he does not emphasize salvation so much as -Albo. Joseph Ibn-Shem Tob went so far, however, as to deny that the -objects of the religious laws were knowable, and, to a certain extent, -ascribed to them a mystical influence. - -None of these writings of the first half of the fifteenth century, -philosophical or polemical, was the fruit of leisure and an unfettered -spirit. All were stimulated into existence by the urgent necessities -of the times, and were put forth to protect the religious and moral -treasure-house from pressing danger. In order not to succumb, Judaism -was forced simultaneously to strengthen itself from within and ward off -attacks from without. - -It was, indeed, more than ever necessary for Judaism to arm itself, -doubly and trebly; its darkest days were approaching. Again the grim -church fiend arose, and the gruesome shadow of its extended wings swept -anxiously across Europe. As in the time of Innocent III, so again at -this period the church decreed the degradation and proscription of -the Jews. The old enactments were solemnly renewed by the official -representatives of Christendom, assembled in OEcumenical Council at -Basle, where they had declared their infallibility, and even sat in -judgment on the papacy. Curious, indeed! The council could not arrange -its own concerns, was powerless to bring the mocking Hussites back -to the bosom of Mother Church, despaired of putting an end to the -dissoluteness and vice of the clergy and monks, yet gave its attention -to the Jews to lead them to salvation. Leprous sheep themselves, they -sought to save unblemished lambs! The Basle church council, which sat -for thirteen years (June, 1431-May, 1443), examining all the great -European questions, gave no small share of its attention to the Jews. -Their humiliation was necessary for the strengthening of Christian -faith--such was the ground on which the council proceeded at its -nineteenth sitting (September 7th, 1434), when it resolved to revise -the old and devise new restrictions. The canonical decrees prohibiting -Christians from holding intercourse with Jews, from rendering them -services, and from employing them as physicians, excluding them from -offices and dignities, imposing on them a distinctive garb, and -ordering them to live in special Jew-quarters, were renewed. A few -fresh measures were adopted, new in so far as they had not previously -been put forward by the highest ecclesiastical authorities. These -provided that Jews should not be admitted to university degrees, that -they should be made, if necessary, by force, to attend the delivery -of conversionist sermons, and that at the colleges means should be -provided for combating Jewish heresy by instruction in Hebrew, Chaldee, -and Arabic. Thus the OEcumenical Council, which gave itself out as -inspired by the Holy Ghost, designed the conversion of all Jews. It -adopted the program of Penyaforte, Pablo Christiani, and Vincent -Ferrer, who had counseled systematic application of pressure to induce -the Jews to abandon "their infidelity." On the baptized Jews, too, -the Basle church council bestowed special attention. They were to be -favored, but also carefully watched, lest they marry Jews, keep the -Sabbath and Jewish feasts, bury their dead according to Jewish rites, -or, in fact, follow any Jewish observances. - -A fanatical paroxysm broke out afresh in various towns of Europe, -commencing in the island of Majorca. The remnant of the congregation -of Palma was hated alike by the priests and the mob, and both gave -a willing ear to the rumor that the Jews, during Holy Week, had -crucified the Moorish servant of a Jew, and put him to the torture. The -reputed martyr was still living, but, nevertheless, Bishop Gil-Nunjoz -caused two Jews to be imprisoned as ringleaders. Thereupon arose a -contest between the bishop and the governor, Juan Desfar, the latter -maintaining that as the Jews were the property of the king, he alone -could condemn them. The bishop was obliged to hand over the Jews, who -were locked up in the governor's jail. The priests, however, incited -the mob against the governor and the Jews, and before Juan Desfar -could arrange for a hearing, the people were prepossessed against -him. A court composed chiefly of Dominicans and Franciscans was -called together, and employed the rack as the most effectual means of -obtaining the truth from the witnesses. One of the accused put to the -torture acknowledged all that was desired, and pointed out any Jews who -happened to be mentioned as his accomplices. An unprincipled Jew named -Astruc Sibili, who lived in strife with many members of the community, -and feared to be involved in the blood accusation, came forward as the -denouncer of his co-religionists. Apparently of his own accord Astruc -Sibili acknowledged that the servant had been crucified, and pointed -out several Jews as the murderers. Although he kept himself clear from -all complicity in the matter, Astruc Sibili was soon punished for his -denunciations--he was thrown into prison as an accomplice. The fate -of the informer and the flight of several Jewish families, justly -fearing a repetition of massacres, from Palma to a mountain in the -vicinity, excited the Christian inhabitants yet more. The fugitives -were pursued, placed in fetters, and brought back to the city, their -flight being considered a proof of the guilt of the entire community. -Astruc Sibili and three others were condemned to be burnt at the stake, -but their punishment was commuted to death by hanging, on condition -that they be baptized. To this they agreed, considering baptism the -last straw by which their lives might be saved. The whole community, -men, women and children, two hundred in all, went over to Christianity -to escape a horrible death. The priests had ample employment in -baptizing the converts. How little they believed in the imputed crime -of the condemned was shown when, the gallows being reached, the -priests, encouraging the mob to do the same, demanded the pardon of -the condemned. The governor yielded to the voice of the people, and -by a procession and amid singing they were escorted to the church, -where a _Te Deum_ was chanted. Thus ended the community of Majorca, -which had lasted over a thousand years, and had greatly contributed to -the well-being of the island. With it disappeared the prosperity of -this fruitful and favored island. Simon Duran, deeply grieved at the -secession of the community of Palma, which he had lovingly cherished, -silenced his conscience with the thought that he had not been remiss in -exhortation. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -CAPISTRANO AND HIS PERSECUTION OF THE JEWS. - - Pope Eugenius IV, under the Influence of Alfonso de Cartagena, - changes his Attitude towards the Jews--His Bull against the - Spanish and Italian Jews in 1442--Don Juan II defends the - Jews--Pope Nicholas V's Hostility--Louis of Bavaria--The - Philosopher Nicholas of Cusa and his Relation to Judaism--John - of Capistrano--His Influence with the People is turned against - the Jews--Capistrano in Bavaria and Wuerzburg--Expulsion - of the Breslau Community--Expulsion of the Jews from Bruenn - and Olmuetz--The Jews of Poland under Casimir IV--Capture - of Constantinople by Mahomet II--The Jews find an Asylum in - Turkey--The Karaites--Moses Kapsali--Isaac Zarfati--Position - of the Jews of Spain--Persecutions directed by Alfonso de - Spina--The Condition of the Marranos. - -1442-1474 C.E. - - -About the middle of the fifteenth century, venomous hatred of Jews, -become characteristic of Spain and Germany, began to increase, and at -the end of that century reached its highest development. In Spain it -was stimulated principally by envy of the influential positions still -enjoyed by Jews in spite of misfortune and humiliation; in Germany, -on the contrary, where the Jews moved like shadows, it arose from -vague race-antipathy, of which religious differences formed only one -aspect. An unfortunate event for the German communities was the death -of Emperor Sigismund (towards the end of 1437) at the moment when the -council of Basle was casting a threatening glance in their direction. -This prince was not a reliable protector of the Jews. Often enough he -bled them to relieve his ever-recurring pecuniary embarrassments, and -he even charged them with the expenses of the council of Constance. -But so far as lay in his power he set his face against the bloody -persecutions of his Hebrew subjects. He was succeeded as German -king and emperor by the Austrian Archduke Albert, who had already -distinguished himself by inhumanity towards Jews. Albert II was a -deadly enemy of Jews and heretics. He could not exterminate either, for -the Hussites had courage and arms, and the Jews were an indispensable -source of money; but whenever it was sought to injure them he gladly -assisted. When the town council of Augsburg decided to expel the Jewish -community (1439), the emperor joyfully gave his consent. Two years -were granted them to dispose of their houses and immovables; at the -end of that time they were one and all exiled, and the grave-stones in -the Jewish cemetery used to repair the city walls. Fortunately for the -Jews, Albert reigned only two years, and the rule of the Holy Roman -Empire, or rather the anarchy by which it was convulsed, devolved on -the good-natured, weak, indolent, and tractable Frederick III. As a set -off, two fanatical Jew-haters now arose--Pope Eugenius IV and the -Franciscan, John of Capistrano, a cut-throat in the guise of a lowly -servant of God. - -Eugenius, whom the council of Basle had degraded step by step, -depriving him of his dignities and electing another pope in his place, -ultimately triumphed through the treachery of some of the principal -members of the council and the helplessness of the German princes, and -was again enabled to befool the Christian nations. Eugenius, though of -narrow, monkish views, was at first not unfavorably disposed towards -the Jews. At the beginning of his pontificate, he confirmed the -privileges granted Jews by his predecessor, Martin V, promised them -his protection, and forbade their forcible baptism. But he was soon -influenced in an opposite direction, and developed extraordinary zeal -in degrading the Jews and withdrawing all protection from them. The -prime mover in this conversion seems to have been Alfonso de Cartagena, -a son of the apostate Paul de Santa Maria. Appointed bishop of Burgos -on the death of his father, Alfonso warmly espoused the cause of Pope -Eugenius at the council of Basle, and hence rose high in the favor of -the pontiff. He alone could have been the author of the complaints -against the pride and arrogance of the Castilian Jews which induced -the pope to issue the bull of 1442. This document was addressed to -the bishops of Castile and Leon (10th August, 1442), and was to the -effect that it had come to the knowledge of his Holiness that the -Jews abuse the privileges granted them by former popes, blaspheming -and transgressing to the vexation of the faithful and the dishonor of -the true faith. He felt himself compelled, therefore, to withdraw the -indulgences granted by his predecessors--Martin and other popes-- -and to declare them null and void. At the same time Eugenius repeated -the canonical restrictions in a severer form. Thus, he decreed that -Christians should not eat, drink, bathe, or live with Jews (or -Mahometans), nor use medicines of any kind purveyed by them. Jews (and -Mahometans) should not be eligible for any office or dignity, and -should be incompetent to inherit property from Christians. They were -to build no more synagogues, and, in repairing the old, were to avoid -all ornamentation. They were to seclude themselves from the public -eye during Passion Week, to the extent even of keeping their doors -and windows closed. The testimony of Jews (and Mahometans) against -Christians was declared invalid. Eugenius' bull emphatically enjoined -that no Christian should stand in any relation of servitude to a Jew, -and should not even kindle a fire for him on the Sabbath; that Jews -should be distinguished from Christians by a peculiar costume, and -reside in special quarters. Furthermore, every blasphemous utterance -by a Jew about Jesus, the "Mother of God," or the saints, was to be -severely punished by the civil tribunals. This bull was ordered to -be made known throughout the land, and put in force thirty days -later. Heavy penalties were to be exacted for offenses under it. If -the culprit was a Christian, he was to be placed under the ban of the -church, and neither king nor queen was to be exempt; if a Jew, then -the whole of his fortune, personal and real, was to be confiscated -by the bishop of the diocese, and applied to the purposes of the -church. By means of circular letters, Eugenius exhorted the Castilian -ecclesiastics to enforce the restrictions without mercy. He dared not -be outdone in Jew-hatred by the council of Basle. At about the same -time, or perhaps earlier, Eugenius issued a bull of forty-two articles -against the Italian Jewish communities, in which, among other things, -he ordered that, under pain of confiscation of property, Jews should -not read Talmudic literature. - -The papal bull for Castile was proclaimed in many of the towns, as it -would appear, without the consent of the king, Juan II. The fanatics -had won the day; all their wishes were fulfilled. The misguided people -at once considered Jews and Mahometans outlawed, and proceeded to -make violent attacks on their persons and property. Pious Christians -interpreted the papal ordinances to mean that they were not to continue -commercial relations of any kind with the Jews. Christian shepherds -forthwith abandoned the flocks and herds committed to their charge by -Jews and Mahometans, and plowmen turned their backs upon the fields. -The union of towns (Hermandad) framed new statutes for the more -complete oppression of the proscribed of the church. In consternation -the Jews appealed to the king of Castile. Their complaints had all -the more effect upon him as their damage meant damage to the royal -exchequer. Accordingly, Juan II, or rather his favorite, Alvaro de -Luna, issued a counter decree (April 6th, 1443). He expressed his -indignation at the shamelessness which made the papal bull an excuse -for assaults on the Jews and Mahometans. Canonical, royal and imperial -law agreed in permitting them to live undisturbed and unmolested among -Christians. The bull of Pope Eugenius placed Jews and Mahometans under -certain specific restrictions; but it did not follow that they might -be robbed, injured or maltreated, that they might not engage in trade -or industry, nor work as weavers, goldsmiths, carpenters, barbers, -shoe-makers, tailors, millers, coppersmiths, saddlers, rope-makers, -potters, cartwrights or basket-makers, or that Christians might not -serve them in these pursuits. Such service involved neither relaxation -of Christian authority nor dangerous intimacy with Jews. Nor did it -appear that the avocations mentioned conferred any of that prestige -which solely the bull was designed to deny to Jews. - -Christians should certainly abstain from the medicines of Jewish or -Moorish physicians, unless compounded by Christian hands; but this did -not mean that skillful doctors of the Jewish or the Mahometan faith -should not be consulted, or their medicines not used, when no Christian -physician was available. Juan II imposed upon the magistracy the duty -of safeguarding the Jews and Mahometans, as objects of his special -protection, and instructed them to punish Christian offenders with -imprisonment and confiscation of goods. He furthermore ordered that his -pleasure be made known throughout the land by public criers, in the -presence of a notary. - -Whether this sophistical decree was of any real use to the Jews is -doubtful. Don Juan II had not much authority in his kingdom, and -was obliged to make frequent concessions to hostile parties, with -whom his own son occasionally made common cause. The Castilian Jews -were consequently abandoned to the arbitrary authority of the local -magistrates during the remainder of the reign of this well-meaning but -weak monarch, and were obliged to come to terms with them whenever -protection was required against violence or false accusations. Did any -misfortune threaten a Jew, then the tailor would fly to his princely -patron, or the goldsmith to a grandee of high position, and seek to -avert it by supplications or gold. It was truly no enviable situation -in which the Jews found themselves. - -Eugenius' successor, Pope Nicholas V (March, 1447-March, 1455), -continued the system of degrading and oppressing the Jews. As -soon as he ascended the throne of St. Peter he devoted himself to -abolishing the privileges of the Italian Jews, which Martin V had -confirmed and Eugenius had not formally revoked, and subjecting them -to exceptional laws. In a bull, dated June 23d, 1447, he repeated -for Italy the restrictions which his predecessor had formulated for -Castile, re-enacting them in the fullest detail, not even omitting the -prohibition against the lighting of fires for Jews on the Sabbath. But -though Nicholas' bull was only a copy, it had much more real force than -the original; for its execution was confided to the pitiless Jew-hater -and heretic-hunter, John of Capistrano. On him devolved the duty of -seeing, either in person or through his brother Franciscans, that the -provisions of the bull were literally obeyed, and infractions strictly -punished. If, for example, a Jewish physician provided a suffering -Christian with the means of regaining health, Capistrano was authorized -to confiscate the whole of the offender's fortune and property. And the -saintly monk, with heart of stone, was just the man to visit such a -transgression with unrelenting severity. - -The Jew-hatred of the council of Basle and the popes spread like a -contagion over a wide area. The fierce and bigoted Bavarian Duke of -Landshut, Louis the Rich--"a hunter of game and Jews"--had all -the Jews of his country arrested on one day (Monday, October 5th, -1450), shortly after his accession to power. The men were thrown into -prison, the women shut up in the synagogues, and their property and -jewelry confiscated. Christian debtors were directed not to pay their -Jewish creditors more than the capital they had originally borrowed, -and to deduct from that the interest already paid. After four weeks of -incarceration the unhappy Jews were obliged to purchase their lives -from the turbulent duke for 30,000 gulden, and then, penniless and -almost naked, they were turned out of the country. Gladly would Louis -have meted out the same treatment to the large and rich community -of Ratisbon, which was within his jurisdiction. As, however, his -authority was recognized only to a limited extent, and as the Jews of -the city were under the protection of the council and its privileges, -he was obliged to content himself with levying contributions. Many -Jews are said to have been driven by anxiety and want into embracing -Christianity. - -As the rest of the European Jews regarded their Spanish brethren as an -exalted and favored class, so the papacy directed special attention to -them in order to put an end to their favorable position in the state. -Either on the proposition of the king to modify the severe canonical -restrictions against Jews, or on the petition of their enemies to -confirm them, Pope Nicholas V issued a new bull (March 1st, 1451). He -confirmed the old exclusions from Christian society and all honorable -walks of life, and entirely abolished the privileges of the Spanish and -the Italian Jews. - -The unpitying harshness of canonical legislation against the children -of Israel was unconsciously based on fear. All-powerful Christianity -dreaded the influence which the Jewish mind might exert on the -Christian population in too familiar intercourse. What the papacy -concealed in the incense-clouds of its official decrees was disclosed -by a philosophical writer and cardinal standing in close relation -with the papal court. Nicholas de Cusa (from Cues on the Moselle), -the last devotee of scholasticism, into which he tried to introduce -mystic elements, enthusiastically advocated, in the face of the -dissensions of Christendom, a union of all religions in one creed. -The church ceremonies he was prepared to sacrifice, nay, he was ready -to accept circumcision, if, by such means, non-Christians could be -won over to the belief in the Trinity. He feared, as he distinctly -said, the stiffneckedness of the Jews, who cling so stubbornly to -their monotheism; but he consoled himself with the reflection that -an unarmed handful could not disturb the peace of the world. It is -true, the Jews were unarmed; but, mentally, they were still powerful, -and Nicholas resolved to devote himself to the task of depriving -them of intellectual strength. The pope had appointed him legate for -Germany, where he was to reform church and cloister (1450-1451). But -the cardinal also occupied himself with the Jewish question. At the -provincial council of Bamberg he put into force the canonical statute -concerning Jew badges, which provided that men should wear round -pieces of red cloth on their breasts, and women blue stripes on their -head-dresses--as if the branding of Jews could heal the dissolute -clergy and their demoralized flocks of their uncleanness. The only -result of the isolation of the Jews was their protection from the taint -of prevailing immorality. The cardinal was not successful in purifying -the clergy, or in putting an end to the fraud of bleeding hosts and -miracle-working images, against which he had exclaimed so loudly. The -church remained corrupt to the core. There would have been abundant -cause to fear the Jews, if they had been permitted to probe the -suppurating wounds. - -Especially troublesome to the church were the thousands of baptized -Jews in Spain, who had been driven into its fold by the massacres, -pulpit denunciations, and legal restrictions to which their race -was exposed. Not only the lay new-Christians, but also those who had -taken orders or had assumed the monk's garb, continued to observe, -more or less openly, the Jewish religious laws. The sophistry of the -converts, Paul de Santa Maria and Geronimo de Santa Fe, regarding -the testimony in the Old Testament and the Talmudic Agada to the -Messiahship of Jesus, the Incarnation of God, the Trinity and other -church dogmas, impressed the Marranos but little. In spite of baptism, -they remained stiff-necked and blind, _i. e._, true to the faith of -their fathers. Don Juan of Castile, at the instigation of his favorite, -Alvaro de Luna, who was anxious to strike at his arch-enemies, the -new-Christians, complained to Pope Nicholas V of the relapses of the -Marranos, and the pontiff knew of no remedy but force. He addressed -rescripts to the bishop of Osma and the vicar of Salamanca (November -20th, 1451), empowering them to appoint inquisitors to inquire -judicially into cases of new-Christians suspected of Judaizing. The -inquisitors were authorized to punish the convicted, imprison them, -confiscate their goods and disgrace them, to degrade even priests, and -hand them over to the secular arm--a church euphemism for condemning -them to the heretic's stake. This was the first spark of the hell-fire -of the Inquisition, which perpetrated more inhumanity than all the -tyrants and malefactors branded by history. At first this bull seems -to have been ineffectual. The times were not ripe for the bloody -institution. Besides, the Christians themselves helped to keep up the -connection of the baptized Jews with their brethren in race. They -denied equal rights to new-Christians of Jewish or Mahometan origin, -and wished to exclude them from all posts of honor. Against this -antipathy, inherent in the diversity of national elements, the pope was -compelled to issue a bull (November 29th, 1451), but it was powerless -to uproot the prejudice. It could be removed only by higher culture, -not at the dictation of a church chief, even though he boasted of -infallibility. - -How absurd, then, to continue driving such proselytes into the church! -Yet this was done by the Franciscan monk, John of Capistrano (of -Neapolitan origin), who is responsible for immense injury to the Jews -of many lands. This mendicant friar, of gaunt figure and ill-favored -appearance, possessed a winning voice and an iron will, which enabled -him to obtain unbounded influence, not only over the stupid populace, -but also over the cultivated classes. With a word he could fascinate, -inspire, or terrify, persuade to piety or incite to cruelty. Like the -Spanish Dominican, Vincent Ferrer, the secret of Capistrano's power -lay not so much in his captivating eloquence as in the sympathetic -modulations of his voice and the unshakable enthusiasm with which he -clung to his mistaken convictions. He himself firmly believed that, -with the blood he had gathered from the nose of his master, Bernard -of Siena, and his _capuche_, he could cure the sick, awake the dead -and perform all kinds of miracles, and the misguided people not -only believed but exaggerated his professions. His strictly ascetic -life, his hatred of good living, luxury and debauchery, made an -impression the deeper from its striking contrast to the sensuality -and dissoluteness of the great bulk of the clergy and monks. Wherever -Capistrano appeared, the people thronged by thousands to hear him, to -be edified and agitated, even though they did not understand a syllable -of his Latin addresses. The astute popes, Eugenius IV and Nicholas -V, recognized in him a serviceable instrument for the restoration of -the tottering authority of St. Peter. They rejoiced in his homilies -on the infallibility of the papacy and his fiery harangues on the -extermination of heretics, and the necessity of withstanding the -victoriously advancing Turks. They offered no objection if, at the -same time, he thought proper to vent his monkish gall upon harmless -amusements, pastimes and the elegancies of life, seeing that they -themselves were not disturbed in their enjoyments and pleasures. Among -the standing themes of Capistrano's exciting discourses--second only -to his rancor against heretics and Turks, and his tirades against -luxury and sports--were his denunciations of the impieties and the -usury of Jews. This procured his appointment by Pope Nicholas to the -post of inquisitor of the Jews, his duty being to superintend the -enforcement of the canonical restrictions against them. He had in -Naples occupied the position of inquisitorial judge for the Jews, on -the nomination of Queen Joanna, who had empowered him to punish with -the severest penalties any failure to observe the ecclesiastical law or -wear the Jew badge. - -When this infuriate Capuchin visited Germany, he spread terror and -dismay among the Jews. They trembled at the mention of his name. In -Bavaria, Silesia, Moravia, and Austria, the bigotry of the Catholics, -already at a high pitch on account of the Hussite schism, was further -stirred by Capistrano, and, the Bohemian heretics being beyond its -reach, it vented itself upon Jews. The Bavarian dukes, Louis and -Albert, who had on one occasion before driven the Jews out of their -territories, were made still more fanatical by Capistrano. The former -demanded of certain counts, and of the city of Ratisbon, that they -expel the Jews. The burgomaster and town council, however, refused, and -would not withdraw the protection and the rights of citizenship which -the Jews had enjoyed from an early period. But they could not shield -them from the hostility of the clergy. Eventually even the Ratisbon -burghers, despite their good will for their Jewish fellow-citizens, -fell under the influence of Capistrano's fanaticism, and allowed -themselves to be incited to acts of unfriendliness. In the midwife -regulations, promulgated during the same year, occurs a clause -prohibiting Christian midwives from attending Jewish women, even in -cases where the lives of the patients were at stake. - -The change of public feeling in respect to the Jews, brought about by -Capistrano, is strikingly illustrated by the conduct of one eminent -ecclesiastic before and after the appearance of the Capuchin in -Germany. Bishop Godfrey, of Wuerzburg, reigning duke of Franconia, -shortly after his accession to the government of the duchy, had granted -the fullest privileges to the Jews. More favorable treatment they -could not have desired. For himself and his successors he promised -special protection to all within his dominions, both to those settled -and those who might settle there later. They were to be freed from -the authority of the ordinary tribunals, lay and ecclesiastical, and -to have their disputes inquired into and adjudicated by their own -courts. Their rabbi (Hochmeister) was to be exempt from taxes, and -to be allowed to receive pupils in his _Yeshiba_ at his discretion. -Their movements were to be unrestricted, and those who might desire to -change their place of residence were to be assisted to collect their -debts, and provided with safe-conduct on their journeys. It was further -promised that these privileges should never be modified or revoked, -and the dean and chapter unanimously recognized and guaranteed them -"for themselves and their successors in the chapter." Every Jew who -took up his abode within Bishop Godfrey's jurisdiction was provided -with special letters of protection. But after Capistrano had begun his -agitation, how different the attitude towards Jews! We soon find the -same bishop and duke of Franconia issuing, "on account of the grievous -complaints against the Jews in his diocese," a statute and ordinance -(1453) decreeing their banishment. They were allowed until the 18th -January of the following year to sell their immovables, and within -fourteen days after that date, they were to leave, for "he (the bishop) -would no longer tolerate Jews in his diocese." The towns, barons, -lords, and justices were enjoined to expel the Jews from their several -jurisdictions, and Jewish creditors were deprived of a portion of the -debts owing to them. When Jews were concerned, inhuman fanaticism could -beguile a noble-hearted prince of the church and an entire chapter of -ecclesiastics into a flagrant breach of faith. - -Capistrano's influence was most mischievous for the Jews of Silesia. -Here he showed himself in truth to be the "Scourge of the Jews," as -his admirers called him. The two chief communities in this province, -which belonged half to Poland and half to Bohemia, were at Breslau -and Schweidnitz, and the Jews composing them, not being permitted to -possess real property, and being, besides, largely engaged in the -money traffic, had considerable amounts of money at their command. The -majority of the nobles were among their debtors, and several towns were -either themselves debtors or had become security for their princes. -Hence it is not unlikely that some debtors of rank secretly planned -to evade their liabilities by ridding themselves of the Jews. At any -rate the advent of the fanatical Franciscan afforded an opportunity for -carrying out such a design. - -Capistrano came to the Silesian capital on the invitation of the -bishop of Breslau, Peter Novak, who found himself unable to control -his subordinate ecclesiastics. Summoning the clergy to his presence, -the Franciscan preacher upbraided them for their sinful, immoral, and -sensual lives. The doors of the church in which the interview took -place were securely bolted, so that no lay ear might learn the full -extent of the depravity of the ministers of the Gospel. But nearer to -his heart than the reclamation of the clergy was the extermination of -the Hussites, of whom there were many in Silesia, and the persecution -of the Jews. The frenzied fanaticism with which Capistrano's harangues -inspired the people of Breslau directed itself principally against the -Jews. A report was spread that a Jew named Meyer, one of the wealthiest -of the Breslau Israelites, in whose safe-keeping were many of the bonds -of the burghers and nobles, had purchased a host from a peasant, had -stabbed and blasphemed it, and then distributed its fragments among -the communities of Schweidnitz, Liegnitz, and others for further -desecration. It need hardly be said that the wounded host was alleged -to have shed blood. This imbecile fiction soon reached the ears of the -municipal authorities, with whom it found ready credence. Forthwith -all the Jews of Breslau, men, women and children, were thrown into -prison, their entire property in the "Judengasse" seized, and, what -was most important to the authors of the catastrophe, the bonds of -their debtors, worth about 25,000 Hungarian gold florins, confiscated -(2d May, 1453). The guilt of the Jews was rendered more credible by -the flight of a few of them, who were, however, soon taken. Capistrano -assumed the direction of the inquiry into this important affair. As -inquisitor, the leading voice in the prosecution of blasphemers of the -consecrated wafer by right belonged to him. He ordered a few Jews to -be stretched on the rack, and personally instructed the torturers in -their task--he had experience in such work. The tortured Israelites -confessed. Meantime another infamous lie was circulated. A wicked -baptized Jewess declared that the Breslau Jews had once before burnt -a host, and that, on another occasion, they had kidnaped a Christian -boy, fattened him, and put him into a cask studded with sharp nails, -which they rolled about until their victim gave up the ghost. His -blood had been distributed among the Silesian communities. Even the -bones of the murdered child were alleged to have been found. The guilt -of the Jews appeared established in these various cases, and a large -number, in all 318 persons, were arrested in different localities, -and brought to Breslau. Capistrano sat in judgment upon them, and -hurried them to execution. At the Salzring--now Bluecherplatz--where -Capistrano resided, forty-one convicted Jews were burnt on one day (2d -June, 1453). The rabbi (Phineas?) hanged himself; he had also counseled -others to take their own lives. The remainder were banished from -Breslau, all their children under seven years of age having previously -been taken from them by force, baptized, and given to Christians to -be brought up. This was Capistrano's wish, and in a learned treatise -he explained to King Ladislaus that it was in consonance with the -Christian religion and orthodoxy. The honest town clerk, Eschenloer, -who did not venture to protest aloud against these barbarities, wrote -in his diary, "Whether this is godly or not, I leave to the judgment of -the ministers of religion." The ministers of religion had transformed -themselves into savages. The goods of the burnt and banished Jews were, -of course, seized, and with their proceeds the Bernardine church was -built. It was not the only church erected with bloody money. In the -remaining Silesian towns the Jews fared no better. Some were burnt, and -the rest chased away, stripped almost to the skin. - -When the young king, Ladislaus, was petitioned by the Breslau town -council to decree that from that time forward no Jew would be allowed -to settle in Breslau, not only did he assent "for the glory of God -and the honor of the Christian faith," but he added, in approval of -the outrages committed, "that they (the Silesian Jews) had suffered -according to their deserts," a remark worthy of the son of Albert II, -who had burnt the Austrian Jews. The same monarch also sanctioned-- -doubtless at the instigation of Capistrano, who passed several months -at Olmuetz--the expulsion of the Jews from the latter place and from -Bruenn. - -The echoes of Capistrano's venomous eloquence reached even Poland, -disturbing the Jewish communities there from the tranquillity they -had enjoyed for centuries. Poland had long been a refuge for hunted -and persecuted Jews. Exiles from Germany, Austria and Hungary found a -ready welcome on the Vistula. The privileges generously granted them -by Duke Boleslav, and renewed and confirmed by King Casimir the Great, -were still in force. The Jews were, in fact, even more indispensable -in that country than in other parts of Christian Europe; for in Poland -there were only two classes, nobles and serfs, and the Jews supplied -the place of the middle class, providing merchandise and money, and -bringing the dead capital of the country into circulation. During a -visit which Casimir IV paid to Posen shortly after his accession, -a fire broke out in this already important city, and, with the -exception of its few brick houses, it was totally destroyed. In this -conflagration, the original document of the privileges granted the Jews -a century before by Casimir the Great perished. Jewish deputations from -a number of Polish communities waited upon the king, lamenting the -loss of these records, so important to them, and praying that new ones -might be prepared according to existing copies, and that all their old -rights might be renewed and confirmed. Casimir did not require much -persuasion. In order that they might live in security and contentment -under his happy reign, he granted them privileges such as they had -never before enjoyed in any European state (14th August, 1447). This -king was in no respect a slave of the church. So strictly did he keep -the clergy within bounds that they charged him with persecuting and -robbing them. He forbade their meddling in affairs of state, saying -that in such matters he preferred to rely on his own powers. - -Either the king was misled by a false copy of the original charters, -or he desired to avail himself of the opportunity of enlarging their -scope without appearing to make fresh concessions; at all events, the -privileges accorded under the new statute were, in many respects, more -considerable than those formerly enjoyed by the Jews. Not alone did -it permit unrestricted trading and residence all over the then very -extensive kingdom of Poland, but it annulled canonical laws often laid -down by the popes, and only recently re-enacted by the general church -council of Basle. Casimir's charter mentioned that Jews and Christians -might bathe together, and in all respects enjoy free intercourse with -each other. It emphatically decreed that no Christian could summon -a Jew before an ecclesiastical tribunal, and that if a Jew was so -summoned, he need not appear. The palatines in their several provinces -were enjoined to see that the Jews were not molested by the clergy, and -generally to extend to them powerful protection. Furthermore, no Jew -might be accused of using Christian blood in the Passover ceremonies, -or of desecrating hosts, "Jews being innocent of such offenses, which -are repudiated by their religion." If a Christian charged an individual -Jew with using Christian blood, his accusation had to be supported -by native, trustworthy Jewish witnesses and four similarly qualified -Christian witnesses, and then the accused was to suffer for his -crime, and his co-religionists were not to be dragged into it. In the -event, however, of the Christian accuser not being in a position to -substantiate his charge by credible testimony, he was to be punished -with death. This was a check on ever-recurring calumny with its train -of massacres of Jews. Casimir also recognized the judicial autonomy of -the Jewish community. In criminal cases between Jews, or between Jews -and Christians, the ordinary tribunals were not to interfere, but the -palatine, or his representative, assisted by Jews, was to adjudicate. -In minor law-suits the decision was to rest with the Jewish elders -(rabbis), who were permitted to inflict a fine of six marks in cases -where their summonses were not obeyed. To keep the authority of the -Jewish courts within reasonable bounds, Casimir's charter enacted that -the ban should be pronounced on a Jew only with the concurrence of the -entire community. Truly, in no part of Christian Europe were the Jews -possessed of such important privileges. They were renewed and issued -by the king with the assent of the Polish magnates. Also the Karaite -communities of Troki, Luzk, etc., received from Casimir a renewal and -confirmation of the privileges granted them by the Lithuanian Duke -Witold in the thirteenth century. - -The clergy looked with jealous eyes on this complaisance to the -Jews, and zealously worked to induce the king to change his friendly -attitude. At the head of the Polish priesthood thus hostile to the -Jews stood the influential bishop and cardinal of Cracow, Zbigniev -Olesnicki. The protection accorded the Jews and Hussites by the king -was to him a source of deep chagrin, and, to give effective vent to -his feelings, he sent in hot haste for the heretic-hunter Capistrano. -Capistrano entered Cracow in triumph, and was received by the king -and the clergy like a divine being. During the whole of his stay in -Cracow (August 28th, 1453, to May, 1454), aided by Bishop Zbigniev, he -stirred up King Casimir against the Hussite heretics and the Jews. He -publicly remonstrated with him on the subject, threatening him with -hell-fire and an unsuccessful issue to his war with the Prussian order -of knights, if he did not abolish the privileges enjoyed by Jews, and -abandon the Hussite heretics to the church. It was easy to predict a -defeat at the hands of the Prussian knights, seeing that the pope and -the whole of the Polish church were secretly assisting them against -Casimir. - -Therefore, when the Teutonic knights, in aid of their Prussian allies, -took the field against Poland, and the Polish army, with King Casimir -at its head, was ignominiously put to flight (September, 1454), the -game of the clerical party was won. They spread the rumor that the -disaster to Poland was a consequence of the king's favor to Jews and -heretics. To retrieve his fallen fortunes, and to undertake a vigorous -campaign against the Prussians, Casimir needed the assistance of Bishop -Zbigniev, and the latter was in a position to make his own terms. -The Jews were sacrificed--the king was compelled to give them up. -In November, 1454, Casimir revoked all the privileges he had granted -the Jews, on the ground that "infidels may not enjoy preference over -the worshipers of Christ, and servants may not be better treated than -sons." By public criers the king's resolve was made known throughout -the land. Besides, Casimir ordered that the Jews of Poland wear a -special costume to distinguish them from Christians. Capistrano was -victorious all along the line. Through him the Jews were abased even -in the land where they had been most exalted. The results of this -misfortune were not long in showing themselves. The Jewish communities -mournfully wrote to their brethren in Germany, "that 'the monk' had -brought grievous trouble," even to those who lived under the scepter of -the king of Poland, whose lot had formerly been so happy that they had -been able to offer a refuge to the persecuted of other lands. They had -not believed that an enemy could reach them across the Polish frontier; -and now they had to groan under the oppression of the king and the -magnates. - -Meanwhile, heavy but deserved judgment descended on Christendom. After -an existence of more than a thousand years the sin-laden Byzantine -empire, which had stood its ground for centuries in spite of its -rottenness, had at length collapsed with the fall of Constantinople -(May 29th, 1453). The Turkish conqueror, Mahomet II, had given New Rome -over to slavery, spoliation, massacre, and every horror and outrage, -yet had, by no means, requited the wrongs she had inflicted on others -and herself. From Constantine, the founder of the Byzantine empire, -who placed a blood-stained sword in the hands of the church, to the -last of the emperors, Constantine Dragosses, of the Palaeologus family, -everyone in the long series of rulers (with the exception of the -apostate Julian) was more or less inspired by falsehood and treachery, -and an arrogant, hypocritical, persecuting spirit. And the people, as -well as the servants of state and church, were worthy of their rulers. -From them the German, Latin and Slavonic peoples had derived the -principle that the Jews ought to be degraded by exceptional laws, or -even exterminated. Now, however, Byzantium itself lay shattered in the -dust, and wild barbarians were raising the new Turkish empire on its -site. Heavy vengeance had been exacted. Mahomet II, the conqueror of -Constantinople, threw a threatening glance at the remainder of Europe, -the countries of the Latin Church. The whole of Christendom was in -danger; yet the Christian rulers and nations were unable to organize -an effective resistance against the Turkish conquerors. The perfidy -and corruption of the papacy now bore bitter fruit. When the faithless -pope, Nicholas V, called upon Christendom to undertake a crusade -against the Turks, his legates at the diet of Ratisbon were compelled -to listen to unsparing denunciation of his corruption. Neither the pope -nor the emperor, they were told, had any real thought of undertaking a -war against the Turks; their sole idea was to squander upon themselves -the money they might collect. When the Turks made preparations to -invade Hungary, and threatened to carry the victorious crescent from -the right to the left side of the Danube, Capistrano preached himself -hoarse to kindle enthusiasm for a new crusade. His tirades had ceased -to draw. Their only effect was to assemble a ragged mob of students, -peasants, mendicant friars, half-starved adventurers and romantic -fanatics. The ghost of mediaevalism vanished before the dawn of a new -day. - -It seems almost providential that, at a moment when the persecutions -in Europe were increasing in number and virulence, the new Turkish -empire should have arisen to offer an hospitable asylum to the hunted -Jews. When, three days after the chastisement which he inflicted -on Constantinople, the sultan, Mahomet II, proclaimed that all the -fugitive inhabitants might return to their homes and estates without -fear of molestation, he gave a benevolent thought to the Jews. He -permitted them to settle freely in Constantinople and other towns, -allotted them special dwelling-places, and allowed them to erect -synagogues and schools. Soon after his capture of Constantinople, -he ordered the election of a Greek patriarch, whom he invested -with a certain political authority over all the Greeks in his new -dominions, and also nominated a chief rabbi to preside over the Hebrew -communities. This was a pious, learned, upright Israelite, named Moses -Kapsali. Mahomet even summoned this rabbi to the divan, and singled -him out for special distinction, giving him a seat next to the mufti, -the Chief Ulema of the Mahometans, and precedence over the patriarch. -Moses Kapsali (born about 1420, died about 1495), also received from -the sultan a kind of political suzerainty over the Jewish communities -in Turkey. The taxes imposed upon the Jews he had to apportion among -communities and individuals; he had to superintend their collection -and to pay them into the sultan's exchequer. He was furthermore -empowered to inflict punishment on his co-religionists, and no rabbi -could hold office without his sanction. In short, he was the chief and -the official representative of a completely organized Jewish communal -system. - -This favorable situation of the Jews had a stimulating effect on the -degenerate Karaites, who migrated in considerable numbers from Asia, -the Crimea and southern Poland, to take up their abode with their more -happily placed brethren in Constantinople and Adrianople. The Karaites, -whose fundamental principle is the study and reasonable interpretation -of the Bible, were in so lamentable a state of ignorance, that their -entire religious structure had become a system of authorized dogmas -and traditions more rigid even than that of the Rabbanites. The extent -of their intellectual decline may be measured by the fact that in the -course of a century they failed to produce a single moderately original -theological writer. Those with a bent for study were compelled to sit -at the feet of Rabbanite teachers and receive from them instruction -in the Scriptures and the Talmud. The proud masters of Bible exegesis -had become the humble disciples of the once despised Rabbanites. The -petrifaction of Karaism is illustrated by an event in European Turkey. -A Karaite college, consisting of Menachem Bashyasi, his son Moses -Bashyasi, Menachem Maroli, Michael the Old, his son Joseph, and a few -others, had permitted the lights necessary for the Sabbath eve to be -prepared on Friday, so that the holy day need not be spent in darkness. -The college gave adequate reasons for the innovation. According to -a Karaite principle, not only an ecclesiastical authority, but any -individual is justified in abolishing an ancient custom, or annulling -former decisions, if he can cite sufficient exegetical authority. -Nevertheless, stormy opposition arose (about 1460) against this -decision, aimed at a custom derived, perhaps, from Anan, the founder -of Karaism, and hence possessing the sacredness conferred by the rust -of seven centuries. Schism and friction were the result. The section -of the community which ventured to prepare the lights required for the -Sabbath eve was abused, and charged with heresy. Moreover, the schism -relating to the commencement of the festivals was still unhealed. -The Palestinian Karaite communities and their neighbors continued to -distinguish between an ordinary and a leap year by the state of the -barley harvest, and to regulate their festivals by the appearance -of the new moon. On the other hand, the communities in Turkey, the -Crimea, and southern Poland, used the calendar of the Rabbanites. These -hereditary differences were eating more and more into the solidarity of -the sect, for there was no means of composing them, and agreeing upon -uniform principles. - -The conspicuous decrepitude of Karaism and the ignorance of its -followers afforded the Rabbanites in the Turkish empire an opportunity -for reconciling them to Talmudic Judaism, or, at least, overcoming -their bitter hostility towards it. Rabbanite teachers, Enoch Saporta, -an immigrant from Catalonia, Eliezer Kapsali, from Greece, and Elias -Halevi, from Germany, stipulated that their Karaite pupils, whom they -instructed in the Talmud, should thenceforward abstain, in writing and -in speech, from reviling Talmudic authorities, and from desecrating -the festivals of the Rabbanite calendar. In the difficult position in -which studiously inclined Karaites found themselves, they could not -do otherwise than give this promise. The Turkish chief rabbi, Moses -Kapsali, was of opinion that, as the Karaites rejected the Talmud, they -might not be taught in it. But he was a disciple of the strict German -school, which, in its gloomy ultra-piety, would allow no concessions, -even though the gradual conversion of a dissenting sect could be -effected. - -When contrasted with the miserable condition of the Jews in Germany, -the lot of those who had taken up their abode in the newly-risen -Turkish empire must have seemed unalloyed happiness. Jewish immigrants -who had escaped the ceaseless persecutions to which they had been -subjected in Germany expressed themselves in terms of rapture over the -happy condition of the Turkish Jews. Unlike their co-religionists under -Christian rule, they were not compelled to yield up the third part of -their fortunes in royal taxes; nor were they in any way hindered in the -conduct of business. They were permitted to dispose of their property -as they pleased, and had absolute freedom of movement throughout the -length and breadth of the empire. They were subject to no sumptuary -laws, and were thus able to clothe themselves in silk and gold, if they -chose. - -The fruitful lands taken from the slothful Greek Christians were -occupied by them, and offered rich reward to their industry. Turkey -was, in short, correctly described by an enthusiastic Jew as a land "in -which nothing, absolutely nothing, is wanting." Two young immigrants, -Kalmann and David, thought that if German Jews realized but a tenth -part of the happiness to be found in Turkey, they would brave any -hardships to get there. These two young men persuaded Isaac Zarfati, -who had journeyed in Turkey in earlier times, and whose name was by no -means unknown in Germany, to write a circular letter to the Jews of the -Rhineland, Styria, Moravia and Hungary, to acquaint them with the happy -lot of Jews under the crescent as compared with their hard fate under -the shadow of the cross, and to call upon them to escape from the -German house of bondage and emigrate to Turkey. The lights and shadows -of his subject could not have been more sharply defined than they are -in Zarfati's letter (written in 1456), whose graphic, often somewhat -too artificial language does not readily lend itself to translation: - -"I have heard of the afflictions, more bitter than death, that have -befallen our brethren in Germany--of the tyrannical laws, the -compulsory baptisms and the banishments. And when they flee from one -place, a yet harder fate befalls them in another. I hear an insolent -people raising its voice in fury against the faithful; I see its hand -uplifted to smite them. On all sides I learn of anguish of soul and -torment of body; of daily exactions levied by merciless extortioners. -The clergy and the monks, false priests, rise up against the unhappy -people of God and say: 'Let us pursue them even unto destruction; let -the name of Israel be no more known among men.' They imagine that their -faith is in danger because the Jews in Jerusalem might, peradventure, -buy the Church of the Sepulcher. For this reason they have made a -law that every Jew found upon a Christian ship bound for the East -shall be flung into the sea. Alas! how evilly are the people of God -in Germany entreated; how sadly is their strength departed! They are -driven hither and thither, and they are pursued even unto death. The -sword of the oppressor ever hangs over their heads; they are flung into -the devouring flames, into swift flowing rivers and into foul swamps. -Brothers and teachers! friends and acquaintances! I, Isaac Zarfati, -from a French stock, born in Germany, where I sat at the feet of my -teachers, I proclaim to you that Turkey is a land wherein nothing is -lacking. If ye will, all shall yet be well with you. The way to the -Holy Land lies open to you through Turkey. Is it not better for you -to live under Moslems than under Christians? Here every man may dwell -at peace under his own vine and his own fig-tree. In Christendom, on -the contrary, ye dare not clothe your children in red or in blue, -according to your taste, without exposing them to insult and yourselves -to extortion; and, therefore, are ye condemned to go about meanly -clad in sad-colored raiment. All your days are full of sorrow, even -your Sabbaths and the times appointed for feasting. Strangers enjoy -your goods; and, therefore, of what profit is the wealth of your rich -men? They hoard it but to their own sorrow, and in a day it is lost -to them for ever. Ye call your riches your own--alas! they belong -to your oppressors. They bring false accusations against you. They -respect neither age nor wisdom; and, though they gave you a pledge -sealed sixty-fold, yet would they break it. They continually lay double -punishments upon you, a death of torment and confiscation of goods. -They prohibit teaching in your schools; they break in upon you during -your hours of prayer; and they forbid you to work or conduct your -business on Christian feast-days. And now, seeing all these things, O -Israel, wherefore sleepest thou? Arise, and leave this accursed land -for ever!" - -Isaac Zarfati's appeal induced many Jews to emigrate forthwith to -Turkey and Palestine. Their grave demeanor, extreme piety, and peculiar -apparel at once distinguished them from the Jews of Greece and the -Orient, and ere long the new-comers exercised considerable influence -upon the other inhabitants of the countries in which they settled. - -There were peculiar circumstances connected with the prohibition of the -emigration of Jews to Palestine. The Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem -had obtained permission from a pasha to build a synagogue on one of -the slopes of Mount Zion. The site of this synagogue adjoined a piece -of land owned by Franciscan monks, or rather containing the ruins of -one of their chapels, known as David's chapel. When this permission -was given to the Jews, the monks raised as much clamor as though all -Palestine, including the Holy City, had been their peculiar inheritance -since the beginning of time. They forthwith carried their complaints to -the pope, and represented that, if the Jews were permitted to take such -liberties as this, it would not be long before they took possession of -the Church of the Holy Sepulcher itself. The pope at once issued a bull -directing that no Christian shipowner should convey Jewish emigrants to -the Holy Land. As the Levantine trade was at that time almost entirely -in the hands of the Venetians, the doge was prevailed upon to issue -stringent orders to all the shipmasters of the mainland and the islands -not to give passage to Palestine to any Jews. - -It is, indeed, strange that, while the Christian powers were under the -impression that they had hemmed in the children of Israel on all sides -like hunted animals, the Turks of Eastern Europe opened a way of escape -to them. Ere another half century had passed, their Spanish brethren, -savagely hunted from the Peninsula, were destined to seek the same -asylum. - -It must, however, be admitted that under the sway of the Castilian -king, Henry IV, and that of John II, of Aragon, the condition of the -Spanish Jews was one of comparative peace and comfort. But it was the -calm that went before the storm. The doubly impotent Castilian king -was gentle to a degree ill-befitting a ruler of men. Although, as -Infante, Don Henry had allowed himself to be persuaded by his partisans -to replenish his exhausted coffers by plundering the houses, not only -of the Jews, but also of the new-Christians or converts from Judaism, -he had no personal antipathy to the people of Israel. A Jewish -physician was his confidential minister. Not long after his accession -to the throne he had even sent him to the Portuguese court on the most -delicate mission of obtaining the hand of the young, beautiful princess -of Portugal for his sovereign. The Jewish diplomatist brought his -mission to a successful conclusion, but was assassinated in the hour of -his success. - -In spite of the papal bull and the repeated ordinances of the cities, -Don Henry employed a Jewish farmer of taxes, one Don Chacon, a native -of Vitoria; and he, too, fell a sacrifice to his office. A rabbi, Jacob -Ibn-Nunez, his private physician, was appointed by Henry to apportion -and collect the tribute of the Jews of Castile; while Abraham Bibago, -yet another Jew of eminence, stood high in the favor of John II of -Aragon. - -The example of the courts naturally affected the greater nobles, who, -when their own interests were not concerned, troubled themselves very -little about ecclesiastical edicts. The practice of medicine was still -entirely in the hands of Jews, and opened to them the cabinets and the -hearts of kings and nobles. It was in vain that papal bulls proclaimed -that Christians should not employ Jewish physicians. There were few -or no Christians who understood the healing art, and the sick had no -recourse save to the skill of the Jews. Even the higher clergy had but -little regard for the bulls of Eugenius, Nicholas, and Calixtus. They -had too much care for the health of the flesh to refuse the medical aid -of the Jews on account of a canonical decree. Most of the tyrannical -restrictions belonging to the minority of John II and the times of the -regent Catalina were completely forgotten. Only on one point did Henry -insist with rigor. He would not permit the Jews to clothe themselves -luxuriously. This was partly on account of his own preference for -simplicity of dress, partly because he was desirous that the envy of -Christians should not be excited against them. Under the mild rule of -Don Henry, the Jews who had been more or less compulsorily baptized -either returned to their faith, or at least observed the Jewish ritual -unmolested. During the Feast of the Passover they lived upon rice -entirely in order, on the one hand, to partake of nothing leavened, -and, on the other, to avoid the suspicion of Judaism. - -Hatred of the Jew, which burnt most fiercely in the great towns, -naturally made it impossible for the orthodox to behold without -indignation this favoritism towards the supposed enemies of their -faith, and they made use of a weapon whose efficacy had been proved in -other lands. The cry went forth: The Jews have put Christian children -to death! Then came the report that "a Jew in the neighborhood of -Salamanca had torn a child's heart out;" or, "Jews elsewhere have cut -pieces of flesh out of a living Christian child," and so on. By means -of such rumors, the fanaticism of the mob was speedily inflamed, the -magistrates took up the matter, and the accused Jews were thrown into -prison. - -The king, well aware of the origin and object of these accusations, -had them thoroughly sifted, with the result that the innocence of the -accused was completely established. Notwithstanding this fact, the -enemies of the Jews maintained their guilt. Some insinuated that the -judges had been bribed; while others asserted that the new-Christians -had exerted themselves in behalf of their kinsmen, and that the king -himself was partial to them. - -Among all their enemies the man who raged most bitterly and fiercely -against the Spanish Jews was a preacher in Salamanca, Alfonso de Spina, -a Franciscan monk, of the same order and opinions as Capistrano. -Instead of the venomed tongue, he used the poisoned pen against them. -This man enjoyed a certain amount of fame, because he happened to have -accompanied Alvaro de Luna, the once all-powerful minister of John -II, to the scaffold as his confessor. This bigoted priest thundered -unceasingly from the altar steps against the Jews and their patrons, -and especially against the new-Christians as secret adherents of -their former faith. As his preaching did not appear to him to produce -sufficient effect, De Spina issued, in 1460, a virulent work in -Latin, directed against Jews, Moslems, and other heretics, under the -title "Fortalitium Fidei." In this book he collected everything that -the enemies of the Jews had ever written or said against them. He -reproduced every absurd legend and idle tale that he could procure, -and seasoned the whole collection with every device of rhetoric that -his malice could suggest. In his opinion it was only right and natural -that all Moslems and heretics should be exterminated root and branch. -Against the Jews, however, he proposed to employ apparently lenient -measures. He would simply take their younger children from them, and -bring them up as Christians, an idea for which he was indebted to -the scholastic philosopher, Duns Scotus, and his fellow Franciscan, -Capistrano. De Spina most deeply deplored that the various laws for -the persecution of the Jews, promulgated during the minority of John -II, were no longer in force under his successor. In most trenchant -words he rebuked the king, the nobles and the clergy for the favor that -they showed to Jews; and, in order to inflame the mob, he untiringly -retailed all the old fables of child-murder, theft of the host, and -the like, in the most circumstantial narrative, and insinuated that -the partiality of the king permitted these abominable crimes to go -unpunished. - -The fanaticism aroused by Alfonso de Spina was by no means without -effect; indeed, the most lamentable consequences ere long resulted from -it. A monk, crucifix in hand, proposed a general massacre of the Jews -of Medina del Campo, near Valladolid, and his words were favorably -received. The inhabitants of the town fell upon the Jews, and burnt -several of them alive with the sacred books which they happened to -find in their possession. Murder was naturally followed by plunder -of the victims' goods. The king had the ringleaders of this outrage -punished; but this was all that he could do. He was unable to prevent -a recurrence of such scenes. He had been compelled to recognize the -abject position of the Jews officially in the statute book which his -advisers, his secret enemies, Don Pacheco, Marquis of Villena, and -the Count of Valencia, prepared at his request. Don Pacheco, who by -his intrigues brought both king and country to confusion, was himself -of Jewish blood, his mother, who had married a Spanish noble, being -the daughter of a Jew named Ruy Capron. Notwithstanding this fact, he -included the most odious enactments in Don Henry's revised statute -book. All the earlier disabilities were revived: the exclusion of Jews -from all offices, even from practice as apothecaries, the wearing of -distinctive badges, restriction to the Jewries of towns, and even -confinement to their houses during Holy Week. - -The civil war kindled by the intrigues of Don Pacheco and other -courtiers through the burlesque deposition of Don Henry in Avila, and -the coronation of his younger brother, Alfonso, bore more heavily on -the Jews than even on the general population of Castile. - -In 1467 Alfonso's party had by treason become master of Segovia, and -immediately a riot against the Jews began here. The enemies of this -unhappy people spread the report that, on the suggestion of their -rabbi, Solomon Picho, the Jews of the little community of Sepulveda, -not far from Segovia, had during Holy Week so cruelly tortured a -Christian child that it died upon the cross (April, 1468). On the -motion of Bishop Juan Arias, of Avila, of Jewish race, several Jews -(eight or sixteen, according to different accounts), whom the popular -voice had accused, were hauled from Sepulveda to Segovia, and there -condemned to the stake, the gallows and the bowstring, whereupon -the Christians of Sepulveda fell upon the few remaining Jews of the -community, massacred some, and hunted the rest from the neighborhood. -Is it not strange that in Castile and in Silesia, in Italy and in -Poland, the selfsame accusations were raised, and followed by the same -sentences? - -Scarcely was Alfonso's party dissolved by the death of its puppet king -before another sprang up, which professed to defend the rights of the -Infanta Isabella, sister of Don Henry. The utter weakness which Henry -betrayed encouraged the rebels to make the most outrageous assaults -upon his prerogatives. The cortes convened at Ocana in 1469, wishing -to humiliate him, took up the Jewish question. They reminded him -of the laws of his ancestors, and told him to his face that he had -violated these laws by endowing Jews with the chief offices in the -collection of the royal revenues. They further asserted that, owing -to this distinguished example, even princes of the church had farmed -out the revenues of their dioceses to Jews and Moslems, and that the -tax-farmers actually levied their contributions in the churches. In -conclusion, they insisted that the edicts be once more stringently -enforced, and that heavy penalties be imposed for their transgression. - -The finances of this monarch, who, in consequence of his liberality -and the expense of putting down the ever-recurring revolts against -his authority, was in constant need of money, would have been in a -sorry condition had he intrusted them to Christian tax-farmers. The -latter bid only a small amount for the privilege; moreover, they might -have made use of the rebellious factions to rid themselves of their -obligations. A king who said to his treasurer: "Give to these that they -may serve me, and to those that they may not rob me; to this end I am -king, and have treasures and revenues for all purposes"--such a king -could not dispense with Jewish financiers. - -Thus there existed, in Castile, an antagonism between the edicts -against the Jews and the interests of the state; and this antagonism -roused the mob, inspired alike by ecclesiastical fanaticism and envious -greed against their Jewish fellow-townsmen, to the perpetration of -bloody outrages. The fury of the orthodox was also excited against -the new-Christians, or Marranos, because, happier than their former -fellow-believers, they were promoted to the highest offices in the -state by reason of their superior talents. - -The marriage of the Infanta Isabella with Don Ferdinand, Infante of -Aragon, on the 19th of October, 1469, marked a tragical crisis in -the history of the Spanish Jews. Without the knowledge of her royal -brother, and in open breach of faith--since she had solemnly promised -to marry only with his consent--she had followed the advice of her -intriguing friends, and had given her hand to the Prince of Aragon, -who, both in Jewish and in Spanish history, under the title of "The -Catholic," has left an accursed memory behind him. Don Abraham Senior -had promoted this marriage, hoping by it to increase the welfare of his -brethren. Many new complications arose in Castile out of this union. -Isabella's partisans, anticipating that under her rule and that of her -husband the persecution of the Jews would be made legal, took up arms -in Valladolid, Isabella's capital, and fell upon the new-Christians -(September, 1470). The victims assumed the defensive, but were soon -compelled to surrender. Thereupon they sent a deputation to Henry, -begging him to protect them. The king did, indeed, collect troops, -and march against the rebellious city, but he had to be grateful that -he himself was well received by the citizens, and could not think of -punishing even the ringleaders. - -Two years later the new-Christians underwent a persecution, which -surely must have caused them to repent having taken shelter at the -foot of the cross. The religious populace blamed the Marranos, not -altogether without reason, for confessing Christianity with their lips -while in their souls they despised it. It was said that they either -did not bring their children to be baptized, or if they were baptized, -took them back to their houses and washed the stain of baptism off -their foreheads. They used no lard at their tables, only oil; they -abstained from pork, celebrated the Jewish Passover, and contributed -oil for the use of the synagogues. They were further said to have but -small respect for cloisters, and were supposed to have profaned sacred -relics and debauched nuns. The new-Christians, were, in fact, looked -upon as a cunning and ambitious set of people, who sought eagerly for -the most profitable offices, thought only of accumulating riches, and -avoided hard work. They were believed to consider themselves as living -in Spain as Israel did in Egypt, and to hold it to be quite permissible -to plunder and outwit the orthodox. These accusations were not by any -means merited by the new-Christians as a body, but they served to -inflame the mob, and caused it to hate the converts even more bitterly -than the Jews themselves. - -The outbreak above referred to arose as follows: A certain princess -was going through the streets of Cordova with the picture of the -Virgin under a canopy, and a girl, a new-Christian, either by accident -or design, poured some water out of a window on the canopy. The -consequence was a frenzied rising against the converted Jews. An -excited smith incited the Christian mob to avenge the insult offered -to the holy picture--for it was said that the girl had poured -something unclean upon it--and in an instant her father's house -was in flames. The nobles sought to defend the Marranos, and in the -skirmish, the smith was killed. This so enraged the already furious -mob that the men-at-arms were forced to retire. The houses of the -new-Christians were now broken into, plundered, and then reduced to -ashes; while those who had not been able to save themselves by flight -were massacred in the most barbarous manner (March 14th-15th, 1472). -The fugitives were hunted like wild beasts in the chase. Wherever -they were seen, the most horrible death inevitably awaited them. Even -the peasant at work in the field struck them down without ado. The -slaughter which thus began at Cordova spread rapidly from town to town. -Those of the Cordovan fugitives who had found a temporary refuge in -Palma lost no time in seeking a stronghold to afford them protection -from the tempest of persecution. One of their company, Pedro de -Herrera, held in the highest respect both by his fellow-sufferers and -the governor, De Aguilar, went to Seville to seek an interview with -the duke of Medina-Sidonia, lieutenant-governor of the province. He -asked for the fortress of Gibraltar as a city of refuge for himself -and his brethren, under their own command. In return, he promised to -pay a considerable yearly tribute. The duke had signified his consent -to this proposition, and the new-Christians had betaken themselves to -Seville to sign the contract, when the friends of the duke took alarm. -They believed that the Marranos were not to be trusted, and expressed -the fear that they might enter into an alliance with the Moors, and -deliver the key of the Spanish coast into their hands. The duke, -however, insisted upon completing the contract, whereupon the opponents -of the scheme gave the signal to the mob of Seville, which instantly -rose against the new-Christians in an outburst of fanatical frenzy. It -was with difficulty that the governor protected them. They were forced -to return hastily to Palma, were waylaid by the country people, and -ill-treated and plundered (1473). - -Thus the plan of Pedro de Herrera and his friends served only to bring -greater misery upon them, endangering the whole body of new-Christians -as well as the Jews themselves. As early as this, the idea took shape -among both the converted and the unbaptized Jews to leave the now -inhospitable Peninsula and emigrate to Flanders or Italy. - -Attacks upon the new-Christians were now so frequent that they -suggested to the cunning and ambitious minister, Pacheco, the means -of carrying out a _coup d'etat_. This unscrupulous intriguer, who for -two decades had kept Castile in constant confusion, saw with secret -chagrin that the reconciliation of Don Henry with his sister and -successor bade fair to completely annul his influence. To bring about -new complications he determined to gain possession of the citadel -(Alcazar) of Segovia, at that time occupied by the king. With this end -in view, he instigated, through his dependents, another assault upon -the baptized Jews, during the confusion of which his accomplices were -to seize Cabrera, the governor of the castle, and, if possible, the -king himself. The conspiracy was betrayed only a few hours before it -was to be carried into action; but the attack upon the new-Christians -was perpetrated. Armed bands perambulated the streets of Segovia, broke -into the houses of the Marranos, and slew every man, woman and child -that fell into their hands (May 16th, 1474). - -The crowning misfortune of the Jewish race in Spain came in the death -of Don Henry in the following December. The rulers of the united -kingdoms of Aragon and Castile now were his sister, the bigoted -Isabella, who was led by advisers hostile to the Jews, and Ferdinand, -her unscrupulous husband, who pretended to be excessively pious. -Sad and terrible was the fate that impended over the sons of Jacob -throughout the length and breadth of the Pyrenean Peninsula. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE JEWS IN ITALY AND GERMANY BEFORE THE EXPULSION FROM SPAIN. - - Position of the Jews of Italy--The Jewish Bankers--Yechiel - of Pisa--His Relations with Don Isaac Abrabanel--Jewish - Physicians, Guglielmo di Portaleone--Revival of Learning among - Italian Jews--Messer Leon and Elias del Medigo--Pico di - Mirandola, the Disciple of Medigo--Predilection of Christians - for the Kabbala--Jochanan Aleman--Religious Views of Del - Medigo--German Rabbis immigrate into Italy--Joseph Kolon, - his Character and his Feud with Messer Leon--Judah Menz an - Antagonist of Del Medigo--Bernardinus of Feltre--Jews banished - from Trent on a False Charge of Child-Murder--The Doge of - Venice and Pope Sixtus IV befriend the Jews--Sufferings of the - Jews of Ratisbon--Israel Bruna--Synod at Nuremberg--Emperor - Frederick III. - -1474-1492 C.E. - - -The Spanish Jews would have belied their native penetration and the -wisdom born of bitter experience had they not foreseen that their -position would ere long become unbearable. - -Because they did foresee it, they turned their gaze towards those -countries whose inhabitants were most favorably disposed towards Jews. -Italy and the Byzantine Empire, just wrested from the cross, were -now the countries of greatest toleration. In Italy, where men saw -most clearly the infamy of the papacy and the priesthood, and where -they had most to suffer from their selfishness, the church and her -servants were utterly without influence over the people. The world-wide -commerce of the wealthy and flourishing republics of Venice, Florence, -Genoa and Pisa, had in a measure broken through the narrow bounds -of superstition, and enlarged men's range of vision. The interests -of the market-place had driven the interests of the church into the -background. Wealth and ability were valued even in those who did -not repeat the Catholic confession of faith. Not only the merchants, -but also the most exalted princes were in need of gold to support -the mercenary legions of their Condottieri in their daily feuds. The -Jews, as capitalists and skillful diplomatists, were, therefore, well -received in Italy. This is proved by the fact that when the city of -Ravenna was desirous of uniting itself to Venice, it included among the -conditions of union the demand that wealthy Jews be sent to it to open -credit-banks and thus relieve the poverty of the populace. - -Jewish capitalists received, either from the reigning princes or the -senates, in many Italian cities, extensive privileges, permitting -them to open banks, establish themselves as brokers, and even charge -a high rate of interest (20 per cent). The archbishop of Mantua in -1476 declared in the name of the pope that the Jews were permitted to -lend money upon interest. The canonical prohibition of usury could -not withstand the pressure of public convenience. The Jewish communal -regulations also tended to guard the bankers from illegal competition, -for the rabbis threatened with the ban all those members of the -community who lent money on interest without proper authorization. - -A Jew of Pisa, named Yechiel, controlled the money market of Tuscany. -He was, by no means, a mere heartless money-maker, as the Christians -were wont to call him, but rather a man of noble mind and tender -heart, ever ready to assist the poor with his gold, and to comfort the -unfortunate by word and deed. Yechiel of Pisa was also familiar with -and deeply interested in Hebrew literature, and maintained friendly -relations with Isaac Abrabanel, the last of the Jewish statesmen of -the Peninsula. When Alfonso V of Portugal took the African seaboard -towns of Arzilla and Tangier, and carried off Jews of both sexes and -every age captive, the Portuguese community became inspired with the -pious desire to ransom them. Abrabanel placed himself at the head of -a committee to collect money for this purpose. As the Portuguese Jews -were not able to support the ransomed prisoners until they found means -of subsistence, Abrabanel, in a letter to Yechiel of Pisa, begged him -to make a collection in Italy. His petition was heeded. - -The Jews of Italy were found to be desirable citizens, not only for -their financial ability, but also for their skill as physicians. In his -letter to Yechiel, Abrabanel asked whether there were Jewish physicians -in the Italian states, and whether the princes of the church employed -them. "Physicians," he said, "possess the key to the hearts of the -great, upon whom the fate of the Jews depends." - -A celebrated Jewish doctor, Guglielmo (Benjamin?) di Portaleone, of -Mantua, first was physician in ordinary to Ferdinand of Naples, who -ennobled him; he next entered the service of Duke Galeazzo Sforza, of -Milan, and in 1479 became body physician to Duke Ludovico Gonzaga. -He was the founder of a noble house and of a long line of skillful -Italian physicians. There even arose an intimate relation between -Jews and Christians in Italy. When a wealthy Jew--Leo, of Crema-- -on the marriage of his son, arranged magnificent festivities which -lasted eight days, a great number of Christians took part, dancing and -enjoying themselves to the intense displeasure of the clergy. Totally -forgotten seemed the bull in which Nicholas V had quite recently -forbidden under heavy penalties all intercourse of Christians with -Jews, as well as the employment of Jewish physicians. In place of -the canonically prescribed livery of degradation, the Jewish doctors -wore robes of honor like Christians of similar standing; while the -Jews connected with the courts wore golden chains and other honorable -insignia. The contrast between the condition of Jews in Italy and that -of their brethren in other lands is well illustrated by two similar -incidents, occurring simultaneously in Italy and Germany, but differing -greatly in their issues. - -The mother of a family in Pavia, in consequence of differences with -her husband, had given notice of her desire to be received into -the Catholic Church. She was put into a convent where she was to -be prepared for baptism. The bishop's vicar, with other spiritual -advisers, was earnestly occupied with the salvation of her soul, when -she was suddenly seized with remorse. The bishop of Pavia, far from -punishing her for this relapse, or seeking to oppose her desire, -interceded for her with her husband. He advised him to take her out of -the convent forthwith, and testified most favorably as to her behavior, -so that her husband, a descendant of the family of Aaron, might not be -obliged, under the Jewish law, to put her away. - -In the same year a spiteful fellow in Ratisbon, Kalmann, a precentor -(Chazan), took the fancy to turn Christian. He frequented the convent, -attended church, and at length the bishop received him in his house, -and instructed him in the Christian religion. To curry favor with the -Christians he calumniated his fellow-believers by asserting that they -possessed blasphemous writings against Christianity. Kalmann also came -to rue the step he had taken. He secretly attended the synagogue, -and at length, during the absence of the bishop, left his house, and -returned to the Jews. The clergy of Ratisbon were infuriated against -him, arraigned him before the Inquisition, and charged him with having -sought to blaspheme the church, God, and the blessed Virgin. He was -specially charged with having said that, if baptized, he would remain -a Christian only till he found himself at liberty. On the strength of -this, he was condemned, and put to death by drowning. - -Wherever even a little indulgence was granted the Jews, their dormant -energy revived; and the Italian Jews were able to display it all the -sooner from the fact that they had gained a certain degree of culture -in the days of Immanuel and Leone Romano. They took an active part in -the intellectual revival and scientific renascence which distinguished -the times of the Medici. Jewish youths attended the Italian -universities, and acquired a liberal education. The Italian Jews were -the first to make use of the newly-discovered art of Gutenberg, and -printing-houses soon rose in many parts of Italy--in Reggio, Ferrara, -Pieva di Sacco, Bologna, Soncino, Iscion, and Naples. In the artistic -creations of the time, however, in painting and sculpture, the Jews had -no share. These lay outside their sphere. But several educated Jews did -not a little for the advancement and spread of science in Italy. Two -deserve especial mention: Messer Leon and Elias del Medigo, the latter -of whom not only received the light of science, but also shed it abroad. - -Messer Leon, or, by his Hebrew name, Judah ben Yechiel, of Naples, -flourished between 1450 and 1490, and was both rabbi and physician in -Mantua. In addition to being thoroughly versed in Hebrew literature, -he was a finished Latin scholar, and had a keen appreciation of the -subtleties of Cicero's and Quintilian's style. Belonging to the -Aristotelian school, he expounded several of the writings of the -philosopher so highly esteemed in synagogue and church, and wrote -a grammar and a book on logic, in the Hebrew language, for Jewish -students. More important than these writings is his Hebrew rhetoric -(Nofeth Zufim), in which he lays down the laws upon which the grace, -force and eloquence of the higher style depend, and proves that the -same laws underlie sacred literature. He was the first Jew to compare -the language of the Prophets and Psalmists with Cicero's--certainly -a hardy undertaking in those days when the majority of Jews and -Christians held the Scriptures in such infinite reverence that a -comparison with profane pagan literature must have seemed a species -of blasphemy. Of course, this was possible only in the times of the -Medici, when love for Greek and Latin antiquities rose to positive -enthusiasm. Messer Leon, the learned rabbi of Mantua, was liberal in -all respects. He was never weary of rebuking the formal pietists for -striving to withhold foreign influences from Judaism, as though it -could be profaned by them. He was rather of opinion that Judaism could -only gain by comparisons with the culture of the ancient classical -literatures, since thereby its beauty and sublimity would be brought to -light. - -Elias del Medigo, or Elias Cretensis (1463-1498), the scion of a -German family that had emigrated to Crete, is a striking figure in -later Jewish history. He was the first great man produced by Italian -Judaism. His was a mind that shone clearly and brilliantly out of -the clouds which obscured his age; the mind of a man of varied and -profound knowledge, and of both classical and philosophical culture. -So completely had he assimilated the Latin literary style that he was -able, not only to issue works in that language, but also to present -Hebrew syntax under Latin analogies. - -Medigo kept aloof from the vacuity of Italian sciolists, who were -under the spell of the newly-discovered neo-Platonic philosophy -introduced by Ficinus. He gave allegiance to those sound thinkers, -Aristotle, Maimuni, and Averroes, whose systems he made known to -Christian inquirers in Italy, by tongue and pen, through the medium -of translations and in independent works. That youthful prodigy of -his time, Count Giovanni Pico di Mirandola, made the acquaintance of -Medigo, and became his disciple, friend and protector. Mirandola, -who was a marvel by reason of his wonderful memory, wide erudition, -and dialectic skill, and was, moreover, on friendly terms with the -ruling house of the Medicis in Tuscany, learnt from his Jewish friend -the Hebrew language, and the Arabic development of the Aristotelian -philosophy, but he might also have learnt clearness of thought from him. - -On one occasion a quarrel on a learned subject broke out in the -University of Padua. The professors and students were divided into -two parties, and, according to Christian custom, were on the point of -settling the question with rapier and poniard. The University, acting -with the Venetian senate, which was desirous of ending the dispute, -called upon Elias del Medigo to act as umpire. Everyone confidently -expected a final settlement from his erudition and impartiality. Del -Medigo argued out the theme, and by the weight of his decision brought -the matter to a satisfactory conclusion. The result was that he became -a public lecturer on philosophy, and discoursed to large audiences in -Padua and Florence. The spectacle was, indeed, notable. Under the very -eyes of the papacy, ever striving for the humiliation and enslavement -of the Jews, Christian youths were imbibing wisdom from the lips of a -Jewish teacher. Against the protectors of Jews in Spain it hurled the -thunders of excommunication, while in Italy it was forced passively to -behold favors constantly showered upon the Jews by Christians. - -Pico di Mirandola, a scholar rather than a thinker, took a fancy to -plunge into the abysses of the Kabbala. He was initiated into the -Kabbalistic labyrinth by a Jew, Jochanan Aleman, who had emigrated from -Constantinople to Italy. Aleman, himself a confused thinker, made him -believe that the secret doctrine was of ancient origin, and contained -the wisdom of the ages. Mirandola, who had a marvelous faculty of -assimilation, soon familiarized himself with the Kabbalistic formulae, -and discovered confirmations of Christian dogma in them; in fact, he -found far more of Christianity than of Judaism. The extravagances of -the Kabbala demonstrated in his eyes the doctrines of the Trinity, -the Incarnation, Original Sin, the Fall of the Angels, Purgatory, and -Eternal Punishment. He lost no time in translating several Kabbalistic -writings from Hebrew into Latin in order to bring this occult lore to -the knowledge of Christian readers. Among the nine hundred points which -Pico, at the age of twenty-four, pledged himself to defend--to which -end he invited all the learned of the world to Rome, and undertook to -pay the cost of their journeys--was this: No science affords more -certainty as to the Godhead of Christ than Kabbala and magic! Even Pope -Sixtus IV (1471-1484) was by this means so strongly attracted to the -Kabbala that he was eager to procure Latin translations of Kabbalistic -writings for the benefit of the Catholic faith. - -It is a striking proof of his sober mind and healthy judgment that -Elias del Medigo kept himself aloof from all this mental effeminacy -and childish enthusiasm for the pseudo-doctrine of the Kabbala. He had -profound contempt for the Kabbalistic phantom, and did not hesitate -to expose its worthlessness. He had the courage openly to express his -opinion that the Kabbala is rooted in an intellectual swamp, that -no trace of this doctrine is to be found in the Talmud, that the -recognized authorities of ancient Judaism knew nothing of it, and that -its supposed sacred and ancient groundwork, the Zohar, was by no means -the work of the celebrated Simon bar Yochai, but the production of a -forger. In short, he considered the Kabbala to be made up of the rags -and tatters of the neo-Platonic school. - -Del Medigo had, in fact, very sound and healthy views on religion. -Although a warm adherent of Judaism, entertaining respect also for its -Talmudic element, he was yet far from indorsing and accepting as truth -all that appears in the Talmud. When requested by one of his Jewish -disciples, Saul Cohen Ashkenasi, of Candia, to give his confession of -Jewish faith, especially his views on the signs which distinguish a -true religion, Elias Cretensis issued a small but pregnant work, "The -Investigation of Religion" (Bechinath ha-Dath), which gives a deep -insight into his methods of thought. - -It cannot be maintained that Del Medigo suggested novel trains of -thought in his work. In general, the Italians were not destined to -endow Judaism with new ideas. Moreover, he occupied the standpoint -of belief rather than of inquiry, and his aim was to defend, not -to cut new paths. Standing alone in the mental barrenness of his -age, Del Medigo's sound views are like an oasis in the desert. He -must be credited, too, with having recognized as deformities, and -with desiring to remove, the additions to Judaism by Kabbalists and -pseudo-philosophers. - -Unfortunately, the rabbis who emigrated from Germany to Italy assumed -an attitude distinctly hostile to philosophical investigation and its -promoters, Elias del Medigo and Messer Leon. With their honest, but -one-sided, exaggerated piety, they cast a gloomy shadow wherever their -hard fate had scattered them. Fresh storms breaking over the German -communities had driven many German Jews, the most unhappy of their -race, into transalpine lands. Under Emperor Frederick III, who for half -a century had with astounding equanimity beheld most shameless insults -to his authority on the part of an ambitious nobility, a plundering -squire-archy, a demoralized clergy, and the self-seeking patricians of -the smaller towns, the Jewish communities but too often saw their cup -of bitterness overflow. Frederick himself was by no means hostile to -them. On the contrary, he frequently issued decrees in their favor. -Unhappily, his commands remained for the most part a dead letter, and -his laxity of rule encouraged the evil-minded to the commission of -the most shameful misdeeds. It was dangerous for the German Jews to go -beyond the walls of their cities. Every man was their foe, and waylaid -them to satisfy either his fanaticism or his cupidity. Every feud that -broke out in the decaying German empire brought misery to them. - -Among exiles from Mayence were two profound Talmudic scholars. They -were cousins, by name Judah and Moses Menz. The former emigrated to -Padua, and there received the office of rabbi, while the latter at -first remained in Germany, and then passed over to Posen. As the result -of expulsion or oppression, many rabbis were emigrating from all parts -of Germany, and on account of their superior Talmudic knowledge these -German emigrants were elected to the most distinguished rabbinical -positions in Italy. They re-indoctrinated with their prejudice and -narrowness of vision the Italian Jews, who were making determined -efforts to free themselves from the bonds of the Middle Ages. - -The most distinguished rabbis of Italy were at that time Judah Menz -and Joseph Kolon, and precisely these two were most inimical to any -liberal manifestation within Judaism, and most strenuously opposed the -advocates of freedom. Joseph ben Solomon Kolon (flourished 1460-1490) -was of French extraction, his ancestors having been expelled from -France; but he passed his youth in Germany, and belonged to the German -school. He subsequently lived with his relatives in Chambery until -the Jews were hunted out of Savoy. With many companions in misfortune -he went to Lombardy, where he gained his living by teaching; finally -he became rabbi of Mantua. Endowed with extraordinary penetration, -and fully the equal of the German rabbis in the depth of his Talmudic -learning, Joseph Kolon was celebrated in his day as a Rabbinical -authority of the first magnitude, and his academy rivaled the German -school itself. He was consulted by both German and Italian communities. -On scientific subjects and all matters outside the Talmud he was as -ignorant as his German fellow-dignitaries. A resolute, decided nature, -Joseph Kolon was a man of rigid views on all religious matters. His -ruggedness involved him in unpleasant relations with Moses Kapsali in -Constantinople, and in a heated controversy with the cultured Messer -Leon in his own community. However well they might agree for a time, -Joseph Kolon, the strict Talmudist, and Messer Leon, the cultured man -of letters, could not long tolerate each other. When the conflict -between them broke out, the whole community of Mantua took sides in -their feud, and split into two parties as supporters of the one or -the other. The strife at length became so keen that in 1476-1477 Duke -Joseph of Mantua banished them both from the city; after which Kolon -became rabbi of Pavia. - -Still more strained were the relations between the rabbi Judah Menz and -the philosopher Elias del Medigo. The former (born 1408, died 1509), a -man of the old school, of comprehensive knowledge of Talmudic subjects, -and of remarkable sagacity, was most resolutely opposed to scientific -progress and freedom in religious matters, and after his expulsion from -Mayence transplanted the narrow spirit of the German rabbis to Padua -and Italy in general. - -The relatively secure and honorable position of the Jews in Italy did -not fail to rouse the displeasure of fanatical monks, who sought to -cover with the cloak of religious zeal either their dissolute conduct -or their ambitious share in worldly affairs. The colder the Christian -world grew towards the end of the fifteenth century with regard to -clerical institutions, the more bitterly did the monastic orders rage -against the Jews. Preaching friars made the chancels ring with tirades -against them, and openly advocated their utter extermination. Their -most desperate enemy at this time was the Franciscan Bernardinus of -Feltre, a worthy disciple of the bloodthirsty Capistrano. The standing -text of his sermons was: Let Christian parents keep a watchful eye on -their children lest the Jews steal, ill-treat, or crucify them. - -He held up Capistrano, the Jew-slayer, as the type and model of a -true Christian. In his eyes friendly and neighborly intercourse with -Jews was an abomination, a most grievous sin against canonical law. -Christian charity, he admitted, directs that Jews, being human, be -treated with justice and humanity; but at the same time the canonical -law forbids Christians to have any dealings with them, to sit at their -tables, or to allow themselves to be treated by Jewish physicians. As -the aristocracy everywhere, in obedience to their own interests, took -the part of the Jews, Bernardinus inflamed the lower classes against -the Jews and their patrons. Because certain Jewish capitalists had been -successful, he depicted all Jews as vampires and extortioners, and -roused the ill will of the populace against them. "I, who live on alms -and eat the bread of the poor, shall I be a dumb dog and not howl when -I see the Jews wringing their wealth from Christian poverty? Yea! shall -I not cry aloud for Christ's sake?" Such is a fair specimen of his -preaching. - -Had the Italian people not been actuated by strong good sense, -Bernardinus would have become for the Jews of Italy what, in the -beginning of the same century, the Dominican, Vincent Ferrer, had been -to the Jews of Spain, and Capistrano, to the communities of Germany and -the Slav countries. The authorities sorely hindered Bernardinus in his -business of Jew-baiting, and his bloodthirsty sermons mostly failed -of effect. When he was conducting his crusade in Bergamo and Ticini, -Duke Galeazzo, of Milan, forbade him to proceed. In Florence, in fact -everywhere in Tuscany, the enlightened prince and the senate took the -part of the Jews with vigor. The venomous monk spread the report that -they had allowed themselves to be bribed with large sums by Yechiel -of Pisa and other wealthy Jews. As Bernardinus was inciting the youth -of the city against the Jews, and a popular rising was imminent, the -authorities ordered him to quit Florence and the country forthwith, -and he was compelled to submit (1487). Little by little, however, by -dint of untiring repetition of the same charges, he managed so far to -inflame public opinion against the Jews that even the Venetian senate -was not always able to protect them. Finally, he succeeded in bringing -about a bloody persecution of the Jews, not, indeed, in Italy, but in -the Tyrol, whence it spread to Germany. - -While Bernardinus was preaching in the city of Trent, he remarked with -no little chagrin the friendly relation between Jews and Christians. -Tobias, a skillful Jewish physician, and an intelligent Jewess, named -Brunetta, were on most friendly terms with the upper classes, enjoying -their complete confidence. This roused his ire not a little, and he -made the chancels of Trent ring with savage tirades against the Jews. -Some Christians called him to account for his hatred of Jews, remarking -that though they were without the true faith, those of Trent were -worthy folk. The monk replied: "Ye know not what misfortune these good -people will bring upon you. Before Easter Sunday is past they will -give you a proof of their extraordinary goodness." It was easy for him -to prophesy, for he and a few other priests had arranged a cunning -plan, which not only brought about the ruin of the community of Trent, -but also caused the greatest injury to the Jews of various countries. -Chance aided him by creating a favorable opportunity. - -In Holy Week of 1475 a three-year-old child, named Simon, the son of -poor Christian parents, was drowned in the Adige, and the corpse was -caught in a grating close to the house of a Jew. In order to anticipate -misrepresentation of the event, he hurried to Bishop Hinderbach to give -him notice of the occurrence. The bishop took two men of high position -with him, went to the place, and had the body carried into the church. -As soon as the news spread, Bernardinus and other hostile priests -raised a fierce outcry against the Jews, saying that they had tortured -and slain the child, and then flung it into the water. The body of -the supposititiously ill-treated child was exhibited, in order to -inflame the fury of the populace against them. The bishop had all the -Jews of Trent, high and low, cast into prison, commenced proceedings -against them, and called a physician, Matthias Tiberinus, to testify -to the violent death of the child. A baptized Jew, one Wolfkan, from -Ratisbon, an engrosser, came forward with the most fearful accusations -against his former co-religionists. His charges the more readily found -credence as the imprisoned Jews confessed under torture that they had -slain Simon, and drunk his blood on the night of the Passover. Brunetta -was said to have supplied the weapons for the purpose. A letter also -was said to have been found in the possession of a rabbi, Moses, -which had been sent from Saxony, asking for Christian blood for the -next Passover. Only one of the tortured victims, a man named Moses, -endured every torment without confirming the lying accusations of his -enemies. The result was that all the Jews of Trent were burnt, and it -was resolved that no Jew should thenceforth settle in the city. Four -persons only became converts to Christianity, and were pardoned. - -The bishop of Trent, Bernardinus, and the monks of all orders made -every effort to utilize this occurrence for the general ruin of the -Jews. The corpse of the child was embalmed, and commended to the -populace as a holy relic. Thousands made pilgrimages to its remains, -and ere long it was believed by the faith-drunken pilgrims that they -had seen a halo about the remains of the child Simon. So much was said -about it that even its inventors came to believe in the martyrdom. From -every chancel the Dominicans proclaimed the new miracle, and thundered -against the infamy of the Jews. Two lawyers from Padua who visited -Trent in order to convince themselves of the truth of the occurrence -were almost torn to pieces by the fanatical mob. It was imperative that -the marvel be believed in, and so the Jews of all Christian countries -were jeopardized anew. Even in Italy they dared not go outside the -towns lest they be slain as child-murderers. - -The doge, Pietro Mocenigo, and the Venetian senate, on the complaint -of the Jews about the insecurity of their lives and property, issued -orders to the podesta of Padua energetically to defend them against -fanatical outbreaks, and to forbid the preaching friars to inflame -the mob against them. The doge accompanied the orders with the remark -that the rumor that Jews had slain a Christian child in Trent was a -fabrication, a device invented by their enemies to serve some purpose. -When Pope Sixtus IV was urged to canonize little Simon he steadfastly -refused, and sent a letter to all the towns of Italy, on October 10th, -1475, forbidding Simon of Trent to be honored as a saint until he could -investigate the matter, and thus he allayed the popular excitement -against the Jews. The clergy, nevertheless, permitted the bones of -Simon to be held sacred, and instituted pilgrimages to the church built -for his remains. - -Through this circumstance Jew hatred in Germany gained fresh vigor. -The citizens of Frankfort-on-the-Main exhibited, on the bridge leading -to Sachsenhausen, a picture representing in hideous detail a tortured -child, and the Jews leagued with the devil in their bloody work. -The news of the child-murder in Trent spread like wildfire through -the Christian countries, and became the source of new sufferings to -Jews. Nowhere were these sufferings so severe as in the free city of -Ratisbon, containing one of the oldest Jewish communities in South -Germany. It was held to be not only very pious but of distinguished -morality, and it was considered a high honor to intermarry with the -Jews of Ratisbon. Within the memory of man no native Jew had been -brought before the tribunal for any moral lapse. The community was -regarded as the most learned in the land, and the parent of all German -communities. It possessed chartered liberties, which the emperors, -in consideration of a crown-tax, were accustomed to renew on their -accession. The Jews of Ratisbon were half recognized as burghers, and -mounted guard with the Christians as militia. One might almost say that -the Bavarian princes and corporations vied with each other in favoring -them--of course, merely to share their purses. In the latter half of -this century they had become a veritable bone of contention between the -Duke of Bavaria-Landsberg and Frederick III, who, hard pressed on all -sides, not only in the empire, but even in his own possessions, hoped -to fill his empty coffers with the wealth of the Jews. - -In addition to these the Kamerau family made claims upon the Jews of -Ratisbon, as well as the town council, and, of course, the bishop. -These contradictory and mutually hostile demands made the position of -the Jews anything but a bed of roses. First from one side and then from -another came orders to the council to imprison the Jews, their chiefs, -or their rabbi, at that time the sorely-tried Israel Bruna, until, -worn out by confinement, they decided to pay what was claimed. The -council did indeed seek to shield them, but only so long as no danger -threatened the citizens, or the Jews did not compete with the Christian -guildmembers. - -To escape these cruel and arbitrary extortions, prudence directed that -they place themselves under the protection of one of the Hussite nobles -or captains. They would thus enjoy more security than was possible -under the so-called protection of the emperor, since the fiery Hussites -were not a little feared by the more sluggish Germans. Although they -had to some extent abandoned their heretical fanaticism, and had taken -service under the Catholic sovereigns, their desperate valor was still -a source of terror to the orthodox clergy. The event proved that the -Jews had acted wisely in appealing to their protection. - -A bishop named Henry was elected in Ratisbon, a man of gloomy nature, -to whom the sentiment of mercy was unknown, and he naturally insisted -on the enforcement of the canonical restrictions against the Jews. As -examples to others, for instance, he mercilessly punished a Christian -girl who had entered the service of a Jew, and a Christian barber who -had let blood for a Jewish customer. His animosity was contagious. On -one occasion, when the Jewish midwife was sick, and a Christian was -about to attend some Jewish women, the council actually dared not give -her the required permission without the episcopal sanction. - -Bishop Henry and Duke Louis, one in their hatred of Jews, now pursued -what seemed to be a preconcerted plan for the ruin or conversion of -the Jews of Ratisbon. On the one hand, they obtained the acquiescence -of the pope, and on the other, the assistance of influential persons -on the city council. Their campaign began with attempts at conversions -and false accusations, for which they availed themselves of the -assistance of a couple of worthless converted Jews. One of these, Peter -Schwarz by name, wrote slanderous and abusive pamphlets against his -former co-religionists. The other, one Hans Vayol, heaped the vilest -calumnies upon the aged rabbi, Israel Bruna, amongst other things -charging him with purchasing from him a seven-year-old Christian child -and slaughtering it, and the rabbi of Ratisbon, already bowed down by -sorrow and suffering, was charged with the death of the child. - -Israel Bruna (of Bruenn, born 1400, died 1480) was one of those sons of -sorrow who seem to fall from one misfortune into another. He appears to -have been exiled from Bruenn, where he was recognized as a Rabbinical -authority, and after many wanderings, to have traveled by way of Prague -to Ratisbon. He settled there, and wished to perform the functions -of rabbi for those who might place confidence in him. But a Talmudic -scholar who resided in the city, one Amshel, a layman, not an elected -rabbi, raised objections to his competitor, and forbade Israel Bruna -to hold discourses before disciples, to deal with matters of divorce, -to exercise any Rabbinical functions, or to divide the honors of the -office with himself. As each had his followers, a schism arose in the -community of Ratisbon. His two teachers, Jacob Weil and Isserlein, -upholders of the freedom of the Rabbinical office and pronounced -opponents of spiritual officialism, took the part of the persecuted -Israel Bruna, with whom David Sprinz, a rabbi of Nuremberg, also -took sides. These men proved in the clearest manner that any Jew is -competent to assume Rabbinical functions, provided he possesses the -requisite knowledge, is authorized by a recognized teacher, and leads -a pious and moral life. They further adduced in favor of Israel Bruna -the fact that he contributed his quota to the communal treasury, and -was therefore a worthy member of the community. The breach nevertheless -remained open, and Israel Bruna was often exposed to insults from the -opposite party. Once when he was about to hold a discourse, several -of the ringleaders left the lecture-room, and were followed by many -others. Disciples of his opponent secretly painted crosses on his seat -in the synagogue, wrote the hateful word "heretic" (Epicuros) beside -them, and offered other insults to him. As time went on, after the -death of the great rabbis, Jacob Weil and Israel Isserlein, Bruna was -recognized as a Rabbinical authority, and from far and near questions -were sent to him. His misfortunes, however, did not cease. When Emperor -Frederick demanded the crown-tax from the community of Ratisbon, Duke -Louis opposed the payment, and the council was unable to decide which -side to assist. The emperor thereupon threw Israel Bruna into prison -to force him to threaten his people with the ban if they did not pay -over the third part of their possessions. He was released only on -bail of his entire property; and, in addition, the fearful charges of -child-murder and other capital crimes were raised against the decrepit -old man by the converted Jew, Hans Vayol. Bishop Henry and the clergy -were only too ready to gratify their hatred of Jews by means of this -accusation, and the besotted populace gave all the more credence to the -falsehood, as rumors of the death of Christian children at the hands of -Jews daily increased. No one in Ratisbon doubted that gray old Israel -Bruna had foully murdered a Christian child, and he was on the point of -being put to death on the demand of the clergy. To withdraw him from -the fury of the mob, the council, which feared to be made answerable, -imprisoned him. - -In the meantime the anxious community appealed, not only to the -emperor, but also to the Bohemian king, Ladislaus, more feared than the -emperor; and ere long stringent directions came from both to release -the rabbi instantly without ransom. The council, however, excused -itself on the plea of fear of the bishop and the mob. Thereupon -followed a mandate from the emperor to defer the execution of Israel -Bruna until he came to the diet at Augsburg. The council was still -less satisfied with this order, for it feared to lose its jurisdiction -over the Jews. It accordingly prepared to take decisive action in the -matter. The accuser, Hans Vayol, was led on the stone bridge, where -the executioner stood in readiness. He was informed that he must die, -and admonished not to go into eternity with a lie on his lips. The -hardened sinner maintained his accusations against the Jews in general, -but confessed that the rabbi, Israel Bruna, was innocent of the charge -of child-murder, and on receipt of another rescript from the emperor, -Vayol was banished, and the rabbi released from prison. He was, -however, compelled to take an oath that he would not revenge himself -for his long sufferings. This poor, feeble graybeard--how could he -have avenged himself? - -At this juncture the news of the martyrdom of Simon of Trent reached -Ratisbon, and added fuel to the fire. Bishop Henry was delighted to -have an opportunity of persecuting the Jews with impunity in the -interest of the faith. He had heard something of this child-murder on -his journey to Rome. On his return, he urged the council to institute -a rigid inquiry respecting the Jews accused by Wolfkan. The result of -the extorted confessions was the imprisonment of the whole community. -Sentinels stood on guard day and night at the four gates of the Jewry -of Ratisbon, and permitted no one to enter or go out. The possessions -of the whole community were confiscated by the commissioners and judges -who took an inventory of everything. A horrible fate threatened the -unhappy children of Israel. - -This trial, which caused considerable attention in its day, proved -quite as prejudicial to the citizens as to the Jews themselves. -Immediately after the inquiry began, several Jews of Ratisbon had -betaken themselves to Bohemia and to the emperor, and tried by every -means to save their unhappy brethren. They knew that to explain their -righteous cause gold, and plenty of it, would be above all things -necessary. For this reason several Bavarian rabbis assembled in a synod -at Nuremberg, and decided that the Bavarian communities and every -individual not absolutely impoverished should contribute a quota to -make up the amount necessary to free the accused Jews of Ratisbon. When -the safety of their brethren was in question, the Jews, however fond -they might be of money, were by no means parsimonious. The intercession -of the Bohemian nobles under whose protection several of the Ratisbon -community had placed themselves led to no result. Far more efficacious -were the golden arguments which the ambassadors of the community laid -before Emperor Frederick and his advisers. It is only just to say -that this usually feeble sovereign displayed considerable ability -and firmness in this inquiry. He was so strongly convinced of the -falsehood of the blood accusation against the Jews that he would not -allow himself to be deceived by any trickery. He dispatched rescript -after rescript to the council of Ratisbon, ordering the immediate -release of the imprisoned Jews, the cessation of the durance of the -community, and the restoration of their property. The council, through -fear of the bishop and the duke, delayed the execution of the order, -and the emperor became furious at the obstinacy of the citizens when -news was brought to him that, in spite of the imperial command, they -had already executed some of the Jews. He thereupon declared the city -to have fallen under the ban of the empire on account of its obstinate -disobedience, and summoned it to answer for its contumacy. At the same -time he sent the imperial chancellor to deprive the city of penal -jurisdiction and to threaten it with other severe penalties. - -Frederick, as a rule weak, showed surprising firmness on this -occasion. New and shameless charges were nevertheless brought by the -clergy against the Jews. In Passau they were accused of having bought -consecrated wafers from a Christian, and profaned them; whereupon -certain marvels were said to have occurred. For this the bishop of -Passau had a great number of Jews put to death, some "mercifully" by -the sword, others at the stake, and others by means of red-hot pincers. -In memory of this inhumanity and "to the glory of God," a new church -was built near the scene of the atrocities. A Jew and a Jewess of -Ratisbon were accused of complicity in this crime, and thrown into -prison with the others. All the details were brought to the notice of -the emperor in order to rouse his anger. He, however, maintained his -conviction that the Jews of Ratisbon were innocent, and issued a new -order to the effect that those in prison on the charge of profaning the -host were neither to be tortured nor put to death, but to be treated -like other prisoners. In vain the council sent deputy after deputy to -the imperial court. Frederick roundly declared, "In justice and honor -I neither can nor will permit these Jews to be slain, and the men of -Ratisbon who have so long hardened themselves in their disobedience -shall certainly not sit in judgment upon them." - -Thus, after long resistance, the council was compelled to kiss the rod, -and give a written promise to release the imprisoned Jews, and not to -drive any out of the city on account of this trial. Further, the city -was sentenced to pay a fine of 8,000 gulden into the imperial exchequer -and to find bail in 10,000 gulden--which latter burden, strangely -enough, the Jews had to bear. An appeal to the pope was out of the -question, since experience had taught that "the papal court was even -more greedy of gold than the imperial." - -When the community of Ratisbon was informed of this conclusion of the -affair, and of the conditions under which it could gain its freedom-- -by paying not only the sum imposed upon itself, but also the fine of -the city and the costs of the proceedings--it refused. The delegates -said that the total exceeded the possessions of the Jews, as they had -been deprived, for three long years, of freedom and all opportunity -of earning money. They preferred their present miserable state to -becoming beggars. So they remained two years longer in durance, partly -on account of lack of money, and partly by reason of the excessive bail -demanded. They were finally set at liberty on taking an oath that they -would not take revenge, nor convey their persons or their goods out of -the city of Ratisbon. - -All the Jews living in Suabia were expelled, doubtless in consequence -of false accusations in connection with the child-murder of Trent. -As late as in the eighteenth century, the shameless falsehood was -repeated, and in many parts entailed upon the Jews the sacrifice of -life and property. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE INQUISITION IN SPAIN. - - Jewish Blood in the Veins of the Spanish Nobility--The Marranos - cling to Judaism and manifest Unconquerable Antipathy to - Christianity--Ferdinand and Isabella--The Dominicans, Alfonso - de Ojeda, Diego de Merlo, and Pedro de Solis--The Catechism - of the Marranos--A Polemical Work against the Catholic Church - and Despotism gives a Powerful Impulse to the Inquisition--The - Tribunal is established in 1480--Miguel Morillo and Juan - de San Martin are the first Inquisitors--The Inquisition - in Seville--The "Edict of Grace"--The Procession and the - Auto-da-fe--The Numbers of the Accused and Condemned--Pope - Sixtus IV and his Vacillating Policy with Regard to the - Inquisition--The Inquisition under the first Inquisitor - General, Thomas de Torquemada; its Constitutions--The Marranos - of Aragon--They are charged with the Death of the Inquisitor - Arbues--Persecutions and Victims--Proceedings against two - Bishops Favorable to the Jews, De Avila and De Aranda. - -1474-1483 C.E. - - -A Jewish poet called Spain the "hell of the Jews;" and, in very -deed, those foul fiends in monks' cowls, the inventors of the Holy -Inquisition, made that lovely land an Inferno. Every misery, every -mortal pang, conceived only by the most extravagant imagination of -poet; every horror that can thrill the heart of man to its lowest -depths, these monsters in the garb of humility brought upon the Jews of -the Hesperian Peninsula. - -These Calibans also said, "'Burn but their books;' for therein lies -their power." The Dominicans wished to destroy not only the bodies, -but the very soul and spirit of the Jews. Yet they were not able to -quench the life of Judaism. They only succeeded in transforming the -Spanish paradise into one vast dungeon, in which the king himself was -not free. The Inquisition, created by the begging friars, wounded the -Jew deeply, yet not mortally. His wounds are now almost healed; but -Spain suffers still, perhaps beyond hope of cure, from the wounds dealt -by the Inquisition. Ferdinand the Catholic and Isabella the Bigot, -who, through the union of Aragon and Castile, laid the foundation for -the greatness of Spain, prepared the way, at the same time, by the -establishment of the Inquisition, for her decay and final ruin. - -The new-Christians, who dwelt by hundreds and thousands throughout -the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, were so many thorns in monkish -flesh. Many of them held high offices of state, and by means of their -wealth wielded great and far-reaching influence. They were also -related to many of the old nobility; indeed, there were few families -of consequence who had not Jewish blood in their veins. They formed a -third part of the townspeople, and were intelligent, industrious, and -peaceful citizens. These Marranos, for the most part, had preserved -their love for Judaism and their race in the depths of their hearts. -As far as they could, they observed Jewish rites and customs, either -from piety or from habit. Even those who, upon philosophical grounds, -were indifferent to Judaism, were not less irreconcilably hostile to -Christianity, which they were compelled to confess with their lips. -Although they did not have their children circumcised, they washed the -heads of the infants immediately after baptism. They were, therefore, -rightly looked upon by the orthodox clergy either as Judaizing -Christians, or as apostate heretics. They took no count of the origin -of their conversion, which had been accomplished with fire and sword. -They had received the sacrament of baptism, and this condemned them and -their descendants to remain in the Christian faith, however hateful it -might be to them. Rational legislation would have given them liberty -to return to Judaism, and, in any case, to emigrate, in order to avoid -scandal. But the spiritual powers were full of perversity. That which -demands the freest exercise of the powers of the soul was to be brought -about by brute force, to the greater glory of God! - -During the lifetime of Don Henry IV the clerical members of the cortes -of Medina del Campo had persistently advanced the proposal that a court -of Inquisition be instituted to bring recusant or suspected Christians -to trial, and inflict severe punishment with confiscation of goods. -Unfortunately for the clericals, the king was by no means zealous for -the faith or fond of persecution; and so this decision of the cortes, -like many others, remained a dead letter. The Dominicans, however, -promised themselves greater results under the new sovereigns--Queen -Isabella, whose confessors had reduced her to spiritual slavery, and -Don Ferdinand, who, by no means so superstitiously inclined, was -quite ready to use religion as the cloak of his avarice. It is said -that the confessor, Thomas de Torquemada, the incarnation of the -hell-begotten Holy Inquisition, had extorted from the Infanta Isabella -a vow that, when she came to the throne, she would devote herself to -the extirpation of heresy, to the glory of God and the exaltation of -the Catholic faith. She was now queen; "her throne was established; and -her soul was sufficiently beclouded to believe that God had raised her -solely to cleanse Spanish Christianity from the taint of Judaism." - -The prior of a Dominican monastery, Alfonso de Ojeda, who had the ear -of the royal consorts, made fearful representations to them as to the -offenses of the new-Christians against the faith. Aided by two others -of like mind, he strained every nerve to set the Inquisition in motion -against the Marranos; and the papal nuncio in Spain, Nicolo Franco, -supported the proposition of the monk for a tribunal to call them to -account for their transgressions. - -Without further consideration Don Ferdinand, seeing that his coffers -would be filled with the plunder of the accused, gave his assent to -the scheme. The more scrupulous queen hesitated, and the royal pair -decided to appeal to the pope for advice. The two Spanish ambassadors -at the court of Rome, the brothers Francisco and Diego de Santillana, -earnestly pressed the pope and the college of cardinals to grant the -request of their sovereigns. Sixtus IV, from whom anything, good or -bad, could be obtained for gold, immediately grasped the money-making -aspect of the Holy Inquisition. In November, 1478, he issued a bull -empowering the sovereigns to appoint inquisitors from among the clergy, -with full authority to sit in judgment on all heretics, apostates, -and their patrons, according to the laws and customs of the ancient -Inquisition, sentence them, and--most important point of all-- -confiscate their goods. - -Isabella, who had been somewhat favorably influenced in behalf of -the new-Christians, was not inclined to adopt rigorous measures to -begin with. At her direction, the archbishop of Seville, Cardinal -Mendoza, prepared a catechism in 1478 for the use of new-Christians, -and issued it to the clergy of his diocese, in order that they might -instruct the Marranos in the articles, the sacraments, and the usages -of the Christian religion. The authors of this measure displayed -strange simplicity in believing that the baptized Jews would allow an -antipathy, which every day found new incitement, to be appeased by the -dry statements of a catechism. The Marranos naturally remained in what -the church considered their blindness; that is to say, in the purity of -their monotheism and their adherence to their ancestral religion. - -It happened that a Jew or a new-Christian grievously offended the -sovereigns by the publication of a small work in which he exposed at -once the idolatrous cult of the church and the despotic character of -the government. Hereupon the queen became more and more inclined -to assent to the proposals for the establishment of the bloody -tribunal. The work made so strong an impression that the queen's -father-confessor, in 1480, published a refutation by royal command. The -attitude of the court became more and more hostile to new-Christians, -and when the commission appointed by the sovereigns to inquire into -the improvement or obstinacy of the Marranos reported that they were -irreclaimable, it was authorized to frame the statute for the new -tribunal. The commission was composed of the fanatical Dominican, -Alfonso de Ojeda, and the two monks--one in mind and order--Pedro -de Solis and Diego de Merlo. - -Had demons of nethermost hell conspired to torment innocent men to -the last verge of endurance and to make their lives one ceaseless -martyrdom, they could not have devised more perfect means than those -which the three monks employed against their victims. - -The statute was ratified by the sovereigns, and the tribunal of the -Holy Inquisition was appointed on September 17th, 1480. It was composed -of men well fitted to carry out the bloody decree: the Dominican Miguel -Morillo, inquisitor in the province of Roussillon, and renowned as -a converter of heretics by means of torture; Juan de San Martin; an -assessor, the abbot Juan Ruez, and a procurator fiscal, Juan Lopez -del Barco. These men were formally confirmed by Sixtus IV as judges -in matters of faith, and of heretics and apostates. The tribunal was -first organized for the city of Seville and its neighborhood, as this -district stood immediately under royal jurisdiction, and, therefore, -possessed no cortes, and because it contained a great many Marranos. -Three weeks later the sovereigns issued a decree calling upon all -officials to render the inquisitors every assistance in their power. - -It is noteworthy that as soon as the creation of the tribunal became -known, the populace everywhere looked upon it with displeasure, as -though suspicious that it might be caught in the net spread for -the Marranos. While the cortes of Medina del Campo proposed the -establishment of a court for new-Christians, the great popular assembly -at Toledo in the same year--the first after the accession of -Ferdinand and Isabella--maintained absolute silence on the question, -as though it desired to have no share in the unholy work. The mayor -and other officials of Seville proved so disinclined to assist the -inquisitors that it was necessary to issue a second royal decree on -December 27th, 1480, directing them to do so. The nobles, allied with -the converted Jews either through blood or friendship, stood stoutly -by them, and sought by every means to protect them against the new -tribunal. - -As soon as the new-Christians of Seville and the neighborhood received -news of the establishment of the Inquisition, they held a meeting to -consider means of turning aside the blow aimed at them. Several wealthy -and respected men of Seville, Carmona and Utrera, among them Abulafia, -the financial agent of the royal couple, prepared to do battle with -their persecutors. They distributed money and weapons among the people, -to enable them to defend themselves. An old man urged the conspirators -to armed resistance; but the conspiracy was betrayed by the daughter -of one of its members, and all fell into the hands of the tribunal. -Others, who had collected their possessions, and fled to the province -of Medina-Sidonia and Cadiz, under whose governors they hoped to -receive protection against the threatened persecution, were deceived, -for the Inquisition went to work with remorseless severity. As soon as -it had taken up its quarters in the convent of St. Paul at Seville, -on January 2d, 1481, it issued an edict to the governor of Cadiz and -other officials to deliver up the Marranos and distrain their goods. -Those who disobeyed were threatened not only with excommunication, -but also with the punishment assigned, as sharers of their guilt, -to all who showed sympathy to heretics--confiscation of goods and -deprivation of office. - -The Inquisition inspired so much terror that the nobility lost no time -in imprisoning those to whom they had lately promised protection, and -in sending them in custody to Seville. The number of these prisoners -was so great that the tribunal was soon obliged to seek another -building for its functions. It selected a castle in Triana, a suburb of -Seville. On the gate of this house of blood were inscribed, in mockery -of the Jews, certain verses selected from their Scriptures:--"Arise, -God, judge Thy cause;" "Catch ye foxes for us," which plainly showed -the utter heartlessness of their judges. Fugitives when caught were -treated as convicted heretics. So early as the fourth day after the -installation of the tribunal, it held its first sitting. Six Marranos -who had either avowed their old religion before their judges, or made -horrible confessions on the rack, were condemned and burnt alive. The -tale of victims grew to such proportions that the city authorities -set apart a special place as a permanent execution ground, which -subsequently became infamous as the Quemadero, or place of burning. -Four huge caricatures of prophets distinguished this spot, existing -to the present day to the shame of Spain and Christianity. For three -hundred years the smoke of the burnt-offering of innocence ascended to -heaven from this infernal spot. - -With that mildness of mien which skillfully covers the wisdom and -the venom of the serpent, Miguel Morillo and his coadjutors gave to -the new-Christians guilty of relapse into Judaism a certain time in -which to declare their remorse. Upon doing this they would receive -absolution, and be permitted to retain their property. This was the -Edict of Grace; but it was not wanting in threats for those who should -permit the time of respite to elapse, and be denounced by others as -backsliders. The full vigor of the canonical laws against heresy and -apostasy would then be exercised against them. The credulous in crowds -obeyed the summons. Contritely they appeared before the tribunal, -lamented the awful guilt of their lapse into Judaism, and awaited -absolution and permission to live in peace. But now the inquisitors -imposed the condition that they declare by name, position, residence -and other particulars all persons of their acquaintance whom they knew -to be apostates. This declaration they were to substantiate on oath. In -the name of God they were asked to become accusers and betrayers--the -friend of his friend, the brother of his brother, and the son of his -father. Terror, and the assurance that the betrayed should never know -the names of their betrayers, loosed the tongues of the weak-hearted, -and the tribunal soon had a long list of heretics upon whom to carry -out its bloody work. - -Not only the hunted Marranos, every Spaniard was called upon by an -edict of the inquisitors to become an informer. Under threat of -excommunication every one was bound to give, within three days, a list -of acquaintances guilty of Jewish heresy. It was a summons to the most -hateful vices of mankind to become allies of the court: to malice, -hatred and revenge, to sate themselves by treachery; to greed, to -enrich itself; and to superstition, to gain salvation by betrayal. - -And what were the signs of this heresy and apostasy? The Inquisition -had published a very complete, practical guide on the subject, so -that each informer might find good grounds for his denunciation. The -following signs of heresy were set forth: if baptized Jews cherished -hopes of a Messiah; if they held Moses to be as efficacious for -salvation as Jesus; if they kept the Sabbath or a Jewish feast; if -they had their children circumcised; if they observed the Jewish -dietary laws; if they wore clean linen or better garments on the -Sabbath, laid tablecloths, or lit no fire on this day, or if they went -barefoot on the Day of Atonement, or asked pardon of each other. If -a father laid his hands in blessing on his children without making -the sign of the cross; if one said his prayers with face turned to -the wall, or with motions of the head; or if he uttered a benediction -(Baraha, Beracha) over the wine-cup, and passed it to those seated at -the table with him, he was to be deemed recalcitrant. As a matter of -course, neglect of the usages of the church was the strongest ground -for suspicion and accusation. Again, if a new-Christian repeated a -psalm without adding the Gloria; or if he ate meat on fast-days; or if -a Jewish woman did not go to church forty days after her lying-in; or -if parents gave their children Jewish names, the charge of heresy was -held proved. - -Even the most innocent actions, if they happened to coincide with -Jewish usages, were regarded as signs of aggravated heresy. If anyone, -for instance, on the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles accepted gifts from -the table of Jews, or sent them; or if a new-born child was bathed in -water in which gold coins and grains of corn had been placed; or if a -dying man in his last moments turned his face to the wall--all such -actions were held to be signs of heresy. - -By such means unscrupulous people were given ample opportunity for -denunciation, and the tribunal was enabled to accuse of heresy the -most orthodox proselytes when it desired to destroy their influence or -confiscate their property. Naturally the dungeons of the Inquisition -were soon filled with Jewish heretics. Fully 15,000 were thrown into -prison at the outset. The Christian priests of Moloch inaugurated -the first auto-da-fe, on January 6th, 1481, with a solemn procession, -repeated innumerable times during the following three hundred years. -The clergy in their gorgeous vestments and with crucifixes; the -grandees in black robes with their banners and pennons; the unhappy -victims in the hideous San Benito, short and clinging, painted with a -red cross, and flames and figures of devils; the accompanying choir -of a vast concourse--so the executioners with proud bearing and -the victims in most miserable guise marched to the place of torment. -Arrived there the inquisitors recited their sentence on the victims. -To the horror of the scene was added the ghastly mockery that the -tribunal did not execute the sentence of death, but left it to the -secular judge; for the church, though steeped to the lips in blood, was -supposed not to desire the death of the sinner. The Jewish heretics -were given to the flames forthwith, or, if penitent, they were first -strangled. In the first auto-da-fe, at which the bishop, Alfonso de -Ojeda, preached the inauguration sermon, only six Judaizing Christians -were burnt. A few days later the conspirators of Carmona, Seville, -and other towns, and three of the most wealthy and respected of the -Marranos, among whom was Diego de Suson, the possessor of ten millions, -and Abulafia, formerly a Talmudic scholar and a rabbi, were burnt -to death. On the 26th of March seventeen victims suffered death by -fire on the Quemadero. In the following month a yet greater number -were burnt; and up to November of the same year 298 burnt-offerings -to Christ gasped out their lives in flame and smoke in the single -district of Seville. In the archbishopric of Cadiz no less than 2,000 -Jewish heretics were burnt alive in the course of that year, most of -them being wealthy or well-to-do, their possessions, of course, going -to the royal exchequer. Not even death afforded a safeguard against -the fury of the Holy Office. These ghouls of religion tore from -their graves the corpses of proselytes who had died in heresy, burnt -them, confiscated their possessions in the hands of their heirs, and -condemned the latter to obscurity and poverty that they might never -aspire to any honorable office. Here was a splendid field for the -avarice of the king. When it was impossible to convict a wealthy heir, -it was only necessary to establish proofs of a relapse to Judaism -against his dead father, and then the property fell partly to the king, -partly to the Holy Inquisition! - -Many Marranos saved themselves by flight from the clutches of the -merciless persecutors, and took refuge in the neighboring Moslem -kingdom of Granada, in Portugal, Africa, Provence, or Italy. Those -who reached Rome approached the papal court with bitter complaints -about the savage and arbitrary proceedings of the Inquisition against -themselves and their companions in misery. As the complainants did not -come with empty hands, their cause usually obtained a ready hearing. -On the 29th of January, 1482, the pope addressed a severe letter to -Ferdinand and Isabella, censuring the conduct of the Inquisition in no -measured terms. He stated that he had been assured that the proceedings -of the tribunal were contrary to all forms of justice, that many were -unjustly imprisoned, and subjected to fearful tortures. Innocent people -had been denounced as heretics, and their property taken from their -heirs. In this letter the pope admitted that he had issued the bull for -the institution of the Inquisition without due consideration! - -Sixtus further stated that, in strict justice, he ought to depose the -inquisitors, De Morillo and San Martin; but out of consideration for -their majesties he would allow them to remain in possession of their -offices, only so long, however, as no further complaints were made -against them. Should protests again be raised he would restore the -inquisitorial office to the bishops, to whom it properly belonged. The -pope refused the request of Don Ferdinand to institute in the other -provinces of the united kingdom extraordinary tribunals for the trial -of heretics. - -But Don Ferdinand also knew how to apply the golden key to the -papal cabinet, and obtained a bull sanctioning the establishment -of the Inquisition in the provinces of Aragon. In this bull, dated -February 11th, 1482, Sixtus appointed six monks and clerics as chief -inquisitors, among them Thomas de Torquemada, general of the Dominicans -of Avilo, a monk already infamous for his bloodthirsty fanaticism. -In another letter, of the 17th of April, he invested these men with -discretionary powers, in virtue of which they were able to dispense -with certain forms of common law, the hearing of witnesses and the -admission of pleaders for the defense. Thus were fresh victims brought -to the stake. - -In the kingdom of Aragon, however, where the nobility and the middle -class had a weighty voice in public matters, the condemnation of Jewish -heretics without formal trial raised such formidable opposition that -Cardinal Borgia, afterwards the infamous Alexander VI, and the king -himself, petitioned the pope for a modification of the conditions -governing the practice of the tribunal. In a letter of the 10th of -October, Sixtus excused himself from making any radical changes in -consequence of the absence of the cardinals, who had fled from Rome -in mortal fear of the plague. But he abrogated the conditions which -too flagrantly violated the principles of common law; that is to say, -he ordered that accuser and witnesses should be confronted with the -accused, and that the process should be conducted in public. - -The Inquisition also met with great opposition in Sicily, an appanage -of the kingdom of Aragon. The people and even the authorities took the -part of the new-Christians, and shielded them from the persecution -of their bloodthirsty judges. Christians themselves openly charged -that the victims were not executed out of zeal for the faith, but from -insatiable greed which sought ceaseless confiscations. The bigoted -Isabella was sorely troubled at having her pious desire to devote the -proselytes to death thus evilly represented, and even the pope behaved -as though it wounded him to the heart. (February, 1483.) - -Sixtus IV had the greatest interest in maintaining friendly relations -with the Spanish court, and, therefore, made every concession with -regard to the Inquisition. As it often happened that Christian -proselytes condemned by the tribunal, who had succeeded in escaping to -Rome, purchased absolution from the papal throne, with the infliction -of only a light, private penance, the sovereigns saw that their -efforts to purge the Christian faith by the extermination of Jewish -proselytes, especially by the confiscation of their goods, were most -unpleasantly thwarted. The court, therefore, insisted that the pope -appoint a judge of appeals in Spain itself, so that the rulings of the -Inquisition might not be reversed in foreign countries, where all kinds -of unfavorable influences might be brought to bear. The pope agreed to -this proposition, and appointed Inigo Manrique chief judge of appeals -in cases in which the condemned moved for a revision of their trial. -This measure was, however, of very doubtful benefit to the unfortunate -culprits, for upon what ground could they base their appeal when the -trial had been conducted in secret, and neither accuser nor witnesses -were known to them? It is altogether likely, too, that the tribunal did -not leave them very much time to institute proceedings for the revision -of the verdict. Between the passing of the sentence and the last act of -the auto-da-fe only a very short interval elapsed. - -Another measure of the Spanish court, calculated to deprive the accused -of the last hope of acquittal, was approved by the pope. Baptized Jews, -or new-Christians descended from them, frequently held bishoprics, and -were naturally favorably inclined to their unfortunate and persecuted -brethren in race. At the request of the Spanish court, the pope issued -a bull decreeing that no bishop, vicar, or member of the upper clergy -descended from a Jewish family, whether paternally or maternally, -should sit as a judge in any court for the trial of heretics. From -this prohibition there was only a step to the condemnation of clergy -of Jewish blood to the stake. Both his own frame of mind and his -political position now inclined the pope to encourage the sovereigns in -the prosecution of their bloody work. He reminded them that Jesus had -established his kingdom on earth solely by the extirpation of idolatry -and the extermination of idolators, and he pointed to the recent -victories which the Spaniards had gained over the Moslems in Granada -as the reward of heaven for their efforts towards the purification of -the faith--that is to say, for the burning of new-Christians and the -confiscation of their goods. - -Had his Holiness, Sixtus IV, not been infamous as a monster of -depravity, sensuality and unscrupulousness, who appointed boys that -he had himself abused to bishoprics and the cardinal dignity, and who -bestowed no clerical office without payment--as his contemporary, -Infessura, the chancellor of Rome, has recorded--his conduct with -regard to the Holy Inquisition would have been sufficient to brand -him with immortal infamy. Within a short period he published the most -contradictory decisions, and did not take the trouble to veil his -inconsistency with the most flimsy pretense. Scarcely had he proclaimed -the utmost rigors against Judaizing heretics, and appointed a tribunal -of appeals, than he partly abrogated these bulls, and issued another -prescribing milder proceedings to the Inquisition, only to alter this -policy in its turn. - -The hated Marranos, among them the high-spirited Juan de Seville, had -exerted themselves to procure from the papal court a decree to the -effect that those who had undergone private penance in Rome should not -be submitted to the oppression and persecution of the avaricious king -and his bloodthirsty inquisitors, but should be regarded and treated -as orthodox Christians. At first the pope consented, and issued a -bull on August 2d, 1483, "to be held in eternal remembrance and as -guide for the future," in which he especially directed that rigor be -tempered with mercy in dealing with the new-Christians, seeing that the -severity of the Inquisition had overstepped the bounds of justice. The -bull enacted that all new-Christians who had confessed their remorse -to the confessor-general in Rome, and had been assigned a penance, -should not be pursued by the Inquisition, and should have their trials -suppressed. It exhorted the king and queen, "by the bowels of Jesus -Christ," to remember that in mercy and kindness alone may man resemble -God, and that, therefore, they might in this follow in the steps of -Jesus, whose peculiar attribute it was to show mercy and to pardon. -The pope permitted this bull to be copied indefinitely, each copy to -have the authority of the original, in order that the papal attitude -with regard to new-Christians might be made universally known. Sixtus -concluded with the statement that he issued this bull entirely of his -own motion, not in obedience to external influence, although it was -well known in high circles that it had been bought with new-Christian -gold. The sovereigns, however, would have nothing to do with mercy or -forbearance; they desired the death of the culprits and the possession -of their property. Nor was the pope really inclined to mild measures. -A few days later, on August 13th, he recalled this bull, excusing -himself to the king for its tenor, and said that it had been issued -in too great haste. Such was the consistency and infallibility of his -Holiness, Pope Sixtus IV! - -In vain Don Juan de Seville, who had procured the promulgation of the -favorable bull, endeavored to circulate it. He failed to find any -clerical official in Spain to copy and confirm it. He, therefore, -applied to the Portuguese archbishop of Evora, who caused it to be -copied by his notary and recognized as authentic. The Inquisition, -however, was extremely suspicious of those who had sought and obtained -indulgences at Rome, and Don Juan de Seville and his companions fell at -length into its hands, and were severely punished. - -Terrible though the tribunal had hitherto been; though many thousands -of compulsory proselytes and their descendants, during its three short -years of existence, had been cast into the flames, left to rot in its -dungeons, driven from their country, or reduced to beggary, it was -child's play compared with what it became when placed under the control -of a priest whose heart was closed to every sentiment of mercy, whose -lips breathed only death and destruction, and who united the savagery -of the hyena with the venom of the snake. Until now the Inquisition had -been confined to southern Spain, to the districts of Seville and Cadiz, -and the Christian province of Andalusia. In the remaining provinces -of Spain it had hitherto been unable to get a footing, in consequence -of the resistance offered to its introduction by the cortes. Through -the opposition of the people, the wicked will of the inquisitors -Morillo and Juan de San Martin had remained inoperative; their uplifted -arm was paralyzed by innumerable difficulties. If here and there a -few courts were held in the remaining districts of Spain, they were -isolated and without organization, and were thus unable to furnish -each other with victims. King Ferdinand thus had not yet collected -treasure enough, nor had the pious Isabella beheld a sufficient number -of new-Christians writhing in the flames. For their joint satisfaction -they now persuaded the pope to appoint an inquisitor-general who -should constitute, direct, and supervise the several courts, that -none of the suspected Marranos might avoid their fate, and that the -opposition of the populace might be broken down by every species -of terrorism. In cold blood, and with little interest even for the -faith itself, the pope assented; and in May, 1483, appointed the -Dominican, Thomas de Torquemada, hitherto prior of a monastery in -Segovia, inquisitor-general of Spain. There are certain men who are -the embodiment of good or evil sentiments, opinions and principles, -and fully illustrate their extremest consequences. Torquemada was the -incarnation of the Holy Inquisition with all its devilish malice, its -heartless severity, its bloodthirsty ferocity. - -"Out of Rome hath arisen a savage monster of such wondrous shape and -hideous appearance that at the sound of its name all Europe trembles. -Its carcass is of iron, tempered in deadly poison, and covered with -scales of impenetrable steel. A thousand venom-dropping wings support -it when it hovers over the terrified earth. Its nature is that of the -ravening lion and the snake of the African desert. Its bite is more -terrible than that of the hugest monster. The sound of its voice slays -more speedily than the deadly glance of the basilisk. From its eyes and -mouth stream fire and ceaseless lightnings. It feeds on human bodies, -and its drink is human tears and blood. It excels the eagle in the -speed of its flight, and where it broods its black shadow spreads the -gloom of night. Though the sun shine never so clearly, the darkness of -Egypt follows in its track. Wheresoever it flies, every green meadow -that it touches, every fruitful tree on which it sets foot, withers and -dies. With its destroying fangs it roots up every herb that grows, and -with the poison of its breath it blasts the circle in which it moves to -a desert like that of Syria, where no green thing grows, no grass-blade -sprouts." - -Thus did a Jewish poet, Samuel Usque, himself singed by its flames, -depict the Inquisition. - -The inscription which the poet Dante placed upon the portal of Hell-- - - "All hope abandon, ye who enter here!" - -would have been even more suitable to the dungeons of the Holy -Inquisition, which the cruel energy of Torquemada now established in -nearly all the great towns of Spain. He at once instituted three new -tribunals in Cordova, Jaen and Villareal (Ciudad-Real), and, later -on, one in Toledo, the capital of southern Spain. The offices of the -Inquisition were entirely filled by him with hypocritical and fanatical -Dominicans, whom he made the tools of his will, so that they worked -like an organism with a single head, ready at his word to perpetrate -the most hideous barbarities with a composure that cannibals might -have envied. In those days Spain was filled with the putrefaction of -the dungeon, the stench of corpses, and the crackling of the flames in -which were burning innocent Jews, forced into a faith the falsity of -which was demonstrated by every action of the servants of the church. A -wail of misery piercing bone and marrow went through that lovely land; -but their Catholic majesties paralyzed the arm of every man prompted -by mercy to put a stop to the butchery. At the court itself there -sat a commission on the affairs of Jewish Christians, of which the -inquisitor-general held the presidency. - -Don Ferdinand wished to perpetuate the jurisdiction of the Inquisition -in his hereditary lands, in order to fill his purse with the spoils -of the new-Christians settled there. During the assembly of the -cortes at Tarazona, in April, 1484, he laid his plans before his privy -council, and canceled the ancient privileges of the country, which had -existed from the earliest times, and which provided that no native of -Aragon, whatever his crime, should suffer confiscation of his property. -The inquisitor-general accordingly appointed for the archbishopric -of Saragossa two inquisitors who rivaled himself in bloodthirsty -fanaticism, the canon, Pedro Arbues de Epila, and the Dominican, -Gaspard Juglar. A royal ordinance was now issued to all officials and -nobles, directing them to give every assistance to the inquisitors. -The grand justiciary of Aragon, though of Jewish origin, and other -dignitaries, were obliged to take an oath that they would spare no -efforts to exterminate the culprits condemned by the tribunal. - -Torquemada, the very soul of the Inquisition, now decided to publish -a code for the guidance of the judges, so that the net might be -drawn as closely as possible round his victims. The whole body of -inquisitors was assembled to consider this design, and, under the -title of "Constitutions," issued, on October 29th, 1484, a code of -laws, calculated to inspire the utmost horror had no more been done -than commit them to paper. It has been asserted that the monkish -inquisitors merely copied the anti-Jewish enactments of the councils -under the Visigothic kings. It is true that the decrees of Receswinth -threatened with death, by fire or stoning, all new-Christians convicted -of adherence to Jewish customs. The comparison is, nevertheless, -incorrect. For not the enactments against heresy, but their -enforcement, distinguishes the "Constitutions" of the Inquisition as -the most hideous ever fashioned by human wickedness. It was as though -the most malicious demons had taken counsel to discover how they might -bring innocent human beings to destruction. - -One decree ordained a respite of thirty days for those who of their -own free will would tender confession of their relapse to Judaism. -These were to be spared all punishment and confiscation of goods with -the exception of a moderate fine. They were, however, compelled to put -their confession into writing, to give exact answers to all questions -put to them, and especially to betray their fellow-offenders, and even -those whom they only suspected of Judaizing tendencies. Those who -confessed after the expiration of the time of respite were to lose -all their property, even that which they had possessed at the time of -their falling away from Christianity, and though it had passed into -other hands. Only new-Christians under twenty years old were exempted -from loss of property in the event of later confessions; but they were -compelled to bear a mark of infamy composed of flaming crosses, the -San Benito, upon their clothing, and to take part in the processions -and attend high mass in this guise. Those whose remorse awakened after -the appointed day were indeed to receive indulgence, but they were to -remain branded for life. Neither they nor their descendants were ever -to hold any public office, nor to wear any garment embroidered with -gold, silver or pearls, or made of silk or fine wool, and they were -condemned to bear the "fiery cross" for ever. Should the inquisitors -discover that the confession of a penitent was insincere, it was their -duty to deny him absolution, to treat him as a recalcitrant, and to -consign him to the flames. If a penitent made only a partial confession -of his sins, he, too, was condemned to death. The evidence against a -Judaizing Christian might, when not otherwise convenient, be taken -through other persons. It was not necessary to place this testimony -before the accused in full detail, but merely as an abstract. If, in -spite of the evidence laid before him, he maintained that he had never -relapsed into Judaism, he was condemned to the flames as impenitent. -Inconclusive proofs of relapse brought against a Marrano stretched him -upon the rack; in case he confessed under torture, he was submitted -to a second trial. If he then adhered to what he had confessed under -torture he was condemned; if he denied it, he underwent the torture -again. In those cases in which an accused person failed to answer to -the summons issued against him, he was condemned as a contumacious -heretic, _i. e._, his property was confiscated. - -In the face of such proceedings--the parody of a trial--and the -pre-determination on the part of the judge to consider the accused -guilty, how was it possible for any Marrano to prove his innocence? -The dungeon and the rack frequently made the accused so indifferent -to their fate and so weary of life that they made confessions as to -themselves, their friends and even their nearest relatives which -appeared to vindicate the necessity for the Inquisition. The trial of -every new-Christian involved others in apparent guilt, and brought -new examinations and new accusations in its train, thus furnishing an -ever-increasing number of victims to the Holy Office. - -The towns of the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia had from the -first manifested the greatest displeasure at the introduction of -the Inquisition. Up to this period they had been less despotically -governed than Castile, and were exceedingly jealous of their freedom. -Above everything the Aragonese valued, as the apple of their eye, the -privilege which forbade the confiscation of goods even on account -of the gravest offenses. Now the officers of the Inquisition were -to be invested with unlimited power over life and property. The -new-Christians, who held high offices and influential positions in -Aragon, were naturally eager to foment and increase the discontent. -In Teruel and Valencia, in 1485, disastrous popular risings broke out -against the Inquisition, and were quelled only after great bloodshed. -The Marranos and those of Jewish descent did not, however, surrender -their project of paralyzing the Inquisition in Aragon. Some of the -highest dignitaries of state were numbered among them; as, for example, -Luis Gonzalez, royal secretary of state for Aragon; Alfonso de -Caballeria, the vice-chancellor; his brother, the king's major-domo; -Philip Clemente, chief notary; and such high hidalgos as the Counts of -Aranda, together with many knights, among whom were the valiant Juan -de Abadia, whose sister was burnt for heresy, and Juan Perez Sanchez, -whose brothers were at court. - -As soon as the first victims fell under the Inquisition in Saragossa, -influential new-Christians brought pressure to bear upon the cortes -to induce them to protest, both to the king and to the pope, against -the introduction of the tribunal into Aragon. Commissioners were -sent to the royal and papal courts to effect in person the repeal of -the ordinances. They expected but little trouble in Rome, for there -everything was to be had for money. With the king it seemed to be a -matter of much greater difficulty. Ferdinand remained obstinately fixed -in the resolution to exterminate the Jewish Christians by means of the -Inquisition, and to acquire their property. When the commissioners -sent news to their friends in Aragon of the failure of their efforts, -Perez Sanchez conceived a plot to remove Pedro Arbues, chief inquisitor -for Aragon, in order to cripple the activity of the Inquisition by -terrorism, and to force the king to give way. He imparted his project -to his friends, and many bound themselves to stand by him. In order -to win over the entire body of new-Christians, and to induce them to -stand firmly together, the leaders of the conspiracy laid them under -contribution for the expenses of carrying out the project. A hidalgo, -Blasco de Alagon, collected the money, and Juan de Abadia undertook to -hire the assassins, and to see that the death of Arbues was achieved. -This conspiracy was joined by many distinguished persons of Jewish -descent in Saragossa, Tarazona, Calatayud, Huesca and Barbastro. - -Juan de Abadia procured two trustworthy men, Juan de Esperaindo and -Vidal de Uranso, with four assistants, to accomplish the death of the -inquisitor Arbues. The intended victim appears to have suspected the -plot, for he protected his body with a shirt of mail and his head with -a species of steel cap. Before daybreak on the 15th of September, -1485, as he was entering the church with a lantern to hear early mass, -the conspirators followed him. As soon as he had fallen on his knees, -Esperaindo struck him on the arm with his sword, while Vidal wounded -him in the neck. He was borne out of the church bathed in blood, and -died two days later. The conspirators took instant flight. As soon as -the news of the attack on the chief inquisitor spread in Saragossa -it produced a violent reaction. The orthodox Christians assembled in -crowds crying in tones of fury: "To the flames with the Jew-Christians! -They have murdered the chief inquisitor!" The Marranos would have -been massacred in a body there and then, had not the royal bastard, -the youthful Archbishop Alfonso of Aragon, mounted his horse, and -restrained the crowd by an armed force, promising them the fullest -satisfaction by the severe punishment of the guilty persons and their -accomplices. - -King Ferdinand made good use of the unfortunate conspiracy in the -establishment of the Inquisition in Aragon. The sovereigns carried -public mourning for the murdered Arbues to the verge of idolatry. A -statue was consecrated to his memory, in honor of his services to -religion and the extermination of Jewish heretics. The Dominicans -were by no means displeased at the death of the chief inquisitor. -They were, in fact, in need of a martyr to enable them to surround -their tribunal of blood with a halo of glory. They used every effort -to raise Pedro Arbues to the rank of saint or Christian demi-god. It -was not long before they fabricated a divine communication from the -sainted heretic-slayer, in which he exhorted all the world to support -and carry forward the Holy Inquisition, and soothed the scruples of the -members of the tribunal, on account of the enormous number of men they -had consigned to the flames, by assuring them that the most honorable -places in heaven awaited them as the reward of their pious efforts. - -The unsuccessful conspiracy of the Marranos in Saragossa afforded a -vast number of fresh victims to the Christian Moloch. A few of the -conspirators made full confession, and so the inquisitors soon had -a complete list of the culprits. These were pursued with redoubled -vigor as Judaizing heretics and enemies of the Holy Office. Those -who had borne a leading part in the conspiracy, as soon as they fell -into the hands of their judges, were dragged through the streets of -Saragossa, their hands were hewn off, and they were then hanged. Juan -de Abadia escaped this dishonorable fate by killing himself in prison. -More than two hundred Jewish Christians were burnt as accomplices, a -yet greater number were condemned to perpetual imprisonment, among -them a high dignitary of the Metropolitan Church of Saragossa, and -not a few women of gentle birth. Francisco de Santa Fe also died -at the stake. Even those who had given shelter to the conspirators -for a brief period during their flight were compelled to attend an -auto-da-fe as penitents, and lost their civil rights. How far the -inhumanity of the persecutors went is especially shown by one of the -punishments inflicted. A conspirator, Gaspard de Santa Cruz, had been -successful in making his escape to Toulouse, and there died in peace. -The Inquisition, not content with burning him in effigy, laid hands -upon his son as an accomplice in his father's flight, and condemned him -to travel to Toulouse to communicate his sentence to the Dominicans of -that city, and to desire them to exhume the body of his father and burn -it. The weak son performed his disgraceful mission, and brought back -to Saragossa the certificate of the Dominicans to the effect that the -corpse of the father had been dishonored on the prayer of the son. - -Certain towns of northern Spain, such as Lerida and Barcelona, still -obstinately resisted the introduction of the Inquisition. Their -resistance proved vain. The iron will of Fernando and the bloodthirsty -fanaticism of Torquemada overcame every obstacle, and the papal -court was obliged to give its assent to every proposal. From that -time forth the number of victims continued to increase. On the 12th -of February, 1486, an auto-da-fe was celebrated in Toledo with 750 -human burnt-offerings, while on the 2d of April in the same year, 900 -victims were offered up, and on the 7th of May, 750. On the 16th of -August twenty-five Jewish heretics were burnt alive in Toledo; on the -following day two priests suffered; and on the 10th of December 950 -persons were condemned to shameful public penance. In the following -year, when the Inquisition was established in Barcelona and on the -island of Majorca, two hundred Marranos suffered death by fire in -these places alone. A Jew of that time, Isaac Arama, writes on this -subject as follows: "In these days the smoke of the martyr's pyre -rises unceasingly to heaven in all the Spanish kingdoms and the isles. -One-third of the Marranos have perished in the flames, another third -wander homeless over the earth seeking where they may hide themselves, -and the remainder live in perpetual terror of a trial." So the tale -of victims grew from year to year under the eleven tribunals which -transformed the fair land of Spain into a blazing Tophet, whose flames -soon reached and devoured the Christians themselves. - -The pitiless persecution of the new-Christians had its origin perhaps -even more in the racial hatred of the pure-blooded Spaniards towards -the children of Judah than in religious fanaticism. Persons of Jewish -descent, whom it was impossible justly to accuse of heresy, were -included in the accusations simply because they held high offices. They -were not permitted to enjoy any dignity or to exercise any influence in -the country. The inquisitor-general, Torquemada, even laid hands upon -two bishops of Jewish blood, De Avila and De Aranda, so that, if it -were impossible to consign them to the flames, he might at least expel -them from their sees. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN. - - Friendship of Marranos and Jews--Torquemada demands of - the Rabbis of Toledo the Denunciation of Marranos--Judah - Ibn-Verga--Jewish Courtiers under Ferdinand and Isabella - --Isaac Abrabanel: his History and Writings--The Jews of - Portugal under Alfonso V--The Ibn-Yachya Brothers--Abrabanel's - Flight from Portugal to Spain--The Jews of Granada: Isaac - Hamon--Edict of Banishment promulgated by Ferdinand and - Isabella--Its Consequences--Departure from Spain--Number of - the Exiles--Decline in the Prosperity of Spain after the - Banishment of the Jews--Transformation of Synagogues and - Schools into Churches and Monasteries--The Inquisition and the - Marranos--Deza, the Successor of Torquemada. - -1483-1492 C.E. - - -The monster of the Inquisition, having poured out its wrath on the -new-Christians, now stretched its arms over the Jews, and delivered -them to a miserable fate. The connection between the Jews and the -Marranos was too close for the former not to be made to participate in -the misfortunes of the latter. They were in intimate relations with -each other, were bound to each other by close, brotherly ties. The -Jews experienced heartfelt pity for their unfortunate brethren, so -unwillingly wearing the mask of Christianity, and strove to keep them -in touch with the Jewish community. They instructed Christian-born -Marranos in the rites of Judaism, held secret meetings with them -for prayer, furnished them with religious books and writings, kept -them informed of the occurrence of fasts and festivals, supplied -them at Easter with unleavened bread, and throughout the year with -meat prepared according to their own ritual, and circumcised their -new-born sons. In Seville, in fact in the whole of Andalusia, there -were countless new-Christians, baptized at the time of the furious -attack upon the Jews by Ferdinand Martinez, and later during the -persecution of 1391, so that it offered a good field for the activity -of Jews who were endeavoring to bring back turncoat brethren into -the ranks of Judaism. One of the most active in this work was Judah -Ibn-Verga, of Seville, Kabbalist and astronomer, who was held in high -estimation by the governor of Andalusia. The king and queen intended -to call the Inquisition into existence here, and the first step was -to separate the Jews from Christians, especially new-Christians, and -to destroy every connecting link between them. The cortes of Toledo -insisted on the enforcement of the stringent regulations--hitherto -so frequently evaded--for special Jewish (and Moorish) quarters, but -the strictly executed law of separation, made to take effect all over -the kingdom, could not sever the loving relations existing between -Jews and Marranos. In spite of all, the closest intercommunion was -maintained, only more secretly, more circumspectly. The greater the -danger of discovery, the the greater the charm of meeting, despite the -Argus eyes of priestly spies and their myrmidons, for mutual solace and -encouragement. These meetings of the Jews and Moors, from the secrecy -with which they were conducted, and the danger attending them, wore a -romantic aspect. A loving bond of union was thus created, which grew -closer and stronger for every effort to loosen it. - -The fiendish Torquemada strove by every possible means to destroy these -ties. As soon as he had become grand inquisitor, he issued a command -that Marranos should present themselves for confession, ordered the -rabbis of Toledo to be convened, and exacted from them an oath that -they would inform against new-Christians who observed Jewish rites -and ceremonies, and would excommunicate Jews who refused to become -witnesses against their own people. They were threatened with heavy -punishment if they refused to take this oath (1485). What a tragical -struggle for the rabbis of Toledo! They themselves were to lend a hand -to wrench their faithful brethren from Judaism, and deliver them over -to Christianity, or, rather, to the stake! Surely, they could not be -brought to this, and preferred to suffer punishment! Judah Ibn-Verga, -ordered by the inquisitors to deliver over pseudo-Christians who -secretly clung to Judaism, chose to leave his native Seville, and -fled to Lisbon, where he eventually died a martyr's death. Since the -inquisitors could not attain their ends through Jews, who, despite all -measures, continued their secret intercourse with new-Christians, they -urged the king and queen to issue a mandate for the partial expulsion -of the Jews from Andalusia, especially from Seville. - -The Castilian and Aragonese Jews might have known, from these sad -events, that their sojourn could not be of long duration; but they -loved Spain too dearly to part from her except under compulsion. -Besides, the king and queen often protected them from unfair treatment. -When they removed to special Jewish quarters, Ferdinand and Isabella -were at great pains to shield them from annoyance and chicanery. -Moreover, under the rule of these Catholic sovereigns there were Jewish -tithe and tax collectors, and, finally, the Jews relied upon the fact -that they were indispensable to the Christians. The sick preferred -to seek advice with Jewish physicians, the lower classes consulted -Jews on legal questions, and even asked them to read the letters or -documents which they received from the clergy. In addition to all this, -it happened that, at the time when Torquemada was casting his snares -over the Moors and Jews, the celebrated Abrabanel received an important -post at the court of Castile, and enjoyed unlimited confidence. Under -his protection the Spanish Jews hoped to be able to defy the fury of -the venomous Dominicans. Abrabanel's favored position at court, the -geniality of his character, his affection for the Hebrew race, his love -of learning, and his tried wisdom, brought back the time of Samuel -Nagrela, and lulled the Jews with false hopes. - -Don Isaac ben Judah Abrabanel (born in Lisbon 1437, died in Venice -1509) worthily closes the list of Jewish statesmen in Spain who, -beginning with Chasdai Ibn-Shaprut, used their names and positions -to protect the interests of their race. In his noble-mindedness, his -contemporaries saw proofs of Abrabanel's descent from the royal house -of David, a distinction on which the Abrabanels prided themselves, -and which was generally conceded to them. His grandfather, Samuel -Abrabanel, who, during the persecution of 1391, but probably only for -a short time, lived as a Christian, was a large-hearted, generous man, -who supported Jewish learning and its votaries. His father, Judah, -treasurer to a Portuguese prince, was wealthy and benevolent. Isaac -Abrabanel was precocious, of clear understanding, but sober-minded, -without imagination and without depth. The realities of life, present -conditions and events, he grasped with unerring tact; but what was -distant, less obvious to ordinary perceptions, lay veiled in a mist -which he was unable to penetrate or dispel. The origin of Judaism, its -splendid antiquity, and its conception of God, were favorite themes -with Abrabanel from his youth upward, and when still quite a young man -he published a treatise setting forth the providence of God and its -special relation to Israel. Philosophical conceptions were, however, -acquired, not innate with him; he had no ability to solve metaphysical -questions. On the other hand, he was a solid man of business, who -thoroughly understood finance and affairs of state. The reigning king -of Portugal, Don Alfonso V, an intelligent, genial, amiable ruler, -was able to appreciate Abrabanel's talents; he summoned him to his -court, confided to him the conduct of his financial affairs, and -consulted him on all important state questions. His noble disposition, -his sincerely devout spirit, his modesty, far removed from arrogance, -and his unselfish prudence, secured for him at court, and far outside -its circle, the esteem and affection of Christian grandees. Abrabanel -stood in friendly intimacy with the powerful, but mild and beneficent -Duke Ferdinand of Braganza, lord of fifty towns, boroughs, castles, and -fortresses, and able to bring 10,000 foot-soldiers and 3,000 cavalry -into the field, as also with his brothers, the Marquis of Montemar, -Constable of Portugal, and the Count of Faro, who lived together in -fraternal affection. With the learned John Sezira, who was held in high -consideration at court, and was a warm patron of the Jews, he enjoyed -close friendship. Abrabanel thus describes his happy life at the court -of King Alfonso: - - "Tranquilly I lived in my inherited house in fair Lisbon. God - had given me blessings, riches and honor. I had built myself - stately buildings and chambers. My house was the meeting-place - of the learned and the wise. I was a favorite in the palace of - Alfonso, a mighty and upright king, under whom the Jews enjoyed - freedom and prosperity. I was close to him, was his support, - and while he lived I frequented his palace." - -Alfonso's reign was the end of the golden time for the Jews of the -Pyrenean Peninsula. Although in his time the Portuguese code of laws -(Ordenacoens de Alfonso V), containing Byzantine elements and canonical -restrictions for the Jews, was completed, it must be remembered that, -on the one hand, the king, who was a minor, had had no share in framing -them, and, on the other, the hateful laws were not carried out. In his -time the Jews in Portugal bore no badge, but rode on richly caparisoned -horses and mules, wore the costume of the country, long coats, fine -hoods and silken vests, and carried gilded swords, so that they could -not be distinguished from Christians. The greater number of the -tax-farmers (Rendeiros) in Portugal were Jews. Princes of the church -even appointed Jewish receivers of church taxes, at which the cortes -of Lisbon raised complaint. The independence of the Jewish population -under the chief rabbi and the seven provincial rabbis was protected in -Alfonso's reign, and included in the code. This code conceded to Jews -the right to print their public documents in Hebrew, instead of in -Portuguese as hitherto commanded. - -Abrabanel was not the only Jewish favorite at Alfonso's court. Two -brothers Ibn-Yachya Negro also frequented the court of Lisbon. They -were sons of a certain Don David, who had recommended them not -to invest their rich inheritance in real estate, for he saw that -banishment was in store for the Portuguese Jews. - -As long as Isaac Abrabanel enjoyed the king's favor, he was as a -"shield and a wall for his race, and delivered the sufferers from -their oppressors, healed differences, and kept fierce lions at bay," -as described by his poetical son, Judah Leon. He who had a warm heart -for all afflicted, and was father to the orphan and consoler to the -sorrowing, felt yet deeper compassion for the unfortunate of his own -people. When Alfonso conquered the port of Arzilla, in Africa, the -victors brought with them, among many thousand captive Moors, 250 -Jews, who were sold as slaves throughout the kingdom. That Jews and -Jewesses should be doomed to the miseries of slavery was unendurable to -Abrabanel's heart. At his summons a committee of twelve representatives -of the Lisbon community was formed, and collected funds; then, with -a colleague, he traveled over the whole country and redeemed the -Jewish slaves, often at a high price. The ransomed Jews and Jewesses, -adults and children, were clothed, lodged, and maintained until they -had learned the language of the country, and were able to support -themselves. - -When King Alfonso sent an embassy to Pope Sixtus IV to congratulate -him upon his accession to the throne, and to send him tidings of his -victory over the Moors in Africa, Doctor John Sezira was one of the -ambassadors. One in heart and soul with Abrabanel, and friendly to -the Jews, he promised to speak to the pope in their favor and behalf. -Abrabanel begged his Italian friend, Yechiel of Pisa, to receive John -Sezira with a friendly welcome, to place himself entirely at his -disposal, and convey to him, and to the chief ambassador, Lopes de -Almeida, how gratified the Italian Jews were to hear of King Alfonso's -favor to the Jews in his country, so that the king and his courtiers -might feel flattered. Thus Abrabanel did everything in his power for -the good of his brethren in faith and race. - -In the midst of prosperity, enjoyed with his gracious and cultured wife -and three fine sons, Judah Leon, Isaac and Samuel, he was disturbed by -the turn of affairs in Portugal. His patron, Alfonso V, died, and was -succeeded by Don Joao II (1481-1495), a man in every way unlike his -father--stronger of will, less kindly, and full of dissimulation. He -had been crowned in his father's lifetime, and was not rejoiced when -Alfonso, believed to be dead, suddenly re-appeared in Portugal. Joao -II followed the tactics of his unscrupulous contemporary, Louis XI of -France, in the endeavor to rid himself of the Portuguese grandees in -order to create an absolute monarchy. His first victim was to be Duke -Ferdinand of Braganza, of royal blood, almost as powerful and as highly -considered as himself, and better beloved. Don Joao II was anxious to -clear from his path this duke and his brothers, against whom he had a -personal grudge. While flattering the Duke of Braganza, he had a letter -set up against him, accusing him of a secret, traitorous understanding -with the Spanish sovereigns, the truth of which has not to this day -been satisfactorily ascertained. He arrested him with a Judas kiss, -caused him to be tried as a traitor to his country, sent him to the -block, and took possession of his estates and wealth (June, 1483). His -brothers were forced to fly to avoid a like fate. Inasmuch as Isaac -Abrabanel had lived in friendly relations with the Duke of Braganza and -his brothers, King Joao chose to suspect him of having been implicated -in the recent conspiracies. Enemies of the Jewish statesman did their -best to strengthen these suspicions. The king sent a command for him -to appear before him. Not suspecting any evil, Abrabanel was about to -obey, when an unknown friend appeared, told him his life was in danger, -and counseled him to hasty flight. Warned by the fate of the Duke of -Braganza, Abrabanel followed the advice, and fled to Spain. The king -sent mounted soldiery after him, but they could not overtake him, and -he reached the Spanish border in safety. In a humble but manly letter -he declared his innocence of the crime, and also the innocence of the -Duke of Braganza. The suspicious tyrant gave no credence to the letter -of defense, but caused Abrabanel's property to be confiscated, as also -that of his son, Judah Leon, who was already following the profession -of a physician. His wife and children, however, he permitted to remove -to Castile. - -In the city of Toledo, where he found refuge, Isaac Abrabanel was -honorably received by the Jews, especially by the cultured. A circle -of learned men and disciples gathered round the famous, innocently -persecuted Jewish statesman. With the rabbi, Isaac Aboab, and with the -chief tithe-collector, Abraham Senior, he formed a close friendship. -The latter, it seems, at once took him into partnership in the -collection of taxes. Abrabanel's conscience pricked him for having -neglected the study of the Law in following state affairs and mammon, -and he attributed his misfortunes to the just punishment of heaven. He -at once began to write, at the earnest entreaty of his new friends, an -exposition of the books of the earlier prophets, hitherto, on account -of their apparent simplicity, neglected by commentators. As he had -given thought to them before, he soon completed the work. Certainly, no -one was better qualified than Abrabanel to expound historical biblical -literature. In addition to knowledge of languages, he had experience of -the world, and the insight into political problems and complications -necessary for unraveling the Israelitish records. - -He had the advantage over other expositors in using the Christian -exegetical writings of Jerome, Nicholas de Lyra, and the baptized -Paul of Burgos, and taking from them what was most valuable. -Abrabanel, therefore, in these commentaries, shed light upon many -obscure passages. They are conceived in a scholarly style, arranged -systematically, and before each book appear a comprehensible preface -and a table of contents, an arrangement copied from Christian -commentators, and adroitly turned to account by him. Had Abrabanel -not been so diffuse in style, and not had the habit of introducing -each Scriptural chapter with superfluous questions, his dissertations -would have been, or, at all events, would have deserved to be, more -popular. Nor should he have gone beyond his province into philosophical -inquiry. Abrabanel accepted the orthodox point of view of Nachmani -and Chasdai, merely supplementing them with commonplaces of his own. -He was not tolerant enough to listen to a liberal view of Judaism and -its doctrines, and accused the works of Albalag and Narboni of heresy, -classing these inquirers with the unprincipled apostate, Abner-Alfonso, -of Valladolid. He was no better pleased with Levi ben Gerson, because -he had resorted to philosophical interpretations in many cases, and did -not accept miracles unconditionally. Like the strictly orthodox Jews of -his day, such as Joseph Jaabez, he was persuaded that the humiliations -and persecutions suffered by the Jews of Spain were due to their -heresy. Yet, did German Jews, wholly untouched by heretical philosophy, -suffer less than their brethren in Spain? Only a brief time was granted -to Abrabanel to pursue his favorite study; the author was once more -compelled to become a statesman. When about to delineate Judaean and -Israelite monarchs, he was summoned to the court of Ferdinand and -Isabella to be intrusted with the care of their finances. The revenues -seem to have prospered under his management, and during his eight years -of office (March, 1484-March, 1492) nothing went wrong with them. He -was very useful to the royal pair by reason of his wisdom and prudent -counsel. Abrabanel himself relates that he grew rich in the king's -service, and bought himself land and estates, and that from the court -and the highest grandees he received great consideration and honor. -He must have been indispensable, seeing that the Catholic sovereigns, -under the very eyes of the malignant Torquemada, and in spite of -canonical decrees and all the resolutions repeatedly laid down by the -cortes forbidding Jews to hold office in the government, were compelled -to intrust this Jewish minister of finance with the mainspring of -political life! How many services Abrabanel did for his own people -during his time of office, grateful memory could not preserve by reason -of the storm of misfortunes which broke upon the Jews later; but in -Castile, as he had been in Portugal, he was as a wall of protection -to them. Lying and fearful accusations from their bitter foes, the -Dominicans, were not wanting. At one time it was said that the Jews -had shown disrespect to some cross; at another, that in the town of -La Guardia they had stolen and crucified a Christian child. From this -tissue of lies, Torquemada fabricated a case against the Jews, and -condemned the supposed criminals to the stake. In Valencia they were -declared to have made a similar attempt, but to have been interrupted -in the deed (1488-1490). That the Castilian Jews did not suffer -extinction for the succor they afforded the unfortunate Marranos, was -certainly owing to Abrabanel. - -Meantime began the war with Granada, so disastrous for the Moors and -Jews, which lasted with intervals for ten years (1481-1491). To this -the Jews had to contribute. A heavy impost was laid upon the community -(Alfarda--Strangers' Tax), on which the royal treasurer, Villaris, -insisted with the utmost strictness. The Jews were, so to say, made -to bring the fagots to their own funeral pyre, and the people, adding -insult to injury, mocked them. In the province of Granada, which by -pride had brought about its own fall, there were many Jews, their -numbers having been increased by the Marranos who had fled thither to -avoid death at the stake. Their position was not enviable, for Spanish -hatred of Jews was strongly implanted there; but their creed was not -attacked, and their lives were not in constant peril. Isaac Hamon was -physician in ordinary to one of the last kings of Granada, and enjoyed -high favor at court. One day a quarrel arose in the streets of Granada, -and the bystanders implored the disputants to leave off in the name of -their prophet, but in vain. But when they were bidden to give over in -the name of the royal physician, they yielded. This occurrence, which -testified that Isaac Hamon was held in more respect by the populace -than the prophet Mahomet, roused certain bigoted Mahometans to fall -upon the Jews of Granada and butcher them. Only those escaped who found -refuge in the royal castle. The Jewish physicians of Granada came to -the resolution henceforth not to clothe themselves in silken garments, -nor ride on horseback, in order to avoid exciting the envy of the -Mahometans. - -After long and bloody strife the beautiful city of Granada fell -into the hands of the proud Spaniards. Frivolous Muley Abu-Abdallah -(Boabdil), the last king, signed a secret treaty with Ferdinand and -Isabella (25th November, 1491) to give up the town and its territory by -a certain time. The conditions, seeing that independence was lost, were -tolerably favorable. The Moors were to keep their religious freedom, -their civil laws, their right to leave the country, and above all their -manners and customs, and were only required to pay the taxes which -hitherto they had paid the Moorish king. The renegades--that is to -say, Christians who had adopted Islam, or, more properly speaking, -the Moorish pseudo-Christians--who had fled from the Inquisition -to Granada, and returned to Islam, were to remain unmolested. The -Inquisition was not to claim jurisdiction over them. The Jews of -the capital of Granada, of the Albaicin quarter, the suburbs and -the Alpujarras, were included in the provisions of the treaty. They -were to enjoy the same indulgences and the same rights, except that -relapsed Marranos were to leave the city, only the first month after -its surrender being the term allowed for emigration; those who stayed -longer were to be handed over to the Inquisition. One noteworthy -point, stipulated by the last Moorish king of Granada, was that no -Jew should be set over the vanquished Moors as officer of justice, -tax-gatherer, or commissioner. On January 2d, 1492, Ferdinand and -Isabella, with their court, amid ringing of bells, and great pomp and -circumstance, made their entry into Granada. The Mahometan kingdom of -the Peninsula had vanished like a dream in an Arabian Nights' legend. -The last prince, Muley Abu-Abdallah, cast one long sad farewell look, -"with a last sigh," over the glory forever lost, and retired to the -lands assigned to him in the Alpujarras, but, unable to overcome his -dejection, he turned his steps towards Africa. After nearly eight -hundred years the whole Pyrenean Peninsula again became Christian, as -it had been in the time of the Visigoths. But heaven could not rejoice -over this conquest, which delivered fresh human sacrifices to the lords -of hell. The Jews were the first to experience the tragical effect of -this conquest of Granada. - -The war against the Mahometans of Granada, originally undertaken -to punish attempts at encroachment and breach of faith, assumed -the character of a crusade against unbelief, of a holy war for the -exaltation of the cross and the spread of the Christian faith. Not only -the bigoted queen and the unctuous king, but also many Spaniards were -dragged by this conquest into raging fanaticism. Are the unbelieving -Mahometans to be vanquished, and the still more unbelieving Jews to -go free in the land? This question was too pertinent not to meet -with an answer unfavorable to the Jews. The insistence of Torquemada -and friends of his own way of thinking, that the Jews, who had long -been a thorn in their flesh, should be expelled, at first met with -indifference, soon began to receive more attention from the victors. -Then came the consideration that owing to increased opulence, -consequent on the booty acquired from the wealthy towns of conquered -Granada, the Jews were no longer indispensable. Before the banner of -the cross waved over Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella had contemplated -the expulsion of the Jews. With this end in view, they had sent an -embassy to Pope Innocent VII, stating that they were willing to banish -the Jews from the country, if he, Christ's representative, the avenger -of his death, set them the example; but even this abandoned pope, who -had seven illegitimate sons and as many daughters, and who, soon after -his accession to the papal chair, had broken a solemn oath, was opposed -to the expulsion of the Jews. Meshullam, of Rome, having heard of the -pope's refusal, with great joy announced to the Italian and Neapolitan -communities that Innocent would not consent to the expulsion. The -Spanish sovereigns decided on the banishment of the Jews without the -pope's consent. - -From the enchanted palace of the Alhambra there was suddenly issued by -the "Catholic Sovereigns" a proclamation that, within four months, the -Spanish Jews were to leave every portion of Castile, Aragon, Sicily and -Sardinia under pain of death (March 31, 1492). They were at liberty -to take their goods and chattels with them, but neither gold, silver, -money, nor forbidden articles of export--only such things as it was -permitted to export. This heartless cruelty Ferdinand and Isabella -sought to vindicate before their own subjects and before foreign -countries. The proclamation did not accuse the Jews of extravagant -usury, of unduly enriching themselves, of sucking the marrow from the -bones of the people, of insulting the host, or of crucifying Christian -children--not one syllable was said of these things. But it set forth -that the falling away of the new-Christians into "Jewish unbelief" was -caused by their intercourse with Jews. The proclamation continued that -long since it would have been proper to banish the Jews on account -of their wily ways; but at first the sovereigns had tried clemency -and mild means, banishing only the Jews of Andalusia, and punishing -only the most guilty, in the hope that these steps would suffice. As, -however, these had not prevented the Jews from continuing to pervert -the new-Christians from the Catholic faith, nothing remained but for -their majesties to exile those who had lured back to heresy the people -who had indeed fallen away, but had repented and returned to holy -Mother Church. Therefore had their majesties, in council with the -princes of the church, grandees, and learned men, resolved to banish -the Jews from their kingdom. No Christian, on pain of confiscation of -his possessions, should, after the expiration of a certain term, give -succor or shelter to Jews. The edict of Ferdinand and Isabella is good -testimony for the Jews of Spain in those days, since no accusations -could be brought against them but that they had remained faithful to -their religion, and had sought to maintain their Marrano brethren in -it. A legend relates that their majesties were embittered against the -Jews, because the Infante had found the picture of a crucified Holy -Child in an orange which a Jewish courtier had given him. - -The long-dreaded blow had fallen. The Spanish Jews were to leave the -country, round which the fibers of their hearts had grown, where lay -the graves of their forefathers of at least fifteen hundred years, -and towards whose greatness, wealth, and culture they had so largely -contributed. The blow fell upon them like a thunderbolt. Abrabanel -thought that he might be able to avert it by his influence. He -presented himself before the king and queen, and offered enormous -sums in the name of the Jews if the edict were removed. His Christian -friends, eminent grandees, supported his efforts. Ferdinand, who took -more interest in enriching his coffers than in the Catholic faith, was -inclined to yield. Then the fanatical grand inquisitor, Torquemada, -lifted up his voice. It is related that he took upon himself to rush -into the presence of the king and queen, carrying the crucifix aloft, -and uttering these winged words: "Judas Iscariot sold Christ for thirty -pieces of silver; your highnesses are about to sell Him for 300,000 -ducats. Here He is, take Him, and sell Him!" Then he left the hall. -These words, or the influence of other ecclesiastics, had a strong -effect upon Isabella. She resolved to abide by the edict, and, of -bolder spirit than the king, contrived to keep alive his enmity against -the Jews. Juan de Lucena, a member of the royal council of Aragon, as -well as minister, was equally active in maintaining the edict. At the -end of April heralds and trumpeters went through the whole country, -proclaiming that the Jews were permitted to remain only till the end -of July to set their affairs in order; whoever of them was found after -that time on Spanish ground would suffer death. - -Great as was the consternation of the Spanish Jews at having to tear -themselves from the beloved land of their birth and the ashes of their -forefathers, and go forth to an uncertain future in strange lands, -among people whose speech they did not understand, who, perhaps, might -be more unfriendly towards them than the Spanish Christians, they -had to bestir themselves and make preparation for their exodus. At -every step they realized that a yet more cruel fate awaited them. Had -they been able, like the English Jews at the end of the thirteenth -century, and the French a century later, to take their riches with -them, they might have been able to provide some sort of miserable -existence for themselves; but the Jewish capitalists were not permitted -to take their money with them, they were compelled to accept bills -of exchange for it. But Spain, on account of its dominant knightly -and ecclesiastical element, had no places of exchange like those in -Italy, where commercial notes were of value. Business on a large scale -was in the hands, for the most part, of Jews and new-Christians, and -the latter, from fear, had to keep away from their brethren in race. -The Jews who owned land were forced to part with it at absurd prices, -because no buyers applied, and they were obliged to beg the Christians -for even the meanest thing in exchange. A contemporary, Andreas -Bernaldez, pastor of Los Palacios, relates that the most magnificent -houses and the most beautiful estates of the Jews were sold for a -trifle. A house was bartered for an ass, and a vineyard for a piece -of cloth or linen. Thus the riches of the Spanish Jews melted away, -and could not help them in their day of need. In Aragon, Catalonia -and Valencia, it was even worse with them. Torquemada, who on this -occasion exceeded his former inhumanity, forbade the Christians to have -any intercourse with them. In these provinces Ferdinand sequestrated -their possessions, so that not only their debts, but also the claims -which monasteries pretended to have upon them were paid. This fiendish -plan he devised for the benefit of the church. The Jews would thereby -be driven to despair, and turn to the cross for succor. Torquemada, -therefore, imposed on the Dominicans the task of preaching Christianity -everywhere, and of calling upon the Jews to receive baptism, and thus -remain in the land. On the other side, the rabbis bade the people -remain steadfast, accept their trials as tests of their firmness, and -trust in God, who had been with them in so many days of trouble. The -fiery eloquence of the rabbis was not necessary. Each one encouraged -his neighbor to remain true and steadfast to the Jewish faith. "Let -us be strong," so they said to each other, "for our religion, and -for the Law of our fathers before our enemies and blasphemers. If -they will let us live, we shall live; if they kill us, then shall we -die. We will not desecrate the covenant of our God; our heart shall -not fail us. We will go forth in the name of the Lord." If they had -submitted to baptism, would they not have fallen into the power of the -blood-stained Inquisition? The cross had lost its power of attraction -even for lukewarm Jews, since they had seen upon what trivial pretexts -members of their race were delivered over to the stake. One year before -the proclamation of banishment was made, thirty-two new-Christians in -Seville were bound living to the stake, sixteen were burned in effigy, -and 625 sentenced to do penance. The Jews, moreover, were not ignorant -of the false and deceitful ways in which Torquemada entrapped his -victims. Many pseudo-Christians had fled from Seville, Cordova and -Jaen, to Granada, where they had returned to the Jewish faith. After -the conquest of the town, Torquemada proclaimed that if they came back -to Mother Church, "whose arms are always open to embrace those who -return to her with repentance and contrition," they would be treated -with mildness, and in private, without onlookers, would receive -absolution. A few allowed themselves to be charmed by this sweet voice, -betook themselves to Toledo, and were pardoned--to a death of fire. -Thus it came about that, in spite of the preaching of the Dominicans, -and notwithstanding their indescribably terrible position, few Jews -passed over to Christianity in the year of the expulsion from Spain. -Among persons of note, only the rich tax-collector and chief rabbi, -Abraham Senior, his son, and his son-in-law, Meir, a rabbi, went over, -with the two sons of the latter. It is said that they received baptism -in desperation, because the queen, who did not want to lose her clever -minister of finance, threatened heavier persecution of the departing -Jews, if these did not submit. Great was the rejoicing at court over -the baptism of Senior and his family. Their majesties themselves and -the cardinal stood as sponsors. The newly-baptized all took the family -name of Coronel, and their descendants filled some of the highest -offices in the state. - -Their common misfortune and suffering developed among the Spanish Jews -in those last days before their exile deep brotherly affection and -exalted sentiments, which, could they have lasted, would surely have -borne good fruit. The rich, although their wealth had dwindled, divided -it fraternally with the poor, allowing them to want for nothing, so -that they should not fall into the hands of the church, and also paid -the charges of their exodus. The aged rabbi, Isaac Aboab, the friend -of Abrabanel, went with thirty Jews of rank to Portugal, to negotiate -with King Joao II, for the settlement of the Jews in that country, or -for their safe passage through it. They succeeded in making tolerably -favorable conditions. The pain of leaving their passionately loved -country could not be overcome. The nearer the day of departure came, -the more were the hearts of the unhappy people wrung. The graves of -their forefathers were dearer to them than all besides, and from these -they found parting hardest. The Jews of the town of Vitoria gave to -the community the Jewish cemetery and its appertaining grounds in -perpetuity, on condition that it should never be encroached upon, nor -planted over, and a deed to this effect was drawn up. The Jews of -Segovia assembled three days before their exodus around the graves of -their forefathers, mingling their tears with the dust, and melting the -hearts of the Catholics with their grief. They tore up many of the -tombstones to bear them away as memorial relics, or gave them to the -Moors. - -At last the day arrived on which the Spanish Jews had to take staff in -hand. They had been accorded two days respite, that is, were allowed -two days later than July 31st for setting forth. This date fell -exactly upon the anniversary of the ninth of Ab, which was fraught -with memories of the splendor of the old days, and had so often found -the children of Israel wrapped in grief and misery. About 300,000 left -the land which they so deeply loved, but which now became a hateful -memory to them. They wandered partly northwards, to the neighboring -kingdom of Navarre, partly southwards, with the idea of settling in -Africa, Italy or Turkey. The majority, however, made for Portugal. -In order to stifle sad thoughts and avoid the melancholy impression -which might have moved some to waver and embrace the cross in order -to remain in the land, some rabbis caused pipers and drummers to -go before, making lively music, so that for a while the wanderers -should forget their gnawing grief. Spain lost in them the twentieth -part of her most industrious, painstaking, intelligent inhabitants, -its middle class, which created trade, and maintained it in brisk -circulation, like the blood of a living organism. For there were -among the Spanish Jews not merely capitalists, merchants, farmers, -physicians and men of learning, but also artisans, armor and metal -workers of all kinds, at all events no idlers who slept away their -time. With the discovery of America, the Jews might have lifted Spain -to the rank of the wealthiest, the most prosperous and enduring of -states, which by reason of its unity of government might certainly -have competed with Italy. But Torquemada would not have it so; he -preferred to train Spaniards for a blood-stained idolatry, under which, -in the sunlight of the Lutheran Reformation, pious men were condemned -to chains, dungeons, or the galleys, if they dared read the Bible. -The departure of the Jews from Spain soon made itself felt in a very -marked manner by the Christians. Talent, activity, and prosperous -civilization passed with them from the country. The smaller towns, -which had derived some vitality from the presence of the Jews, were -quickly depopulated, sank into insignificance, lost their spirit of -freedom and independence, and became tools for the increasing despotism -of the Spanish kings and the imbecile superstition of the priests. The -Spanish nobility soon complained that their towns and villages had -fallen into insignificance, had become deserted, and they declared -that, could they have foreseen the consequences, they would have -opposed the royal commands. Dearth of physicians was sternly felt, -too. The town of Vitoria and its neighborhood was compelled, through -the withdrawal of the Jews, to secure a physician from a distance, -and give him a high salary. In many places the people fell victims -to quacks, boastful bunglers, or to the superstition of deceiving -or self-deceived dealers in magic. In one word, Spain fell into a -condition of barbarism through the banishment of the Jews, and all the -wealth which the settlement of American colonies brought to the mother -country only helped to render its inhabitants more idle, stupid, and -servile. The name of the Jews died out of the country in which they had -played so important a part, and the literature of which was so filled -with Jewish elements that men of intelligence were constantly reminded -of them. Schools, hospitals, and everything which the Jews could not -or dared not take away with them, the king confiscated. He changed -synagogues into churches, monasteries or schools, where the people -were systematically kept ignorant, and trained for meanest servility. -The beautiful synagogue of Toledo, which Don Pedro's Jewish statesman, -Samuel Abulafia, had erected about a century and a half before, was -transformed into a church (de neustra Senora de San Benito), and, -with its Moorish architecture, its exquisite columns, and splendid -proportions, is to this day a magnificent ornament to the city. In the -other cities and towns of Spain, which live in the chronicles of Jewish -history, in Seville, Granada, Cordova, in densely-populated Lucena, -Saragossa and Barcelona, every trace was lost of the sons of Jacob, or -of the Jewish nobility, as the proud Jews of Spain styled themselves. -Jews, it is true, remained behind, Jews under the mask of Christianity, -Jewish Christians, or new-Christians, who had afforded their departing -brethren active help. Many of them had taken charge of their gold and -silver, and kept it till they were able to send it on by the hands of -trusted persons, or had given them bills of exchange on foreign places. -These negotiations were often of no avail, for when the fanatical king -and queen heard of them, they sent for the treasure left behind, or -sought to prevent the payment of the checks. - -Great as were the obstacles, the Marranos did not cool in their zeal -for their exiled brethren. They pursued those guilty of inhuman -brutality to the wanderers with bitter hatred, and delivered them -over to the Inquisition--turning the tool against its makers. At -the instigation of the Marranos, the brother of Don Juan de Lucena, -the powerful minister of Ferdinand, was thrown into the prison of the -Inquisition, kept there under a strong guard, and none of his relatives -allowed to see him, the minister, whose position exempted him from the -power of the Inquisition, having counseled the banishment of the Jews, -and practically assisted in it, and his brother having relentlessly -confiscated the property they had left behind. Torquemada complained -that Don Juan was persecuted by the new-Christians on account of his -faith. The Marranos, now more than ever on their guard, lest they give -the slightest offense, had to cross themselves assiduously, count their -beads, and mumble paternosters, while inwardly they were attached more -than ever to Judaism. Frequently their feelings outran their will, -they broke the bonds of silence, and this was productive of heavy -consequences. Thus a Marrano in Seville, on seeing an effigy of Christ -set up in church for adoration, cried out, "Woe to him who sees, and -must believe such a thing!" Such expressions in unguarded moments -naturally afforded the best opportunity for inquiry, imprisonment, -the rack and autos-da-fe, not merely for the individual caught in the -act, but for his relatives, friends, and everybody connected with him -who had any property. It had, moreover, grown to be a necessity to -the people, hardened by the frequent sight of the death agonies of -sacrificial victims, to witness a solemn tragedy of human sacrifice now -and again. It is, therefore, not astonishing, that under the first -inquisitor-general, Thomas de Torquemada, in the course of fourteen -years (1485-1498) at least two thousand Jews were burned as impenitent -sinners. He was so hated that he lived in constant fear of death. Upon -his table he kept the horn of a unicorn, to which the superstition of -the time ascribed the power of nullifying the effect of poison. When -Torquemada went out, he was attended by a body-guard (Familares) of -fifty, and two hundred foot-soldiers, to protect him from assault. His -successor, the second inquisitor-general, Deza, erected still more -scaffolds; but it soon came to pass that the men of blood butchered -each other. Deza before his death was accused of being secretly a Jew. -When the persecutions against the remaining Moors and Moriscos, and -against the followers of the German reformer Luther, were added to -those of the Marranos, Spain, under the wrath of the Holy Inquisition, -became literally a scene of human slaughter. With justice nearly all -the European princes, and even the parliament of Paris, bitterly blamed -the perverseness of Ferdinand and Isabella in having driven out so -useful a class of citizens. The sultan Bajasid (Bajazet) exclaimed: -"You call Ferdinand a wise king, he who has made his country poor and -enriched ours!" - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM NAVARRE AND PORTUGAL. - - The Exiles from Navarre--Migration to Naples--King Ferdinand - I of Naples and Abrabanel--Leon Abrabanel--Misfortunes of - the Jews in Fez, Genoa, Rome, and the Islands of Greece--The - Sultan Bajazet--Moses Kapsali--Spanish Jews in Portugal--The - Jewish Astronomers, Abraham Zacuto and Jose Vecinho--The Jewish - Travelers, Abraham de Beya and Joseph Zapateiro--Outbreak of - the Plague among the Spanish Jews in Portugal--Sufferings - of the Portuguese Exiles--Judah Chayyat and his - Fellow-Sufferers--Cruelty of Joao II--Kindly Treatment by - Manoel changed into Cruelty on his Marriage--Forcible Baptism - of Jewish Children--Levi ben Chabib and Isaac Caro--Pope - Alexander VI--Manoel's Efforts on Behalf of the Portuguese - Marranos--Death of Simon Maimi and Abraham Saba. - -1492-1498 C.E. - - -The Jews of northern Spain, in Catalonia and Aragon, who turned -their steps to neighboring Navarre, with the idea of seeking shelter -there, were comparatively fortunate. Here at least was a prospect of -a livelihood, and a possibility of looking round for other places of -refuge. The Inquisition had met with courageous resistance from the -rulers and the people of Navarre. When some Marranos, concerned in -the murder of Arbues, the inquisitor, fled to this kingdom, and the -bloodthirsty heresy-mongers demanded that they be given up to the -executioners, the town of Tudela declared that it would not suffer -such unrighteous violence to people who had sought its protection, and -closed the gates against their emissaries. In vain did king Ferdinand, -who had an eye upon Navarre, threaten it with his anger. The citizens -of Tudela remained firm. A Navarrese prince, Jacob of Navarre, suffered -for the shelter he gave to a hunted Marrano. The inquisitors suddenly -arrested, imprisoned and sentenced him, as an enemy of the Holy -Office, to shameful exposure in a church, where his list of offenses -was publicly read out, and absolution promised him only if he submitted -to flagellation from priestly hands. Several other towns of Navarre -gave protection to the fugitives, and about 12,000 Castilian wanderers -took up their quarters in Navarre. Count of Lerin probably received -the greater number of these. But the Jews enjoyed only a few years -of peace in Navarre; for upon the vehement urging of King Ferdinand, -who followed the fugitives with bitterest enmity and persecution, the -king of Navarre gave them the choice between wandering forth again -and baptism. The greater number adopted Christianity, because there -was only a short time for preparation, and no time for thinking. In -the community of Tudela, so famous for steadfast piety, 180 families -submitted to baptism. - -Also those Castilian Jews were fortunate who, instead of indulging -themselves in the vain hope that the edict would be recalled, did not -stay until the last day, but made their way, before the end of the -respite, to Italy, Africa, or Turkey. They did not lack the means of -getting away. The Spanish Jews had such widespread repute, and their -expulsion had made so much stir in Europe, that crowds of ships were -ready in Spanish seaports to take up the wanderers and convey them to -all parts, not only the ships of the country, but also Italian vessels -from Genoa and Venice. The ship-owners saw a prospect of lucrative -business. Many Jews from Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia desired to -settle in Naples, and sent ambassadors to the king, Ferdinand I, -to ask him to receive them. This prince was not merely free from -prejudice against the Jews, but was kindly inclined towards them, out -of compassion for their misfortunes, and he may have promised himself -industrial and intellectual advantage from this immigration of the -Spanish Jews. Whether it was calculation or generosity, it is enough -that he bade them welcome, and made his realm free to them. Many -thousands of them landed in the Bay of Naples (24th August, 1492), and -were kindly received. The native Jewish community treated them with -true brotherly generosity, defrayed the passage of the poor not able to -pay, and provided for their immediate necessities. - -Isaac Abrabanel, also, and his whole household, went to Naples. Here -he lived at first as a private individual, and continued the work of -writing a commentary upon the book of Kings, which had been interrupted -by his state duties. When the king of Naples was informed of his -presence in the city, he invited him to an interview, and intrusted him -with a post, in all likelihood in the financial department. Probably -he hoped to make use of Abrabanel's experience in the war with which -he was threatened by the king of France. Whether from his own noble -impulses, or from esteem for Abrabanel, the king of Naples showed the -Jews a gentle humanity which startlingly contrasted with the cruelty of -the Spanish king. The unhappy people had to struggle with many woes; -when they thought themselves free of one, another yet more merciless -fell upon them. A devastating pestilence, arising out of the sad -condition to which they had been reduced, or from the overcrowding of -the ships, followed in the track of the wanderers. They brought death -with them. Scarcely six months had they been settled on Neapolitan soil -when the pestilence carried numbers of them off, and King Ferdinand, -who dreaded a rising of the populace against the Jews, hinted to -them that they must bury their corpses by night, and in silence. -When the pest could no longer be concealed, and every day increased -in virulence, people and courtiers alike entreated him to drive them -forth. But Ferdinand would not assent to this inhuman proceeding; he -is said to have threatened to abdicate if the Jews were ill-treated. -He had hospitals erected for them outside the town, sent physicians -to their aid, and gave them means of support. For a whole year he -strove, with unexampled nobility, to succor the unfortunate people, -whom banishment and disease had transformed into living corpses. -Those, also, who were fortunate enough to reach Pisa found a brotherly -reception. The sons of Yechiel of Pisa fairly took up their abode on -the quay, so as to be ready to receive the wanderers, provide for their -wants, shelter them, or help them on their way to some other place. -After Ferdinand's death, his son, Alfonso II, who little resembled -him, retained the Jewish statesman, Abrabanel, in his service, and, -after his resignation in favor of his son, took him with him to -Sicily. Abrabanel to the last remained faithful to this prince in his -misfortunes (January, 1494, to June, 1495). - -After the conquest of Naples by the weak-headed knight-errant king -of France, Charles VIII, the members of the Abrabanel family were -torn apart and scattered. None of them, however, met with such signal -misfortune as the eldest son, Judah Leon Medigo (born 1470, died 1530). -He had been so well beloved at the Spanish court that they were loath -to part with him, and would gladly have kept him there--of course, -as a Christian. To attain this end, a command was issued that he be -not permitted to leave Toledo, or that his one-year-old son be taken -from him, baptized immediately, and that in this manner the father -be chained to Spain. Judah Abrabanel, however, got wind of this plot -against his liberty, sent his son, with his nurse, "like stolen goods," -secretly to the Portuguese coast; but as he himself did not care to -seek shelter in the country where his father had been threatened with -death, he turned his face towards Naples. His suspicions of the king -of Portugal were only too speedily justified. No sooner did Joao hear -that a relative of Abrabanel was within his borders than he ordered the -child to be kept as hostage, and not to be permitted to go forth with -the other Jews. Little Isaac never saw his parents and grandparents -again. He was baptized, and brought up as a Christian. The agony of the -father at the living death of his lost child was boundless. It gave him -no rest or peace to his latest hour, and it found vent in a lamentation -sad in the extreme. Yet what was the grief for one child, compared with -the woes which overtook the thousands of Jews hunted out of Spain? - -Many of them found their way to the nearest African seaport towns, -Oran, Algiers and Bugia. The inhabitants, who feared that their towns -would be overcrowded from such a vast influx, shot at the Jews as -they landed, and killed many of them. An eminent Jew at the court -of Barbary, however, addressed the sultan in behalf of his unhappy -brethren, and obtained leave for them to land. They were not allowed to -enter the towns, probably because the pestilence had broken out among -them, too. They could only build themselves wooden huts outside the -walls. The children collected wood, and their elders nailed the boards -together for temporary dwellings. But they did not long enjoy even this -miserable shelter, as one day a fire broke out in one of the huts, and -soon laid the whole camp in ashes. - -Those who settled in Fez suffered a still more terrible lot. Here also -the inhabitants would not admit them, fearing that such an influx of -human beings would raise the price of the necessaries of life. They had -to encamp in the fields, and live on roots and herbs like cattle. On -the Sabbath they stripped the plants with their teeth, in order not to -desecrate the holy day by gathering them. Starvation, pestilence, and -the unfriendliness of the Mahometan people vied with each other in -inflicting misery upon the Jews. In their awful despair, fathers were -driven to sell their children as slaves to obtain bread. Mothers killed -their little ones that they might not see them perish from the pangs -of hunger. Avaricious captains took advantage of the distress of the -parents to entice starving children on board their vessels with offers -of bread, and, deaf to the cries and entreaties of the parents, carried -them off to distant lands, where they sold them for a good price. -Later, the ruler of Fez, probably at the representation of the original -Jewish inhabitants, proclaimed that Jewish children who had been sold -for bread, and other necessaries of life, should be set at liberty. - -The descriptions by their contemporaries of the sufferings of the -Jews make one's hair stand on end. They were dogged whithersoever -they went. Those whom plague and starvation had spared, fell into the -hands of brutalized men. The report got about that the Spanish Jews -had swallowed the gold and silver which they had been forbidden to -carry away, intending to use it later on. Cannibals, therefore, ripped -open their bodies to seek for coin in their entrails. The Genoese -ship-folk behaved most inhumanly to the wanderers who had trusted their -lives to them. From avarice, or sheer delight in the death agonies of -the Jews, they flung many of them into the sea. One captain offered -insult to the beautiful daughter of a Jewish wanderer. Her name was -Paloma (Dove), and to escape shame, the mother threw her and her other -daughters and then herself into the waves. The wretched father composed -a heartbreaking lamentation for his lost dear ones. - -Those who reached the port of Genoa had to contend with new miseries. -In this thriving town there was a law that Jews might not remain there -for longer than three days. As the ships which were to convey the Jews -thence required repairing, the authorities conceded the permission for -them to remain, not in the town, but upon the Mole, until the vessels -were ready for sea. Like ghosts, pale, shrunken, hollow-eyed, gaunt, -they went on shore, and if they had not moved, impelled by instinct to -get out of their floating prison, they might have been taken for so -many corpses. The starving children went into the churches, and allowed -themselves to be baptized for a morsel of bread; and Christians were -merciless enough not merely to accept such sacrifices, but with the -cross in one hand, and bread in the other, to go among the Jews and -tempt them to become converted. Only a short time had been granted them -on the Mole, but a great part of the winter passed before the repairs -were completed. The longer they remained, the more their numbers -diminished, through the passing over to Christianity of the younger -members, and many fell victims to plagues of all kinds. Other Italian -towns would not allow them to land even for a short time, partly -because it was a year of famine, partly because the Jews brought the -plague with them. - -The survivors from Genoa who reached Rome underwent still more bitter -experiences; their own people leagued against them, refusing to -allow them to enter, from fear that the influx of new settlers would -damage their trade. They got together 1,000 ducats, to present to the -notorious monster, Pope Alexander VI, as a bribe to refuse to allow the -Jews to enter. This prince, himself unfeeling enough, was so enraged -at the heartlessness of these men against their own people, that he -ordered every Roman Jew out of the city. It cost the Roman congregation -2,000 ducats to obtain the revocation of this edict, and they had to -take in the refugees besides. - -The Greek islands of Corfu, Candia, and others became filled with -Spanish Jews; some had dragged themselves thither, others had been -sold as slaves there. The majority of the Jewish communities had great -compassion for them, and strove to care for them, or at all events -to ransom them. They made great efforts to collect funds, and sold -the ornaments of the synagogues, so that their brethren might not -starve, or be subjected to slavery. Persians, who happened to be on -the island of Corfu, bought Spanish refugees, in order to obtain from -Jews of their own country a high ransom for them. Elkanah Kapsali, -a representative of the Candian community, was indefatigable in his -endeavors to collect money for the Spanish Jews. The most fortunate -were those who reached the shores of Turkey; for the Turkish Sultan, -Bajazet II, showed himself to be not only a most humane monarch, but -also the wisest and most far-seeing. He understood better than the -Christian princes what hidden riches the impoverished Spanish Jews -brought with them, not in their bowels, but in their brains, and he -wanted to turn these to use for the good of his country. Bajazet caused -a command to go forth through the European provinces of his dominions -that the harassed and hunted Jews should not be rejected, but should be -received in the kindest and most friendly manner. He threatened with -death anyone who should ill-treat or oppress them. The chief rabbi, -Moses Kapsali, was untiringly active in protecting the unfortunate -Jewish Spaniards who had come as beggars or slaves to Turkey. He -traveled about, and levied a tax from the rich native Jews "for the -liberation of the Spanish captives." He did not need to use much -pressure; for the Turkish Jews willingly contributed to the assistance -of the victims of Christian fanaticism. Thus thousands of Spanish Jews -settled in Turkey, and before a generation had passed they had taken -the lead among the Turkish Jews, and made Turkey a kind of Eastern -Spain. - -At first the Spanish Jews who went to Portugal seemed to have some -chance of a happy lot. The venerable rabbi, Isaac Aboab, who had gone -with a deputation of thirty to seek permission from King Joao either to -settle in or pass through Portugal, succeeded in obtaining tolerably -fair terms. Many of the wanderers chose to remain in the neighboring -kingdom for a while, because they flattered themselves with the hope -that their indispensableness would make itself evident after their -departure, that the eyes of the now blinded king and queen of Spain -would be opened, and they would then receive the banished people with -open arms. At the worst, so thought the refugees, they would have -time in Portugal to look round, decide which way to go, and readily -find ships to convey them in safety to Africa or to Italy. When the -Spanish deputies placed the proposition before King Joao II to receive -the Jews permanently or temporarily in Portugal, the king consulted -his grandees at Cintra. In presenting the matter, he permitted it to -be seen that he himself was desirous of admitting the exiles for a -pecuniary consideration. Some of the advisers, either from pity for the -unhappy Jews, or from respect for the king, were in favor of granting -permission; others, and these the majority, either out of hatred for -the Jews, or a feeling of honor, were against it. The king, however, -overruled all objections, because he hoped to carry on the contemplated -war with Africa by means of the money acquired from the immigrants. It -was at first said that the Spanish refugees were to be permitted to -settle permanently in Portugal. This favor, however, the Portuguese -Jews themselves looked upon with suspicion, because the little state -would thus hold a disproportionate number of Jews, and the wanderers, -most of them penniless, would fall a heavy burden upon them, so -that the king, not of an amiable disposition, would end by becoming -hostile to all the Jews in Portugal. The chief men, therefore, of the -Jewish-Portuguese community met in debate, and many gave utterance to -the cruel view that they themselves would have to take steps to prevent -the reception of the Spanish exiles. A noble old man, Joseph, of the -family of Ibn-Yachya, spoke warmly for his unfortunate brethren; but -his voice was silenced. There was no more talk of their settling in -Portugal, but only of the permission to make a short stay, in order to -arrange for their journey. The conditions laid down for the Spanish -Jews were: Each one, rich or poor, with the exception of babes, was -to pay a stipulated sum (eight gold-cruzados, nearly one pound) in -four instalments; artisans, however, such as metal-workers and smiths, -who desired to settle in the country, only half of this amount. The -rest were permitted to stay only eight months, but the king undertook -to furnish ships at a reasonable rate for transporting them to other -lands. Those found in Portugal after the expiration of this period, or -not able to show a receipt for the stipulated payment, were condemned -to servitude. On the promulgation of these conditions, a large number -of Spanish Jews (estimated at 20,000 families, or 200,000 souls) passed -over the Portuguese borders. The king assigned to the wanderers certain -towns, where they had to pay a tax to the inhabitants. Oporto was -assigned to the families of the thirty deputies, and a synagogue was -built for them. Isaac Aboab, the renowned teacher of many disciples, -who later took positions as rabbis in Africa, Egypt and Palestine, died -peacefully in Oporto; his pupil, famous as a geographer and astronomer, -Abraham Zacuto, pronounced his funeral oration (end of 1492). Only a -few of his fellow-sufferers were destined to die a peaceful death. - -The feverish eagerness for discovering unknown lands and entering -into trading relations with them, which had seized on Portugal, gave -practical value to two sciences which hitherto had been regarded as the -hobby or amusement of idlers and dilettanti--namely, astronomy and -mathematics, the favorite pursuits of cultured Jews of the Pyrenean -Peninsula. If India, the land of gold and spices, upon which the minds -of the Portuguese were set with burning desire, was to be discovered, -then coasting journeys, so slow and so dangerous, would have to be -given up, and voyages made thither upon the high seas. But the ships -ran the risk of losing their way on the trackless wastes of the ocean. -Venturesome mariners, therefore, sought astronomical tables to direct -their way by the courses of the sun and the stars. In this science -Spanish Jews had the mastery. A Chazan of Toledo, Isaac (Zag) Ibn-Said, -had published astronomical tables in the thirteenth century, known -under the name of Alfonsine Tables, which were used with only slight -alterations by the scientific men of Germany, France, England and -Italy. As Joao II of Portugal now wished to send ships to the Atlantic -for the discovery of India by way of the African sea-coast, he summoned -a sort of astronomical congress for the working out of practical -astronomical tables. At this congress, together with the famous -German astronomer, Martin Behaim, and the Christian physician of King -Rodrigo, there sat a Jew, the royal physician, Joseph (Jose) Vecinho, -or de Viseu. He used as a basis the perpetual astronomical calendar, -or Tables of the Seven Planets, which Abraham Zacuto, known later as -a chronicler, had drawn up for a bishop of Salamanca, to whom he had -dedicated it. Joseph Vecinho, together with Christian scientists, also -improved upon the instrument for the measurement of the altitude of -the stars, the nautical astrolabe, indispensable to mariners. By its -aid Vasco da Gama first found it possible to follow the seaway to the -Cape of Good Hope and India, and thus, perhaps, Columbus was enabled -to discover a new continent. The geographical knowledge and skill of -two Jews, Rabbi Abraham de Beya and Joseph Zapateiro de Lamego, were -also turned to account by King Joao II, who sent them to Asia to obtain -tidings of his emissaries to the mythical land of Prester John. - -Although King Joao thus employed learned and skillful Jews for his own -ends, he had no liking for the Jewish race: he was indifferent, or -rather inimical, to them directly they came in the way of his bigotry. -In the year in which he dispatched Joseph Zapateiro and Abraham de -Beya to Asia, at the instigation of Pope Innocent VIII he appointed a -commission of the Inquisition for the Marranos who had fled from Spain -to Portugal, and, like Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain, delivered over -those who had Jewish leanings, either to death by fire or to endless -imprisonment. Some Marranos having taken ship to Africa, and there -openly adopted Judaism, he prohibited, under penalty of death and -confiscation, baptized Jews or new-Christians from leaving the country -by sea. On the breath of this heartless monarch hung the life or death -of hundreds of thousands of Jewish exiles. - -Against those unfortunates in Portugal, not only evil-minded men, -but nature itself, fought. Soon after their arrival in Portugal, a -cruel pestilence began to rage among them, destroying thousands. The -Portuguese, who also suffered from the plague, believed that the -Jews had brought it into the country; and, indeed, all that they had -suffered, the oppressive heat at the time of their going forth, want, -misery, and all kinds of devastating diseases, may have developed -it. A considerable number of the Spanish refugees died of the plague -in Portugal. The population on this account murmured against the -king, complaining that the pestilence had followed in the track of -the accursed Jews, and established itself in the country. Don Joao, -therefore, had to insist more strenuously than he otherwise would have -done upon the condition that all who had settled in Portugal should -leave at the expiration of the eight months. At first he put ships at -their disposal, at moderate rates of transportation, according to his -agreement, and bade the captains treat their passengers with humanity, -and convey them whither they wished to go. But these men, inspired -by Jew hatred and avarice, once upon the seas, troubled themselves -but little about the king's orders, since they had no need to fear -complaints about their inhumanity. They demanded more money than had -originally been bargained for, and extorted it from the helpless -creatures. Or, they carried them about upon the waste of waters till -their stock of provisions was exhausted, and then demanded large sums -for a fresh supply of food, so that at last the unfortunates were -driven to give their clothes for bread, and were landed anywhere in a -nearly naked state. Women and young girls were insulted and violated in -the presence of their parents and relatives, and disgrace was brought -upon the name of Christian. Frequently these inhuman mariners landed -them in some desolate spot of the African coasts, and left them to -perish from hunger and despair, or to fall a prey to the Moors, who -took them prisoners. - -The sufferings of the exiled Jews who left Portugal in ships are -related by an eye-witness, the Kabbalist, Judah ben Jacob Chayyat, of -a noble and wealthy family. The vessel on which he, his wife, and two -hundred and fifty other Jews, of both sexes and all ages, had embarked, -left the harbor of Lisbon in winter (beginning of 1493), and lingered -four months upon the waves, because no seaport would take them in for -fear of the plague. Provisions on board naturally ran short. The ship -was captured by Biscayan pirates, plundered and taken to the Spanish -port of Malaga. The Jews were not permitted to land, nor to set sail -again, nor were provisions given them. The priests and magistrates of -the town desired to incline them to the teaching of Christ by the pangs -of hunger. They succeeded in converting one hundred persons with gaunt -bodies and hollow eyes. The rest remained steadfast to their own faith, -and fifty of them, old men, youths, maidens, children, among them -Chayyat's wife, died of starvation. Then, at last, compassion awoke -in the hearts of the Malagese, and they gave them bread and water. -When, after two months, the remainder of them received permission to -sail to the coasts of Africa, they encountered bitter sufferings in -another form. On account of the plague they were not permitted to land -at any town, and had to depend upon the herbs of the field. Chayyat -himself was seized, and flung by a malicious Mahometan into a horrible -dungeon full of snakes and salamanders, in order to force him to adopt -Islamism; in case of refusal, he was threatened with death by stoning. -These continuous, grinding cruelties did not make him waver one instant -in his religious convictions. At last he was liberated by the Jews of -a little town, and carried to Fez. There so severe a famine raged that -Chayyat was compelled to turn a mill with his hands for a piece of -bread, not fit for a dog. At night he and his companions in misery who -had strayed to Fez slept upon the ash-heaps of the town. - -Carefully as the Portuguese mariners strove to conceal their -barbarities to the Jews, their deeds soon came to light, and frightened -off those who remained behind from emigrating by sea. The poor -creatures, moreover, were unable to raise the necessary money for -their passage and provisions. They, therefore, put off going from day -to day, comforting themselves with the hope that the king would be -merciful, and allow them to remain in Portugal. Don Joao, however, -was not a monarch whose heart was warmed by kindness and compassion. -He maintained that more Jews had come into Portugal than had been -stipulated for, and insisted, therefore, that the agreement be strictly -carried out. Those who remained after the expiration of eight months -were made slaves, and sold or given to those of the Portuguese nobility -who cared to take their pick from them (1493). - -King Joao went still further in his cruel dealings with the unhappy -Spanish Jews. The children of from three to ten years of age whose -parents had become slaves, he ordered to be transported by sea to the -newly-discovered San Thomas or Lost Islands (Ilhas perdidas), there to -be reared in the tenets of Christianity. The weeping of the mothers, -the sobbing of the children, the rage of the fathers, who tore their -hair in agony, did not move the heartless despot to recall his command. -Mothers entreated to be allowed to go with their children, threw -themselves at the king's feet as he came out of church, and implored -him to leave them at least the youngest. Don Joao had them dragged from -his path "like bitches who had their whelps torn from them." Is it to -be wondered at that mothers, with their children in their arms, sprang -into the sea to rest united in its depths? The Islands of San Thomas, -whither the little ones were taken, were full of lizards and venomous -snakes, and inhabited by criminals transported thither from Portugal. -Most of the children perished on the journey, or became the prey of -wild beasts. Among the survivors it happened that brothers and sisters, -in ignorance of their relationship, married each other. Perhaps the -king's barbarity to the Jews must be accounted for by the bitter gloom -which mastered him at the death of his only legitimate son. - -After the death of Joao II, who sank in wretchedness into his grave -(end of October, 1495), he was succeeded by his cousin Manoel, a -great contrast in disposition to himself--an intelligent, amiable, -gentle-minded man, and a lover of learning. There seemed some prospect -of a better star's rising upon the remnant of the banished Jews in -Portugal. King Manoel, finding that the Jews had remained in his -kingdom beyond the allotted time only from fear of many forms of death -upon the ocean, gave all the slaves their freedom. The money which, -beside themselves with joy, they offered him for this, he refused. It -is true that his ulterior motive, as Bishop Osorius tells us, was to -win them over to Christianity by clemency. The Jewish mathematician -and astronomer, Abraham Zacuto, who had remained in Lisbon, having -come thither from northern Spain, where he had taught his favorite -science even to Christians, was made chief astrologer. Zacuto served -the king not merely in the latter capacity. Although a man of limited -understanding, unable to rise above the superstition of his day, he had -sound knowledge of astronomy, and published a work upon that science, -besides preparing his astronomical tables. He also invented a correct -metal instrument for measuring the altitude of the stars, to replace -the clumsy and inaccurate wooden one used hitherto by mariners. - -Under King Manoel, in whose reign Portugal's domains were enlarged -by acquisitions in India and America, the Jews were able to breathe -awhile. It appears that soon after ascending the throne he issued a -command that the accusations against them for murdering children should -not be recognized by courts of justice, since they were malicious, -lying inventions. Nor would he allow the fanatical preaching friars to -utter denunciations against them. - -Very short, however, was the gleam of happiness for the Jews under -Manoel: the somber bigotry of the Spanish court changed it into -terrible gloom. No sooner had the young king of Portugal mounted the -throne than their majesties of Spain began to entertain the idea of -marriage relations with him in order to turn an inimical neighbor -into a friend and ally. They proposed marriage with their younger -daughter, Joanna, who afterwards became notorious on account of her -jealous disposition and her madness. Manoel lent a willing ear to the -proposal of an alliance with the Spanish court, but preferred the elder -sister, Isabella II, who had been married to the Infante of Portugal, -and had soon after become a widow. Isabella had strong repugnance to a -second marriage; but her confessor knew how to overrule her objections, -and made her believe that if she consented she would have opportunity -to glorify the Christian faith. The Spanish court had marked with -chagrin and vexation that the Portuguese king had received the Jewish -and Mahometan refugees, and King Manoel's friendly treatment of them -was a thorn in their flesh. Ferdinand and Isabella thought that by -falling in with the Portuguese king's wishes, they would attain their -end. They, therefore, promised him the hand of their eldest daughter -upon condition that he join with Spain against Charles VII, and send -the Jews out of Portugal, both the native and the refugee Jews. The -conditions were very disagreeable to King Manoel, who was on good -terms with France, and reaped great advantage from the wealth, energy, -intelligence, and knowledge of the Jews. - -He consulted with his lords and council upon this question, fraught -with such importance for the Jews. Opinions upon it were divided. -Manoel hesitated for some time, because his noble nature shrank from -such cruelty and faithlessness. The Infanta Isabella spoke the deciding -word. She entertained fanatical, almost personal hatred against the -Jews. She believed or was persuaded by the priests that the misfortunes -and unhappiness which had befallen King Joao in his last days were -occasioned by his having allowed Jews to enter his kingdom; and, -nourished as she had been at the breast of superstition, she was -afraid of ill-luck in her union with Manoel if Jews were permitted to -remain in Portugal. What dreary lovelessness in the heart of a young -woman! Irreconcilable strife of feelings and thoughts was thus raised -in the soul of King Manoel. Honor, the interest of the state, humanity, -forebade his proscribing and expelling the Jews; but the hand of the -Spanish Infanta, and the Spanish crown were to be secured only by the -misery of the Jews. Love turned the balance in favor of hate. When -the king was expecting his bride to cross the borders of his kingdom, -he received a letter from her saying that she would not set foot in -Portugal until the land was cleansed of the "curse-laden" Jews. - -The marriage contract between Don Manoel and the Spanish Infanta, -Isabella, then, was sealed with the misery of the Jews. It was -signed on the 30th of November, 1496, and so early as the 24th of -the following month, the king caused an order to go forth that all -the Jews and Moors of his kingdom must receive baptism, or leave the -country within a given time, on pain of death. In order to relieve his -conscience, he showed clemency in carrying his edict into effect. He -lengthened the term of their stay until the October of the following -year, so that they had time for preparation. He further appointed three -ports, Lisbon, Oporto, and Setubal, for their free egress. That he -sought to allure the Jews to Christianity, by the prospect of honor -and advancement, was so entirely due to the distorted views of the -times, that he cannot be held responsible for it; as it was, only a few -submitted to baptism. - -Precisely Manoel's clement behavior tended to the greater misery of the -Jews. Having ample time to prepare for their departure, and not being -forbidden to take gold and silver with them, they thought that there -was no need to hurry. Perhaps the king would change his mind. They -had friends at court who were agitating in their favor. Besides, the -winter months were not a good time to be upon the ocean. The majority, -therefore, waited until spring. In the meantime King Manoel certainly -did change his mind, but only to increase their fearful misery. He was -much vexed at finding that so few Jews had embraced Christianity. Very -unwillingly he saw them depart with their wealth and their possessions, -and sought ways and means to retain them, as Christians, of course, in -his own kingdom. The first step had cost him a struggle, the second was -easy. - -He raised the question in council whether the Jews could be brought -to baptism by force. To the honor of the Portuguese clergy it must be -said that they expressed themselves as opposed to this. The bishop -of Algarve, Ferdinand Coutinho, cited ecclesiastical authorities and -papal bulls to the effect that Jews might not be compelled to adopt -Christianity, because a free, not a forced, confession was required. -Manoel, however, was so bent upon keeping the industrious Jews with -him, that he openly declared that he did not trouble himself about -laws and authorities, but would act upon his own judgment. From Evora -he issued (beginning of April, 1497) a secret command that all Jewish -children, boys and girls, up to the age of fourteen, should be taken -from their parents by force on Easter Sunday, and carried to the -church fonts to be baptized. He was advised by a reprobate convert, -Levi ben Shem Tob, to take this step. In spite of the secrecy of the -preparations, several Jews found it out, and were about to flee with -their children from the "stain of baptism." When Manoel heard it, he -ordered the forced baptism of children to be carried out at once. -Heartrending scenes ensued in the towns where Jews lived when the -sheriffs strove to carry away the children. Parents strained their dear -ones to their breasts, the children clung convulsively to them, and -they could be separated only by lashes and blows. In their despair over -the possibility of being thus for ever sundered, many of them strangled -the children in their embraces, or threw them into wells and rivers, -and then laid hands upon themselves. "I have seen," relates Bishop -Coutinho, "many dragged to the font by the hair, and the fathers clad -in mourning, with veiled heads and cries of agony, accompanying their -children to the altar, to protest against the inhuman baptism. I have -seen still more horrible, indescribable violence done them." In the -memory of his contemporaries lingered the frightful manner in which a -noble and cultured Jew, Isaac Ibn-Zachin, destroyed himself and his -children, to avoid their becoming a prey to Christianity. Christians -were moved to pity by the cries and tears of Jewish fathers, mothers -and children, and despite the king's commands not to assist the Jews, -they concealed many of the unfortunates in their houses, so that at -least for the moment they might be safe; but the stony hearts of King -Manoel and his young wife, the Spanish Isabella II, remained unmoved -by these sights of woe. The baptized children, who received Christian -names, were placed in various towns, and reared as Christians. Either -in obedience to a secret order, or from excessive zeal, the creatures -of the king not only seized children, but also youths and maidens up to -the age of twenty, for baptism. - -Many Jews of Portugal probably embraced Christianity in order to remain -with their children; but this did not satisfy the king, who, not from -religious zeal, but from political motives, had hardened his heart. -All the Jews of Portugal, it mattered not whether with or without -conviction, were to become Christians and remain in the country. To -attain this end, he violated a solemn promise more flagrantly than his -predecessor. When the time of their departure came closer, he ordered -the Jews to embark from one seaport only, that of Lisbon, although, -at first, he had allowed them three places. Therefore, all who wished -to go, had to meet in Lisbon--20,000 souls, it is said, with burning -grief in their hearts, but prepared to suffer anything to remain true -to their convictions. The inhuman monarch allowed them lodgings in the -city, but he placed so many hindrances in the way of their embarkation, -that time passed by, and the day arrived when they were to forfeit -life, or at least liberty, if found upon Portuguese soil. He had all -who remained behind locked in an enclosed space (os Estaos) like oxen -in stalls, and informed them that they were now his slaves, and that -he could do with them as he thought fit. He urged them voluntarily -to confess the Christian faith, in which case they should have honor -and riches; otherwise they would be forced to baptism without mercy. -When, notwithstanding this, many remained firm, he forbade bread or -water to be given them for three days, in order to render them more -pliable. This means did not succeed any better with the greater number -of them: they chose to faint with starvation rather than belong to a -religion which owned such followers as their persecutors. Upon this, -Manoel proceeded to extreme measures. By cords, by their hair and -beard, they were dragged from their pen to the churches. To escape this -some sprang from the windows, and their limbs were crushed. Others -broke loose and jumped into wells. Some killed themselves in the -churches. One father spread his _tallith_ over his sons, and killed -them and himself. Manoel's terrible treatment comes into more glaring -prominence when compared with his behavior to the Moors. They, too, -had to leave Portugal, but no hindrances were placed in their way, -because he feared that the Mahometan princes in Africa and Turkey -might retaliate upon the Christians living in their domains. The Jews -had no earthly protector, were weak and helpless, therefore, Manoel, -whom historians call the Great, permitted himself to perpetrate -such atrocities. In this fashion many native Portuguese and refugee -Spanish Jews were led to embrace Christianity, which they--as their -Christian contemporaries relate with shame--had openly scorned. -Some, at a later period, became distinguished Rabbinical authorities, -like Levi ben Chabib, afterwards rabbi in Jerusalem. Those who escaped -with their lives and their faith attributed it to the gracious and -wondrous interposition of God. Isaac ben Joseph Caro, who had come from -Toledo to Portugal, there lost his adult and his minor sons ("who were -beautiful as princes"), yet thanked his Creator for the mercy that in -spite of peril on the sea he reached Turkey. Abraham Zacuto, with his -son Samuel, also was in danger of death, although (or because) he was -King Manoel's favorite, astrologer and chronicler. Both, however, were -fortunate enough to pass through the bitter ordeal, and escape from -Portugal, but they were twice imprisoned. They finally settled in Tunis. - -The stir which the enforced conversion of the Jews caused in Portugal -did not immediately subside. Those who had submitted to baptism through -fear of death, or out of love for their children, did not give up the -hope that by appealing to the papal court they might be able to return -to their own faith, seeing that, as all Europe knew, Pope Alexander VI -and his college of cardinals, as base as himself, would do anything for -money. A witticism was then going the rounds of every Christian country: - - Vendit Alexander Claves, Altaria, Christum; - Emerat ista prius, vendere jure potest. - -Rome was a market of shame--a hill of Astarte--a mart of -unwholesomeness--but there the innocent, also, could buy their -rights. The Portuguese new-Christians now sent a deputation of seven -of their companions in misery to Pope Alexander, and they did not -forget to take a purse of gold with them. The pope and the so-called -holy college showed themselves favorably inclined towards them, -especially Cardinal de Sancta Anastasia took them under his patronage. -The Spanish ambassador, Garcilaso, however, was instructed by their -Spanish majesties to oppose them. Despite his influence the affairs -of the Portuguese Jews must have taken a favorable turn, for King -Manoel decided to make concessions. He issued a mild decree (May 30th, -1497), in which he granted amnesty to all forcibly baptized Jews, and -a respite of twenty years, during which they were not to be brought -before the tribunal of the Inquisition for their adherence to Judaism. -It was said that it was necessary for them first to lay aside their -Jewish habits, and accustom themselves to the ways of the Catholic -faith, for which they needed time. Further, the decree ordered that, -on the expiration of this term, a regular examination should be made -of those accused of Judaizing practices, and if the case was decided -against them, their goods should not be confiscated, as in Spain, but -given over to their heirs. Finally, the decree ordained that those -baptized physicians and surgeons who did not understand Latin might -make use of Hebrew books of reference. Practically this allowed the -enforced Christians to live in secret, without fear of punishment, -as Jews, and to retain all their books. For, who, in Portugal, in -those days, could distinguish a book of medicine from any other work -in the Hebrew language? The students of the Talmud could thus follow -their favorite researches and studies under the mask of Catholicism. -This amnesty benefited the Portuguese Marranos, but not those who had -immigrated into Portugal, by a clause which Manoel had inserted out of -deference to the Spanish court, or, more particularly, to the Spanish -Infanta Isabella. For she insisted that the Marranos who had fled out -of Spain into Portugal should be delivered over to the Moloch of the -Inquisition. In the marriage contract between the king of Portugal -and the fanatical Isabella (August, 1497), it was expressly set down -that all persons of the Hebrew race coming under condemnation of the -Inquisition, who sought refuge in Portugal, must leave within a month's -time. - -Thus many thousand Portuguese Jews became pseudo-Christians, but with -the firm resolve to seize the first opportunity to get away, so that in -a free country they might openly practice a religion only the dearer to -them for all they had suffered for it. Their souls, as the poet Samuel -Usque writes, had not been stained by the baptism imposed on them. -There were some Jews, however, who had refused baptism with all their -might. Among them was Simon Maimi, apparently the last chief rabbi -(Arrabi mor) in Portugal, a scrupulously pious man; also his wife, his -sons-in-law, and some others. They were closely imprisoned, because -they would not forswear Judaism, nor observe the rites of the church. -To bring them to conversion, Simon Maimi and his fellow sufferers, -official rabbis, were most inhumanly tortured. They were immured up -to the neck in their prison, and left for three days in this fearful -position. When they nevertheless remained firm, the walls were torn -down; three had died, among them Simon Maimi, whose conversion was -most important, because his example would have influenced the others. -Two Marranos imperiled their lives to secure the corpse of the pious -martyr, that they might inter it in the Jewish burial-ground, although -it was strictly forbidden to bury the Jewish victims of Christian -sacrifice otherwise than by the executioner's hands. A few Marranos -secretly attended their deeply-lamented saint to his last rest, and -celebrated a mourning service over his grave. Manoel permitted the few -remaining Jews to depart not long after, probably on the death of -Isabella, the instigator of all his barbarities to the Jews. She died -at the birth of the heir to the thrones of Portugal and Spain, August -24th, 1498, and the Infante died two years later. One of the remnant -dismissed was Abraham Saba, a preacher and Kabbalist author, whose two -children were baptized by force and taken from him. The companions of -Simon Maimi and his sons-in-law remained in prison a long time, were -afterwards sent to Arzilla, in Africa, there condemned to work at the -trenches on the Sabbath, and died at last a martyr's death. - -Eighty years later, Manoel's great-grandson, the adventurous king, -Sebastian, led the flower of the Portuguese people to fresh conquests -in Africa. In a single battle the power of Portugal was broken, her -nobility slain, or cast into prison. The captives were carried to Fez, -and there, in the slave-market, offered for sale to the descendants of -the barbarously treated Portuguese Jews. The unhappy Portuguese nobles -and knights were, however, glad to be bought by Jews, as they well knew -the mild and humane nature of the followers of the "God of vengeance." - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -RESULTS OF THE EXPULSION OF THE JEWS FROM SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. GENERAL -VIEW. - - Widespread Consequences of the Expulsion--The Exiles--Fate - of the Abrabanel Family--Leon Medigo--Isaac Akrish--The - Pre-eminence of Jews of Spanish Origin--The North-African - States: Samuel Alvalensi, Jacob Berab, Simon Duran II--The - Jews of Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis--Abraham Zacuto, and Moses - Alashkar--Egypt: Isaac Shalal, David Ibn-Abi Zimra--The - Jews of Cairo--Selim I--Cessation of the Office of Nagid-- - Jerusalem--Obadyah di Bertinoro--Safet and Joseph Saragossi - --The Jews of Turkey--Constantinople--Elias Mizrachi: the - Karaites--The Communities of Salonica and Adrianople--The Jews - of Greece--Elias Kapsali--The Jews of Italy and the Popes: - Bonet de Lates--The Ghetto in Venice--Samuel Abrabanel and - Benvenida Abrabanela--Abraham Farissol--The Jews of Germany and - their Sorrows--Expulsion of the Jews from Various Towns--The - Jews of Bohemia--Jacob Polak and his School--The Jews of Poland. - -1496-1525 C.E. - - -The expulsion of the Jews from the Pyrenean Peninsula, unwise as it -was inhuman, forms in various ways a well-marked turning-point in the -general history of the Jewish race. It involved not only the exiles, -but the whole Jewish people, in far-reaching and mostly disastrous -consequences. The glory of the Jews was extinguished, their pride -humbled, their center displaced, the strong pillar against which -they had hitherto leant broken. The grief caused by this sad event -was shared by the Jews in every country which had news of it. They -all felt as if the Temple had been destroyed a third time, as if the -sons of Zion had a third time been condemned to exile and misery. -Whether from fancy or pride, it was supposed that the Spanish (or, -more correctly, the Sephardic) Jews were the posterity of the noblest -tribe, and included among them descendants in a direct line from King -David; hence the Jews looked upon them as a kind of Jewish nobility. -And now these exalted ones had been visited by the severest affliction! -Exile, compulsory baptism, death in every hideous form, by despair, -hunger, pestilence, fire, shipwreck, all torments united, had reduced -their hundreds of thousands to barely the tenth part of that number. -The remnant wandered about like specters, hunted from one country -to another, and princes among Jews, they were compelled to knock as -beggars at the doors of their brethren. The thirty millions of ducats -which, at the lowest computation, the Spanish Jews possessed on their -expulsion, had melted away in their hands, and they were thus left -denuded of everything in a hostile world, which valued the Jews at -their money's worth only. At the same period many German Jews were -driven from cities in the East and in the West, but their misery -did not equal that of the Spanish Jews. They had known neither the -sweetness of a country that they could call their own, nor the comforts -of life; they were more hardy, or, at least, accustomed to contempt and -harsh treatment. - -Half a century after the banishment of the Jews from Spain and -Portugal, we everywhere meet with fugitives: here a group, there a -family, or solitary stragglers. It was a kind of exodus on a small -scale, moving eastwards, chiefly to Turkey, as if the Jews were to -approach their original home. But their very wanderings, until they -again reached secure dwelling-places, and in a measure were settled, -were heartrending through the calamities of every description, the -humiliations, the contumely, sufferings worse than death, that they -encountered. - -The ancient family of Abrabanel did not escape heavy disasters and -constant migrations. The father, Isaac Abrabanel, who had occupied a -high position at the court of the accomplished king, Ferdinand I, and -of his son Alfonso, at Naples, was forced, on the approach of the -French, to leave the city, and, with his royal patron, to seek refuge -in Sicily. The French hordes plundered his house of all its valuables, -and destroyed a choice library, his greatest treasure. On the death of -King Alfonso, Isaac Abrabanel, for safety, went to the island of Corfu. -He remained there only till the French had evacuated the Neapolitan -territory; then he settled at Monopoli (Apulia), where he completed or -revised many of his writings. The wealth acquired in the service of -the Portuguese and Spanish courts had vanished, his wife and children -were separated from him and scattered, and he passed his days in sad -musings, out of which only his study of the Scriptures and the annals -of the Jewish people could lift him. His eldest son, Judah Leon Medigo -Abrabanel, resided at Genoa, where, in spite of his unsettled existence -and consuming grief for the loss of his young son, who had been taken -from him, and was being brought up in Portugal as a Christian, he still -cherished ideals. For Leon Abrabanel was much more highly accomplished, -richer in thought, in every way more gifted than his father, and -deserves consideration not merely for his father's, but for his own -sake. Leon Abrabanel practiced medicine to gain a livelihood (whence -his cognomen _Medigo_); but his favorite pursuits were astronomy, -mathematics, and metaphysics. Shortly before the death of the gifted -and eccentric Pico de Mirandola, Leon Medigo became acquainted with -him, won his friendship, and at his instigation undertook the writing -of a philosophical work. - -Leon Medigo, in a remarkable manner, entered into close connection with -acquaintances of his youth, with Spanish grandees, and even with King -Ferdinand, who had driven his family and so many hundred thousands -into banishment and death. For he became the private physician of the -general, Gonsalvo de Cordova, the conqueror and viceroy of Naples. -The heroic, amiable, and lavish De Cordova did not share his master's -hatred against the Jews. In one of his descendants Jewish literature -found a devotee. When King Ferdinand, after the conquest of the kingdom -of Naples (1504), commanded that the Jews be banished thence, as from -Spain, the general thwarted the execution of the order, observing that, -on the whole, there were but few Jews on Neapolitan territory, since -most of the immigrants had either again left it, or had become converts -to Christianity. The banishment of these few could only be injurious -to the country, since they would settle at Venice, which would benefit -by their industry and riches. Consequently the Jews were allowed to -remain a while longer on Neapolitan territory. But to exterminate -the Spanish and Portuguese Marranos who had settled there, Ferdinand -established the terrible Inquisition at Benevento. Leon Medigo for over -two years was De Cordova's physician (1505-1507), and King Ferdinand -saw him when he visited Naples. After the king's departure and the -ungracious dismissal of the viceroy (June, 1507), Leon Abrabanel, -having nowhere found suitable employment, returned to his father, -then living at Venice, whither he had been invited by his second son, -Isaac II, who practiced medicine first at Reggio (Calabria), then at -Venice. The youngest son, Samuel, afterwards a generous protector of -his co-religionists, was the most fortunate of the family. He dwelt -amidst the cool shades of the academy of Salonica, to which his father -had sent him to finish his education in Jewish learning. The elder -Abrabanel once more entered the political arena. At Venice he had the -opportunity of settling a dispute between the court of Lisbon and the -Venetian Republic concerning the East-Indian colonies established -by the Portuguese, especially concerning the trade in spices. Some -influential senators discerned Isaac Abrabanel's correct political and -financial judgment, and thenceforth consulted him in all important -questions of state policy. But suffering and travel had broken his -strength; before he reached seventy years, he felt the infirmities -of old age creeping over him. In a letter of reply to Saul Cohen -Ashkenasi, an inhabitant of Candia, a man thirsting for knowledge, the -disciple and intellectual heir of Elias del Medigo, Abrabanel complains -of increasing debility and senility. Had he been silent, his literary -productions of that time would have betrayed his infirmity. The baited -victims of Spanish fanaticism would have needed bodies of steel and the -resisting strength of stone not to succumb to the sufferings with which -they were overwhelmed. - -We have a striking instance of the restless wanderings of the Jewish -exiles in the life of one of the sufferers, who, though insignificant, -became known to fame by his zeal to raise the courage of the -unfortunate. To Isaac ben Abraham Akrish, a Spaniard, a great traveler -and a bookworm (born about 1489, died after 1575), Jewish literature -owes the preservation of many a valuable document. Akrish said, half -in joke, half in earnest, that he must have been born in the hour when -the planet Jupiter was passing through the zodiacal sign of the Fishes, -a nativity which indicates a wandering life. For, though lame in both -feet, he spent his whole life in traveling from city to city, on land -and on sea. When a boy, Akrish was banished from Spain, and at Naples -he underwent all the sufferings which seem to have conspired against -the exiles. Thus he limped from nation to nation, "whose languages he -did not understand, and who spared neither old men nor children," until -in Egypt, in the house of an exile, he found a few years' rest. Who -can follow all the wandering exiles, with sore feet, and still sorer -hearts, until they somewhere found rest, or the peace of the grave? - -But the very enormity of the misery they endured raised the dignity of -the Sephardic Jews to a height bordering on pride. That they whom God's -hand had smitten so heavily, so persistently, and who had undergone -such unspeakable sorrow, must occupy a peculiar position, and belong -to the specially elect, was the thought or the feeling existing more -or less clearly in the breasts of the survivors. They looked upon -their banishment from Spain as a third exile, and upon themselves -as favorites of God, whom, because of His greater love for them, He -had chastised the more severely. Contrary to expectation, a certain -exaltation took possession of them, which did not, indeed, cause them -to forget, but transfigured, their sufferings. As soon as they felt -even slightly relieved from the burden of their boundless calamity, and -were able to breathe, they rose with elastic force, and carried their -heads high like princes. They had lost everything except their Spanish -pride, their distinguished manner. However humbled they might be, their -pride did not forsake them; they asserted it wherever their wandering -feet found a resting-place. And to some extent they were justified. -They had, indeed, since the growth of the tendency among Jews towards -strict orthodoxy and hostility to science, and since their exclusion -from social circles, receded from the high scientific position they -had held, and forfeited the supremacy they had maintained during many -centuries; yet they far surpassed the Jews of all other countries in -culture, manners, and also in worth, as was shown by their external -bearing and their language. Their love for their country was too great -to allow them to hate the unnatural mother who had cast them out. -Hence, wherever they went, they founded Spanish or Portuguese colonies. -They carried the Spanish tongue, Spanish dignity and distinction -to Africa, Syria, and Palestine, Italy and Flanders; wherever fate -cast their lot they cherished and cultivated this Spanish manner so -lovingly, that it has maintained itself to this day in full vigor -among their descendants. Far from being absorbed by the rest of the -Jewish population in countries which had hospitably received them, they -considered themselves a privileged race, the flower and nobility of -the Jewish nation, kept aloof from others, looked down upon them with -contempt, and not unfrequently dictated laws to them. This arose from -the fact that the Spanish and Portuguese Jews spoke the languages of -their native countries (which by the discoveries and conquests of the -sixteenth century had become the languages of the world) with purity, -took part in literature, and associated with Christians on equal -terms, with manliness, and without fear or servility. On this point -they contrasted with the German Jews, who despised pure and beautiful -speech, the very thing which constitutes a true man, and considered -a corrupt jargon and isolation from the Christian world as proofs of -religious zeal. The Sephardic Jews attached importance to forms of all -kinds, to taste in dress, to elegance in their synagogues, as well as -to the medium for the exchange of thought. The Spanish and Portuguese -rabbis preached in their native tongues, and laid great stress on pure -pronunciation and euphony. Hence their language did not degenerate, -at least not in the first centuries after their expulsion. "In the -cities of Salonica, Constantinople, Alexandria, Cairo, Venice, and -other resorts of commerce, the Jews transact their business only in -the Spanish language. I have known Jews of Salonica who, though still -young, pronounced Castilian as well as myself, and even better." This -is the judgment of a Christian writer about half a century after their -expulsion. - -The contempt which even Isaac Abrabanel, mild and broken though he -was, entertained for the barbarous jargon spoken by German Jews is -characteristic. He was surprised to discover in a letter, sent to -him by Saul Cohen of Candia, a native of Germany, a finished Hebrew -style and close reasoning, and freely expressed his astonishment: "I -am surprised to find so excellent a style among the Germans (Jews), -which is rare even among their leaders and rabbis, however gifted -they may be in other respects. Their language is full of awkwardness -and clumsiness, a stammering without judgment." This superiority of -the Jews of Spanish descent in culture, bearing, social manners, and -knowledge of the world, was appreciated and admired by other Jews, -especially by German Jews, with whom they everywhere came into contact. -Hence Spanish Jews could presume to play the role of masters, and -frequently, in spite of their paucity of numbers, they dominated a -majority speaking other tongues. In the century after their expulsion -they are almost exclusively the leaders; the names of their spokesmen -are heard everywhere; they furnished rabbis, authors, thinkers and -visionaries, whilst German and Italian Jews occupied a humble place. -In all countries, except Germany and Poland, into which they had not -penetrated, or only as solitary individuals, the Sephardic Jews were -the leaders. - -The northern coast of Africa, and the inhabitable regions inland, -were full of Jews of Spanish descent. They had congregated there in -great numbers during the century from the persecution of 1391 to their -total expulsion. From Safi (Assafi), the most southwestern town of -Morocco, to Tripoli in the northeast, there were many communities, of -varying numbers, speaking the Spanish language. Though mostly hated, -arbitrarily treated, and often compelled by petty barbarian tyrants and -the uncivilized, degenerate Moorish population to wear a disgraceful -costume, yet prominent Jews found opportunities to distinguish -themselves, to rise to high honors and acquire widespread influence. -In Morocco a rich Jew, learned in history, who had rendered important -services to the ruler of that country, was held in high esteem. At Fez, -where there existed a community of five thousand Jewish families, who -monopolized most trades, Samuel Alvalensi, a Jew of Spanish descent, -was greatly beloved by the king, on account of his ability and his -courage, and so trusted by the populace that it accepted him as its -leader. In the struggle between the two reigning families, the Merinos -and the Xerifs, he sided with the former, led one thousand four hundred -Jews and Moors against the followers of the latter, and defeated them -at Ceuta. A very numerous Jewish community of Spanish descent occupied -the greater portion of Tlemcen, or Tremcen, an important town, where -the court resided. Here Jacob Berab (born 1474, died 1541), fleeing -from Spain, found a refuge. He was one of the most active men among the -Spanish emigrants, and the most acute rabbi of his age. At the same -time, he was a crusty, dogmatical and quarrelsome man, who had many -enemies, but also many admirers. Born at Maqueda, near Toledo, Jacob -Berab, after passing through many dangers, suffering want, hunger and -thirst, reached Tlemcen, whence he went to Fez, the Jewish community -of which chose him, a needy youth, for their rabbi, on account of his -learning and sagacity. There he conducted a college until the fanatic -Spaniards made conquests in northern Africa, and disturbed the quiet -asylum that the Jews had found there. - -The reduced community of Algiers was under the direction of Simon -Duran II, a descendant of the Spanish fugitives of 1391 (born 1439, -died after 1510), a son of Solomon Duran, the rabbi with philosophic -culture. Like his brother, he was considered in his day a high -rabbinical authority, and the advice of both was sought by many -persons. Of as noble a disposition as his father, Simon Duran was the -protector of his co-religionists and the sheet-anchor of the Spanish -exiles who came within his reach, for he shunned neither cost nor -danger when the religion, morals and safety of his compatriots were -in question. Fifty fugitive Jews, who had suffered shipwreck, had -been cast on the coast of Seville, where the fanatical Spaniards, in -accordance with the edict, put them into prison, and kept them there -for two years. They were in daily expectation of death, but finally -they were pardoned--that is to say, sold for slaves. As such they -reached Algiers in a deplorable condition; but by the exertions of -Simon Duran they were redeemed for the sum of seven hundred ducats, -which the small community managed to collect. - -Two eminent Spanish Jews, the aged historian and astronomer, Abraham -Zacuto, and a younger man, Moses Alashkar, found a refuge at Tunis. -Zacuto, who had taught mathematics and astronomy to Christian and -Mahometan pupils in Spain, and whose published writings were widely -read and made use of, was nevertheless compelled to wander about like -an outlaw, and had only with difficulty escaped death. He seems to have -spent some quiet years at Tunis, where he completed his more celebrated -than useful chronicle ("Sefer Yochasin," 1504), history it cannot be -called. It is an epitome of Jewish history, with especial reference -to the literature of the Jews. It has the merit of having promoted -historical research among Jews, but lacks artistic arrangement and -completeness. It is a mere compilation from works accessible to the -writer, who has even failed to give a complete sketch of the history -of his own times, the sufferings of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. -Zacuto's chronicle was a child of his old age and misery; he wrote -it with a trembling hand, in fear of impending events, and without -sufficient literary materials. On this account it must be judged -leniently. - -A contemporary of Zacuto at Tunis was Moses ben Isaac Alashkar, as -deeply learned a Talmudist as his teacher, Samuel Alvalensi. He was -a correct thinker, and devoid of narrow one-sidedness. He plunged -into the dark labyrinths of the Kabbala, yet, at the same time, -raised his eyes to the bright heights of philosophy--a mental -_mesalliance_ possible in those days. Alashkar even defended Maimuni -and his philosophical system against the charge of heresy brought by -obscurantists. - -Terrified by the perils which the Spanish arms foreboded to the Jews of -northern Africa, Zacuto and Alashkar, with many others, appear to have -quitted Tunis. They were but too well acquainted with the cruelties -practiced against Jews by the ultra-Catholic Spaniards. The former -went to Turkey, where he died shortly after his arrival (before 1515). -Alashkar fled to Egypt, where his extensive learning and wealth secured -for him an honorable position. - -Egypt, especially its capital, Cairo, had become the home of many -Jewish-Spanish fugitives, who had in a short time acquired an influence -surpassing that of the original Jewish inhabitants. On their arrival, -all the Jewish communities were, as of old, ruled by a Jewish chief -justice or prince (Nagid, Reis). The office was then held by the noble -and rich Isaac Cohen Shalal, a man of upright character, learned in -the Talmud, who employed his wealth and the high esteem in which he -was held by all, even including the Egyptian Mameluke sultan, for the -benefit of his community and the fugitives who settled in their midst. -He impartially promoted deserving men of the Spanish immigration to -offices, whereby they gradually obtained paramount influence. The -Spanish scholar, Samuel Sidillo (or Sid, Ibn-Sid), a disciple of the -last Toledan rabbi, Isaac de Leon, highly venerated in his day on -account of his piety and his profound rabbinical knowledge, found -a refuge at Cairo. A Spanish fugitive who acquired still higher -distinction was David Ibn-Abi Zimra (born 1470, died about 1573). A -disciple of the mystic Joseph Saragossi, he was rich in knowledge and -virtues, as well as in property and distinguished descendants, and -he soon outshone the natives, acquiring the reputation of being the -highest rabbinical authority in Egypt. Many other Spanish rabbinical -scholars found rest in Egypt; to those already named, including -Jacob Berab and Moses Alashkar, we may add Abraham Ibn-Shoshan, all -eventually becoming official rabbis. - -Political changes in Egypt placed the Spaniards at the head of the -Jewish communities in that country. The land of the Nile, together -with Syria and Palestine, whose conquest was so difficult a task for -the sultans of Constantinople, finally became the well-secured prey -of Selim I, who won a splendid victory over the Mameluke sultan in a -decisive battle not far from Aleppo (1517). His march from Syria to -Egypt was a triumphal progress. Selim spent the summer of that year -in remodeling the order of things in Egypt, reducing it to a real -dependency of Turkey, turning it, in fact, into a province, ruled by -a viceroy, a pasha entirely devoted to him. Abraham de Castro, a Jew -of Spanish descent, was appointed by Selim master of the mint for the -new Turkish coinage, and, by his wealth and influence, he acquired -great weight among Turkish officials and the Egyptian Jews. De Castro -was very benevolent; he annually spent three thousand gold florins -in alms, and in every way took lively interest in the affairs of his -co-religionists. - -Selim, or his viceroy, appears to have introduced an entirely new order -into the management of the Egyptian Jews. For ages a chief rabbi and -judge had ruled all the communities; the person holding the office -had possessed a kind of princely power, similar to that formerly -exercised by the princes of the exile in Babylon. The chief rabbi -or prince (Nagid) nominated the rabbis of the communities, had the -supreme decision of disputes among Jews, confirmed or rejected every -new regulation, was even authorized to decree corporal punishment for -offenses and crimes committed by Jews under his jurisdiction. From -these functions he derived a considerable revenue, but all this ceased -with the Turkish conquest. Every community was thenceforth declared -independent in the election of its head, and allowed to manage its own -affairs. The last Jewish-Egyptian prince or chief rabbi was deposed -from his dignity, and betook himself with his riches to Jerusalem, -where he became a benefactor of its growing community. The office of -rabbi of Cairo was bestowed on the Spanish immigrant David Ibn-Abi -Zimra, on account of his upright character, learning, benevolent -disposition, and chiefly, probably, on account of his wealth. His -authority rose to such a degree that he could venture to abolish a very -ancient custom, which excessive conservatism had dragged along from -century to century, like a dead limb. The Babylonian Jews had more -than eighteen hundred years before adopted the Syrian or Seleucidan -chronology (_Minyan Yavanim_, _Minyan Shetaroth_), in memory of -the victory of the Syrian king Seleucus over the other generals of -Alexander the Great. The Syrian empire and the Seleucidae had perished -long ago, Syria had by turns become the prey of Romans, Byzantines, -Mahometans, Mongols and Turks; nevertheless, the Babylonian and -Egyptian Jews had retained that chronology, employing it not only -in historical records and secular papers, but also in the dating of -documents of divorce and similar deeds. Whilst the Jews of Palestine -and of Europe had gradually adopted other chronologies, as "After the -Destruction of the Temple," or "Since the Creation" (_aera mundi_), -the Babylonian and Egyptian Jews so pertinaciously adhered to the -Seleucidan era as to declare invalid every letter of divorce not so -dated. Ibn-Abi Zimra abolished this antiquated chronology, as far as -Egypt was concerned, introducing in its stead the already accepted -mode of reckoning from the Creation, and his innovation met with no -opposition. The ascendency of the immigrant Sephardic Jews over the -majority of the original community (the Mostarabi) was so great and -so well established, that the former, in spite of the objections of -the latter, succeeded in the bold attempt to abolish an ancient and -beautiful custom, introduced by Maimuni himself. The Mostarabian Jews -for more than three centuries had been accustomed to have the chief -prayer said aloud in the synagogue, by the reader (Chazan), without -themselves participating in it. But to the pious immigrants from the -Peninsula this custom, though promoting decorum and devotion, appeared -illegal, anti-Talmudic, if not heretical, and they zealously set to -work to abolish it. Terrible sufferings had hardened the hearts of the -Sephardic Jews, and they were but too ready to exercise the utmost -severity in religious matters, and slavishly to follow the letter. The -rabbi, David Ibn-Abi Zimra, was their leader. - -During his term of office a great danger hovered over the Cairo -community. The fourth viceroy of Egypt, Achmed Shaitan (Satan), -harbored the design of severing Egypt from Turkey, and making himself -its independent master. Having succeeded in his first measures, he -proposed to the Jewish superintendent of the mint, Abraham de Castro, -to have his name placed on the coins. De Castro pretended compliance, -but asked for a written order. Having obtained it he secretly left -Egypt, and hastened to the court of Solyman I, at Constantinople, to -inform the sultan of the treacherous design of the pasha, which was -thus frustrated. Achmed vented his rage on the Jews, threw some of -them, probably De Castro's friends and relatives, into prison, and -permitted the Mamelukes to plunder the Jewish quarter of Cairo. He -then sent for twelve of the most eminent Jews, and commanded them -within a short time to find an exorbitant sum of money, threatening -them, in case of non-compliance, with a cruel death for themselves and -their families. For greater security he retained them as hostages. To -the supplications of the Jewish community for mercy and delay, the -tyrant replied by more terrible threats. In their hopelessness the Jews -of Cairo turned in fervent prayer to God. Meanwhile the collectors -had got together a considerable sum, which they offered as a payment -on account. But as it scarcely amounted to the tenth part of Achmed's -demand, his private secretary had the collectors put in irons, and -threatened them, and all the members of the community, with certain -death on that very day, as soon as his master left his bath. At the -very moment when the secretary uttered these words, the pasha was -attacked in his bath by Mahomet Bey, one of his vizirs, and some other -conspirators, and severely wounded. Achmed Shaitan made good his escape -from the palace, but was betrayed, overtaken, cast into fetters and -then beheaded. The imprisoned Jews were set free, and their community -escaped a great peril. The Egyptian Jews for a long period afterwards -commemorated the day of their deliverance (Adar 27th or 28th, 1524--a -Cairoan Purim, Furin al-Mizrayim). - -By the immigration of Spaniards and Portuguese, Jerusalem and other -Palestinian cities also obtained a great increase of members to their -congregations, and considerable importance. Here, too, the immigrants -in a short time became the social and religious leaders. In the very -brief period of seven years the number of Jewish families in the Holy -City grew from scarcely seventy to two hundred, and again within -the space of two decades (1495-1521), it rose from two hundred to -fifteen hundred. The influx of new settlers had largely augmented the -prosperity of the Jewish inhabitants of Jerusalem. Whilst formerly -nearly all the members of the community were in a state of destitution, -three decades afterwards there were only two hundred receiving alms. -And what is of greater importance, morality was greatly benefited by -the immigrants. Jerusalem was no longer the den of robbers found by -Obadyah (Obadiah) di Bertinoro (1470-1520), who had immigrated from -Italy. The members of the community were no longer harassed to death, -and driven to despair or voluntary exile by a rapacious, tyrannical -and treacherous faction; harmony, union, a sense of justice, and peace -had found an abode with them. There was indeed a show of excessive -piety, but it no longer flagrantly contrasted with a revoltingly -immoral mode of life. Obadyah di Bertinoro, the gentle and amiable -Italian preacher, had greatly contributed to this improvement of the -moral tone of Jerusalem; for more than two decades he taught the -growing community, by precept and example, genuine piety, nobility -of sentiment and relinquishment of barbarian coarseness. After his -arrival at Jerusalem, he wrote to his friends: "If there were in this -country one sagacious Jew, who knew how to lead a community gently -and justly, not Jews only, but also Mahometans would willingly submit -to him, for the latter are not at all hostile to the Jews, but full -of consideration for strangers. But there is not one Jew in this -country possessing either sense or social virtues; all are coarse, -misanthropical and avaricious." Bertinoro did not anticipate that he -himself would soften that coarseness, improve the morals, mitigate -that immorality, ennoble that baseness. But his genial, amiable manner -disarmed evil and healed the sores he had discovered, lamented, and -pitilessly exposed. Obadyah was the guardian angel of the Holy City, -he cleansed it from pollution, and clothed it with a pure festival -garment. "Were I to attempt proclaiming his praise," writes an Italian -pilgrim to Jerusalem, "I should never cease. He is the man who is held -in the highest esteem in the country; everything is done according to -his orders, and no one dares gainsay his words. From all parts he is -sought after and consulted; his merits are acknowledged by Egyptians -and Babylonians, and even Mahometans honor him. Withal, he is modest -and humble; his speech is gentle; he is accessible to every one. All -praise him and say: He is not like an earthly being. When he preaches -every ear listens intently; not the least sound is heard, his hearers -are so silently devout." Exiles from the Pyrenean Peninsula supported -him in his humane work. - -To the intervention of Obadyah di Bertinoro, and of those who shared -his opinions, probably were due the excellent ordinances which the -community voluntarily imposed on itself, and for remembrance graved on -a tablet in the synagogue. They were directed against the abuses which -had crept in by degrees. These ordinances included amongst others the -following decrees: In disputes between Jews, the Mahometan authorities -are to be applied to only in the utmost necessity. The Jewish judge or -rabbi is not to be allowed to compel wealthy members of the community -to make advances for communal wants. Students of the Talmud and widows -shall not contribute to the communal funds. Jews are not to purchase -bad coin, and, if they acquire any accidentally, are not to pass it. -The pilgrims to the grave of the prophet Samuel are not to drink wine, -for men and women traveled together, the latter unveiled, and if the -men had been excited by wine, great mischief might have ensued. - -The Holy City acquired still higher importance by the immigration of -Isaac Shalal, with his riches, experience, and authority. - -Safet in Galilee, the youngest town of Palestine, next to Jerusalem -acquired the largest Jewish population and considerable importance, -which increased to such a degree that Safet not only rivaled, but -excelled the mother-city. At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning -of the next century it sheltered only some three hundred Jewish -families, original inhabitants (Moriscos), Berbers, and Sephardim. It -did not at first possess any eminent native expounder of the Talmud, -who might have become a leader. It owed its importance and far-reaching -influence to the arrival of a Spanish fugitive, under whose direction -the community was strengthened. Joseph Saragossi became for Safet what -Obadyah di Bertinoro had been for Jerusalem. Driven from Saragossa, -he passed through Sicily, Beyrout and Sidon, in which latter place he -resided for some time, and finally reached Safet, where he settled. -Joseph Saragossi possessed a mild, fascinating character, and -considered it the task of his life to preach peace and restore harmony -in private and communal life. Even among Mahometans he worked in a -conciliating and appeasing spirit, and on this account he was loved and -revered as an angel of peace. At one time he wished to leave Safet. The -inhabitants fairly clung to him, and promised him an annual salary of -fifty ducats, two thirds of which the Mahometan governor of the town -offered to furnish. Joseph Saragossi transplanted the study of the -Talmud to Safet, and also that of the Kabbala, as he was an ultra-pious -mystic. Through him the hitherto untainted community became a nest of -Kabbalists. - -In Damascus, the half-Palestinian capital of Syria, there also arose, -by the side of the very ancient Mostarabian community, a Sephardic -congregation, composed of fugitives, and numbering five hundred Jewish -families. Within a short time after their arrival, the Spaniards built -a splendid synagogue at Damascus, called Khataib. They speedily -increased to such a degree as to separate into several congregations, -according to the states from which they had originally come. - -The main stream of the Jewish-Spanish emigration flowed towards Turkey -in Europe; the greater part of the remnant of the three hundred -thousand exiles found an asylum in that country, where the inhabitants -did not take love as their watchword. The sultans Bajazet, Selim I -and Solyman I, not only tolerated the fugitive Jews, but gave them a -hearty welcome, and granted them the liberties enjoyed by Armenians and -Greeks. A Jewish poet enthusiastically described the freedom of his -co-religionists in Turkey. "Great Turkey, a wide and spreading sea, -which our Lord opened with the wand of His mercy (as at the exodus from -Egypt), that the tide of thy present disaster, Jacob, as happened with -the multitude of the Egyptians, should therein lose and exhaust itself. -There the gates of freedom and equal position for the unhindered -practice of Jewish worship are ever open, they are never closed against -thee. There thou canst renew thy inner life, change thy condition, -strip off, and cast away false and erroneous doctrines, recover thy -ancient truths, and abandon the practices which, by the violence of the -nations among whom thou wast a pilgrim, thou wert compelled to imitate. -In this realm thou art highly favored by the Lord, since therein He -granteth thee boundless liberty to commence thy late repentance." - -The immigrant Jews at first enjoyed very happy days in Turkey, because -they were a godsend to this comparatively new state. The Turks were -good soldiers, but bad citizens. The sultans, frequently on bad terms -with Christian states, could place but indifferent trust in the Greeks, -Armenians, and Christians of other national creeds; they looked upon -them as born spies and traitors. But they could depend on the fidelity -and usefulness of the Jews. Hence they were, on the one hand, the -business people, and on the other, the citizen class of Turkey. They -not only carried on the wholesale and retail commerce by land and sea, -but were the handicraftsmen and the artists. The Marranos especially -who had fled from Spain and Portugal manufactured for the warlike Turks -new armor and firearms, cannons and gunpowder, and taught the Turks how -to use them. Thus persecuting Christianity itself furnished its chief -enemies, the Turks, with weapons which enabled them to overwhelm the -former with defeat after defeat, humiliation on humiliation. Jewish -physicians especially were held in high esteem in Turkey; they were -for the most part clever disciples of the school of Salamanca, and, on -account of their skill, higher education, secrecy and discretion, were -preferred to Christian, and even to Mahometan doctors. These Jewish -physicians, mostly of Spanish descent, acquired great influence with -grand sultans, vizirs and pashas. - -Sultan Selim had for his physician in ordinary Joseph Hamon, an -immigrant probably from Granada. Hamon's son and nephew successively -held the same office. The son, Moses Hamon (born 1490, died about -1565), physician to the wise sultan Solyman, on account of his skill -and manly, determined character, enjoyed even higher reputation and -influence than his father. He accompanied the sultan in his warlike -expeditions, and brought back from Persia, whither he had followed -Solyman on a triumphal progress, a learned man, Jacob Tus or Tavs -(about 1535), who translated the Pentateuch into Persian. This version, -accompanied by Chaldean and Arabic translations, was afterwards printed -at the expense of Hamon, who was justly considered a protector of his -brethren and a promoter of Judaism. - -The Jews were also in great request in Turkey as linguists and -interpreters, they having acquired knowledge of many languages through -their wanderings among foreign nations. - -The capital, Constantinople, held within its walls a very numerous -Jewish community, which was daily increased by new fugitives from the -Peninsula, so that it became the largest in Europe, numbering probably -thirty thousand souls. It had forty-four synagogues, consequently as -many separate congregations. For the Jewish community in the Turkish -capital and other towns did not form a close corporation, but was -divided into groups and sections, according to their native places, -each of which was anxious to retain its own customs, rites and liturgy, -and to possess its own synagogue and rabbinical college. Hence there -were not only Castilian, Aragonese and Portuguese congregations, but -still more restricted associations, Cordovan, Toledan, Barcelonian, -Lisbon groups (Kahals), besides German, Apulian, Messinian and -Greek. Every petty congregation apportioned among its members the -contributions, not only for its worship, officials, the maintenance of -the poor, its hospitals and schools, but also for the taxes payable to -the state. These latter at first were trifling: a poll-tax on every one -subject to taxation (charaj), and a kind of rabbinical tax levied on -the congregation, according to the three different classes of property, -of 200, 100 and 20 aspers. The family of the physician Hamon alone was -exempt from taxes. - -At first the native Jews, who formed the majority, had complete -preponderance over the immigrants. The office of chief rabbi, after the -death of the meritorious but unappreciated Moses Kapsali, was held by -Elias Mizrachi, probably descended from an immigrant Greek family, who -under the sultans Bajazet, Selim I, and perhaps also under Solyman, -had a seat in the divan like his predecessor, and was the official -representative of the whole body of Turkish Jews. He deservedly held -this post on account of his rabbinical and secular knowledge, and -upright, impartially just character. Elias Mizrachi (born about 1455, -died between 1525 and 1527), a disciple of the German school, and a -profound Talmudist and strictly pious man, was no enemy to science. He -not only understood, but taught mathematics and astronomy, gave public -lectures thereon, as also on the Talmud, and compiled handbooks on -these subjects, some of which became such favorites as to be translated -into Latin. In his youth he was a Hotspur, and had a feud with the -Karaites in Turkey. But in his old age he felt more kindly towards -them, and employed his weighty influence to avert a wrong which the -ultra-pious were about to inflict on them. A few obscurantists, chiefly -members of the Apulian congregation at Constantinople, attempted to -interrupt, in a violent manner, the neighborly intercourse which for -half a century had existed between Rabbanites and Karaites. They -assembled the members of the congregation, and, with the Sefer Torah -in their hand, excommunicated all who should henceforth instruct -Karaites, whether children or adults, in the Bible or the Talmud, or -even in secular sciences, such as mathematics, natural history, logic, -music, or even the alphabet. Nor were Rabbanite servants any longer to -take service with Karaite families. These fanatics intended to raise -an insuperable barrier between the followers of the Talmud and those -of the Bible. But the majority of the Constantinople community were -dissatisfied with this bigoted measure. The tolerant Rabbanites of -the capital held a meeting to frustrate the plan of the zealots. But -the latter behaved so outrageously and with such violence, bringing -a fierce rabble provided with cudgels into the synagogue where the -consultation was to be held, that the conveners of the meeting had no -chance of being heard, and the act of excommunication was carried by -an insolent minority, in defiance of the sound arguments and opposition -of the majority. Then Rabbi Elias Mizrachi openly and vigorously -opposed this unreasonable, illegal and violent proceeding, showing -in a learned discourse how unjust and opposed to the Talmud was the -rejection of the Karaites. He impressed on the zealots the fact that -by their intolerant severity they would bring about the decay of the -instruction of the young, since hitherto emulation to surpass their -Karaite companions had been a great incentive to Rabbanite scholars. - -The Turkish Jews in those days had a kind of political representative, -an advocate (Kahiya), or chamberlain, who had access to the -sultan and his great dignitaries, and was appointed by the court. -Shaltiel, otherwise an unknown personage, but said to have been of -noble character, held the office under Solyman. With a population -looking contemptuously on unbelievers, with provincial pashas ruling -arbitrarily, and with fanatical Greek and Bulgarian Christians, -instances of injustice and violent proceedings against the Jews in the -Turkish empire were not of rare occurrence; on all such occasions the -Kahiya Shaltiel interposed on behalf of his co-religionists, and, by -means of money liberally spent at court, obtained redress. - -The community next in importance in Turkey was that of Salonica (the -ancient Thessalonica), which, though an unhealthy town, possessed -attractions for the immigrants of Spain and Provence; for this once -Greek settlement offered more leisure for peaceful occupation than -the noisy capital of Turkey. Ten congregations at least were soon -formed here, the most of Sephardic origin. Eventually they increased -to thirty-six. Salonica, in fact, became a Jewish town, with more Jews -than Gentiles. A Jewish poet, Samuel Usque, calls the town "a mother -of Judaism, built on the deep foundation of the Lord, full of excellent -plants and fruitful trees, such as are found nowhere else on earth. -Their fruit is glorious, because it is watered by an abundance of -benevolence. The greatest portion of the persecuted and banished sons -from Europe and other parts of the earth have met therein, and been -received with loving welcomes, as if it were our venerable mother, -Jerusalem." Within a short period the Sephardic immigrants acquired -complete supremacy over their co-religionists, even over the original -community, so that the leading language of Salonica became Spanish, -which German and Italian Jews had to learn, if they wished to maintain -intercourse with the Spanish immigrants. The son of one of the last -Jewish-Spanish ministers of finance, Judah Benveniste, had settled -here. From his paternal inheritance he had saved enough to possess -a noble library; he was the standard around which his heavily-tried -brethren could rally. Representatives of Talmudic learning were -naturally found among the sons of the Pyrenean Peninsula only, such as -the Taytasaks, a family of scholars, and Jacob Ibn-Chabib, though even -they were not men of the first eminence. Spanish immigrants, such as -the physicians Perachyah Cohen, his son Daniel, Aaron Afia (Affius), -and Moses Almosnino, also cultivated philosophy and astronomy to some -extent. But the chief study was that of the Kabbala, in which the -Spaniards, Joseph Taytasak, Samuel Franco, and others, distinguished -themselves. Salonica in Turkey and Safet in Palestine in time became -the chief seats of Kabbalistic extravagance. Of less importance was -Adrianople, the former residence of the Turkish sultans, though there -also, as at Nicopolis, communities in which the Sephardic element -predominated were formed. - -To the towns of Amasia, Broussa, Tria and Tokat in Asia Minor, the -Spanish fugitives furnished inhabitants. Smyrna, which later on had -a large Jewish population, was then of little importance. Greece, -however, could show some large communities. Calabrese, Apulian, Spanish -and Portuguese fugitives settled at Arta or Larta, by the side of the -original inhabitants, Rumelians and Corfuites. They seem to have done -well here, for we read that the Jewish youth were much given to gayety -and dancing, thereby greatly offending the ultra-pious. Not unimportant -communities existed at Patras, Negropont and Thebes. The Thebans were -considered very learned in Talmudic lore. The rites of the community of -Corfu were followed by the other Jews of Greece. There was an important -community at Canea, on the island of Candia, belonging to Venice. At -their head were two famous families, the Delmedigos, sons and relatives -of the philosopher Elias del Medigo, and the Kapsalis, connections -of the former chief rabbi of Turkey. Judah Delmedigo (the son of the -teacher of Pico di Mirandola), and Elias ben Elkanah Kapsali, finished -their studies under the same rabbi, Judah Menz, of Padua; nevertheless, -they were not at one in their views. As both held the office of rabbi -at Canea, there was constant friction between them. If the one declared -anything to be permissible, the other exerted all his learning and -ingenuity to prove the contrary; yet both were worthy men of high -principle, and both were well versed in general literature. - -Elias Kapsali (born about 1490, died about 1555) was a good historian. -When the plague devastated Candia, and plunged the inhabitants into -mourning, he composed (in 1523) a history of the Turkish dynasty in a -very agreeable Hebrew style, in lucid and elevated language, free from -pompous and barbarous diction. Kapsali merely aimed at relating the -truth. Interwoven with the Turkish narrative was the history of the -Jews, showing in gloomy colors the tragic fate of the Spanish exiles, -as he had heard it from their own lips. Though in this composition -he had the subsidiary intention of cheering the people during the -continuance of the plague, his work may serve as a sample of a fine -Hebrew historical style. It has, indeed, found imitators. Kapsali -forsook the dry diction of the chroniclers, and as an historian was far -superior to his predecessor, Abraham Zacuto. Considering that Kapsali -was a rabbi by profession, and that in consultations and the giving -of opinions he was bound to make use of a corrupt jargon, his work -displays much versatility and talent. - -Italy at this period swarmed with fugitive Jews. Most of those driven -from Spain, Portugal and Germany first touched Italian soil, either to -settle there under the protection of some tolerant ruler, or to travel -on to Greece, Turkey, or Palestine. Strangely enough, among the masters -of Italy the popes were most friendly to the Jews: Alexander VI, Julius -II, Leo X, and Clement VII, were pursuing interests, or devoting -themselves to hobbies, which left them no time to think of torturing -Jews. The popes and their cardinals considered the canonical laws only -in so far as they needed them for the extension of their power or to -fill their money-bags. Totally oblivious of the decree of the council -of Basle, which enacted that Christians were not to consult Jewish -physicians, the popes and cardinals themselves chose Jews as their -physicians in ordinary. It appears that, owing to the secret warfare, -the intrigues and the frequent use of poison, which, since Alexander -VI, had been rife in the curia, where every one looked on his companion -as an enemy, Jewish physicians were in favor, because there was no -danger of their offering a pope or cardinal a poisoned cup instead of a -salutary remedy. Alexander VI had a Jewish physician, Bonet de Lates, a -native of Provence, who practiced astrology, prepared an astronomical -circle, and sent the pope the Latin description thereof with a fulsome -dedication. Bonet de Lates afterwards became the favorite physician in -ordinary to Leo X, and influenced his conduct. Julius II had for his -physician Simon Zarfati, who in other respects also enjoyed his masters -confidence. Cardinals and other high princes of the church followed -their examples, and generally intrusted their sacred bodies to Jewish -doctors, who consequently were much sought after in Italy. Following -the example of the popes, the northern Italian cities received fugitive -Jews, even pseudo-Christians re-converted to Judaism, from Spain and -Germany, and admitted them to all the privileges of free intercourse. -Even the popes permitted Marranos to settle at Ancona, notwithstanding -their having been baptized. The most important communities in Italy -were formed, after the annihilation of the Jews of Naples, by an influx -from other countries into Roman and Venetian territory; in the latter, -Venice and the flourishing city of Padua, in the former, Rome and the -port of Ancona, receiving most of them. Two opposite views with regard -to Jews swayed the council of the egotistical Venetian republic. On the -one hand, this commercial state did not wish to lose the advantages -that Jewish connections might bring, though at the same time it was -loath to foster them, for fear of offending the Levantine Jews, their -co-religionists in Turkey; on the other hand, the Venetian merchants -were full of trade envy against Jews. Hence the latter were caressed or -oppressed as the one or the other party predominated in the Signoria. -Venice was the first Italian city wherein Jews resided which set apart -a special quarter as a Ghetto (March, 1516). - -As a rule the immigrant Jews, Spaniards or Germans, obtained supremacy -in Italy over native Jews, both in rabbinical learning and communal -relations. The Abrabanels played an important part in Italy. The -head of the family, Isaac Abrabanel, indeed, was too much bowed down -by age and suffering to exercise much influence in any direction. He -died before Jewish affairs had assumed a settled condition. His eldest -son, Leon Medigo, likewise made no impression on his surroundings; he -was too much of a philosophical dreamer and idealist, a poetic soul -averse to dealing with the things of this world. Only the youngest of -the three brothers, Samuel Abrabanel (born 1473, died about 1550) left -his mark on his contemporaries. He was considered the most eminent -Jew in Italy, and his community venerated him like a prince. He alone -inherited his father's financial genius, and, after his return from -the Talmudic college at Salonica, appears to have availed himself -of it, and to have been employed in the department of finance by -the viceroy of Naples, Don Pedro de Toledo. At Naples he acquired a -considerable fortune, valued at more than 200,000 zechins. He employed -his wealth to gratify the disposition hereditary in his family to -practice noble beneficence. The Jewish poet, Samuel Usque, gives an -enthusiastic description of his heart and mind: "Samuel Abrabanel -deserves to be called Trismegistus (thrice great); he is great and wise -in the Law, great in nobility, and great in riches. With his wealth -he is always magnanimous, a help in the sorrows of his brethren. He -joins innumerable orphans in wedlock, supports the needy, and redeems -captives, so that he possesses all the great qualities which make the -prophet." - -To increase his happiness heaven had given him a companion in life, the -complement of his high virtues, whose name, Benvenida Abrabanela, was -uttered by her contemporaries with devout veneration. Tender-hearted, -deeply religious, wise and courageous, she was a pattern of refinement -and high breeding, qualities more highly esteemed in Italy than in any -other European country. Don Pedro, the powerful Spanish viceroy of -Naples, allowed his second daughter, Leonora, to be on intimate terms -with Benvenida, that she might learn by her example. When this daughter -afterwards became Duchess of Tuscany, she kept up her acquaintance -with the Jewish lady, and called her by the honored name of mother. -This noble pair, Samuel Abrabanel and Benvenida, in whom tenderness -and worldly wisdom, warm attachment to Judaism and social intercourse -with non-Jewish circles were combined, were at once the pride and the -sheet-anchor of the Italian Jews, and of all who came under their -beneficent influence. Samuel Abrabanel, though not so well versed in -the Talmud as his poetic worshiper represents him to have been, was a -friend and promoter of Jewish knowledge. To fill the office of rabbi at -Naples, he sent for David Ibn-Yachya and his young, courageous wife, -who had fled from Portugal (1518); and, as the congregation was too -small to pay his salary, Abrabanel paid it himself. In his house the -learned Yachya lectured on the Talmud, and probably also on Hebrew -grammar. He thus formed a center for Jewish science in southern Italy. -Christian men of science also resorted to Abrabanel's house. - -The chief seat of Talmudic or rabbinical studies was at that time -at Padua, where presided not Italians but immigrant Germans. Judah -Menz, of Mayence, even at his great age of more than a hundred years, -exercised attractive power over studious disciples from Italy, Germany, -and Turkey, as though from his lips they would learn the wisdom of -a time about to pass away. To be a pupil of Menz, was considered a -great honor and distinction. After he died, his son, Abraham Menz, -undertook the direction of the college (1504-1526); but his authority -was not undisputed. The native Jews have in no direction left names of -note. The chronicles mention some famous Jewish-Italian physicians, -who also distinguished themselves in other branches, such as Abraham -de Balmes (1521), of Lecce, physician and friend of Cardinal Grimani. -De Balmes possessed philosophical knowledge, and wrote a work on -the Hebrew language, which was published with a Latin translation -by a Christian. Other Jewish physicians of the same age were Judah, -or Laudadeus de Blanis, at Perugia, a worshiper of the Kabbala, and -Obadyah, or Servadeus de Sforno (Sfurno, born about 1470, died 1550), a -physician of Rome and Bologna, who, besides medicine, studied biblical -and philosophical subjects, and dedicated some of his Hebrew writings -with a Latin translation to King Henry II, of France. But, as far as we -are now able to judge of these highly praised compositions, they are -mediocre, and the authors, even in their own times, enjoyed but local -reputation. It is certain that De Balmes and Sforno are far beneath -Jacob Mantin, who, driven from Tortosa to Italy, there distinguished -himself as a physician and philosopher, leaving a famous name behind -him. Mantin (born about 1490, died about 1549) was a great linguist; -beside his native language and Hebrew, he understood Latin, Italian -and Arabic. He was a deeply learned physician and philosopher, and -translated medical and metaphysical works from Hebrew or Arabic into -Latin. He was held in high esteem as physician by a pope and the -ambassador of Charles V at Venice. But his learning was marred by his -iniquitous character; envy and ambition led him to commit wicked deeds, -to accuse and persecute innocent persons, even his own co-religionists. - -In those days there lived in Italy a man, who, though not distinguished -by any brilliant achievement, was superior to nearly all his -co-religionists by a qualification better and rarer than literary -ability. He was gifted with common sense and a fine understanding, -which led him not to judge of things by appearances, or from a limited -point of view. Abraham Farissol (born 1451, died about 1525), a native -of Avignon, for reasons unknown, perhaps from want, had emigrated to -Ferrara. He supported himself by copying books, and also, it would -appear, by officiating as chorister at the synagogue. Though he was -in needy circumstances, and confined within narrow surroundings, his -perception was acute, his horizon wide, and his judgment matured. Like -most of his learned contemporaries in Italy, he commented on the Bible, -and his independence of thought in the midst of the dense credulity of -his time constitutes his claim upon pre-eminence. He said of himself, -"As regards miracles, I belong to those of little faith." Farissol was -the first Jewish author who, instead of studying the starry firmament, -astronomy and astrology (to which Jewish authors of the Middle Ages -were but too much inclined), turned his attention to investigate -the configuration and phenomena of our globe. He was influenced to -undertake these studies by the marvelous discoveries of the southern -coasts of Africa and India by the Portuguese, and of America by the -Spaniards. Penetrating mediaeval mist and the deceptive illusions -of fancy, Farissol saw things as they actually are, and deeming it -necessary to point them out, he scoffed at ignorant men who, in their -pseudo-learned conceit, considered geography of no account. He had to -show conclusively that the Book of books, the holy record of the Torah, -attached importance to geographical data, in doing which he indicated a -new point of view for the comprehension of the Bible: it was not to be -explained by allegories and metaphysical or Kabbalistic reveries, but -by actual facts and the plain meaning of the words. - -Farissol had access to the court of the duke of Ferrara, Hercules -d'Este I, one of the best princes of Italy, who vied with the -Medici in the promotion of science. The duke took delight in his -conversation, and often invited him to discuss religious questions -with learned monks. It seemed as if frequent religious disputations and -intellectual encounters were to be renewed on Italian soil. Farissol -displayed philosophical calm, besides caution, and forbearance for -the sensibilities of his opponents, when touching upon their weak -points. At the request of the duke of Ferrara, Farissol wrote down in -Hebrew the substance of his discourses with the monks, and reproduced -it in Italian, to give his opponents an opportunity for refutation. -But his polemical and apologetic work is of much less value than his -geographical writings, which he completed in his old age, with one foot -in the grave. They display Farissol's clear mind, common sense and -extensive learning. - -The Italian Jews had at least the right of free discussion with -Christians. But as soon as they crossed the Alps into Germany they -breathed raw air, politically as well as atmospherically. Few Sephardic -fugitives visited this inhospitable land. The German population was as -hostile to Jews as the Spanish. True, the Germans had no occasion to -envy Jews on account of the position and influence of Jewish magnates -at royal courts, but they grudged them even their miserable existence -in the Jews' lanes in which they were penned up. They had been banished -from some German districts, from Cologne, Mayence and Augsburg, and -not a Jew was to be found in all Suabia. From other parts they were -expelled at about the same time as from Spain. Emperor Frederick III -to his last hour protected those outlawed by all the world. He even -had a Jewish physician, a rarity in Germany, the learned Jacob ben -Yechiel Loans, whom he greatly favored, and made a knight. Frederick -is said on his death-bed to have strongly recommended the Jews to his -son, enjoining on him to protect them, and not to listen to calumnious -accusations, whose falsity he had fathomed. It appears that Jacob Loans -also enjoyed the favor of Emperor Maximilian, whose lot it was to rule -over Germany in very troublous times. He transferred this favor to -Loans' relatives, for he appointed a certain Joseph ben Gershon Loans, -of Rosheim, in Alsace, as official representative of all German Jews at -the diet. This Joseph (Josselman, Joselin) was distinguished neither -by his rabbinical knowledge, nor his position, nor riches; yet, to a -certain extent, he was the official representative of German Judaism. -His most striking qualities were untiring activity, when it was -necessary to defend his unfortunate co-religionists, his love of truth, -and fervent clinging to his faith and people. Born 1480, died 1555, for -half a century he vigorously protected his co-religionists in Germany, -and became security for them when the ruling powers insisted on special -bail. The Jews, therefore, praised and blessed him as their "Great -Defender." - -But the very fact that the German Jews needed a defender proves that -their condition was not easy. For Emperor Maximilian was not a man -of decided character, but was swayed by all kinds of influences and -insinuations; nor did he always follow his father's advice. His conduct -towards the Jews, therefore, was always wavering; now he granted, or -at least promised, them his protection; now he offered his help, if -not for their sanguinary persecution, at least for their expulsion or -humiliation. At times he lent ear to the lying accusations that the -Jews reviled the host, and murdered infants, falsehoods diligently -promulgated by Dominican friars, and, since the alleged martyrdom of -young Simon of Trent, readily believed. Hence, during Maximilian's -reign, Jews were not only expelled from Germany and the adjoining -states, but were hunted down and tortured; they were in daily -expectation of the rack, and of the martyr's death, so that a special -confession of sins was drawn up for such cases, and the innocently -accused, summoned to apostatize, sealed their confession with death, -and joyfully sacrificed themselves for the One God. When, either with -the sanction or by the passive permission of the emperor, Jews were -banished, he felt no compunction in confiscating their property and -turning it into money. - -The emperor did not, indeed, expel the Nuremberg community, but for -a pecuniary consideration gave the citizens leave to do so. Yet -Christians presumed to reproach Jews with making money unjustly, -whereas only the rich did so, and then only on a small scale. -Immediately after the emperor's accession, the townsmen of Nuremberg -appealed to him to permit the expulsion of the Jews on account of -"loose conduct." This "loose conduct" was explained in the indictment -to be the reception of foreign co-religionists, whereby the normal -number of Jews had been excessively increased in the town; the practice -of inordinate usury; fraud in recovery of debts, whereby honest -tradesmen had been impoverished, and finally the harboring of rogues -and vagabonds. To stir up hatred against them, and to confirm the Latin -reading (_i. e._, the educated) classes, in the illusion that Jews were -blasphemers, revilers of the host and infanticides, the rich citizen, -Antonius Koberger, had the venomous anti-Jewish _Fortalitium fidei_ -of the Spanish Franciscan, Alfonso de Spina, reprinted at his own -expense. After long petitioning, Emperor Maximilian at last granted the -prayer of Nuremberg, "on account of the fidelity with which the town -had ever served the imperial house," abrogated the privileges enjoyed -by the Jews, and allowed the town council to fix a time for their -expulsion, stipulating, however, that the houses, lands, synagogues, -and even the Jewish cemetery should fall to the imperial treasury. He, -moreover, granted to Nuremberg the privilege of being forever exempt -from receiving Jews within its walls (July 5th, 1498). The town council -at first allowed four months only for the exodus--and the cultured, -virtuous and humanity-preaching patrician, Willibald Pirkheimer, -afterwards so strong a pillar of the Humanists, was then a member of -the council! Upon the supplications of the unfortunate people, the -short reprieve was prolonged by three months. But the Jews, summoned to -the synagogue by the sheriffs, had to swear to leave the town by that -time. At last, on March 10th, 1499, the much reduced community left -Nuremberg, to which it had returned after the Black Death. - -At about the same time the Jews of other German towns, Ulm, Nordlingen, -Colmar, and Magdeburg, were sent into banishment. - -The community of Ratisbon, then the oldest in Germany, was to fare -still worse; even then it heard the warning voice to prepare for -expulsion. Since the inhabitants of that imperial city, through the -disputes with the Jews growing out of the false blood-accusation, -had suffered humiliation and pecuniary loss at the hands of Emperor -Frederick, the former friendly feeling between Jews and Christians had -given way to bitterness and hatred. Instead of attributing to the right -cause the troubles and misfortunes which had come upon the town by its -attempted secession from the empire, the citizens charged the Jews -with being the authors of their misfortunes, and vented their anger on -them. The priests, exasperated by the failure of their plot against -the Jews, daily stirred up the fanaticism of the populace, openly -preaching that the Jews must be expelled. The millers refused to sell -them flour, the bakers, bread (1499), for the clergy had threatened -the tradespeople with excommunication if they supplied them with food. -On certain days Jews were not admitted into the market place, on -others they were allowed to make their purchases only after stated -hours, when the Christians had satisfied their wants. "Under severe -penalties," imposed by the senate, Christians were prohibited from -making purchases for Jews; the former were to "secure the glory of God -and their own salvation" by being cruel to the latter. The town council -seriously discussed applying to Emperor Maximilian to give his consent -to the expulsion of the Jews, allowing about twenty-four families to -remain. For a few years more they were permitted to drag on a miserable -existence. Besides Ratisbon, only two large communities remained in -Germany, viz., at Frankfort-on-the-Main and Worms, and even these were -often threatened with expulsion. - -There were many Jews in Prague, but this town was not in Germany -proper; Bohemia was counted a private possession of the crown, under -the rule of Ladislaus, king of Hungary. The Bohemian Jews were not too -well off under him; the Jewish quarter in Prague was often plundered -by the populace. The citizens were sincerely anxious to expel the Jews -from Bohemia. But the latter had their patrons, especially among the -nobility. When, at a diet, the question of the expulsion or retention -of the Jews arose, the decree was passed (August 7th, 1501) that the -crown of Bohemia was for all time to tolerate them. If any one of them -offended against the law, he only was to be punished; his crime was not -to be visited on the whole Jewish community. King Ladislaus confirmed -this decision of the diet, only to break it very shortly after, for the -citizens of Prague were opposed to it, and spared no pains to frustrate -its fulfillment. They so strongly prejudiced the king against the -Jews as to induce him to decree their expulsion, and to threaten with -banishment such Christians as should venture to intercede for them. By -what favorable dispensation they remained in the country is not known. -Though in daily expectation of expatriation, they grew reconciled to -having their habitation on the verge of a volcano. A descendant of the -Italian family of printers, Soncinus, named Gershon Cohen, established -a Hebrew printing office at Prague (about 1503), the first in Germany, -nearly four decades after the foundation of Hebrew printing offices in -Italy. - -The Prague community does not seem to have excelled in learning; for -some time not a single scientific work, not even one on a Talmudic -or rabbinical subject, issued from the press of Gershon; it merely -supplied the needs of the synagogue, whilst Italian and Turkish offices -spread important ancient and contemporary works. We find but one -rabbinical authority mentioned in those days: Jacob Polak (born about -1460, died about 1530), the originator of a new method of Talmud study, -a foreigner, and, with the exception of his namesake Jacob Berab, -in the East, the most profound and sagacious Talmudist of his time. -Curiously enough, the astonishing facility of ingenious disquisition on -the basis of the Talmud (Pilpul), attributed to Polak, which attained -its highest perfection in Poland, proceeded from a native of Poland. - -After Italy and Turkey, Poland was in those days a refuge for hunted -and exiled wanderers, chiefly for those from Germany. Here, as well as -in Lithuania, united with Poland under one sovereign, Jews enjoyed a -better position than in the neighboring lands beyond the Vistula and -the Carpathians, though the monk Capistrano had for a while interrupted -the good understanding between the government and the Jews. - -Kings and the nobility were, to a certain extent, dependent on them, -and, when other interests did not conflict, generally granted them -privileges, because with their capital and commerce they were able -to turn the territorial wealth of the country into money, and to -supply its inhabitants, poor in coin, with the necessary funds. The -farming of the tolls and the distilleries were mostly in the hands -of Jews. It goes without saying that they also possessed land, and -carried on trades. Against 500 Christian there were 3,200 Jewish -wholesale dealers in Poland, and three times as many artificers, -including workers in gold and silver, smiths and weavers. The statute -of Casimir IV, so favorable to Jews, was still in force. For though, -constrained by the fanatical monk Capistrano, he had abrogated it, yet -in view of the advantages that the crown of Poland derived from the -Jews, he re-enacted the same laws a few years after. The Jews were -generally treated as citizens of the state, and were not compelled to -wear ignominious badges; they were also allowed to carry arms. After -the death of this politic king, two opponents arose against them: -on the one hand, the clergy, who saw in the favored position of the -Polish Jews an offense to Christianity, and on the other, the German -merchants, who, long settled in Polish towns, had brought with them -their guilds and old-fashioned prejudices, and hated the Jewish traders -and artificers from sheer envy. United they succeeded in prejudicing -the successors of Casimir, his sons John Albert and Alexander, against -the Jews, so that their privileges were abolished, and the Jews -themselves confined to particular quarters, or even banished altogether -from certain towns (1496-1505). But the next sovereign, Sigismund -I (1506-1548), was favorably disposed towards them, and repeatedly -protected them against persecution and expulsion. The strongest -supporters, however, of the Polish Jews were the Polish nobility, who -hated the Germans from national and political antipathy, and therefore, -both from policy and inclination, favored the Jews, and used them as -their tools against the arrogant Germans. And since the nobles held -the high official posts, the laws against Jews, to the vexation of the -clergy and the guilds, remained a dead letter. Poland, therefore, was -an asylum much sought after by persecuted Jews. If a Jew who had turned -Christian, or a Christian, wished to become a Jew, he could do so as -freely in Poland as in Turkey. - -The rabbis were important agents for the crown. They had the privilege -of collecting the poll-tax from the communities and paying it over -to the state. Therefore, the rabbis of large towns, appointed or -confirmed by the king, became chiefs in the administration of communal -affairs, represented the Jews before the crown, and bore the title -of chief rabbi. The rabbis retained the civil jurisdiction, and -were authorized to banish unworthy members, and even to inflict the -punishment of death. But in Poland, the country which for several -centuries was to become the chief home of the Talmud and the nursery -of Talmudic students and rabbis, which was long enveloped, as it were, -in a Talmudic atmosphere, there were no prominent Talmudists at the -beginning of the sixteenth century; it became the home of the Talmud -only after the immigration of numerous German scholars. Coming from -the districts of the Rhine and Main, from Bavaria, Suabia, Bohemia, -and Austria, swarms of Jewish families settled on the banks of the -Vistula and the Dnieper, having lost their fortunes, but bringing with -them their most precious possessions, which they defended with their -lives, and which they could not be robbed of, namely, their religious -convictions, the customs of their fathers, and their Talmudic learning. -The German rabbinical school, which at home had no breathing-space, -established itself in Poland and Lithuania, in Ruthenia and Volhynia, -spread in all directions, and, impregnated with Slavonic elements, -transformed itself into a peculiar, a Polish school. - -But the Jewish-German fugitives transplanted to Poland not only the -knowledge of the Talmud, but also that of the German language, as -then spoken; this they imparted to the native Jews, and it gradually -superseded the Polish or Ruthenian tongue. As the Spanish Jews turned -portions of European and Asiatic Turkey into a new Spain, the German -Jews transformed Poland, Lithuania, and the territories belonging -thereto, into a new Germany. For several centuries, therefore, the -Jews were divided into Spanish and German speaking Jews, the Italian -speaking members being too small in number to count, especially as in -Italy the Jews were compelled to understand either Spanish or German. -The Jews settled in Poland gradually cast off their German awkwardness -and simplicity, but not the language. They honored it as a palladium, -as a holy remembrance; and though in their intercourse with Poles they -made use of the language of the country, in the family circle, and in -their schools and prayers, they adhered to German. They valued it, next -to Hebrew, as a holy language. It was a fortunate thing for the Jews -that at the time when new storms gathered over their heads in Germany, -they found on her borders a country which offered them a hospitable -welcome and protection. For a tempest burst in Germany, which had its -first beginnings in the narrow Jewish circle, but eventually drew on -the Jews the attention of all Christendom. An eventful, historical -birth, which was to change the face of European affairs, lay, so to -speak, in a Jewish manger. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -REUCHLIN AND THE TALMUD. - - Antecedents of the Convert John Pfefferkorn--Pfefferkorn and - the Dominicans of Cologne--Hoogstraten, Ortuinus Gratius - and Arnold of Tongern--Victor von Karben--Attacks on the - Talmud and Confiscation of Copies in Frankfort--Reuchlin's - Hebrew and Kabbalistic Studies--The Controversy concerning - the Talmud--Activity on both Sides--Public Excitement-- - Complete Victory of Reuchlin's Efforts in Defense of Jewish - Literature--Ulrich von Hutten--Luther--Revival of Hebrew - Studies. - -1500-1520 C.E. - - -Who could have anticipated that from the German nation, everywhere -considered heavy and stupid, from the land of lawless knights, of daily -feuds about trifles, of confused political conditions, where everyone -was both despot and slave, mercilessly oppressing his inferiors, and -pitifully cringing to his superiors--who could have anticipated that -from this people and this country would proceed a movement destined -to shake European affairs to their center, create new political -conditions, give the Middle Ages their death-blow, and set its seal -on the dawn of a new historical era? A reformation of church and -politics, such as enlightened minds then dreamt of, was least expected -from Germany. Yet there slumbered latent powers in that country, which -only needed awaking to develop into regenerating forces. The Germans -still adhered to ancient simplicity of life and severity of morals, -pedantic, it is true, and ludicrous in manifestation; whilst the -leading Romance countries, Italy, France and Spain, were suffering from -over-refinement, surfeit and moral corruption. Because the Germans -had retained their original Teutonic dullness, the clergy could not -altogether succeed in infecting them with the poison of their vicious -teaching. Their lower clergy, compared with that of other European -countries, was more chaste and modest. The innate love of family life -and genial association, which the Germans have in common with Jews, -preserved them from that moral depravity to which the Romance nations -had already succumbed. In the educated circles of Italy, especially -at the papal court, Christianity and its doctrines were sneered at; -the political power they conferred alone being valued. But in Germany, -where there was little laughter, except in taverns, Christianity was -treated as a more serious matter; it was looked upon as an ideal, which -had once been alive, and would live again. - -But these moral germs in the German race were so deeply buried that -it needed favorable circumstances to bring them to light, and cause -them to stand forth as historical potencies. However much the Germans -themselves may ignore it, the Talmud had a great share in the awakening -of these slumbering forces. We can boldly assert that the war for and -against the Talmud aroused German consciousness, and created a public -opinion, without which the Reformation, like many other efforts, would -have died in the hour of birth, or, perhaps, would never have been -born at all. A paltry grain of sand caused the fall of an avalanche, -which shook the earth around. The instrument of this mighty change -was an ignorant, thoroughly vile creature, the scum of the Jewish -people, who does not deserve to be mentioned in history or literature, -but whom Providence seems to have appointed like some noisome insect -involuntarily to accomplish a useful work. - -Joseph Pfefferkorn, a native of Moravia, was by trade a butcher, and, -as may easily be surmised, illiterate. His moral turpitude was even -greater than his ignorance. He committed a burglary, was caught, -condemned to imprisonment by Count de Guttenstein, and released only -at the urgent prayers of his relatives, and on payment of a fine. It -appears that he hoped to wash away this disgrace with baptismal water; -the church was not scrupulous, and received even this despicable -wretch, when at the age of thirty-six he presented himself with wife -and children, to be received into Christianity (about 1505?). He -seems to have been baptized at Cologne; at any rate, he was kept and -made much of by the ignorant, proud and fanatical Dominicans of that -city. Cologne was an owls' nest of light-shunning swaggerers, who -endeavored to obscure the dawn of a bright day with the dark clouds -of superstition, hostile to knowledge. At their head was Hochstraten -(Hoogstraten), an inquisitor or heretic-hunter, a violent, reckless -man, who literally longed for the smell of burning heretics, and in -Spain would have been a useful Torquemada. His counterpart was Arnold -of Tongern (Tungern), a Dominican professor of theology. The third -in the coalition was Ortuin de Graes, of Deventer (who Latinized his -name to Ortuinus Gratius), the son of a clergyman. Ortuin de Graes -entertained so violent a hatred against Jews that it could not have -been due solely to religious zeal. He made it his special business -to stir up the wrath of the Christians by anti-Jewish writings. But -as he was too ignorant to concoct a book or even a pamphlet, he -surrounded himself with baptized Jews, who had to supply him with -materials. A Jew, who, during a persecution or for some reason, had -become a convert to Christianity in his fiftieth year, and assumed -the name of Victor von Karben, though he had but little Hebrew and -rabbinical learning, was dubbed rabbi, in order to give more weight to -his attacks on Judaism and to his confession of Christianity. It is -not precisely known whether Victor von Karben, who sorrowfully stated -that on his conversion he left his wife, three children, brothers and -dear friends, voluntarily or by compulsion reproached the Jews with -hating Christians and reviling Christianity. He supplied Ortuinus -Gratius with materials for accusations against them, their Talmud, -their errors and abominations, which Ortuinus worked up into a book. -But Victor von Karben appears, after all, not to have been of much -service, or he was too old (born 1442, died 1515) to assist in the -execution of a deep scheme, destined to bring profitable business to -the Dominicans, the heresy-judges of men and writings. But they needed -a Jew for this purpose; their own order had not long before got into -rather bad odor. Pfefferkorn was the very man for them. He lent his -name to a new anti-Jewish publication, written in Latin by Ortuinus -Gratius. It was entitled "A Mirror for Admonition," inviting the Jews -to be converted to Christianity. This first anti-Jewish book with -Pfefferkorn's name dealt gently with the Jews, even sought to show the -groundlessness of the frequent accusations with regard to stealing and -murdering Christian children. It entreats Christians not to banish the -Jews, nor to oppress them too heavily, since to a certain extent they -are human beings. But this friendliness was only a mask, a feeler put -forth to gain firm ground. For the Cologne Dominicans aimed at the -confiscation of the Talmudic writings, as in the days of Saint Louis of -France. This was distantly pointed to in Pfefferkorn's first pamphlet, -which endeavored to throw suspicion on the Talmud, and adduced three -reasons to explain the stiff-necked unbelief of Jews: their practice -of usury, the fact that they were not compelled to go to church, and -their attachment to the Talmud. These obstacles once removed, Jews -would throng to church in crowds. The pamphlet, therefore, admonished -princes and people to check the usury of the Jews, to compel them -to attend church and listen to sermons, and to burn the Talmud. It -admitted that it is not just to infringe upon the Jews' claim to -their writings, but Christians did not hesitate, in certain cases, to -do violence to Jews, and compared with that the confiscation of the -Talmudic books was a venial offense. This was the sole object of the -pamphlet under Pfefferkorn's name. It was generally believed in Germany -that the Cologne owls expected to do a good stroke of business; if -they could induce the ruling powers to sequestrate all copies of the -Talmud, Dominicans, as inquisitors, would have the disposal of them, -and the Jews, who could not do without the Talmud, would pour their -wealth into Dominican coffers to have the confiscation annulled. Hence, -in the succeeding two years, still putting Pfefferkorn forward as the -author, they published several pamphlets, wherein it was asserted to -be a Christian duty to expel all Jews, like so many mangy dogs. If the -princes would not do so, the people were to take the matter into their -own hands, solicit their rulers to deprive the Jews of all their books -except the Bible, forcibly take from them all pledges, above all, see -that their children be brought up as Christians, and expel the adults -as incorrigible rogues. It was no sin to do the worst to Jews, as they -were not freemen, but body and soul the property of the princes. If -they refused to listen to the prayer of their subjects, the people were -to assemble in masses, even create a riot, and impetuously demand the -fulfillment of the Christian duty of degrading the Jews. The masses -were to declare themselves champions of Christ, and carry out his will. -Whoso did an injury to Jews was a follower of Christ; whoso favored -them was worse than they, and would hereafter be punished with eternal -suffering and hell fire. - -But Pfefferkorn, Ortuinus Gratius and the Cologne Dominicans had come -too late in the day. Riots for the killing of Jews, though they were no -less hated and despised than in the times of the crusades and of the -Black Death, were no longer the fashion. Princes were little disposed -to expel the Jews, since with them a regular revenue would disappear. -Zeal for the conversion of Jews had considerably cooled down; in fact, -many Christians pointed scornfully at baptized Jews, saying that they -resembled clean linen: as long as it is fresh the eye delights in it, -after a few days' wear it is cast aside as soiled. Thus a converted -Jew, immediately after his baptism, is cherished by the Christians; -when some days have passed he is neglected, avoided, and finally made -sport of. - -The German Jews, dreading new dangers from Pfefferkorn's zeal, -endeavored to thwart him. Jewish physicians, usually held in high -favor at the courts of princes, appear to have exerted their influence -with their patrons to show the falsity of Pfefferkorn's accusations, -and to render them ineffectual. Even Christians manifested their -dissatisfaction with the machinations of the baptized Jew, and loudly -proclaimed Pfefferkorn to be a worthless fellow and a hypocrite, who -was not to be believed, his object being simply to delude the foolish, -and fill his own purse. He, therefore, published a new pamphlet -(March, 1509), which he impudently entitled "The Enemy of the Jews." -This venomous libel reiterated all his former accusations, and showed -how the Jews, by charging interest on interest, impoverished the -Christians. He blackened the character of Jewish physicians, saying -that they were quacks, who endangered the lives of their Christian -patients. It was, therefore, necessary to expel the Jews from -Germany, as Emperor Maximilian had driven them from Austria, Styria -and Carinthia; or if allowed to remain, they were to be employed in -cleansing the streets, sweeping chimneys, removing filth and carrion, -and in similar occupations. But, above all, every copy of the Talmud, -and all books relating to their religion, the Bible excepted, were to -be taken from them. In order effectually to carry out this step, house -to house visitation was to be made, and the Jews were to be compelled, -if necessary by torture, to surrender their books. Ortuinus Gratius had -a hand in the drawing up of this pamphlet, too. - -These venomous writings in German and Latin were but means and -preliminaries to a plan which was to realize the hopes of the -Dominicans of Cologne, the public burning of the theological books -of the Jews, or their conversion into a source of profit. They urged -Emperor Maximilian, who did not easily lend himself to the commission -of a deed of violence, to deliver the Jews, together with their books -and purses, to their tender mercies. For this purpose they called in -the aid of the bigotry of an unfortunate princess. - -Kunigunde, the beautiful sister of Maximilian and favorite daughter of -Emperor Frederick, in her youth had been the cause of much affliction -to her aged sire. Without her father's knowledge she had married his -declared enemy, the Bavarian duke, Albert of Munich. For a long time -her deeply offended father would not allow her name to be mentioned. -When her husband died in the prime of manhood (1508), his widow, -perhaps repenting her youthful error, entered a Franciscan convent at -Munich. She became abbess of the nuns of Sancta Clara, and castigated -her body. The Dominicans hoped to turn to good purpose the gloomy -character of this princess. They furnished Pfefferkorn with letters -of introduction to her. With poisoned words he was to detail to her -the shameful doings of the Jews, their blasphemies against Jesus, -Mary, the apostles and the church in general, and to demonstrate to -her that the Jewish books which contained all these abominations -deserved to be destroyed. A woman, moreover a superstitious one, whose -mind has been dulled in convent walls, is easily persuaded. Kunigunde -readily believed the calumnies against the Jews and their religious -literature, especially as they were uttered by a former Jew, who could -not but be acquainted with their habits and wickedness, and who assured -her that after the destruction of the Jewish books all Hebrews would -gradually be converted to Christianity. Pfefferkorn easily obtained -from the bigoted nun what he wanted. She gave him a pressing letter to -her imperial brother, conjuring him to put a stop to Jewish blasphemies -against Christianity, and to issue a decree that all their writings, -except the Bible, be taken from the Jews and burnt, lest the sins of -blasphemy daily committed by them fall on his crowned head. Furnished -with this missive, Pfefferkorn straightway went to Italy, to the camp -of the emperor. - -The fanatical letter of Kunigunde and the calumnies of Pfefferkorn -succeeded in extorting from Maximilian a mandate, dated August 19th, -1509, giving the baptized miscreant full power over Jews. He was -authorized to examine Hebrew writings anywhere in the German empire, -and to destroy all whose contents were hostile to the Bible and the -Christian faith. The Jews were enjoined, under heavy penalties to -person and property, to offer no resistance, but to submit their -books to Pfefferkorn's examination. Pfefferkorn, with the emperor's -authority, returned triumphantly to Germany, to open his campaign -against Jewish books or Jewish purses. He began his business, which -promised profit, with the community at Frankfort, then the most -important of Germany, where many Talmud scholars, consequently many -copies of that work, besides many rich Jews, were to be found. On -Pfefferkorn's demand, the senate assembled all the Jews in the -synagogue, and communicated to them the emperor's order to surrender -their books. - -In the presence of clergymen and members of the senate, all -prayer-books found in the synagogue were confiscated. It happened to -be the eve of the Feast of Tabernacles (Friday, September 28th). -By his own authority, or pretending to hold it from the emperor, -Pfefferkorn forbade the Jews to attend the synagogue on the day of -the feast; he intended to hold a house to house visitation on that -day, for he was very anxious to get hold of copies of the Talmud. The -clergymen present, however, were not so inconsiderate as to turn the -feast of the Jews into mourning, but deferred the search for books -till the following Monday. How did the Jews act? That they dared -protest against this arbitrary proceeding proves that a new order of -things had arisen. No longer as formerly in Germany did they submit, -with the dumb submission of lambs, to spoliation and death. They -appealed to the charters of various popes and emperors, granting them -religious liberty, which included possession of their prayer-books -and text-books. They demanded a delay of the confiscation in order -to appeal to the emperor and the supreme court of judicature. The -directors of the community of Frankfort immediately sent a deputy to -the elector and archbishop of Mayence, Uriel von Gemmingen, in whose -diocese Frankfort was situate, to induce him to forbid the clergy to -co-operate in this injustice. When Pfefferkorn began his house to -house visitation, the Jews protested so energetically that it had to -be deferred until the senate decided whether or not their objection -was to be allowed. The decision of the sapient senate was unfavorable; -but when the confiscation was about to be commenced, a letter from the -archbishop arrived, prohibiting the clergy from lending Pfefferkorn -any assistance. This frustrated the scheme; for the senators also -withdrew from the transaction as soon as they knew that the highest -ecclesiastical dignitary in Germany sided with the Jews. The latter -were not idle. For, though they did not know that the powerful -Dominicans stood behind Pfefferkorn, they suspected that persons, -hostile to the Jews, used this spiteful wretch to stir up persecution -against them. They at once dispatched a defender of their cause to -the emperor, and another to the German communities, far and near, to -appoint a general synod, to be summoned for the succeeding month, to -consider what steps should be taken, and to raise funds. - -Temporarily this unpleasant business seemed to take a turn favorable to -the Jews. The senate of Frankfort remained passive, except in laying -an embargo on the packets of books belonging to Jewish booksellers, -and forbidding their sale. The conduct of the archbishop was what -benefited them most. Either from a sense of justice--he was generally -fair in his dealings--from a kindly feeling for the Jews, from a -dislike of Dominican heretic-hunting, or, finally, from jealousy of -the emperor's interference with his functions, in giving so miserable -a wretch as Pfefferkorn spiritual jurisdiction in his diocese, Uriel -von Gemmingen took the part of the Jews. He addressed a letter to the -emperor (October 5th), wherein he gently insinuated that he was to -blame for having given full powers to so ignorant a man as Pfefferkorn, -and asserted that to his knowledge no blasphemous or anti-Christian -writings were in the possession of the Jews of his diocese, and -hinted that if the emperor absolutely insisted on the examination and -confiscation of Hebrew literature, he must employ an expert. He was so -zealous on behalf of the Jews as to write to Von Hutten, his agent at -the imperial court, to assist the Jews in laying their case before the -emperor. In the meantime, not to betray his partisanship, he invited -Pfefferkorn to Aschaffenburg, and informed him that his mandate from -the emperor was faulty in form, whereby it became ineffectual, for the -Jews would dispute its validity. - -At this interview the name of Reuchlin was mentioned for the first -time, whether by the archbishop or by Pfefferkorn is uncertain. It was -suggested to request the emperor to appoint Reuchlin and Victor von -Karben Pfefferkorn's coadjutors in the examination of Jewish books. -Pfefferkorn, or the Dominican friars themselves, thought it necessary -to secure the co-operation of a man whose learning, character and high -position would render their proceedings more effective. Reuchlin, the -pride of Germany, was to be made their associate, so as to disarm -possible opponents. It was part of their scheme, too, to throw -discredit, in one way or another, on the man whom obscurantists looked -upon with disfavor, and who, to their vexation, first stimulated German -and then European Christians in general to study the Hebrew language. -But by these very artifices Pfefferkorn and his patrons not only spoilt -their game, but raised a storm, which in less than a decade shook the -whole edifice of the Catholic Church. It was justly said afterwards -that the semi-Jewish Christian had done more injury to Christianity -than all the blasphemous writings of the Jews could have done. John -Reuchlin assisted in making the transition from the Middle Ages to -modern times, and, therefore, his name is famous in the annals of the -sixteenth century; but in Jewish history also he deserves honorable -mention. - -John Reuchlin, of Pforzheim (born 1455, died 1522), or Capnion, as -his admirers, the students of the _humaniora_, called him, with his -younger contemporary, Erasmus of Rotterdam, delivered Germany from -the reproach of barbarism. By their example and incitement they -proved that, with regard to knowledge of ancient Greek and Latin, a -pure style and humanistic culture in general, Germans could not only -rival, but surpass Italians. Besides his astonishing learning in -classical literature and his elegant diction, Reuchlin had a pure, -upright character, nobility of mind, integrity which was proof against -temptation, admirable love of truth, and a soft heart. More versatile -than Erasmus, his younger colleague, in preparing for and spreading -humanistic and esthetic culture in Germany, Reuchlin also devoted -himself to the study of Hebrew to acquire mastery of the language -blessed by God, and thus emulate his pattern, the Church Father Jerome. -His love for Hebrew grew into enthusiasm, when on his second journey to -Rome he became acquainted at Florence with the learned youth, Pico di -Mirandola, Italy's prodigy, and learned from him what deep, marvelous -secrets lay hidden in the Hebrew sources of the Kabbala. After that -Reuchlin thirsted for Hebrew literature, but could not quench his -thirst. He could not even obtain a printed copy of the Hebrew Bible. -Only in his mature age he found opportunities of acquiring a more -profound knowledge of Hebrew. During his stay at Linz, at the court -of the aged emperor, Frederick III, he made the acquaintance of the -imperial physician and Jewish knight, Jacob Loans; and this Jewish -scholar became his teacher of Hebrew language and literature. - -Reuchlin devoted every hour that he could snatch from his avocations -at court to this study, and mastered it so thoroughly that he was soon -able to do without a teacher. His genius for languages stood him in -good stead, and enabled him to overcome difficulties. He endeavored to -turn to speedy account the Hebrew learning acquired with such zeal. -He wrote a small work, "The Wonderful Word," a spirited panegyric -of the Hebrew language, its simplicity, depth and divine character. -"The language of the Hebrews is simple, uncorrupted, holy, terse and -vigorous; God confers in it direct with men, and men with angels, -without interpreters, face to face, ... as one friend converses with -another." A Jew devoted to the antiquities of his race could not -have spoken more enthusiastically. The work consists of a series -of discussions between an Epicurean philosopher, a Jewish sage -(Baruchias), and a Christian (Capnion), and its object is to prove that -the wisdom of all nations, the symbols of pagan religions and the forms -of their worship are but misconceptions and travesties of Hebrew truth, -mysteriously concealed in the words, in the very shapes of the letters -of the Hebrew tongue. - -Reuchlin may have felt that his knowledge of Hebrew still left much -to be desired; he, therefore, as ambassador of the elector palatine, -whom he represented at the court of Pope Alexander VI (1498-1500), -continued his study of Hebrew literature. Obadiah Sforno, of Cesena, -then residing at Rome, became Reuchlin's second teacher of Hebrew. Thus -the German humanist, already a famous man, whose Latin discourses were -the admiration of Italians, sat at the feet of a Jew to perfect himself -in Hebrew, nor did he disdain to accept instruction from a Jew whenever -the opportunity offered, so highly did he esteem the Hebrew language. - -Being the only Christian in Germany, or we may say in all Europe, -sufficiently familiar with the sacred language, Reuchlin's numerous -friends urged him to compile a Hebrew grammar, to enable the studiously -inclined to instruct themselves. The first Hebrew grammar by a -Christian, which Reuchlin designated as "a memorial more lasting than -brass" (finished in March, 1506), was a somewhat poor affair. It gave -only the essentials of pronunciation and etymology, together with a -vocabulary, the imperfections of which need not surprise us, as it is -the work of a beginner. But the grammar produced important results: -it aroused a taste for Hebrew studies in a large circle of scholars, -who thenceforth zealously devoted themselves to it; and these studies -supplied a new factor towards the Lutheran Reformation. A number of -disciples of Reuchlin, such as Sebastian Muenster and Widmannstadt, -followed in his footsteps, and raised the Hebrew language to the level -of Greek. - -But though Reuchlin went down into the Jews' lane to carry off a hidden -treasure, he was at first no less intensely prejudiced against the -Jewish race than his contemporaries. Forgetful of its former glory, -and blind to the solid kernel, because enveloped in a repulsive shell, -Reuchlin looked on the Jewish people as utterly barbarous, devoid of -all artistic taste, superstitious, mean and depraved. He solemnly -declared that he was far from favoring the Jews. Like his pattern, -Jerome, he testified to his thorough-going hatred of them. At the same -time as his Hebrew grammar he wrote an epistle, in which he traced all -the misery of the Jews to their blind unbelief, instead of looking for -its source in Christians' want of charity towards them. Reuchlin, no -less than Pfefferkorn, charged the Jews with blasphemy against Jesus, -Mary, the apostles and Christians in general; but a time came when he -regretted this indiscreet lucubration of his youth. For his heart did -not share the prejudices of his head. Whenever he met individual Jews, -he gave them his affection, or at least his esteem; he probably found -that they were better than Christians represented them to be. His sense -of justice did not allow him to let wrong be done to them, much less to -help in doing it. - -When Pfefferkorn and the Cologne Dominicans approached Reuchlin, he -was at the zenith of his life and fame. High and low honored him for -his rectitude; Emperor Frederick had ennobled him; Emperor Maximilian -appointed him counselor and judge of the Suabian League; the circle -of humanists, the order of free spirits within and without Germany, -loved, worshiped, almost deified him. Though hitherto no shadow of -heresy had fallen on Reuchlin, who was on the best of terms with the -Dominicans, yet the friends of darkness instinctively saw in him their -secret enemy. His cultivation of science and classical literature, his -anxiety for an elegant Latin style, his enthusiasm for Greek, by which -all Germany had been infected, and worse than all, his introduction of -Hebrew, his preference for "Hebrew truth," for the Hebrew text over -the corrupt Latin Vulgate, which the church held as canonical and -unassailable, were considered by the obscurantists as crimes, for which -the Inquisition could not, indeed, directly prosecute him, but which -secured him a place in their black book. - -The order given to Pfefferkorn, the secret agent of the Dominicans -of Cologne, to implicate Reuchlin in the examination of blasphemous -Jewish writings, as said above, was a cunningly devised trap. On his -second journey to the imperial camp, Pfefferkorn waited on Reuchlin at -his own house, endeavored to make him a confederate in his venomous -schemes against the Jews, and showed him the imperial mandate. Reuchlin -declined the proposal somewhat hesitatingly, though he approved of -destroying Jewish libels on Christianity; but he pointed out that -the emperor's mandate was faulty in form, and that, therefore, the -authorities would not willingly enforce it. Reuchlin is said to have -hinted that, if invited to do so, he would interest himself in the -matter. Pfefferkorn, in consequence, applied to the emperor for a -second mandate, correct in form and unassailable. But the Jews had not -been idle in endeavors to induce the emperor to revoke the mandate and -restore their books. - -The community of Frankfort had appointed Jonathan Levi Zion, a zealous -member, to advocate their case with the emperor. The community of -Ratisbon also had sent an agent to the imperial court. Isaac Triest, -a man greatly beloved by the persons surrounding the emperor, took -great pains to frustrate Pfefferkorn's plans. The Jewish advocates -were supported by influential Christians, including the representative -of the archbishop and the Margrave of Baden. They first adduced the -charters guaranteeing religious liberty, granted to the Jews by -emperors and popes, in accordance with which even the emperor had no -right to interfere with the management of their private affairs, or to -attack their property in the shape of religious books. They did not -fail to inform the emperor that their accuser was a worthless person, a -thief and burglar. The Jewish advocates thought that they had attained -their end. The emperor had listened to their petition in an audience, -and promised them a speedy reply. Their friendly reception led them -to look for an immediate settlement of this painful affair; moreover, -it was a good omen that Uriel von Gemmingen, their protector, was -appointed commissary. - -But they did not understand Maximilian's vacillating character. As soon -as Pfefferkorn appeared before him, armed with another autograph letter -from his sister, wherein the ultra-pious nun conjured him not to injure -Christianity by the revocation of his mandate, the scales were turned -against the Jews. The emperor was in reality secretly piqued that the -despised Jews of Frankfort, in contempt of his mandate, had refused to -give up the books found in their houses. - -He thereupon issued a second mandate (November 10th, 1509), wherein he -reproached the Jews with having offered resistance, and ordered the -confiscation to be continued. But he appointed Archbishop Uriel as -commissioner, and advised him to obtain counsel from the universities -of Cologne, Mayence, Erfurt and Heidelberg, and to associate with -himself learned men, such as Reuchlin, Victor von Karben, and the -inquisitor, Hoogstraten, who was wholly ignorant of Hebrew. With this -mandate in his pocket, Pfefferkorn hastened back to the scene of his -activity, the Rhenish provinces. Archbishop Uriel appointed Hermann -Hess, chancellor of the University of Mayence, his delegate, to direct -the confiscation of Jewish books. Accompanied by him, Pfefferkorn -again repaired to Frankfort, and the book-hunt began afresh. Fifteen -hundred manuscripts, including those already seized, were taken from -the Frankfort Jews, and deposited in the town hall. - -Worse than the emperor's vacillating conduct was the apathy shown by -the large communities of Germany in the appointment of delegates to a -conference to discuss and frustrate the malicious plans of Pfefferkorn, -or rather, of the Dominicans. Smaller communities had contributed -their share towards the expenses occasioned by this serious matter, -but the larger and richer communities of Rothenburg on the Tauber, -Weissenburg and Fuerth, on which the Jews of Frankfort had counted most, -displayed deplorable indifference. But when, in consequence of the -second mandate, Jewish books were confiscated not only at Frankfort -but also in other communities, more active interest was manifested. -First the Frankfort senate was influenced in their favor. The Jewish -booksellers were accustomed to bring their bales of books for sale to -the spring Fair at Frankfort. Pfefferkorn threatened to confiscate -these also, but the senate of Frankfort refused to assist in the -measure, being unwilling to break the laws regulating the Fair. The -Jewish booksellers, moreover, had safe-conducts each from the prince -of his own country, protecting not only their persons, but also their -property. The archbishop maintained sullen silence, but was inclined -to favor the Jews. He did not call together the learned men whom the -emperor had mentioned to examine the Jewish books, and did no more -than he could help. Many princes, also, whose eyes had been opened -to the ultimate results of this strange confiscation, seem to have -made representations to the emperor. Public opinion was particularly -severe on Pfefferkorn. But he and the Dominicans were not idle; they -endeavored to win over the emperor and public opinion, and it is -remarkable that the enemies of publicity should have opened the mouth -of that hitherto silent arbitress, and rendered her powerful. - -For this purpose there appeared another anti-Jewish pamphlet, with -Pfefferkorn's name on the title-page, entitled, "In Praise and Honor of -Emperor Maximilian." It blew clouds of incense into the emperor's face, -and regretted that the charges against the Jews, from indifference and -ignorance, were so little noticed in Christian circles. It reasserted -that the Talmud, the usury of the Jews, and their facilities for -making money, were the causes of their obstinately refusing to become -Christians. Thus the Cologne Dominicans--always standing behind -Pfefferkorn--by means of public opinion again attempted to put moral -pressure on Maximilian. - -But this public opinion must have spoken so strongly in favor of -the Jews, that Maximilian was induced to take a step unusual for an -emperor, namely, in a measure revoke his former commands, by directing -the senate of Frankfort to restore to the Jews their books (May 23d, -1510), "till the completion of our purpose and the inspection of -the books." Great was the joy of the Jews. They had escaped a great -danger: not their religious books only, so dear to their hearts, but -their position in the Holy Roman Empire had been at stake, since -the Dominicans, in case of success, would not have stopped at the -confiscation of books, but would have inflicted new humiliations and -persecutions. - -But the Jews triumphed too soon; the Dominicans and their confederate -and tool, Pfefferkorn, would not so readily surrender the advantages -already secured. A regrettable occurrence in the Mark of Brandenburg -supplied fresh energy to their machinations, and a pretext for -formulating an accusation. A thief had stolen some sacred emblems from -a church, and when questioned as to the holy wafer, he confessed having -sold it to Jews in the Brandenburg district. Of course, the thief -was believed, and the bishop of Brandenburg entered on the persecution -of the Jews with fiery fanaticism. The elector of Brandenburg, Joachim -I, an ardent heretic-hunter, had the accused brought to Berlin. The -accusation of reviling the host was soon supplemented by the charge of -infanticide. Joachim had the Jews tortured, and then ordered thirty to -be burnt. With firmness, songs of praise on their lips, these martyrs -of Brandenburg met their fiery deaths (July 19th, 1510), except two, -who, with the fear of the stake upon them, submitted to baptism, and -suffered the seemingly more honorable fate of being beheaded. This is -the first mention of Jews in Berlin and Brandenburg. The occurrence -made a great stir in Germany, and the Cologne Dominicans employed it -to induce the emperor to issue a new mandate for the confiscation of -Jewish books, seeing that to the Talmud alone could be attributed -the alleged hostility of the Jews to Christianity. They sheltered -themselves behind the same go-between; the bigoted nun, the ducal -abbess Kunigunde, to whom the diabolical wickedness of the Jews, as -revealed by the above occurrence, was presented in most glaring colors, -was again to influence the emperor. The Dominicans suggested to her how -detrimental to Christianity must be the fact that the host-reviling and -child-murdering Jews could boast of having had their books restored -to them by order of the emperor, who thus, to a certain extent, -approved of the abuse of Christianity which they contained. The abbess -thereupon fairly assailed her brother, and at their interview at Munich -besought him on her knees to reconsider the matter of the Jewish books. -Maximilian was perplexed. He was loath to refuse his dearly beloved -sister what she had so much at heart; on the other hand, he was not -highly edified by Pfefferkorn's tissue of lies about the Jews. He found -an expedient to appear just to both parties. He issued a new mandate, -the fourth in this affair (July 6th, 1510), addressed to Archbishop -Uriel, directing him to resume the inquiry, but in another form. The -indictment was not to be considered as proved, but was to be thoroughly -investigated. The archbishop of Mayence was to take the opinions of the -German universities named, and also of Reuchlin, Victor von Karben and -Hoogstraten, to whom the emperor sent a special summons in official -form. The final decision as to the character of the Jewish writings -was to be communicated to him by Pfefferkorn, the originator of the -inquiry. The Jews had reason to look forward with anxiety to the issue; -their weal and woe depended on it. - -It was fortunate for the Jews that the honest, truthful Reuchlin, so -enthusiastically prepossessed for Hebrew and Kabbalistic literature, -was asked to give his opinion of Jewish literature. The Cologne -Dominicans, who had proposed him, thereby frustrated their own design, -and as a further effect made him the enemy of their hostile endeavors. -As soon as Reuchlin received the emperor's command, he set to work to -answer the question, "Whether it was godly, laudable, and advantageous -to Christianity to burn the Jewish writings," whereby the Talmud -especially was meant. His judgment was extremely favorable to the -writings in question, nor did he miss the chance of bestowing sundry -side blows on the vile instigator Pfefferkorn. Jewish literature, the -mistress of his heart, was to be charged as a culprit, and should he -fail to defend her with all the powers of his mind? Reuchlin's opinion -is conceived in the pedantic, heavy, juridical style then prevailing, -but does not lack ability. He started from the correct point of -view, that, in answering the question, the Jewish writings were not -to be treated in the aggregate as a homogeneous literature, but -that, excluding the Bible, they were to be divided into six classes. -The class of exegetic works, such as those by R. Solomon (Rashi), -Ibn-Ezra, the Kimchis, Moses Gerundensis and Levi ben Gershon, far from -being detrimental to Christianity, he declared to be indispensable to -Christian theology, the most learned Christian commentators of the Old -Testament having taken the best of their work from the Jews, as from -fountains whence flow the real truth and understanding of the Holy -Scriptures. If from the voluminous writings of Nicholas de Lyra, the -best Christian exegetist, all borrowed from Rashi were to be excised, -the part left, which he himself had composed, might be comprised in -a few pages. He, indeed, considered it a disgrace that many doctors -of divinity, from ignorance of Hebrew and Greek, interpreted the -Scriptures wrongly. The class of Hebrew writings on philosophy, natural -sciences and the liberal arts were in no way distinguished from what -might be found in Greek, Latin, or German works. With regard to the -Talmud, against which the chief accusation was laid, Reuchlin confessed -his inability to understand it; but other learned Christians understood -no more of it than they might learn from its accusers, including -Pfefferkorn. He was acquainted with many who condemned the Talmud -without understanding it. But could one write against mathematics -without having knowledge thereof? He was, therefore, of opinion that -the Talmud was not to be burnt, even if it were true that it contained -libels on the founders of Christianity. "If the Talmud were deserving -of such condemnation, our ancestors of many hundred years ago, whose -zeal for Christianity was much greater than ours, would have burnt it. -The baptized Jews, Peter Schwarz and Pfefferkorn, the only persons who -insist on its being burnt, probably wish it for private reasons." - -To defend Kabbalistic writings, and save them from being burnt, was -easy enough. Reuchlin had but to point to occurrences at the papal -court, scarcely two decades ago. The learned and eccentric Count Pico -di Mirandola had aroused enthusiastic admiration for the Kabbala, -maintaining that it contained the most solid foundation of the chief -doctrines of Christianity. Sixtus IV had caused some of the Kabbalistic -writings to be translated into Latin. Reuchlin concluded his opinion -by advising that their books should not be taken from the Jews, nor -burnt, but that at every German university two professors of Hebrew be -appointed for ten years, who might also be asked to teach modern, or -rabbinical Hebrew; and thus the Jews might be led by gentle means and -by conviction to embrace Christianity. - -Unquestionably, since Jews had been ill-used and persecuted by -Christians, they had not found so friendly an advocate as Reuchlin, -who declared himself in their favor in an official document, intended -for the chancellor of the empire, and the emperor himself. Two points -on which Reuchlin laid stress were especially important to Jews. The -first was, that the Jews were citizens of the Holy Roman Empire, and -were entitled to its full privileges and protection. This was the first -stammering utterance of that liberating word of perfect equality, -which required more than three centuries for its perfect enunciation -and acknowledgment. The mediaeval delusion, that the Jews, by Vespasian -and Titus' conquest of Jerusalem, had become the bondmen of their -successors, the Roman and German emperors, was hereby partly dispelled. -The recognition that Jews also had rights, which the emperor and the -state, the clergy and the laity must respect, was the first faint, -trembling ray of light after a long, dark night. The second point, -which Reuchlin emphasized more positively, was of equal importance: -that the Jews must not be considered or treated as heretics. Since they -stood without the church, and were not bound to hold the Christian -faith, the ideas of heresy and unbelief--those terrifying and lethal -anathemas of the Middle Ages--did not apply to them. - -Of what use this judgment of Reuchlin was to the Jews, we discover -by the decision of the faculties consulted--faculties to whom the -Talmud, of course, was a book with seven seals. The Cologne Dominicans -in a body, the theological faculty, the inquisitor Hoogstraten, and -the gray-haired convert Victor von Karben, all mouthpieces of one -mind, did not trouble themselves to prove that the Talmud was hostile -to Christianity; they assumed it, and, therefore, quickly arrived at -their decision, that the Talmudic writings, and all others, probably -of the same stamp, were to be seized and burnt. But they went further; -Hoogstraten, in particular, had the assurance to say that the Jews -should be indicted. Experts were to extract and arrange heretical -passages from the Talmud and other Jewish books; then the Jews were to -be questioned whether or not they admitted the perniciousness of books -containing such doctrines. If they admitted it, they could raise no -objection to have them committed to the flames. If they obstinately -persevered in treating such passages as portions of their creed, the -emperor was to surrender them as convicted heretics for punishment to -the Inquisition. - -The faculty of the university of Mayence delivered a similar sentence, -but went much further. They pronounced not only all Talmudic and -rabbinical writings to be full of errors and heresy, but that even -the Scriptures must have been contaminated and corrupted by them, -especially in articles of faith, wherefore these were to be taken -from the Jews, examined, and if their expectation was realized, the -Jewish Bibles were to be thrown into the flames. This was a cunning -device, because the Hebrew text of the Bible does not agree with the -Latin Vulgate, the work of bunglers, used by the church. It was like -arraigning an immaculate mother before her degenerate daughter, and -telling her that if she did not adopt the vices of the latter, she did -not deserve to exist. And it was a clever trick on the part of the -Dominicans to get rid of the inconvenient Hebrew text, the "Hebrew -truth," majestically shaking its head at the childish trifling of -clerical interpretations. Had the theologians of Mayence and Cologne -succeeded in enforcing their views, the Book received on Sinai, the -words of the Prophets, the Psalms, monuments of a time of grace, would -have been cast upon a blazing pyre, and a bastard, the corrupt Latin -Vulgate, substituted for it. The Dominicans appear to have suspected -that the plain sense of the words of the Bible would bring ruin upon -them. Fortunately, the Cologne Dominicans themselves defeated their -cunningly laid plan by an act of villainy. - -Reuchlin had sent his opinion on Jewish literature in a sealed packet, -and by a sworn messenger, to Archbishop Uriel, assuming that, being an -official secret, it would be opened and read only by the archbishop and -the emperor. But Pfefferkorn, who believed himself to be on the eve -of avenging himself on the Jews, had it open in his hand even before -the emperor had read it. How this occurred has never been cleared up. -Reuchlin in plain words denounced the Cologne priests as unscrupulous -seal-breakers. We ought almost to be grateful to them for having -dragged an affair, originally enveloped in official secrecy, into -publicity, thereby calling in another tribunal, and turning the peril -of the Jews into a peril to the church. They had grown desperate over -Reuchlin's opinion, because his voice had great weight with the emperor -and his advisers. Therefore, the Dominicans, armed at all points, set -to work to publish a refutation of Reuchlin's defense of the Jews and -their books. It was written in German to render the cause popular, and -incense the multitude so as to render it impossible for the emperor to -listen to Reuchlin. - -This libel, entitled "Handspiegel," spread abroad in thousands of -copies, on a man so highly placed and honored, a judge of the Suabian -League, a scholar of eminence, naturally caused a great sensation. -Since the invention of printing it was the first furious attack on a -dignitary, and being written in German, every one could understand -it. Reuchlin's numerous friends were indignant at the insolence of -a baptized Jew, who pretended to be more sound in faith than a born -Christian in good standing. The Cologne Dominicans had permitted -themselves to be guided by their envenomed hatred rather than by -prudence. Reuchlin was compelled to take steps against such attacks, -by which his honor was too deeply wounded for silence. He hastened to -the emperor, and complained of Pfefferkorn, the rancorous calumniator, -the ostensible author of the "Handspiegel." The emperor, by words and -gestures, betrayed his indignation, and quieted the excited Reuchlin -by the promise that the matter should be inquired into by the bishop -of Augsburg. But amidst the press of business, in the confusion of -Italian quarrels, the emperor forgot Reuchlin, the mortification he -had suffered, and the redress promised him. The Frankfort autumn Fair -was approaching, at which Pfefferkorn intended to offer for sale the -remainder of the copies, and nothing had been done for or by Reuchlin. - -Thus Reuchlin was compelled to make the Talmud a personal question, to -appeal to public opinion, and thereby render the matter one of almost -universal interest. He prepared a defensive and offensive reply to -the "Handspiegel" for the Frankfort Fair. At the end of August, or -beginning of September, 1511, his controversial pamphlet, entitled -"Augenspiegel" (or Spectacles, a pair of spectacles being represented -on the title-page), which has acquired historical celebrity, made its -appearance. He designed to reveal to the German public the villainy -of Pfefferkorn and his coadjutors, but unconsciously he revealed the -defects of the Christianity of his time. It was a pamphlet which, we -may say without exaggeration, was equivalent to a great action. It was -directed against Pfefferkorn, and by implication against the Cologne -Dominicans, the patrons and instigators of his calumnies. It relates -in plain, honest language the progress of the whole affair: how the -baptized "Jew" had made every effort to prove the Talmud dangerous, -desiring to have it burnt, and had meant to turn Reuchlin to account -in the matter. He publishes the missives of the emperor and of the -archbishop addressed to him, and also his "Opinion." He reports how -Pfefferkorn by dishonest means obtained possession of the "Opinion," -and misused it to concoct a libel, containing no less than thirty-four -untruths about him (Reuchlin). The tone of the "Augenspiegel" expresses -the just indignation of a man of honor against a villain who has set a -trap for him. - -What roused the indignation of Reuchlin most was the charge that he had -been bribed to write his defense of the Talmud. With honest anger he -protested that at no time during his whole existence had he received -from Jews, or on their behalf, a single penny, or any other reward. -No less hurt was Reuchlin at the contempt expressed for his Hebrew -scholarship, especially at the accusation that he had not himself -composed his Hebrew grammar. His defense of the Jews is dignified. The -scoundrel Pfefferkorn had reproached him with having learnt Hebrew from -Jews, with whom, then, he must have had intercourse in defiance of -the canon law. Thereupon Reuchlin says: "The baptized Jew writes that -Divine law forbids our holding communion with Jews; this is not true. -Every Christian may go to law with them, buy of or make presents to -them. Cases may occur where Christians inherit legacies together with -Jews. It is allowed to converse with and learn from them, as Saint -Jerome and Nicholas de Lyra did. And lastly, a Christian should love a -Jew as his neighbor; all this is founded on the law." - -It may be imagined what excitement was created by Reuchlin's -"Augenspiegel," written in German, when it appeared at the Frankfort -Fair, the meeting-place of hundreds of thousands, at a time when -there was no public press, and everyone readily lent his ear to a -scandalous tale. To find that so distinguished a man as Reuchlin would -set an accuser of the Jews in the pillory as a calumniator and liar, -was something so new and surprising as to make readers rub their -eyes, and ask themselves whether they had not hitherto been dozing. -The Jews greedily bought a book in which for the first time a man -of honor entered the lists on their behalf, and with powerful voice -stigmatized the charges against them as calumnies. They rejoiced at -having found a champion, and thanked God that He had not forsaken them -in their tribulation. Who would find fault with them for laboring in -the promulgation of Reuchlin's pamphlet? But by preaching against it -in their pulpits, and by prohibiting its sale as far as they could, -bigoted priests of the stamp of the Cologne Dominicans did most to -disseminate it. From all directions, in learned and unlearned circles, -congratulations were sent to Reuchlin, with expressions of satisfaction -that he had so boldly and firmly settled the impudent Pfefferkorn and -his abettors. - -With the publication and circulation of Reuchlin's treatise, and his -defense of the Talmud, commenced a struggle which every day became more -serious, and at last assumed far greater proportions than the subject -justified. For the bigots, still in the full power of their terrorizing -might, did not hesitate to take up the challenge. Pfefferkorn's cause -was also theirs. Yet a man had dared step forward boldly, not only to -disapprove of the condemnation of the Talmud, but also to declare that -the persecution of the Jews was unchristianlike; and that they ought, -on the contrary, to be treated with sympathy and love. What audacity! -It aroused in them such virtuous indignation that they shot beyond -the mark, and committed such blunders that they damaged their cause -irreparably. - -Pastor Peter Meyer, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, who had not been able -to obtain the prohibition of the sale of the "Augenspiegel," made -the second mistake. He announced from the pulpit during service that -Pfefferkorn would preach on the eve of the next "Feast of our Lady" -against Reuchlin's Jewish writings, and he exhorted the faithful -to attend in great numbers. Nothing could be more fatal than this -error. Pfefferkorn with his disagreeable, repulsive face, distinctly -Jewish features and coarse, vulgar look, preach before a Christian -congregation in his Jewish-German jargon! Each word and each movement -would provoke his hearers to laughter, and drive away even sincere -devotion. Moreover, was it in accordance with Catholic law that a -layman, above all a married layman, should officiate in the church? -Not long before this a simple shepherd had been sentenced to be burned -on account of unsanctioned preaching. To keep the letter of the law -Pfefferkorn preached on the appointed day (September 7th, 1511), not -in the church, but before the entrance, to a great crowd of people. -It must have been very droll to see how this ill-favored Jew made the -sign of the cross over believers, and spoke of the Christian faith in -the Jewish jargon. Pfefferkorn's chief desire was to make the Jews and -their well-wishers detestable, and to excite the hatred of his hearers -against them. - -Until now the chief mover of the whole scandal, the venomous and -malicious master heretic-hunter, Jacob Hoogstraten, had kept behind -the scenes, but had sent his followers to the front one by one: first -Pfefferkorn, then Ortuinus Gratius and Arnold von Tongern. Henceforth -he stood in the foreground himself, his insolent demeanor seeming to -assume that priests and laymen must all bow before him, and sink under -his frown in the dust, and that he had the right to tread statutes and -customs under his feet. To save, by violent measures, the weakened -authority of the order, all Dominicans had to make common cause, and -apply their energy to carry through the condemnation of Reuchlin and -the Talmud. The conflict spread over a wider area, and became an affair -of the whole order. - -Authorized by the provincial of his order, Hoogstraten, in his capacity -as inquisitor, suddenly issued (September 15th, 1513) a summons to -Reuchlin to appear at Mayence within six days, at eight o'clock in the -morning, to be examined on the charge of heresy and of favoring the -Jews. On the appointed day Hoogstraten, with a host of Dominicans, -appeared in Mayence; they were confederates, chosen to sit as judges in -the commission. Hoogstraten opened the session, acting at once as judge -and accuser. He had prepared an unassailable bill of indictment against -Reuchlin and the Talmud, and taken the precaution to seek allies, so -that he might not stand alone in this weighty contest. Shortly before, -he had addressed letters to four universities, begging them to express -their opinion on Reuchlin's book, "Augenspiegel," in accordance with -his own views, and all had fulfilled his expectations. - -The accusation which he brought forward was, of course, that which -Pfefferkorn and Arnold von Tongern had already made. It had for its -basis: Reuchlin favors the Jews too much, treats "the insolent people" -almost as members of the church, and as men on an equality with -others, while his writings savor too much of heresy. Hoogstraten, -therefore, instructed the court to pronounce sentence upon Reuchlin's -"Augenspiegel": that it was full of heresy and error, too favorable -to the unbelieving Jews, and insulting to the church, and therefore -ought to be condemned, suppressed, and destroyed by fire. One must -not overlook the great difference between a German and a Spanish -inquisition court. Torquemada or Ximenes would have made short work -of it, and condemned the book together with the author to the stake. -Hoogstraten was not too kind-hearted for such a sentence; but he -dared not venture so far, because he would have had all Germany, the -ecclesiastical as well as the temporal rulers against him. - -General indignation was aroused at the injustice of a trial carried -on in violation of all rules. The students of the Mayence University, -not yet tainted by the corruption of theology, their judgment not -warped by casuistry, and not influenced by foreign considerations, -loudly proclaimed their displeasure at this shameless proceeding of the -Inquisition. They carried the doctors of jurisprudence with them, and -this induced other earnest men to interfere. - -To the surprise of the Dominicans, the aged, venerable Reuchlin -appeared in Mayence, accompanied by two respected counselors of the -Duke of Wurtemberg. The chapter now took great trouble to effect a -reconciliation. But Hoogstraten, who wished to see smoke rise from -the fagots, would agree to nothing, and delayed the negotiations -till the 12th of October, the time when the final sentence would be -pronounced. The inquisitor commanded all the ecclesiastics in Mayence -to announce from the pulpit that everyone, Christian or Jew, if he -would escape punishment, must give up all copies of the "Augenspiegel" -to the flames. The people were promised thirty days' indulgence, if -they assembled on the appointed day at the church square to celebrate -the auto-da-fe and increase its splendor. On the 12th of October -the place before the church in Mayence was thronged with spectators ---the curious, the sympathetic, and the seekers after indulgence! -Decked out like peacocks, the Fathers and Brothers of the Dominican -order, and the theologians of the universities of Cologne, Louvain, -and Erfurt, strutted along to the tribunal erected for them, and "the -earth trembled under their feet." Hoogstraten, till now the accuser, -again took his place among the judges. They were about to pronounce -the formula of the curse, and have the fire kindled, when a messenger -hastily arrived, bringing a letter from Archbishop Uriel, which turned -them speechless. - -Uriel von Gemmingen, like most bishops of his time, was more -worldly-minded than spiritual, and had no canonical fanaticism against -Jews. The presumptuousness of the Dominicans of Cologne and their -unjust proceedings against Reuchlin angered him, too. Therefore, he -issued a proclamation to the commissioners selected from his chapter, -ordering that judgment be delayed for one month until a new agreement -might be arrived at. If they did not consent, this letter deprived -them of their privileges as judges of the inquisitorial court, and -every thing hitherto decreed was null and void. Utterly dumbfounded, -the Dominicans listened to the notary's reading of the document, which -entirely frustrated their schemes and machinations. Hoogstraten alone -boldly dared express his anger at the denial of their rights. The other -confederates slunk away ashamed, followed by the jeers of the street -boys, and the cry of the men, "O that these Brothers, who wished to -outrage a just man, might be burnt at the stake." - -If it is true, as the Dominicans relate, that the rabbis of Germany -met in a synod in Worms, and found in the defeat of the Dominicans who -raged against Reuchlin a sign of the downfall of the Roman (papist) -hierarchy, they were certainly endowed with prophetic vision. It was -also said that Reuchlin had secret intercourse with rabbis. - -Reuchlin was by no means so situated as to be able to triumph over his -enemies and those of the Jews. Though subdued for the moment, they were -certainly not vanquished. He knew their cunning and malignity too well -to give himself up to inactive enjoyment of his victory. He knew that -their persecutions would only be redoubled in the future. Therefore, -he hastened to announce his appeal to the pope, so that silence might -be imposed from that quarter on his embittered enemies. But Reuchlin -justly feared that with the vacillation and venality of the Vatican his -cause would go badly, if the investigation were conducted beyond the -jurisdiction of the pope by the Dominicans of Cologne. Therefore, he -sent a Hebrew letter to Bonet de Lates, the Jewish physician of Pope -Leo X, begging him to plead for the pope's favor in his cause. - -Leo, of the celebrated family of the Medici, about whom his father -had said that he was the wisest of his sons, had succeeded to the -papal chair only a few months before. He was an aristocrat, more -interested in politics than in religion, a Roman pagan rather than a -Catholic priest, looking down with contempt from his Olympian heights -on theological controversy as child's play. He only considered how -best to steer between the two warring states or houses of Hapsburg and -Valois, without endangering the temporal interest of the Roman Catholic -hierarchy. With candor that would surprise us today, the pope ventured -to say, "It is well known how useful this fable of Christ has been to -us and ours!" With him now rested the decision, whether Reuchlin's -"Augenspiegel" savored of heresy, and whether he duly or unduly favored -the Jews. Leo, whose pontificate fell in a time when theological -questions threatened to embroil all Europe, perhaps knew less of -them than his cook. Much, therefore, depended on the light in which -the conflict between Reuchlin and the Dominicans was placed before -him. For this reason Reuchlin begged the physician Bonet de Lates, -who had access to the pope and care of "the person of his Holiness," -to win over Leo X, so that the trial might not take place in Cologne -or its vicinity, where his cause would be lost. Reuchlin laid all the -circumstances before him: how Pfefferkorn and the Cologne Dominicans -had conspired against the Jews and the Talmud, and how only his -extraordinary efforts had saved the Talmud from destruction. Had the -Dominicans been able to get hold of and read this letter, they could -have brought forward incontestable proof of Reuchlin's friendliness -towards the Jews, for in it he wrote much that he had publicly denied. - -It is natural that Bonet de Lates brought all his influence to bear in -favor of Reuchlin. And it was probably owing to his zeal that Leo so -soon (November 21st, 1513) issued instructions to the bishops of Speyer -and Worms on the controversy between Reuchlin and Hoogstraten. Leo -ordered that they be examined separately or together, by the bishops or -by judges appointed by them, who, without the intervention of any other -tribunal, were to pronounce judgment, to be accepted without appeal. -The bishop of Worms, a Dalburg, with whom Reuchlin was on friendly -terms, did not care to accept the commission. So the young bishop of -Speyer, George, elector palatine and duke of Bavaria, appointed two -judges, who summoned both parties to appear within a month before -the tribunal in Speyer. Reuchlin came punctually, accompanied by a -procurator and friends. Hoogstraten, on the other hand, trusting to the -power of the Dominicans, did not present himself, nor send a competent -representative. The judges commenced the suit, not with becoming -energy, but with a certain half-heartedness, perhaps from fear of the -revenge of the Dominicans. The trial was spun out over three months -(January to April, 1514). - -Only after Reuchlin had written two German papers on the matter in -dispute and the progress of the proceedings, did the bishop deign to -notice the evidence and pass judgment, which was wholly in favor of -Reuchlin. He stated that the "Augenspiegel" contained not an iota -of heresy or error, that it did not unduly favor the Jews, that, -therefore, Hoogstraten had slandered the author, and silence should -be imposed on him in this matter; that the writings might be read and -printed by everyone, and that Hoogstraten be charged with the costs -(111 Rhenish gold florins). - -The Dominicans of Cologne gnashed their teeth, stormed and raged at -the issue of the suit, and used every effort to overthrow the judgment -of the apostolic court. At that time, on account of the disunion in -Germany, it was very difficult to put into execution a judicial decree, -and the Dominicans were not inclined to lessen the difficulty when -the sentence was given against themselves. They laughed at the bishop -of Speyer, calling him a stupid fellow. The notice of the verdict -in Cologne was torn down by the bold Pfefferkorn. Hoogstraten had -unofficially--that is to say, without giving notice to the bishop -of Speyer, then acting as apostolic judge--appealed to the pope, -although he had scouted the idea of such an appeal before. His hope of -winning the suit against Reuchlin and securing the condemnation of the -"Augenspiegel" was founded on the venality of the Vatican. "Rome will -do anything for money," he frankly said; "Reuchlin is poor, and the -Dominicans are rich; justice can be suppressed by money." Hoogstraten -could also count on the good will of the cardinals, who inveighed -against free inquiry. At all events, they could be depended upon to -drag out the suit so long that Reuchlin's means would not suffice -to meet the costs. Besides this, the Dominicans relied on obtaining -from the universities, in particular the leading one of Paris, the -condemnation of the "Augenspiegel," and using it to exert pressure -upon the pope. All Dominicans, Thomists and obscurantists, both in and -outside Germany, made common cause to work the downfall of Reuchlin. - -This union of the Dominican party had the effect of binding together -the friends of learning, the enemies of scholasticism, bigotry and -church doctrine--in one word, the Humanists--and inducing them to -take concerted action. Virtually a society of Humanists, a Reuchlinist -party, was formed in western Europe, the members of which silently -worked for one another and for Reuchlin: "One supported the other, and -said to his comrade, Be brave." "All we who belong to the ranks of -learning are devoted to Reuchlin no less than soldiers to the emperor." -It was a formal alliance, which the supporters of Reuchlin loyally -adhered to. So, in consequence of Pfefferkorn's bitter hostility to -the Jews and the Talmud, two parties were formed in Christendom, the -Reuchlinists and the Arnoldists, who waged fierce conflict with each -other. It was a struggle of the dark Middle Ages with the dawn of a -better time. - -Young Germany was working with all its might on behalf of Reuchlin -and against the bigots: besides Hermann von Busche, and Crotus -Rubianus (Johann Jaeger), there was the fiery Ulrich von Hutten, the -most energetic and virile character of the time. In fact, Hutten's -energy first found a worthy aim in the passionate feud between -Reuchlin and the Dominicans. Formerly his fencing had consisted of -passes in the empty air; his knightly courage and fiery genius had -met only phantom adversaries. Now, for the first time, the youth of -six-and-twenty had a clear perception of the relation of things; he -saw a real enemy, to meet whom with his knight's sword and the sharper -weapon of his intellect, in a life and death struggle, would be a -praiseworthy, glorious undertaking. To destroy the Dominicans, priests -and bigots, and establish the kingdom of intellect and free thought, -to deliver Germany from the nightmare of ecclesiastical superstition -and barbarism, raise it from its abjectness, and make it the arbiter -of Europe, seemed to him the aim to toil for. As soon as Hutten was -clearly conscious of this, he worked ceaselessly for his object, the -first step towards its realization being to help Reuchlin, the leader -in the struggle for humanism, to gain the victory over his mortal foes. -A cardinal, Egidio de Viterbo, who delighted in the Hebrew language and -in the Kabbala, openly sided with Reuchlin. He wrote to him, "The Law -(Torah) revealed to man in fire was first saved from fire when Abraham -escaped the burning furnace, and now a second time, when Reuchlin -saved, from the fire, the writings from which the Law received light, -for had they been destroyed eternal darkness would again have set -in. So, exerting ourselves for your cause, we are not defending you, -but the Law, not the Talmud, but the church." It is remarkable that -the whole Franciscan order, from hatred of the Dominicans, took up -Reuchlin's cause. - -In almost every town there were Reuchlinists and anti-Reuchlinists, -whose mutual hatred brought them at times to blows. The motto of one -was, "Rescue of the 'Augenspiegel' and preservation of the Talmud," and -of the other, "Damnation and destruction to both." Involuntarily the -Reuchlinists became friends of the Jews, and sought grounds on which to -defend them. The adherents of the Dominicans became fiercer enemies to -the Jews, and sought out obscure books to prove their wickedness. - -The report of this contest spread through Europe. At first limited to -Germany, the controversy soon reached both Rome and Paris. Hoogstraten -and the Dominicans worked with energy to have the judgment of Speyer -overthrown, in the latter place by the greatest university, in the -former by the papal see, and to have Reuchlin's writings sentenced to -the flames. In both places they had powerful and influential allies, -who devotedly and zealously worked for their party. - -Reuchlin, although his suit had been lawfully won in the apostolic -court in Speyer, was forced to take steps to counteract the appeal -instituted by the intrigues of his enemies. And his friends succeeded -in influencing the pope. Leo X appointed the cardinal and patriarch -Dominico Grimani as judge of the inquiry. It was well known that this -ecclesiastical prince cultivated rabbinical literature, and, as patron -of the Franciscan order, hated the Dominicans, and took Reuchlin's -side. Without doubt prominent Jews were working in Rome for Reuchlin, -but, like the German Jews, they had the good sense to keep in the -background, so as not to imperil the cause by stamping it as Jewish. -Cardinal Grimani issued (June, 1514) a summons to both parties, but -in consideration of Reuchlin's advanced years permitted him to send a -representative, while Hoogstraten had to appear in person. Furnished -with recommendations and a well-filled purse, the inquisitor appeared -in Rome with undiminished confidence of obtaining a victory. What could -not be obtained in Rome for money? - -Reuchlin had nothing of the kind to offer; he was poor. He had not the -magic wand which commands the gold of bigoted women, nor the conjurer's -formula over father-confessors, who are apt treasure-diggers. But there -was no lack of recommendations from his friends and well-wishers. -Emperor Maximilian, who, much to his own regret, had originated all -this disturbance, by lending ear to Pfefferkorn's stupidities and his -sister's hysterical piety, often interceded with the pope for Reuchlin. -The emperor wrote that he believed that the Cologne people wished -to prolong the controversy illegally and through intrigue, in order -to crush the excellent, inoffensive, learned and orthodox Reuchlin; -that what he had written (in favor of the Hebrew Scriptures) had been -written at the emperor's command, with a good object, and for the -benefit of Christendom. - -But the Dominicans defied public opinion, the commission appointed by -the pope, and the pope. They spoke of the pope as of a schoolboy under -their authority. If he did not give a decision in their favor, they -threatened to withdraw their allegiance, and desert him, even risking -a rupture with the church. They went so far as to threaten that in -case Reuchlin proved victorious, they would ally themselves with the -Hussites in Bohemia against the pope. So blinded was this faction by -revengeful feelings, that from sheer obstinacy they would undermine -Catholicism. Nor did they spare the majesty of the emperor; when they -learned that Maximilian had interceded for Reuchlin with the pope, they -heaped abuse on him. - -The Dominicans built their hopes on the verdict of Paris, the head -of all European universities. If this important school of divinity -condemned Reuchlin's writings and the Talmud, then even the pope -would have to submit. Every influence was, therefore, brought to -bear to obtain a favorable opinion from Paris. In particular, the -king of France, Louis XII, was worked on by his confessor, Guillaume -Haquinet Petit, to influence the school of divinity in favor of the -Dominicans. The political events which had set the German emperor -and the French king at variance were also brought into play. Because -the emperor of Germany was for Reuchlin, the king of France decided -for the Dominicans and against the Talmud. But this decision was not -easily obtained, for Reuchlin numbered many warm friends in Paris. The -consultation was prolonged from May to the beginning of August, 1514. - -Many of the voters spoke in favor of Reuchlin and at the same time -expressed their indignation at the unlawful proceedings; but they -were cried down by the fanatics. Many French divines were guided by -the example of Saint Louis, who, at the instigation of the baptized -Jew, Nicholas Donin, and by command of Pope Gregory IX, had ordered -the Talmud to be burnt three centuries before. The Parisian doctors, -therefore, gave sentence that Reuchlin's "Augenspiegel," containing -heresy, and defending with great zeal the Talmudic writings, deserved -to be condemned to the flames, and the author to be forced to recant. - -Great was the joy of the Dominicans, particularly those of Cologne, -over this judgment. They believed their game to be won, and that the -pope himself would be forced to submit. They did not delay in making -known to the public this concession, so hardly won, by means of another -libelous pamphlet. - -The lawsuit, allowed to lag in Rome, was wilfully delayed still more -by the Dominicans. The commission appointed had a close translation of -the "Augenspiegel" prepared by a German in Rome, Martin von Groenigen; -but the opposition found fault with it. Numerous hindrances blocked the -progress of the suit, and at this stage cost Reuchlin 400 gold florins. -The Dominicans had hoped so to impoverish their adversary, the friend -of the Jews, that he would be incapacitated from obtaining justice. -The prospect of seeing Reuchlin's cause triumphant at Rome diminished. -Reuchlin's friends were, therefore, anxious to create another tribunal, -and appeal from the badly advised or intimidated pope to public -opinion. - -During this tension of minds in small and great circles, whilst high -and low ecclesiastics, princes and citizens, anxiously awaited news as -to how the Reuchlin lawsuit had ended, or would end in Rome, a young -Humanist (most likely Crotus Rubianus, in Leipsic), wrote a series of -letters, which, for wit, humor and biting satire, had not been equaled -in all literature. The "Letters of Obscurantists" (_Epistolae Obscurorum -Virorum_), published in 1515, in a great measure directed against -the rascally Ortuinus Gratius, laid bare, in the language of the -unpolished monks, their own baseness and insolence, their astonishing -ignorance, their lust, their animosity and vileness, their despicable -Latin, and still more contemptible morality, the absurdity of their -logic, their foolish chatter--in short, all their intolerable -vices were made so evident, and described so clearly, that even the -half-educated could comprehend. All Reuchlin's enemies, Hoogstraten, -Arnold von Tongern, Ortuinus Gratius, Pfefferkorn, their accomplices, -and the Paris University, were lashed with whips and scorpions, so -that no spot on them remained sound. This clever satire, containing -more than Aristophanian scorn, made the stronger an impression as the -Dominicans, the Thomists, the Doctors of Divinity, revealed themselves -in their own persons, in their miserable meanness, placing themselves, -metaphorically speaking, in the pillory. But it was inevitable that, in -deriding the bigots and the papacy, the whole tyranny of the hierarchy -and the church should be laid bare. For, were not the Dominicans, with -their insolent ignorance and shameless vices, the product and natural -effect of the Catholic order and institution? So the satire worked like -a corroding acid, entirely destroying the already rotting body of the -Catholic Church. - -The Jews and the Talmud were the first cause of the Reuchlinist -quarrel; naturally, they could not be left out of account in the -letters of the Obscurantists. So it happened that the much despised -Jews became one of the topics of the day. - -A roar of laughter resounded through western Europe at the reading of -these satirical letters. Everyone in Germany, Italy, France and England -who understood Latin, was struck with the form and tenor of these -confessions of Dominicans and scholastics. Their awkward vulgarity, -dense stupidity, egregious folly, impurity of word and deed, stood so -glaringly in contrast with their presumed learning and propriety, that -the most serious men were moved to mirth. It is related that Erasmus, -who, at the time of reading the letters, suffered from an abscess in -the throat, laughed so heartily that it broke, and he was cured. The -merry Comedy of the Fools put Reuchlin entirely in the right, and the -Dominicans were judged by public opinion, no matter how the pope might -deal with them. All were curious to know who could be the author. Some -thought it was Reuchlin himself, others Erasmus, Hutten, or one of -the Humanist party. Hutten gave the right answer to the question as -to the author: "God himself." It appeared more and more clearly that -so slight a cause as the burning of the Talmud had taken a world-wide -significance, the will of the individual serving only to further -the interests of all. In Rome and Cologne, far-seeing Reuchlinists -discerned in it the work of Providence. - -Only the German Jews could not indulge in merriment. The Dominicans -had meantime worked in another way to obtain their object, or at -least to have revenge on the Jews. Of what avail was it to the Jews -that some enlightened Christians, having had their attention drawn to -Judaism, were seized with so great a predilection for it that they -gave expression to their new convictions in writing? Christendom as a -whole was irrevocably prejudiced against Jewish teachings and their -adherents. Erasmus rightly said, "If it is Christian to hate the Jews, -then we are true Christians." Therefore, it was easy for their enemies -to injure them. Pfefferkorn had often pointed out that there were in -Germany only three great Jewish communities, at Ratisbon, Frankfort and -Worms, and that with their extermination, Judaism in the German kingdom -would come to an end. - -To bring about the expulsion of the Jews from Frankfort and Worms, -their enemies had discovered effective means. The young Margrave, -Albert von Brandenburg, hitherto bishop of Magdeburg, who later -attained melancholy renown in the history of the Reformation, had been -elected to the archbishopric of Mayence. The enemies of the Jews, -acting probably on a suggestion from Cologne, induced Archbishop Albert -to issue an invitation to religious and secular authorities and to -towns, principally Frankfort and Worms, to attend a diet in Frankfort, -to discuss how the Jews might be banished and never be permitted to -return. Obeying the invitation (January 7th, 1516), many deputies -appeared. The program was to this purport: All the estates were to -unite and take an oath to relinquish the privileges and advantages -derived from the Jews, to banish all Jewish subjects and never, under -any pretext, or for any term, permit them to return. This resolution -was to be laid before the emperor for his confirmation. - -The Jews of these places saw certain danger hanging over their heads. -If at other times the German princes and rulers were disunited and -indolent, in the persecution of Jews they were always united and -energetic. Nothing remained for the Jews but to send a deputation to -Emperor Maximilian, and implore him to grant them his favor and support -them against so malevolent a measure. The emperor happily remembered -that the Jews, even when ruled by various great or petty rulers, were -in reality the servants of himself and the empire, and that their -banishment would be an encroachment on his suzerainty. Maximilian -hastened, therefore, to send a very forcible dispatch to Elector Albert -and the chapter of Mayence, to the religious and secular authorities, -and to the towns (January, 1516), expressing his displeasure at their -conference, and forbidding them to meet again at the appointed time. So -the Jews were for the moment saved. But the archbishop of Mayence, or -in his absence the chapter, did not give up the pursuit of the desired -object. The enemies of the Jews, the friends of the Cologne Dominicans, -still hoped to turn the emperor against them. But the hope was vain; -the Jews were not banished for the present. - -Reuchlin's lawsuit, although delayed by the struggles of the two -parties, whose time was taken up in plotting against each other's -intrigues, made slow but perceptible progress. Hoogstraten, seeing that -the commission would decide in favor of Reuchlin, vehemently demanded -a decision by council, inasmuch as it was a question, not of law, but -of faith. Pope Leo, who did not care to be on bad terms with either -party, in opposition to his own repeated command had to yield to a -certain extent. On the one side Emperor Maximilian and many German -princes insisted upon having Reuchlin declared blameless and silencing -the Dominicans; on the other side the king of France and young Charles -(at that time duke of Burgundy), the future emperor of Germany, king -of Spain and America, used threatening language towards the pope, -demanding that the matter be taken up seriously, and that Reuchlin's -book be condemned. Leo, therefore, considered it advisable to escape -from this critical position. He submitted the matter for final decision -to a court of inquiry, formed of members of the Lateran Council, then -in session. Thus the dispute about the Talmud became the concern of a -general council, and was raised to the dignity of a European question. - -The council committee finally declared in favor of Reuchlin. Before Leo -X could confirm or reject its decision, Hoogstraten and his friends -influenced him to issue a mandate suspending the suit. This temporizing -exactly suited Leo's character and his position between the excited -rival parties. He hated excitement, which he would have brought on -himself, if he had decided in favor of either party. He did not wish to -offend the Humanists, nor yet the bigots, nor the German emperor, nor -the king of France, nor the ruler of Spain. So the suit was suspended, -and at any favorable opportunity could be taken up again by the -Dominicans. Hoogstraten had to leave Rome in disgrace and dishonor, but -he did not give up the hope of winning his cause in the end. He was a -strong-willed man, who could not be discouraged by humiliations, and so -unprincipled that falsehood and misrepresentations came easy to him. - -If Pope Leo believed that at his dictation the conflict would cease, -he overestimated the authority of the papacy, and mistook the parties -as well as the real issue involved. Feeling ran too high to be quieted -by a word from those in power. Neither party wished for peace, but for -war, war to the knife. When Hoogstraten returned from Rome, his life -was in danger. Furious Reuchlinists often conspired against him, and -sought by polemical leaflets to exasperate public opinion still more -against the Dominicans. Hutten, since his mature judgment had taken in -the situation at Rome, was most eager to bring about the downfall of -ecclesiastical domination in Germany. - -The secret could be no longer kept, it was given out from the -house-tops that there was dissension in the church. Not their foes, -but the provincial of the Dominican order, Eberhard von Cleve, and -the whole chapter, represented in an official letter to the pope that -the controversy had brought them, the Dominicans, into hatred and -contempt; that they were held up to the mockery of all, and that they ---so very undeservedly!--were decried, both in speech and writing, -as the enemies of brotherly love, peace and harmony; that their -preaching was despised, their confessional avoided, and that everything -they undertook was derided, and declared to be only the result of pride -and meanness. - -Meanwhile the contention between Reuchlin and the Dominicans, -especially Hoogstraten, developed in another direction, and affected -Judaism at another point. The Kabbala formed the background of this -movement. Out of love for this secret doctrine, supposed to offer the -key to the deepest knowledge of philosophy and Christianity, Reuchlin -had wished to spare the Talmud, because in his opinion it contained -mystical elements. The youthful Kabbala became the patroness of the -old Talmud. Reuchlin understood but little of Kabbalistic doctrines, -but his eagerness for knowledge and his zeal spurred him on to study. -Moreover, the attack by his adversaries upon his orthodoxy, honesty and -erudition, had made it an affair of honor for him to prove convincingly -that the Kabbala agreed with Christianity. But he was unfortunate in -the choice of his Hebrew models. For a long time he sought a guide, -until chance brought him to the most confused source of information: -the foolish writings of the Kabbalist, Joseph Jikatilla, of Castile, -which the convert Paul Riccio had lately translated into Latin. As soon -as Reuchlin heard of this literary treasure of Joseph Jikatilla, he did -not rest till he had obtained it, and again set about proving that the -Kabbala was in agreement with Christianity. - -Believing that the Kabbala reveals and confirms the highest truths, -the mysteries of Christianity, Reuchlin composed a work on Kabbalist -science, and dedicated it to Pope Leo X, giving new emphasis to his -contention that the Jewish writings, instead of being burnt, should be -cherished. - -Reuchlin must have counted on the approval of the pope, to whom he -dedicated the work, for having found new support for the tottering -faith. He hoped that Leo X would at length grant him peace and rest by -pronouncing judgment in the suit between himself and the Dominicans, -which, though suppressed, was persistently urged by the latter. The -Christianlike Kabbala was to be his intercessor at the Vatican. He -did not stand alone in his foolish fondness for the secret doctrine. -Not only the cardinals but the pope himself expected to gain much for -Christianity by proper research into the Kabbala. - -As the interest in the Reuchlin controversy began to flag, another -movement started in Germany, continuing, as the other had begun, to -shake the firm pillars of the papacy and the Catholic Church, and -prepare the regeneration of Europe. The discussion aroused by the -Talmud created an intellectual medium favorable to the germination and -growth of Luther's reform movement. Destined soon to become a force in -the world's history, even the Reformation arose from small beginnings, -and needed most powerful protection not to be nipped in the bud. Martin -Luther was a strong, straightforward, obstinate and passionately -excitable character, holding with tenacity to his convictions and -errors. By the opposition which he met, Luther finally came to the -conclusion that each individual pope, consequently the papacy, was not -infallible, and that the basis of faith was not the pope's will, but -the Scriptural word. - -The death of the old emperor, Maximilian, who had been unequal to -the task of grappling with the theological perplexities called forth -by himself, and the election of a new emperor, spun out for half a -year, drew politics into the arena, and gave rise to a confusion in -which the friends and foes of free religious thought and of gloomy -orthodox faith were not distinguishable. Hutten and the Humanists -favored Charles V, in whose own country, Spain, the Dominicans still -had the upper hand, and where the flames from the stake were still -unextinguished; but he was opposed by the pope. The Reuchlinist and the -Lutheran cause, as it were, the Talmud and the Reformation, were merged -into each other. So great a change had taken place that the electors -assembled to elect an emperor declared against the obscurantists of -Cologne and in favor of Reuchlin. - -Instead of condemning the Talmud, Pope Leo X encouraged the printing -of the work. Thus, through a movement incomprehensible to all its -contemporaries, the unexpected took place: Reuchlin was justified, and -the Talmud was justified, and in a measure favored by the pope. Indeed, -Daniel Bomberg, a rich Christian publisher in Antwerp, in the same year -brought out a complete edition of the Babylonian Talmud in twelve folio -volumes, the model of all later editions. - -A clever pantomime, which first appeared in Latin or French, and was -soon translated into German, portrays Reuchlin as the originator of the -great and growing movement. It represents a doctor, on whose back may -be read the name of Capnion (Reuchlin), throwing a bundle of straight -and crooked sticks on the stage, and then going away. Another figure -(Erasmus), having in vain endeavored to put the bundle in order, shakes -his head over the chaos, and disappears. Hutten also comes in. Luther -appears in monk's dress, and with a firebrand kindles the crooked -twigs. Another figure, in imperial robes, strikes with its sword the -spreading fire, only giving it wider play. At length comes the pope, -who, wishing to extinguish the fire, seizes a vessel, and pours the oil -in it upon the flames, then clasps his hands on his head, while the -bright flames shoot up never again to be stifled. Pfefferkorn and the -Talmud should not have been missing in this dumb show, for they were -the fuse that started the conflagration. - -The situation was such that the slightest breath made the flames -leap up. Luther had gained firmness and courage at the imperial diet -of Worms, and by his speech, revealing fearlessness, completed the -rupture with the papacy. Although urged by his own bigotry, besieged -by obscurantists and exhorted by princes, Emperor Charles was disposed -to condemn the reformer to the stake as a heretic, yet partly from -consideration for Frederick, elector of Saxony, partly from policy, -hoping thereby to hold the pope in check, he only declared him an -exile a month later. Meanwhile Luther was already on his Patmos, the -Wartburg, hidden and protected. Whilst in solitude he worked at a -German translation of the Bible, ultra-reformers overthrew church -regulations, altered the church services, did away with masses and -priestly decoration, abolished the vows of monks, and introduced -the marriage of priests--that is to say, the priests publicly -acknowledged their former secret mistresses as their wives. The time -was ripe for the Reformation, and it took firm hold of North Germany, -Denmark and Sweden, extending to Prussia, Poland, and, on the other -hand, to France and even Spain, the country of darkest and most bigoted -ecclesiasticism and the home of persecution. Zwingli, the reformer of -Switzerland, after much wavering, declared himself against the papacy; -so, in that country, too, where there was more freedom of action than -in submissive Germany, the new church service was introduced, the -marriage of priests permitted, pictures and crucifixes destroyed, -and monasteries done away with. A new order of things had set in; -all-powerful Rome stood impotent before the new spirit. The enthusiasm -of the Anabaptists began to arouse public feeling and transform all -relations of life. - -At first, Luther's Reformation affected the Jews but slightly. -Catholics and innovators in every town, especially in Germany, were so -occupied with fighting each other, that they had no leisure for the -persecution of Jews; so there came a pause. Luther, whose voice even -then was more powerful than that of the princes, at first defended them -from numerous accusations. In his plain-spoken and fervent way, he said: - - "This rage (against the Jews) is still defended by some silly - theologians, and advocated by them; they declare insolently - that the Jews are the servants of the Christians, and subject - to the emperor. I beg you to tell me who will join our - religion, be he the most amiable and patient of men, when he - sees that they are treated so cruelly and inimically, and not - only in an unchristian way, but even brutally. Most of the - Passion preachers (in Holy Week) do nothing but make the sin - committed by Jews against Christ heavier and greater, and - embitter the hearts of believers against them." - -In one of his works, the title of which, calculated to startle their -antagonists, ran, "Jesus was born a Jew," Luther expressed himself -against the indelible hatred of the Jews still more sharply: - - "Those fools, the papists, bishops, sophists and monks, have - hitherto so dealt with Jews, that every good Christian would - rather have been a Jew. And if I had been a Jew, and seen such - stupidity and such blockheads reign in the Christian Church, - I would rather have been a pig than a Christian. They have - treated the Jews as if they were dogs, not men; they have done - nothing but revile them. They are blood-relations of our Lord; - therefore, if it were proper to boast of flesh and blood, the - Jews belong to Christ more than we. I beg, therefore, my dear - papists, if you become tired of abusing me as a heretic, that - you begin to revile me as a Jew." - - "Therefore, it is my advice," continued Luther, "that we treat - them kindly. Now that we drive them by force, treating them - deceitfully and ignominiously, saying that they must have - Christian blood to wash away the Jewish stain, and I know not - what more nonsense,--prohibiting them from working amongst - us, from living and having social intercourse with us, forcing - them to be usurers, how can we expect them to come to us? If we - would help them, so must we exercise, not the law of the pope, - but that of Christian love--show them a friendly spirit, - permit them to live and to work, so that they may have cause - and means to be with us and amongst us." - -These were words which the Jews had not heard for a thousand years. -They show unmistakable traces of Reuchlin's mild intercession in their -favor. Many hot-headed Jews saw in Luther's opposition to the papacy -the extinction of Christianity and the triumph of Judaism. Three -learned Jews went to Luther, and tried to convert him. Enthusiastic -feelings were aroused among the Jews at this unexpected revulsion, -especially at the blow dealt the papacy and the idolatrous worship of -images and relics; the boldest hopes were entertained of the speedy -downfall of Rome, and the approaching redemption by the Messiah. - -But the Jewish religion gained much more by the Reformation than the -Jewish race. Despised before, it became fashionable, so to say, in the -early days of the Reformation. Reuchlin had expressed the modest wish -that at the few German universities a professor of the Hebrew language -might be appointed. Through his zeal for Hebrew (he had published, -shortly before his death, a work on Hebrew accents and prosody), and -through the increasing conviction that without this knowledge the Bible -must remain a sealed book, princes and universities sought teachers, -and instituted Hebrew professorships not only in Germany and Italy, but -also in France and Poland. The light, graceful, classic muse, which had -withdrawn many hearts from the church, was more and more neglected, and -the serious Hebrew mother was sought out instead. Young and old did not -hesitate to seek Jews from whom to learn Hebrew. A friendly connection -was formed between Jewish masters and Christian pupils, to the intense -vexation of bigots on both sides; and many prejudices died out by these -means. The principal teacher of the Christians was a grammarian of -German descent, Elias Levita (born 1468, died 1549). This poor man, -who had to struggle for his daily bread, laid the foundation of the -knowledge of the Hebrew language. The plundering of Padua--where, -perhaps, he was born--brought him, by way of Venice, to Rome, where -Cardinal Egidio de Viterbo, wishing to advance in his grammatical and -Kabbalistic studies, took him into his house, supporting him and his -family for more than ten years. Not only this church dignitary, but -many other Christians of high position sat at Levita's feet. One was -George de Selve, bishop of Lavour, the French ambassador, as learned -as he was statesmanlike. Against the reproach of some bigoted rabbis, -Levita defended himself by the remark that his Christian pupils all -were friends of the Jews, and tried to promote their welfare. On the -inducement of his patron, Egidio, he worked at a Hebrew grammar in the -Hebrew language, the greater part of which was translated into Latin -by Reuchlin's pupil, Sebastian Muenster. Elias Levita had not a mind of -great depth, nor did he propound a new theory on the structure of the -Hebrew language. He rigorously adhered to the grammatical system of the -Kimchis, because he did not know their predecessors. His usefulness -consisted in his command over the whole Scriptural vocabulary, his -pedagogic skill, and his gift of vivid presentation. Beyond the -elements he did not go, but they perfectly satisfied the wants of -the time. Only one deviation did Levita make from the beaten track. -Against the firm belief of the time that the accents and the vowel -signs in the Hebrew Bible were of ancient origin, having been revealed -on Mount Sinai, or, at all events, introduced by Ezra, he maintained -that they had not been known even at the time of the Talmud, because -they had been superfluous when Hebrew was a living language. It can -easily be imagined what a storm this opinion raised. It at once upset -all preconceived notions. The bigots raised a cry against him as though -he had by his assertion disowned Judaism. Elias Levita was, therefore, -little liked by his brother Jews, and associated more with learned -Christians, which brought much blame from the over-pious, and produced -evil consequences for his descendants. - -He was not the only teacher of the Hebrew language and literature -to Christians. As before him, Obadiah Sforno had given Reuchlin -instruction in Hebrew, so at the same time as Levita, Jacob Mantino and -Abraham de Balmes were engaged in instructing Christians. - -Throughout Christendom there was a desire to know the Hebrew language. -The printers reckoned on such good sales that in several places in -Italy and Germany, even where there were no Jews, new and old Hebrew -grammatical writings were published. Everyone wished to know Hebrew and -to understand the Hebrew language and literature. Some years before the -representatives of the church had considered the knowledge of Hebrew -superfluous, or even a pernicious evil touching on heresy; but through -the Reformation it became a necessary branch of divinity. Luther -himself learnt Hebrew to be able to penetrate the meaning of the Bible. - -The change of mind was most evident in France. The Paris university, -the leader of thought, had by a majority condemned Reuchlin's -"Augenspiegel" in favor of the Talmud and Hebrew studies; scarcely six -years later there was a professorship and a printing press for Hebrew, -and the confessor of King Louis, William Haquinet Petit, though a -Dominican, the one whose slander had brought about the condemnation of -Reuchlin's work, appeared as a patron of Hebrew literature. - -At his advice King Francis I invited the bishop of Corsica, Augustin -Justiniani, a man well read in Hebrew literature, to come to France. -This young king felt, or at least showed, interest in learning and also -in the study of Hebrew. He invited Elias Levita to come to France, and -fill the professorship of Hebrew there, probably at the instigation -of his admirer, De Selve. One must take into consideration what this -signified at that time. In France proper, for more than a century, -no Jew had been permitted to dwell, nor even to make a passing stay, -and now a Jew was invited, not merely to reside there, but to accept -an honorable post and instruct Christians. What heresy! Elias Levita, -however, declined this flattering proposal; he would not have felt at -ease there as the only Jew, and to urge the admission of Jews into -France was not in conformity with his character. Justiniani undertook -the task of introducing the study of Hebrew into France. - -At the University of Rheims the French students made attempts to -speak Hebrew. As there were not sufficient grammars, Justiniani -had the wretched Hebrew grammar of Moses Kimchi printed. Yet more -remarkable is it that in Paris, where three hundred years previously -the Jewish orthodox party, with the help of the Dominicans, had burnt -Maimuni's religious philosophical work, "Guide of the Perplexed," the -Dominican Justiniani now caused a Latin translation of the same to -be published (1520). Naturally, the Christian teachers of the Hebrew -language remained dependent on their Jewish masters; they could not -take a single step without them. Paulus Fagius, a reforming priest -and disciple of Reuchlin, wishing to establish a Hebrew press in -Isny, called upon Elias Levita to go there. This offer was accepted, -for Levita was in difficulties, and could find no publisher for his -Chaldean and Rabbinical dictionaries. Paulus Fagius was particularly -pleased with these works, because they appeared to him to offer the key -to the Kabbala, so much sought for by Christian scholars. - -Through the agitation by Reuchlin and Luther the neglected science of -the Bible was to a certain extent cultivated. Judaism and Christianity -are both founded on the Sacred Writings, yet they were quite strange -to the followers of both religions. The glorious memorial of a -much favored time was so shrouded and surrounded with a network of -senseless explanations, so disfigured by these accessories, that its -full value was completely unknown. Because everything was looked for -in, and imported into, the Holy Scriptures, the true meaning was not -discovered. To the Christian laity the Bible had been inaccessible for -a long time, because the papacy, with instinctive fear, had forbidden -its translation into the vernacular. So the faithful knew only -fragments or isolated texts, and, owing to distorted interpretations, -these not always correctly. Even the clergy were not familiar -therewith, for they were acquainted only with the Roman Catholic -Latin version, and in this the fundamental truths of the Bible were -confused by perversions and errors. It was, therefore, a work of great -importance that occupied Luther in his solitude on the Wartburg--the -translation of the Bible, the Old and New Testaments, into German. -For this purpose Luther had to learn Hebrew, and seek information -from Jews. To his contemporaries it seemed as if God's Word had for -the first time been revealed; this clear voice they had never before -heard. A breath of fresh air was wafted on men, when the ramparts were -broken down that had so long held its spirit imprisoned. Classical -antiquity had improved the taste of a small circle. Hebrew antiquity -rejuvenated the whole generation, once more infusing love of simplicity -and naturalness. The Bible was soon translated into all European -languages; the Catholics themselves were obliged to disregard the papal -command, and render it into intelligible language for the people's use. -The Jews also felt the want of the Holy Scripture in the vernacular. A -translation into Spanish was made in Ferrara, by a Marrano, Duarte de -Pinel, who had escaped from Portugal, and called himself Abraham Usque -as a Jew. - -The demand for Hebrew Bibles was so great that Daniel Bomberg -undertook the great work of publishing the Old Testament, with the -commentaries of Rashi, Ibn-Ezra, Kimchi, Gersonides, and others. The -sale of this rabbinical Bible was so rapid that new editions were -continually appearing. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -THE KABBALA AND MESSIANIC FANATICISM. THE MARRANOS AND THE INQUISITION. - - Internal Condition of Judaism--Division in the Communities-- - The Lack of Interest in Poetry--Historical Studies--Leon - Medigo's "Dialogues of Love"--Supremacy of the Kabbala-- - Messianic Hopes--The Marranos and the Inquisition--Henrique - Nunes--The Traveler David Reubeni in Rome--Solomon Molcho - --His Relations with David Reubeni--Joseph Karo and his - "Maggid"--Clement VII--Molcho in Ancona and Rome--His Favor - with the Cardinals--Death of Molcho--The Enthusiastic Regard in - which he was held--Duarte de Paz--Paul III--Charles V and the - Jews--Emanuel da Costa. - -1500-1538 C.E. - - -It is astonishing, yet not astonishing, that the surging movement, -the convulsive heaving that shook the Christian world from pole to -pole in the first quarter of the sixteenth century scarcely touched -the inner life of the Jews. Whilst among Christians a radical change -took place, in thought, customs, studies, and even in language; -whilst their ancient customs and usages were rejected or put aside in -some places, and in others freshened up; in a word, whilst a new era -started, everything remained unchanged with the Jews. Having had no -"Middle Ages," they needed no new epoch. They needed no regeneration, -they had no immoral course of life to redress, no cankering corruption -to cure, no dam to raise against the insolence and rapacity of their -spiritual guides. They had not so much rubbish to clear away. It must -not be imagined, however, that within the pale of Judaism all was -bright. The refining and civilizing thoughts of Judaism had not yet -gained the upper hand. The people were wanting in spirituality, their -guides in clearness of mind. Reliance on justification by works and -scholastic sophistry were prevalent also among Jews. In the synagogue -service spirituality was missing, and honesty in the world of business. -The ritual retained all received from olden times, and became filled -with unintelligible elements, so that, on the whole, it acquired an -unattractive character. Sermons were unknown in German congregations -and their offshoots; at best, Talmudical discourses, utterly -unintelligible to the people, especially to women, and, therefore, -leaving them cold and uninterested, were delivered. The Spanish and -Portuguese preachers spoke in the beautiful language of their country, -but their sermons were so full of pedantry that they were no more -easily understood by the laity. - -The breaking up of Jewish congregations into national groups was also a -misfortune. The persecution of the Jews had thrown into the large towns -of Italy and Turkey fugitives from the Pyrenees and from Germany, who -failed to unite themselves with the existing congregations, yet did -not amalgamate with each other. There were, therefore, in many towns, -not only Italian, Romanic (Greek), Spanish, Portuguese, German, and, -now and again, Moorish (African) congregations, but of each almost as -many as there were provinces and towns in each country. For example, -in Constantinople, Adrianople, Salonica, Arta (Larta) in Greece, and -many other towns, there was a large variety of congregations, each of -which had its own directors, ritual, rabbi, academy, charities, its -own prejudices and jealousies. In the face of such division, nothing -for the public benefit or general good could be accomplished. The -spiritual leaders, although generally moral, and, as a rule, sincerely -and fervently religious, humbled themselves before the rich members of -their congregation, witnessing insolence and misconduct without daring -to reprove them. - -Worse than this splitting up into tiny congregations was the -faintness, the narrow-mindedness, the self-abasement, not merely of -German Jews, but of the Sephardic exiles. Only when it was necessary -to die for the faith of their fathers did they show themselves heroic -and full of courage; at other times their activity was expended on -petty concerns. No new course was taken, not even at sight of the daily -changes of the Christian world. The few who maintained themselves on -the heights of science kept to the beaten track, served but to level -it still more. The ruling idea was to elucidate old thoughts and old -thinkers, and to write commentaries, yea, even super-commentaries. -The Talmudists explained the Talmud, and the philosophical inquirers -Maimuni's "Guide." Higher flight of fancy and greater spiritual insight -were not possible. No sound of real poetry came from the lips of those -nourished on it, not even a thrilling song of lamentation, putting -their grief into words. The only circumstance testifying to change of -position and times was interest in historical research, and that was -almost entirely confined to the Jews of Pyrenean descent. The endless -suffering which they had endured, they wished to preserve for future -generations. Present misery brought before them the sorrows of early -ages, and showed them that the history of the Jewish race was one long -course of painful martyrdom. - -Otherwise there was nothing new at this period. Freedom of -philosophical inquiry was not favored. Isaac Abrabanel, the transmitter -of the old Spanish Hebrew spirit, found in Maimuni's philosophical -writings many heresies opposed to Judaism, and he condemned the -free-thinking commentators who went beyond tradition. A Portuguese -fugitive, Joseph Jaabez, laid on philosophy the blame for the expulsion -of the Jews from Spain and Portugal. Free-thinking was the sin which -had led Israel astray; thereon must the greatest restriction be laid. - -A fresh spirit breathes in the philosophical work of the talented -Leon Abrabanel, or Medigo. Its title, "Dialogues of Love" (Dialoghi -d'amore), tells the reader that it is not tainted with the insipidity -of commonplace philosophy. No one can better show the elasticity of the -Jewish mind than this scion of the ancient noble family of Abrabanel. -Torn from a comfortable home, thrown into a strange land, leading an -unsettled life in Italy, his heart tortured by gnawing pain for the -living death of his first-born, who had been snatched from him, Leon -Medigo had enough intellectual strength to immerse himself in the -Italian language and literature, and reduce his scattered philosophical -ideas to perfect order. Hardly ten years after his flight from Spain -he might have passed for a learned Italian, rivaling in style the -polished writers of the Medici era, and even excelling them in extent -of learning. With the same pen with which he wrote Hebrew verses to -his son, who was being educated in sham Christianity in Portugal, -admonishing him, "Remain continually mindful of Judaism, cherish the -Hebrew language and literature, and keep ever before thee the grief -of thy father, the pain of thy mother," he wrote his "Dialogues of -Love," the outpourings of Philo's deep love for Sophia. This ostensible -romance is the keynote of Leon Medigo's philosophical system, which -sounds more like a philosophical idyll than a logical system. There -is more imagination than reality, and his reflections are suggestive -rather than true. Possibly Leon Medigo put his deeper thoughts into -a work, now lost, entitled the "Harmony of Heaven." His "Dialogues -of Love" throughout was far removed from Judaism. Leon Medigo paid -high honor to "Hebrew truth," and endeavored to uphold the scriptural -doctrine of creation out of chaos, in opposition to the principles -of Greek philosophy, but he did not penetrate to the true spirit of -Judaism. Therefore his work was valued by Christians more than by -Jews. The Italians were proud to see--it was the first time-- -philosophical thought laid down in their own enthusiastically beloved -language. The work became the favorite reading of the educated class, -and in the space of twenty years went through five editions. - -The Kabbala with its futilities soon took possession of minds no longer -accustomed to strict logical discipline, and in a measure it filled the -void. In the sixteenth century it first began to have sway over men's -minds. Its adversaries were dead, or indisposed to place themselves -in opposition to the ideas of the age, only too strongly inclined to -mysteries, paradoxes and irrational fancies. Sephardic fugitives, -Judah Chayyat, Baruch of Benevento, Abraham Levi, Meir ben Gabbai, -Ibn-Abi Zimra, had brought the Kabbala to Italy and Turkey, and with -extraordinary energy won zealous adherents for it. Also, the enthusiasm -felt for the Kabbala by Christian scholars, such as Egidio de Viterbo, -Reuchlin, Galatino, and others, reacted upon the Jews. The doctrine, -they reasoned, must have some deep truth in it, if it is so sought for -by noble Christians. Preacher-Kabbalists expounded the doctrine from -the pulpit, which had not been done before. On questions of ritual -the Kabbalist writings were consulted, often as final authorities. -No wonder that typical elements of the Zohar crept into the liturgy, -conferring upon it a mystical character. With bold presumption the -Kabbalists asserted that they alone were in possession of the Mosaic -tradition, and that the Talmud and the rabbis must give place to them. -In this way the secret doctrine with its tricks and fancies, which had -hitherto unsettled only some few adepts, became known amongst all the -Jews, and affected the sober minds of the people. The opposition of -the rabbis to this interference in the ritual and religious life was -rather weak, as they themselves were convinced of the sanctity of the -Kabbala, and objected to the innovations only in a faint-hearted way. - -The empty Kabbala could not fail to arouse enthusiasm in empty heads. -With the Zoharist mystics, as with the Essenes, the expectation of the -Messiah was the center of their system. To further the kingdom of the -Messiah, or the kingdom of Heaven, or the kingdom of morality, and to -predict, by means of letters and numbers, the exact time of its advent, -was the labor in which they delighted. Isaac Abrabanel, although he did -not favor the Kabbala, gave this Messianic enthusiasm his countenance. -The accumulated sufferings of the few remaining Spanish and Portuguese -Jews had broken the spirit of many, and robbed them of their hope of -better times. The hopelessness and despair of his people, which, if -they spread, would further the plans of the church, pained the faithful -Isaac Abrabanel, and in order to counteract this dangerous tendency, -he prepared three works, based upon the Bible (principally the Book of -Daniel) and Agadic sayings, which, he believed, proved incontrovertibly -that Israel would have a glorious future, and that a Messiah would -unfailingly come. According to his reckoning, the advent of the Messiah -must of necessity be in the year 1503, 5263 years after the creation -of the world, and the end would come with the fall of Rome, about -twenty-eight years later. - -The support given to Messianic calculations by so thoughtful and -respected a man as Isaac Abrabanel, together with Kabbalistic fancies, -seems to have encouraged an enthusiast to predict the immediate -realization of Messianic ideals. A German, Asher Laemmlein (or Laemmlin), -appeared in Istria, near Venice, proclaiming himself a forerunner of -the Messiah (1502). He announced that if the Jews would show great -repentance, mortification, contrition and charity, the Messiah would -not fail to come in six months. The people's minds, prepared by -suffering and the Kabbalist craze, were susceptible to such convulsive -expectations. Asher Laemmlein gained a troop of adherents, who spread -his prophecies. In Italy and Germany he met with sympathy and belief. -There was much fasting, much praying, much distribution of alms. It -was called the "year of penitence." Everyone prepared himself for the -beginning of the miracle. They counted so surely on redemption and -return to Jerusalem that existing institutions were wilfully destroyed. -The sober and thoughtful did not dare check this wild fanaticism. Even -Christians are said to have believed in Asher Laemmlein's Messianic -prophecy. But the prophet died, or suddenly disappeared, and with him -the extravagant hopes came to an end. - -But with the termination of the Laemmlein "year of penitence," the Jews -by no means lost their hope in the Messiah; it was necessary to support -them in their misery. The Kabbalists did not cease arousing this hope, -ever and anon promising them its wonderful realization. Thirty years -later a more important Messianic movement commenced, which, by reason -of its extent and the persons implicated in it, was most interesting. -The Marranos in Spain and Portugal played the principal part in it. - -These most unfortunate of all unfortunates, who renounced the faith -of their people, who in a measure estranged themselves from their own -hearts, who were compelled to observe church rites most punctiliously, -though they hated them in the depth of their souls, yet despite all -this were repelled by the Inquisition and the hatred of Christians-- -these converts suffered, without exaggeration, the tortures of hell. -The greater portion of them, in spite of all their struggles, could not -bring themselves to love Christianity. How could they feel love for a -creed whose followers daily required the sacrifice of human life, and -on the slightest pretext sought victims among new-Christians? Under -Deza, the second Spanish chief inquisitor, almost greater horrors were -perpetrated than under Torquemada. He and his tools, in particular -Diego Rodriguez Lucero, a pious hangman in Cordova, had committed so -many infamies that a good monk, Peter Martyr, pictured the Inquisition -thirty years after its origin in glaring colors: "The archbishop of -Seville (Deza), Lucero, and Juan de la Fuente have dishonored this -province. Their people acknowledge neither God nor justice. They kill, -steal, and violate women and maidens, to the disgrace of religion. -The injury and unhappiness which these servants of the Inquisition -have caused in my land are so great and widespread that everyone must -grieve." Lucero (the luminous), called by his confederates, on account -of his horrible deeds, Tenebrero (the dark one), brought destruction on -thousands: he was insatiable for the blood of Hebrew martyrs. "Give me -Jews to burn," is said to have been his constant cry. His fanaticism -degenerated into cannibalistic fury. - -The officers of the Inquisition had their hands full in consequence -of his cruelty, and an ominous disturbance was growing in Cordova. -The principal people of the place complained of the proceedings -of the inquisitor Lucero, and applied to the chief inquisitor to -have him removed from office. But Deza was at one with him, and so -the discontented knights, nobles, donnas, priests and nuns, were -all accused of favoring Jewish heresy. The third chief inquisitor, -Ximenes de Cisneros, was forbearing towards old Christians suspected -of Judaizing, but condemned not a few converts of Jewish and Moorish -descent to be burned. It was he who used threatening language against -Charles V, when he proposed granting the Spanish Marranos freedom of -belief for a fee of 800,000 gold crowns. He forbade his royal pupil -to tolerate the Jews, as Torquemada had forbidden it to Charles' -ancestors. His successors were not less orthodox, that is to say, not -less inhuman. Under them the victims were not Jews alone; Christians -suffered with them. The reform movement in Germany was felt also in -Spain. Luther's and Calvin's onslaught on the papacy, on priestcraft -and ceremonies was brought over the Pyrenees through the connection of -Spain and Germany, and owing to the nationality of Emperor Charles V. -The emperor, so troubled with the Reformation in Germany, empowered -the Holy Office to proceed against Lutheran doctrines in Spain, a most -welcome task to the bloodthirsty monster. Henceforth, Jews, Mahometans -and Lutheran Christians enjoyed equality; at every auto-da-fe martyrs -of the three different religions perished together. - -The Marranos in Portugal were differently placed from those in Spain. -King Manoel, who had by force dragged the Jews to the baptismal font, -in order not to drive them to despair had pledged his word that -for twenty (or twenty-nine) years, their faith should not suffer -molestation at the hands of the Inquisition. Relying on this promise -the Portuguese Marranos followed Jewish observances with less secrecy -than those of Spain. In Lisbon, where they mostly resided, they had -a synagogue, in which they assembled, the more regularly as they -outwardly complied with the Roman Catholic rites, and, therefore, in -their own place of worship, with much contrition, implored forgiveness -of God for their idolatry. The old instructed the young in the Bible -and the Talmud, and impressed upon them the truths of Judaism, so -as to guard them against the temptation of unreserved acceptance -of Christianity. The Portuguese Marranos also had more freedom to -emigrate, and left singly or in numbers for Barbary or Italy, and -thence went on to Turkey. To check the emigration of the Marranos -Manoel had issued an order that a Christian could conclude an exchange -or barter with a convert only under pain of forfeiting his possessions, -and could buy real estate from him only by royal permission; moreover, -that no Marrano, with wife, children and servants, should leave the -land without a special license from the king. But orders of this -description were made only to be evaded. Spanish Marranos had every -reason to envy their fellows in Portugal, and spared no trouble to -escape beyond the frontier of the land where the stake was ready, and -the fagots lighted for them. Very naturally the vindictive Spanish -government opposed them, and induced Manoel to pass a law that no -Spaniard could step on Portuguese soil unless he brought a certificate -that he was not guilty of heresy. - -The Portuguese Marranos, then, would have had a tolerable existence -if popular hatred of them had not been so fierce. This unfriendliness -after their baptism shows that they were hated less as followers -of Judaism than as a different race, and an active, industrious, -superior class. The Christians' dislike of them increased when the -converts obtained the right of pursuing a trade, of collecting church -tithes, of taking office, or even accepting ecclesiastical dignities -preparatory to entering one of the orders. At first they showed their -hatred by calling them insulting names, "cursed convert of a Jew" -(_Judaeo Marrano, converso_), till Manoel stopped this by law. Bad -harvests, which for many years had brought famine into Portugal, now -resulted in a plague, and this added fuel to popular animosity. It was -commonly said, "The baptized Jews are grain speculators; they make the -necessaries of life dear, and export grain to foreign countries." The -person most hated was a Marrano upstart, John Rodrigo Mascarenhas, the -farmer of taxes, and through him all the Marranos incurred hatred. - -This feeling was employed by the crafty Dominicans to gain the -expulsion of the favorites of King Manoel. They not only preached about -the godlessness of the converts, but invented a miracle outright -to excite the fanaticism of the people. The moment was opportune. -The plague raged in Portugal, and swept away thousands daily, while -continued drought threatened another bad harvest. Of these troubles, -the Marranos alone were the cause, at least so everybody said. The -Dominicans loudly proclaimed that, in one of their churches, in a -mirror attached to a cross, the Virgin Mary had appeared in a glow of -fire, and other astonishing miracles had been seen in it. They were -practiced in such deceit. Many people flocked to the church to behold -the marvel. On a Sunday after Easter (April 19th, 1506), the church was -filled with devotional gazers, among them Marranos, who were compelled -to attend. - -A Dominican, in a passionate sermon, charged the people collected in -the church to murder the accursed converts, because the king favored -them; and two others, John Mocho and Fratre Bernardo, walked through -the street, bearing crosses, and, crying "Heresy, heresy!" The scum of -the populace in the turbulent capital was aroused, and, together with -German, Dutch and French sailors, took this opportunity to plunder. -Thus nearly 10,000 people went through the town, and killed Marranos, -men, women and children, wherever they found them, in the streets, in -the houses, or in hiding. - -This, however, by no means ended the massacre; it continued two days -longer. A German, who was in Lisbon, reported: "On Monday I saw things -dreadful to say or write if one has not seen them." Women with child -were flung from the windows and caught on spears by those standing -underneath, and their offspring hurled away. The peasantry followed the -example of the townspeople. Many women and girls were violated in this -fanatical chase. The number of new-Christians slain is estimated at -between 2,000 and 4,000. - -By this slaughter the fate of the Portuguese Marranos was decided. The -people were the more embittered against them because they had gained -the favor of the king, and they longed for their extermination. Their -lives hung on the chance of the continuance of the king's favor. Manoel -declared by proclamation (March, 1507) that converts were to be treated -as Christians, and that they should be permitted to emigrate; and by -another order, that for sixteen years more they should not be liable -to be arraigned before a tribunal for their religious conduct. The -Christian population remained hostile to the converts, from racial -antipathy and from envy of their industrial success, and Manoel himself -was compelled to modify his attitude towards them. - -The condition of the Portuguese Marranos changed under Manoel's -successor Joao III (1522-1557), the blockhead who brought about the -ruin of his country. As Infante he had been the declared enemy of the -new-Christians. At first he respected his father's edict to place -converted Jews on a par with Christians, and to allow no trial to -take place regarding their religious belief within the prescribed -time (1522-1524). For this indulgence the Marranos had to thank -the old counselors of Manoel, who remembered the violent mode of -their conversion, and on the other hand appreciated how much they -had increased the prosperity of the little state. For the Marranos -were a most useful class on account of their energy, their wholesale -business, their public banks, and their skill as armorers and cannon -founders. They were the only ones, too, possessed of a knowledge of -medicine and physical science and all pertaining to it. There were in -Portugal hardly any but Jewish, that is to say, Marrano physicians. -When, however, other influences were brought to bear on Joao, and he -gradually freed himself from these wise counselors, his fanatical -detestation of the converts gained the upper hand. Queen Catherine, -a Spanish Infanta, filled with admiration of the religious tribunal -of her country, and the bloodthirsty Dominicans, envious of the power -of their order in Spain, besieged the king with complaints of the -disgraceful and wicked conduct of the Marranos towards the Christian -faith, and urged him to put a stop to the proceedings of the Marranos -by instituting an Inquisition. Joao III thereupon commissioned George -Themudo to inquire into the life of the Marranos in Lisbon, their -headquarters, and to report to him upon it. Themudo was probably not -far from the truth when he informed the king (July, 1524) that some -Marranos observed the Sabbath and the Passover, that, on the other -hand, they joined in Christian rites and ceremonies as little as -possible, were not present at mass and divine service, did not go to -confession, did not ask that extreme unction be administered to the -dying, were buried in unconsecrated ground, not in a churchyard, that -they had no masses said for their departed relatives, and committed -other offenses of a similar character. - -But Joao was not satisfied with Themudo's report; the Marranos were -put under an espionage system. A convert, an emigrant from Spain, -named Henrique Nunes, who afterwards received from the church the -honorary title Firme-Fe, was chosen by the king to spy upon them. In -the school of the bloodthirsty Lucero he had acquired a fierce hatred -of the Marranos, and it was his ardent wish to see the fagots kindled -in Portugal. To him the king gave secret instructions to insinuate -himself into the families of the converts, to associate with them as -a brother and companion in adversity, to observe them and report upon -all the information he could gain. Blinded by fanaticism and hatred -of his own race, Nunes did not consider how contemptible a role, that -of a common spy, was allotted to him. He undertook the work only too -willingly, learned all the secrets of the unhappy Marranos in Lisbon, -Evora and other places, and communicated all that he saw and heard -in letters to the king. He betrayed with a brother's kiss those who -showed him the hidden corners of their hearts. He informed the king not -only that he found no Catholic prayer-books in their houses, that they -had no holy images among their ornaments or on their plate, that they -did not care for rosaries and other things of that kind, but he gave -the names of the Jewish Marranos, making hateful accusations against -them. As soon as Joao received the desired intelligence, he resolved -to introduce the Inquisition on the Spanish model into his country, -and secretly sent the trusty Nunes to Charles V in Spain to learn -something more about it. The Marranos had got wind of this, and were -so furious with the treacherous spy, that two of them followed him to -punish his perfidy with death. These were Diego Vaz, of Olivenca, and -Andre Dias, of Vianna, who were Franciscans, or disguised themselves in -monks' dress. They reached him not far from the Spanish frontier, near -Badajoz, and killed him with sword and spear. They found letters on him -about the installation of the Inquisition. The avengers, or murderers, -as the orthodox Christians called them, were discovered, brought to -trial, stretched on the rack to betray their accomplices, and finally -condemned to the gallows. But the traitor Nunes was regarded as a -martyr, almost canonized, and given the honorary title of "Firme-Fe" -(Firm Believer). - -One would have expected the fanatical king after this occurrence to -pursue with greater zeal his object of establishing an Inquisition, -so as to proceed against the Jewish Marranos whose names he had -obtained from Nunes. The king did, indeed, institute a strict inquiry -to discover the accomplices of the two Marrano monks. Contrary to -expectation Joao issued no restrictions against the Marranos. Also -the inquiry about the conspirators for Nunes' death seems to have -been intentionally protracted as much as possible. Documents plainly -say that the king gave up the plan of establishing the Inquisition. A -chance, the boldness of an adventurer, appears in the first instance to -have brought about this favorable alteration in the mind of the weak, -vacillating king. - -Coming from the far East, and emerging from obscurity, appeared a man -of whom it is hard to say whether he was an impostor or a foolish -fanatic, and whether he intended to play the role of a Messianic or -of a political adventurer, but he caused a great stir among Jews, -affecting the Marranos in the extreme West. David, an Oriental by -descent, long resident in Arabia and Nubia, suddenly appeared in Europe -in a peculiar character, and by means of both fiction and truth started -the wildest hopes. He declared himself a descendant of the old Hebrew -tribe of Reuben, which, he alleged, still flourished in Arabia in -independence, and he claimed to be a prince, the brother of a reigning -Jewish king. He, therefore, called himself David Reubeni. - -Loving travel and adventure, he journeyed much in Arabia, Nubia and -Egypt, and came finally to Italy. The report was that he had been -sent by his brother, who commanded 300,000 chosen warriors, and by -the seventy elders of the land of Chaibar, to the European princes, -especially to the pope, to obtain firearms and cannon with which to -fight the Mahometan people, who hindered the union of the Jewish race -on both sides of the Red Sea, and to assist the brave Jewish army to -drive the Turks out of the Holy Land. - -David Reubeni's appearance and manner were such as to inspire -confidence. In both, there was something strange, mysterious and -eccentric. He was of dark complexion and dwarfish in stature, and -so excessively thin that continuous fasts reduced him almost to a -skeleton. Possessed of courage and intrepidity, he had at the same time -a harsh manner that admitted of no familiarity. He only spoke Hebrew, -and that in so corrupt a jargon that neither Asiatic Jews nor those of -southern Europe understood him. He came to Rome (February, 1524), and -accompanied by a servant and an interpreter, rode on a white horse to -the Vatican, and requested an interview with Cardinal Giulio, in the -presence of other cardinals. Pope Clement also gave him audience, and -accepted his credentials. - -Clement VII (1523-1534), one of the most excellent popes, an -illegitimate scion of the Florentine Medicis, was sensible and kind, -and earnestly desired to see Italy freed from the barbarians, that is, -the Germans. But he reigned at a time when Europe had lost its balance. -On the one side Luther and his Reformation, which gained ground daily, -threatened to undermine the papacy; and on the other, Charles V's -powerful realm, Spain and Germany with Burgundy and a part of America, -almost crushed Italy into servile dependence. If Clement quarreled -with the emperor, the latter favored the Reformation, and set about -restraining the papal power. If the pope became reconciled to him, the -liberty of Italy was menaced. Thus, notwithstanding his firm character, -he was continually wavering, and like most of his contemporaries had -recourse to astrology, in order to learn from the stars what was beyond -the wisdom of men. - -To Pope Clement VII, David Reubeni seems to have handed letters of -introduction from Portuguese captains or business agents, whom he may -have met in Arabia or Nubia. These credentials the pope sent to the -Portuguese court, and when they were there declared trustworthy, David -was treated with the greatest distinction, and received all the honors -due an ambassador. He rode through Rome on a mule, accompanied by -ten Jews and more than two hundred Christians. The plan of a crusade -against Turkey, by which the most dangerous enemy of Christianity would -be driven out of the Holy Land by an Israelitish army, attracted the -pope, because it promised to restore to him the control of military -affairs, but its execution was thwarted by the complexities of his -position. Even the most incredulous of the Jews could not conceal from -themselves the astonishing fact that a Jew was treated with respect -and politeness by the Vatican, and were convinced that there must be -at least a grain of truth in David's report. Roman and foreign Jews -pressed round him who seemed to open a hopeful future to them. Senora -Benvenida Abrabanela, wife of the rich Samuel Abrabanel, sent him great -sums of money from Naples, a costly silk banner embroidered with the -Ten Commandments, and many rich garments. He, however, played his part -in a masterly manner, keeping the Jews at a respectful distance. - -At length a formal invitation came from the king of Portugal, summoning -David Reubeni to his court. The latter left Rome, traveling by sea with -a Jewish flag on his ship. In Almeirin, the residence of king Joao -III near Santarem, where David arrived, like a wealthy prince, with a -numerous retinue bearing beautifully embroidered banners, he was also -treated with the greatest honor, and a scheme was discussed with him -as to how the weapons and cannons could be transported from Portugal -for the Israelite army in Arabia and Nubia. David's appearance in -Portugal seems to have changed the feeling towards the Marranos, and -Joao was persuaded to give up the intended persecution of them. For so -great an undertaking Joao would need their support, their money and -their advice. If he wished for an alliance with the Hebrew king and -people, he must not persecute the half-Jews in his own country. So -his zeal for the establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal suddenly -cooled. One can imagine the astonishment and joy of the Marranos in -Portugal, when they understood that not only might a Jew be admitted -into Portugal, but that he was received at court, and treated with -respect. Thus, then, had come the hour of deliverance of which they -had so long dreamed. Unexpected help had come to them, freedom and -deliverance from their anguish; they breathed again. Whether or not -David Reubeni had declared himself the forerunner of the Messiah, did -not matter to the Marranos; they believed it, and counted the days to -the time when he would make them behold the new Jerusalem in all its -splendor. They pressed round him, kissed his hands, and treated him as -if he were their king. From Portugal the supposed message of salvation -passed to Spain to the still more unfortunate Marranos there, who -received it with ecstasies of joy. These poor people had fallen into a -morbid, eccentric, irresponsible state of mind. Daily and hourly they -suffered torments of soul, through having to join in religious customs -which they abhorred with their whole heart. It was no wonder that -many of them lost their mental balance, and became quite mad. In the -vicinity of Herrara, a Marrano maiden proclaimed herself a prophetess; -fell into trances and had visions; declared that she had seen Moses -and the angels, and promised to lead her suffering companions into the -Holy Land. She found many believers among the Marranos, and when this -was discovered, she was burned together with thirty-eight adherents. -Messianic expectation, that is, redemption through a miracle, made the -atmosphere in which the Marranos breathed and lived. At the news of -the arrival of an ambassador from a Jewish kingdom at the Portuguese -court, a crowd of Spanish converts fled to Portugal to be near their -supposed redeemer. David, who enjoyed the privilege of traveling -about in Portugal, appears to have behaved very circumspectly: he gave -them no promises, and did not encourage them openly to acknowledge -Judaism. He knew well that he was walking on the edge of a precipice, -and that one expression, one act of his directed towards bringing -back new-Christians to Judaism might cost him his life. Nevertheless, -all eyes were fastened on him; all were aroused and excited by the -wonderful events which would certainly come to pass. - -David Reubeni's appearance and the hopes it awakened took strongest -hold upon one noble, talented, handsome youth; indeed, the whole -course of his existence was changed. Diogo Pires (born about 1501, -died a martyr, 1532), whose glowing, poetic imagination under more -favorable circumstances might have accomplished much in the domain -of the beautiful, became a tool in the hands of the self-proclaimed -envoy from Chaibar. Pires, who was born a new-Christian, had acquired -a good education; he understood and could speak Latin, the universal -language of the time. He had risen to be royal secretary at a high -court of justice, and was a great favorite at court. With Hebrew and -rabbinic literature he must have been familiar from his earliest -youth, and he had been initiated into the Kabbala, probably by one of -the Marrano teachers. At the time when David and his chimerical plans -made so much stir in Portugal, Diogo Pires was completely possessed by -wild dreams and visions, all of which had a Messianic background. He -hastened, therefore, to David, to ascertain whether his mission was -in accordance with these visionary revelations. David Reubeni appears -to have treated him with coldness, and to have told him plainly that -his military embassy had nothing to do with Messianic mysticism. But -Diogo Pires fancied the coldness of the alleged envoy to be owing to -the circumstance that he had not accepted the sign of the covenant, -and he forthwith proceeded to undergo the dangerous operation of -circumcision. The consequent loss of blood laid him on a sick bed. -David was highly incensed when Pires told him of this, as both of them -would be in danger, if it came to the king's ears that a Marrano had -so emphatically and openly declared himself a Jew; for it would be -asserted that David had persuaded him to take this course. - -After circumcision Pires (who took the name of Solomon Molcho) had yet -more terrible visions, owing presumably to his bodily weakness. Their -import always had reference to the Marranos and their redemption by -the Messiah. According to his own account a strange being (Maggid), -who communed with him from Heaven in a dream, charged him to leave -Portugal and set out for Turkey. David Reubeni also had advised that -he should leave Portugal with all speed, as the act of circumcision -might involve also David in danger, and frustrate his schemes. Leaving -Portugal cannot, then, have been difficult for Marranos. Diogo Pires -(or Solomon Molcho) reached Turkey, and hoped for a Messianic mission -and a martyr's death. - -A great sensation was made there by this enthusiastic, handsome young -Kabbalist, the new Jewish recruit. At first he gave himself out as a -delegate from David Reubeni, of whose good reception at the papal and -Portuguese courts rumors were current even in the East, and had not -failed to inflame people's imagination. In Salonica, Joseph Taytasak's -Kabbalistic circle took possession of him, and greedily listened to -his dreams and visions. At Adrianople Molcho converted to the Kabbala -the sober-minded Joseph Karo, who had left Spain when a boy, and had -hitherto busied himself entirely with Talmudic learning. Enthusiasm is -infectious. Karo fell into the same Kabbalistic enthusiasm as Molcho. -He also had his dream-prompter (Maggid), who taught him inelegant, -mystical interpretations of Scriptural passages, and revealed the -future. He was so faithful an imitator that, like Molcho, he lived -in the most certain expectation of being burnt at the stake as a -"burnt-sacrifice of a sweet savour unto the Lord." Molcho inoculated -his followers with a longing for martyrdom. His captivating person, -pure enthusiasm, romantic disposition, past career, astonishing -knowledge of the Kabbala (though born a Christian), everything -connected with him, raised up a host of adherents, who greedily -listened to his mystic utterances, and believingly accepted them. -He often preached, and words flowed like a torrent from his lips. -Gray-headed men went with questions to the youth, seeking explanations -of obscure verses of Scripture, or revelations of the future. At the -urgent request of his friends in Salonica he published a brief abstract -of his Kabbalistic sermons, the substance of which was: The advent of -the Messiah is at hand; his reign will begin at the end of the year -5300 dating from the creation (1540). The sack and havoc of Rome (May -5th, 1527), confirmed the Messianic hopes of Kabbalistic zealots. Rome, -the iniquitous Catholic Babylon, filled with the spoils of the whole -earth, was taken by storm by German soldiers, mostly Lutherans, and -was treated almost as a hostile city by order of the Catholic emperor, -Charles V. The fall of Rome, according to Messianic and apocalyptic -principles, had been predicted as a sign of the Messiah's advent. Now -Rome had fallen. In Asia, Turkey, Hungary, Poland, and Germany, hopes -of the coming of the Messiah were stirring in Jewish hearts, and were -associated with the name of Solomon Molcho, who was to bring about -their realization. - -In Spain and Portugal the Marranos held yet more firmly to their -visions of Messianic redemption, and to David Reubeni, whom, with or -without his consent, they took for a forerunner of the Messiah. Their -illusion was so complete that they boldly inaugurated enterprises which -could only end in death for themselves. Several Spanish Marranos, -condemned to the stake, had curiously enough found a place of refuge -in Portugal (in Campo-Mayor), where they were suffered to remain -unmolested. A company of young people from among them ventured to -attack Badajoz, whence they had fled, for the purpose of rescuing some -Marrano women languishing in the Inquisition dungeons. Their irruption -greatly alarmed the inhabitants, but they succeeded in rescuing the -unfortunate victims. The incident made a great stir in both countries, -and led to most prejudicial results for the pseudo-Christians. This -occurrence, as well as the denunciation of several Marranos for -disrespect to an image of the Virgin Mary, again induced the king to -consider the scheme of establishing a court of Inquisition. David -Reubeni's favor with the king of Portugal was of brief duration. He -was at first received by Joao III with extraordinary friendliness, -and often admitted to audience (when conversation was carried on -by means of an Arab and Portuguese interpreter), and received the -distinct promise that eight ships and 4,000 firearms should be placed -at his disposal to enable his brother, the alleged king of Chaibar, -to make war upon the Turks and Arabs, but the king gradually cooled -down. Miguel de Silva, Portuguese ambassador at the papal court while -David was at Rome, had held the alleged Jewish prince of Chaibar -to be an adventurer. He was recalled to Portugal, and opposing the -other councilors, who were deluded by David's daring character, made -strenuous efforts to deprive him of the king's favor. Moreover, the -homage so remarkably and openly offered to him by the Marranos had -roused suspicion concerning him. Miguel de Silva, intrusted with the -commission to establish the Inquisition in Portugal, pointed out -that the king himself, by favoring the alleged Jewish prince, plainly -fortified the Marranos in their unbelief, or adherence to the Jewish -cause. Then came the circumcision and flight of the royal secretary, -Diogo Pires (Solomon Molcho). This occurrence gave great offense at the -Portuguese court, and it was insinuated to the king that David had been -his abettor. - -Thus it came to pass that David Reubeni suddenly received orders -to quit Portugal after he had tarried there and been treated with -distinction for nearly a twelvemonth. Only two months' grace before -embarkation was granted him. The ship that carried him and his retinue -was cast away on the Spanish coast, and David was taken prisoner in -Spain, where he was forced to appear before the Inquisition. However, -before that could take place, Emperor Charles set him free, and David -Reubeni betook himself to Avignon, under papal jurisdiction. As soon -as King Joao broke with David Reubeni, every reason for sparing the -Marranos vanished. The vacillating king was hard-pressed by the queen, -the Dominicans, and some of the nobles, to decide on introducing the -Inquisition. The bishop of Ceuta, Henrique, formerly a Franciscan monk -and a fanatical priest, brought about the decision. In his diocese of -Olivenca five new-Christians were suspected of Jewish practices. He -made short work of them. Without greatly troubling as to whether the -tribunal of the Inquisition was or was not sanctioned by the pope, and -legally established by the king, he prepared stakes and fagots, and -burnt the victims to death, having condemned them without regular trial -(about 1530). The people jubilantly applauded him, and celebrated the -murder of these Jewish-Christians with bull-fights. Far from wishing to -hide his deed, Henrique boasted of it, and pressed the king to commence -in earnest the chastisement of the heretical and sinful new-Christians. -Joao decided to address himself to Pope Clement respecting the -organization of commissions of inquiry in Portugal. - -But there were still some priests left from the previous reign who -loudly raised their voices against this violent treatment of the -Marranos. Two especially deserve to have their names made known to -posterity--Ferdinand Coutinho, bishop of Algarve, and Diogo Pinheiro, -bishop of Funchal. They had been witnesses of the inhuman cruelties -with which, under Manoel, the Jews were driven to baptism, and in no -way could recognize them as Christians, neither when there was question -of punishing them for relapsing into heresy, nor of intrusting them -with judicial power or spiritual benefice. Coutinho, untiring in -ridicule of the mistaken zeal of the younger priests, reminded the -king that Pope Clement VII himself had not long before allowed several -Marranos to acknowledge Judaism openly in the very city of Rome. -This pope, convinced of the injustice shown to new-Christians, with -the consent of the college of cardinals had given them an asylum at -Ancona, permitting them freely to confess themselves Jews. In Florence -and Venice also they could live without molestation. Nay, the papal -consistory itself had given out that the Portuguese Marranos were to -be regarded as Jews. He considered, so Coutinho expressed himself -in his friendly consideration of the question, that instead of the -new-Christians, accused of outraging what Christians hold sacred, -the witnesses ought to be punished for bearing false testimony. The -new-Christians should be won to the true faith only by gentle means. At -length the king decided to submit the question to the pope, who, should -he sanction the establishment of the Inquisition, would at the same -time absolve him from the promises made to the Marranos. The Portuguese -ambassador at Rome, Bras Neto, received orders to obtain a bull to -that effect from the pope. But what so easily, by a stroke of the pen, -had been conceded to Spain, cost the king of Portugal many efforts and -a struggle, and he was never able fully to enjoy his Inquisition. - -Now the weak hand of the amiable Kabbalist Solomon Molcho seized the -spokes of this revolving wheel. From the East he had gone to Italy -to fulfill the Messianic mission with which he was inspired, or with -which he was credited. He wished to speak fearlessly before princes, in -the capital of Christendom, of the approaching redemption. At Ancona, -where he arrived with followers towards the end of 1529, certain -malevolent persons, according to his own story, persecuted him. They -were in fact prudent men, who were informed of his life in the East, -and feared that, as a result of his impetuous striving for martyrdom, -evil consequences would ensue for Jews all over the world, or at least -for the Marranos in Italy, Portugal and Spain. Molcho, when cited, -is understood to have confessed fearlessly that he preferred Judaism -because it taught the truth. The bishop of Ancona discharged him as -one of the Portuguese Marranos to whom freedom of religious confession -had been allowed by the pope and the cardinals, but forbade him to -preach against Christianity. Molcho remained some time at Ancona, -where his preaching became very popular, even priests and Christians -of the higher classes coming to the synagogue. However, he seems to -have compromised himself, and in consequence repaired to Pesaro with -the duke of Urbino, Francesco Maria della Rovere I, who thought a -settlement of Marranos in his little state would be advantageous. But -there was no rest for Molcho; he burnt with impatience to be at Rome -to prepare the way for the coming of the Messiah, though without any -clear conception of what to do. He waited for some prompting from on -high, which, he believed, could not fail him. In obedience to a vision -he abandoned his retinue at Pesaro, and set out alone on horseback -for Rome. At the first sight of the Eternal City his feelings overcame -him, for Molcho, like Luther, held Rome to be the seat of anti-Christ; -he sank into fervent prayer, imploring redemption and forgiveness of -sin for Israel. A voice broke in upon his prayer, predicting in verses -of the Bible, "Edom (Rome) shall be the heritage of Israel, his foot -shall be unsteady, but Israel will gain the victory." In this mood he -entered Rome, and took up his abode at an inn kept by Christians. He -put on a tattered suit, blackened his face, wrapped dirty rags around -his feet, and leaving his horse and clothes at the inn, he took his -stand among the tribe of beggars on the bridge over the Tiber, opposite -the pope's palace. This equipment was in accordance with Messianic -tradition, which had it that the Messiah would tarry amongst the lepers -and ragged beggars of Rome, to be summoned thence to triumph. For -thirty consecutive days the Portuguese enthusiast led this miserable -existence, neither eating meat nor drinking wine, but contenting -himself with the scantiest and poorest fare, and waiting for the -prophetic ecstasy. - -In this condition of bodily tension and mental exaltation, Molcho fell -into a deep sleep, and had a confused dream, noteworthy because part -of it was afterwards fulfilled to the very letter. It was predicted -in this vision that a devastating flood would break over Rome and -a northern country, and his native land be panic-stricken by an -earthquake, that when he himself reached his thirtieth year he would -be raised to a higher degree, and clad in Byssus, because of his own -free will he had devoted himself to death. He would return to Rome, but -leave it again before the flood took place. Then the Holy Spirit, the -spirit of wisdom and understanding, would rest on the Messianic king, -the dead would rise from the dust, and God give His people glory. - -Next morning, enfeebled by his long mortification and his troubled -sleep, Molcho dragged himself back to his inn, and rested. He laid -aside his disguise, and went out to hold converse with Jews (February, -1530). Being still a complete stranger in Rome, and in order to avoid -the denunciation of his opponents, he gave himself out as a messenger -from Solomon Molcho. In spite of this he was recognized, and denounced -to the Inquisition as a seditious Marrano. He had some time previously -entered into intercourse with the pope and some of the cardinals, to -whom he predicted the flood. Clement VII, who for several years had -been drinking of the cup of sorrow, and experiencing humiliations such -as had fallen to the lot of few popes before him, who had been forced -to crown at Bologna his deadly enemy, Charles V, as king of Italy and -emperor of Rome (February 22d-24th, 1530), was but too readily inclined -to listen to dreams and visions. Other unknown relations may have -existed between the pope and Molcho, in consequence of which the latter -was regarded with surprising favor by the pope. Molcho had friends also -among the cardinals. Lorenzo Pucci, for example, grand penitentiary of -the papal see, who had taken Reuchlin's part against the Dominicans, -was attached to him. Hence, while the papal police were lying in wait -for Molcho, at the gates of Rome, he escaped over the walls, and -hastened to the pope, from whom he obtained a pontifical passport that -guaranteed him against harm. - -Furnished with this, Molcho came back secretly to Rome, and one -Saturday suddenly appeared in the chief synagogue, where, to the -astonishment of all present, he preached on a text taken from the -prophetical portion. His adherents in Rome increased so largely that he -preached in the synagogue every Sabbath until autumn, without meeting -with opposition. He inspired his hearers, yet seemed powerless to -disarm his opponents. Molcho was the Jewish Savonarola. He spoke with -unshakable certainty of his visions, and even announced to the king -of Portugal (through the ambassador, Bras Neto) the earthquake which -threatened Lisbon, so that precautionary measures might be taken. -Molcho was himself so firmly convinced that the flood would come to -pass that, when the predicted time approached, he went to Venice. -Molcho and David Reubeni, who meanwhile had returned from Avignon to -Italy, again met face to face. They looked at each other coldly and -with amazement; each expected miracles from the other. Each desired the -other to acknowledge his sublime mission. They were both embarrassed. -Molcho's eyes were opened on this occasion to the true character of his -once-admired master. He no longer believed in Reubeni's ignorance, but -felt convinced that, Talmudic and Kabbalistic learning not being in -keeping with his character as an Arabian prince, it was assumed by him -in order to deceive people. Molcho even recanted his declaration that -he was David's emissary. "Before the God of heaven and earth I proclaim -the truth, that my circumcision and the abandonment of my country were -not counseled by flesh and blood (David), but took place at the express -command of God." Molcho was a deluded enthusiast, whereas David was -an adventurer intentionally deceiving others. After his unsuccessful -attempt to win over the king of Portugal and Charles V to his schemes, -David went to Venice with the purpose of influencing the president of -that republic, which had close relations with the East. Remarkably -enough he found sympathy there; the Venetian senate sent a man well -acquainted with the country to question him respecting his plan and -means of conquest in the East (1530). - -Both Molcho and David were harassed by the more temperate Jews, who -apprehended danger for themselves and their religion. While at Venice -Molcho was poisoned by Jewish hands, and fell into a dangerous illness. - -Meanwhile the inundation of Rome predicted really took place, -transforming the city into a stormy lake, and causing great havoc -(October 8th, 1530). At the same time a brilliant comet appeared, -shooting out rays of light till the heavens seemed about to open. In -Portugal the earth shook thrice, and the earthquake destroyed a number -of houses in Lisbon, many persons being buried beneath the ruins -(January 26th, 1531). - -After the inundation of Rome, Molcho again appeared in that city, -where he was honored as a prophet. The pope, to whom he had predicted -the calamity, seems to have lavished his affections upon him, and he -bestowed public marks of honor upon him. The Portuguese ambassador, -Bras Neto, told him that if the king of Portugal had known how favored -a man in God's sight was Molcho, and how well able to read the future, -he would have permitted him to dwell in his dominions. And this was the -moment when the ambassador received the mandate from his sovereign to -work secretly for a bull from the papal see introducing the Inquisition -against the Marranos! A more unfavorable time could not have been -chosen. The affair was laid for decision before the grand penitentiary, -Cardinal Lorenzo Pucci. But the latter, as well as Pope Clement, -influenced by Solomon Molcho, strongly opposed the proposal from the -beginning. Pucci straightforwardly said to the Portuguese ambassador, -"The king of Portugal, like the king of Spain, is more attracted by the -Marranos' wealth than concerned about the orthodoxy of their creed; -let him rather leave them free to live according to their own law, and -punish only those who, after voluntarily embracing Catholicism, relapse -to the Jewish faith." For the moment Bras Neto was powerless. He even -feared Molcho's influence with the pope, and kept his doings secret, -lest anything come to the ears of the Marranos in Portugal, and they -supply Molcho with money wherewith to bribe the pope's retainers to -work against the establishment of the Inquisition. - -All this time Molcho was untiringly persecuted by his fellow-believers, -more especially by his enemy, Jacob Mantin, the learned but -unscrupulous physician and philologist. This revengeful man came from -Venice to Rome for no other purpose than to cause the ruin of him whom -he gratuitously hated. He took the Portuguese ambassador fairly to -task for allowing a former Portuguese Christian, who preached against -Christianity, to remain at liberty in Rome. As the ambassador would -not listen to him, Mantin carried his complaint to the Inquisition. -He procured witnesses from Portugal who testified that Solomon Molcho -had lived as a Christian in Portugal, and managed to have him cited -before the congregation. Hereupon Molcho exhibited his passport from -the pope, trusting with such support to remain unmolested; but the -Inquisitors tore it from his hands, and betook themselves to the pope, -to whom they represented how indecent it was that he should protect a -scoffer at Christianity. Clement replied that he needed Molcho for a -secret purpose, and requested that he be left undisturbed. When the -Inquisition showed itself inclined to disregard his denunciation, -Mantin raised new points against Molcho. He contrived to get possession -of the letter which some years before Molcho had written from Monastir -to Joseph Taytasak, respecting his past life and his return to Judaism, -translated it into Latin, and laid it before the tribunal. As the -letter undoubtedly contained abuse against Edom, _i.e._, against -Rome and Christianity, the Inquisition was forced to take notice of -it, and Clement also no longer dared set his face against Mantin's -denunciation. The congregation now proceeded with the case, and -sentenced Molcho to be burnt to death. A funeral pile was built up, -and the fagots kindled. People came in crowds to the place to witness -the attractive sight. A wretched victim brought thither in penitential -shroud was thrown without ceremony into the fire. One of the judges -informed the pope that the act of faith had been completed by the -offender's death. The judge and the witnesses of the execution are -said to have felt no small astonishment when Solomon Molcho alive was -encountered in the pope's apartments. - -It seems that Clement, to save his favorite's life, foisted in some one -else, who ascended the scaffold, whilst Solomon Molcho was kept hidden -in the pope's chambers. - -The pope himself communicated this fact to the perplexed judge, -enjoining silence in order that Jews and Christians might not have -fresh fuel to feed their excitement. Solomon Molcho was saved, but he -dared no longer remain in Rome; that was plain even to him, and he -begged the pope to let him go. Escorted by a few faithful servants of -the pope, Solomon Molcho rode out of Rome at night (February or March, -1531). - -After Molcho's departure from Rome, especially after the death of -Cardinal Lorenzo Pucci (August, 1531), a different feeling towards -the Marranos sprang up. A Portuguese agent obtained from the pope, -who was urged thereto by Emperor Charles and the grand penitentiary, -Antonio Pucci, the successor to his uncle, the bull establishing -the Inquisition, so long prayed for (December 17th, 1531), although -Cardinals Egidio de Viterbo, Elias Levita's disciple, and Geronimo -de Ghinucci, had declared against it. As though this mild-tempered -pope were ashamed of allowing his former _proteges_ to be persecuted, -he bracketed the Lutherans with them. He was careful, too, not to -permit the fanatical Dominicans to acquire power over the Marranos. -The king's confessor, a Franciscan, the gentle-minded Diogo de Silva, -was appointed inquisitor general of Portugal. Three tribunals were -established, at Lisbon, Evora, and Coimbra, with the "Constitutions" -of the Spanish courts introduced by Torquemada, and improved, that is, -made severer, by his successors. After the king and the grandees had -withdrawn their protection, the Portuguese Marranos were in a far worse -plight than their Spanish brethren. The populace had long so hated them -that even otherwise upright Christians turned informers, whereas in -Spain spies had to be specially hired for the purpose. - -When the Inquisition began its execrable work many of the Marranos -naturally contemplated leaving the country. But flight was not easy; -it was with them as with their forefathers when they came out of Egypt ---the foe behind, the sea, with all its dangers and terrors, in -front. A law was made (June 14th, 1532) strictly forbidding emigration -to Africa, not even excepting the Portuguese colonies. Captains -were warned, under penalty of death, not to carry Marranos, and all -Christians were prohibited from buying real estate of new-Christians; -these were not permitted to send their goods away to foreign countries, -nor effect exchanges at home. Nevertheless, many of them prepared for -emigration, in order "to flee from the land touched by the poisonous -serpent" (the Inquisition); but before they could even set foot on -board ship, they and their wives and children were seized, and hurried -away to gloomy dungeons, whence they were dragged to the stake. Others -perished in the waves of the sea before they could reach the vessel -which was to bring them to a place of safety. Many were drawn forth -from the most hidden retreats, and burnt to death. Those who escaped -from the claws of this bloodthirsty monster found no relief in strange -lands--they were imprisoned in Flanders, arrested in France, unkindly -received in England. In addition to such torments many lost their -fortunes, and, in consequence, their lives. Those who reached Germany -succumbed in extreme misery on the Alps, leaving wives about to become -mothers, who, on cold and deserted roads, brought forth children, and -endured a new form of misfortune. - -Nevertheless, the Marranos did not intermit their attempts to escape, -but prosecuted them with increased caution. No other way out of their -troubles was left. Appeals to justice and humanity, and the urging of -their chartered rights and privileges, found none but deaf ears in the -cabinet. - -Marranos who escaped to Rome made bitter complaints to Pope Clement -of the inhumanity with which the Inquisition persecuted them and -their brethren, and urged that the king had obtained the bull by -fraud, inasmuch as the facts of the case had not been set before the -papal consistory in a proper light. They especially complained that -emigration was prohibited, in direct opposition to the legal equality -which had been granted. Clement VII, who regretted that he had -issued the bull, to which he had been forced, sympathized with their -grievances. He may have felt, too, that the fires of the Inquisition, -employed against those who were neither Catholics nor willing converts, -branded the Catholic Church, and gave the Lutherans more material to -continue their hostile assaults, to depict it as bloodthirsty and a -just object of hatred. Moreover, he was well aware that the Inquisition -had been introduced into Portugal only because Spain and his arch-foe, -Emperor Charles, desired it, with the object of placing Portugal in an -unequivocally dependent condition. Hence Clement revolved a plan to -revoke the bull. At this time Solomon Molcho and David Reubeni resumed -their mystical activity, and conceived the daring scheme of going to -the emperor at Ratisbon, where the Reichstag was then assembled. With -a floating banner, embroidered with the letters "Machbi" (initials of -the Hebrew words of the verse, "Who is like unto thee among the gods, -O Lord"), they traveled from Bologna, by way of Ferrara and Mantua, to -Ratisbon. Emperor Charles gave them audience, and they probably pleaded -the cause of the Jews earnestly. An unwarranted and improbable report -affirms that they attempted to convert the emperor to the Jewish faith. -But they were not so heedless as to make this attempt. They simply -petitioned the emperor to permit the Marranos to arm themselves, and, -joining the Jewish tribes, attack the Turks. Joslin of Rosheim, who -was also in Ratisbon, vainly warned them not to make this request. The -end was that Charles put them both in chains (June-September, 1532), -and carried them fettered to Mantua. The banner was left at Ratisbon. -An inquisition, at the emperor's wish, was set on foot at Mantua, and -Molcho was condemned to be burnt to death for relapse and heresy. While -the emperor was diverting himself by triumphal processions, festivals, -hunting, plays, and all imaginable merry-makings, the funeral pile -of the Lisbon Marrano was built up, and set on fire. They led him to -the place of execution with a gag in his mouth, for his eloquence -was so powerful and persuasive that emperor and tribunal feared its -effect on the crowd. He was, therefore, forced to keep silence. But -when the executioners were ready to throw him into the blazing fire, -a courier from the emperor arrived, removed the gag, and asked him -in the emperor's name, whether he repented of his transgressions and -was willing to return to the bosom of the church; if so, he should -be pardoned. As might have been expected, Molcho replied that he had -longed to die a martyr, "a burnt-sacrifice, of a sweet savour unto the -Lord," that he repented him of only one thing--that he had been a -Christian in his youth. Come life, come death, he commended his soul -unto God. Then he was thrown into the midst of the flames, and died -with unshaken constancy. - -Molcho was the victim of a phantasmagoria, a delusion, into which, at -feud with reality, he allowed himself to fall. The rich gifts bestowed -on him by nature--a handsome person, glowing imagination, quick -perception, ready enthusiasm--which would have been steps on the -ladder of fortune for any character less fantastical, only served to -ruin him, because, swept into the vortex of the Kabbala, he fondly -hoped to accomplish the work of redemption. David Reubeni had not even -the martyr's crown. Charles carried him to Spain, and cast him into a -dungeon of the Inquisition, in which he was still living three years -afterwards. It appears that he was at length put to death by poison. As -a Jew, the Inquisition had no power over him. But many of the Spanish -Marranos who had had intercourse with him, and whose names he probably -betrayed on the rack, were burnt to death. - -Enthusiasm for Molcho was so great that a mistaken faith was pinned -to him, and various fictions respecting him were invented. In Italy -and Turkey numbers believed that he had on this occasion, as once -before, escaped death. Some said that they had seen him a week after -his auto-da-fe; others gave out that he had visited his bride at -Safet. Joseph Karo, whose name was soon to be widely known, longed for -martyrdom like Molcho's. Even the circumspect Joseph Cohen of Genoa, a -careful historian, averse to belief in miracles, was dazed, and knew -not what to think of the affair. An Italian Kabbalist, Joseph of Arli, -would not abandon the hope that the time of the Messiah, as announced -and prepared by Molcho, would soon dawn on the Jewish world. Molcho's -death, according to him, would soon find avengers. By a childish -transposing of the letters of two verses in Isaiah (Notaricon), he -predicted the downfall of the religion of Jesus from various causes: -Luther's agitation, the many new sects springing up among Christians, -the recent sack of Rome, and the mutually inimical attitude of the pope -and the emperor. - -The Kabbalist of Arli was ill-disposed towards the pope, though -unreasonably so, for he was certainly not guilty of Molcho's death; on -the contrary, the pope had to look on while the emperor, to gain his -own ends, executed one, and imprisoned the other, of his favorites. -However, Clement seems to have made a countermove. He strove to bring -about the revocation of the fatal bull authorizing the institution -of the Inquisition in Portugal, or at least to make it less drastic -in its effects. The Marranos knew this, and made every effort to -win the papal curia to their side. As soon as they understood that -Solomon Molcho, their most successful advocate, was no longer to -be reckoned upon, they sent another envoy to Rome, to bring their -grievances before the pope and defend their cause. This new advocate -of the Marranos, Duarte de Paz, was the very opposite in character -to Molcho: cool-headed, far removed from any extravagance, cunning, -calculating, bold, and eloquent, initiated into all the trickery of -diplomacy, possessing profound knowledge of human nature, and able to -make use of men's foibles for his own ends. Duarte de Paz for nearly -eight years looked after the interests of Portuguese new-Christians. -He was himself of Marrano descent, and as a reward for his services -to the Portuguese court in Africa had obtained an important post and -the confidence of King Joao III. Chosen by the king to perform a -secret mission, and made a knight of the order of Christ (styled also -Commendatore) on the day of his departure, he set out, not for the -appointed place, but for Rome, to work for the Marranos. Duarte de Paz -entwined the threads of his intrigues so intricately that to this day -it is impossible to ascertain exactly whom he deceived, whether the -king or the Marranos. His clients, the Marranos, kept him well supplied -with money, which, for good or evil, was almighty at the pope's court. -Duarte de Paz obtained substantial successes in return for his pains -and his presents. Clement was convinced anew that most atrocious -injustice was done the new-Christians in demanding Catholic orthodoxy -from those who had been dragged with brutal force to be baptized, and -in denying them liberty to journey beyond the confines of Portugal. -The pope issued an apostolical brief (October 17th, 1532) stopping -the proceedings of the Inquisition until further notice. Duarte de -Paz continued his efforts in order to procure a general pardon for -all Marranos denounced or imprisoned. It appears that intrigues were -set on foot in favor of the Marranos even at the court of Joao III. -The party in favor of the Inquisition worked for Spanish interests, -and, in view of the probability of the king's remaining without issue, -was eagerly bent on making the Portuguese crown one with the Spanish. -On the other side, the national party, which sought to preserve the -independence of Portugal, seems to have been against the Inquisition. -Hence plotting and counter-plotting continued for several years to -such an extent, that the inquisitor general, Diogo de Silva (appointed -by the pope himself), declared that he would not undertake so great -a responsibility, and resigned his office. Duarte de Paz obtained a -second extraordinarily important brief from Pope Clement. The pope -recognized as fair and legitimate the reasons urged by new-Christians -to justify their lack of attachment to the church. - - "Since they were dragged by force to be baptized, they cannot - be considered members of the church, and to punish them for - heresy and relapse were to violate the principles of justice - and equity. With sons and daughters of the first Marranos the - case is different, they belong to the church as voluntary - members. But, as they have been brought up by their relatives - in the midst of Judaism, and have had their example continually - before their eyes, it would be cruel to punish them according - to the canonical law for falling into Jewish ways and beliefs; - they must be kept in the bosom of the church through gentle - treatment." - -By this brief Clement VII abrogated the power of the Portuguese -Inquisition, ordered that denunciation of Marranos should be carried -before his own tribunal, and granted to all a thorough absolution or -amnesty for past defection from the church. Those languishing in the -dungeons of the Inquisition were to be set free, the banished allowed -to return, and those robbed of their goods to have them restored. -Clement declared, with the peculiar untruthfulness of the papacy, -from which even the best popes were unable to free themselves, that -he had issued this brief of his own accord, without the suggestion of -the Marranos, although the whole world knew the contrary, and counted -up how many scudi the see had received for the letter. Clement also -declared all who should resist this brief, clergy as well as laity, to -be under the ban, and urgently pressed his envoy, Marco della Ruvere, -to make it known throughout Portugal. To do Pope Clement VII justice, -it must be said that he steadfastly defended the cause of humanity -towards the unhappy Marranos against the bloodthirsty spirit of the -Christianity of his time, though it must be admitted that other and not -quite pure motives may have conduced to his action--viz., hatred of -Charles V, who upheld the proposal for a Portuguese Inquisition, and -greed for the sums of money paid him and his retainers. The thought of -delivering the Marranos to the tender mercies of those bloody-minded -wretches in Portugal was not to be lightly endured. Although the -question had been thoroughly discussed, Clement appointed a commission, -consisting of the two neutral cardinals, De Cesis and Campeggio, to -consider the matter once more. The grand penitentiary, Antonio Pucci, -Cardinal de Santiquatro, could not be excluded, although a partisan -of the Portuguese court. Nevertheless, this commission officially -attested the perpetration of devilish atrocities by the Inquisition -against pseudo-Christians. In consequence of their report, Clement VII -(July 26th, 1534), feeling that his end was near, issued a brief to the -nuncio at the Portuguese court to press the release and absolution of -imprisoned Marranos. There were about twelve hundred of them, and it -may be doubted whether this brief effected their deliverance. Clement's -death (September 25th, 1534) brought to naught his good intentions and -the Marranos' hopes. - -Intrigues concerning the Inquisition were woven anew under his -successor, Paul III Farnese (1534-1549), at first to the prejudice -of the Marranos, though this pope belonged to the old school of -worldly-minded, diplomatic, by no means bigoted princes of the church. -He was a subtle schemer, and paid more attention to earthly than to -heavenly powers. Paul III was specially well-disposed to Jews. If a -description by a narrow-minded bishop (Sadolet of Carpentras) is true -only to a small extent, it still proves that this friendliness must -have been remarkable. "No pope has ever bestowed on Christians so many -honors, such privileges and concessions as Paul III has given to the -Jews. They are not only assisted, but positively armed with benefits -and prerogatives." Paul III had a Jewish physician in ordinary, Jacob -Mantin, who dedicated some of his works to him. - -As soon as Paul III had ascended the papal chair, the king of Portugal -deemed it most important to procure a revocation of Clement's bulls -and briefs in favor of the Marranos, and opposed to the Inquisition. -But Duarte de Paz, the Marranos' advocate, who had been given an aid -in Diogo Rodrigues Pinto, spared no effort to oppose the contemplated -change of policy. Gold also was not wanting. Duarte de Paz, although -apparently engaged in a traitorous correspondence with the king, Don -Joao, offered Cardinal Santiquatro, the partisan of Portugal, a yearly -pension of 800 crusados, if he would give his support to the Marranos. -The pope, diplomatically cautious as he was, and disinclined to bind -himself, decided at first (November 3d, 1534), that Clement's brief -should not be promulgated. But when he learned that it had already -taken effect, he ordered the case to be again considered, and for -that purpose named two cardinals, Ghinucci and Simoneta, of whom the -first decidedly favored the Marranos, having published a work in -their defense. The result of their investigation was that Paul III -emphatically admonished the Portuguese court to obey Clement VII's -bull of absolution. He was decidedly opposed to the imprisonment of -Marranos in inaccessible dungeons and against the confiscation of -their property. But the Catholic kings of that day showed obedience -to the papal see only as long as it suited them and their interest; -so Joao III paid but small heed to the pope's admonition. His envoy -even advised him, in order to carry on the Inquisition, to cut himself -adrift from the Romish Church as England had done. A complete web of -intrigues was spun over this affair in Rome and Portugal. In Portugal -the court was on the one side, and the Marrano leaders, Thome Sarrao -and Manuel Mendes, with the papal legate on the other--at Rome, -Duarte de Paz and Pinto, against or with the Portuguese ambassador and -against Cardinal Santiquatro. - -Disgusted and wearied, Paul III, who did not readily give up an -intention once formed, issued a new, decisive bull (October 2d, 1535), -giving absolution to the Marranos, and protecting them against all -clerical and civil penalties for relapse and heresy, provided that they -would not be guilty of similar offenses in future. The Inquisition in -Portugal, which for the sake of appearance could not proceed without -the authorization of the pope, was once again arrested. The nuncio set -to work energetically, made the bull known throughout Portugal, and -carried matters so far, that even the inimically disposed Infante Don -Alfonso opened the prison doors to free those whose release was so -pressingly recommended by Rome. Altogether there were eighteen hundred -Marranos liberated (December, 1535). - -At first dazed as by a sudden blow, the Portuguese court later on set -every lever in motion once more to obtain sovereign power over the -Marranos and their property. It did not shrink from assassination to -gain its ends. One day Duarte de Paz was attacked on the high road by -assassins, and left lying there for dead, covered with fourteen wounds -(January, 1536). All Rome believed the murderers to be hirelings of the -Portuguese court. The pope was greatly provoked at this crime, and sent -physicians to pay every attention to the procurator, who eventually -recovered. Nevertheless, with respect to the Inquisition, the pope -had to comply with the wishes of the Portuguese court, which had at -last found out the right way to reach its goal. It had recourse to the -victorious Charles V, urgently requesting him to manage the affair. -Just at that time the emperor had fought a hard battle near Tunis with -the Mahometan Barbarossa, who, supported by Turkey, had disquieted all -Christendom. After many struggles, the numerous host of Christians, led -by Charles himself, gained the day, and Barbarossa was defeated. - -When Charles arrived in Rome after a triumphal progress through Italy, -he asked the pope, as a reward of his victory for Christianity, to -authorize the Inquisition in Portugal. Paul III did not yield without -a struggle. He always returned to the contention that the Portuguese -Marranos were originally dragged by force to be baptized, and that, -therefore, the sacrament had no hold upon them. - -Unfortunately for the Marranos, their means for satisfying the -greed of the papal court for gold were exhausted. Their advocate, -Duarte de Paz, had promised exorbitant sums for the frustration of -the Inquisition, and had misappropriated to his own use part of the -money intrusted to him. The pseudo-Christians thus found themselves -obliged, when pressed for payment by the papal nuncio, to declare -that they were not in a position to redeem the exaggerated promises -of Duarte de Paz. Moreover, this commerce between the nuncio and -Marranos was betrayed, and the latter had to exercise yet greater -caution. Hence interest in the Marranos gradually cooled down at the -pope's court. As the emperor put increasing pressure on Paul III to -authorize the Inquisition in Portugal, the pope at last sanctioned -the tribunal for the Portuguese dominions (May 23d, 1536). The pope, -friend of the Jews as he was, granted his sanction with a heavy heart, -forced thereto by pressure from the emperor. He added all sorts of -restrictions, that for the first three years the method of procedure -in current civil courts must be adhered to, _i.e._, open confrontment -with witnesses--at least as regarded that class of Marranos which -was not greatly esteemed--and that the confiscation of condemned -Marranos' goods should take place only after the expiration of ten -years. Personally, the pope recommended gentle measures in dealing -with pseudo-Christians. Don Joao's joy at the ultimate fulfillment of -his heart's desire was so great that he accepted the conditions. But -the concession was only a pretense; in reality, the same rigor was -employed against the Portuguese Marranos as against the Spanish. The -admonition published by the Inquisition, that it was everyone's duty, -under penalty of excommunication or a yet more severe punishment, to -denounce any Jewish observances or expressions of the new-Christians, -differed in no respect from that published by the first bloodthirsty -Spanish inquisitor, Torquemada. In November of the same year, after the -expiration of the thirty so-called days of grace, the bloody tribunal -began its revolting and abominable activity, once again outraging and -dishonoring human nature. The Portuguese Inquisition was conducted -with almost more cruelty than the Spanish, because, on the one hand, -its introduction had cost so much trouble, and the public mind was -thereby embittered; on the other, because the Portuguese Marranos were -more steadfast than their Spanish brethren, and finally, because the -common people supported the Inquisition, and took part against the -new-Christians. Joao III even made them wear a distinguishing mark to -separate them visibly from other Christians. - -They did not, however, accept their defeat inactively, but rather -set to work with all imaginable energy to bring about a revocation -of the bull. The most subtle intrigues were again commenced at the -papal court. Duarte de Paz once more displayed his diplomatic skill. -The Marranos raised complaints of the cruel dealings of the judges, -who neglected to obey the pope's instructions. More especially they -complained that liberty to emigrate and dispose of their real estate -was still denied them. - -In a memorial to the pope they ventured on almost threatening language: - - "If your Holiness despises the prayers and tears of the Hebrew - race, or despite our hopes, refuses to redress our grievances, - as would beseem the vicar of Christ, then we protest before - God, and with tears and cries that shall be heard afar off - will we protest in the face of the universe, that our lives, - our honor, our children, who are our blood, our very salvation - made the butt of persecution, we will nevertheless try to hold - ourselves aloof from the Jewish faith; but if tyranny ceases - not, we will do what no one of us would else think of, _i. e._, - return to the religion of Moses, and abjure Christianity, which - we are made to accept by main force. We solemnly cry aloud that - we are victims, by the right which that fact gives us--a - right which your Holiness recognizes. Leaving our native land, - we will seek protection among less cruel peoples." - -The nuncio who had returned from Portugal, knowing by long years of -experience the position of men and affairs, managed to convince the -pope that his sanction of the Inquisition was a mistake, and as Paul -III had only given way to momentary pressure, a change of sentiment -soon followed, and he repented the step he had taken. He went so far -as again to submit his bull to a committee which was to examine its -legality. To this commission the Marranos' friend, Cardinal Ghinucci, -was elected along with another of like mind, Jacobacio. They contrived -to prejudice the third member, the honest but narrow-minded Cardinal -Simoneta, against the Inquisition, so that he begged the pope to -right matters by the revocation of his former bull. Another nuncio -was sent to Portugal, with authority within certain limits to nullify -the proceedings of the Inquisition against the Marranos, to protect -the latter, and particularly to render easier their emigration from -Portugal. The pope sent a brief (dated August, 1537) after the nuncio, -empowering and, to some extent, encouraging all to give protection and -assistance to the accused Marranos--in fact, to do exactly what in -Portugal was held to be conniving at and participating in heresy. The -king must have been considerably puzzled. Here he was at length in -possession of a bull, a tribunal, a grand inquisitor and his colleagues ---the whole apparatus of a slaughter-house for the glory of God--and -he might just as well have had nothing at all. - -An incident again turned the chances of the game in favor of the king -and the fanatics. One day (February, 1539) a placard was discovered -fastened on the door of the Lisbon Cathedral: "The Messiah has not yet -appeared--Jesus was not the Messiah, and Christianity is a lie." All -Portugal was indignant at such blasphemy, and a strict investigation -was set on foot to find out the offender. The king offered a reward -of 10,000 crusados (ducats). The nuncio also offered 5,000 crusados, -as he, with many others, was of opinion that this was a blow from -some enemy of the Marranos, designed to excite the king's fanaticism -to a higher degree, and to get the nuncio into trouble. To turn aside -suspicion the new-Christians posted a notice on the same place--"I, -the author, am neither a Spaniard nor a Portuguese, but an Englishman, -and though you raise your reward to 20,000 crusados, you will not find -me out." After all, the writer turned out to be a Marrano, one Emanuel -da Costa. He confessed everything when cited before the Inquisition. -The civil court then took him in hand, and put him on the rack to -make him name his accomplices. Finally, after both hands had been cut -off, he was burnt to death. The Marranos foresaw evil consequences -for themselves, and took to flight. The king made the best of this -opportunity to enforce the rules of the Inquisition with increased -severity and bloodthirstiness, and to thwart the nuncio's efforts. -The maddest fanatics were at once elected inquisitors, to the great -anger of the pope and his nuncio. Joao Soares, whom the pope himself -once described as "not a learned, but a most daring and ambitious, -monk, with opinions and ideas of the very worst kind, who takes pride -in his enmity to the apostolic see," was now given unbounded power -over the lives of the new-Christians, and his colleague was Mallo, an -arch-foe of the new-Christians. For the Marranos the state of affairs -grew worse every day. On three points the pope showed immovable -firmness: the Infante Don Henrique must not remain grand inquisitor; -Marranos accused of heresy should have the witnesses' (that is, their -accusers') names announced to them; finally, after sentence is passed -they should be allowed recourse to the papal court of appeals. Indeed, -Paul III caused a new bull to be drawn up (October 12th, 1539)--a -supplement of that issued three years before--which throughout was of -a favorable tenor to new-Christians, and would completely have crippled -the Inquisition. But this likewise remained a dead letter. After this, -fires for the obstinate heretics were kindled more frequently than -ever, and more victims were sacrificed (from ten to forty a year) -without permitting them to appeal to the pope. The denounced and -suspected Marranos filled the prisons. - -A contemporary poet, Samuel Usque, gives a dreadful picture of -the tortures of the Portuguese Inquisition, which he himself had -experienced in his youth: - - "Its institution deprived the Jews of peace of mind, filled - their souls with pain and grief, and drew them forth from the - comforts of home into gloomy dungeons, where they dwelt amid - torment and sighs of anguish. It (the Inquisition) flings - the halter round their necks, and drags them to the flames; - through its decrees they must see their sons murdered, husbands - burnt to death, and brothers robbed of life; must see their - children made orphans, the number of widows increased, the rich - made poor, the mighty brought low, the nobly born transformed - into highway robbers, chaste, modest women housed in lewd, - ignominious dwellings, through the poverty and desertion in its - wake. It has burnt numbers to death, not one by one, but by - thirties, by fifties at a time. Not content with mere burning - and destroying, it leads Christians to boast of such deeds, to - rejoice when their eyes behold the members of my body (the sons - of Jacob) burning to death in the flames, kindled with fagots - dragged from afar on men's shoulders. Those baptized against - their will, steal about overpowered with fear of this savage - monster (the Inquisition); they turn their eyes on every side - lest it seize them. With ill-assured hearts they pass to and - fro, trembling like a leaf, terror strikes them suddenly, and - they stay their steps lest it take them captive. When they sit - down together to eat, every morsel is lifted to their mouths in - anguish. The hour that brings repose to all other beings only - increases their anxiety and exhaustion. At times of marriage - and the birth of children, joy and feasting are turned into - mourning and disquietude of soul. In fine, there is no moment - not paid for by a thousand deadly fears. For it suffices not - that they make themselves known as Christians by outward signs. - Fire rages in their hearts, their tortures are innumerable." - -Is this an exaggerated description? Did the poet's imagination -transform petty sufferings into the pains of martyrdom? Every word of -it is corroborated by an assembly of cardinals, officially gathered to -investigate the proceedings of the Portuguese Inquisition against the -Marranos. - - "When a pseudo-Christian is denounced--often by false - witnesses--the inquisitors drag him away to a dismal retreat - where he is allowed no sight of heaven or earth, and least - of all to speak with his friends, who might succor him. They - accuse him on obscure testimony, and inform him neither of the - time nor the place where he committed the offense for which he - is denounced. Later on he is allowed an advocate, who often, - instead of defending his cause, helps him on the road to the - stake. Let an unfortunate creature acknowledge himself a true - believing Christian, and firmly deny the transgressions laid - to his charge, they condemn him to the flames, and confiscate - his goods. Let him plead guilty to such and such a deed, though - unintentionally committed, they treat him in a similar manner - under the pretense that he obstinately denies his wicked - intentions. Let him freely and fully admit what he is accused - of, he is reduced to extremest necessity, and condemned to the - dungeon's never-lifting gloom. And this they call treating the - accused with mercy and compassion and Christian charity! Even - he who succeeds in clearly proving his innocence is condemned - to pay a fine, so that it may not be said that he was arrested - without cause. The accused who are held prisoners are racked by - every instrument of torture to admit the accusations against - them. Many die in prison, and those who are set free, with all - their relatives bear a brand of eternal infamy." - -As the Inquisition grew more and more severe and bloodthirsty, the -Portuguese new-Christians clung with increasing tenacity to the last -anchor of hope left--to the pope and their other protectors. They -had found a new advocate and mediator, who gave promise of being more -honest and energetically active on their behalf. The battle between -the Portuguese court and the papal see blazed up afresh. It was war to -the death, not for those immediately concerned, but for the miserable -beings who, in spite of self-repression, could not become reconciled -to Christianity, yet were not courageous enough to suffer for Judaism ---who would give up neither convictions, wealth, nor position. To -influence the pope, or at least those about his person against the -Marranos, the Infante and grand inquisitor Henrique had a list of -the delinquencies of the new-Christians made out and sent to Rome -(February, 1542). The Marranos, also, to wrest the weapons from their -opponents' hands, in Rome and elsewhere, and for all times to refute -the lying reports and statements of the Portuguese court, drew up a -bulky memorial (1544), detailing their troubled lot, from the time of -King Joao II and Manoel, who forced them to accept Christianity, until -the most recent times, and verifying their statements by documentary -evidence--a monument of everlasting disgrace to that age. - -Yet these reciprocal indictments led to no settlement. At length, -when they saw that nothing would stop the execrable activity of the -Inquisition now it had once been called into existence, the pope and -the Marranos felt how extremely important it was for them to secure at -least two concessions. First, free right of emigration from Portugal -for new-Christians; second, a general absolution (Perdao) for those -already denounced or imprisoned, provided they would promise to give up -their Jewish creed and remain good Christians in the future. But these -were the very points on which the king and the Dominicans would not -yield. As though in defiance of the pope, the king issued an ordinance -(July 15th, 1547), that for three years longer no new-Christian might -leave Portugal without express permission or payment of a large sum of -money. - -Paul III felt himself crippled. He might shudder at the cruelties of -the Portuguese Inquisition--the vast sums which the Marranos spent on -him and his sycophants might be ever so much needed to aid in carrying -out his policy in Italy and in prosecuting war against the Protestants, -yet he dared not show too stern a determination to thwart the court at -Lisbon. He, too, was in the power of Catholic fanatics. To fight the -Protestant heretics and reinstate the papal dignity, he had authorized -the institution of the order of Jesuits (1540), who inscribed their -banner with the watchword of the church militant. He had agreed to -the proposition of the fanatical Pietro Caraffa for an Inquisition at -Rome (1542). Loyola and Caraffa now lorded it over Rome, and the pope -was only their tool. Moreover, the council of Trent was to be convened -to settle the standard of faith, whereby the Protestants were to be -humbled, and their influence crushed. Paul III needed ardent fanatical -helpers to keep the lukewarm up to the mark. Such men only Spain -and Portugal could furnish. In Portugal the most friendly reception -had been accorded the Jesuits. Thus the pope could offer only mild -opposition to the Portuguese court, and proffer requests where he -should have given orders. - -At the council, Bishop Balthasar Limpo was a worthy representative of -the fanatical king of Portugal, and dared use language against the -pope which should have shown him clearly that he was no longer master -in his own house. The bishop vehemently asked Paul III to sanction the -Inquisition against relapsed new-Christians irrevocably, and censured -his sympathy with them. He justly remarked: - - "As Christians, and under Christian names, they leave Portugal - by stealth, and take with them their children, whom they - themselves have carried to be baptized. As soon as they reach - Italy they give themselves out for Jews, live according to - Jewish ordinances, and circumcise their children. This takes - place under the eye of the pope and the papal see, within - the walls of Rome and Bologna, and it happens because his - Holiness has granted to heretics the privilege that in Ancona - no one may molest them on account of their belief. Under these - circumstances it is impossible for the king to grant them the - right of free departure from the land. Perhaps his Holiness - asks it in order that they may settle in his states as Jews, - and the papal see derive advantage in that way. Instead of - hindering the establishment of the Inquisition in Portugal, it - should have been his Holiness' duty to have introduced it long - since into his own dominions." - -The pope could have given answer to such an harangue, had he possessed -a clear conscience, and in very deed and truth preached Christianity as -a religion of gentleness and humanity. But since he had need of blind -fanaticism to keep up obstinate warfare with Protestantism, and on -the outbreak of the war against the latter had issued the murderous -bull ("Of the cross"), wherein Catholics, in the name of the vicar of -Christ, were called upon to "smite the Protestants to death," he could -make no reply when Limpo spoke. He was caught in his own trap. Yet, he -tried to save one thing, the Marranos' free right of emigration from -Portugal; on this condition he would give way to the Portuguese court. -But new-Christians wishing to depart from the land would be required to -give security that they would not emigrate to infidel countries, such -as Turkey or Africa. To this also Bishop Limpo gave a convincing reply: - - "Does it, then, make any difference whether these heretics - take refuge under infidel governments, or come to Italy? At - Ancona, Ferrara, or Venice, they are circumcised, and then - go on to Turkey. They have papal privileges, forsooth, so - that nobody dare ask them if peradventure they are Jews! They - wear no distinguishing marks, and can go undisguised and free - whithersoever they like, can observe their ceremonies, and - attend their synagogues. Oh, how many attend these who were - baptized in their youth in Portugal, or were condemned to - death, or burnt in effigy! Give them free right of emigration, - let them set foot in the land of the infidel, and they can - openly confess themselves as Jews. The king will never allow, - no theologian--do I say theologian?--no simple Christian - could advise such a thing. Instead of his Holiness' exerting - himself to insure the safety of the secret Jews, let him - increase the number of Inquisitions in his own states, and - punish not alone Lutheran heretics, but Jewish heretics also, - who seek refuge and protection in Italy." - -Yet another circumstance compelled Paul III to show a yielding -disposition. Charles V, inspired thereto by his victory over the -Protestants (April, 1547), sought to set himself above the papacy, -and would have liked to see a new ritual established, agreeable to -Protestants as well as to Catholics. This was tantamount to declaring -war against the pope. The latter was, therefore, forced to break -with the emperor, and that he might not stand unsupported against so -powerful a foe, Portugal and the central Catholic states had to be won -over to his side. To conciliate Portugal he sent thither a special -commissary provided with bulls and briefs, wherein he partially -sanctioned the Inquisition, though requesting that it be used with -mildness. Above all, however, new-Christians accused of heresy and -so-called relapse were not to be sentenced, for the present, but to -be made answerable for their conduct in the future. Even then, for -the first ten years, the property of relapsed heretics was not to be -touched, but to descend to their heirs. He consented to the restriction -of Marrano emigration, so strenuously insisted upon by the Portuguese -court. - -Prisons of the Inquisition at Lisbon, Evora, and other cities were -thrown open in obedience to the pope's general absolution for -new-Christians, and eighteen hundred set at liberty (July, 1548). -Soon after this all the Marranos were called together, and forced to -abjure their Judaizing tendencies. From that moment only were they -recognized as complete Christians, and liable to be punished in case -of heretical transgression. The pope, in a brief, desired the king to -see that the tribunals deal mercifully even with the heretics, since -they fulfilled Jewish observances only from habit. Thus, throughout his -life, Pope Paul III took the part of the Marranos. Nevertheless, they -fell victims to their tragic fate. It was cruel injustice to demand an -open confession of Catholicism from them, when they protested against -it with all their hearts, and then to punish them when detected in -the performance of Jewish rites or ceremonies. On the other hand, the -state could never allow a whole class of the population outwardly -belonging to the church to be left in a certain sense free to hold -the church in derision. Justice certainly demanded that the Marranos -should have liberty of choice either to emigrate or confess themselves -genuine members of the church. But, as the court acknowledged, their -loss meant ruin to the state, for the Marranos of Jewish descent formed -the most profitable class of the city population. Their capital and -far-reaching business transactions increased the revenue, caused a -general circulation of money, and made raw materials imported from -the Indian and African colonies available. Without them the wealth -of the whole country would be capital idly and unprofitably stored. -Marranos were also the only artisans, and on them depended industrial -prosperity. Plainly, the state could not afford to lose them, and, -therefore, the king tried to turn them into good Christians by the -terrors of the Inquisition, so as to keep a certain hold on the profit -and utility of their presence. He labored in vain. Every year fresh -victims perished at the stake; yet the survivors did not become more -faithful believers. The Portuguese court, unlike the Spanish, never -derived enjoyment from the Inquisition. Portuguese new-Christians, -in spite of their confession, were not yet true Christians, on whom -the penalty of heresy could legally, according to canonical laws, be -inflicted by the Inquisition. After Paul's death, (November, 1549), -Julius III was petitioned to give absolution to the Marranos. Even the -succeeding popes, who favored reaction and persecution, allowed the -Portuguese Inquisition to continue more as an accomplished fact than -as a legal institution. Half a century later, a pope (Clement VIII) -condemned the judicial murders of the Inquisition, and once more issued -a general amnesty for condemned Marranos. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -STRIVINGS OF EASTERN JEWS FOR UNITY. SUFFERING IN THE WEST. - - Efforts towards Unity--Jacob Berab proposes the Re-introduction - of Rabbinical Ordination into Palestine--Successful - Opposition of Levi ben Chabib--Joseph Karo--His Connection - with Solomon Molcho and his Messianic Visions--Karo's - Religious Code--Converts to Judaism at the Era of the - Reformation--Expulsion of the Jews from Naples and Prague-- - Their Return to the latter Town--Dr. Eck--Martin Luther and - the Jews--Moses Hamon--Jewish Histories by Joseph Cohen, - the Ibn-Vergas, and Samuel Usque--Elegy of Samuel Usque-- - Reaction in the Catholic Church: Loyola establishes the - Order of Jesuits--The Censorship of Books--Eliano Romano and - Vittorio Eliano--Fresh Attacks on the Talmud--Paul IV and - his anti-Jewish Bulls--Persecution of the Marranos by the - Inquisition in Ancona--Joseph Nassi--The Levantine Jews-- - Expulsion of the Jews from Austria and Bohemia--Relations of - Popes Pius IV and V to the Jews. - -1538-1566 C.E. - - -Every fresh column of smoke rising from the fires of the Inquisition -in Spain and Portugal drove Marranos, singly or in groups, far away -to the East, to Turkey, beyond the shadow of the cross. They no -longer felt safe even in Italy, since the popes, against their own -higher convictions, allowed themselves to be overborne concerning -the Inquisition. In Turkey a little Jewish world was thus by degrees -formed, on which even the sultan's despotic rule did not encroach, -however much individuals might be exposed to arbitrary treatment. Here, -as in Palestine, where numbers and prosperity had raised them in their -own estimation, they could indulge in dreams of obtaining some degree -of independence, might strive for national and religious unity, and -hope to realize their wild Messianic fancies. The career of the Mantuan -martyr, Solomon Molcho, did not fail to leave an impression; his words -echoed in the ears of his brethren. At Safet, the largest congregation -in Palestine, where he had made a long stay, forming intimate -relations and awakening hopes, the fulfillment of his Messianic -predictions was looked for even after his death. The completion of -the round number 5300 from the creation of the world (1540) seemed to -be a suitable year for the coming of the Messiah. But the Messianic -period, according to then prevailing ideas, would not come suddenly; -the Israelites had to do their part in preparing the way. Maimuni, -the highest authority, had taught that the Messianic time would or -must be preceded by the establishment of a universally recognized -Jewish court of justice, or Synhedrion. Hence the necessity was felt -of having authorized and duly appointed judges, such as existed at the -time of the Temple and the Talmud in Palestine, of re-introducing, in -fact, the long-disused ordination (Semichah). There was no hindrance -to be feared from the Turkish state. As it was, the rabbis had their -own civil and even criminal jurisdiction; but these rabbis (who were -also judges), being appointed by the community, had not the warrant of -authority required by Talmudic rules. Obedience was given them, but -they also met with opposition. Authority was conventional, not built -on the foundation of Talmudic Judaism. No unity of legislation and -exposition of the Law was possible while every rabbi was absolute in -his own congregation, not subject to some higher authority. It was, -therefore, a need of the times to create a sort of religious supreme -court, and where should that be done but in Palestine? The sacred -memories connected with that country could alone lend the dignity of -a Synhedrion to a college of rabbis. Teaching that was to meet with -universal acceptance could proceed from Zion alone, and the word of God -only from Jerusalem. - -How excellent and necessary it was to re-introduce the ordination of -rabbis by a higher authority had been discussed by many, but only -one, the acute-minded but obstinate and daring Jacob Berab, had the -energy to set about doing the thing. After much journeying from Egypt -to Jerusalem, and thence to Damascus, Berab, in his old age, settled -at Safet. He was in good circumstances, and, owing to his wealth and -intellect, enjoyed marked respect and consideration. He determined -to give a definite direction to the aimless ideas floating in men's -minds with regard to the coming of the Messiah. This was certainly a -praiseworthy aim, but some little ambition was undoubtedly mixed up in -his plan: to be himself the highest authority, perhaps the chief of -the Synhedrion in Palestine, and consequently revered throughout the -East, and even by the whole Jewish race. The first step was difficult. -Ordination could be lawfully given only by those who themselves had -been ordained, and there had been no such for a very long time. An -utterance of Maimuni happily offered ground for a new departure, viz., -when wise men gathered together in Palestine shall agree to ordain one -of their number, they have the right to do so, and the ordained rabbi -can also ordain others. At that time no community in Palestine, in -point of numbers, could compare with Safet, which had grown through -frequent immigrations till it contained more than 1,000 Jewish -families. Safet, or rather the Talmudists of that city, therefore, -had it in their own hands, if they could only agree, to re-establish -the dignity of the Synhedrion, even in the face of opposition from -other congregations, because the Safet party was in the majority. The -officiating and non-officiating rabbis of Safet, men without name -or fame, had far too high a respect for Berab's intellectual power, -Talmudic learning, and wealth, to gainsay his proposition, or put -any obstacle in his path. A hint from him sufficed to bring together -five and twenty men ready to confer on him the dignity of an ordained -judge and rabbi. Thus ordination was re-established (1538), and the -focus for a new Synhedrion determined. It rested with Jacob Berab to -ordain as many colleagues as he pleased. From principles laid down -in the Talmud he demonstrated in a lecture the legality of the step, -and confuted every possible objection. One after another, Talmudists -in other congregations in Palestine announced their assent to this -innovation. By this step Berab and his followers thought that they -had reached the first stage of preparation for the Messianic age. -In fact, this renewal of ordination, if not able to bring about the -Messianic times, might very well have been the nucleus of Jewish unity. -A re-established Synhedrion in the Holy Land would have had a grand -sound in Europe, might have exercised special attraction, and brought -still more immigrants to Palestine. Persecutions of Jews in Italy -and Germany, the war of extermination against Marranos in Spain and -Portugal, a thirst for what was eccentric and out of the common in an -age distinguished by strongly excited longing for the Messiah, all this -would have been sufficient inducement to allure rich, educated Jews -from western lands to the East. With the help of their capital, and -founded on the authority of a Synhedrion, a Jewish community having the -character of a state might have been organized, and Berab was the right -person to carry out so great a scheme with perseverance--not to say -stubbornness. - -But difficulties immediately arose. It was to be expected that if the -congregation at Jerusalem and its representatives were not consulted -with regard to an act so pregnant with consequences, there would be -danger that the whole arrangement would be declared null and void, for -the Holy City should have the first vote in a matter of such weight for -the Holy Land. Jacob Berab saw this perfectly well, and proposed, as -the first exercise of his newly-acquired dignity, to ordain the head of -the Jerusalem college of rabbis. Levi ben Jacob Chabib, who held that -position, was born in Zamora, and was of about the same age as Berab. -As a youth, in the times of forced baptism, under King Manoel, he had -become a pseudo-Christian, received a baptismal name, made the sign -of the cross, and performed other ceremonies of the Catholic Church -with a heart full of despair. At the first favorable opportunity he -fled from Portugal, cast off his assumed garb of Christianity, sought -safety in Turkey, and finally betook himself to Jerusalem. There, by -virtue of the wide range of his Talmudic learning, more extensive than -profound, he became as rabbi the first person in the community. He -deserved its gratitude by caring for the physical and spiritual welfare -of his congregation, especially for piloting it through the disturbed -state into which it was in danger of falling afresh through the new -arrivals from various countries, who were disinclined to submit to law -and order. Levi ben Chabib had also some knowledge of mathematics, -astronomy, and the calculation of the calendar. Between himself and -Jacob Berab, with whom he had lived for some time in Jerusalem, there -was no friendly relationship. On several occasions they had come into -collision, though Levi ben Chabib had always behaved in a friendly, -unassuming manner, and avoided whatever might wound his opponent. Their -relations of late years had been more intimate, but Levi ben Chabib -could not forget how slightingly Jacob Berab had treated him. - -And now, as chief rabbi of Jerusalem, he was invited to recognize the -election of Jacob Berab as the first lawfully ordained rabbi-judge, -member of the Synhedrion, and by his consent to approve of the same. -Jerusalem was thereby subordinated to Safet, and he himself to Jacob -Berab. This was a real offense, for Berab had not thought it worth -while to ask the consent of the Jerusalem college beforehand, but -had haughtily made his innovation known through a decree, in which, -by virtue of the dignity conferred upon him, he designated Levi ben -Chabib an ordained judge. At the same time he had made it evident that -disapproval from Jerusalem would disturb him but little, since it could -only be regarded as the opposition of a minority to the majority at -Safet. The moment for taking an important step towards Jewish unity -had come, and it found Levi ben Chabib, whose vote at all events was -of importance, wanting in magnanimity. Resentment gained the upper -hand; he forgot that in earlier days it had been also his desire to -re-establish the ordination of rabbis. As soon as a notification of -the act at Safet reached him, he immediately and emphatically declared -himself against the election. His antagonism seems, however, to -have found no response in Jerusalem, for only one of his rabbinical -colleagues, Moses de Castro, adopted his view, the remainder acquiesced -in Berab's action. In Talmudical and rabbinical law arguments could -not fail to be discoverable against the revival of ordination and the -Synhedrion. Such a confused host of opinions exists therein, that -arguments may be found for or against almost anything. Berab and the -electors obedient to his nod themselves furnished their opponents with -an objection. Rabbinical Judaism is so thoroughly practical that it -offers no foothold for romantic enthusiasm and sentimentality. The -Jews of Safet dared not give utterance to their underlying hope that -through ordination the Messianic time would be brought nearer. Though -the rabbis might be filled with Messianic hopes, such a motive for -the re-introduction of ordination would have sounded too fantastic -and ridiculous in their own ears. Other plausible grounds were not -just then to be found. The calendar of festivals, which had formerly -been prepared by ordained members of the college, had been fixed for a -thousand years, and could not now be meddled with. Other cases where -the Talmud required an ordained judge were of too rare occurrence -to permit that the necessity of ordination be proved on that head. -The people of Safet, therefore, made the most of a reason meant to -appear practical and suited to the times, which was nevertheless very -far-fetched. Many Marranos were to be found in Palestine who had been -forced during their outward assumption of Christianity to commit what -according to the Talmud were deadly sins. With contrite hearts they -repented of their transgressions, and longed for forgiveness and -atonement--they had not given up the Catholic doctrine of outward -penance when they cast off the mask of Christianity. Such forgiveness -of sins, however (Berab made it appear), could be theirs only when the -scourging prescribed by the Law (39 stripes) was inflicted; again, -this punishment could be decreed only by a lawfully ordained college. -Therein lay the necessity for ordination. - -If Levi ben Chabib was disposed to extend his antipathy from the -originator to the execution of his work, there would be no difficulty -in proving this reason for the scheme invalid. Not content with this, -he brought forward a host of sophistries. Jacob Berab had not expected -such antagonism at Jerusalem from Levi ben Chabib and his colleague, -Moses de Castro, because he credited them either with less courage -or more self-denial, and it embittered him extremely. It was all the -more painful to him since their opposition was calculated to wreck -his whole undertaking. How could he hope to prove it acceptable to -Asiatic, European, and African Jews, when Jerusalem, the Holy City, -would have none of it? And without such acceptance, how could he -make it the central point of a re-organization? Besides, his life -was in danger at Safet, probably through denunciation to the Turkish -authorities, who were willing to grasp at any opportunity to get -hold of his property. Berab had to leave Palestine for a time. He -consecrated four Talmudists, as Judah ben Baba had done in Hadrian's -time, so that the practice of ordination might not immediately fall to -the ground. These four were chosen not from the elder, but from the -younger rabbis, among them Joseph Karo, the enthusiastic adherent of -Solomon Molcho and his Kabbalistic Messiahship, who entered heart and -soul into the ordination scheme. Such preference, shown to younger and -more pliable, if more gifted men, stirred up still more ill-will in -Jerusalem. The two rabbis of Palestine in the epistles exchanged on -the subject (written with a view to publication) grew more and more -bitter against each other, so offensive indeed that the most passionate -excitement cannot excuse their language. In reply to Levi ben Chabib's -censorious remark: "One who is consecrated and ordained should have -not only learning, but holiness also," Jacob Berab made a spiteful -reference to Levi's compulsory adoption of Christianity: "I have never -changed my name; in the midst of distress and despair I kept always in -the way of the Lord." He upbraided Levi ben Chabib with still having -somewhat of Christian dogma sticking to him. This thrust reached his -opponent's heart. The latter confessed that in the day of forced -baptisms in Portugal his name had been changed, that he had been made -a Christian, and that he had not been able to die for the religion of -his fathers. But he brought forward his youth as an excuse; he had not -been twenty years old, had remained a pseudo-Christian scarcely a year, -and he hoped that the flood of tears which he had shed since then, and -which he still shed, would wipe out his sin before God. After this -humiliation Levi ben Chabib's violence against Berab knew no bounds. -He flung the grossest insults at him, and declared that he hoped never -more to meet him face to face. Through this intemperate violence of the -chief rabbi of Jerusalem and Berab's death, which followed immediately -after (January, 1541), the system of ordination fell to the ground. - -Joseph Karo alone, one of the ordained, refused to give in. This -remarkable man, who later on had so deep an influence on Jewish history -(born 1488, died 1575), when a child, was driven from Spain with his -parents. He early learned the bitter lessons of suffering, and after -long traveling about, came to Nicopolis in European Turkey. He studied -the text of the Mishnah so assiduously that he knew it by heart. Later -on Karo left Nicopolis to settle at Adrianople, where, on account -of his extraordinary Talmudical learning, he was looked up to with -respect, and found disciples. In his thirtieth year he undertook the -gigantic work of furnishing Jacob Asheri's Code with a commentary, -authorities, and corrections, to which he devoted twenty years of his -life (1522-1542). Twelve years more were spent in a further revision -(1542-1554). His imagination, kept in entire inactivity by such a -dry task, was fired by the appearance of Solomon Molcho. That young -enthusiast from Portugal made so overpowering an impression upon him, -that Karo allowed himself to be initiated into the tortuous mazes -of the Kabbala and to share Molcho's Messianic dreams. After this -time his mind was divided between dry rabbinical scholarship and the -fantastic ideas of the Kabbala. He kept up a correspondence with Molcho -during the latter's stay in Palestine, and formed plans for going -thither himself. Like Molcho, he prepared for a martyr's death, "as -a burnt-sacrifice, an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto -the Lord," and like Molcho, he had strange visions, which, according -to his belief, were inspired by some superior being. This superior -being (Maggid) was not an angel, or an imaginary voice, but--oddly -enough--the Mishnah personified, who descended to him, and generally -at night whispered revelations, because he had devoted himself to its -service. Joseph Karo had these visions (which he for the most part -committed to paper), not for a short period of time, but at intervals, -to the end of his life, for nearly forty years. Part of them were -afterwards published, and it is melancholy to see what havoc the -Kabbala played with the intellect of that day. The superior being (or -the Mishnah) laid the heaviest penances on Karo, forbade him to indulge -in meat and wine, and went to the extent of prohibiting much drinking -of water. If he was guilty of any fault, sleeping too long, being late -at prayers, or slightly neglecting his study of the Mishnah, the mother -Mishnah appeared, and made the most tender remonstrances. She certainly -made astonishing revelations to him. These predictions were far from -being mere deceptions, but were the promptings of a tumultuous epoch, -or an excited imagination, such as is found in the warm, luxurious East -oftener than in the cold, sober North. - -Joseph Karo was so full of the thought that he was called to play a -part in Palestine, and die as a martyr, during the time of preparation -for the Messiah as begun by Solomon Molcho, that he left Adrianople. He -stayed for some time at Salonica, a place swarming with Kabbalists. At -length, he arrived in Safet, that nest of Kabbalists, with a companion -of like mind, Solomon Alkabez, a dull, spiritless writer, whose song -of welcome for the Sabbath bride (Lecha Dodi) has become more famous -than its author. At Safet, Joseph Karo experienced the joy of seeing -part of his fantastic dreams fulfilled; he was ordained by Berab -as a member of the Synhedrion. After Berab's death Karo dreamed of -nothing but his future greatness; he was to bring about ordination, -and to be recognized by the sages of Palestine and foreign countries -as a patriarch and leader of the Jews in Palestine. He would educate -the best Talmudists, so that disciples of his school only would be -accepted. Everyone would do him reverence as the holy likeness (Diokna -Kadisha), and he would work miracles. Like Molcho, he was to die a -martyr's death, that the name of God might be hallowed; but his -resurrection would soon afterwards follow, and he would enter into the -Messianic kingdom. - -All these advantages and prerogatives were to be won by a single -achievement, which of itself would make the Jews into one great people, -and gain him universal admiration. When his thorough commentary -on Jacob Asheri's Code was completed, printed, published, and in -circulation, when he had elaborated a comprehensive code of religious -law grounded on that work, he would surely be acknowledged as -patriarch and lawgiver in all Israel. His guardian angel had whispered -to him that he would be made worthy to train many disciples and to -see his writings printed and circulated throughout Israel. Even the -supernatural worlds would ask, "Who is the man with whom the King of -kings is well pleased, the patriarch of Palestine, the great writer -of the Holy Land?" He would be enabled to publish his commentary, -elucidations, and decisions without fault or error. - -Devoted piety, fantastical imagination, and some degree of ambition -inspired the author, who elaborated, for the whole Jewish race, the -final code of religious law, destined to end all wavering, uncertainty, -and antagonism of opinion. Kabbalistic enthusiasm combined with -the Messianic hopes excited by Solomon Molcho, and the ceremony of -ordination administered by Berab, gave Karo no rest, until by means of -a comprehensive written work he had accomplished these hopes, at least -so far as religious unity was concerned. Yet several decades were to -elapse before the Jewish world received this gift, a colossal work -which required years for its completion. Joseph Karo's astounding, -incessant industry had to eke out lack of genius. Such a work could be -accomplished only by religious devotion and inspiration united with a -fantastic imagination. Of all his lofty dreams one only was actually -realized, that he would be chief rabbi of Safet after Jacob Berab's -death, and would be acknowledged as a rabbinical authority, the latter -coming about only gradually. But his authority was not absolute; he had -a rival in Berab's best disciple, Moses de Trani. - -While the Jews of the East were rejoicing in a measure of peace and -independence, and were able to indulge in Messianic speculations, and -endeavoring, although by mistaken means, to bring about an ideal state -of things, the Jews of the West were subjected to fresh persecutions -instituted against them. The old accusations of their harmful influence -upon mankind, their child-murder, their hostile attitude towards -Christianity, which had ceased for a time during the excitement of -the Reformation, were again heard. The bigoted ecclesiastical policy, -espoused by those who sought to maintain their position against the -ever-increasing strength of Lutheranism, reacted upon the Jews, and -brought fresh sufferings upon them, principally in Catholic countries. -To the old accusations was added a new one, which prejudiced also -Lutherans against them. The Lutheran and Calvinistic Reformation, -which had extended into England and Poland, had opened the eyes of -many concerning religion and Christianity, and led them to find much -that even the Reformers considered essentials of Christianity to be -false, mistaken, and blasphemous. The Bible translated into most -European languages gave thoughtful readers an opportunity of forming -a religious system for themselves differing wholly from the dogmas of -Rome, Wittenberg, or Geneva. In reading the Bible the Old Testament -came before the New, and in the transition from one to the other many -perceived that much in the two was irreconcilable; that the doctrine -of the unity of God in the prophets was in direct contradiction to the -doctrine of the Trinity propounded by the Church Fathers. Besides -this, the Reformation had had in view not only religious freedom, but -also political deliverance from the iron yoke of the princes, in whose -eyes the people were nothing, of importance only for the payment of -taxes and the forced service of bondmen. Now it struck not a few that -the Hebrew Scriptures make the people the source of all power, and -condemn the despotism of kings, whilst evangelical Christianity does -not recognize a people, but only humble believers, whom it exhorts -to bow the neck to the yoke of tyrants. The contrast between the Old -and the New Testament, the one teaching active virtue together with a -God-fearing life, the other glorifying passive virtue together with -blind faith, could not be overlooked by eyes sharpened through deep -research into the Bible. - -Among the host of religious sects which the Reformation called forth in -the first decades, there arose some which nearly approached Judaism, -and whose adherents were stigmatized by the ruling party as half-Jews -or Judaizers (Judaizantes, Semijudaei). These found the doctrine of the -Trinity a stumbling-block, and maintained that God must be conceived as -an absolute Unity. Michael Servetus, an Aragonese, perhaps instructed -by Marranos in Spain, wrote a pamphlet on the "Errors of the Doctrine -of the Trinity," which created a great sensation, and brought him -some faithful adherents; but he was burnt at the stake by Calvin at -Geneva. The Reformers had retained the fanatical intolerance of the -Catholic Church! Notwithstanding this, a sect of believers in the Unity -(Unitarians, Anti-trinitarians) arose which rejected the identification -of Jesus with God. In England, where Catholicism had been overthrown -only by the whim of a tyrant, Henry VIII, to gratify his sensual -desires, a religious-political party began to be formed, which proposed -to take the Old Testament system of government and adapt it to English -circumstances. It appeared to recognize only Old Testament types, and -not to take any account of the praying brethren and sisters of the New -Testament. Many kept the Sabbath as the day of rest appointed by God, -but with their windows closed. Some eccentric Christians conceived a -predilection for the Jews as the successors of the patriarchs, as the -remnant of that people whom God had once favored with the fullness of -His grace, as the direct descendants of the great prophets, on this -account deserving the highest respect. - -Among the innumerable pamphlets appeared one, a dialogue between a Jew -and a Christian, in which the grounds of the Christian dogmas were -overthrown by texts out of the Old Testament. Publications of this sort -helped to make the Jews obnoxious to the Reformers, too. The adherents -of the new faith in a measure simulated hatred of Jews in order to -avert from themselves the suspicion that they wished to undermine -Christianity, and set up Judaism in its place. The Jews, therefore, -had enemies on both sides, and were soon compelled to relinquish the -illusion that Catholicism was overthrown, and that the new religion was -in sympathy with them. - -When the peasants of South Germany, Alsatia, Franconia, and elsewhere, -trusting too readily in the evangelical freedom proclaimed by Luther, -attempted to throw off the yoke of their oppressors, the few Jews -in Germany found themselves between two fires. On the one hand they -were accused by the nobility and the upper classes of supporting the -rebellious peasants and citizens with their money, and egging them on; -and, on the other, the peasants attacked them as the confederates and -abettors of the rich and the nobility. The fanatical priest, Balthasar -Hubmaier, who had agitated the expulsion of the Jews from Ratisbon, -was the adviser of the peasants of the Black Forest, and probably the -author of the twelve written demands (articles) which the peasants -had proposed. Instead of becoming milder and more humane by his -apostasy from the Roman Catholic, he became still more fanatical as -an adherent of the Anabaptist faith. He had no doubt excited the rage -of the townspeople, who wished to free themselves from their debts to -their Jewish creditors, and that of the peasants who desired to enrich -themselves with the property of the Jews. The province of the Rheingau -among other things demanded that no Jew should be allowed to remain in -the district. The annals of the age of the Reformation thus continue -to present year after year accounts of banishments, tortures, and -restrictions. But, after all, times had improved. There were no longer -sudden attacks, massacres, wholesale murders--simply expulsions, mere -exile into poverty. Only events of deep and far-reaching effect can -find a place here. - -In Naples, where the Spaniards ruled, the ultra-Catholic party had -long tried to introduce the Inquisition against the Marranos who -resided there. When Charles V returned from his victorious expedition -in Africa, this party tried to induce him to banish the Jews from -Naples, because the Marranos were but strengthened in their unbelief by -intercourse with them. But Donna Benvenida, the noble wife of Samuel -Abrabanel, who was held in high respect by the Spaniards, so ardently -entreated the emperor to revoke the decree of banishment, and her young -friend, the daughter of the viceroy, so warmly supported her request, -that he could not refuse them. It is also possible that Abrabanel's -money may have had something to do with it. But a few years afterwards, -Charles ordered the Neapolitan Jews to wear the badge of shame on -their dress, and in case of transgression to suffer punishment in -their person and property, or leave the country. They chose the latter -alternative, probably by the advice of Samuel Abrabanel. They probably -realized that persecution would not end there, but that it would form -the prelude to harsher treatment. But this voluntary exile was turned -into banishment, and every Jew who should venture to show himself again -in Naples, was threatened with severe punishment (1540-1541). Many -turned their steps towards Turkey, a few went to Ancona, under papal -protection, or to Ferrara, under the rule of Duke Hercules II, who -passed for a friend of the Jews. Those who emigrated by sea suffered -much hardship, and many of them were taken by pirates, and carried to -Marseilles. The Marranos who were living there did much for them, and -King Henry II also treated them humanely. As he could not keep them in -his country, he sent them in his ships to Turkey. Samuel Abrabanel also -left Naples, although he was offered the exceptional license to remain -there; but he refused to separate himself from the lot of his unhappy -co-religionists. He settled in Ferrara, and lived there for about ten -years. His noble wife, highly respected by Leonora, the daughter of the -viceroy of Naples, now the Duchess of Tuscany, survived him. - -A year later, the Jews of Bohemia experienced a milder, so to speak, -more decent form of hatred. There had been many fires in the towns, -especially in Prague. The Jews and shepherds were accused of having -hired incendiaries. The Jews were also charged with having betrayed -to the sultan the secret preparations for war against the Turks. The -Bohemian diet therefore resolved to banish all Jews from Bohemia, -and King Ferdinand, brother of Charles V, gave his assent. They were -compelled to start on their exile with all their belongings (Adar, -1542), for of the numerous Jews of Prague only ten persons or families -received permission to remain there. Many of them found their way -into Poland and Turkey, then the two most tolerant countries. The -innocence of those who had suffered death, and of the banished Jews, -was established in the course of the same year. A few of the notables -interceded for their recall, for they were more indispensable than -trade jealousy, fanaticism, and the hatred of race would confess. Thus -those who had settled near the Bohemian frontier were able to return to -their home. But for this favor they were obliged to pay a tax of 300 -schock groschen, and were ordered to wear a badge of yellow cloth as a -mark by which they might be distinguished. - -At the same time two persons of exalted rank and great influence, -the one on the Catholic, the other on the Protestant side, attacked -the Jews so mercilessly, that it is a marvel that they were not -exterminated to a man. The cause of provocation in one instance was -as follows:--About Easter, a peasant boy, four years old, from the -duchy of Neuburg in Bavaria, was missed, and suspicions arose that he -was with the Jews. After Easter the boy was discovered by means of a -dog, and enemies of the Jews pretended to see signs of Jewish torture -on his body. Upon this the bishop of Eichstaedt caused certain Jews to -be seized and dragged to his residence that they might be tried, and -sent a request to the neighboring princes to seize the Jews in their -domains. But the inquiry did not prove the guilt of the Jews. On this -occasion Duke Otto Henry of Neuburg warmly espoused the cause of the -Jews, and exerted his influence to oppose the bishop of Eichstaedt. -The latter moved heaven and earth to have them banished at least. A -courageous writer, probably at the suggestion of the duke, boldly -defended the Jews against the prejudice of Christians in a pamphlet. -This publication, "Little Book about the Jews," the author of which was -a Lutheran pastor (perhaps Hosiander), for the first time placed the -whole falsehood and malice of the accusation of the murder of Christian -children in a clear light. The author, who professed to have had much -intercourse with Jews, and to have become thoroughly acquainted -with their language, laws, and customs, declared emphatically that a -shameful injustice was done to Jews by these perpetual accusations -of child-murder. The wealth and the pure faith of the Jews were the -reasons. On the one hand, avaricious and cruel princes, or impoverished -nobles or citizens, who owed money to Jews, invented such tales in -order to be able to use violence against them; and on the other, such -fables were invented by monks and the secular clergy in order to make -new saints and fresh shrines for the encouragement of pilgrimages. In -the long period since the dispersion of the Jews among Christians, -no one had asserted, till within the last 300 years, that they had -murdered Christian children. These idle tales had become current only -since monks and priests practiced so much deception with pilgrimages -and miraculous healings. For the priests feared no one more than Jews, -because the latter disregarded human invention, and understood the -Scripture better than the priests, who, therefore, persecuted the Jews -to the utmost, slandered them, and caused them to be hated. They even -wished to burn their sacred books. Therefore, it was fair to assume -that priests had invented the story of the murder of the child in the -province of Neuburg. The author further points out that till the third -century the Christians were accounted child-murderers and shedders of -blood in the heathen world. The confessions of Jews themselves, which -were quoted in confirmation of the accusations, had been made under -torture, and could not be received as evidence. - -Fanatical Catholic priests, especially the bishop of Eichstaedt, saw -with indignation that Jews, instead of being abhorred and persecuted, -were glorified in this book, and hastened to efface the impression. -Dr. John Eck, so notorious in the history of the Reformation, a -favorite of the bishop of Eichstaedt, was commissioned to write an -answer, to prove the crime of bloodguiltiness, and to defame the Jews. -This lawyer-theologian, with the broad shoulders of a butcher, the -voice of a seditionist, and the disputativeness of a sophist, who had -brought the Catholic Church, which he intended to defend against the -Lutherans, into discredit by his vanity and his intemperate habits, -this unprincipled disputant gladly undertook to belabor the Jews. In -1541 he wrote a hostile reply to the above-mentioned pamphlet, in -which he set himself to prove "the evil and wickedness brought about -by Jews in all the German territories and other kingdoms." He revived -the old accusations against baptized Jews, patched together old wives' -tales about the cruel nature of the Jews, raked up the false stories -about Trent and Ratisbon uttered by Jews when undergoing torture, and -added his own experiences to them. Eck was so shameless as to bring -proofs of the cruelty of the Jewish character from the Old Testament. -To cast infamy upon them he even slandered the Old Testament heroes -held sacred by the church. In verbose language and with a false -show of learning he maintained that Jews mutilated the children of -Christians, and used their blood in the consecration of their priests, -to assist their wives in child-birth, and to heal sickness; and that -they desecrated the host. He exclaimed indignantly: "It is a great -mistake that we Christians leave the Jews so much freedom, and grant -them protection and security." Probably on the petition of Jews against -these accusations, the emperor, Charles V, renewed their privileges, -and declared them innocent of shedding the blood of Christians. - -It is not edifying to find that Luther, the champion against obsolete -prejudices, the founder of a new faith, agreed completely on the -subject of Jews with his mortal enemy, Dr. Eck, who, with the same -effrontery, had employed similar falsehood against himself. These -two passionate opponents were of one heart and soul in their hatred -of Jews. Luther had become greatly embittered with advancing age. He -had lost much among his own followers by his obstinacy and persistent -caviling, had disturbed the unanimity of those of the same way of -thinking, and in his own camp created a breach which caused infinite -harm to the Reformation for several centuries. His hard disposition -had steadily gained the mastery over his gentle religion and humility, -and his monkish narrowness could not at all comprehend Judaism with -its laws, which brought forth and developed not the faith, but the -morality and elevation, of man. He became enraged when his colleagues, -Karlstadt, Muenzer, etc., referred for example to the year of Jubilee, -and the enfranchisement of the slaves and serfs. A pamphlet, in the -form of a dialogue, in which Judaism was involved in a contest with -Christianity, probably written by a Christian, was now sent to him; -this was too much for him. Could Judaism be so bold as to think of -measuring itself against Christianity! Luther at once set about writing -a passionate, stinging pamphlet, "Concerning the Jews and their Lies" -(1542), which, in spitefulness, exceeded the writings of Pfefferkorn -and Eck. - -Luther began by saying that he had made up his mind not to write -anything further about Jews, nor against them, but because he had -learnt that "this miserable, wicked people" dared entice Christians to -join them, he wished to warn weak-minded men not to allow themselves -to be befooled. Luther's principal argument, in proof of the truth -of Christianity against the denial of the Messiahship of Jesus by -the Jews, is written in very monkish style. Because the Christians, -for more than a thousand years, had robbed them of all the rights of -man, had treated them as evil beasts, had trodden them under foot, -lacerated, and slain them: in a word, because they had fallen into -distress through the harshness of Christians, therefore, they must be -rejected, and the Saviour of the world must have appeared! - -This is mediaeval logic. But it exceeds the limits of indulgence -towards the peculiarities of a strong character, when Luther, in his -uncharitableness towards Jews, employs language such as was usual with -those who burnt Jews at the stake. "Why should the Jews complain of -hard captivity among us?" he says. "We Christians suffered persecution -and martyrdom at their hands for nearly 300 years, so that we might -well complain that they took us captive and killed us. And to this very -day we know not what devil brought them into our land" (as if Jews had -not dwelt in some districts of what is now Germany long before Germans -were there). "We did not bring them from Jerusalem; besides that, no -one keeps them: the country and the roads are open to them, let them -return to their own land. We will gladly give them presents, if we can -but be rid of them, for they are a heavy burden upon us, a plague, a -pestilence, a sore trial." Luther, like Pfefferkorn and Eck, stated -with malicious delight how the Jews were often driven out by violence -"from France and recently from Spain by our beloved Emperor Charles -(an historical blunder); this year also from the entire dominion of -Bohemia, although one of their securest nests was in Prague; also from -Ratisbon, Magdeburg, and many other places in my time." - -Without appreciation of the heroic patience displayed by Jews in the -midst of hostility, and untaught by history, Luther did nothing but -repeat the lying accusations of the vindictive Pfefferkorn, whose -falsehood and villainy had been palpably proved by the Humanists. In -imitation of this arch-enemy of the Jews he wrote that the Talmud -and the rabbis taught that it was no sin to kill the Goyim, that is, -heathens and Christians, break an oath to them, or rob and plunder -them, and that the one and only aim of Jews was to weaken the Christian -religion. It is incomprehensible that Luther, who had taken the part -of the Jews so strongly in the heat of the Reformation, could repeat -all the false tales about the poisoning of the springs, the murder of -Christian children, and the use of human blood. He also maintained, -in agreement with Eck, from whom in other respects he was so widely -divided, that the Jews were too prosperous in Germany, and in -consequence had become insolent. - -What is to be done with this wicked, accursed race, which can no longer -be tolerated? asked Luther, and he gave an answer to the question which -shows equal want of charity and wisdom. First of all the reformer of -Wittenberg recommended that the synagogues be reduced to ashes, "to the -honor of God and of Christianity." Next, Christians were to destroy the -houses of the Jews, and drive them all under one roof, or into a stable -like gypsies. All prayer-books and copies of the Talmud and the Old -Testament were to be taken from them by force (as Luther's opponents, -the Dominicans, had advised), and even praying and the use of God's -name were to be forbidden under penalty of death. Their rabbis were to -be forbidden to teach. The authorities were to prohibit the Jews from -traveling, and to bar the roads against them, so that they must stay -at home. Luther advised that their money be taken from them, and that -this confiscated wealth be employed to establish a fund to maintain -those Jews who should embrace Christianity. The authorities were to -compel able-bodied Jews and Jewesses to forced labor, and to keep them -strictly employed with the flail, the axe, the spade, the distaff and -spindle, so that they might earn their bread in the sweat of their -brow, and not live in idleness, feasting, and splendor. Christians -were not to show any tender mercy to Jews. Luther urged the emperor -and the princes to expel them from the country without delay, and -drive them back into their own land. But anticipating that the princes -would not consent to such folly, he exhorted the clergy and teachers -of the people to fill the minds of their hearers with hatred of Jews. -He observed that if he had power over Jews, he would assemble the -best and most learned among them, and, under penalty of having their -tongues cut out, force them to accept the Christian teaching, that -there is not _one_ God, but that there are _three_ Gods. Luther even -stirred up the robber-nobles against them. He had heard that a rich Jew -was traveling through Germany with twelve horses. This Jew was known -as the wealthy Michael, of Frankfort, the protege of the Margrave of -Brandenburg; if the princes did not close the road against him and -his fellow-believers, Luther urged the robber-knights to do so, for -Christians might learn from his pamphlet how depraved was the Jewish -nation. These absurd charges Luther ascribed to a worthless convert, -Anton Margaritha, the son of a rabbi of Ratisbon. He had become a -Catholic, and being punished on account of calumnies, had turned -Lutheran, and written a foolish book against the Jews, and from this -book Luther had taken his unjust attacks upon them. - -Shortly before his death he exhorted his hearers in a sermon to drive -out the Jews: - - "Besides all this you still have the Jews, who do great evil - in the land. If they could kill us all, they would gladly do - so, aye, and often do it, especially those who profess to be - physicians--they know all that is known about medicine in - Germany; they can give poison to a man of which he will die in - an hour, or in ten or twenty years; they thoroughly understand - this art. I say to you lastly, as a countryman, if the Jews - refuse to be converted, we ought not to suffer them, or bear - with them any longer." - -In the reformer and regenerator of Germany, then, the Jews had almost a -worse enemy than in the Pfefferkorns, Hoogstratens, and Ecks, certainly -worse than in the popes till the middle of the century. But few -heeded the words of those wretches, known to be sophists and liars, -while Luther's uncharitable utterances were respected as oracles by -the Christians of the new faith, and but too well followed out. As -Jerome had infected the Catholic world with his openly avowed hatred -of Jews, so Luther poisoned the Protestant world for a long time to -come with his Jew-hating testament. Protestants became even more bitter -against Jews than Catholics had been. The leaders of Catholicism -demanded absolute submission to canonical law, but on this condition -granted them permission to remain in Catholic countries; Luther, on -the other hand, required their absolute expulsion. The popes often -issued exhortations to spare the synagogues; but the founder of the -Reformation insisted upon their desecration and destruction. It was -reserved for him to place Jews on a level with gypsies. This difference -arose from the fact that the popes occupied the highest rank in life, -and dwelt in Rome, the metropolis of the world, the center of affairs -in the four quarters of the globe; thus they had no eye for petty -events, and usually left the Jews unnoticed because of their small -importance. Luther, on the other hand, who lived in a petty country -town and amidst narrow surroundings, listened to all the gossip against -Jews, judged them by the measure of a country bumpkin, and reckoned up -every farthing that they earned against them. He, therefore, was the -cause of their being expelled by Protestant princes. In Roman Catholic -states the Dominicans alone were their deadly enemies. - -This hatred followed the Jews even into Turkey. If there were neither -Roman Catholics nor Protestants, there were Greek Catholic Christians. -Turks and Greeks lived together in the towns of both Greece and Asia -Minor. The latter, who would not give up their arrogance, but dared not -display it towards the ruling Turks, persecuted the Jews with silent -hatred, and took advantage of every opportunity to draw upon them the -persecution of the government. On one occasion some of them gave rise -to a persecution in the town of Amazia in Asia Minor. They caused a -poor Greek, who was in the habit of associating with Jews, and had been -supported by them, to disappear, and then accused some Jews of having -murdered him. Hereupon the Turkish cadis seized the accused, put them -to the torture, and forced them to acknowledge the murder. They were -hanged, and a respected Jewish physician, Jacob Abi-Ayub, was burnt -(about 1545). A few days afterwards a Jew recognized the Greek supposed -to have been murdered, induced him to tell how he had been made to -disappear, and brought him before the cadi. The latter, justly incensed -against the malicious Greek accusers, had them executed. A similar -accusation, the falseness of which was brought to light, was lodged -against a Jew of the town of Tokat at about the same time. - -These cruel occurrences suggested to Moses Hamon, Sultan Solyman's -Jewish physician, to obtain a decree from the sultan that an accusation -against Jews in Turkey of having murdered a Christian, and other -malicious calumnies, should not be brought before the ordinary judges, -but before the sultan himself. - -Hatred against Jews, restrained in Turkey, raged the more openly in -Christian countries. The republic of Genoa for a long time had not -suffered a Jew to remain more than three days within its boundaries. -Notwithstanding this, fugitives from Spain or Provence from time to -time were received in the town of Novi, near Genoa; they went in -and out of the capital itself, and were suffered to remain there. -In the party differences between the patrician families, the little -community, repulsed by the one side, was taken up by the other. Most -of them were intelligent artisans, capitalists, or physicians. But -again the Dominicans stirred up the people against them, and roused -the professional jealousy of Christian physicians. Contrary to the -wishes of Doge Doria, the Jews were driven out of Genoa (April, 1550), -and, heralded by the sound of trumpets, a proclamation was made that -henceforth no Jews should be suffered. This expulsion from Genoa is of -importance, because a clever Jewish historian was included in it, whose -fate represents in miniature the painful lot experienced by the Jewish -race on a large scale. - -The vicissitudes in the life of the nations, as well as the changes in -the life of the Jewish people, especially since their cruel expulsion -from Spain and Portugal, and the heartless persecution of the Marranos, -at length brought some clear-seeing Jews to the conviction that -history is not ruled by chance, but that a higher hand guides it, -bringing to pass destined events by bloodshed and tears. Since the -time of the crusades, no century had been richer in changeful, almost -dramatic, events than the sixteenth, when not only fresh continents -were discovered, but when a new spirit began to prevail among mankind, -striving after new creations, but always kept down by the leaden weight -of existing systems. This wealth of occurrences taught a few thoughtful -Jews, mostly of Sephardic origin, to trace the work of Providence -in the apparently whimsical and irregular course of universal and -Jewish history. They considered history a comfort to that portion of -mankind which had been overthrown, overridden, and downtrodden by -the tumultuous course of events. And what race stood in more need of -consolation than the Jewish, a martyr people apparently born only for -sorrow, always eating its bread in tears? Almost at one and the same -time, three enlightened Jews undertook the task of studying history, -and placing before the Jewish reading world its brazen tables. These -were the physician, Joseph Cohen, the learned Talmudist, Joseph -Ibn-Verga, and the poet, Samuel Usque. All three began with the same -fundamental idea. The spirit of the prophets, which recognized in the -course of historical events the fittest means for instruction and -improvement, had come upon them, incontestably showing that Jews even -in their degradation are not like the gypsy rabble, neither having -nor knowing a history; that, in fact, they stood higher than those -who wielded the scepter and the sword, the rack and the club, for the -subjugation of mankind. - -The greatest of these historians was Joseph ben Joshua Cohen (born at -Avignon, 1496, died 1575). His ancestors had come from Spain at the -great expulsion, his father Joshua emigrating to Avignon, and thence -moving to Novi, in Genoese territory. For a while he lived in Genoa, -and was expelled thence. Joseph Cohen had studied medicine, devoting -himself both to the theory and the practice. He appears to have been -family physician to the doge, Andrea Doria. His heart beat warmly for -his Jewish brethren, and he was zealous in his endeavors to lighten -their unhappy lot. He once exerted himself to obtain the release -of a father and son, cast into prison by the heartless Giannettino -Doria, nephew and presumptive heir to the doge. But he succeeded in -delivering only the father, the son did not escape till the stormy -night of Fiesco's conspiracy. At the last expulsion from Genoa (1550), -the inhabitants of the little town of Voltaggio begged him to settle -amongst them as a physician, and he lived there for eighteen years. But -history attracted him more than the practice of medicine, and he began -to search for chronicles in order to write a sort of universal history -in the form of annals. He began with the period of the decline of the -Roman empire and the formation of the modern states, and represented -the course of the world's history as a struggle between Asia and -Europe, between the Crescent and the Cross; the former represented by -the then powerful dominion of Turkey; the latter, by France, which -had set up Charlemagne, the first emperor of a Christian realm. He -connected the whole of European history with these two groups of -nations. He included all the events and wars of Christendom, and of -the Mahometan countries in "The Annals of the Kings of France and of -the House of Othman," the title of his historical work. In the history -of his own times, which he either witnessed himself, or obtained -from the experience of contemporaries, he is an impartial narrator, -and, therefore, his work is a trustworthy source of information. The -Hebrew historical style, borrowed from the best books of the Bible, -renders his account most forcible. The Biblical language and dramatic -style give a charm to the work, and raise it above the level of a dry -chronicle. - -Joseph Cohen introduced the history of the various persecutions of the -Jews at the different periods when they occurred. His chief aim was -to point out the justice of God in the course of history, showing how -violence and cunning met with their desert, and were cast down from the -height attained. He sympathized with the sorrows which he described; -therefore, he often wrote with intense bitterness. - -Very different is another historical work of the same period, -upon which three generations, father, son, and grandson, were -employed. Judah Ibn-Verga, Kabbalist and astronomer, a member of the -distinguished Ibn-Verga family, related to the Abrabanels, had noted -down in a book some of the persecutions which Jews had undergone in -different countries and at various times. Solomon Ibn-Verga, who had -witnessed the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal, and who -for a time had pretended to be a Christian, and then emigrated to -Turkey as a Marrano, added several narratives to his father's notes. -He understood the Latin language, and so borrowed and added fresh -material from various Latin documents. His son, Joseph Ibn-Verga, who -belonged to the college of rabbis at Adrianople, completed the work -by adding some of the events of his own times and the age immediately -preceding, and then published the whole under the title of "Judah's -Rod of Correction" (Shebet Jehuda). Joseph Ibn-Verga was also learned -in Latin, and incorporated many narratives from Latin documents. This -martyrology of the Ibn-Vergas, then, is not a unit, but a medley -without plan or order, destitute even of chronological sequence. -Imaginary conversations between Jews and Spanish or Portuguese kings -are given as having actually taken place. But the Hebrew style is -brilliant and graceful, without possessing biblical coloring like that -of the historical works of Elias Kapsali and Joseph Cohen. Ibn-Verga -sought (towards the end of the first part) to show the reason why the -Jewish race, above all the Spanish Jews, were visited with so many -intolerable trials, and found it in the preference once shown for the -Jewish nation: "Whom God loves most He chasteneth most." But the chief -sources of persecution were to be found in the division between Jews -and Christians in the matter of food and drink, in the revenge taken -by Christians for the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, in the offenses of -Spanish Jews against Christian women, in the envy of their riches, and -in the false oaths of which they were guilty. Ibn-Verga did not conceal -the faults of his race; perhaps he exaggerated them. Joseph Ibn-Verga -added a heartfelt prayer about the numerous sufferings which Israel had -undergone, and was still enduring, the last causing the first to be -forgotten. All the nations of the world were united in hatred to this -race; all creatures in heaven and on earth allied in enmity against it; -before a Jewish child began to prattle it was pursued by hatred and -scorn. "We are despised like the lowest worms; may God soon fulfill His -promises to His people." - -The most original of the three historians, as well as of the three -Usques, probably belonging to the same family, was Samuel, who had no -doubt fled from the fire of the Inquisition in Portugal. He settled -with his relations in Ferrara. Like Solomon Usque, known under his -Spanish name of Duarte Gomez, he was a poet, but his muse did not -occupy herself with foreign material, with imitations and adaptations, -but created something original and peculiar. The brilliant and tragical -history of the Israelite people had great attraction for him; it did -not exist merely as a lifeless mass of learning in his memory, but -lived in his heart as a fresh bubbling spring from which he drew -comfort and inspiration. Biblical history with its heroes, kings, -and men of God, the history subsequent to the Captivity, with its -alternations of splendid victory and unhappy overthrow, the history -since the destruction of the Jewish rule by the Romans, all the events -and changes of these three periods were present to Samuel Usque's mind. -The material gathered from many sources he transformed by the breath -of poetry into a long, most touching lament and consolation in the -Portuguese language, not in verse, but in elevated prose, more charming -than a poetic garb. It is a conversation of three shepherds, Icabo, -Numeo, and Zicareo, the first of whom laments with bitter tears the -tragical fate of Israel since its appearance on the scene of history; -the other two pour the balm of comfort into the broken heart of the -unhappy shepherd, and show him that these sufferings are the necessary -steps to the attainment of a glorious goal. Samuel Usque named this -historical dialogue, "Consolation for the Sorrows of Israel." By his -vivid picture of the Jewish past, he intended to give to the Portuguese -fugitives in Ferrara and elsewhere, who had again attached themselves -to Judaism, comfort in their great sorrow and suffering, and lead them -to look forward to a happy future. - -He represented the Israelite nation now as a mourning widow, wringing -her hands in lamentation, and weeping day and night over the sufferings -of her sons during thousands of years; now as a prophetess inspired by -God, clothed in a radiant robe, whose eye pierces the darkness, and -sees a glorious future, and whose lips utter wisdom, and pour balm on -burning wounds. Though he was not a regular historian, yet no one has -represented the principal features of Jewish history from the earliest -times down to his own with so much light and life as Samuel Usque. - -The external form of this historico-poetical dialogue is as follows: -the shepherd, Icabo (or Jacob, the representative of the Jewish -nation), laments in a lonely spot the misery of his flock, dispersed -throughout all parts of the world, humiliated, and torn in pieces. "To -what quarter of the globe shall I turn and find healing for my wounds, -oblivion of my sorrows, and comfort in this grievous, heavy torment? -The whole earth is full of my misery and my distress. I am like a -poor, heavy-laden pilgrim in the midst of all the riches and delight -of favored Asia. Amid the wealth of the gold of sun-burnt Africa, I am -an unhappy, starving, fainting exile. And Europe, Europe! my hell upon -earth! what shall I say of thee, thou who hast adorned thy greatest -triumphs with the limbs of my flock? How can I praise thee, Italy, -thou blasphemous and warlike land! Thou who hast fed upon the flesh of -my lambs like a ravenous lion! Ye accursed pastures of France, which -did furnish poisoned grass for my flocks to feed on! Thou proud, rough -mountain-land of Germany, which hast taken my young, and dashed them -in pieces from the tops of thy wild Alps! And you sweet, fresh streams -of England, from you my flocks have drunk only bitter, brackish -waters! Hypocritical, cruel, bloodthirsty Spain, in you voracious and -ravening wolves have devoured, and still devour, my fleecy flocks!" -The two shepherds, Numeo and Zicareo, attracted by the heartrending -lamentations of Icabo, induce him by much persuasion to tell them his -sorrow, and thus obtain relief for his burdened heart. But not without -a struggle does he bring himself to do this. He then describes to his -two friends the former splendor of his flock, and thus brings before -their eyes the prosperous days of Israel. Then he passes to the trials -which God's flock has had to endure. Icabo is at length induced by -gentle persuasion to relate the history of his unhappy race in detail, -first its adverse fortunes, and its exile during the existence of the -first Temple; then, in a second dialogue, the bitterness endured, and -the exile till the second destruction of the Temple by the Romans; -and in a third dialogue, the sufferings of his people during the long -exile; the first forced baptism which Sisebut, king of the Visigoths, -imposed upon the Jews of Spain; the expulsion of the Jews from England -and France, Spain and Portugal; the horrors of the Inquisition, which -Usque had himself beheld; and lastly, the desecration of a synagogue at -Pesaro (1552). In this manner does Icabo (or Samuel Usque) go through -the long range of Jewish history. He concludes this summary of sorrows -thus: - - "Scarcely hadst thou ceased to drink of the poisoned cup of - the Babylonians, which had well-nigh proved fatal to thee, O - Israel, when thou wast revived to endure the torments inflicted - by the Romans; and when this double misfortune, which so - cruelly tore thee in pieces, was at an end, thou wert indeed - still living, but fast bound to suffering and misery, tortured - by fresh pangs. It is the fate of all created beings to - experience change; only not thine, for thy unhappy lot is not - changed, and has no ending." - -The friends offer comfort and consolation to Icabo. They say: - - "Sorrows, be they never so great and intense, have an - object. They have been partly incurred by a sinful life and - by backsliding from God and are intended to serve for the - correction and purification of Israel. It is also a blessing - that thy people is scattered abroad among all the nations of - earth, that the wicked may not succeed in utterly destroying - them. When the Spaniards drove thee out, and burnt thy people, - God ordained that thou shouldst find a country ready to receive - thee, where thou couldst dwell in freedom, namely, Italy." - -The enemies who treated Israel so unmercifully were said to have -received their punishment. The poet said of the Spaniards that Italy -had become their grave; of France, that Spain had been its rod of -correction; of Germany, that the Turks were its executioners, who made -of it a wall against which to direct their cannon; and of England, -that wild and savage Scotland was a perpetual thorn in its side. One -great comfort was that all these sufferings, sorrows, and trials which -came upon the Jewish race were literally announced and precisely -foretold by the prophets. They had only served to elevate Israel, and -as the prophecies of evil were verified, so they might trust that the -prophecies of good would not remain unfulfilled. - -The dialogues end with comforting prophecies in the feeling words of -Isaiah. This edifying description served doubtless to sustain the -Marranos in their newly-recovered creed, and to endure sufferings of -every kind for it, even death itself. - -Samuel Usque was of opinion that the sufferings of the Jewish people -were soon to decrease, and that the long looked-for morning would soon -follow the darkness of night. But the church showed him that this -anticipation was ill-founded. He lived to see fresh tribulations arise -in his immediate neighborhood, and a whole system of fresh persecutions -put into practice, which the Jewish historian, Joseph Cohen, was able -to record in his annals of Jewish martyrdom. These fresh troubles -had their origin in the reaction which the Roman Catholic Church was -ardently desirous to institute against the ever-growing Reformation. -Two men strove at almost the same time, quite independently of each -other, to re-establish declining Catholicism, and thereby laid snares -in the way of the progress of the human race. A Neapolitan, Pietro -Caraffa, and a Spaniard, Ignatius Loyola, both men of zeal, and ready -to take the initiative, began with self-castigation, and ended by -reducing the minds and bodies of others to bondage. The worm-eaten -papacy, supposed to be crumbling away beneath the laughter and derision -of its opponents, for which its very friends had nothing but a shrug of -the shoulders, was raised by these two men to a height greater almost -than in the time of Innocent III and his immediate successors, because -it rested, not on the tottering foundations of dreamy belief, but on -the firm ground of powerful conviction and reckless determination. -Caraffa, afterwards Pope Paul IV, and Loyola, the founder of the order -of Jesuits, so powerful to this day, were very much in earnest in -impressing the minds of the faithful with the belief in the supremacy -of the papacy and the pope's power to bind and to loose, both in -heaven and on earth, they themselves being firmly convinced thereof. -Caraffa re-established the discipline of the church which had grown -lax, increased its severity, and placed a rod of iron in her hand. He -introduced into the Catholic world at large the means which Torquemada, -Deza, and Ximenes de Cisneros had employed in Spain to force Jews and -Moors to become members of the church, namely, the stake. All who held -a belief differing by so much as a hair's breadth from the papacy were -to abjure it, or be burnt. Merciless force, which does not think, and -destroys all independent thought, was to restore credit to the defamed -church. - -To regain possession of the minds which had striven to emancipate -themselves, and to keep them in bondage, the Inquisition thought it -in the highest degree necessary to watch the press. The press had -brought mischief and schism into the church (so thought Caraffa -and his associates); the press, then, must be gagged. Only what was -approved by the pope and his followers was to be printed. Censorship -of the press had been introduced by previous popes, but as anything -had hitherto been obtainable by bribery, publishers had been able to -print and disseminate seditious works against the existing church -system, either with or without the knowledge of the clergy appointed -to control such publications. The seditious controversial pamphlets -in the Reuchlin quarrel, the famous "Letters," Von Hutten's shafts at -the papacy, Luther's first pamphlets against the Romish Babylonian -harlot, inflammable materials which, appearing in rapid succession, -on all sides kindled the tow of which the church tent was woven, -were the result of negligent censorship. This was now to be changed. -The censorship was henceforth intrusted only to priests faithful -to the papacy, and, either from conviction or from instincts of -self-preservation, they exercised their office without leniency. - -The Jews soon felt the effect of this fierce Catholic reaction, for -they had no sort of protection, and owed their miserable existence -only to neglect in the enforcement of the canonical laws against them. -As soon as the church began seriously to put these hostile decrees -into execution, the existence, or at least the peace, of the Jews was -endangered. First of all the question of the Talmud was again raised, -but not with the lukewarmness of forty years before. At that time -Pfefferkorn and the Dominicans of Cologne could not hope to obtain a -hearing before the papal chair for their proposal to burn the Talmud, -but were obliged to have recourse to all sorts of ruses in order to -gain over the emperor to their policy. Now a totally different spirit -prevailed. The universal harm caused by the Talmud needed only to be -hinted at by malicious converts for a decree to be at once issued -against it. By such the fresh outcry against it was raised. - -Elias Levita, the Hebrew grammarian, who had lived for a long time -in the house of Cardinal Egidio de Viterbo, and had instructed many -Christians in the Hebrew language, both personally and by his writings, -and had also imparted to some a superficial knowledge of the Kabbala, -left two grandsons, the children of his daughter, who were received in -Christian circles. One of them, Eliano, had learnt Hebrew thoroughly, -and was a proof reader and copyist in several towns of Italy; his -brother, Solomon Romano, had traveled much in Germany, Turkey, -Palestine, and Egypt, and understood many languages: Hebrew, Latin, -Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish. Eliano, the elder, had become a Christian -under the name of Victor Eliano, and was a priest, later even a canon. -Solomon Romano was so indignant at this that he hastened to Venice to -persuade his brother to return to the bosom of Judaism. But instead of -converting, he himself became converted. A Venetian patrician, much -attached to the church, set about bringing him over to Christianity, -and what he began, a Jesuit finished. Solomon Romano was baptized -(1551), and assumed the name of John Baptista, to the great grief of -his mother, who was still living. He became a Jesuit and afterwards an -ecclesiastical writer, wrote upon the mysteries of the Christian faith, -a Hebrew and Arabic catechism, and other similar works. This grandson -of the grammarian Elias Levita, with two other converts, Joseph Moro -and Ananel di Foligno, not content with having forsworn their religion, -appeared before the pope, like Nicholas Donin, to denounce the Talmud, -and repeated the same slanders, namely, that the books of the Talmud -contained abuse of Jesus, the church, the whole of Christendom, and -that they hindered the conversion of the Jews in a body. Julius III was -by no means bigoted, least of all was he inimical to Jews. But it no -longer lay with the pope to decide upon the Talmud; this task devolved -on the court of the Inquisition, that is to say, on the fanatical -Caraffa, and Julius III was obliged to approve and sign the decree laid -before him by the inquisitor general (August 12th, 1553)--another -proof of the emptiness of the boasted infallibility of the papacy. Leo -X had encouraged the printing of the Talmud, and the third pope after -him decreed its destruction. The officers of the Inquisition invaded -the houses of the Roman Jews, confiscated the copies of the Talmud and -compilations made from it, and burnt them with special malice on the -Jewish New Year's Day (September 9th), so that the Jews might feel the -grief at the destruction of their sacred books the more keenly. The -inquisitors did not wage war against the Talmud in Rome only. Copies -were burnt by hundreds of thousands throughout the whole Romagna, in -Ferrara, Mantua, Venice, Padua, and in the island of Candia, which -belonged to Venice. The officers of the Inquisition in their fury no -longer distinguished between the Talmud and other Hebrew writings. -Everything that fell into their hands became a prey to the flames; they -even seized copies of the Holy Scriptures. The Jews of all Catholic -countries were in despair; they were robbed by this confiscation of the -rabbinical books which contain the precepts of a religious life, and -in which there is no word referring to Christianity. They, therefore, -appealed to the pope to revoke the decree, or at least to permit them -the use of these harmless rabbinical writings. Julius III agreed to -this latter request, and issued a bull (May 29th, 1554) that the Jews -be compelled, under pain of corporal punishment, to give up all copies -of the Talmud, but that the bailiffs be not allowed to seize other -Hebrew works, or vex the Jews. Transgressors of this decree were to -be visited with severe ecclesiastical punishment. Henceforward all -Hebrew books were subjected to inspection before they were published, -lest they contain a shadow of reproach against Christianity or Rome. -The censors were mostly baptized Jews, who thus had the opportunity of -tormenting their former brethren in faith. - -Matters became worse for the Jews after the death of Julius III, as the -college of cardinals insisted that all henceforth elected to the papacy -should belong to the strictest church party, if possible, be monks. -Cultivated dignitaries, interested in humanistic studies, who loved the -arts and sciences, if such there still were, had fallen into disfavor. - -Marcellus II, the first of the reactionary popes, was succeeded in -the papal chair by the bigoted and fanatical Caraffa, under the name -of Paul IV (May, 1555-August, 1559). He retained in old age all the -violence and passion of his youth, and framed his policy accordingly. -He hated not only Protestants and Jews, but also the Spaniards, the -most useful tools of ecclesiastical fanaticism; he termed them and the -bigoted king, Philip II, "worthless seed of the Jews and Moors." Soon -after his accession to the papal chair he issued a bull, by which every -synagogue throughout the Papal States was ordered to contribute ten -ducats for the maintenance of the house of catechumens in which Jews -were educated in the Christian faith. Still more severe was his second -bull against the Jews (July 12th, 1555), which enforced the canonical -laws against them with great harshness. They were to remain shut up -in Ghettos, and were to possess only one synagogue; the rest were to -be destroyed. They were not allowed to employ Christian servants, not -even wet-nurses, and were forbidden to have intercourse with Christians -in general. Every Jew was commanded to wear a green cap, and every -Jewess a green veil, even outside the precincts of the city. They were -not to be addressed as "Sir" by the Christian population. They were -forbidden to own real estate, and those who had any were ordered to -sell it within six months; thus they were compelled to part with their -lands, worth more than 500,000 gold crowns, for a fifth of their value. -But the severest blow was that Jewish physicians were prohibited from -attendance on Christians, though so many popes owed their health to -them. Heavy penalties were attached to the infringement of this edict. -These cruel measures were carried out with extreme severity, and -confiscation of copies of the Talmud was not interrupted. Thereupon, -many Jews forsook Rome, which had become so malicious towards them, and -betook themselves to more tolerant states, but they were maltreated on -the way by fanatical mobs. Those who remained in Rome were treated in -a most undignified manner by the pope. First it was said that they had -only made a feint of selling their lands, and had executed sham deeds -of sale, and for this they were imprisoned; next the pope announced -that those Jews who were not working for the common good should -leave Rome within a given time. When the terrified Jews asked for an -explanation of what was meant by "working for the general good," they -received the Pharaoh-like reply, "You shall know at the proper time." - -Paul IV compelled them to do forced labor in repairing the walls of -Rome, which he desired to fortify against the Spaniards, of whom he -had wilfully made enemies. Once he, whom the Jews not unjustly called -Haman, impelled by his fierce enmity against them, commanded his nephew -to set fire to all their dwellings under the veil of the darkness of -night. The latter was about to carry out the order, though unwillingly, -when he met the sensible cardinal, Alexander Farnese, who advised him -to delay the execution of the inhuman deed that the pope might have -time to consider. The order was revoked on the following day. - -The fanatical Pope Paul IV thus ill-treated the Jews, but he raged -with even greater fury against the Marranos in his dominions. Many, -compelled to become Christians in Portugal, had found an asylum in -Ancona, and received an indemnity from Pope Clement VII guaranteeing -that they should not be molested by the Inquisition, but might confess -Judaism. The next two moderate popes, Paul III and Julius III, had -confirmed this privilege to the Marranos, convinced as they were that -baptism, enforced by violence, could have no sacramental significance. -The more violently the Inquisition now introduced into Portugal -proceeded against the Marranos, like that in Spain, the more fugitives -took refuge in Italy. They settled, with the property rescued, in -Ferrara and Ancona, trusting in the privileges assured to them by the -head of Catholic Christendom. But what did the vindictive Pope Paul -IV care for an assurance of safety granted by his predecessors, and -for a time tacitly recognized by himself, if it was in opposition to -his notion of orthodoxy? His perverse spirit could not suffer those -to live as Jews who had been sprinkled with baptismal water. Paul, -therefore, issued a secret order that all the Marranos in Ancona, -already numbering several hundreds, should be thrown into the dungeons -of the Inquisition, a trial of their orthodoxy instituted, and their -property sequestered (Elul--August, 1555). This was a severe blow -to the Marranos, some of whom had been there for half a century, and -had lulled themselves into a dream of security. Even those Marranos -who were Turkish subjects, and were dwelling only for a short time in -the flourishing seaport because of their trade with the Levant, were -included in the accusation of Judaizing, and imprisoned, and their -goods confiscated, as a matter of course. The furious pope thus cut off -a considerable source of his revenue at the moment when he was about to -plunge into a costly war with Spain. - -But very few Marranos succeeded in escaping from the bailiffs of the -Inquisition. They were all received by Duke Guido Ubaldo, of Urbino, -and quartered in Pesaro, because he was then at enmity with the pope, -and thought to transfer the trade of the Levant from Ancona to Pesaro -by means of the connection of the Marranos with Turkey. Duke Hercules -II, of Ferrara, also offered the Portuguese and Spanish Jews, from -whatever country they might have fled, an asylum in his dominions, -and formally invited them thither (December, 1555). Among those who -escaped to Pesaro was a man then held in high repute, the celebrated -physician Amatus (Chabib) Lusitanus (born 1511, died 1568), a sensible -and intelligent man, a skillful physician, a noted scholar, and a man -of equal conscientiousness and amiability. As a pretended Christian -he had borne the name of Joao Rodrigo de Castel-Branco. He appears to -have been driven from his home by the introduction of the Inquisition -into Portugal. He had been for some time in Antwerp, then the most -important city of Flanders, afterwards visited both Ferrara and Rome, -but had permanently established himself at Ancona (about 1549), where -he had openly assumed his family name of Chabib, and Latinized it under -the form of Amatus Lusitanus. Although he openly professed himself a -Jew, he was frequently summoned to the court of Pope Julius III to -attend him in sickness. Sufferers came to him from far and near. The -art of healing was to him a sacred office, which he fulfilled with his -whole soul in the endeavor to prolong human life. Amatus was able to -take a solemn oath--by God and His holy commandments--that he had -always labored purely for the welfare of mankind, had never concerned -himself about compensation, had never accepted valuable presents, had -treated the poor without fee, and made no difference between Jews, -and Christians, and Turks. Nothing ever hindered him in his devoted -calling, neither family considerations, nor long distances. Amatus -had many disciples of his art who were attached to him, and whom he -regarded as his children. In his young days he had written medical -works so highly esteemed that they were often printed during his -lifetime. The greatest interest was excited by his seven "Centuries" -(each dealing with a hundred cases of illness), in which he minutely -described his remedies and their effect, and gave the characteristics -of his patients. These "Cures" procured for him very extensive fame -during his lifetime; they were frequently printed in Italy, France, -Germany, and even in Spain, and were used by other physicians as -text-books. Amatus received an invitation from the king of Poland -to come to his court in the capacity of his private physician, an -invitation which he did not accept. - -This benefactor of mankind, the ornament of his time, was obliged to -flee like a criminal from Ancona to Pesaro, and afterwards to journey -even further, because he refused to make a ridiculous confession of -faith before the bloodthirsty Inquisition of Paul IV, and did not -wish to expose himself to the risk of death at the stake. More than -a hundred Portuguese Marranos, unable to flee, had to pine in the -dungeons of the Inquisition until their sentence was announced to them. -This was to the effect that those who penitently made confession of -the Catholic faith should be set at liberty, but be carried to the -island of Malta, and forfeit all honors and dignities. Sixty Marranos -agreed to this hypocrisy, but twenty-four of them, among them an aged -woman, Donna Maiora, remained firm in the faith of their fathers, "The -Lord our God is one God," and were burnt at the stake (May, 1556). -Most of those to be transported to Malta escaped, and took refuge in -Turkey. A cry of horror was heard from all Jews when the news of this -shocking catastrophe was spread abroad. The sentence was as illegal -as cruel, because, as has already been said, the religious freedom of -the Marranos in Ancona had been solemnly confirmed by three popes in -succession. The Portuguese Marranos in Turkey were completely stunned -by this blow administered to their fellow-sufferers. They bethought -themselves of means by which to be revenged on the insanely cruel pope. -The peculiar position of the Jews in this century made it possible for -them to entertain the idea of a struggle with their malicious enemy -in the chair of St. Peter. A union of all the Jews of the East might -furnish the means. - -There lived at this time a noble Jewish lady, an ornament to her -sex and her people by her grace, her intelligence, her character, -and greatness of mind, one of those beings whom Providence seems to -place in the world from time to time that the likeness of man to the -Divine Image may not be quite forgotten. Donna Gracia Mendesia was a -name which her Jewish contemporaries pronounced only with admiration -and love. Blessed with ample means, which she expended wisely, and -only for the benefit of others and for the elevation of mankind, -she commanded an influence equal to that of a princess, and reigned -over the willing hearts of hundreds of thousands. She was called the -Esther of her time. But what anguish of mind she was obliged to endure -before she dared openly to call herself Gracia (Hannah)! The waves of -meanness and wickedness surged around her, but could not sully the -purity of her soul. Born in Portugal (about 1510, died about 1568), -of a Marrano family named Benveniste, she was married under the -Christian name of Beatrice to a rich participator in the same unhappy -fate, one of the house of Nassi, who had taken the baptismal name -of Francisco Mendes. He had founded an extensive banking business, -branches of which extended through Flanders and France. The German -emperor and ruler of two continents, Charles V, the king of France, and -many princes besides, were debtors to the house of Mendes. A younger -brother, Diogo Mendes, was head of the branch bank at Antwerp. When the -husband of Beatrice died (before 1535), leaving her with one daughter -named Reyna, and the terrible Inquisition, introduced into Portugal, -threatened danger to her property and the lives of herself and her -child, she betook herself to her brother-in-law at Antwerp, accompanied -by a younger sister and several young nephews. She furnished poor -Marranos with the means to flee from the fires of the Inquisition. -The sums which pseudo-Christians paid to the emissaries and creatures -of the pope to frustrate the Inquisition, went through her hands and -her brother-in-law's. The Mendes family acquired a high position in -Antwerp, where there were many Marranos. Mendesia's young, handsome and -clever nephew, Joao Miques, associated with the first people in the -city, and was much beloved by Maria, ruler of the Netherlands, formerly -queen of Hungary, sister to Charles V. - -Beatrice was by no means at ease in Antwerp. Affection for the -religion in which she had been born, and which she was compelled to -deny, and horror of the Catholic faith forced upon her, made Flanders -just as hateful to her as Portugal. She longed for a country where -she could freely follow the impulses of her heart, glowing with love -to Judaism. She, therefore, importuned her brother-in-law, the head -of the banking business, who had married her sister, either to go -to Germany, or elsewhere, with her, or pay over her share of the -property. Diogo Mendes fixed a time for this removal, but died before -it arrived (1540-1546); he also left a widow and a daughter, Gracia -the younger. This was the beginning of sorrowful days for Mendesia. -She was recognized by her brother-in-law's will as the head of the -widely-extended business, but could not settle the affairs of the house -quickly enough to enable her to follow the wish of her heart, and -betake herself to some tolerant land, where she could openly confess -herself a Jewess. Besides, Charles V, in his covetousness, cast an -eye upon the large property of the house of Mendes. An accusation was -made by the imperial attorney-general that the deceased Diogo Mendes -had secretly practiced Judaism. It may also have become known that he -had supported the antagonists of the Inquisition by word and deed. It -was, therefore, decreed that the whole of his property, being that of -a heretic, should be forfeited to the exchequer. The order was issued -that the goods and account-books of the house of Mendesia be seized -and sealed. But the widow Mendesia succeeded in satisfying the avarice -of the officials for the moment by bribes and the advance of a large -loan. But it was impossible for her to leave Antwerp without exciting -suspicion against herself and endangering her property still more. Thus -she was obliged to remain there in great distress of mind for more than -two years, until the loan was repaid by the emperor. - -At length the hour of deliverance seemed to be at hand, when she might -leave Antwerp, and proceed to Venice. A story circulated that her -nephew, Joao Miques, had fled to Venice with her daughter Reyna, for -whose hand several Christian noblemen had sued. Perhaps this was a -story sedulously spread by the Mendes family so as to afford a pretext -for their journey to Venice, and that no hindrance might be interposed. -But this precaution was not successful. After her departure, Charles -V again gave orders that her property, so far as it lay within his -dominions, should be seized, because the sisters were secret Jewesses, -and Mendesia the elder (as she was called) was compelled to pay large -sums to avert this fresh calamity. - -But misfortune, greater than any that she had yet experienced, was -in store for her at Venice, from a quarter whence she least expected -it, namely, from her younger sister. The latter, as reckless and -scatter-brained as the elder was prudent and sedate, demanded her share -of the property and her daughter's, to do with as she pleased. - -But Donna Mendesia neither could nor would agree to this, she having -been made sole manager of the property, and also guardian of her niece, -still under age. Chafing at this guardianship, and probably guided -by evil counselors, the younger sister took a step which turned out -to her own disadvantage. She informed the Venetian government that -her sister was about to emigrate to Turkey, and take with her all her -wealth, there to resume her adherence to Judaism, while she herself and -her daughter desired to remain Christians; and she asked the Venetian -authorities to assist her in obtaining possession of her property, in -order that she might use it as a good Christian in Venice. The rulers -of Venice, seeing the prospect of a rich prize, did not hesitate to -take up the accusation, cited the accused to appear before the legal -authorities, and arrested her to prevent her flight. Her ill-advised -or worthless sister also sent an avaricious, Jew-hating messenger to -France, to take possession of the property there belonging to the -Mendes family. This envoy, thinking himself insufficiently paid for -his errand, denounced the younger sister also as a secret Jewess, and -the French court confiscated the Mendes property in France. King Henry -II also held himself exempt from repaying his debt to the family. The -unfortunate Mendesia was meantime endeavoring to divert these blows -aimed at herself and her property. Her nephew, Joao Miques, gave -liberal assistance to prevent losses and to set his noble relative -free. Either he or his aunt found a way to induce Sultan Solyman to -embrace their cause. Such immense riches were about to be brought -into his dominions, and the Venetian Republic, which existed only by -his forbearance, dared deprive him of them? That roused his fury. His -private physician, Moses Hamon, a Jew who hoped to win the hand of the -rich heiress Reyna for his son, had disposed the sultan in favor of the -Mendes family. A special messenger of state (Tshaus) was sent by the -Porte to Venice, with instructions that the imprisoned Marrano was at -once to be set free and allowed to depart unhindered for Turkey with -all her property. In consequence of this a difference arose between -the court of Turkey and the Republic of Venice, which afterwards led -to animosities. An important part was thus thrust upon this poor lady -against her will. - -In the meantime she succeeded--no one knows how--in finding a -place of refuge in Ferrara under the protection of the liberal-minded -Duke Hercules of Este, where she resided for several years (about -1549 to 1553) under her Jewish name, a blessing and a comfort to her -fellow-sufferers for their faith. Here she was able for the first -time to exercise openly and freely her sublime virtue, her lively -sympathies, her generosity, her genuine piety--in a word, all the -nobility of her heart. Her wisdom and prudence were of great service -to the Marranos in Italy. The poet Samuel Usque, who dedicated his -beautiful work to her, spoke of her with enthusiasm and deep respect. -He makes his Numeo, who plays the part of consoler in the dialogues, -utter among other grounds of consolation for the sufferings of the -Israelites, that they had met with unexpected help from this good woman: - - "Who has not seen Divine Mercy reveal itself in human form, - as it has shown, and still shows itself to thee a shield - and defense against thy wretchedness? Who has not seen the - heartfelt compassion of Miriam over again in the sacrifice - of her own life to save that of her brethren? Or the great - wisdom of Deborah in ruling her fellow-men? Or the infinite - virtue and holiness of Esther in protecting the defenseless? - Or the memorable exertions of the chaste widow Judith in order - to deliver the besieged from terror? The Lord hath sent her - down in our days from the midst of His holy angels, and united - every virtue in one person, and for thy happiness it is that He - hath placed this soul in the lovely form of the blessed Jewess - Nassi. She it was who, at the beginning of the dispersion (of - the Marranos), gave strength and hope to thy perishing sons, - made hopeless by their want of means to escape the fire, and - encouraged them to go forth on their pilgrimage. With bountiful - hand did she succor those who had already set out on their - wanderings in Flanders and other parts, and who, weakened by - poverty and overcome by the perils of the sea passage, were in - danger of getting no further, and strengthened them in their - need. She did not withhold her favor even from her enemies. - With her pure hand and her heavenly will has she freed most of - this nation (of Marranos) from the depths of endless misery, - poverty, and sin, led them into safe places, and gathered them - together into obedience to the precepts of the true God. Thus - did she become thy strength in thy weakness." - -The two editors of the Ferrara Spanish Bible, Abraham Usque and Athias, -who dedicated it to "Her Highness the Senora Donna Gracia," described -her invaluable services in a few words: - - "We desire to dedicate the translation to your Grace, as the - person whose deserts among our people will always occupy the - foremost place. May you be pleased to accept it, to favor and - protect it with the spirit which has always favored those who - have asked help of you." - -As she protected all three of the Usques, this eulogy may sound partial -from their lips; but all, even the most conscientious rabbis of the -time, were full of her praise, and wrote with equal enthusiasm, if not -elegance, of her virtues: - - "The noble princess, the glory of Israel, the wise woman who - builds her house in holiness and purity, with her hand sustains - the poor and needy, in order to make them happy in this world, - and blessed in the world to come. Many are they whom she has - rescued from death, and lifted up from the abasement of a - worthless life, when they were languishing in a dungeon, and - were given over to death. She hath founded houses wherein all - may learn the law of God. She has given to many the means - whereby they may not only live, but live in plenty." - -After Donna Gracia Nassi had become reconciled to her sister, who -probably saw that she endangered herself by assuming an antagonistic -attitude towards Gracia, after she had seen her sister's child, -the beautiful young Gracia, betrothed to her nephew Samuel Nassi in -Ferrara, and after she had provided like a mother for all the members -of her family, she carried out her long-cherished intention, and -betook herself to the Turkish capital to escape the many annoyances -to which she was subject in Christian territory. Her gifted nephew, -Joao Miques, who was betrothed to her daughter Reyna, and who had -undertaken long journeys to Lyons, Marseilles, Rome, and Sicily on -business affairs, had by his adroitness prepared a good reception for -her in Constantinople. With skillful diplomacy, acquired by intercourse -with Christian statesmen, he obtained a hearty recommendation to -Constantinople from M. de Lansac, the ambassador at the French court, -with whom the Mendes-Nassi family had been at enmity, and so met with -a favorable reception there. In Constantinople, Joao Miques made open -avowal of Judaism, assuming the name of Joseph Nassi, and marrying his -wealthy cousin Reyna. He did not go thither alone, but took with him -a great following of 500 persons, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian -Jews. He made his appearance there as a prince; his tact, his knowledge -of European affairs, and his wealth, procured him an entrance into -the court circle, and secured the favor of Solyman. But his noble -mother-in-law remained the principal manager of the large property of -the family. - -The Jewish inhabitants of Constantinople soon felt the beneficent -hand of Donna Gracia and her son-in-law. They assisted the poor, -established houses of prayer and schools, and made endowments for -teachers of the Talmud. But their benevolence was not limited to -Spaniards and Portuguese, it extended to Germans and beyond the city of -Constantinople. - -When the news came that Pope Paul IV had imprisoned the Marranos of -Ancona with the intention of burning them sooner or later, the heart -of Donna Gracia felt a terrible pang, as a mother when her children are -in misfortune, for she had taken them all into her heart as her sons -and brothers. She did not give herself up to useless lamentation, but -at once joined with her son-in-law in taking active steps for their -relief. She first addressed herself to Sultan Solyman, entreating -him to demand that at least Marrano Jews from Turkey, in Ancona on -business, be surrendered to him, and had the happiness of seeing this -request fulfilled. Sultan Solyman addressed a letter to the pope -(March 9th, 1556) in the haughty tone which Turkish rulers, in the -consciousness of their power, assumed towards the Christian princes, -weakened by disunion. He complained that his Jewish subjects had been -unjustly imprisoned, whereby his treasury had suffered the loss of -fully 4,000 ducats, besides a still greater diminution of revenues -on account of injuries to Turkish Jews. The sultan insisted that the -pope should at once set at liberty all Turkish Marranos in Ancona, -and hinted that, in case his representation meet with an unfavorable -reception, reprisals would be made upon Christians dwelling in his -dominions. Paul IV was most unwillingly compelled to submit, set free -the Turkish Jews, and allow them to depart uninjured. The remainder, -who had no powerful partisan, were, as has been said, burnt. The Jews -resolved to be revenged on the pope, and hoped for the active aid of -Donna Gracia and her son-in-law in accomplishing this purpose. - -Duke Guido Ubaldo, of Urbino, had received the Marranos from Ancona in -Pesaro, only because he thought by this means to bring the Levantine -trade of the Jews to his own port. The community of Pesaro, therefore, -sent a dispatch to all the Turkish communities which had commercial -relations with Italy, requesting that they no longer send their goods -to Ancona, but to Pesaro. The commerce of the Turkish Jews was very -considerable; everything passed through their hands, they competed -with the Venetians, and sent out their own ships and galleys. The -Jewish Levantine merchants had hitherto made Ancona the staple port -for the wares shipped from Turkey to Europe, in order to lessen the -pre-eminence of Venice. In the first ebullition of indignation at the -shameful deed of Pope Paul IV, many of the Levantine Jews agreed to the -proposal of the Jews of Pesaro (Elul--August, 1556), and resolved to -punish him severely by entirely cutting off the important source of -revenue arising from the commerce of the Levant. But as this measure -was practicable only if all Jews trading with Italy were privy to it, -the participators in the arrangement at first only agreed not to carry -on trade with Ancona for eight months (till March, 1557). - -The Jews of Pesaro and the Marranos formerly in the Turkish dominions, -of course, made every effort to effect a general movement to place the -pope and his seaport under ban. But the resident Jews of Ancona, not -Marranos, were afraid that their interests would suffer injury by the -removal of the trade of the Levant to Pesaro, and they lost no time -in sending letters to the Jewish communities in Turkey, entreating -them not to make any binding agreement, because they would incur great -danger, owing to the passionate disposition of the pope, who would -certainly drive them into misery if he learnt that the Jews intended to -be revenged on him. - -All eyes were, therefore, directed towards Constantinople, for thither -the representatives of the commercial towns of Salonica, Adrianople, -Broussa, Ancona, and the Morea had sent letters requesting that the -matter be well weighed, and their interests regarded. Donna Gracia -and Joseph Nassi, of course, had the principal voice, and they were -resolved from the beginning to punish the inhuman pope severely. -They had instructed their agents to send the goods belonging to their -house to Pesaro. The Portuguese and some of the Spanish communities in -Turkey agreed to make a decided stand and prohibit trade with Ancona -under threat of exclusion from Jewish commercial circles. But some -opposition was made in Constantinople itself, many of the merchants -fearing that their interests would be endangered by the preference -given to Pesaro. The matter was, therefore, in the hands of the rabbis -of Constantinople. If they unanimously considered that the port of -Ancona was to be avoided out of regard for the danger which threatened -the Marranos of Pesaro, their authority would fall into the balance, -and settle the question. Gracia and Joseph, therefore, influenced the -rabbis, so that they decided to pronounce against the pope. - -Two rabbis, however, were opposed to this decision. As no unanimous -decision was made in the chief community of Constantinople, the Jewish -merchants of the other Turkish communities were spared the imposition -of restrictions upon their trade with Ancona. In vain Donna Gracia, -who regarded the question as of the deepest interest, demanded an -opinion from the rabbis of the community of Safet, which enjoyed the -highest authority among the Jews of the East, in the persons of its -two representatives, Joseph Karo and Moses di Trani. The ban of the -rabbis against Pope Paul IV was not put into action. Whilst the rabbis -were still consulting, that which Donna Gracia and her adherents had -been fearing to their great grief came to pass. Duke Guido Ubaldo, -disappointed in his expectation of seeing his port of Pesaro become -the center of the Jewish Levantine commerce, and attacked by the pope -for his favor towards Jews, ordered the Marranos to depart from Pesaro -(March, 1558). It must be accounted a great merit in him that he did -not surrender them to the officers of the Inquisition. Most of the -exiles sailed eastward in hired ships; but the pope's naval police lay -in wait for them, and they escaped with difficulty. Some were taken -prisoners, and treated as slaves. The skillful and humane physician, -Amatus Lusitanus, a Marrano, who had resided for a short time in -Pesaro, and then in Ragusa, restoring many Christians to life and -health, was also obliged to quit Christian territory and take refuge -in the town of Salonica, almost entirely peopled by Jews (1558-1559). -This same year seems to have brought misfortune also to the Marranos -of Ferrara, and the duke withdrew his protection from them, for the -printing press of Abraham Usque was closed, and Joseph Nassi's brother, -Don Samuel Nassi, was so badly treated by the duke, that he was obliged -to call in the intercession of the Turkish court to enable him to -remove to Constantinople in peace. One threatening glance from the -infidel sultan had more effect upon Christian princes than the voice of -justice and humanity. - -The nearer Paul IV approached the grave, the more did he become -incensed against the Jews. Two baptized Jews, named Sixtus Senensis, -and Philip or Joseph Moro, at his command traveled through the Jewish -communities situated in the Papal States and annoyed the Jews with -their seditious sermons. The latter once forced his way into the -synagogue at Recanate on the Day of Atonement (1558) with a crucifix, -which the Jews regarded as an idolatrous image, and with violence -placed it in the ark where the sacred Torah was kept. When the Jews -turned him out for this insult to their sanctuary, he collected the -furious mob round the house of God, and two Jews who had laid hands -on him were seized and scourged by order of the chief magistrate. -Pope Paul IV was most enraged against the Marranos and the Talmud. He -tried to drive the former out of their most secret hiding-places Many -pseudo-Christians of Spain and Portugal, unable to save themselves by -flight, entered the orders, and, so to speak, howled with the wolves to -escape being attacked by them. Paul IV, to whom complaints were made -that Jewish Christians had joined the orders of monks, forbade them to -receive Jews as members. - -He went yet more thoroughly to work with the Talmud, of which not -a copy was left in the Papal States or throughout the greater part -of Italy, owners thereof being exposed to the heaviest penalty. The -schools, for the most part, were closed. Had this condition of things -become universal, great ignorance and stagnation would have spread -among Italian Jews, and facilitated the great object of the pope-- -their conversion. But at this time a large school and an asylum for -the persecuted Talmud arose in Cremona, a town of northern Italy, -belonging to Milan. A Talmudist, Joseph Ottolenghi, from Germany, -opened a school under the protection of the governor of Milan, teaching -the Talmud and having rabbinical works printed. Every owner of a copy -of the Talmud sent it secretly to Cremona, and thus very many were -collected there, and thence exported to Germany, Poland, and the -East. This scanty religious freedom the Jews retained also under the -Spaniards, who were compelled to carry on war with Paul IV. After the -pope had been obliged to submit to a disgraceful peace, he planned to -have the Jewish writings in Cremona burnt. The Dominicans, who acted -as the papal police, influenced the people, so as to be able to exert -pressure upon the governor. Inflammatory papers were distributed in -Cremona calling upon the people to kill the Jews (April 8th, 1559). A -few days afterwards the governor was urged by two Dominicans, one of -whom was Sixtus Senensis, a baptized Jew, to erect a pyre on which to -burn copies of the Talmud, because it was said to contain nothing but -blasphemies of Jesus. The governor did not choose to give credence to -the accusations against the Jews without further confirmation, so two -witnesses stood up against the Talmud (April 17th), a baptized Jew, -Vittorio Eliano, grandson, by a daughter, of the Jewish grammarian -Elias Levita, and a worthless German Jew, Joshua dei Cantori. By them -the Spanish governor of Milan was convinced of the injuriousness of the -Talmud, and gave orders to his soldiery to make a house to house search -among the Jews of Cremona and in the printing offices, to collect all -the copies they could find, and make a great fire of them. Ten or -twelve thousand books were burnt on this occasion. - -Vittorio Eliano, the malicious proselyte, very nearly came to grief by -this burning of the Talmud, for the Spanish soldiery, having received -orders to wage war upon the writings of Jews, troubled themselves but -little whether the contents were Talmudical, or otherwise, and they -very nearly burnt the Zohar, the Kabbalistic text-book, the especial -favorite of the papacy. Since the enthusiasm of Pico di Mirandola, -still more of Reuchlin, Cardinal Egidio de Viterbo, and the Franciscan -Galatino, for mysticism, the most orthodox of the Fathers and Princes -of the church believed firmly that the Kabbala contained the mysteries -of Christianity. The order of extinction issued against the Talmud, -then, did not touch the Zohar. In fact, it was precisely under Pope -Paul IV that it was first printed, with the consent of the Inquisition, -in Mantua. The Kabbala was to rise out of the ruins of the Talmud. Thus -the printing of the book which caused more permanent injury to Judaism -than any blow hitherto aimed at it was aided. From envy of the Mantuan -publishers, a Christian publisher, named Vincent Conti, of Cremona, -printed the Zohar at the same time, because the sale promised very -large profits in Italy and the East, and he even offered to furnish -a larger book in order to cast suspicion upon the Mantuan edition. -The baptized grandson of Elias Levita, the venomous canon Vittorio -Eliano, had charge of this Cremona Zohar, and he did not hesitate to -write a boastful Hebrew preface to attract buyers, and to have his own -name mentioned in connection with it. Whilst it was being printed, -the Spanish soldiers were searching for Jewish writings in Cremona, -and found two thousand copies of the Zohar, which they were about to -cast into the burning pile. Vittorio Eliano and his partners very -nearly lost their outlay and their profits, but another convert, the -above-named Sixtus of Siena, commissioned by the papal Inquisition to -help in destroying the Talmud in Cremona, restrained the fury of the -Spanish soldiery, and rescued the Zohar. Thus the Talmud was burnt, -and the Zohar spared for the time being. It was a wise instinct of the -enemies of the Jews which led them to spare this poisonous spring in -the hope that adherents of the Zohar would the sooner renounce Judaism. - -Spread abroad by the press, the Zohar came to be considered a canonical -book, and for some time was as much quoted as verses from the Bible, -and treated on an equality with the Holy Scriptures in all Hebrew works -not strictly Talmudical. But the love of the papacy for the Kabbala did -not last long. A few years later the Kabbalistic writings were included -in the catalogue of books to be burnt (Index expurgatorius). - -Paul IV's hatred of Jews and their writings was not confined to Italy, -but, nourished by the fanatical spirit aroused by him, extended far -and wide. Baptized Jews were always the tools employed in these -persecutions. One named Asher, from Udine, brought accusations against -Jewish works in Prague, and the authorities confiscated them one and -all, even prayer-books, and sent them to Vienna (1559). The Jewish -ministers were obliged to repeat the prayers in the synagogue by -heart. A fire which broke out at about this time in the Jews' quarter -of Prague, and by which a great number of their houses were reduced to -ashes, displayed the fanatical hatred of Christians towards them still -more clearly. Instead of hastening to the assistance of the unfortunate -people, and joining in their rescue, they threw helpless women and -children into the flames, and plundered the goods of the Jews. And as -if the measure of misfortune were not full enough, Ferdinand I, chosen -emperor about a year before, commenced the expulsion of the Jews from -Bohemia and Prague in real earnest. - -Emperor Ferdinand was, in reality, a mild prince, who sincerely -desired to maintain peace between Catholics and Protestants, but he -had an invincible dislike to Jews. It was he who first introduced the -tickets of notification, or permits, for the Jews of Austria. He made a -regulation by which every Jew resident in Austria who went on business -to Vienna, should at once on his arrival announce himself to the -marshal of the district, and state what was his business, and how long -he intended to remain in the place. To this restriction Ferdinand added -others, and at length commanded the expulsion of the Jews with their -wives and children, their servants and all their goods and chattels, -from Lower Austria. This decree of banishment was delayed for two -years, but they were finally compelled to withdraw from the country. - -Emperor Ferdinand destined the ancient community of Prague to the same -fate. What may have been the reason is either easy or difficult for -us to conceive, according to our way of thinking. The congregation -of Prague was in very evil repute among other Jewish communities, -being considered low, unprincipled, violent, and quarrelsome. Such -fierce disputes arose regularly about the appointment of rabbis and -the choice of the president, that the chief rabbis of Germany and -Italy, at the instigation of the emperor, were obliged to arrange a -system of election for the community of Prague. The reason of this sad -state of things was no doubt that, on the recall of the Jews after -the expulsion of twenty years previously, only the worst, none of the -well-disposed, members had returned. Christians were, no doubt, very -much overreached by this rabble, but Christians of the lower class were -probably not better nor more conscientious. Christians treated their -own brethren with the greatest leniency, but required the practice of -the strictest virtue and uprightness from Jews. Discussions about the -second expulsion of Jews from Prague were long carried on, for even -the archdukes then in the land were opposed to it; yet the banishment -took place (1561). The exiles were attacked, and plundered by robber -knights. But it was clear then, as after the first expulsion, that the -Christians of Prague, or at all events the nobility, longed for the -Jews. Scarcely were they driven out when steps were taken to recall -them, and this policy was favored by the princes. - -But Emperor Ferdinand refused the request to allow the Jews to return, -on the ground, genuine or assumed, that he had sworn to expel the Jews -from Prague, and could not break his oath. Thereupon a noble Jew of -Prague undertook a journey to Rome to procure from the new pope, Pius -IV (the Jew-hating Paul IV was dead), the absolution of the emperor -from his oath. - -This noble man was Mordecai Zemach ben Gershon, one of the noted -Soncin family of printers, whose ancestor, Gershon, or Girolamo, -Soncino, founded not only beautiful Hebrew, but also Latin, type, and -published both rabbinical works and Petrarch's poems. Members of this -family with great success carried on Jewish printing establishments in -several towns of Lombardy, in Constantinople, and in Prague. Although -Mordecai Zemach had borne gross insults to his honor from the people of -Prague, and his married daughter, a second Susannah, had been accused -of adultery by false witnesses, and sentenced by cowardly rabbis, -he yet showed himself ready to make the greatest sacrifices for the -good of the people of Prague. He undertook the journey to Rome amidst -many dangers and difficulties for the purpose above stated, and his -exertions were crowned with success. The pope, at that time invested -with the power to bind and to loose, relieved the emperor of his oath, -and the latter felt his conscience lightened. His son Maximilian -(afterwards emperor) took the Jews of Prague under his special -protection, and thus the decree of banishment was recalled. Jews were -again allowed to reside in Prague and a few other Bohemian towns, and -were also re-admitted to Austria. But they had a troubled existence -even under the best of the emperors, such as Maximilian II and Rudolph, -for the official hand of the Catholic Church was heavy upon them. - -The first consistent representative of the fanatical and persecuting -Catholic Church, Pope Paul IV, was dead (1559), and the people of Rome -cursed his memory and his system. The people flocked to the Capitol as -in the old times of the Roman Republic, traversed the eternal city, set -fire to the buildings of the Inquisition, maltreated the Dominicans -and the bailiffs of that tribunal, tore down the arms of the pope, -destroyed his statue, and rolled its head through the streets. With -derisive laughter the Romans looked on while a Jew placed the cap that -he and his brethren were compelled to wear on the statue of the very -pope who had issued the order concerning it. But of what avail was this -childish rage against the dead? The system survived its supporter for -centuries. The Jesuits and the strict church party had got the upper -hand in the Catholic Church, and each pope, willingly or unwillingly, -was obliged to submit to them. It was under Pope Pius IV, one of the -best high priests of Rome, that the principles of the council of Trent -were turned into decrees which enslave the minds of Catholics to this -very day. - -A deputation of the Jews of Rome waited upon the newly-chosen pope to -do homage to him, and described in touching words the sorrows which his -predecessors had brought upon them. Pius IV promised them relief, and -issued a bull for the Jews of the Papal States (February 27th, 1562), -which was certainly to their advantage, but the milder regulations -only made the restrictions still remaining appear the harsher. The -introduction to the bull is interesting, because it brings to light the -hypocrisy of the papal curia: - - "The precepts for your conduct issued by my highly venerated - predecessor, out of his zeal for religion, have (as we are - told) served some who coveted your goods as a pretext for false - accusations against you, and have been interpreted contrary to - the intention of my predecessor, thus causing you to be vexed - and disquieted. Therefore, we decree, in consideration that - Holy Mother Church grants and concedes much to Jews in order - that the remnant of them may be saved, and in accordance with - the example of our predecessors," etc. - -All that the new pope conceded, however, was that Jews of the Roman -dominions beyond the city be allowed to doff their distinguishing -mark, the yellow cap, acquire land to the value of 1,500 ducats, -trade in other things besides old clothes, and hold intercourse with -Christians, but not to keep Christian servants. This was about all -that one of the best popes granted, or dared grant. More important to -the Jews of Rome was the point that the accusations of transgressing -the harsh laws of Paul IV were not heard, as well as the charge of -misdemeanor against those who had not given up their copies of the -Talmud. The Italian Jews also made an effort to obtain from the pope -the remission of the interdict against the Talmud. But this question -was in the hands of the cardinals and bishops sitting in the council -of Trent, and to carry out their object the Italian communities chose -two deputies (October, 1563). As the council only approved the list of -forbidden books previously made out in the papal office, the opinion -of the pope and those who surrounded him served as a guide in the -treatment of Jewish writings. The decision of this point was left to -the pope, who afterwards issued a bull to the effect that the Talmud -was indeed accursed--like all humanistic literature, including -Reuchlin's "Augenspiegel and Kabbalistic writings"--but that it would -be allowed to appear if the name Talmud were omitted, and if before its -publication the passages inimical to Christianity were excised, that is -to say, if it were submitted to censorship (March 24th, 1564). Strange, -indeed, that the pope should have allowed the thing, and forbidden its -name! He was afraid of public opinion, which would have considered -the contradiction too great between one pope, who had sought out and -burnt the Talmud, and the next, who was allowing it to go untouched. -At all events, there was now a prospect that this written memorial, -so indispensable to all Jews, would once more be permitted to see the -light, although in a maimed condition. The printing of the Talmud was -in fact undertaken a few years later at Basle. - -But even this slight concession was withdrawn from the Jews of the -Papal States when Pius IV was succeeded by a pope who held gloomy, -monkish, intolerant institutions in higher esteem than human happiness -and human life, and who carried the ecclesiastical aims of Caraffa and -his colleagues to their extreme consequence. Pius V (1566-1572) outdid -his pattern, Paul IV, in love of persecution and cruelty. This pope -hated Jews no less than he hated Swiss Calvinists and French Huguenots. -They soon felt the severity of the new ecclesiasticism. Three months -after his enthronement (April 19th, 1566), Pius V confirmed in every -respect the restrictions which Paul IV had imposed on Jews; he even -increased their severity, and disregarded the ameliorations of his -predecessor as if they had never been granted. The former regulations, -then, were enforced: exclusion from intercourse with Christians, -prohibition to own lands, or to carry on any business except the trade -in old clothes, compulsion to wear the distinctive Jew badge, and -the refusal to permit more than one synagogue. But these edicts were -not issued against the Jews in the Papal States only; they extended -throughout the whole Catholic world. For at that day, in a period of -spiteful reaction against Protestantism, the decrees of the pope made -a far different impression from what they had produced previously, and -found willing executors. Thus days of sorrow were again beginning for -the Jews of Catholic countries. - -Once more Joseph Cohen had to enter trials in his "Annals of -Persecution," once more to collect the tears of his people in his "Vale -of Weeping" (Emek ha-Bacha). The ecclesiastical tyrant, Pius V, often -gave the opportunity. Under the pretext that the Jews of the Papal -States had infringed his canonical laws, he caused a number of them to -be thrown into prison, and their books to be collected and burnt. The -prosperous community of Bologna was visited with especial severity, -the blow being aimed at their property. In order to have a legal -reason for robbery, confusing questions upon Christianity were put at -a formal hearing before the tribunal of the Inquisition; for example, -whether the Jews regarded Catholics as idolaters; whether the forms -of imprecation against the Minaeans, and the "Kingdom of Sin" in the -prayers referred to Christians and the papacy, and especially whether -the story, in a work but little read, about a "Bastard, the Son of an -Outcast," was intended to refer to Jesus. - -A baptized Jew, named Alexander, had drawn up the points of accusation, -and the prisoners were questioned upon them, under application of -torture. Some of them succumbed to the pain, and confessed everything -that the bloody tribunal asked them. Only the rabbi of Bologna, Ishmael -Chanina, had the courage to declare even under torture, that if he -should confess anything during the unconsciousness which might ensue -from his sufferings, such confession would be null and void. As others, -however, had confessed to slanders uttered by Jews against Christians, -the papal curia had an excuse for its robberies. The rich and the -upper classes were forbidden under the severest penalties to leave -the town. But this foolish prohibition awakened in the minds of the -Jews of Bologna the idea of leaving the place entirely and forever. By -bribing the gatekeeper, they succeeded in escaping, with their wives -and children, from the net spread for them, and fled to Ferrara. Pope -Pius V was so incensed against the Jews for this act, that he informed -the college of cardinals that all Jews were to be expelled from the -Papal States. In vain some of the church dignitaries protested, showing -how the Jews had been protected by the chair of St. Peter from time -immemorial, that it had indeed pledged itself to shield the remainder -of the Jews, in the hope that they might be saved. In vain did the -commercial world of Ancona entreat the pope not to ruin by his own -deed the commercial prosperity of the Papal States; his hatred of -Jews stifled the voice of common sense, of justice, and of interest. -The bull was issued (February 26th, 1569), that all Jews in the Papal -States, except those of Rome and Ancona, should depart within three -months; those who remained were to be reduced to slavery, and undergo -even severer punishment. - -There were at that time about 1,000 Jewish families and 72 synagogues -in the Papal States, excluding Rome, Ancona, and Bologna. In spite of -the misery which threatened them, almost all included in this decree -decided upon emigration, and only very few became Christians. The -exiles also suffered loss of property, because they had not time to -sell their estates, and collect the debts owing to them. The historian -Gedalya Ibn-Yachya alone lost over 10,000 ducats by his debtors in -Ravenna. The exiles dispersed, and sought protection in the neighboring -little states of Pesaro, Urbino, Ferrara, Mantua, and Milan. The Jews -of Avignon and Venaissin, the only communities remaining on French -territory since the expulsion of the Jews from France two hundred -years previously, were also ordered to leave. The reactionary princes -of the church had long cast malicious glances upon them, for they had -been particularly favored by the officials of the Papal States under -the humanistic popes, Leo X, Clement VII, and especially Paul III. -The curia received its only income from this district through their -commerce. The Jews of Avignon, Carpentras, and other towns, owned great -wealth and property of all kinds, and held lands. - -Most of the Jews of the Italian and French ecclesiastical territories, -like all expelled from Christian countries, went to Turkey, and -there met with the kindest reception, if they were able to get so -far without being attacked and maltreated by the robber-knights of -the Order of Malta. It seemed almost as if there were to be an end -of Jews in Christian Europe. Hatred, persecution, and banishment -reigned everywhere. In Catholic dominions the fanaticism of the papacy -prevailed, and in Protestant countries the narrowness of Lutheranism, -sunk from its former height to the level of a child's quarrel. - -Both seemed to desire the enforcement of the oft expressed thought of -the arch-enemies of the Jews, that Jews have no right to dwell in the -West. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -THE JEWS IN TURKEY. DON JOSEPH NASSI. - - Joseph Nassi's Favor with Sultan Solyman--His Friendship - for Prince Selim--Hostility of Venice and France to Nassi-- - Joseph Nassi restores Tiberias, and is created Duke of Naxos - --The Vizir Mahomet Sokolli--The Turks, at the Instigation - of Nassi, conquer Cyprus--Rebellion against Philip II in the - Netherlands--Solomon Ashkenazi--Election of Henry of Anjou - as King of Poland--Ashkenazi negotiates a Peace between - Venice and Turkey--Gedalya Ibn-Yachya and Jewish Literature - in Turkey--Joseph Karo compiles the "Shulchan Aruch"--Azarya - del Rossi--Isaac Lurya--The Jewish "Dark Age"--Spread of the - Kabbala--Lurya's Disciple, Chayim Vital Calabrese--Death of - Joseph Nassi--Esther Kiera and the Influence of Jewish Women - in Turkey. - -1566-1600 C.E. - - -Again, as often before, the threads in the web of universal history -were so involved that it was impossible to annihilate the Jews of -Christendom even by systematic persecution. The sun, obscured on the -Jewish horizon by gloomy clouds in the West, again rose bright in the -East. Through a favorable turn of affairs a time was beginning in -Turkey which, to the superficial observer, may seem a brilliant epoch. -A Jew, who would have been burnt at the stake without ceremony in the -countries of the cross, occupied a very influential position in the -land of the crescent, rose to the rank of duke, and ruled over many -Christians. All the Jews in Turkey, amounting to millions in number, -rose with and by him to a free and honorable station, the envy of their -despised and less numerous brethren in Christian Europe. With rage -the Jew-hating Christian potentates saw their plans here and there -frustrated by Jewish hands, and their internal complications rendered -more and more involved and entangled. The down-trodden worm might yet -become an annoyance to its tormentors. Joseph Nassi, or Joao Miques, -the outlawed Marrano of Portugal, caused anxious hours to many a -Christian ruler and diplomatist, who were obliged to flatter him in an -abject manner, though they would have struck him dead like a dog if he -had been in their power. The illustrious republic of Venice, the mighty -kingdom of Spain, the conceited government of France, and even the -haughty papacy, all saw themselves endangered by him. - -Joao Miques, or Don Joseph Nassi, who had been well recommended to -the Turkish court by French statesmen when first he entered Turkey, -had become yet more popular by his agreeable presence, his inventive -genius, his experience, and his knowledge of the Christian countries of -Europe and their political situation. Sultan Solyman, who understood -men well, soon took him into favor. He formed extensive plans for -beginning a war with Spain and aiding the Mahometans on the coast of -Africa against those who fed the stake. Joseph Nassi, through his -riches, and through the attachment of his fellow-believers in Christian -countries, was kept well informed as to what was going on in Christian -courts, and could tell the sultan the state of political and military -affairs, relieving the latter of the necessity of employing spies, or -of permitting himself to be deceived by the Christian ambassadors at -his court. Don Joseph could assist him with wise counsel, and thus as -a Frankish bey soon became a very important person in Constantinople -and was able to render material service to those of his own religion. -His importance increased still more by a fortunate chance. Hatred and -jealousy prevailed among the sons of Solyman, and the father preferred -the younger on account of his military inclinations. The courtiers -kept themselves aloof from the disregarded prince, Selim, and did not -intercede with his father on his behalf. Only Joseph Nassi pressed -Selim's claims warmly on his father, and when the latter wished to show -his favor to his son by making him a handsome present of 50,000 ducats -in cash, and 30,000 in valuables, he chose his Jewish favorite as the -bearer of the gift to Selim's residence in Asia Minor. The prince, -overjoyed both at the gift and at this proof of favor, from that moment -became very friendly towards the messenger, and assured him of his -life-long gratitude. He made a favorite and confidant of the Jewish -bey, and appointed him a member of the life-guard (Mutafarrica), an -honor to which even the sons of Christian princes eagerly aspired, and -to which a large salary was attached. - -The ambassadors from Christian courts saw with vexation the growing -influence of a Jewish favorite, acquainted with all their plots, upon -the future sultan, and promulgated the falsest rumors about him. They -reported to their courts that Joseph Nassi was leading the prince into -all kinds of orgies and excesses, and was ruining him. The ambassadors -of Venice and of France were most hostile, because he saw through their -artful designs against the Turkish court, and was able to frustrate -them, and especially because he had private quarrels with them. The -government of Venice had imprisoned his mother-in-law, deprived her -of some of her property, and also had treated him scornfully; the -French court owed an immense sum (150,000 ducats) to the house of -Mendes-Nassi, and did not think of repaying it. The French ambassador -was, therefore, very eager for Joseph's ruin; he wrote to Henry II, -that he should inform Sultan Solyman that Joseph Nassi made it his -business to acquaint the enemies of France with all the negotiations -carried on at the Turkish court, and that being a Spaniard he did this -in the interest of Spain. But so far from punishing him, Prince Selim -and the reigning sultan took up Joseph's cause, and urgently insisted -that the court of France pay the debt owing their Jewish favorite. -Henry II and his successor raised an objection to Joseph's well-founded -demand, characteristic of the--shall we say, Christian?--morality -of the time. They averred that both law and religion forbade the king -to repay the debt to his Jewish creditor, because it was altogether -prohibited for Jews to have business dealings in France, and that all -their goods could be confiscated by the king. The sultan and his son -did not, of course, recognize this code of morals, and insisted with a -half-threat that Joseph Nassi should be satisfied. Joseph Nassi rose -so high in favor with Sultan Solyman, that the latter gave him a tract -of land in Palestine, on the Sea of Tiberias, to restore the city of -Tiberias under his own rule, with the express privilege that only Jews -should dwell therein. The deed of gift was signed by the reigning -sultan, by Selim, the heir to the throne, and by his son Murad, so as -to render it valid in the future, and not liable to dispute. Selim -proposed to his father to reward Joseph's services still further, and -to make him sovereign lord over Naxos and some other islands. But the -vizir, Mahomet Sokolli, a Christian renegade, who watched the growing -power of the Jewish favorite with jealous eyes, seems to have worked -against this and to have upset the plan. - -After Solyman's death, when Selim II entered his capital to receive -the homage of his subjects (1566), and Joseph also presented himself -to swear allegiance to the new sovereign, he created him on the spot -Duke of Naxos, and of the Cyclades, Andro, Paro, Antiparo, Milo, twelve -islands in all, which he gave him one after the other, and for which he -had to pay but a small tribute. He also granted him the collection of -the duties paid in the Black Sea on imported wines. - -Thus a Jew was able to issue his commands in the following grandiose -style: "We, Duke of the AEgean Sea, Lord of Andro." Joseph did not -reside in the capital of his duchy, where he would have been too -far away from the center of affairs, but remained in his handsome -palace Belvedere near Constantinople, and deputed the government of -the islands to a Spanish nobleman, a Christian named Coronello, whose -father had been governor of Segovia. Jealously as the Christian princes -regarded this Jewish duke, placed upon an equality with them, European -affairs were in such a condition that they were forced not only to -recognize, but even to flatter him. If they wished to gain anything -at the Turkish court, they dared not ignore him, knowing how high he -stood in Selim's favor, and of how much weight his opinion was in the -divan. When an Austrian embassy from Emperor Ferdinand I arrived in -Constantinople (after fresh victories gained by the Turks in Hungary) -to sue for peace, and win the great dignitaries by gifts and annual -subsidies, it was charged to make terms also with Joseph of Naxos. -His bitterest enemies were obliged to dissemble their hatred. The two -states which set themselves most to oppose him, namely, France and -Venice, felt the power of the Jewish duke severely. - -The king of France declined to pay the debt contracted with the Marrano -house of Mendes and transferred to Joseph. The latter easily procured -a firman from the sultan, by virtue of which he was allowed to seize -all ships carrying the French flag which entered any Turkish harbor. -Joseph of Naxos sent privateers as far as Algiers to make a raid upon -French merchant vessels. At last he succeeded in getting possession of -several vessels in the port of Alexandria, captured all the merchandise -on board, and sold it to pay the debt owing to him (1569). The court -of France raised a clamor, protested, stormed, but all in vain; -Selim protected his favorite. A coolness arose in consequence in the -diplomatic relations of the two countries, which was more injurious to -France than to Turkey. - -The French ambassador at the Porte was, therefore, very desirous to -bring about the overthrow of Joseph of Naxos. Not only was his own -honor concerned, but that of the French crown also. The French had -often boasted in the European cabinets that their word had the greatest -weight and influence at the Turkish court, and that they were in a -position to lead the divan to determine upon war or peace at will. And -now it was proved that a gross insult had been shown to the French -flag by this very court, and that France was not even in a position -to demand satisfaction from a Jew, the originator of the insult. The -French ambassador, therefore, directed his efforts to turning this -overthrow into triumph by compassing the fall of the influential Jew. -An opportunity soon presented itself in the discontent of one of -Joseph's agents. A Jewish physician, named David or Daud, one of the -physicians in ordinary at the Turkish court, and also in the service -of the duke, considered himself slighted and wronged by his superior, -and a quarrel arose between them. As soon as the French ambassador got -wind of this, he tried to fan the flame of dissension, promised Daud -a sum of money and a place as interpreter at the French embassy with -a yearly salary, and then entered into relations with him in order to -obtain secret information about Joseph of Naxos. In his irritation -Daud allowed himself to be led into hasty expressions. He promised to -furnish the French ambassador with full proofs that Joseph of Naxos had -carried on a correspondence traitorous to the Porte. He undertook to -produce documents to prove that Joseph sent daily information to the -pope, the king of Spain, the duke of Florence, the Genoese republic, in -short, to all the enemies of the sultan, and kept them acquainted with -every thing that went on at the Porte. Delighted at the opportunity of -overthrowing the Jewish duke, he informed the king of France and the -crafty queen-mother, Catherine de Medici, in cipher, that he would -soon be in a position to bring the powerful enemy of French influence -at the Turkish court to the scaffold (October, 1569). - -The Jewish duke was placed in a position of the greatest danger, and -with him probably all the Jews in the Turkish empire. If Daud had -been able to push his hatred to the point of an open accusation, if -French money could have supported the intrigue, and if the grand -vizir, Mahomet Sokolli, the deadly enemy of Joseph, could have taken -the matter in hand, the latter would have been lost. But the French -ambassador thought it wise to treat the matter as a secret for a time. - -In spite of this secrecy, the intrigues of Daud and the French -ambassador were betrayed to Joseph of Naxos, and he was able to be -beforehand with them. It was not difficult for him to convince Sultan -Selim that he had always served him faithfully, and that of all his -courtiers, he had been most sincerely attached to him. He obtained a -decree from the sultan by which the traitor Daud was banished for life -to Rhodes, the criminal colony of the Turkish empire. Either at the -instigation of Don Joseph, or by their own impulse, all the rabbis -and communities of Constantinople pronounced the severest form of -excommunication upon Daud and two of his accomplices. The rabbinical -colleges of the largest Turkish communities, Joseph Karo at their -head, in servile flattery joined them, without first having convinced -themselves of Daud's innocence or guilt. The extraordinary efforts of -the French ambassador and court to procure the overthrow of Joseph were -thus a complete failure, and left in the mind of the latter a feeling -of only too justifiable bitterness, which induced him to strive the -more to hinder and frustrate the diplomatic schemes of France. - -Joseph of Naxos dealt even more severely with the state of Venice. -Secret enmity prevailed between the Jewish duke and the republic, -which both tried in vain to conceal by compliments. Independently of -the ill-treatment which his mother-in-law had undergone at the hands -of the Venetian government, it had refused Joseph's request for a safe -conduct through its dominions for himself and his brother. Selim, not -very well disposed towards the Venetians, was often urged by his Jewish -favorite to put an end to the long-existing peace between them, and -to set about the conquest of the Venetian island of Cyprus. In spite -of the disinclination of Mahomet Sokolli, the first vizir, who was -favorable to the Venetians, the war was undertaken. - -The sultan is said to have promised Joseph that he should become king -of Cyprus, if the enterprise proved successful, and the duke of Naxos -is said to have kept a banner ready in his house, with the inscription, -"Joseph, King of Cyprus." His European alliances made this undertaking -easy. Whilst Mahomet Sokolli was still raising difficulties about -consenting to a naval war of this character, Joseph received the news -that the arsenal in Venice had been destroyed by an explosion. Joseph -and the party in the divan which he had gained over for war took -advantage of the embarrassment thus caused to the Republic of Venice, -and persuaded the sultan to allow the attacking fleet to sail at once. -Nicosia, one of the chief towns of Cyprus, fell at the first assault, -and the other, Famagusta, was closely besieged. - -In this instance, as often before, all Jews were made answerable for -the action of one. That the Venetian government, at the outbreak of the -war, imprisoned all the Levantine merchants in Venice, for the most -part Jews, and seized their goods, was only natural in the barbarous -state of intercourse between one state and another. But that the -senate, at the instigation of the hostile doge, Luis Mocenigo, came -to the resolve (December, 1571) to expel all Jews from Venice, as -fellow-conspirators of Joseph Nassi and of the Turkish empire, was a -result of the race-hatred encouraged by Christianity. Happily, things -did not go so far. Notwithstanding the endeavors of the fanatical pope, -Pius V, to bring about a league of the Christian states against Turkey, -to organize a crusade against the so-called unbelievers, and to drive -the Turkish fleet from the waters of Cyprus, the town of Famagusta was -obliged to yield to the Turkish commander, and so the whole island -fell into the hands of Turkey. The Venetians were compelled to sue -for peace, and they placed their whole hope of obtaining it upon an -influential Jew, who was to negotiate it. In spite of the solemn -determination of the Venetian senate that no one should venture to say -a word in favor of Jews, they had to be tolerated, because it dared not -quite break with the Jews in Turkey. - -The power of the latter was, indeed, so great that they, generally the -suppliants, were entreated for aid by Christians. A serious rebellion -had arisen in the Netherlands against Spain and the morose king, Philip -II, who wished to introduce the bloody tribunal of the Inquisition. -The barbarous Alva was trying to suppress apostasy and to lead back -the erring into the bosom of the Catholic church by hecatombs of human -beings. The block was to support the cross. In this extremity, the -rebels turned to Joseph of Naxos, who had dealings with some of the -nobility of Flanders from the time of his residence there. Prince -William of Orange, the moving spirit of the rebellion, sent a private -messenger to Joseph of Naxos, entreating him to persuade the sultan -to declare war against Spain, which would necessitate the withdrawal -of the Spanish troops from the Netherlands. The Austrian emperor, -Ferdinand, also condescended to address an autograph letter to the -Jewish duke in order to obtain the favor of the Porte, increasing the -grand vizir's envy. Sigismund Augustus, king of Poland, who was hoping -for an important service from the Porte, also addressed him, gave him -the title of "Serene Highness," and, what was of greater importance, -promised favorable conditions to the Jews in his country, to ensure -Joseph's approval of his plans. - -We may almost say that the divan, or Turkish council of state, under -Sultan Selim consisted of two parties trying to checkmate each other: -the Christian party, represented by the first vizir, and the Jewish, -headed by Joseph of Naxos. Through and besides him there were other -Jews who, though only in subordinate positions, exercised influence-- -the men on the holders of office, the women on the ladies of the harem. -Sultan Selim's goodwill towards Jews was so evident that a story became -current that by birth he was a Jew, foisted into the harem as a prince, -when he was a child. Even the grand vizir, Mahomet Sokolli, although an -enemy of Joseph of Naxos and of Jewish influence, was forced to employ -a Jewish negotiator and to intrust him with important commissions. -The Venetian envoy, ordered to work secretly against the Jews at the -Turkish court, himself assisted such a man in obtaining influence. - -Solomon ben Nathan Ashkenazi, who conducted the diplomatic affairs -of Turkey with Christian courts for nearly thirty years, and who -supplanted Nassi, was an unknown personage in Constantinople at the -period when the duke of Naxos had a powerful voice in the divan. -Descended from a German family of Udine, he began to travel early -in life, and went to Poland, where he rose to be first physician to -the king. On his removal to the Turkish capital, he placed himself -as a subject of the Venetian republic under the protection of the -diplomatic agents of Venice. Solomon Ashkenazi understood the Talmud, -and was called rabbi, but displayed greatest intelligence and skill -in the niceties of diplomatic technicalities, the disentanglement of -knotty questions, in negotiations, settlements, and compromises. For -these qualities he had been esteemed by successive Venetian agents in -Constantinople. The first minister of the Turkish court recognized his -diplomatic skill, attached him to his service, and trusted him to the -end of his life with such commissions as required tact, wisdom, and -discernment in their fulfillment. Whilst the Turkish arms were raised -against the Venetians, Solomon Ashkenazi was beginning to weave the web -for the future treaty of peace. - -Christian cabinets did not suspect that the course of events which -compelled them to side with one party or the other was set in motion -by a Jewish hand. This was especially the case at the election of the -Polish king. The death (July, 1572) of the last Polish king of the -Jagellon family, Sigismund Augustus, who left no heir, necessitated a -genuine election from an indefinite number of candidates, and this put -the whole of Europe, at all events the cabinets and diplomatic circles, -into the utmost excitement. The German emperor, Maximilian II, and the -Russian ruler, Ivan the Cruel, were most intimately concerned in the -election, as neighbors of Poland. The former did everything that he -could to insure the choice of his own son, and the latter boasted that -he or his son would be chosen king. The pope plotted for a Catholic -prince to be placed on the throne of Poland; otherwise it was to be -feared that the choice of a king in favor of the Reformation, already -on the increase among the nobles and the townspeople of Poland, would -strengthen the movement, and that the country would free itself from -the papacy. On the other hand, the Protestant countries of Germany and -England, and, above all, the adherents of the various sects of the -new church in Poland itself, felt the greatest interest in securing -the election of a sovereign of their own faith, or at least of one -not an aggressive Catholic. To this was added the personal ambition -of a powerful French queen, who interfered with a deft hand. The -widowed queen, Catherine de Medici, as clever as false, who believed -in astrology, and to whom it had been announced that each of her -sons should wear a crown, wished to procure a foreign throne for her -son, Henry of Anjou, so that the astrological prophecy might not be -fulfilled by the death of her reigning son, Charles IX. She and her -son, the king of France, therefore, set every lever in motion to place -Anjou on the throne of Poland. Turkey also had important interests -and a powerful voice in the election of the king of Poland. A tangle -of cabals and intrigues was developed by the election. Each candidate -sought to gain a strong party among the higher and lesser nobility of -Poland, and also to gain the favor of the Porte. Henry of Anjou seemed -at first to have some prospect of success, but this was imperiled by -the bloody massacre of St. Bartholomew, in France, in which, at a hint -from the king and the queen-mother, a hundred thousand Huguenots, -great and small--men, women and children--were attacked, and -murdered (August 26th, 1572). Such barbarity, planned and carried -out in cold blood, had been unheard of in European history since the -murderous attack made on the Albigenses in the thirteenth century by -papal command. The Lutherans and other adherents of the Reformation in -every country were completely stunned by this blow. The candidates for -the throne of Poland sought to make capital out of it against Anjou. -So much the more the French candidate, his mother, and his brother, -were compelled to endeavor to gain over the Porte to their side. An -ambassador extraordinary was dispatched to Constantinople with this -object. So the choice of a king of Poland rested with a Jew who was -in the background, for Solomon Ashkenazi governed the grand vizir -completely, and ruled his will, and he managed foreign affairs in the -sultan's name. Solomon decided in favor of Henry of Anjou, and won over -the grand vizir to his side. When Henry of Anjou, by a combination of -favorable circumstances, was at last chosen almost unanimously (May, -1573), the French ambassador boasted that he had not been one of the -last in bringing about this election. But Solomon Ashkenazi ventured to -write as follows to the king of Poland, afterwards king of France under -the name of Henry III: "I have rendered your majesty most important -service in securing your election; I have effected all that was done -here" (at the Porte). - -Great sensation was aroused throughout Christian Europe when this -Jewish physician and diplomatist was appointed by the Porte to conclude -the peace which he had for several years been trying to bring about -with Venice, and thus to stand forth as a person of the highest -official importance. The Jewish ambassador was not accepted without -opposition by the illustrious republic. The subject was eagerly -discussed in the senate, and the members of the government were against -him. But, on the one hand, the grand vizir, Mahomet Sokolli, was -resolved upon it, because Solomon enjoyed his unreserved confidence, -and he wished through him to establish diplomatic relations for other -purposes. On the other hand, the words of the Venetian consul, Mark -Antonio Barbaro, who repeatedly assured his state that the Jewish -diplomatist cherished the warmest sympathy with Venice, made a great -impression. Under these circumstances, "Rabbi Solomon Ashkenazi," as he -was termed, went to Venice in the capacity of envoy extraordinary from -Turkey. When once he was acknowledged, the dignitaries of the republic, -the doge, and the senators, paid him the greatest honor and attention, -because the Turkish court was very sensitive on this point, and would -have regarded want of due respect to its representative as an insult. -Solomon was, therefore, received in state audience at the doge's -palace, and there the act of peace between Turkey and Venice was signed -by him on behalf of the former. The signoria showed him the most polite -attentions during his stay in Venice (May to July, 1574), and all the -European ambassadors in Venice paid him court. - -Solomon was an angel of deliverance to his fellow-believers in Venice. -Their joy at the honor shown by the authorities to one of their race -was mingled with anxiety and sorrow on account of threatened expulsion. -The doge Mocenigo had insisted upon the fulfillment of the decree of -banishment previously issued against the Jews. Many Jewish families had -already departed without waiting for the term to expire. Solomon had -arranged with Jacopo Soranzo, the Venetian agent in Constantinople, to -receive these unfortunates. On his return to Venice, Soranzo at once -brought the question of the Jews to the consideration of the council -of the doge and the Ten. He made them understand the injury to the -republic which would arise by the expulsion of the Jews. Those driven -out of Spain and Portugal had manufactured guns and other arms for the -Turks, and it would be a serious matter to make enemies of a people -who constituted a power in Turkey. To maintain friendship with this -country would be the surest guarantee of peace, as neither the pope nor -Spain could be trusted. This earnest appeal of Soranzo in favor of the -Jews effected a change in the disposition of the doge and the Dieci -(ten) towards them. The decree of banishment was revoked (July 19th, -1573), and Solomon's presence in Venice served to increase the joy of -his fellow-believers, as he obtained for them the promise that they -should never again be threatened with expulsion. Loaded with honors -and enriched by a gift of ten pounds (weight) of gold, Solomon returned -to Constantinople, where his position became more assured and his -importance greater than ever. His son, who was residing in Venice for -his education, was treated by the doge with the greatest consideration. - -In consequence of the influence of Joseph of Naxos over Sultan Selim -and of Solomon Ashkenazi over the prime minister, Mahomet Sokolli, -the foreign Christian courts strove yet more earnestly to obtain the -favor of the Turkish Jews in Stambul. If one of them wished to effect -any object with the Porte, it first of all sought a Jewish negotiator, -because without this aid there was no prospect of success. Even the -morose Philip II of Spain, that incarnate hater of Jews and heretics, -was obliged to turn to Jewish mediators in order to obtain peace -with the Turks. The position of the Jews in Turkey, and above all in -the capital, under the very eyes of their powerful protectors, was, -therefore, extraordinarily favorable. They were able to put forth all -their powers freely, and thus earned the wealth which then meant power, -as it does now. The wholesale trade and customs dues were mostly in -their hands; they also carried on wholesale shipping, and emulated the -Venetians. They owned the largest and best houses, with gardens and -kiosks, in Constantinople, equal to those of the grand vizir. - -This prosperity, freedom, and security of the Turkish Jews could not -fail to produce an exalted frame of mind, to open a prospect beyond -the actual present, and to stir up their minds to activity. The mental -fertility of the Spanish Jews, which brought so much that is beautiful -and true to the light of day, was not exhausted or extinct in Turkey. -The taste for history and events outside the Jewish world was not -yet lost to them. Moses Almosnino, a favorite preacher at Salonica, -while on a visit to Constantinople to procure privileges for the -community of Salonica, described life in the Turkish capital, with its -contrasts of glowing heat and benumbing cold, its astonishing wealth -and terrible poverty, its enervating luxury and severe privations, -its extravagant generosity and heartless greed, exaggerated piety and -callous indifference, which followed one another abruptly, without any -gradual transition. In his Spanish work on the "Contrasts and Greatness -of Constantinople," Almosnino described the power and development of -the Turkish empire with the pen of a master. He had a taste for the -sciences and philosophy, and worked out his sermons as well as his -expositions of the Scriptures in a scientific shape. - -The physician, Samuel Shulam, likewise a Spaniard by birth, also had -a great taste for history. He led a life of adventure until he was -taken up by a Jewish woman in Constantinople, named Esther Kiera, in -high favor with the sultana. He published Zacuto's poor but useful -chronicle at her expense (1566-1567). This favorite of the court-Jewess -also translated from the Latin the interesting work of the old Jewish -historian Josephus against the attacks of Apion, the Alexandrine enemy -of the Jews, being the first Jewish writer to make use of it. The dark -side of Jewish history, the thousand years' martyrdom of the Jewish -race, was at the same time described by a more competent historian, the -now venerable Joseph Cohen, of Spanish descent. His "Vale of Weeping" -presents a long series of mournful scenes, tortures, death, and -distress in every form, but he was enabled to conclude his history with -the joyful tidings that the Venetians were eager, if only from policy, -to pay honor to and distinguish a Jew, the Turkish ambassador Solomon -Ashkenazi. - -Even Hebrew poetry bore some blossoms at this period in Turkey, and -although but autumn flowers, showing traces of damp mists and a pale -sun, they form an agreeable contrast to the joyless wintry waste of -other regions and times. But we are more interested in the originator -of these efforts than in the productions themselves. He was a certain -Ibn-Yachya of the Turkish branch of this widespread family. This -family preserved nobility of heart and mind throughout a long line -of generations. The great-grandfather Jacob Tam, the grandfather -Gedalya Ibn-Yachya, the grandson Moses, and the great-grandson Gedalya -Ibn-Yachya II, with all collateral branches, were without exception -friends of learning, and shared their property with the poor. Moses -Ibn-Yachya not only spent thousands of ducats on sufferers at the time -of the plague, but even exposed himself to the risk of death in his -attendance upon the sick. His son Gedalya, a wise man and an agreeable -orator, imitated his father in all his virtues, and by his love for -poetry excelled him in gifts of the mind. He formed a sort of school or -circle of poetry, that is to say, he assembled from time to time, at -his own expense, all those interested in neo-Hebrew poetry, to recite -their poems, and urged those at a distance to send him the fruit of -their muse in order to encourage their zeal for this beautiful but -neglected art. Two poets distinguished themselves in this numerous -circle, Jehuda Zarko and Saadio Longo. To them we may add Israel -Najara, the prolific versifier, living in Damascus. It is true that -the verses of these writers do not contain much real poetry, and that -the authors deserve the name of poet only on account of the smoothness -and euphony of their style. As a matter of course this group of poets -extolled Gedalya Ibn-Yachya, their patron and protector, in their -verses. - -The Jews of Turkey also wrote Latin verses in the security and comfort -of their present life. The writers were, of course, immigrant Marranos, -who had learnt the language of their oppressors in the dungeons of -Spain and Portugal. When the conscientious physician, Amatus Lusitanus, -whose aid had been sought alike by kings and beggars, and who, on -account of the intolerance of the reactionary policy, emigrated from -Italy to Salonica, and there acquired new friends and admirers, fell -a sacrifice to his devoted energy, and died of the plague, one of his -friends, the Marrano Flavio Jacopo de Evora, composed a memorial to him -in beautiful Latin verses to the following effect: - - He who so often recalled the breath well-nigh gone from the - dying, and was, therefore, beloved by kings and peoples, lies - far from the land of his birth, beneath the dust of Macedonia. - -The exaltation of the Turkish Jews and their contentment with their -present condition imbued them with thoughts of independence. Whilst -the Jews of Christendom had no such thought, and from time immemorial -considered themselves in a condition of subjugation to their masters, -the Turkish Jews became familiar with the idea of regarding themselves -as independent men. - -Joseph of Naxos long cherished the thought of founding a Jewish state. -The Jew and the statesman in him yearned for this, and the enormous -wealth of his mother-in-law, over which he had control, was to serve -him as the means for its execution. Even when a fugitive Marrano he -had seriously put before the Republic of Venice the request that it -give him one of its numerous islands, so that he might people it -with Jewish inhabitants. But this was refused either on account of -the narrow-mindedness of the Christians or the fear of mercantile -competition. When later on Joseph stood high in favor with Prince -Selim, and also with Sultan Solyman, he obtained from them, besides -seven villages, the ruins of the city of Tiberias, for a small Jewish -state to be peopled only with Jews. He sent one of his agents to -superintend the re-building of Tiberias. The Turkish prince gave the -pasha of Egypt strict orders to assist the building in every way. The -Arab occupants of the neighboring villages were compelled to render -forced labor, and the new and beautiful houses and streets of the city -of Tiberias were completed in a year. Joseph of Naxos wished to make it -a manufacturing town to compete with Venice. He planted mulberry-trees -for the cultivation of silk-worms, and introduced looms for the -manufacture of silks; he also imported wool from Spain for the making -of fine cloth. - -Joseph does not seem to have directed his full energy to the little -Jewish state; his plans were far more extensive, and thus New Tiberias -never became an important place. He next endeavored to obtain the -island of Naxos as a dukedom, together with the adjacent islands of the -AEgean Sea, and when he was fortunate enough to be appointed duke by -Sultan Selim, he thought no more about peopling his little island state -with Jews; perhaps it was not practicable. His mind was next set on -becoming king of Cyprus. It is possible that he might have transformed -this island of the goddess of beauty into a Jewish state had he -obtained possession of it, but his enemy, the grand vizir, Mahomet -Sokolli, prevented this. Thus his dreams of founding an independent -Jewish state were dispelled. In reality, Joseph of Naxos did nothing -of lasting importance for Judaism. He made various attempts, and then -relaxed in his endeavors, or misspent his means. - -The fact that Jews occupied an exceedingly favored position in Turkey -for so long a period did not result in correspondingly enduring -progress. They did not produce a single great genius who originated -ideas to stimulate future ages, nor mark out a new line of thought for -men of average intelligence. Not one of the leaders of the different -congregations was above the level of mediocrity. The rabbis and -preachers were deeply learned in their particular subjects, but kept -to the beaten track, without making a new discovery or bequeathing an -original contribution, even in their own department. Only one rabbi -left to posterity an epoch-making work, which even yet possesses -significance, disputed though it be; but even this work contained -nothing new or original. Joseph Karo, chief rabbi of the city of -Safet, in Palestine, completed, after many years of toil, a new book -of religious ordinances, the "Shulchan Aruch." Religious impulses, -mystical fanaticism, and ambition, had equal shares in the making of -this book. For Joseph Karo was still subject to strange visions: he -still believed that he would be recognized everywhere as the highest -authority by the compilation of his religious code, a norm for Jewish -religious life; and that, by this means, he would accomplish the -revival of rabbinical ordination, in which Jacob Berab had failed; -restore, in fact, the unity of Judaism, and thereby hasten the coming -of the Messiah. He spent the whole of his life in collecting the -vast material, in weighing the pros and cons of arguments, drawing -conclusions and arranging them in their proper places. By doing this he -supplied a serious want. There was no manual that embraced the whole -field of religious observance. As the Talmud and the later religious -codes to an even greater extent favored differences of opinion upon -nearly every single point in matters of religion, ritual, law and the -marriage state, disputes constantly occurred which led to altercation -and divisions in the communities, for it rarely happened that two -rabbis agreed upon any question that came up for discussion. Each was -able to adduce reasons for or against any argument from the vast mass -of rabbinical literature. - -It was this confusion and divergence of opinion that Joseph Karo wished -to check by means of his new religious Code. He embraced the whole -of the vast field of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, although his -intellect could not master it. By birth a Spaniard, he involuntarily -preferred the views of Spanish authorities to those of French and -German writers. Hence he allowed partiality to creep into his -compilation. As a matter of course, too, Karo admitted various elements -of mysticism, though only sparingly, as if unwilling to place the -Zohar upon a level with the Talmud in matters of practical religious -observance. He has embodied in his Code excellent precepts in regard to -sanctity, chastity, brotherly love, morality, and honesty in business, -drawn from the Talmud and the rabbinical writings; but they disappear -in a sea of casuistical details and mere externals, in a patchwork of -divisions and subdivisions, of "ifs" and "buts." In this work there -appears an altogether different kind of Judaism from that revealed -on Sinai, announced by the prophets, or even taught by Maimuni. But -this Judaism thoroughly suited the ideas of the Jews of that period, -and therefore Karo's Code was immediately hailed with delight, -disseminated, and received as the infallible standard authority in -Turkey, throughout the East, in Italy, and even in Poland. - -Thus religious life received a certain finality and unity, but at the -expense of spirituality and freedom of thought. From Karo Judaism -received the form maintained up to the present time. His dream was -partially fulfilled. His rabbinical writings became the common property -of Judaism, and gave it religious unity. But he himself did not become -the leader and head, as the "Spirit of the Mishna" had repeatedly -promised him: he was only honored as one authority among many others. -Still less did he restore the ordination of rabbi-judges as members of -a Synhedrion, or hasten in any way the coming of the Messiah. - -At that time there was a man in Italy, who not only surpassed all his -Jewish contemporaries in his spirit of inquiry and desire for truth, -but who would have been able to purify Judaism from the dross of -centuries of hardship, if the tendency of the age had not run counter -to this endeavor, or if he had had greater courage in opposing it. -Azarya ben Moses dei Rossi (born at Mantua about 1514, died in 1578), -descended from an old Italian family, had buried himself so deeply in -books, that his body bore traces of severe suffering from over-study. -Feeble, yellow, withered, and afflicted with fever, he crept about -like a dying man. Yet in this living corpse a powerful and healthy -mind worked with great activity. He had thoroughly mastered the whole -of Jewish literature, besides being well read in Latin historical -works, and he had also practiced medicine. At the same time he led a -wandering life. He dwelt for some time at Ferrara, then in Bologna, -had to leave that city in consequence of the persecution and expulsion -of the Jews under Pius V, and finally settled again permanently in -Ferrara. He held intercourse with the greatest Jews, Christians, and -Marranos of his age, and was regarded by all with astonishment as a -marvel of learning. He did not allow the treasures of his knowledge to -lie dead within him, but let them grow and spread luxuriantly. Ancient -history possessed special attraction for him. But even more admirable -than his vast reading was the use he made of it. He was the first to -bring into contact and connection with one another two provinces of -literature which were far apart--the Talmud and its offshoots, with -Philo, Josephus, and the works of the Church Fathers, proving the -truth of historical narratives from the mouths of many witnesses. Dei -Rossi, too, was the only one not satisfied with the data of tradition; -he accepted nothing as truth till he had subjected it to a searching -examination. - -Chance brought to light the mental treasures of Dei Rossi. Ferrara, -where, after leaving Bologna, he had settled shortly before, had -been visited by a terrible earthquake (November 18th, 1570), and the -inhabitants were compelled to leave their ruined and crumbling houses -and seek places of refuge outside the city. In one of the villages -Dei Rossi happened to meet a learned Christian, who was trying to -overcome the gloomy thoughts caused by the earthquake by reading a -Greek book of Jewish antiquity. In conversation Dei Rossi became aware -that his co-religionists, even those possessed of some culture, owing -to their one-sided absorption in the Talmud or obsolete philosophical -writings, knew nothing of their own brilliant literature of the period -of the Second Temple, whilst Christians resorted to it to dispel -melancholy thoughts. Encouraged by his Christian friend, he determined -to translate into Hebrew the "Letter of Aristas," supposed to be the -discourse of a Greek king about the wisdom of the Jews, in order to -make it accessible to his fellow-believers. He completed this task -in twenty days. This was the first-fruit of his learning, and it led -him on to further undertakings. His principal work, "Light of the -Eyes," consists chiefly of parallel passages from Talmudic and profane -sources upon the same subjects. Dei Rossi's distinction rests upon -the fact that he did not adhere to tradition, but applied the methods -of scientific inquiry to what the multitude regarded as unassailable -truths, and that he used profane sources in elucidating them. The -actual results of this historical investigation, for the most part, -have proved unsound. Strong as Dei Rossi was in removing obstructive -rubbish, his power of reconstruction was small. - -The value of his efforts appears in its proper light only if we -compare them with the circumstances of his time, or with the works of -contemporary writers on the same subject, as, for example, those of -Gedalya Ibn-Yachya; to these they form a complete contrast. - -A descendant of the Italian branch of the noble Ibn-Yachya family, -Gedalya inherited taste for knowledge. He was born in 1515, and died -in 1587. His wealth enabled him to satisfy his taste by collecting -a magnificent library. In his voluntary and compulsory journeys in -northern Italy--for he was a preacher, and owing to the intolerance -of the popes had to lead an unsettled life--he had seen and read -much, both in sacred and profane literature, but without independent -judgment, without discrimination, and without appreciation of the -essence of truth. Ibn-Yachya's abbreviated "History of the Jews," -together with a chronicle of the world, called "The Chain of -Tradition," at which he worked for nearly forty years, is a confused -medley of authentic historical narratives and mere fables. But in -spite, or perhaps because, of its legendary contents, his book has -found more acceptance among Jews than the researches of Dei Rossi. -When the first edition of the latter's "Light of the Eyes" found its -way to Safet, the orthodox of that town declared its contents to be -heretical. Joseph Karo commissioned Elisha Gallaico, one of the members -of his rabbinical college, to draw up an indictment, to be distributed -amongst all Jews, ordering Dei Rossi's work to be burned. The people -of Safet likewise had an inquisition. But Joseph Karo died (in Nisan, -_i.e._, April, 1575) before he had signed the indictment. The Italian -Jews were not so fanatical as to condemn Dei Rossi, for they knew him -to be a pious and pure Jew. But the rabbis of Mantua employed the -procedure of Ben Adret concerning the study of profane literature, that -is, they forbade the reading of Dei Rossi's works by young people under -twenty-five years of age. In consequence of this semi-official sentence -of heresy, the book exercised but little influence upon the Jewish -world of that day, or the generation immediately succeeding it, and -has been appreciated only in quite recent times, when it created a new, -enlightened view of history in Jewish circles. But in the Christian -world Dei Rossi's work was noticed much sooner, and was annotated, and -translated into Latin. - -How, indeed, could a sober, critical method of inquiry have found favor -in an age when the mystic, dazing Kabbala was the first authority, -bidding men esteem blind credulity as the highest virtue, and exciting -visionary enthusiasm to the highest pitch of fanatical intoxication? -The visions of Solomon Molcho and Joseph Karo and their fond enthusiasm -about the Messiah were sober compared with the excitement which reigned -after their death, and celebrated a veritable witches' Sabbath. During -the last three decades of the sixteenth century the Kabbala gained -sole mastery in Palestine, conjured up apparitions, and encouraged -orgies of mysticism. It spread thence over the whole of Turkey, Poland, -Germany, and Italy, darkening and confusing men's minds, having an -evil influence even upon their hearts, allowing no healthy thought to -appear, or branding such thought as heretical and sinful. Once again, -as in the early days of Christianity, Galilee, especially the district -of Safet, became the scene of a host of evil spirits, of people -possessed with devils, which challenged mystic exorcism, and revealed -profound mysteries; and it is impossible to say whether the possessed -appeared in consequence of the exorcisers, or the latter of the former. -It was a period of Kabbalistic mania, coincident with profligacy and -moral degradation, and its victims despised not only the sciences, but -even the Talmud with its exhortations to sobriety. Then for the first -time the Jewish world entered on a "dark age" of its own, with all the -appropriate credulity, while only the last traces of such darkness -were visible in Europe generally. This tendency was exaggerated by -two men, who by their fanaticism and visionary extravagance infected a -continually widening circle. These were Isaac Lurya and his disciple -Chayim Vital Calabrese. - -Isaac Lurya Levi (born in Jerusalem in 1534, and died 1572) was -descended from a German family. Left an orphan at an early age by the -death of his father, young Isaac came to Egypt, to the house of a rich -uncle, Mardochai Francis, a tax-farmer, and began to study the Talmud. -The dry study of the Talmud, which filled the mind with voluminous -learning, unfruitful hairsplitting, and mere formulas, yet failed to -satisfy the wants of the heart, seems to have become repugnant to -Lurya, and to have driven him to fantastic mysticism. He preferred -the awful loneliness of the Nile country to the noise of the school; -abstraction in worlds of mysticism and devout praying to working out -intellectual problems. He was greatly attracted by the Zohar, which -had then been printed for the first time, and, widely spread abroad, -had become accessible to everybody. The more familiar he became with -the Kabbala through his absorption in the sounding emptiness of the -Zohar, the more did he seek solitude, and the less intercourse had he -with men. He even neglected his young wife, only visited his house -from Sabbath to Sabbath, and spoke little, that little being only in -Hebrew. Lurya is said to have spent several years in solitude in this -manner, and the result was that like all whose reason is weaker than -their imagination, he became a confirmed visionary. The mystic book, -the Zohar, his constant companion in this seclusion, aided in exciting -his imagination. Firmly convinced of its authenticity as the work of -Simon bar Yochai, and also of the divine character of all the fantasies -and follies therein revealed, Lurya persisted in seeing in it high -allusions and profound wisdom. In his heated imagination he even saw -Elijah, the teacher of mysteries, face to face. - -But what did the prophet Elijah, or the Zohar, or rather his own -heated imagination, reveal to him? First he took the trouble to put -system, unity, and logical order into the confusion and intricacies -of the Zohar, as if connected thought could be expected in the idle -chatter of a half imbecile. The hermit of Cairo sought to deduce -from it how God had created and ordered the world by means of the -mystic numbers (Sefiroth), or how the Godhead revealed itself in the -forms of substances, or how it concentrated itself within itself in -order to project the finite nature of created things from its own -infinitude. Thus he evolved an extraordinarily complicated system -of powers and opposing powers, forces and counterforces, forms and -degrees (Parsophin), in the four spheres of Separation, Creation, -Formation, and Transformation; and he clothed these empty abstractions -with such wondrous names, that he afterwards complained, with reason, -that no one could understand his mystic system. Yet Lurya looked upon -this intricate and complex theory of the creation as only a kind of -introduction to what seemed to him a much more important and practical -part of the Kabbala, whereby the divine order of the world (Olam -ha-Tikkun) could be brought about. This practical Kabbala of Lurya -rests upon a not less marvelous doctrine of souls, also based upon the -visions of the Zohar. - -Our souls, he says, reflect the close connection between the finite -and the infinite, and, therefore, have a manifold character. The whole -of the soul material to appear in temporal life was created with Adam, -but each soul, according to its higher or lower degree, was fashioned -in, from, or with the first man, out of high or low organs and forms. -Accordingly, there are souls of the brain, the eyes, the hands, and -the feet. Each of these must be regarded as an effluence, or spark -(Nizuz), from Adam. By the first sin of the first man--for the -Kabbala finds original sin necessary for its fanciful creations--the -higher and the lower, the superior and the inferior souls, good and -evil, became confused and mingled together. Even the purest beings -thereby received an admixture of evil and the devilish element of the -"husk" (Kelifa). But the moral order of the world, or the purification -of the first man, cannot be brought about till the consequences of -original sin, the confusion of good and evil, are obliterated and -removed. From the most evil part of the soul material emanates the -heathen world; the people of Israel, on the other hand, come from the -good part. But the former are not quite without an admixture of the -original good, while the latter are not free from an admixture of the -corrupt and demoniac. This imperfection gives the continual impulse -towards sin, and hinders the chosen fragment of the human race from -following the law of God, the Torah. The Messianic period will put an -end to the disturbance of divine order arising from the first sin, or -abolish the disorder which has since crept in, and will introduce, -or see introduced, the divinity of the world. Therefore, a complete -separation of good from evil must take place, and this can only happen -through Israel, if it or each of its members will lose or cast away -the admixture of evil. For this purpose, men's souls (especially -those of the Israelites) have to wander through the bodies of men and -animals, even through rivers, wood, and stones. The doctrine of the -transmigration of souls forms the center and basis of Lurya's Kabbala, -but he has a peculiar development of the idea. According to this theory -even the souls of the pious must suffer transmigration, since not even -they are free from the taint of evil; there is none righteous upon -earth, who does only good, and sins not. In this way, Lurya solved the -difficulty, which former Kabbalist writers could not overcome. - -But this separation of the good and evil elements in the world's soul -material, the expiation and obliteration of original sin, or the -restoration of the divine order in Adam, would require a long series -of ages, owing to the impulse towards sin continually present. There -are, however, means of hastening this process, and this was the really -original doctrine that Lurya enunciated. Besides the transmigration -of our souls, sinful and subject to demoniac forces as they are, -there is another mode of expiation, the elevation or impregnation of -the soul (Ibbur, _superfoetatio_). If a purified soul has neglected -various religious duties here on earth, or has had no opportunity of -fulfilling them, it must return to the earthly life, attach itself to -the soul of a living human being, and unite and coalesce with it in -order to retrieve this neglect. Or again, the departed spirits of men -freed from sin appear again on earth to support the weak and wavering -souls which cannot attain to good by their own efforts, strengthen -them and lead them to the final goal. These pure spirits combine with -weaker souls still struggling, and form a union with them, provided -that they have some affinity with one another, _i. e._, if they -originate from the same spark or organ of Adam, since as a rule only -similar (homogeneous) souls attract each other, while on the other hand -dissimilar (heterogeneous) souls repel each other. According to this -theory the banishment and dispersion of Israel have for their purpose -the salvation of the world or of men's souls. The purified spirits of -pious Israelites unite with the souls of men of other nationalities in -order to free them from the demoniacal impurities that possess them. - -Isaac Lurya imagined a complete system of the transmigration and -combination of souls. It also seemed to him important to know the -sex of a soul, for feminine souls are found in masculine bodies, and -_vice versa_, according to the transmigration and attraction in each -case. It is especially important in contracting a marriage to know -whether the souls of man and wife harmonize with each other in respect -of origin and degree. By means of this secret the visionary of Cairo -expected to solve the other mystery, namely, how good spirits may be -conjured down from heaven, and in a measure compelled to enter the -bodies of living men, and thus made to divulge revelations of the -world beyond. Hereby he believed that he held the key to the kingdom -of the Messiah and the regeneration of the world. Lurya also believed -that he possessed the soul of the Messiah of the branch of Joseph, -and that he had a Messianic mission. He saw spirits everywhere, and -heard their whispers in the rushing of the waters, the movements of -the trees and grass, in the song or twittering of birds, even in the -flickering of flames. He saw how at death the souls were set free from -the body, how they hovered in the air, or rose out of their graves. He -held intimate intercourse with the saints of the Bible, the Talmud, and -with the rabbis, in particular with Simon bar Yochai. In short, Lurya -was a ghost-seer and raiser of the dead, a second Abraham Abulafia, -or Solomon Molcho, arousing hopes of the coming of the Messiah by -Kabbalistic jugglery, but with all this fanaticism he was sober and -sophistical. He introduced the casuistry of the Talmud into the Kabbala. - -In Egypt, Isaac Lurya found little or no favor with his labyrinth of -higher worlds and his theories of creation and redemption. To realize -his scheme of redemption he migrated with his wife and child to Safet, -the Jerusalem of mysticism, where the mystic doctrine flourished, and -the Zohar, the spurious work of Moses de Leon, was exalted to the same -level as the Law of Moses ben Amram. Almost the whole college of rabbis -and the chief leaders of Safet were Kabbalists. This place was at the -time a flourishing city inhabited only by Jews. The members of the -community knew little of oppression or the cares of life, and so the -Kabbalists could spin mystical theories to their hearts' content. They -felt as safe under the favor that the Jewish Duke of Naxos found with -the sultan, as if in a state of their own, politically independent. The -Kabbalists had gone so far in their imitation of Catholicism that they -had adopted auricular confession and the adoration of martyrs. And this -was the stage on which Lurya, the creator of the new Kabbala, was to -originate new aberrations. - -At first (about 1569), he appears to have received little attention in -the city of Kabbalists. Only through his acquaintance and connection -with a still greater visionary, perhaps not quite so honest as himself, -did he become a person of consequence, and infect everyone with his -waking dreams. This man was the Italian Chayim Vital Calabrese (born -1543, died 1620), whose father, a copyist of the scrolls of the Law, -had traveled to Palestine from Italy. Vital had learned nothing -thoroughly in his younger days; he had only gained a smattering of the -Talmud and mystic lore. He possessed a wild, extravagant imagination, -and a decided inclination for adventure and sensation. For two years -and a half Vital had occupied his time with alchemy and the art of -making gold. From this mystic art he turned to Lurya's Kabbala. It is -not known which of these two men first sought the other, but it is -certain that each, without wishing it, deceived the other. Together -they visited desolate places and graves, particularly the grave of -Simon bar Yochai, the feigned author of the Zohar, in Meiron. This was -Lurya's favorite spot, because there he fancied he could draw down -upon himself the spirit of this supposed chief of the mystics. Now and -again Lurya sent forth his disciple to conjure up spirits, and for this -purpose delivered to him certain formulas made up of the transposed -letters of the name of the Deity. Of course, evil spirits fled before -Vital's gaze, whilst good spirits attached themselves to him, and -communicated their secrets. - -It was Vital who spread sensational reports concerning the -extraordinary, almost divine gifts of his master, and of his power -over departed and living souls; doing so, it appears, with an artful -calculation of effect and publicity. Lurya, once so isolated, now -found himself surrounded by crowds of visitors; Kabbalists, young and -old, came to listen to the new revelation. Several disciples attached -themselves to him, and he communicated to them his confused thoughts, -assigned to each the original Adamite soul that dwelt in him, the -transmigrations which it had undergone before its present corporeal -existence, and its functions on earth. It never occurred to these -people, already enmeshed in the Kabbalistic net, to doubt the truth -of these communications. The disciples that gathered round him Lurya -formed into two classes: the "initiated" and the "novices." - -Mystical conversations and notes, the interviewing and summoning of -spirits, formed the occupation of Lurya and his followers. In short, -Lurya was on the eve of founding a new Jewish sect. On the Sabbath he -dressed in white, and wore a fourfold garment to symbolize the four -letters of the name of God. The underlying fact of all his revelations -and exertions was that he was the Messiah of the race of Joseph, the -forerunner of the Messiah of David's line. This, however, he only -furtively hinted to his disciples. His delusion was that the Messianic -period would commence at the beginning of the second half of the second -period of a thousand years since the destruction of the Temple, _i. -e._, in 1568. - -The sudden death of the mystic, at the age of thirty-eight, conduced -still more to his glorification. Death is wont to transfigure natures -like his, and veneration for them increases as years roll on. With -Eastern exaggeration, his disciples regarded him as even more than a -worker of wonders; they called him the "Holy and Divine," and sought, -for their own glory, to win adherents for him and his visionary -extravagances. They declared that, if Lurya could only have lived five -years longer, he would have improved the world so effectually, that the -Messianic period would certainly have begun. Abraham Abulafia, who had -evolved a Kabbalistic medley from his own consciousness, was declared a -heretic, and persecuted. Isaac Lurya, who had done the same thing with -the Zohar as a foundation, was almost deified. - -After Lurya's death, Vital Calabrese came to the fore. He immediately -usurped a kind of authority over his fellow-disciples, pretended that -Lurya on his deathbed had appointed him his successor, and, in feigned -obedience to a dying request of his master, took away from them the -written notes given them by Lurya. Vital let it be understood that he -was the Messiah of the race of Joseph. However, some disciples did not -pay any attention to this, and forthwith taught in various countries -what they had received from Lurya himself. This was especially done by -Israel Saruk in Italy, whither he had traveled. - -The harm that the Kabbalistic doctrines of Lurya caused in Jewish -circles is inexpressible. Judaism became surrounded with so thick a -husk of mysticism, that it has not even yet succeeded in entirely -freeing itself, and showing its true kernel. Through Lurya's influence -there was formed, side by side with the Judaism of the Talmud and the -rabbis, a Judaism of the Zohar and the Kabbala. For it was due to him -that the spurious Zohar was placed upon a level with, indeed higher -than, the Holy Scriptures and the Talmud. - -The mysticism of Lurya laid stress upon an idea which has been -strangely neglected in Jewish circles, viz., devotion in prayer, but -even this devotion degenerated into Kabbalistic trifling. Every word -and every syllable of the ordained prayers was to be meditated on -devoutly, so that one might reflect upon the worlds of the Sefiroth, -the number of the names of God hidden therein, and many other things. -Lurya's Kabbala certainly inculcated the preservation of an unruffled -disposition, and interdicted dejection, or outbreaks of anger and -ill-humor. But this serenity, from its mystical setting, received -a touch of constraint and unpleasantness, like the laughter of a -madman. The Sabbath, with its prayers and meals, forms the central -point of Lurya's mystic teaching. He looked upon it as the visible -representation of the world of the Sefiroth, as the embodiment of the -Divinity (Shechinah) in temporal life, and all actions done or left -undone on that day had an influence upon the higher world. Lurya's -followers welcomed the Sabbath, "the mystic bride," with chanting, -and for this purpose Lurya composed Chaldaic songs full of obscure -and meaningless formulas. His Kabbala also introduced a second Day -of Atonement. The "Day of Hosannas," the seventh day of the Feast of -Tabernacles, was formerly observed as a day of festivity. Even Joseph -Karo did not venture in his code to attribute a higher, mystical, -religious function to this day. Lurya's school first raised it, on -the authority of the Zohar, to the rank of a minor day of expiation, -introduced the practice of holding a mystic vigil the previous -night, and perceived in every leaf of the willow branches, and in -the seven-fold processions round the scrolls of the Law, a higher, -mystical meaning. In relation to morality, too, the mysticism of Lurya -had a corrupting influence. It demanded a "harmony of souls" as a -condition of marriage, and, therefore, whenever disagreement showed -itself in married life, it was said that the marriage was not a union -foreordained by the harmony of the Sefiroth. Kabbalists, therefore, -separated from their wives in consequence of the smallest dissension -in married life, to seek out the harmonious soul predestined for them. -Thus divorce became frequent in Kabbalistic circles. Kabbalists often -left their wives and children in the West, and, migrating to the East, -contracted a new marriage, or several new marriages, and the children -of the different marriages knew nothing of one another. - -These corrupting mystic doctrines did not remain a dead letter, -but were forthwith put into practice by their adherents. Thus, the -brilliance shed by the Jewish Duke of Naxos and other influential Jews -at the Turkish court over their fellow-believers in the East, came to -resemble the light of the will-o'-the-wisps that make the waters of a -stagnant marsh gleam with a flickering light. The religious stagnation -at the time was glaring indeed; there was a complete relapse into -heathenism; and what was worse, there sounded no warning voice which -recognized the mischief, or stigmatized, though ever so feebly, the -corruption as it really was. Perhaps the feeling of complete security -in which the Jews in Turkey reposed under mighty protectors of their -own race had encouraged this religious disorder. In any case, it -did not decrease as this protection gradually disappeared, when the -influence of Joseph of Naxos ceased on the death of Sultan Selim in -1574. His successor, Sultan Murad III (1574-1595), left the Jewish -duke in possession of his rank and offices according to his father's -dying request. But he no longer had direct influence over the divan; -he was supplanted by his adversary, the grand vizir, Mahomet Sokolli, -and his rival, Solomon Ashkenazi, and could accomplish nothing without -intrigues through the agency of the harem. Joseph Nassi did not long -survive his partial disgrace; he died of calculus, on August 2d, 1579, -sincerely lamented by the Jews. His accumulated treasures melted away -even as his ambitious designs. The avaricious sultan, Murad, who slept -upon heaps of gold in order that they might not be stolen from him, by -the advice of Mahomet Sokolli confiscated all his property, ostensibly -to cover his debts. The widowed duchess, Reyna Nassi, with difficulty -retained her dowry of 90,000 ducats out of her husband's estate. This -noble woman, although she certainly did not possess the spirit either -of her mother, Donna Gracia, or of her husband, determined like these -to spend her wealth in the interests of Jewish knowledge. She set up a -Hebrew printing press in her palace of Belvedere, and afterwards in a -village called Kuru-Gismu, on the European side near Constantinople. -But she was misled by Joseph Askaloni, a business manager devoid of all -taste, to whom she had intrusted the direction of her press, so that -only writings of no importance, which had far better have remained in -obscurity, were published in her establishment (1579-1598). And so this -noble family of two men and two women, renowned in their own time, left -no worthy or lasting memorial; and their deeds, prompted by the noblest -intentions, have perished in the stream of the ages. - -Duke Joseph having disappeared from the scene, the prestige of the -Hebrew statesman, Solomon Ashkenazi, the peacemaker between Turkey and -Venice, increased. But, much as he was able to accomplish by means -of his diplomatic arts, he did not, like Joseph of Naxos, stand in -the forefront of events as a Turkish dignitary, but rather remained -in the background as a wise and silent mediator. Solomon Ashkenazi -had no access to the sultan himself, but only held secret intercourse -with the successive grand vizirs, whose right hand man he was. The -negotiations between Turkey and Spain to procure a peace, or at -least a _modus vivendi_, desired as it was by both sides, owing to -pride on both sides, were delayed, broken off, and renewed. These -diplomatic discussions were conducted by Solomon, who possessed greater -qualifications for that purpose than anyone else, and the matters -in dispute were partially brought to a conclusion by him. He was -particularly careful to maintain a good understanding between the Porte -and Venice, and was on this account rewarded by the doge, his sons -being allowed to live in Venice at the expense of the state. - -Also Jewish women of wisdom and good sense, having skill in medicine, -gained great influence by means of the harem under the sultans Murad -III, Mahomet IV, and Achmed I. Among these women, Esther Kiera, widow -of one Elias Chendali, specially distinguished herself. She was a -great favorite with the sultana Baffa, herself the favorite wife of -Murad, who influenced politics under her husband and afterwards during -the reign of her son. If a Christian state wished to gain any object -at the Porte, it had first to win over the Jewish go-between, Kiera. -The Venetians particularly knew how to turn this fact to account. All -ambitious persons who aimed at attaining high office paid respect -to Kiera, and addressed her with flattery. Naturally, she enriched -herself by her secret power, as did everyone in Turkey who, however -strong or weak he might be, formed one of the spokes in the wheel of -the state. She showed great interest in her race, supported the poor -and suffering, fed the hungry, and comforted the sorrowful. Jewish -science was helped by her generous hand. Zacuto's history, as mentioned -before, was published at her expense. Naturally her position excited -envy. Esther Kiera imprudently allowed herself to be implicated in the -appointment of cavalry officers, first promising one man a high post -and then bestowing it on another. The Turkish Spahis, the proudest -class of soldiers, took this treatment very ill, plotted together, and -demanded her head. The deputy grand vizir Chalil wished to save her -and her sons, and allowed them to take refuge in his palace. But on the -very steps Esther Kiera and her three sons were seized by the Spahis, -torn to pieces, and their limbs hung upon the doors of the favored -magnates who had received their posts through her influence. - -Under Sultan Achmed I, another Hebrew woman, the widow of the statesman -Solomon Ashkenazi, gained great consideration. She was so fortunate -as to cure the young sultan of the smallpox, which shortly after his -accession threatened his life, and for which the Turkish physicians -knew no remedy. She was richly rewarded for nursing him back to -health. But such signs of favor towards Jews became continually rarer -in Turkey, and at last ceased altogether, as the empire sank into -enervation, and each sultan became a Sardanapalus; while the harem, on -the one hand, and the Spahis and Janissaries, on the other, held the -reins of power. The glory of the Turkish Jews was extinguished like a -meteor, and plunged into utter darkness, from time to time illuminated -by fanciful visions. Extortion, robbery, and open deeds of violence, on -the part of the pashas towards Jews, began to occur daily, since they -were now deprived of a powerful protector at the Sultan's side. The -center of Judaism was shifted to another stage. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -THE JEWS IN POLAND. - - Condition of Poland--Favorable Situation of the Jews in - that Country--Anti-Jewish Party in Poland--The Jewish - Communities--Judaizing Poles--Studies of the Jews--The Talmud - in Poland--Solomon Lurya--Moses Isserles--The Historian, David - Gans--"Zemach David"--Supremacy of the Polish Authorities - in Rabbinical Matters--The Jewish Seminaries in Poland--The - Disputations at the Fairs--Chiddushim and Chillukim--Stephen - Bathori--His Kindness towards his Jewish Subjects--Sigismund - III--Restriction on the Erection of Synagogues--Jewish - Synods--Vaad Arba Arazoth--Mordecai Jafa--Christian Sects in - Poland--The Socinians or Unitarians--Simon Budny--The Reformers - and the Jews--Isaac Troki--"The Strengthening of Faith." - -1566-1600 C.E. - - -Poland, which in this century had become a great power by reason of -its union with Lithuania under the sons of Casimir IV, like Turkey, -was the refuge of the outlawed or persecuted. Canonical Christianity, -with its love of persecution, had not yet struck firm roots there; -and monarchical despotism, encouraged by priests in its obstinate -determination to realize all its ends regardless of consequences, could -not prevail against the independent spirit of the Polish nobility. -The Starosts ruled unchecked in their provinces, like the English -and Scottish lords and clans, and could ward off the encroachments -of royalty. The reformed faith, that is to say Calvin's teaching, -was readily received by the nobility and the middle classes. Poland, -therefore, in this century, too, was a second Babylonia for the Jews, -in which on the whole they were protected from bloody persecutions, -where some of them could attain to respectable positions, and where -they were allowed to develop their individuality without restraint. -When the Jews were expelled from Bohemia, and turned their steps to -Poland, they were kindly received. Indeed, so highly appreciated were -they, that it was thought that the people could not do without them. -When, attracted by the favored position of their brethren in Turkey, -many prepared to migrate thither, the king made every exertion to -retain them in his land either by persuasion or compulsion. It mattered -very little what were the king's relations to them; for whether he -was kindly or evilly disposed, the nobles protected those who dwelt -on their estates from all attacks, in as far as their own interests -were not injured thereby. Under some kings, the Jews received favors, -under others, suffered restrictions, according as hostile or friendly -influences preponderated. - -But there was a party in Poland hostile to the Jews. It regarded -with dissatisfied eyes their more favored position in that country -as compared with the rest of Christendom, and endeavored to abrogate -the statute of Casimir IV, still in force, giving protection against -unduly severe persecution. It consisted, on the one hand, of the -Catholic clergy which regretted the absence in the Polish legislation -of canonical restrictions regarding Jews; on the other, of the German -merchant and artisan class which feared Jewish competition. - -There exists no estimate of the number of Jews in Poland at this time. -It is said that there were 200,000 adults. The community at Posen -numbered 3,000 members, and there were about as many in Cracow, or -rather in the suburb Kazimierz, to which they had on a former occasion -been banished. The third community in point of size was at Lublin. The -Jews had many taxes to pay under different heads. For this purpose, -indeed, they were received, and on this account tolerated in the -country, and protected by the kings and the nobility, being almost -the only ones in that impecunious land who possessed money. For this -reason, also, the kings encouraged their commercial enterprises. -When Sigismund Augustus, soon after his accession, negotiated for a -prolongation of the peace with the Russian Czar, Ivan IV, called "the -Terrible," he inserted the condition that the Jews of Lithuania be -allowed, as formerly, to freely carry on trade with Russia. But Ivan -absolutely refused this condition; he did not wish to see any Jews in -his realm. "We do not want these men," he said, "who have brought us -poison for our bodies and souls; they have sold deadly herbs among us, -and blasphemed our Lord and Saviour." A Judaizing sect had been founded -some seventy years before by a Jew called Zacharias, to which sect -even some of the priests, and a metropolitan named Zosina belonged. -This proselytizing sect continued to exist till the beginning of the -sixteenth century, but its adherents were severely persecuted when -discovered. On this account Jews were not allowed in Russia. - -In consequence of the Reformation, which had made its way into Poland, -a purer taste and a love of science and literature had developed -there. Polish nobles fond of traveling brought back from Germany an -interest in these matters, and sent their sons to study at the reformed -universities of Wittenberg and Geneva. Schools arose in Poland where -Jewish boys and youths were instructed together with Christians. The -Polish Jews, it is true, did not devote themselves to science to a -marked degree, but they were by no means so devoid of it as their -German brethren. - -Aristotle, that philosophical authority so familiar to the Hebrew -world and so closely akin to the Hebrew spirit, found admirers also -among Polish Jews. Even Maimuni's philosophic and religious writings -found a few readers. Astronomy and medicine, two favorite sciences -of the Jews from time immemorial, were studied also by Polish Jews. -Generally speaking, they did not share the intellectual degradation -of the Jewish inhabitants of Germany. Among them the study of the -Talmud received an impetus greater almost than in France in the -times of the Tossafist schools. Of all the Jews in Europe and Asia -those in Poland were the last to become familiar with the Talmud; as -though desirous of making up for lost time, they cherished it with -extravagant affection. It appeared as if the deep secrets of the -Talmud were to be rightly understood and completely unraveled and -appreciated only in Poland. Comprehensive erudition and marvelous -insight were united in a surprising manner in the Polish students of -this book, and everyone whom nature had not deprived of all talent -devoted himself to its study. The dead letter received new life from -the eager inspiration of the Jewish sons of Poland; in this land it -exerted an influence of great force, striking sparks of intellectual -fire, and creating a ceaseless flow of thought. The Talmudical schools -in Poland henceforward became the most celebrated throughout the whole -of European Judaism. All who sought sound learning betook themselves -thither. To have been educated in a college of the Polish Jews was of -itself a sufficient recommendation; and all who did not possess this -advantage were considered inferiors. - -The fame of the rabbinical schools of Poland was due to three men: -Shalom Shachna, Solomon Lurya, and Moses Isserles. Solomon Lurya (born -in Posen about 1510, died about 1573) came from a family of German -immigrants. Had he been born in a better, a more intellectual epoch, he -would have been one of the makers of Judaism, perhaps another Maimuni. -But being the son of an age of decadence, he became only a profound -and thorough Talmud scholar, in the higher sense of the word, not -remaining satisfied with traditional data, but examining every single -point and weighing it in the golden balance of critical exactitude. -To the thorough and critical investigation of the great field of the -Talmud his whole mental activity was devoted, and he possessed the -greatest natural qualifications for such critical work. With his bold -spirit of inquiry, ruthlessly subjecting everything to the severest -examination, Lurya in any other age would have gone beyond the Talmud, -if its contradictions had made themselves glaringly apparent to him. -But by this son of an age of faith the whole book was regarded as an -actual continuation of the revelation made at Sinai, an unassailable -authority, which only needed to be properly understood, or which -wanted perhaps a little rectification here and there, but as a whole -contained the truth. Lurya was a strongly marked character, having all -the acerbity and angularity commonly associated therewith. Injustice, -venality, and hypocrisy, were so hateful to him, that he broke out -into what was sometimes imprudent excess of zealous indignation. By -reason of his distinct individuality and firmness, which he wished to -assert everywhere, Solomon Lurya offended and hurt the vanity of not a -few. He lashed in bitter terms those Talmudical scholars whose actions -did not correspond to their teaching, and devoted themselves to the -study of rabbinical literature only for the sake of discussion, or to -gain a reputation. Hence he made many enemies, and in his own time was -more feared than loved. In polemical discussion he was reckless and -unsparing, and very naturally brought upon himself retaliation which -only embittered him the more. Then he complained of persecution, and -even of the ingratitude of his disciples, who, he said, had turned -against him, and looked at everything in a gloomy light. He attacked -the students of the Talmud, because, he said, the ignorant were so -many and the possessors of knowledge so few, while their arrogance -continually increased, and no one was content to take the position -that properly belonged to him. No sooner was one of them ordained -than he assumed the airs of a master, collected a troop of disciples -around him for money, as people of rank hire a body-guard. "There are," -he complained, "gray-headed rabbis with very little knowledge of the -Talmud, who behave imperiously to congregations and to people of real -knowledge, excommunicate and re-admit members, ordain disciples--all -for their own selfish purposes." Solomon Lurya extended the sarcastic -bitterness of his scorn to German experts in the Talmud, "who, in the -case of people of wealth and authority, show indulgence towards the -transgression of rabbinical precepts, while they spread evil reports -about men of moderate means and strangers who are guilty of slight -irregularities, such as going about with uncovered head." - -However, things were not so bad in Jewish society as depicted by -Lurya's bitter humor; and this is proved in the most conclusive manner -by the recognition that this morose faultfinder himself received. -Talmudical students, both young and old, even in his lifetime, were -full of admiration for his achievements. While still betwixt youth and -middle age, he undertook his principal work of elucidating and sifting -Talmudic discussions with a view to establishing religious practice, -and he continued this work up to the end of his life without completing -it. Solomon Lurya performed this task with more thoroughness, -clearness, and depth than his contemporaries and predecessors. But -if he hoped, as it appears he did, to put an end to all variety and -confusion of opinion, he made the same mistake as Maimuni and others. -He only contributed to further entanglement of the knot. His numerous -other writings bear the same impress of thoroughness and critical -insight, but he could not reach the seat of the trouble any more than -others who had made the attempt; it lay too deep. - -By reason of his critical faculty, Lurya laid stress upon what his -Polish and German fellow-students neglected as too trifling-- -namely, on grammatical correctness and precision in the distinction -of the forms of speech. On the other hand, he was a declared enemy of -scholastic philosophy. It appeared to him to be dangerous and fatal to -faith. - -Another leading rabbi in Poland was Moses ben Israel Isserles, of -Cracow (born in 1520, died Iyar, 1572). The son of a greatly respected -father, who had held the office of president of the community, he -distinguished himself more by his precocity and comprehensive learning -than by striking mental individuality. Inheriting so much property from -his family that he dedicated one of his houses as a synagogue, Isserles -was able to follow the bent of his genius with ease and comfort, devote -himself to the Talmud, and make himself familiar with its mazes. He -soon gained such a reputation that, while still almost a youth, he was -nominated rabbi-judge in Cracow. At thirty years of age he had embraced -the whole field of Talmudic and rabbinical literature as thoroughly as -Joseph Karo, a man double his age. - -Isserles also felt the need of collecting and giving finality to the -widely scattered materials of rabbinical Judaism. But since Joseph Karo -had forestalled him by the compilation of his Code, it only remained -for him to rectify it, and comment upon it. For he regretted the -omission of several elements in that work, especially the neglect of -German rabbinical authorities and customs. This continuation of Karo's -Code, or "Table," he called the "Mappa" or "Table-cloth." As the Jews -in Germany had always been more scrupulous in their observances than -those elsewhere, the additions and supplementations made by Isserles -turned out to be burdensome. His decisions immediately received -recognition, and to the present day form the religious standard, the -official Judaism, of the German and Polish communities and those -allied to them. It cannot quite be said that he contributed to its -ossification, for he did not invent and introduce these burdens, but -only noted and codified them; he followed the universal tendency. If -Isserles had not arranged them into a religious code, some one else -would have done so. - -Isserles had taste also for other subjects besides the Talmud, -especially for astronomy. He produced a commentary to Frohbach's -astronomical work, "Theorica." He likewise had an inclination for -philosophy, and pursued the subject rather deeply, though only through -the medium of Hebrew works. Maimuni's "Guide" was his guide, too. On -this account he had to submit to a sharp reproof from the proud Solomon -Lurya. Isserles also had some taste for history, which led him to -induce one of his disciples to occupy himself seriously with it. David -Gans (born in Westphalia in 1541, died in Prague in 1613) had come to -Cracow when a youth in order to study in the rabbinical academy there; -but his natural taste for scientific subjects, history, geography, -mathematics, and astronomy, was involuntarily aroused by Isserles, -who brought him up, and guided his studies. Gans devoted himself to -these subjects, and made the acquaintance of two great leaders in -mathematics and astronomy, Kepler and Tycho de Brahe. He wrote several -works on these subjects, of course in Hebrew. His chronicle (Zemach -David), consisting of annals of Jewish and general history, has become -celebrated. It was a very great thing for a German Jew to have devoted -himself to studies outside of the ordinary track. But one cannot call -David's historical work great. He introduced among Jews the dry, bare -form of historical narrative formerly employed by monks, which at -that time had already given place to a more artistic method. However, -unimportant as David's chronicle is, it possesses some merit, because -it reminded those wrapped up in the study of the Talmud that they were -the last links of a long historical chain. The want of appreciation of -history displayed by German Jews is indicated by the brief inscription -placed on Gans' tomb, while there were no limits to the eulogies -glorifying the memory of some obscure rabbinical dignitary. The study -of the Talmud, prosecuted merely as an effort of memory, won greater -fame for its votaries than devotion to any branch of science, however -profoundly grasped. - -The three great rabbinical lights, first both in rank and in priority -of time, Shachna, Solomon Lurya, and Isserles, laid the foundation -of the extraordinary erudition of the Polish Jews. Any complicated -or generally interesting question, arising in Germany, Moravia, -Bohemia, even in Italy and Turkey, was submitted to them, especially -to Isserles, for final decision. The revoltingly vulgar actions of -the community at Prague, against which the local college of rabbis -was powerless, were brought before the rabbis of Poland, and attacked -vigorously by them. Passionate disputes in Frankfort-on-the-Main, which -threatened to produce persecution or expulsion, were settled, and a -reconciliation effected from Poland. Thus this rabbinical triumvirate -founded a kind of supremacy of Poland over the Jews of Europe, -acknowledged on all sides, and the Polish rabbis maintained their -position as leaders up to the end of the eighteenth century. - -The triumvirate, whose numerous disciples rivaled each other in the -study of the Talmud, gradually caused nearly all Polish Jews to become -familiar with that book, and eligible for the rabbinical office. Even -in small communities of only fifty members there were at least twenty -Talmudical scholars, who in turn instructed at least thirty pupils. -Everywhere there arose schools with rabbis at their head as teachers, -whose chief duty was to deliver lectures, everything else being of -secondary importance. Young men crowded to these establishments, where -they could live free from care, their maintenance being defrayed out -of the treasury of the community, or by wealthy private individuals. -Children were put to the study of the Talmud at a tender age, certainly -to the detriment of the natural development of their minds. It was the -highest honor to conduct a rabbinical school, and their ambition was -encouraged to strive for this object. Supervisors were nominated to -watch over the industry of the students (Bachurim) and the children. -Gradually a kind of syllabus with alternating themes, in use up to -recent times, was introduced for the lectures on the Talmud in the -summer and the winter term. - -At the end of the term, the teachers and their numerous pupils went to -the great Polish fairs, in summer to Zaslaw and Jaroslaw, in winter -to Lemberg and Lublin. Thus several thousand students of the Talmud -met, and there ensued a lively interchange of remarks and subtle -disputations upon the subject-matter of rabbinical and Talmudic study. -Public disputations were held, in which anyone might take part. The -keener intellects received wealthy brides as a reward for their mental -exertions. Rich parents took pride in having sons-in-law educated in -Talmudic schools, and sought for them at the fairs. The Polish Jews, -by reason of this fervent zeal, acquired a Talmudic deportment, so to -speak, which showed itself in every movement and every utterance, by -ungraceful shrugging of the shoulders and a peculiar movement of the -thumbs. Every conversation, whether of a perfectly indifferent nature -or even upon matters of business, resembled a disputation upon the -Talmud. Talmudical words, designations, phrases, and allusions, passed -into popular speech, and were understood even by women and children. - -But this excessive study of the Talmud in Poland was of no real -advantage to Judaism. It was not carried on in order to gain a proper -understanding of the book, but merely to find something unique, rare, -witty, striking, something to tickle the intellectual palate. In these -meetings of thousands of students of the Talmud, masters and disciples, -teachers and pupils, at the great fairs, every individual exerted -himself to discover something new, startling, and casuistical, bringing -it forward only to surpass all others, without caring whether it stood -the test of proof, or was only relatively true, but merely to gain a -reputation for sharp-wittedness. The chief endeavor of the Talmudical -students of Poland was directed to bringing to light something new in -Talmudic criticism, or in inventing something (Chiddush). The lectures -of the heads of schools, and of all rabbis, had only this object in -view--to set up something hitherto unsurpassed, to weave a net of -sophistical Talmudical propositions, and to go still further in the -process of incomprehensible hair-splitting (Chillukim). Hence the -whole trend of Jewish thought in Poland was in a wrong direction. -The language of the Jews in particular suffered from this cause, -degenerating into a ridiculous jargon, a mixture of German, Polish, -and Talmudical elements, an unpleasant stammering, rendered still more -repulsive by forced attempts at wit. This corrupt speech, despising -all forms, could be understood only by Jews, natives of the country. -Together with their language the Polish Jews lost that which really -constitutes a man, and were thus exposed to the scorn and contempt of -non-Jewish society. The Bible had fallen gradually into the background -in the course of development since the time of Maimuni; now in Poland -knowledge of it was utterly lost. If anyone occupied himself with it, -it was merely to derive the materials for wit, or false wit, from its -pages. - -The circumstances of the time were such that the Jews of Poland were -able, to a certain extent, to form an independent state within the -Polish state. Several kings in succession were favorable to them, -according them extensive protective privileges, and seeing, as far as -their power went, that these rights were respected. After the death of -the last king of the Jagellon dynasty, Sigismund Augustus (1572), the -Jews of Poland profited by the elective monarchy. Each newly-elected -king above all needed money, which could be supplied only by Jews; or, -he needed a party among the nobles, and this order, in general devoted -to the Jews, obtained a preponderating influence as compared with the -narrow-minded German middle class, hostile to Jews. - -After a thirteen months' interregnum, occupied by election negotiations -and intrigues, the sagacious prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bathori, -gained the Polish throne, not without the co-operation of the Jewish -agent, Solomon Ashkenazi, for Turkey had supported his election. Not -long after his accession, he sent kind messages to the Jews, protected -those in Lithuania against false and calumnious accusation of the -murder of Christian children, and uttered his conviction that the Jews -conscientiously obeyed the Hebrew law of not shedding human blood. -His reign of nearly twelve years (1575-1586) forms a happy episode -in the history of the Jews in Poland. Stephen Bathori, moreover, did -not allow the privileges to remain a dead letter, but preserved them -in full force. He allowed Jews (in 1576) to carry on all kinds of -trade without restriction, even to buy and sell on Christian holidays, -desired that the murder of a Jew, like the murder of a Christian, be -punished by death, and made the city magistracies responsible for riots -and injuries caused by Christian mobs in synagogues, cemeteries, and at -Jewish funerals. The promoters of tumultuous attacks upon Jews, which -occurred chiefly in the half-German city of Posen, were to be fined ten -thousand Polish marks, and the magistrate who had not done his duty -in protecting Jews was to be fined a similar sum. Bathori's reign was -not, however, free from libelous attacks on the Jews. Where was there -at that time in Christian Europe a single country in which the enemies -of the Jews did not assail them? A Polish poet, Klonowicz, poured forth -his scorn of their trade, usury, and arrogance, in Latin verses; the -rulers, he said, robbed the Jews, only to be robbed by them in turn. - -In the long reign of Sigismund III (1587-1632), the Swedish prince -whose election gave a pretext for internal dissensions and civil wars, -the Polish Jews fared better than might have been expected from a pupil -of the Jesuits and a zealous Catholic. Although he caused dissenting -Poles to be severely persecuted, the Jews under his government were by -no means unhappy. At the diet in Warsaw (1592) he confirmed the ancient -privileges of Casimir, considered to be in their favor. However, -Sigismund III introduced one law, very disadvantageous to Jews, and -disclosing the ecclesiastical bent of his mind. He ordained that the -permission of the clergy had to be gained to build new synagogues, -a regulation which, of course, rendered the practice of the Jewish -religion dependent on a church eager for persecution. - -Under this king the Jews in Poland introduced (1586-1592) an -institution which had not existed in that particular form in Jewish -history. It gave the Polish communities extraordinary unity, firmness, -and strength, and hence secured respect both from their members and -outsiders. Hitherto it had naturally come about that, at the meeting -of rabbis and heads of schools with their followers at the great -fairs, important questions were discussed, law cases were settled, and -general consultations took place. The utility of such meetings may -have become clearly apparent, and given rise to the idea of arranging -regular conferences of the heads of communities, to draw up final, -binding decisions. Both leaders and communities must have been actuated -by a healthy spirit in agreeing to common action. The communities -of the chief provinces, Little Poland, Greater Poland, and Russia, -were the first to unite in instituting conferences (Vaad) at regular -intervals, to take place at the great fairs of Lublin and Jaroslaw. The -communities sent delegates, learned men of proved excellence, who had a -seat and a vote in the synod. They chose a president, who directed the -discussion of questions, and drew up a report of the session. Disputes -in the communities, questions of taxation, religious and social -regulations, the averting of threatened dangers, and help to brethren -in distress, were the main points treated by the synods, and settled -finally. The synods also exercised a literary censorship by granting -permission for certain books to be printed and sold, and refusing -it in the case of others which seemed to them harmful. Probably the -Lithuanian Jews were represented at a later period, and the synods were -called the Synods of the Four Countries (Vaad Arba Arazoth). These -conferences had a very beneficial effect: they prevented long-standing -dissensions, averted or punished acts of injustice, kept alive a -feeling of union amongst the communities, directing them towards common -action, thereby counteracting the narrowness and selfishness of merely -local interests, which so greatly encouraged the dismemberment and -isolation of communities, as, for example, in Germany. On this account -the synod of Polish Jews was respected even abroad; and distant German -communities or private individuals who had any complaint to make, -applied to these supreme assemblies, certain to obtain relief. It is to -the glory of the men who, for nearly two hundred years, presided over -the synods, that their names, worthy of the remembrance of posterity, -remained in obscurity, as though they had consciously suppressed their -individuality in favor of the community at large. Still less is known -of the originators of this institution, who succeeded in the difficult -task of overcoming the anarchic tendency of the people, as Jews and -as Poles, and of inducing them to subordinate themselves to one great -end. It is conjectured that Mordecai Jafa, a rabbi from Bohemia (born -about 1532, died 1612), who made many journeys, and suffered much -sorrow, was the organizer of these regular conferences. He had been -compelled, in his youth, to assume the wanderer's staff. In this way -he came to Venice; here he occupied himself in drawing up a religious -code more convenient than that of Joseph Karo. Apparently the search -made by the Inquisition for copies of the Talmud rendered his stay in -Venice unpleasant, and he again betook himself to Poland. There finally -he officiated as a rabbi, first in Grodno, afterwards in Lublin, from -about 1575 till the spring of 1592. In Lublin, one of the great fair -towns, many thousands of Jews used to meet, and there were always -undecided law-suits and disputes to be settled. Mordecai Jafa may very -possibly have gained from this the idea of transforming these chance -synods into regular conferences and of drawing up rules for them. His -authority was sufficient to gain acceptance for his proposals, which -satisfied an urgent need. When he left Lublin in his old age to take -up the office of rabbi at Prague, the presidency of the synod seems -to have been occupied by Joshua Falk Cohen, the head of a school at -Lemberg (1592-1616), whose great academy was maintained by his rich -and respected father-in-law. The frequent meetings of the Reformers in -Poland, the Lutherans and Unitarians, with their respective sects, seem -to have served as a model for the Jewish assemblies. Only the latter -did not discuss hair-splitting dogmas, like the others, but decided -practical questions of daily life. - -Poland and Lithuania, superficially considered, presented the spectacle -of a land honeycombed with religious divisions, from which a new form -of Christianity was to arise. While in Germany the reforming movement -and the opposition to it was subsiding, while the Titans who stormed -the gates of heaven were settling down into ordinary parsons; while the -new church in its turn was entering upon a process of ossification, -and, after a short season of youthful ardor, was falling into the -feebleness of old age; the waves of religious and sectarian separation -were only now rising in Polish countries, and threatening a general -inundation. The German colonies in Poland had transplanted the -Reformation with them, and the Polish nobility thought it an imperative -fashion to pay homage to this anti-papal innovation. Christianity in -Poland and Lithuania, be it the new or the old church, was too young to -be firmly rooted; and so the Reformation, finding little opposition, -gained rapid admittance among the nobles and the bourgeoisie almost to -its own discomfiture. Sigismund Augustus had allowed the movement free -play; indeed, under the influence of the Radziwills of Lithuania, who -stood close to his throne, he almost renounced the papacy altogether. -Thus Poland became a free state in the widest sense, and an arena -for the new teaching of the Augustine monk of Wittenberg. Even those -thinkers or enthusiasts in Italy, Switzerland, or Germany, who wished -to push the religious movement, but were persecuted either by the -Catholics or the Reformers, found kindly welcome and protection under -the Polish nobility, who were quite independent in their own districts. - -Thus arose a sect in Poland which, logically developed, might have -given a fatal blow to Christianity in general. The ashes of Servetus -of Aragon, burned at the stake in Geneva, the author of a treatise, -"On the Errors of the Trinity," seem to have been the seed for -fresh dissensions in the church. A number of his disciples, Socinus, -Blandrata, and Paruta, Italians of bold intellect, who undermined -the foundations of Christianity, and were outlawed by Catholics and -Reformers alike, passed over the Polish frontier, and were allowed -not only to live there free, but also to speak freely. The attacks -of the Socinians or Pinczovinians (as this sect, which flourished -in Poland, was called) were directed mainly against the Trinity as -a form of polytheism. Hence they received the name of Unitarians or -anti-Trinitarians. There arose a swarm of sects who met at synodic -conventions to find grounds of union, but separated with still further -divisions and dissensions. - -Among the Unitarians, or disbelievers in the Trinity, were some who -partially approached Judaism, rejecting the veneration of Jesus as -a divine person. They were scoffed at by their various opponents as -"Half-Jews" (semi-judaizantes). To the strictest sect of Unitarians -in Poland belonged Simon Budny, of Masovia, a Calvinist priest, who -founded a sect of his own, the Budnians. He died after 1584. He -possessed more learning than the other founders of sects, and also -had a slight knowledge of Hebrew, which he had probably learned from -Jews. Simon Budny made himself famous by his simple translation of the -Old and the New Testament into Polish (published at Zaslaw, 1572). -His intercourse with Jews is shown by his respect for the universally -despised Talmud. - -Although the movement of religious reform in Poland, in spite of -the frequent synods, disputations, and protests, did not penetrate -very deep, it was not without effect upon the Jews. They were fond -of entering into discussions with the leaders or adherents of the -various sects, if not to convert them to Judaism, yet to show their -own superiority in biblical knowledge. Conversations upon religion -between Jews and "Dissenters" (as all Poles who had seceded from Roman -Catholicism were called) were of frequent occurrence. A Unitarian, -Martin Czechowic (born about 1530, died 1613), from Greater Poland, a -man of confused intellect, who had passed through all the phases of the -religious movements of the day, and who finally became a schismatic, -rejected the baptism of infants, and maintained that a Christian could -not undertake any office of state. This Martin Czechowic had written a -work to refute the objections of the Jews to the Messianic claims of -Jesus, and had fought against the continued obligatoriness of Judaism -with old and rusty weapons. A Rabbanite Jew, Jacob of Belzyce, in -Lublin (1581), wrote a refutation, so effective that Czechowic found -himself compelled to justify his thesis in a rejoinder. - -Isaac ben Abraham Troki, of Troki, near Wilna (born 1533, died 1594), -a Karaite, engaged still more actively than Jacob of Belzyce in -disputations with the adherents of Polish and Lithuanian sects. He had -access to nobles, princes of the church, and other Christian circles, -was deeply acquainted with the Bible, well read in the New Testament, -and in the different polemical, religious writings of his day, and -thus able to produce thoroughly accurate statements. Shortly before -his death (1593) Isaac Troki collected the results of his religious -conversations in a work that was subsequently to serve as the arsenal -for destructive weapons against Christianity. He entitled his work "The -Strengthening of Faith." He not merely answered the numerous attacks -made upon Judaism by Christians, but carried the war into the camp of -Christianity. With great skill and thorough knowledge of his subject, -he brought into prominence the contradictions and untenable assertions -in the Gospels and other original Christian documents. It is the only -book by a Karaite author worth reading. It certainly does not contain -anything specially new; all brought forward in defense of Judaism and -against Christianity had been far better said by Spanish authors of a -previous period, especially by the talented Profiat Duran. Yet Troki's -work had more success, for books have a fate of their own. This book -was translated into Spanish, Latin, German, and French, and gained -still greater fame from the attacks upon it by Christians. One of the -dukes of Orleans undertook to refute the onslaught of this Polish Jew -upon Christianity. And when Reason, awakened and strengthened, applied -the lever to shake the foundations of Christianity and demolish the -whole superstructure, it was to this store-chamber that she turned for -her implements. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -SETTLEMENT OF JEWS IN HOLLAND.--FEEBLE ATTEMPTS AT ENFRANCHISEMENT. - - Revival of Catholicism--Decay in European Culture-- - Ill-treatment of Jews in Berlin--Emperor Rudolph II of - Austria--Diminution in the Numbers of Italian Jews--Pope - Gregory XIII--Confiscation of Copies of the Talmud--Vigorous - Attempts at the Conversion of Jews--Pope Sixtus V--The Jewish - Physician, David de Pomis--Renewal of Persecution by Clement - VIII--Expulsion from Various Italian States--The Censors - and the Talmud--The Jews of Ferrara--Settlement of Jews in - Holland--Samuel Pallache--Jacob Tirado and the Marranos in - Amsterdam--Tolerant Treatment--The Poet, David Jesurun--Moses - Uri--Hebrew Printing in Amsterdam. - -1593-1618 C.E. - - -The free spirit of the nations of Europe, which at the beginning of -the century had taken so bold a flight, had broken the ancient bonds -in which the church had long held minds captive, and cast the blight -of doubt on the hitherto sacred authority of the wearer of the Roman -purple--this spirit, which promised to bring the regeneration of -civilized humanity and political freedom, seemed in the second half -of the century to be utterly cast down. The papacy, or Catholicism, -had recovered from its first feeling of terror, and collected itself. -Extraordinarily strengthened by the council of Trent, it forged new -chains to which the nations that had remained faithful, willingly -submitted. The order of the Jesuits, restless and indefatigable -champions, who not only disarmed their opponents, but even drew them -over to their own ranks, had already reconquered much lost ground -by their widespread plots, and had conceived new measures in order -to win back with double interest what they had lost. Italy, a great -part of southern Germany and the Austrian provinces, France--after -long civil wars and convulsions, after the blood-stained eve of St. -Bartholomew, and the murder of two kings--as also to a great extent -Poland and Lithuania, had once more become Catholic, as fanatically -Catholic, too, as Spain and Portugal, the blazing hells of the -Inquisition. In Lutheran and reformed Germany another papacy had -gained the mastery, a papacy of dry formulas of belief, and slavery -to the letter of the law. The Byzantine quarrel about shadowy dogmas -and meaningless words divided the evangelical communities into as many -sects and subsidiary sects as there were points of discussion, and had -a harmful influence upon political development. Classical philology, at -first liberalizing and suggestive, was neglected, owing to excessive -belief in the Bible by the one party and the sway of authority -over the other, and had degenerated into fanciful dilettanteism or -learned lumber. The study of the Hebrew language, which for a time -had kindled great enthusiasm, was similarly debased, or only carried -on superficially for the purposes of ecclesiastical wrangling. The -knowledge of Hebrew had always been considered, at any rate was now -thought, in orthodox Catholic society, to be actual heresy. And the -same was still truer of rabbinical literature. The learned Spanish -theologian, Arias Montano, published the first complete polyglot Bible -in Antwerp, at the expense of Philip II. He also compiled grammars and -dictionaries of the Hebrew and cognate languages, in which regard was -had to the older Jewish expositors. He, the favorite of Philip II, who -had himself drawn up a list of heretical books, was accused by the -Jesuits and the Inquisition of favoring heresy, suspected of secret -conversion to Judaism, and stigmatized as a rabbi. Thus, Europe seemed -to be actually making a retrograde movement, only with this distinction ---what had formerly been cheery, naive credulity now became sinister, -aggressive fanaticism. - -Refined ecclesiasticism, resulting in the tension which subsequently -relieved itself in the general destructiveness of the Thirty Years' -War, made the sojourn of Jews, both in Catholic and Protestant -countries, a continual torture. Luther's followers in Germany forgot -what Luther had so earnestly uttered in their favor, only remembering -the hateful things of which, in his bitterness, he had accused them. -The Jews of Berlin and the province of Brandenburg, for instance, had -the sad alternative put before them of being baptized or expelled. A -Jewish financier, the physician Lippold, favorite of Elector Joachim -II, and his right hand in his corrupt, financial schemes, examined and -tortured on the rack by Joachim's successor, John George, admitted, -though afterwards recanting, that he had poisoned his benefactor. The -Jews were driven also out of Brunswick by Duke Henry Julius. Catholic -nations and princes had no cause to reproach their Protestant opponents -with toleration or humanity in regard to Jews. - -It was, in some respects, fortunate for the Jews of Germany and -Austria, that the reigning emperor, Rudolph II, although a pupil of -the Jesuits, educated in a country where the fires of the stake were -always smoking, and a deadly enemy of the Protestants, was not greatly -prejudiced against Jews. Weak and vacillating, he was not able to -check the persecutions directed against them, but at least he did not -encourage them. He issued an edict to one bishop (of Wuerzburg) that the -Jews should not be deprived of their privileges, and to another (of -Passau) that they should not be tortured on the rack. But, in order not -to be decried by his contemporaries or by posterity as a benefactor of -Jews, he not only maintained the heavy taxation of Jews in his crown -land, Bohemia, but from time to time increased it. He also ordered the -Jews to be expelled from the archduchy of Austria within six months. - -In this position, robbed by Catholics and Lutherans alike, trampled -down or driven into misery, barely protected by the emperor, but -taxed under the pretense of enjoying this protection, the ruin and -degradation of German Jews reached ever lower depths. They were so -sorely troubled by the cares of the moment, that they neglected the -study of the Talmud, once their spiritual food. - -The Jews of Italy fared even worse at this time, and they, too, sank -into misery and decay. Italy was the principal seat of the malicious -and inexorable, ecclesiastical reaction, animated with the thought to -annihilate the opponents of Catholicism from the face of the earth. The -torch of civil war was hurled from the Vatican into Germany, France, -and the Netherlands. And as the Jews, from the time of Paul IV and Pius -V, had been upon the list of heretics, or foes of the church, their -lot was not to be envied. With the loss of their independence, their -numbers also decreased. There were no Jews living in southern Italy. -In northern Italy, the largest communities, those of Venice and Rome, -numbered only between 1,000 and 2,000 souls; the community in Mantua -had only 1,844; and in the whole of the district of Cremona, Lodi, -Pavia, Alessandria, and Casalmaggiore, there dwelt only 889 Jews. Pius -V, by nature a sinister ecclesiastic delighting in persecution, who -treated Jews as the cursed children of Ham, was succeeded by Gregory -XIII (1572-1585), who had been skillfully trained to fanaticism by -the Jesuits and the Theatine monks. As regards Jews, Gregory was a -most consistent follower of the cruelty of his predecessor. In spite -of repeated warnings, there were still many Christians in Italy, who, -in their blindness, preferred Jewish physicians of proved excellence, -such as David de Pomis, or Elias Montalto, to Christian charlatans. -Gregory was desirous of prohibiting their employment. He renewed the -old canonical law that Christian patients were not to be treated -by Jewish physicians; not only visiting Christians who transgressed -this command with severe penalties, but also punishing the Jewish -physicians if they ventured to prolong the life of a Christian patient, -or even alleviate his sufferings. His severity succeeded. Another of -Gregory's edicts referred not to one profession, but to the Jewish race -in general. He placed them under the Argus eye of the Inquisition. -If any of them maintained or taught what was heretical, _i.e._, -obnoxious to the church; if he held intercourse with a heretic or an -apostate, helped him or showed him sympathy, he was to be summoned by -the Inquisition, and according to its verdict was to be condemned to -confiscation of his property, the punishment of the galleys, or even -sentenced to death. If, then, a refugee Marrano from Spain or Portugal -was caught in Italy, and it was proved that a brother Jew had given him -food or shelter, both might expect to be seized by the inexorable arm -of the Inquisition of Italy. The anger of Pope Gregory XIII was poured -forth also against the Talmud. The Jews were once more admonished to -deliver up the Talmud and other works suspected of being hostile to the -church. The Inquisitors and other spiritual authorities were appointed -to institute search for these books everywhere. Anyone subsequently -found in possession of them, even after declaring that the offending -passages had been expunged, was rendered liable to severe punishment. -Pope Gregory XIII's most zealous effort was directed to the conversion -of Jews. This pope, who most heartily encouraged the Jesuits and their -proselytizing school of thought, endowed a propagandist seminary of all -nations--the curriculum included twenty-five languages--called the -"Collegium Germanicum," issued a decree that on Sabbaths and holy days -Christian preachers should deliver discourses upon Christian doctrine -in the synagogues, if possible in Hebrew, and that Jews of both -sexes, over twelve years of age, at least a third of the community, -must attend these sermons. The Catholic princes were exhorted to -support this vigorous attempt at conversion. Thus an ordinance of -a half-mad, schismatic pope, Benedict XIII, issued in a moment of -passionate excitement, was sanctioned, and even exaggerated in cold -blood by the head of the united Catholic church, thereby exercising -religious compulsion not very different from the act of Antiochus -Epiphanes in dedicating the Temple of the one true God to Jupiter. It -is characteristic of the views then prevailing, that the Jews were to -provide salaries for the preachers, in return for the violence done -their consciences! Like his predecessor, Pius V, Gregory spared no -means to win over the Jews. Many allowed themselves to be converted -either from fear or for their advantage; for Gregory's edicts did not -remain a dead letter, but were carried out with all strictness and -severity. The consequence was that many Jews left Rome. - -The condition of the Jews in Rome was apparently altered under -Gregory's successor, Sixtus V (1585-1590), who rose from the position -of a swine-herd to the office of the shepherd of Catholic Christendom, -and whose dauntless energy in the government of the Papal States -stamped him as an original type of character. He allowed Jews to be -around him, and harbored Lopez, a Jewish refugee from Portugal, who -made various suggestions as to the improvement of the finances. He went -still further; he issued a bull (October 22d, 1586), which did away -with almost all the restrictions made by his predecessors. Sixtus not -merely granted Jews permission to dwell in all the cities of the Papal -States, but also allowed them to have intercourse with Christians and -employ them as assistants in business. He protected their religious -freedom by special provisions, and extended to them an amnesty for -past offenses, _i.e._, for condemnations on account of the possession -of religious books. Moreover, he forbade the Knights of Malta to make -slaves of Jews traveling by sea from Europe to the Levant, or _vice -versa_, a practice to which these consecrated champions of God had -hitherto been addicted. Pope Sixtus knew how to secure obedience to -his command when it became law, and the Jews previously expelled now -returned to the papal dominions. Under him the Jewish community at -Rome numbered two hundred members. Finally he removed the prohibition -which prevented Jewish physicians from attending Christian patients. -The compulsory services instituted by his predecessor were the only -ordinances that Sixtus V allowed to remain. - -The permission, so important at that time, for Jewish physicians to -have access to Christian patients, was probably gained for himself -and his colleagues, by the then celebrated physician, David de Pomis -(born 1525, died 1588). With medical knowledge he combined linguistic -acquirements, and familiarity with Hebrew and classical literature, -writing both Hebrew and Latin with elegance. In the course of his -life he felt keenly the changes in the papal policy. He lost all his -property through the hostile decrees of Paul IV, was kindly treated by -Pius IV, and allowed by way of exception to practice among Christians -in consequence of a splendid Latin discourse delivered before the pope -and the college of cardinals. But he was again subjected to irritating -restrictions by Pius V, and had to employ his skill in the service -of petty, capricious nobles. To dispel the unconquerable prejudices -against Jews, particularly against Jewish physicians, De Pomis wrote a -Latin work, entitled "The Hebrew Physician," which affords favorable -testimony to his noble mind and extensive culture. With considerable -eloquence De Pomis maintained that the Jew was bound by his religion -to love the Christian as his brother, and that a Jewish physician, far -from wishing to do harm to his Christian patient, was wont to treat -him with the utmost care and solicitude. He enumerated various Hebrew -physicians who had attended princes of the church, cardinals and popes, -had restored them to health, and had received distinctions from them -and from cities. In conclusion, De Pomis adduced some proverbs from -the Talmud in a Latin translation, to show that this much-calumniated -book was not so harmful and corrupt as enemies of the Jews asserted. -This apology for Judaism and Jewish physicians, dedicated to Prince -Francesco Maria of Urbino, the elegant Latin style of which was highly -praised by an experienced critic of the time, appears to have made an -impression upon Pope Sixtus. De Pomis must certainly have been intimate -with him, as he was allowed to dedicate to him his second important -literary work, a dictionary of the Talmud in three languages. - -The pope severely punished a Christian Shylock, because he claimed -a pound of flesh from a Roman Jew as the result of a wager. This -Christian, named Seche, had wagered with a Jew, named Ceneda, that -St. Domingo would be conquered, and on winning his bet he claimed -the penalty. On hearing of this, Sixtus condemned him to death, but -afterwards mitigated the punishment to banishment, and allotted -the same fate to Ceneda for wagering his body, the property of his -sovereign. - -The favorable attitude of Sixtus towards Jews encouraged them in the -hope--to them a matter of conscience, of life itself--that the -prohibition directed against the Talmud and the Hebrew Scriptures would -be removed forever. Under the last two popes no copies of the Talmud -had been allowed to appear without causing the possessor to incur the -dangers of the watchful Inquisition. Nor was the possession of other -perfectly harmless Hebrew works without risk, for as the Inquisitors -and clerical authorities did not in the least understand them, they -condemned all without exception as inimical to the church, a category -which afforded ample room for denunciation. Whether the possessor of -a Hebrew book should be condemned to lose his property, or be sent -to the galleys, depended, in the last instance, upon the decision of -baptized Jews acquainted with rabbinical literature. To escape these -annoyances the communities of Mantua, Ferrara, and Milan addressed a -request to Sixtus V to allow the Jews to possess copies of the Talmud -and other books, provided these works were previously expurgated of the -passages objectionable to Christianity. They referred to the decision -of Pope Pius IV that the Talmud could not be entirely condemned, but -that it contained passages worthy of censure, which were to be struck -out by the censor's marks. A Jewish delegate, Bezalel Masserano, had -gone to Rome, provided with 2,000 scudi, in order to lay the request -of the Jews at the feet of his Holiness. It was granted in the bull -of October 22d, 1586. Sixtus allowed the reprinting of the Talmud and -other writings, though only after censorship. For this purpose two -commissions were appointed, in which baptized Jews were naturally -included as experts. The Italian Jews began to rejoice at being allowed -to possess even a mutilated Talmud. But scarcely had the commission -arranged the conditions of the censorship (August 7th, 1590), when the -wise pope died, and the undertaking, just begun, of reprinting the -mutilated Talmud was at once discontinued. - -The regard paid Jews by Sixtus V arose not from any sentiment of -justice, but from his passionate desire to amass treasure. "This pope -bled Christians from the throat," says his biographer, "but he drew -the blood of Jews from all their limbs." They often found themselves -compelled to pay immense sums into the papal treasury. - -With Clement VIII, however (1592-1605), the system of intolerance, -practiced by Paul IV, Pius V, and Gregory XIII, once more came into -vogue. He repeated the edict of expulsion against the Jews in the Papal -States (February 25th, 1593), and allowed them to dwell only in Rome, -Ancona, and Avignon. If a Jew were caught in any other papal city, he -was to expiate his offense by the loss of his property and the penalty -of the galleys. Clement re-imposed the old restrictions upon the Jews -in the three cities mentioned, forbidding them either to read or -possess the Talmud and other rabbinical writings. The Jews, expelled -from the Papal States, seem to have been received by Ferdinand, Duke of -Tuscany, who assigned Pisa to them as a dwelling-place (July, 1593). -He allowed them to possess books of every kind and of all languages, -including the Talmud, but the copies first had to be expurgated -according to the regulations of the commission instituted by Sixtus V. -So great was the fanaticism of the apostolic throne that even noble -princes, like Ferdinand de Medici, of Tuscany, and Vicenzo Gonzago, -of Mantua, did not venture to relax it. Even in places where, as a -favor, the Jews were allowed to possess expurgated books, they were -exposed to all kinds of annoyances and extortions. They had to pay the -censors, mostly baptized Jews, for the mutilation of these writings, -nor were they assured that even then their books would not again be -confiscated, and the owners punished, merely because some obnoxious -word or other had remained unobliterated. Woe to those who rubbed out -one of the censors' marks! To avoid being exposed to vexation, Jews -themselves laid hands upon their sacred literature, and expunged not -only everything that referred to idolatry, but also everything that -glorified the Jewish race, or made mention of the Messiah and his -future advent. As Italy, at that time, was the chief market for printed -Hebrew works, the Jews in other countries received only mutilated -copies, from which open or covert protests against Rome were completely -obliterated. - -Expulsion of the Jews from all Italian cities was the order of the day -in the reign of this pope. Thus the Jews were expelled (in the spring -of 1597) from the Milan district, _i.e._, from the cities of Cremona, -Pavia, Lodi, and others, to the number of about a thousand. They were -forced to beg for shelter in Mantua, Modena, Reggio, Verona, and Padua. -During their migrations, they were robbed by heartless Christians. -The sword of the church hovered for a time also over the Jews in -Ferrara, a town that had always been a safe refuge for them, and even -for the new-Christians from Spain. The ducal race of De Este, whose -representatives vied with the Medici in magnanimity and culture, had -died out. The Jews of Ferrara felt themselves so identified with the -fortunes of this princely house, that they offered public prayers in -the synagogue on the occasion of the severe illness of the thoughtful -Princess Leonore, whom two great poets have immortalized by placing her -in the glorified heaven of poetry. She herself was a benefactress of -Jews, and frequently protected them. But now the last representative -of the race, Alfonso II, had died without heirs (1597), and, in -opposition to his last wishes, Ferrara was incorporated into the Papal -States by Clement VIII. The Jewish community, consisting chiefly of -Marrano refugees, was prepared to endure banishment, as it could expect -no mercy from this pope. They only asked Aldobrandini, the pope's -relative, who had taken possession of Ferrara, to grant them a respite -that they might make preparations for departure. As Aldobrandini saw -that a great portion of the trade of the town was in the hands of -Jews, he had sufficient consideration not to injure it, granted them -permission to remain for five years, and had this decree carried out in -spite of the fanatical wishes of Clement VIII, who had hoped to banish -them. No fugitive new-Christian, however, could now stop in Ferrara -without falling into the clutches of the bloody Inquisition. Thus the -last refuge in Italy for this class of Jews was destroyed, and there -was no longer any place of safety for them in all Christendom. - -It seems providential that the Jewish race, which, at the end of the -sixteenth century, had no longer a footing, properly speaking, in -Europe or Asia, under Christianity or Islam, should have taken firm -root in the empire of their obstinate foe, Philip II, of Spain, and -should have been able from that vantage ground to gain a position -of equality. Indeed, in the chain of causation it was the bloody -Inquisition itself which helped gain them freedom. Holland, a land -wrung from the sea, became for the hunted victims of a horrible, -refined fanaticism, a resting-place where they could settle down, -and develop their national characteristics. But what changes and -vicissitudes they had to undergo before this almost undreamed of -possibility could become reality! The northwest corner of Europe had -hitherto been inhabited by only a few Jews. They suffered, as did -their brethren, under the extravagances of excited fanaticism, were -hunted down, and massacred at the time of the crusades and the Black -Death, bearing all in silent obscurity and patience. When the country, -under the name of the Netherlands, beneath the far-reaching scepter of -Charles V, was united to Spain, the Spanish principle of hostility to -Jews was transferred to it. The emperor issued command after command -that the Jews in the cities of the Netherlands, small though their -numbers were, should be expelled. Every citizen was required to make -known to the royal officers the presence of Jews contrary to law. In -consequence of the introduction of the Inquisition into Portugal, -several Jewish families had betaken themselves, with all their wealth, -industry, and skill, to the flourishing cities of the Netherlands, -Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent, in order to lead a religious life secure -from danger. The severe edict of Charles V, and his repeated command -not to allow their presence, extended to them. The magistrates duly -fulfilled the commands of their ruler in this matter, because they -feared that the presence of new-Christians would cause the Inquisition -to be introduced--an evil which seemed to their anxious hearts to -forebode great danger for themselves. - -The people of the Netherlands could not escape the Inquisition. -Although an appendage of Spain, were they not surrounded by Lutheran -heretics, and did not these dwell in their very midst? So this -institution was to be introduced among them also. This was one -of the main causes of the revolt of the Netherlands, and of that -long-continued war, so small in its beginnings, and so great in its -results, that rendered powerless the might of Spain, and raised the -tiny land of Holland to a power of almost the first rank. It seemed as -if from every head that Alva struck off in the Netherlands, hundreds -of others sprang, as from the Hydra of old. It was a matter of course -that in this sanguinary struggle which transformed the whole land into -an arena of battle, there was no place for Jews. Upon the advice of -Arnheim and Zuetphen, Alva had issued an edict that if Jews were found -there, they were to be kept in custody until such time as he should -pass judgment upon them. It was well known what this meant from his -mouth. - -The Portuguese Marranos, or new-Christians, who, even in the third -generation, could not forget, and would not repudiate, their Jewish -descent, turned their eyes towards the Netherlands, now wrestling for -freedom, the more as the Inquisition was raging more furiously than -ever, and dragging them to the dungeon or the stake. Since the first -symptom of the decline of Spain's fortunes, since the collapse of the -invincible Armada, by means of which Philip II had thought to carry -the chains of actual and spiritual bondage not only to England, but, -if possible, to the ends of the earth, there had arisen in the hearts -of the pseudo-Christians, under the iron rule of this tyrant, an eager -desire for freedom. As Italy was closed to them by the persecuting -policy of the reactionary popes, their only hope of refuge was in the -Netherlands. - -An eminent Jew, Samuel Pallache, sent by the king of Morocco as -consul to the Netherlands (about 1591), proposed to the magistrate -of Middelburg, in the province of Zealand, to receive the Portuguese -Marranos, and allow them religious freedom. In return, they would -develop the city into a flourishing, commercial center by means of -their wealth. The wise city fathers would willingly have agreed to -this plan, but the war for religion and freedom, so passionately waged -against the two-fold despotism of Spain, had made even the reformed -preachers fanatical and intolerant. They were opposed to the admission -of Jews into Zealand. - -But the Portuguese new-Christians did not abandon the idea of seeking -security in the provinces of the Netherlands already freed from the -Spanish yoke. They felt themselves drawn towards this republic by -mighty bonds; they shared its fierce hatred against Spain with its -thirst for human sacrifices, and against its fanatical king, Philip II. -The great Protector, William of Orange, the soul of the struggle for -independence, had uttered the idea of mutual toleration and friendly -intercourse between different religious parties, creeds, and sects. -Although this first germ of genuine humanity at first fell to the -ground, the Marranos clung to it as affording hope of release from -their daily torments. A courageous Marrano woman, Mayor Rodrigues, -appears to have formed the plan of seeking a refuge for her family -in Holland. She, her husband, Gaspar Lopes Homem, her two sons and -two daughters, and several other members of this rich and respected -family, were devotedly attached to Judaism, and weary of the pretense -of following Christian customs, a pretense, after all, powerless to -protect them from the horrors of the Inquisition. When a ship sailed -from Portugal with a load of fugitive Marranos, under the leadership -of one Jacob Tirado, Mayor Rodrigues intrusted to this vessel her -charming and beautiful daughter, Maria Nunes, and also her son. The -mother appears to have relied upon the magic of her daughter's charms; -the extraordinary beauty of Maria Nunes was to serve as an aegis to -these wanderers, surrounded by dangers on all sides, and secure to -them a place of refuge. As a matter of fact, her beauty was successful -in averting the first danger that threatened the party of refugees, -consisting of ten persons, men, women and children. They were captured -by an English ship making raids upon vessels sailing under the -Spanish-Portuguese flag, and were taken to England. Maria Nunes so -bewitched the captain, an English duke, that he offered her his hand, -thinking that she belonged to the rank of the Portuguese grandees; -but she refused this honorable offer, because she wished to live as -a Jewess. The beauty of the fair Portuguese prisoner made so great a -sensation in London, that the virgin queen, Elizabeth, was curious to -make the acquaintance of this celebrated beauty, inaccessible even to -the love of a duke. She invited her to an audience, and drove with her -in an open carriage through the streets of the capital. Probably owing -to the mediation of Maria Nunes, the fugitive Jews were allowed to -leave England unharmed, and set sail for Holland. After enduring a most -stormy voyage, they were able to make for the harbor of Emden, where, -as in the rest of East Friesland, some few German Jews lived. - -As soon as the Marranos became aware, by Hebrew letters and other -signs, of the presence of brethren in this city, Jacob Tirado, the most -eminent among them repaired to Moses Uri Halevi, who had the reputation -of being a learned man, and on whose house Hebrew characters had been -noticed. He discovered to him his own and his companions' intention to -give up pseudo-Christianity, and to be received fully and, if possible, -immediately into Judaism. But Moses Uri had scruples about taking such -a decisive course, the apparent conversion of Christians to Judaism, in -a small town, where nothing could long remain hidden. He, therefore, -advised the fugitives to betake themselves to Amsterdam, where greater -toleration was enjoyed, and promised to come to them with his whole -family, to remain with them, and instruct them in Jewish doctrines. -Accordingly, the Marranos, led by Tirado, arrived at Amsterdam (April -22d, 1593), sought an abode which would allow of their remaining -together, and were received back into Judaism as soon as Moses Uri and -his family came to them. - -Moses Uri and his son arranged a house of prayer for the Marranos, and -officiated as conductors of the services. Great zeal was shown, not -only by Jacob Tirado, but also by Samuel Pallache, the consul, and a -Marrano poet, Jacob Israel Belmonte, come thither from Madeira, who -depicted the tortures of the Inquisition in verse, giving his poem the -appropriate title of "Job." The youthful community was strengthened in -numbers and in standing by fresh arrivals. An English fleet, which, -under the Earl of Essex, surprised the fortress of Cadiz, and inflicted -serious injuries upon the Spaniards (in the summer of 1596), conveyed -several Marranos to Holland, amongst them a man of great originality, -not without importance for posterity. Alonso de Herrera was descended -from Jewish and ancient Spanish families. His ancestor was the great -Gonsalvo de Cordova, the conqueror of Naples for Spain. He himself was -the Spanish resident in Cadiz, and on the capture of this city was -taken prisoner by the English. On being liberated he went to Amsterdam, -became a Jew, and adopted the name of Abraham de Herrera (wrongly -called Irira). - -The Marranos in Amsterdam did not find the practice of their religion -altogether easy. When this first Portuguese community was secretly -celebrating its fourth Fast of Atonement (October, 1596), their -Christian neighbors were surprised at the secret meeting of disguised -figures in one house; they suspected treacherous assemblies of Catholic -conspirators, and denounced them to the magistrates. Whilst the Jews -were engaged in prayer, armed men suddenly rushed into the house, -and spread terror amongst the assembled worshipers. As most of them, -mindful of the cruelties of the Inquisition, and fearing a similar -fate in Amsterdam, tried to save themselves by flight, the suspicions -of the Amsterdam officials were increased. The latter searched for -crucifixes and wafers, and led Moses Uri and his son, the leaders of -the service, to prison. However, Jacob Tirado, who was able to make -himself understood in the Latin language, succeeded in convincing the -authorities that the assembly was not one of papists, but of Jews who -had fled from the Moloch of the Inquisition. Moreover, that they had -brought much wealth with them, and finally that they would induce many -co-religionists to come from Spain and Portugal with their riches, and -thus give an impulse to the trade of Amsterdam. Tirado's speech made -a great impression. The prisoners were released, and the terrified -Portuguese Jews were able to conclude the service of the Fast of -Atonement. Now that their religion was made known, they ventured -upon the step of petitioning the magistrate to allow them to build -a synagogue in which to hold their religious services. After much -consideration the request was granted. Jacob Tirado bought a site, -and in 1598 built the first Jewish temple in the north of Europe, -called the "House of Jacob" (Beth Jacob). It was consecrated amid the -enthusiasm of the little community. - -The favorable news about the Marrano colonists, carried secretly to -Spain and Portugal, afforded additional inducement to emigration. -Mayor Rodrigues Homem, the first promoter of this course, also found -an opportunity of escaping from Portugal and joining her beautiful -daughter, Maria Nunes (about 1598). She brought her younger son and -daughter with her; her husband had probably died before this time. -Simultaneously, barely escaping the Inquisition, another eminent family -arrived from Portugal, that of Franco Mendes, including the parents -and two sons, Francisco Mendes Medeiros, a cultured literary man, who -took the Hebrew name of Isaac, and Christoval Mendes Franco, rich and -benevolent, who called himself Mordecai. Both played important parts in -the Amsterdam community, but subsequently caused a division. - -Philip II lived to see the two races whom he had most savagely hated -and persecuted, the Netherlanders and the Jews, in a measure join -hands to destroy what he had created, for Holland derived advantage -from the Jewish settlers from Portugal. Previously it had been one of -the poorest states, and the bitter, destructive wars had made the land -still poorer. The capital brought by the Marranos to Amsterdam was very -acceptable, and benefited the whole country. The Dutch were now enabled -to lay the foundations of their prosperity by taking the Indian trade -out of the hands of the Portuguese, who had been connected with Spain -in an unprofitable alliance. The capital of the fugitive Jews made -it possible to found great transmarine companies and fit out trading -expeditions, in which they participated. The connections, too, of the -Portuguese Jews with their secret co-religionists in the Portuguese -possessions in the Indies assisted the undertakings of Dutch merchants. - -Philip II died in September, 1598, a terrible warning to obstinate, -unscrupulous despots. His body was covered with abscesses and -vermin, which made him such an object of horror that his trembling -servants approached him only with disgust. The great empire which he -bequeathed to his feeble son, Philip III, was likewise diseased. It -was succumbing to its infirmities, and no longer possessed influence -in the councils of Europe. The reins of government were loosened, and -thus the new-Christians found it still easier to escape the clutches of -the Inquisition. They now had a goal to which to direct their steps. -An extraordinary occurrence in Lisbon had excited the most lukewarm -apostate Jews to return to Judaism. A Franciscan monk, Diogo de la -Asumcao, of an ancient Christian family, had become convinced of -the truth of Judaism and the falsity of Christianity by reading the -Bible--Bible reading has its dangers--and had openly expressed -his convictions to the other monks of his order. For what purpose had -the Inquisition been instituted, if it were to let such crimes go -unpunished? Diogo was thrown into a dungeon; but it was not necessary -to extort confession, for he openly and without reservation admitted -his offense, love for Judaism. The tribunal needed to put him to -the rack only to induce him to denounce his accomplices, he having -asserted that several of his fellow-monks shared his convictions. -Certain learned theologians were charged to dissuade the apostate -Franciscan from his belief, and remove so dark a stain from the order -and Christendom in general; but in vain. Diogo remained true to his -belief in the truth of Judaism. After he had spent about two years in -the dungeons of the Inquisition, he was finally burnt alive at a solemn -auto-da-fe in Lisbon, in the presence of the regent (August, 1603). - -The fact that a Christian by birth, a monk to boot, had suffered for -the sake of Judaism, and had died steadfast in faith, made a powerful -impression upon apostate Portuguese Jews, and impelled them to return -publicly to the faith of their fathers. The Inquisition lost its -terrors for them. They reverted to Judaism, without heeding whether -or not they were rushing upon death. David Jesurun, a young poet, a -favorite of the Muses since his childhood, on this account called -"the little poet" by his acquaintances, celebrated the burning of the -martyr, Diogo de la Asumcao, in a fiery Portuguese sonnet: - - "Thou wast the gold, buried in the dark vaults of the tribunal - of blood; - And even as gold is purified from dross by flames, - So, too, by flames would'st thou be purified. - Thou wast as the phoenix, renewing his life, - Disdaining to remain the slave of death. - Thou wast consumed in the fire. - Only to rise again from thine ashes, - A burnt-offering - Brought to God in the flames. - In heaven dost thou laugh at those who tortured thee; - And no more art called Brother Diogo, - But Golden Phoenix, Angel, Sacrifice." - -This eager young poet was fortunate enough to escape the Inquisition, -and hastened to Amsterdam. He composed a powerful poem in Spanish on -seeing this city, which seemed to him a new Jerusalem. Another young -Marrano poet also reverted to Judaism through the tragic death of -Diogo, the Franciscan. Paul de Pina, a man of some poetic talent, was -inclined to religious enthusiasm, and was on the point of becoming -a monk. This step caused great sorrow to his relative, Diego Gomez -Lobato, at heart faithful to Judaism, and he wished to hinder him -from apostasy. When he was about to make a journey to Italy, Diego, -therefore, gave him a letter, addressed to the celebrated Jewish -physician, Elias Montalto, known as Felix Montalto when professing -Christianity. The letter was as follows: "Our cousin, Paul de Pina, -is going to Rome to become a monk. Your Grace will do me the favor to -dissuade him." - -If this letter had fallen into the hands of the Roman or Portuguese -Inquisition, it would have cost both the writer and his correspondent -their lives. Elias Montalto endeavored to dissuade young De Pina from -his purpose and win him back to the religion of his fathers. He seems -to have succeeded only in so far that De Pina abandoned his journey to -Rome, went off to Brazil, and then returned to Lisbon. The martyrdom -of Diogo de la Asumcao appears to have finally decided him against -Christianity. He hastened to Amsterdam with the sad news (1604), -became an eager convert to Judaism, and adopted the Hebrew name of -Rohel Jesurun. He became a most enthusiastic Jew, an ornament to the -Amsterdam community. - -The loyalty to Judaism manifested by the Portuguese Marranos regardless -of consequences naturally swelled the numbers of the victims of the -Inquisition. Not long afterwards, one hundred and fifty of them were -thrown into gloomy dungeons, tortured, and forced to confess. Even -the regent of Portugal hesitated to burn so large a number. Moreover, -the new-Christian capitalists had a certain amount of power over the -Spanish court, to which, since the union of the two kingdoms, Portugal -now belonged. The court owed them large sums which it could not pay in -consequence of the increasing poverty of both countries. The Marranos -offered to release Philip III from this debt, and give in addition a -present of 1,200,000 crusados (L120,000), if the imprisoned Jews were -pardoned. They also spent 150,000 crusados to persuade the councilors -to make the king grant this favor. Hence the court manifested an -inclination to mercy, and applied to Pope Clement VIII to empower the -Inquisition to deal mildly with the sinners on this occasion. The -pope remembered, or was reminded, that his predecessors, Clement VII -and Paul III, had granted absolution to Portuguese Marranos. He did -the same, and issued a bull pardoning the imprisoned Jews (August -23d, 1604). The Inquisition contented itself with the hypocritical -repentance of its prisoners. Several hundred of them, clad in the garb -of penitents, were led to the auto-da-fe at Lisbon (January 10th, -1605), not, however, to mount the stake, but to make public confession -of their guilt, and be condemned to deprivation of all civic rights. -All, or a large proportion, of those set free, repaired to their new -place of refuge. Among them was Joseph ben Israel, who had thrice -suffered torture, and escaped with shattered health and the loss of his -property. He took with him his son Manasseh--or whatever his name may -have been as a pseudo-Christian--then a child, subsequently destined -to fill a distinguished role in Jewish history. - -Moses Uri (born 1544, died 1620) at different times received into -the Hebrew faith two hundred and forty-eight men, so greatly did the -numbers of the community at Amsterdam increase. They sent to Salonica -for a rabbi of Sephardic descent, by name Joseph Pardo, who well -understood the character of the semi-Catholic members of the community. -He put into their hands a book written in Spanish, Christian rather -than Jewish in tone. The synagogue Beth Jacob, built by Tirado, no -longer sufficed for the accommodation of its worshipers, and a new one -had to be built in 1608, called "Neve Shalom." It was founded by Isaac -Francisco Mendes Medeiros and his relatives. As the discoverers of a -new country regard every step they take in it, every new path into -which they strike out, and every person prominent in the enterprise, as -important and worthy of remembrance, so the young Amsterdam community -joyfully recorded everything that occurred in their midst at the -commencement of their career. - -The arrival of Isaac Uziel (died in 1620) was a piece of good fortune -for this unique community. Apparently of a family of refugees, this -rabbi could thoroughly sympathize with his companions in misfortune at -Amsterdam. He was a poet, grammarian, and mathematician, but, above -all, a preacher of rare power and influence, the first who dared -arouse, with his mighty voice, the consciences of his hearers, lulled -to sleep by the practice of Catholic customs, and warn them not to -believe that they had purchased indulgence or remission for their sins, -follies, and vices, by religious observances thoughtlessly practiced. -Isaac Uziel did not spare even the most respected and powerful in the -community, although he thereby drew upon himself their hatred, which -went so far as to cause a split; on the other hand, he gained devoted -followers, who celebrated him in spirited verse. - -In this manner religious union was encouraged and faith strengthened -among the Portuguese fugitives, who had so degenerated in religious -matters. But as yet no arrangements had been made for the proper burial -of their dead. They were compelled to bury them far away from the city, -at Groede, in northern Holland. By the endeavors of the leading members -of the community, they succeeded in obtaining a burial-ground, not too -far from Amsterdam, in Ouderkerk, near Muiderberg (in April, 1614), at -which they rejoiced greatly. The first person buried there was Manuel -Pimentel, or, by his Jewish name, Isaac Abenacar, called "king of -players" by the French king, Henry IV, who was in the habit of playing -with him. Two years later, the body of an eminent and noble man, -Elias Felice Montalto, was brought from far off to be buried in this -peaceful spot. He had formerly professed Christianity, but afterwards -became a faithful Jew, was a clever physician and elegant author, and -lived in Livorno, Venice, and finally in Paris as private physician to -Queen Maria de Medici. He died in Tours while on a journey with the -French court, on February 16th, 1616. The queen caused his body to be -embalmed, and taken to the cemetery at Ouderkerk, accompanied by his -son, his uncle, and his disciple, Saul Morteira. - -The Jews of Amsterdam were long compelled to pay a tax, for every -corpse, to the churches past which the body was carried. On the whole, -they were at first not tolerated officially, their presence was only -connived at. They were distrusted as Catholic spies in the service of -Spain, plotting treason disguised as Jews. Even when the authorities -and the population in general had become convinced of their genuine -hatred of Spain and Portugal, they were still far from being recognized -and tolerated as an independent, religious body. For a short time -the synagogues were closed, and public worship prohibited. Jewish -refugees from the Spanish peninsula, on arriving in Havre, were thrown -into prison. This intolerance in the country destined to be the first -where religious freedom was to raise its temple, was chiefly caused -by the passionate conflict between two parties of Reformers--the -Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. The former were more gentle in -their exposition and practical application of Christianity than their -opponents, the gloomy Calvinists, Dutch Independents. In Amsterdam the -latter party predominated and persecuted their opponents, considered -secret, treacherous adherents of Spain. Although the Remonstrants had -cause to try to effect toleration for all sects, it was they who came -forward as the accusers of the Jews. They complained to the chief -magistrate of Amsterdam that all kinds of sects, even Jews, were -tolerated in the capital of Holland, they being the sole exception. - -The governor, Prince Maurice of Orange, was certainly favorable to -Jews, but he could do nothing against the spirit of intolerance, and -the independence of the cities and states. Consequently, even in -Holland the Jewish question came up for discussion, and a commission -was appointed for its settlement. Finally it was decided (March 17th, -1615) that every city, as in the case of Amsterdam, could issue a -special regulation about Jews, either to tolerate them, or to expel -them; but in those cities where they were admitted, they were not -to be forced to wear a badge. Upon the repeated complaints of the -Remonstrants, the burgomaster, Reinier Pauw, laid before the council -(October 15th, 1619) the question as to what was to be done in the case -of the numerous fugitive Portuguese Jews who had intermarried with the -daughters of the land, thereby causing great scandal and annoyance. -Hereupon it was decided (November 8th), that intercourse between Jews -and Christian women, even prostitutes, was to be strictly forbidden. On -the other hand, permission was granted to Jews freely to acknowledge -their religion. - -As Amsterdam was not so wealthy as it afterwards became, it could not -do without Jews, who had transferred to it their riches and their -knowledge of affairs. The old-established prejudices against them -disappeared more and more upon closer acquaintance. The Jews from -Portugal betrayed neither by their cultured language, their demeanor, -nor their manners, that they belonged to a despised caste; on the -contrary, their carriage was that of people of rank, with whom it was -an honor for many a Christian burgher to be acquainted. They were, -therefore, treated with a certain amount of consideration. Their number -soon increased to four hundred families, with three hundred houses -in the city, and before long, a Hebrew printing press was set up in -Amsterdam, without fear of the Argus eye of the censor. - -The prosperity of Amsterdam, caused by the influx of Portuguese Jews, -excited the envy of many Christian princes, and they invited the Jews -into their dominions. Christian IV, king of Denmark, addressed a letter -to the Jewish Council of Amsterdam (November 25th, 1622), asking them -to encourage some of their members to settle in his state. He promised -them freedom of worship, and other favorable privileges. The Duke of -Savoy invited Portuguese Jews to come to Nice, and the Duke of Modena -offered them the right of residence in Reggio, both granting them -extensive privileges. Thus, in the midst of the gloomy persecution -of Christendom, whose two religious factions were drawing the sword -against each other in the Thirty Years' War, the Jews found pleasant -little oases, as it were, from which they could recover their lost -liberty, and gradually raise themselves from their heavy bondage. - - - - -CHAPTER XX. - -THE DUTCH JERUSALEM AND THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. - - The Amsterdam Jewish Community--Its Wealth, Culture, and - Honored Position--Zacuto Lusitano--Internal Dissensions--The - Talmud Torah School--Saul Morteira, Isaac Aboab, and Manasseh - ben Israel--The Portuguese Congregation in Hamburg--The First - Synagogue--Lutheran Intolerance--John Miller--Jewish Colony - in Brazil--The Chief Communities in Germany--Persecution in - Frankfort--Dr. Chemnitz--The Vienna Congregation--Lipmann - Heller--Ferdinand II's Zeal for the Conversion of Jews-- - Influence of the Thirty Years' War on the Fortunes of the Jews. - -1618-1648 C.E. - - -The Jewish race during its dispersion of nearly two thousand years -may fitly be compared to a polyp. Though it was often wounded and cut -to pieces, the parts severed from the whole did not die, but began -an independent existence, developed organically, and formed a new -rootstock. Driven from their original Palestinian home, the scattered -members of this peculiar national organism assembled on the banks of -the Euphrates and Tigris and in the palm district of Arabia. Doomed to -ruin there, they emigrated to Spain with the Arabs, the most cultured -people of the Middle Ages, and became the teachers of Europe, then -plunged in barbarism. Expelled thence, weakened in heart and numbers, -they proceeded eastwards, and, as again they found no resting-place, -they settled in the north, always following advancing civilization. -The admission of Jews to Holland was the first quivering dawn of a -bright day after dense gloom. Amsterdam, the northern Venice, in the -beginning of the seventeenth century, had become a new center for -Jews; they rightly named it their new, great Jerusalem. In time this -city became an ark of refuge for the Jewish race in the new deluge. -With every trial conducted by the Inquisition in Spain and Portugal on -account of the Judaizing practices of the Marranos, with every burning -pile set ablaze for convicted or suspected persons, the numbers of the -Amsterdam community increased, as if the fanatics aimed at depopulating -and impoverishing the Catholic countries to render the heretical states -of the Netherlands populous and wealthy. The Amsterdam Portuguese -community, consisting of more than four hundred members, already -possessed three hundred stately houses and palaces in this city, raised -by them to a flourishing seat of commerce. Their capital enabled them -to carry on trade, for the most part on a large scale, and they were -interested in the East and West India Companies, or conducted banking -houses. But to usury, which made the Jews of other countries so hated, -they were sworn foes. The synagogue dues imposed upon themselves give -an approximate idea of the extent of their capital and trade. For every -pound of goods exported or imported by them they were accustomed to -pay a doit, and these taxes, exclusive of those on the receipts of -merchants interested in trading companies, amounted to 12,000 francs -annually. - -Not on account of their wealth alone did they occupy a distinguished -position in the new Batavian seat of commerce. The immigrant Marranos -belonged for the most part to the educated class; in Spain or Portugal, -their unnatural mother country, they had occupied positions as -physicians, lawyers, government officials, officers, or clergymen, -and were familiar with the Latin language and literature no less than -with _belles-lettres_, and were accustomed to the usages of society. -In the Netherlands, then the most civilized part of Europe, humanistic -culture was in itself a recommendation. Hence, in Holland, cultivated -Jews had intercourse with educated Christians on terms of equality, -and obliterated the prejudices against the Jewish race. Some of them -obtained a European reputation, and were connected with personages -of high rank. Abraham Zacuto Lusitano (born 1576, died 1642), -great-grandson of Zacuto, the historian and astronomer, was one of the -most celebrated physicians of his time. He corresponded with Frederick, -prince of the Palatinate, and his learned wife, the unfortunate couple -that occupied the throne of Bohemia for a brief space, and was the -cause of the Thirty Years' War. Zacuto's praise was sounded in poetry -and prose by Christian as well as Jewish professional brethren. The -Stadtholders of the Netherlands, princes of the house of Orange-Nassau, -Maurice, Henry, and William II, like the founder of their race, William -I, were well disposed towards Jews, and treated them as citizens with -full rights. Even the Spanish and Portuguese kings, the persecutors of -the Marranos in their own countries, condescended to show respect to -the descendants of their hunted victims, to confer appointments upon -them, and to intrust them with consular functions for their states. - -The attachment of the Amsterdam Jews to their re-adopted religion, -purchased with so many dangers, was deep, and was renewed at every -accession of fresh fugitives, and every report of the martyrdom of -their brethren on the burning pile of the Inquisition. This devotedness -was reflected in their conduct, and embodied in verses composed in the -language of their persecutors. - -Paul de Pina, or Reuel Jesurun, the poet, who had once been on the -point of becoming a monk, composed for a sacred festival part songs -in Portuguese, performed by seven youths to do honor to the first -synagogue (Beth-Jacob) in 1624. The mountains of the Holy Land, Sinai, -Hor, Nebo, Gerisim, Carmel, and Zethim (Mount of Olives), in melodious -verses celebrated the excellence of the Jewish religion, the Jewish -Law, and the Jewish people. They praised the thousand merciful ways in -which God had led His people from the earliest times to the present. -The unity of God, the holiness of the Law, and the expectations of the -Messianic age of grace, the more deeply felt by the Sephardic Marranos -because they were newly acquired and dearly gained convictions--these -were the inexhaustible themes of their poetry. But in the background -of the splendid picture there always lowered the dreadful dungeon, the -priests of Moloch, and the blazing flames of the Inquisition. - -In this mood, exalted by the recollection of sufferings and torture -endured, the members of the Amsterdam community, with full heart and -bountiful hand, founded benevolent institutions of every description, -orphan asylums, benevolent societies (brotherhoods), and hospitals, -such as were not in existence in any of the older communities. They -had the means and the disposition. Their piety was shown in charity -and generosity. But, exalted though their mood was, they were men with -passions, and dissensions arose in the young community. Many members, -born and brought up in Catholicism, brought with them and retained -their Catholic views and customs; they thought that they could combine -them with Judaism. "Can one carry coals in his bosom without singeing -his clothes?" From childhood the Marranos had heard and seen that -one is allowed to sin, if from time to time he is reconciled with -the church. Catholic priests of all ranks were at hand to effect the -reconciliation, and by ecclesiastical means ward off future punishment -from the sinner. In the eyes of most Marranos, the rites and ceremonies -of Judaism took the place of the Catholic sacraments, and the rabbis -of father-confessors. They believed that he who conscientiously -observes Jewish rites, and in addition does a few other things, may -yield to his desires without forfeiting his soul's welfare. At any -rate, the rabbis could give him absolution. Hence the Marranos led a -life far from perfect, especially in point of chastity. The first two -rabbis of the Amsterdam community, Joseph Pardo and Judah Vega, in -consideration of the circumstances were indulgent to these weaknesses -and shortcomings. But the third, Isaac Uziel, did not restrain himself; -with inexorable rigor he scourged the evil habits of semi-Jews and -semi-Catholics from the pulpit. This severity wounded the attacked, -but, instead of mending their ways, they were angry with the preacher, -and several left the community and the synagogue, and combined to found -a new one (the third) in 1618. At the head of the seceders was David -Osorio; possibly he felt most deeply wounded by Uziel's severe sermons. -For the new synagogue (Beth Israel) which the seceders erected, they -chose David Pardo, the son of Joseph Pardo, as rabbi and preacher. He -defended the acceptance of this office in the new body, founded to some -extent in defiance of Isaac Uziel, by alleging that he wished to lessen -dissension. However, the tension lasted for twenty years (1618-1639). - -Meanwhile German Jews, whom the ravages of the Thirty Years' War had -driven out of their Ghettos, sought the asylum of Amsterdam, and were -admitted to its shelter. If the Amsterdam Council had at first merely -connived at the immigration and settlement of Jews, at a later period -it decidedly furthered their admission, because it perceived the -important advantage which they brought the state. The immigrant German -Jews naturally could not unite closely with the Portuguese community, -because they differed, not only in language, but also in demeanor and -manners. A wide chasm divided the Portuguese and the Germans of the -same race and religion from each other. The former haughtily looked -down upon the latter as semi-barbarians, and the latter did not -regard the former as genuine Jews. As soon as a sufficient number -had assembled, the German Jews formed a synagogue, with a rabbi of -their own. Their first chief was Moses Weil. The breach within the -Portuguese community was painfully felt. Jacob Curiel, a distinguished -man, afterwards resident of the Portuguese court in Hamburg, by the -greatest exertions brought about a reconciliation, and not till the -union of the three synagogues in one single corporate body, in April, -1639, did the Portuguese community, by the harmonious co-operation of -its powers, stand forth in all its splendor, and surpass all its elder -sisters in the three divisions of the globe. The Amsterdam community -in some points resembled the ancient Alexandrian Jewish congregation. -Like the latter, it possessed great wealth, cultivation, and a certain -distinction of character; but, like it, suffered from insufficient -knowledge of Jewish religious and scientific literature. Nearly all -Marrano members had to commence to learn Hebrew in advanced age! - -On uniting the three communities, for which statutes were passed, -the representatives took pains to obviate this ignorance of Hebrew. -They founded an institute (Talmud Torah) in which children and youths -might have instruction in the useful branches of Jewish theology. It -was, perhaps, the first graded institution of the kind among Jews. It -consisted, at first, of seven classes. Students could be conducted -from the lowest step, the Hebrew alphabet, to the highest rung of the -Talmud. It was at once an elementary school and a college for higher -studies. Thorough Hebrew philology, elocution, and modern Hebrew -poetry were also taught there, which was not usual in other Jewish -schools. In the highest departments, the first rabbis, or Chachamim, -at that time Saul Morteira and Isaac Aboab, gave instruction. These -two men, with Manasseh ben Israel and David Pardo, formed the first -rabbinical college. This richly endowed institute became a nursery for -the training of rabbis for the Amsterdam community and its daughters -in Europe and America. From it pupils went forth who labored in wider -spheres; among whom may be mentioned, for the sake of contrast, the -confused Kabbalist Moses Zacuto and the clear-headed Baruch Spinoza. - -It was a misfortune for the Amsterdam community that its first -spiritual guides, who exercised remarkable influence, were possessed -of only mediocre talents, in some degree lacked mental poise. With the -vast resources which this first Dutch community had at command, with -the fund of culture characterizing its members, and their devotion -to Judaism, its leaders might have brought about remarkable results, -if they had possessed more independence, profounder intellect, and -greater genius. The first Amsterdam rabbinical college had nothing of -all this. David Pardo appears to have been of very little importance. -Saul Levi Morteira (born about 1596, died 1660) was not even a -distinguished preacher; his colleagues, Aboab and Manasseh ben Israel, -far outshone him. His sermons, the only printed productions of his -literary activity, have a philosophical complexion, but no depth of -thought. Morteira followed the broad, beaten paths, repeating what had -been thought and pointed out before him. Even in rabbinical learning -he had no mastery, and was not considered an authority by contemporary -Talmudists. His colleague, Isaac Aboab de Fonseca (born 1606, died -1693), was even less distinguished. He, also, was a Portuguese by -descent, and, it seems, came to Amsterdam as a child with his mother, -who was fifty years old at his birth. He was trained under Isaac Uziel, -and acquired from him pulpit eloquence, if that can be learnt. Aboab -became an excellent and beloved preacher. His style of speaking has -been very well described by Antonio Vieira of Lisbon, a wise Jesuit, -possessed of goodwill towards Jews. When once in Amsterdam, he heard -Aboab and Manasseh ben Israel preach, and when asked how he liked -them, he replied: "The one (Manasseh) says what he knows, and the -other knows what he says." But a well-arranged, impressive, attractive -sermon is not always the fruit of solid knowledge and clear conviction. -At any rate, it was not with Aboab. In character he was vacillating, -submissive to the influence of others, open to flattery, hence not -independent. To this man was given the control of the Amsterdam -community for nearly seventy years. Aboab was superstitious like the -multitude, and, instead of leading, was led. - -Far more distinguished was Manasseh ben Israel (born 1604, died 1657), -a child of the Amsterdam community, to which his father had come -broken down by the torture of the Inquisition, and robbed of all his -property. Young Manasseh, eager for learning, was trained under Isaac -Uziel, and while his knowledge of the Bible and the Talmud did not -attain to perfect mastery, it was extensive and ready. Directed by -his personal circumstances to the study of ten languages--including -Portuguese as his mother tongue, and Latin as the literary language ---Manasseh learnt to express himself in speech and writing with more -or less perfection in all these languages and in an elevated style. A -ready speaker by nature, he educated himself as a preacher, displaying -all the lights and shadows of his profession. He became a prolific -writer, and, though he died young, performed incomparably more than his -colleagues. In the case of this amiable man, who rendered essential -service to Judaism, we should not take the part of severe critics, nor -inquire how large a share enthusiasm and a certain vanity had in his -work. But history is a stern judge. What his contemporaries admired -in Manasseh was not his profound intellect, nor his overpowering, -far-reaching greatness, but his quiet, yielding, modest behavior, and -his simple nature. He correctly and briefly described himself without -under- or over-estimation: "I rejoice in the modest though happy talent -of being able to describe, with a certain degree of order, the objects -that the will presents to the mind." He brought no great and fruitful -thoughts into the world, but fostered the intellectual offspring of -others, treating them as his own. He knew rather than thought much. -Although familiar with profane literature and Christian theology, -he clung firmly not only to traditional Judaism, as represented by -the rabbinical system, but also to the Kabbala, and, like his less -educated colleagues, regarded every word in the Talmud and the Zohar -as a profound truth. Like others, Manasseh ben Israel was subject to -superstitions, which had a strong influence over him, and spurred on -his will. - -Such was the character of the men called to guide and instruct the -young, ignorant, catholicizing, and tractable Amsterdam community. -Great power was in their hand. Important affairs were discussed -and decided at the public sittings of the rabbis (Maamad) with the -trustees elected by the members. In religious matters the Chachamim -alone decided, because the laity did not trust their own judgment. -The decisions of the rabbis were binding on the members. Nobody might -oppose them, because the government had a despotic character. The -authorities allowed the board of trustees and the college of rabbis -full liberty to inflict spiritual penalties on disobedient members. -Of this liberty and this power the leaders made only too extensive a -use. They had brought from Spain mischievous zeal in maintaining the -faith pure and uprooting heresy. The Amsterdam rabbis introduced the -innovation of bringing religious opinions and convictions before their -judgment-seat, of constituting themselves a sort of inquisitional -tribunal, and instituting autos-da-fe, which, even if bloodless, were -not less painful to the sufferers. The character and organization of -the largest Portuguese community in Europe had a powerful influence on -the course of Jewish history. Branch communities were formed, which -took for their model not only the organization, dignity, devoted piety, -and benevolence, but also the follies and perversities, of their -mother. The second community on Dutch soil was gradually formed at -Rotterdam. Two brothers, as pious as wealthy, Abraham and David Pinto, -laid the foundation of this community, and elected as Chacham and -principal of the institute which they founded (Jesiba de los Pintos), -a young man, Josiah Pardo, son of David Pardo, and son-in-law of -Morteira, who, however, did not distinguish himself. - -In Haarlem, also, the Jews were on the point of obtaining permission to -settle. The Humanists and favorers of toleration, like Joseph Scaliger, -the prince of philologists, were already rejoicing; but, in the end, -intolerance prevailed, and nothing came of the movement. Instead, -Portuguese communities arose in North Germany beyond the sea, and -gradually in other cities of the Netherlands. - -In Hamburg an important colony of the Amsterdam community was next -formed. But there were difficulties in overcoming German prejudices and -German pedantry. Against the advantages arising from the settlement of -wealthy and intelligent Jews, which the Amsterdam people had quickly -comprehended, the Hamburg citizens struggled hand and foot. For the -fierce Lutherans it was an abomination to have Jews in their midst. -A Jewish jeweler named Isaac, from Salzuflen, in Lippe, with twelve -of his co-religionists, who were compelled to go in search of a new -home, made an attempt to settle in Hamburg. He presented a petition -to the senate to receive them for twelve years, offering the sum of -9,000 marks and a yearly tax of 400 marks. The negotiator, Isaac, -exhaustively set forth all possible reasons for the reception of Jews, -and declared that they were willing to submit to any conditions. He -adduced that Jews were tolerated not only in Catholic, but also in -evangelical countries, both in the West, at Frankfort and Worms, and in -northern Germany, in Hanover, Minden, Hildesheim, Goettingen, Norden, -Dortmund, Hamm, Lippe, and Emden. All was in vain. Hamburg, then -delighting in popish quarreling about orthodoxy and heresy, refused a -home to Jews. - -It is curious that Hamburg, at the very time when it so strongly -opposed the temporary admission of Jews, harbored some in its midst -without being aware of it. With these, under the mask of Portuguese -papists, orthodox Christians had daily intercourse. Marrano fugitives -had escaped from the Inquisition, settled in the North German free -Hanse town, and passed as Portuguese "traders." Hearing that their -brethren in Amsterdam, with whom they were in communication, openly -professed Judaism, and were tolerated, they also lifted their mask, and -wished to be recognized as Jews, but continued to have their children -baptized. The strict Lutheran citizens raised a loud outcry, and -demanded of the senate that the wealthy Jews who had been driven from -Portugal and other places should be got rid of, and not be tolerated. -But to this the senate did not like to accede; they felt shame at -treating these Portuguese of noble demeanor and intelligent character -as vagrants or Jews. To the secret Jews of Hamburg there belonged at -that time the beloved and much-sought physician, Rodrigo de Castro -(born about 1560 at Lisbon, died 1627 or 1628), who, in the violence of -the pestilence, hastened with self-sacrifice to the bedsides of those -stricken by the plague, and saved the lives of many. De Castro was also -a skillful physician for women, and won the favor of the weaker sex, -strong in sympathy and antipathy. Able physicians were not numerous, -especially not in North Germany. Other "Portuguese," as the disguised -Marranos in Hamburg called themselves, and were called, possessed -capital, or, as agents, conducted important business for Spanish or -Portuguese houses. In short, it did not seem practicable to send these -Portuguese away. The senate, therefore, at first put off the citizens -with an official denial that there were Jews among them; and afterwards -admitted the presence of a smaller number than was correct--about -seven Portuguese Jews "who have fire and smoke here," i.e., households. -But the Lutheran clergy in Hamburg behaved most intolerantly, excited -people against the Portuguese Jews, and charged the senate with neglect -of duty. That body, which guarded only the commercial interests, did -not care to dispense with the Jews, but being unwilling to burden its -conscience, or rather to incur the reproach of unchristian feeling, -turned from the Hamburg clergy--the ministry--to a higher court, -the theological faculties of Frankfort-on-the-Oder and Jena. The -theological grounds of which the senate availed itself for the -toleration of Jews are very ridiculous, and prove the ossification -of Lutheranism at that time. The judgment of the Frankfort faculty -proceeds upon these grounds, and indulges the hope that the Portuguese -Jews--who for the sake of their convictions had given up honors, -fortune, and a beloved home--would be converted to Christianity in -Hamburg. The decision of the Jena faculty looks as if a professor of -Dominican theology of a century before, in the time of Hoogstraten, had -written it, and as if the index on the dial of history had stood still. -Like the intolerant papists, the Lutheran theological faculty wished -to compel Jews to listen to Christian preaching. - -The senate, sufficiently protected on the ecclesiastical side by these -two judgments, in February, 1612, with restrictions growing out of the -German spirit or the German narrow-mindedness of that time, granted the -Portuguese Jews free residence in Hamburg, avoiding a consideration -of the consequences on both sides with pedantic scrupulousness. They -really became protected Jews (_Schutz-juden_), who had to pay an annual -charge or protection fee of 1,000 marks. They were not allowed to have -synagogues, or private religious service according to Jewish customs, -or to practice circumcision, but they might bury their dead in a -cemetery of their own at Altona. There were then in Hamburg 125 adults -of Marrano descent, among whom were ten capitalists, two physicians, -and three artisans. It was an important article in the agreement that -new-comers might obtain admission, "if the high and wise council -found their qualifications of such a nature that it had no objection -to take them under its protection." Thus the young, semi-tolerated -Hamburg community grew from year to year, and within a decade several -capitalists were added. The increase of the community through the -accession of such settlers, admitted openly as Jews, no longer -disguised as Portuguese, in 1617 rendered necessary a fresh agreement -with the senate, enlarging their privileges in commercial respects, but -diminishing them in point of citizenship. They could not possess houses -or land, and had to dispose of any they might own. Exception was made -in favor of the physician, Rodrigo de Castro, in consideration of his -faithful services of many years, but even he could not bequeath his -house to an heir. - -The more the Portuguese Jews, by their capital and business -connections, gained weight with commercial men in the senate, -the more they broke through the boundaries drawn by narrow-minded -legislation. When the bank at Hamburg, to which this city owed its -commercial prosperity, was founded (1619-1623), no less than twelve -Jewish capitalists supported it with their funds and efforts, as the -Amsterdam Portuguese had done at the formation of the Dutch companies -trading beyond the sea. The Portuguese Jewish settlers alone founded -the important trade of Hamburg with Spain and Portugal. Hence they -might assume that the senate, which held the reins of government, would -connive at violations of the articles. They were especially anxious -to be permitted to assemble for public worship, and this was directly -forbidden. Relying on their indispensability, they quietly erected a -synagogue in about 1626. It was Elihu Aboab Cardozo who risked this -venture. They named it Talmud Torah, and appointed as Chacham, Isaac -Athias, of Amsterdam, a disciple of Isaac Uziel. - -This probably simple synagogue, consisting of two large rooms, caused -wide dissension, and produced much bitterness. Emperor Ferdinand -II, the terror of the Protestants, indignant that the arch-Lutheran -city on the Elbe would not allow Catholics to build a church, sent a -threatening letter to the senate, July 28th, 1627, because for the -sake of trade a synagogue was openly permitted to Jews, while Roman -Catholics were forbidden the exercise of their religion. Nothing more -was needed to excite the Lutheran fanatics. If free exercise of their -religion was granted to Jews, it must also be granted to Catholics, -and even to Calvinists, they said. A frightful consequence indeed! -When the ministry, or spiritual assembly, which had great power in -Hamburg, reproached the senate on account of the violation of articles -in the agreement with the Jews, and that body in turn arraigned the -Jews, the latter declared that they had no synagogue, merely a place -of meeting to read the Law of Moses, the Psalms, the Prophets, and -other books of the Old Testament; if they prayed there, it was only for -the welfare of the city and the government. The senate proceeded no -further, because the Jews threatened that, in case they were denied the -worship of God, they would leave Hamburg in a body, and transfer their -capital and business connections to a neighboring place. That argument -prevailed. But the clergy demanded nothing less than that a Christian -rabbi be appointed to preach Christianity to Jews in the synagogue, or -elsewhere. The physicians also viewed with indignation the popularity -of their Jewish colleagues, and sought to bring not only them, but Jews -generally, under suspicion, and stirred up the people against them. - -But the community grew in prosperity from year to year, and the senate -gladly received those who came with capital and business connections. -Even if the descriptions by John Miller, the arch-foe of the Jews, -appear exaggerated, yet an idea may be gathered from them of the wealth -of the Portuguese Jews of Hamburg. "They strut along adorned with gold -and silver, costly pearls, and precious stones. At their weddings -they eat and drink from silver ware, and drive in such carriages as -become only persons of exalted rank, and, moreover, have outriders -and a large following." The extremely rich Texeira family, settled in -Hamburg, lived in princely luxury. The founder of this banking house, -Diego Texeira de Mattos, was called in Hamburg, like Joseph of Naxos -in Constantinople, "the rich Jew." He was of Portuguese descent, bore -a title of high nobility, and had previously been Spanish resident -in Flanders. Over seventy years of age, he underwent the operation -of circumcision in order to become a Jew in reality. By means of his -wealth, and his connections with both the nobility and capitalists, -Diego Texeira could play the aristocrat. He drove in a carriage lined -with satin, and had liveried servants. - -The Portuguese Jews already had three synagogues, the second built by -Abraham Aboab Falero, the third by David de Lima. A German community, -also, had gradually assembled at Hamburg, and built a house of prayer. -And were the faithful followers of Luther to behold it calmly, although -almost on his death-bed he had ordered the Jews to be treated as -gypsies, and the tongues of the rabbis to be cut out? The Hamburg -pastors could not endure it, they pressed the senate, and stirred -up the citizens to withdraw even this small amount of religious -toleration. Among them stood forth an arch-bigot, John Miller, senior -at St. Peter's church, a Protestant inquisitor and chief persecutor, -an abusive man given to scandal, who cast aspersions upon his reverend -brethren from the pulpit and in libelous writings. With this virulent -pastor, who considered himself a pillar of Lutheran orthodoxy, it was -a matter of conscience thoroughly to hate and humiliate the Jews. -In writing and in talking, in the pulpit and in the circle of his -disciples, in private conversation and in official addresses, his -favorite theme was the Jews and their humiliation. Everything in the -Jews vexed him: their joy and feasting on Purim, their mourning on -the anniversary of the destruction of the Temple, their dress, their -friendship with Christians, and their funerals. The bigot was not -wrong on some points, as, for instance, his censure of the hereditary -failing of the Portuguese Marranos, as illustrated in their misconduct -with Christian women, and of the way in which some of them challenged -Christianity. A Jewish author (Jacob Jehuda Leon?) had composed a work -entitled "Colloquium Middelburgense," a Latin dialogue between a rabbi -and a Christian on the value or worthlessness of Christian doctrines, -the gospels, and the ecclesiastical writings, in which the weak points -of Christianity were laid bare. Miller composed a defense, or rather -a libel, entitled, _Judaism, or the Jewish Doctrine_, a full account -of the Jewish people's unbelief, blindness, and obduracy (1644). This -was dictated neither by the Holy Ghost nor by Christian love. Luther's -virulent language against Jews seemed an undeniable revelation to the -pastor. Out of it spoke Lutheranism, pure and unadulterated, which -had as little heart as the popery attacked by it, and the essence of -which consisted of dry formulas of belief. Miller's absurdity and -uncharitableness are not his own; they are part and parcel of the -corrupt Lutheran church of the time. Three theological faculties, -the arch-Lutheran faculty of Wittenberg, and those of Strasburg and -Rostock, in reply to Miller's inquiry, decided that Jewish physicians -should never be admitted to Christian patients. Thus, in the face -of the seventeenth century, when the Thirty Years' War was teaching -toleration with an iron rod, the leaders of Lutheranism were issuing -a new edition of the decrees of the Visigothic councils against Jews. -But, after all, times had changed. Christian IV, king of Denmark, -Schleswig and Holstein, next to Gustavus Adolphus the champion of the -Protestants, to whom Miller dedicated his book, had appointed Benjamin -Musaphia, a Jewish physician, his medical attendant. - -Even in Hamburg Miller's fanatical zeal did not meet with great -success. The citizens gradually got accustomed to Jews, and learnt to -respect them. Some of them were appointed business agents or residents -even by high Catholic potentates. The king of Portugal first appointed -Duarte Nunes da Costa, and then Jacob Curiel, as his agents, and his -Catholic majesty, Philip IV, elevated Immanuel Rosales, a Jewish author -of Portuguese descent, to the dignity of count palatine. The Portuguese -Jews, in general more favorably situated than their German brethren, -felt so happy at Hamburg, that they called it their "little Jerusalem." - -A colony of the Amsterdam mother-community was formed in Brazil, South -America, discovered and peopled by Portuguese, and a number settled in -the town of Pernambuco. Thither the Portuguese government had often -transported Jewish offenders, _i.e._, Marranos, whom it did not wish -to deliver to the burning-pile, together with prostitutes, and other -rabble. These disgraced Marranos assisted the Dutch in conquering -Brazil, which became a Dutch colony, with a Stadtholder of its own, -the intelligent John Maurice, of Nassau (1624-1636). Connections -were immediately established between the Amsterdam and the Brazilian -community, which threw off the mask of Christianity, and was almost -spoilt by the favor of the Dutch. The Jews at Recife, near Pernambuco, -called themselves "the holy community" (Kahal Kados), and had a -governing body consisting of David Senior Coronel, Abraham de Moncado, -Jacob Mucate, and Isaac Cathunho. Several hundred Amsterdam Portuguese, -either by invitation, or of their own accord, sailed to Brazil to form -business connections with the colony, and took with them the Chacham -Isaac Aboab. He was the first Brazilian rabbi, settling probably -at Recife. At Tamarica a community was formed, which had its own -Chacham, Jacob Lagarto, the first Talmudical author in South America. -Of course, the Brazilian Jews enjoyed perfect equality of rights -with other citizens, for they rendered the Dutch essential services -as advisers and warriors. When the native Portuguese, who bore the -yoke of the Dutch impatiently, formed a conspiracy to get rid of the -Dutch authorities at a banquet in the capital, and attack the colony -bereft of government, a Jew gave warning, and saved the colony from -certain destruction. Later, in 1646, when open war broke out between -the Portuguese and the Dutch, and the garrison of Recife, exhausted -by famine, was on the point of surrendering unconditionally, the Jews -encouraged the governor to brave resistance. - -A fanatical war of race and religion between the Portuguese and the -Dutch devastated fair Brazil, and a famine ensued. The Jews vied with -the Dutch in suffering and bravery. Isaac Aboab, the Chacham of the -Brazil community, paints the sufferings of the war, which he himself -endured, in lurid colors: - - Volumes would not suffice to relate our miseries. The enemy - spread over field and wood, seeking here for booty and there - for life. Many of us died, sword in hand, others from want; - they now rest in cold earth. We survivors were exposed to death - in every form; those accustomed to luxuries were glad to seize - mouldy bread to stay their hunger. - -At last, the States-General were compelled by European wars to -surrender the colony to the Portuguese. The devoted zeal of the -Jews for the political welfare of the Dutch was a firm bond, never -afterwards dissolved, between them and the republic. The toleration and -equal position of Jews in the Netherlands were ensured for ever. - -Whilst the first ray of a better time glimmered in Holland, the rest of -Europe was still full of darkness for Jews. In Germany especially, the -Jew even in the seventeenth century continued to be an outcast for whom -there was no sympathy. He was pelted with mud, his beard was singed, -and he was treated almost worse than a dog. There were only three or -four important communities in Germany: Frankfort-on-the-Main, with -over 4,000 souls; Worms, with 1,400; Prague, with 10,000 at most; and -Vienna, with 3,000: the rest did not number many. Hamburg was still a -young community. In the West German free cities of Frankfort and Worms, -almost stronger antipathy to Jews prevailed than in Hamburg, having -its root in the narrow-mindedness of the Philistine citizens and the -guilds rather than in religious antipathy. Both cities treated the -Jews within their walls as their "servi camerae," and appealed in all -seriousness to a deed of Emperor Charles IV, declaring that they had -been sold to them in person and property. When Portuguese Marranos, -wishing to remove from the Netherlands to Frankfort, and raise it to -a commercial center of the first rank, like Amsterdam and Hamburg, -asked permission to build a house of prayer there, the council roundly -refused. The Jewish capitalists then addressed themselves to the lord -of Hanau, and obtained very favorable terms. - -The bitterness of the people of Frankfort against their Jewish -neighbors was crystallized in a most revolting and absurd -legislative enactment, entitled "the permissive residence of Jews" -(Judenstaettigkeit), and defining under what conditions or restrictions -Jews might breathe the Frankfort air, or rather the pestilential -atmosphere of the Jewish quarter. The city, chiefly Protestant, -retained all the canonical restrictions introduced by the papacy for -the purpose of branding Jews, such as, prohibiting them from having -Christian servants or nurses, and requiring them to wear an opprobrious -badge. They were treated exactly like criminals. Jews might not go -outside their quarter except for necessary business, and two might not -walk together, certainly not in the neighborhood of the town-hall, and -especially not during Christian festivals or weddings, or if princes -were staying in the city. They were also required to observe silence -in their Ghetto, avoid offending Christian ears with any shrill sound, -and see that strange Jews visiting them went to bed in good time. In -fact, they might not harbor any strangers without the knowledge of the -magistracy, nor even admit a patient into their hospital. They might -not purchase food in the market at the same time as Christians. Though -their business was jealously restricted, they were forced to pay more -taxes than the Christian inhabitants. As they were obliged to wear -special badges on their clothes, so they were required to have on their -houses shields, with strange figures and names, such as "the garlic," -"the ass," "the green or white shield," "red shield," "black shield." -After these shield figures the inhabitants were named, "The Jew N of -the ass," "the Jew N of the dragon." On the admission of a Jew, he -was obliged to promise on oath to obey these stupid and heartless -directions. Even this wretched existence depended on the favor of the -magistrate, for in one paragraph the council reserved the power of -depriving a Jew at any time of the right of residence. In such case the -individual or family had to leave the city within a fixed space of time. - -As the magistrate was empowered to deprive a single Jew of the right -of residence, he could banish all from the city. This was inferred and -demanded by the citizens or the guilds at variance with the council. -They aimed at enlarging their liberties by limiting the aristocratic -power of patricians in the magistracy, and they began with the Jews. -The reason was that the councilors, in return for the substantial -gratitude of the Jews, were indulgent in the administration of the -laws issued against them; else they would not have been able to exist -under the pressure of opprobrium and the "permissive residence." But -this indulgence of the magistracy towards Jews was doubly hateful to -the guilds. Hence they strove by all possible means to bring about the -expulsion of the Jews from Frankfort. The Jews had obtained assurance -of their safety as a community by charter from the emperor, but the -decrees and threats of the emperor were little heeded at that time. -At the head of the discontented guild-members stood the pastry-cook, -Vincent Fettmilch, who, with his workpeople, belonged to the Reformers, -a sect excluded from civic honors, and who sought to sate his fury -against the Lutheran authorities by taking vengeance on the Jews. He -was a daring man, who kept the councilors in awe, and openly called -himself "the new Haman of the Jews." He was chosen by the citizens as -their spokesman and ringleader, and deserved this leadership, for he -executed his plans with much circumspection. - -On an appointed day (27 Ellul == September, 1614, new style), while -the community was assembled in the house of prayer, blow followed -upon blow and thrust upon thrust, mingled with furious shouting, on -the door of the Jewish quarter. Thereupon followed cries of anguish -on the part of the Jews, who rushed hither and thither in despair and -distracted flight. Bold youths and men seized weapons to ward off -assaults or die manfully. On both sides fell the wounded and dead, -until the superiority of numbers and the daring of the Fettmilch party -decided the victory. Then all through the night until the next day -followed plundering, desecration, and destruction of sacred places with -brutal fury. The imperial commissioners could do nothing to check the -riot; they were even compelled to put up a notice that the murderous -band was not liable to punishment. Most of the Jews not sheltered by -philanthropic citizens awaited death in trembling at the burial-ground, -crouching together, many of them in shrouds. The rabble purposely left -them in uncertainty as to the fate to which they were destined--life, -death, or banishment--so that the Jews regarded it as a mercy from -God when the fisherman's gate was opened in the afternoon of August -24th (new style), and they were allowed to depart, 1,380 in number, but -without property of any kind. The advance of humanity, compared with -earlier ages, is seen in the circumstance that compassionate Christians -gave bread and other provisions to those who departed utterly -destitute, and the smaller towns and villages sheltered them, though -Fettmilch and the foes of the Jews had warned them against receiving -the exiles. - -It was long before the Frankfort Jews obtained satisfaction for -these atrocious injuries. The magistracy and Emperor Matthias were -equally impotent. Fettmilch's rabble for a whole year so tyrannized -over the council that it could do nothing for the Jews. Some of the -law faculties defended the robbers, by issuing an opinion that their -attacks on the property of the Jews could not be regarded as theft, -since they had occurred in the daytime or by torchlight. It was only -by similar events at Worms that the end of the Frankfort troubles was -hastened. - -There the bitterness against one of the oldest German-Jewish -communities, arising out of hatred of Jews and trade jealousy, took a -different course. Not the guilds, but some members of the magistracy -urged the banishment of the Jews, and the chief enemy of the Jews, -instead of being a brutal but straightforward workman, was a crafty -advocate and perverter of the law. Here, as in Frankfort, the chief -motive was opposition to the magistracy, but the guild-members acted -with more resolution and unanimity. The leader, adviser, and director -of the committee of citizens was a learned lawyer, Dr. Chemnitz -(Chemnitius), who thought that by lawyers' tricks he would be able to -effect the banishment of the Jews with less danger than the Frankfort -people had incurred by brutal violence. At first chicanery and insults -of every sort were employed. The committee did not care to use -violence, but strove to wear them out. It closed the outlets of the -city against them, hindered them from purchasing food, drove their -cattle from the meadows, and would not permit milk for Jewish children -to be brought to the Jewish quarter. - -After various movements, the Worms guilds, by Chemnitz's advice, -assembled unarmed in the market place to take counsel, and sent a -deputation to the Jews, ordering them "to retire from the city with bag -and baggage" within an hour. The deputation reproached them with having -caused the citizens to be suspected by the emperor, with having excited -his hatred against them, and deprived them of every means of obtaining -justice. The magistrates protested, but without effect, and so nothing -remained for the Jews but to depart on the last day but one of the -Passover (April 20th, 1615, new style). Fanaticism could not refrain -from venting its fury on the holy places of the Jews, from devastating -the synagogue which had stood for a thousand years, desecrating the -burial-ground, and breaking to pieces several hundred tombstones, some -of which gave evidence of the high antiquity of the community. The -archbishop of Mayence and Count Louis of Darmstadt granted residence to -the exiles in small towns and villages, and thus some of the exiles met -their suffering brethren of Frankfort. - -But the rejoicing of the foes of the Jews in Worms did not last -long. The council, humiliated by the committee of citizens, secretly -negotiated with Frederick, elector palatine, and, about ten days after -the expulsion of the Jews, he moved infantry, cavalry, and cannon into -the town, under the unavailing protest of the committee, and this -soon brought the disorder to an end. Still it was nearly nine months -before the Worms Jews were re-admitted by order of the elector palatine -and the bishop of Speyer (January 19th, 1616, new style). Two months -afterwards, the Jews of Frankfort were led back, as in triumph, with -the sound of trumpets, and blowing of horns, by the commissioners of -the electorate of Mayence and Darmstadt (Adar 20th == March 10th). Here -the rioters were more severely punished than at Worms, because they -had caused destruction, plundering, and bloodshed. Vincent Fettmilch, -the pastry-cook, the Frankfort Haman, was hanged, and quartered, his -house razed to the ground, and his family banished. The city was fined -175,919 florins by the emperor as compensation for the depredations -committed on Jewish property. In memory of this extraordinary -deliverance and honorable restoration, not an every-day occurrence in -the German Empire, the Frankfort community appointed the day of their -return (Adar 20th) to be observed as a feast-day, named Purim-Vincent, -the day before being kept as a fast in memory of their sufferings. - -The old "permissive residence" of the Jews in Worms and Frankfort was -abolished by Matthias, who introduced a new regulation, recommended by -the commissioners in 1617. This new arrangement still bore the impress -of the Middle Ages. The old restrictions of the Jews, as to dress, -occupation and movement, were retained, and, if possible, made more -severe in some respects. The Jews were still considered outcasts, even -by the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and his councilors. "As they -are privileged by the emperor, the council is to protect them, and no -longer has the power to banish those who have obtained 'permissive -residence.'" The Frankfort Jews, re-admitted at that time, did not -need to renew their right of residence every three years as before, -and transmitted it to their descendants. On the other hand, the number -of Jews was fixed at 500. Not more than six new families a year could -be granted "permissive residence," and only twelve couples a year -could get married. A further restriction was that the Jews should not -be called citizens of Frankfort; they were only hereditary protected -dependents of the council. In addition to the old protection fee, there -was a marriage and an inheritance tax. The restrictions in the new -Jewish ordinance for Worms proved, if possible, still more oppressive. - -The banishment of the Jews from two cities of western Germany, and -their restoration had a favorable result for the German Jews. It -was an advantage to all German communities that the emperor had -emphatically insisted on, and by force of arms confirmed, the safety -of the Jews. Emperor Ferdinand II, though a pupil of the Jesuits and -a destroyer of Protestants, confirmed the inviolability of the Jews -throughout the whole empire, especially in Frankfort and Worms, when -the citizens of these places again thought of persecuting them. Hence -it came about, that the destructive, cruel Thirty Years' War did not -affect the Jews in Germany so severely as might have been expected. -Of course, they did not fail to share the sufferings of the German -nation, which, divided into two camps, drew the sword against its own -breast, and made havoc of its own land. The Jews, like the rest of -the population, had to submit to the plunderings and ravagings which -leaders of armies, such as Mansfeld, Tilly, and Wallenstein, one after -the other, brought upon flourishing cities. - -Many a Jewish community was destroyed by the fury of war. But at -least the Jews had nothing to fear from the internal foe, and, in the -seclusion of their Ghettos, were perfectly secure from all attacks. The -Catholic generals had orders from the emperor to spare the life and -property of Jews, so that many a Protestant could lodge, and save his -property, in the Jewish quarter. Before Wallenstein made the discovery -that war is supported by war, and that a large army can obtain means -for itself, the war carried on by Ferdinand II against the Protestant -half of Germany required much money, and the imperial treasury had -always been poor. But ready money was chiefly in the iron chests of -Jewish capitalists. Hence, the financial springs, the Jews, had to be -protected, if the war was to be carried on successfully. Consequently, -the emperor, acting with careful consideration, impressed upon his -generals to spare the Jews from all the hardships of war, including -the quartering of troops. How dearly this tender treatment cost the -communities is not known. The Bohemian Jews paid a considerable sum, -and bound themselves to contribute 40,000 florins a year towards -defraying the expenses of the war. - -The court of Vienna invented another means of making Jews contribute to -the war. It appointed Jewish capitalists as court Jews, granted them -most extensive freedom of trade, freed them from the restrictions to -which other Jews were subjected, even from wearing the yellow badge, -in a word, afforded them and their families an exceptionally favored -position. - -The Jewish community of Vienna enjoyed great consideration during, -or perhaps on account of, this war. Through the indifference of -Spain, the center of Catholicism was transferred at that time from -the Manzanares to the Danube, from Madrid to Vienna. The Jews, who by -degrees re-assembled in Vienna, in spite of repeated banishment by the -emperors, came into close relations with important European affairs. -Court Jews and Jewish physicians repaired to Vienna with their retinue, -_i.e._, persons depending, or pretending to be dependent, upon them. -The Viennese Jews at that time were considered to be exceedingly rich. -As they lived scattered in various quarters of the city, they felt the -necessity of assembling and having a common place for prayer. They -applied to the emperor, and he granted them a site in what is now -Leopoldstadt, released them from the jurisdiction of the municipal -authorities, and even excused them from wearing the badge. At the very -time when Protestant Hamburg citizens were jealously on the watch that -no synagogue be granted to the Portuguese Jews, the arch-Catholic -emperor allowed them to build in his capital a new synagogue with all -its appurtenances (December, 1624). His "liberated," _i.e._, privileged -Jews were not required to quarter troops, or to contribute to the -expenses of the war. The magistrates, of course, raised objections to -the favor shown to Jews, and wished to turn the whole "swarm of Jews" -out of the city. The court councilors, who desired to extort money, -gave the citizens to understand that, for 20,000 florins, they might -enjoy the satisfaction of seeing the Jews banished; but at the same -time, they whispered to the Jews, that if they anticipated the payment -of this sum, they might remain in Vienna. Probably the Jews prevailed. - -The united and prosperous community looked about for a rabbinical -leader, and, in February, 1625, made happy choice of Lipmann Heller, -an amiable and learned man, at that time rabbi of Nikolsburg. He was -no brilliant personage, but his talents stand out conspicuously from -the dark background of the time. He forms an exception to the rabbis of -that age, at least to those in Germany and Poland. He not only occupied -himself with Talmudic learning, but was acquainted with branches of -knowledge outside the rabbinical field. For instance, Heller had -studied other than Jewish literature, and understood mathematics well. -In the Talmudical department he could not compare with contemporary -Poles of distinction, with Samuel Edles at Ostrog, Joshua Falk at -Lemberg, Joel Serkes at Cracow, and many others. But if he was inferior -to them in acuteness, more properly, subtlety, he surpassed them in -profundity and lucidity. - -Heller (born 1579, died 1654) possessed a mild nature, an attractive -presence, and skill in speech, and could, therefore, frequent Christian -circles. Far from the conceit which brooks no contradiction--a -failing of most representatives of rabbinical learning in Poland-- -he prepossessed every one in his favor, and won all hearts by his -modesty. He is one of those whom we involuntarily pity for having lived -in such barbarous times. In a better age they might have labored with -more success for Judaism. In his thirtieth year, at the same age as -Maimuni, he completed a gigantic work, a comprehensive commentary on -the Mishna (Tossafoth Yom-Tob, 1614-1617). This involved a much greater -amount of work than his great predecessor, or Obadiah di Bertinoro, -had been forced to devote to it, if we take into account how much the -materials to be considered, examined, and tested, had increased in the -interval. - -Having been summoned to Vienna to the post of rabbi, he labored -usefully for this young community. He drew up its constitution, and for -the short time of his official career there was esteemed and beloved. -With his peaceful disposition he should have remained at Vienna instead -of allowing himself to be attracted by the seemingly superior qualities -of the Prague community, where vulgarity and baseness, envy and malice, -still prevailed. For this circle Heller was most unfit, but he was -attracted to the Bohemian capital, where there was incomparably more -study of the Talmud, and where he could hope to enjoy interchange of -thought. Only too soon he had occasion to regret his acceptance of -this office. As acting rabbi, Heller was president of the commission -which had the thankless task of distributing the large yearly war tax -of 40,000 thalers among the members of the Prague community and those -of the country communities. With Heller's upright and pure character -it may be assumed that he acted with the utmost conscientiousness, -and that he did not knowingly overburden anyone. Nevertheless, -some members complained of improper allotment, raised a quarrel in -the community, and collected a large following, who threatened the -commission with accusations. In vain did Heller raise his warning -voice against the prevailing dissension, speaking from the pulpit, -now in mild, now in severe terms. Contumacy combined with envy, and -the discontented party accused him and the elders of the commission -before the civil authorities of having with partiality spared the -rich, and laid the burden of the tax on the shoulders of those with -less means, compelling payment of the share imposed by threats of -excommunication, imprisonment, and other punishments. The accusations -against Heller must have been of a still more hateful nature. The drift -was that in one of his works he had used offensive expressions against -Christianity. To give emphasis to their calumny, they reported to a -person close to the emperor, who prided himself much on his theological -knowledge, that Heller had boasted in the hearing of the Stadtholder -of Prague that he had beaten him in a disputation. At the same time -the slanderers hinted that the accused rabbi was in possession of much -property, which would fall to the imperial treasury in case he was -found guilty. To gratify their revenge or their malicious spirit, the -informers quite overlooked the fact that by this means they might bring -on a persecution, not only of Prague Jews, but of all German Jews. - -Their slander met with only too ready a hearing. A formal command from -the emperor reached the Stadtholder of Prague to have Rabbi Lipmann -Heller sent in chains to Vienna. In view of the military severity -customary during the Thirty Years' War even the innocent had the worst -to fear. However, Heller was so highly esteemed even by Christian -officials, that the head of police, who was charged with his custody, -behaved with extraordinary indulgence towards him, and he was allowed -to travel to Vienna merely on bail. On arriving he waited on the -chancellor, in order to learn particulars with regard to the accusation -brought against him. The chancellor sternly alleged what led Heller to -fear the worst--that he had written against the Christian religion. -Thereupon Heller was put into prison, confined with criminal offenders, -and a commission of clergy appointed to establish his guilt as a -blasphemer. The sentence was that Heller properly deserved death, but -that the emperor was willing to exercise mercy and allow the punishment -of death to be commuted to a fine of 12,000 thalers, to be paid -immediately, and that the incriminated writings were to be destroyed. -The Prague slanderers who were not pleased with the sentence, did not -rest till the emperor deprived Heller of the office of rabbi at Prague, -and declared him unworthy to fill the rabbinical office wherever the -emperor's scepter held sway. At last, after a confinement of forty -days, he was liberated, with the loss of his office and his property, -and without any prospect of an appointment elsewhere. The maligning -of Lipmann Heller was not altogether without consequences to the -Jews. The bigoted emperor and many of the clergy who had been led to -notice the bearing of Jews towards Christianity conceived the idea of -introducing in Vienna Pope Gregory XIII's plan of preaching sermons -for the conversion of Jews. The emperor issued a decree in February, -1630, that Jews be compelled to listen to conversion sermons every -Saturday morning between eight and nine, at least 200 members of both -sexes in equal numbers to be present, among them forty young Jews, of -from fifteen to twenty years of age. Every one summoned to hear the -preachers was to be fined a thaler in case of absence, and a higher sum -if the offense was repeated. Sleeping and talking during the sermon -were punished. The fines were to be used in support of converted Jews. -The conversion of Jews was a matter that the emperor had at heart, -and he hoped much from these compulsory measures. However, this plan -was not easily carried out. The court councilors, to whom the emperor -committed the matter, were not proof against bribery, and followed the -Jesuits, who laid less stress on catching Jewish souls than on the -oppression of Protestants and the increasing of their own power. - -The annals of the Thirty Years' War contain no record of special -sufferings of the Jewish race. It seems almost as if Jews were better -treated than Christians. At least, in Mayence, the Swedes, who resided -there more than four years, from the end of 1631 to 1636, behaved more -kindly to them than to others. They were not greatly impoverished, -for they were able, three years after the departure of the Swedes, to -build a synagogue at Mayence, and thus extend their community, a favor -which it had not been in their power to enjoy for more than 150 years. -The Thirty Years' War ended, as is well known, at Prague, on the very -stage where it had begun. The Swedish general besieged the city on -the Moldau, and had already captured one quarter. But the inhabitants -resisted bravely, and the Jews were not behind the others, if not -with arms, yet with labor, in the trenches, and with extinguishing -apparatus. It was a Jew who brought intelligence to the emperor from -the besieged city in order to obtain relieving forces. On account of -their attachment to the imperial family, the Bohemian Jews obtained -from Ferdinand III an extension of their rights, which consisted in -the privilege of residing in all royal cities and domains, and in -not being expelled without the knowledge of the emperor. It may be -assumed that the Jews did not lose very much by the devastating war. -While the Christian population was thoroughly impoverished, and had to -contend with want--the chief circumstance which induced the rulers to -conclude the Peace of Westphalia--the Jews had saved something. The -booty of many cities went through their hands, and, even if they were -exorbitantly taxed, and forced to pay heavy sums, they still derived -some gain. Hence it came about that directly after the close of the -Thirty Years' War, when great numbers of their fugitive brethren came -from Poland through Germany, they could be supported in a brotherly way -by the German communities; for the Jews of Poland, for the first time, -were visited with a long-continued, bloody persecution. The cup of -suffering was not to pass them by. - - -END OF VOL. IV. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Aaron (I) ben Joseph, the Elder, fixes the Karaite prayer-book, 71. - - Aaron (II) ben Elia Nicomedi, Karaite philosopher, 95. - - Abadia, de, Juan, plots against Arbues, 329-331. - - Abba-Mari ben Moses (Astruc En-Duran), leader of obscurantists, - 27-32, 36-42, 50. - and the Tibbonides, 39-42. - - Abenacar, Isaac (Manuel Pimentel), Marrano in Holland, 672. - - Abenhuacar. See Ibn-Wakar, Samuel. - - Abi-Ayub, Jacob, physician, 553. - - Abner of Burgos. See Alfonso Burgensis. - - Aboab, Isaac, rabbi at Toledo, 341. - death, 366. - intercedes for Spanish exiles, 352, 365. - - Aboab, Isaac, de Fonseca, rabbi at Amsterdam, 681, 682-683. - in Brazil, 693. - quoted, 694. - - Aboget, supposed manufacturer of Black Death poison, 102. - - Abrabanel, Isaac ben Judah, 409. - and the edict of banishment, 348. - and Yechiel of Pisa, 287. - as commentator, 341-343. - countenances Messianic speculations, 482. - in Castile, 336-337, 341, 343-344. - in Corfu and Sicily, 384. - in Naples, 359-360. - in Portugal, 337-339, 341. - in Venice, 385, 386. - opposes free thought, 479. - protects the Jews, 339-340. - quoted, 338, 388-389. - - Abrabanel, Isaac, son of the preceding, physician, 340, 385. - - Abrabanel, Judah Leon (Medigo), son of Isaac Abrabanel I, 340, 341, - 409. - and Gonsalvo de Cordova, 384-385. - as author, 480-481. - flees to Naples, 360-361. - - Abrabanel, Samuel (Juan de Seville), 337. - accepts baptism, 169. - ambassador to Martin V, 219. - appointed to a state office, 138. - efforts for the culture of Castilian Jews, 139-140. - intercedes for the Spanish Marranos, 322-323. - - Abrabanel, Samuel, son of Isaac Abrabanel I, 340, 385, 543. - at Ferrara, 544. - at Naples, 409. - promotes Jewish learning, 410. - - Abrabanela, Benvenida, wife of the preceding, 409-410. - honors David Reubeni, 493. - saves the Neapolitan Jews from the Inquisition, 543-544. - - Abraham, copyist, 74. - - Abraham, son of Manessier de Vesoul, 150. - - Abraham ben Chiya, astronomer, 120. - - Abraham of Granada, Kabbalist, 196-197. - - Abudiel, Moses, officer at the Castilian court, 84, 85, 86. - - Abulafia, agent of Ferdinand and Isabella, 313, 317. - - Abulafia, Abraham ben Samuel, Kabbalist, 4-8, 10, 11, 14, 19, 622, - 625. - his school accepts the Zohar, 20. - - Abulafia, Joseph, Kabbalist, 2. - - Abulafia, Levi, Kabbalist, 2. - - Abulafia, Meir, Maimuni's adversary, alluded to, 2. - - Abulafia-Halevi, prominent family of Toledo, 113, 116. - - Abulafia-Halevi, Samuel ben Meir, (Allavi), privado of Pedro the - Cruel, 116-121, 354. - builds synagogues, 119-120. - charged with peculation, 121. - - Abulafia-Halevi, Todros ben Joseph, Kabbalist, 1-3, 52. - - Abulhassan, of Morocco, makes war upon Castile, 84. - - Abumelik, Moorish general, 85. - - Accusation of child-murder, 223, 261-262, 276-279, 298-307, 343-344, - 372, 440, 544-546, 642. - against Christians, 546. - by Eck, 547. - forbidden in Portugal, 372. - See also Blood-accusation. - - Accusation of host desecration, 164-165, 223, 261, 277, 306, 439-440. - - Accusation of well-poisoning, 57-58, 101-106. - - Achmed I, sultan, alluded to, 629, 630. - - Achmed Shaitan, viceroy of Egypt, conspires, 395-396. - - Adolph of Nassau, emperor, 35, 36. - - Adrianople, Karaites settle in, 269. - Spanish exiles settle in, 405. - - Afia, Aaron, scholar, 405. - - Africa, a refuge for Jewish exiles, 197, 318, 352, 389-392. - - Agada, not authoritative, 214. - quoted, 242. - - Agen, Jews of, massacred, 56. - - Aguilar, Jews of, annihilated, 125. - - Aix, Jews of, side with Abba-Mari, 33. - - Akrish, Isaac ben Abraham, Spanish exile, 386. - - Alami, Solomon, quoted, 154-155, 204. - - Alagon, de, Blasco, plots against Arbues, 329. - - Alashkar, Moses ben Isaac, Talmudist, 391-392, 393. - - Albalag, Isaac, philosopher, alluded to, 24, 342. - - Albassi, Jacob, translator of Maimuni, 60. - - Albert II, emperor, 263. - imprisons Jews, 223-224, 249. - - Albert, duke of Bavaria, hostile to Jews, 258. - - Albert, of Brandenburg, influenced against the Jews, 463-464. - - Albert, of Munich, alluded to, 428. - - Albi, Jews of, annihilated, 57. - - Albo, Joseph, philosopher, 239, 243. - at the Tortosa disputation, 208, 214, 215. - author of controversial works, 233. - his work, 239-243. - - Alboacin. See Abulhassan. - - Albrecht, emperor, 35, 37. - and the Jews, 36. - asserts authority over the French Jews, 47. - - Alcala, academy at, 145. - Jews of, mocked at, 181. - - Alcaldes appointed by the Jews of Castile, 116. - - Alcaniz, Jews of, converted, 214. - - Alcantara, Order of, 85-86. - - Alcolea, Jews of, converted, 214. - - Aldobrandini protects the Jews of Ferrara, 660-661. - - Aleman, Jochanan, Kabbalist, 291. - - Alenu, prayer, maligned, 178. - - Alexander, convert, accuses the Jews of blasphemy, 591. - - Alexander, of Poland, hostile to Jews, 419. - - Alexander VI, pope, 434. - and Bonet de Lates, 407. - censures the Roman Jews, 363. - favorable to Portuguese Marranos, 378-379. - opposes the Spanish Inquisition, 319. - - Alfarda, strangers' tax, 344. - - Alfonsine Tables, author of, 367. - - Alfonso Burgensis (Abner-Alfonso, Alfonso of Valladolid), apostate, - 81-83, 213, 342. - - Alfonso de Cartagena, counselor of Eugenius IV, 249-250. - - Alfonso, Infante of Portugal, releases Marranos, 517. - - Alfonso, of Aragon, archbishop, protects Marranos, 330. - - Alfonso X, of Castile (the Wise), anti-Jewish laws of, 194-195. - - Alfonso XI, of Castile, and Alfonso Burgensis, 83. - death, 113. - favorable to Jews, 75-76, 85, 86. - guardians, 52. - Jewish favorites, 79-81. - law of, renewed, 193. - war with Abulhassan, 84-85. - - Alfonso XII, of Castile, brother of Henry IV, 278, 279. - - Alfonso II, of Ferrara, alluded to, 660. - - Alfonso II, of Naples, employs Isaac Abrabanel, 360, 383-384. - - Alfonso V, of Portugal, alluded to, 340. - employs Jews, 337-339. - - Alfonso of Valladolid. See Alfonso Burgensis. - - Algiers, Jews in, 390-391. - Jews settle in, 197-199. - Spanish exiles flee to, 361. - - Alguades, Meir, physician and rabbi, 185, 190. - executed, 195-196. - translator of Aristotle's Ethics, 193. - - Alkabez, Solomon, Kabbalist, 538. - - Allatif. See Ibn-Latif, Isaac. - - Allavi. See Abulafia-Halevi, Samuel ben Meir. - - Allegorizing of the Scriptures, 23-24. - - Allorqui. See Joshua ben Joseph Ibn-Vives. - - Almosnino, Moses, historian, 405, 607-608. - - Almoxarif, minister of finance, 75, 79, 138, 160. - - Alsace, Jews of, outlawed or burnt, 107. - - Altona, Jewish cemetery at, 688. - - Alva imprisons Jews, 662. - in the Netherlands, 601. - - Alvalensi, Samuel, favorite in Morocco, 390, 392. - - Alvarez, Alfonso, de Villasandino, satirist, 181. - - Amadeus, of Savoy, imprisons Jews, 103. - - Amazia, Jews of, persecuted, 553. - - Amos, prophet, quoted, 177. - - Amshel of Ratisbon, opponent of Israel Bruna, 302. - - Amsterdam, German Jews settle in, 680-681. - Hebrew education, 681-682. - Hebrew printing-press, 675. - Jews in, 665-685. - Jews under restrictions, 673-674. - morality of Jews, 679-680. - Portuguese Marranos settle in, 665-666. - powers of rabbis, 684-685. - synagogues, 667, 671, 680. - wealth and culture of Jews, 677-678. - - Anatoli, Jacob, Maimunist, 32. - defended, 41. - his sermons read and proscribed, 39, 40. - - Ancona, a refuge for Jews and Marranos, 408, 544. - - Ancona, Marranos of, imprisoned, 568. - persecuted, 570-571. - - Angiel, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - "Annals of Persecution," by Joseph Cohen, 590. - - "Annals of the Kings of France and of the House of Othman, The," by - Joseph Cohen, 556. - - Antiochus Epiphanes, alluded to, 655. - - Anti-Trinitarians, 541-542, 647-648. - - Anusim, converts to Christianity, 179-180. - See Marranos, and Conversions to Christianity. - - Antwerp, Jews settle in, 662. - - Aquet, charged with the manufacture of poison, 104. - - Aquinas, Thomas, alluded to, 183. - - Aragon and the Inquisition, 319, 328-329. - - Aragon, Jews of, buy protection, 172. - enjoy peace, 274-275. - loyal to their faith, 215. - persecuted, 77, 102-103, 170. - suffer through Ferrer, 206. - - Aragon, Marranos of, 309. - - Arama, Isaac, quoted, 332. - - Aranda, counts of, oppose the Inquisition, 329. - - Aranda, de, bishop, expelled, 333. - - Arbues, Pedro, inquisitor, 326. - plot against, 329-331. - - Argentiere, Jews of, side with Abba-Mari, 33. - - Arias, Juan, bishop, instigates a persecution, 279. - - Aristotle, 66, 82, 93, 146, 232, 243, 290. - Ethics of, in Hebrew, 146. - studied by Polish Jews, 633. - - Arles, Jews of, protected, 177. - - Armleder, persecutors of the Jews, 97-98. - - Arnheim, counselor of Alva, 62. - - Arnoldists, party of Jew-haters, 456. - - Ar-Rabbi Mor, chief rabbi of Portuguese Jews, 158-159, 380. - - Arta, Jewish exiles in, 406. - - Arzilla, Jewish slaves made at, 286, 339, 381. - - Ascalona, Jews of, annihilated, 170. - - Asher ben Yechiel (Asheri), rabbi of Toledo, 34-35, 37, 53, 86. - author of a Talmudic code, 51. - his descendants victims of persecution, 169-170. - his family visited by the Black Death, 113. - partisan of Abba-Mari, 37-38, 50. - relaxes Talmudic laws, 37. - sons of. See Jacob ben Asheri, and Jehuda Asheri. - - Asher, of Udine, convert, denounces Jewish works, 584-585. - - Asheri. See Asher ben Yechiel, Jacob ben Asher, and Jehuda Asheri. - - Ashkenazi, Solomon ben Nathan, statesman, 602-607, 627-629. - agent of Mahomet Sokolli, 602-603. - and the Polish election, 604-605, 642. - and Venice, 605-606, 608. - rescues the Venetian Jews, 606-607. - supplants Joseph Nassi, 627. - widow of, 630. - - Asia Minor, Spanish exiles in, 405-406. - - Askaloni, Joseph, Hebrew publisher, 628. - - Astorga, Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Astruc En-Duran. See Abba-Mari ben Moses. - - Athias, editor of the Spanish Bible translation, 576. - - Athias, Isaac, rabbi at Hamburg, 689. - - Aubriot, Hugues, prevot of Paris, protects the Jews, 151. - - Auditeurs des Juifs, superintendents over French Jews, 54. - - "Augenspiegel," work by Reuchlin, 446-448, 450, 457. - approved, 455. - condemned by the University of Paris, 460. - - Augsburg, bishop of, desires to possess Jews, 127-128. - - Augsburg, Jews of, escape the Rindfleisch persecution, 36. - exiled, 249. - imprisoned, 163. - persecuted, 110. - - Austria, Jews of, accused as poisoners, 110. - expelled, 585-586, 652. - persecuted, 36, 98, 223-224. - - Auto-da-fe, the first in Spain, 317. - - Averroes, alluded to, 82, 93, 94, 232, 290. - - Avignon, Jews of, expelled, 592. - protected, 177. - side with Abba-Mari, 33. - - Avila, Jews of, baptized, 205. - Kabbalistic center, 8-10. - law of, 229. - religious discussion at, 140-141. - - Avila, de, bishop, expelled, 333. - - Avis, Grand Master of, 160, 161. - - Ayllon, home of a Kabbalist, 8. - - Azael, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - Azriel, Kabbalist, 14. - - - Baal ha-Turim. See Jacob ben Asheri. - - Badajoz attacked by Spanish Marranos, 498. - - Baffa, sultana, favors Esther Kiera, 629. - - Bajazet (Bajasid) II, sultan, and Jews, 356, 364, 400. - - Balmes, de, Abraham, physician and author, 411. - instructs Christians, 473. - - Bamberg, council of, decrees Jew badges, 555. - - Ban against science, 39, 40. - - Bandito, tortured on the charge of poisoning, 104. - - Baptista, John (Solomon Romano), denounces the Talmud, 564. - - Barbaro, Mark Antonio, Venetian consul, 605. - - Barbastro, conversions in, 214. - - Barcelona, ban against science in, 40. - Jews of, persecuted, 103, 171-172. - opposes the Inquisition, 332. - - Barfat. See Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat, and Crescas Barfat. - - Barfat, Zarak, poet, 140. - - Baruch, Kabbalist, 481. - - Bashyasi, Menachem and Moses, Karaites, 269. - - Basle, authorities of, defend the Jews, 105-107. - - Basle, council of, 248, 249, 250, 251. - laws of the, and Casimir IV, 264. - proscribes the Jews, 245-246. - - Basle, Jews of, burnt, 107. - - "Bastard, A, the Son of an Outcast," anti-Christian work, 590. - - Bathori, Stephen, of Poland, friendly to Jews, 642. - - "Battles of the Lord, The," work by Gersonides, 92-93. - - Bavaria, Jews of, accused of child-murder, 545-546. - persecuted, 36, 98-99, 110, 225, 253-254. - - Beatrice (Brites), Infanta of Portugal, and the succession in - Castile, 158. - - Beatrice, of Castile, and David Negro, 161. - - Bechinath ha-Dath, work by Elias del Medigo, 293. - - Bechinath Olam, poem by Yedaya Bedaresi, 49. - - Bedaresi, Abraham, poet, 42. - - Bedaresi, Yedaya En-Bonet ben Abraham (Penini), poet, 26, 42-45, 49. - espouses the Tibbonide cause, 42-44. - works by, 43, 49. - - Behaim, Martin, astronomer, 367. - - Bekashoth ha-Memin, poem by Yedaya Bedaresi, 43. - - Belgium, Jews of, persecuted, 112. - - Bellieta, tortured on the charge of poisoning, 104. - - Belmonte, Jacob Israel, Marrano poet, 665. - - Belvedere, the Nassi palace, 597. - printing-press at, 628. - - Ben Adret. See Solomon ben Abraham ben Adret. - - Benavente, Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Benedict XII, pope, friendly to Jews, 99. - - Benedict XIII (Pedro de Luna), anti-pope, 200, 228, 239, 655. - at Peniscola, 217. - at the Tortosa disputation, 210-213. - favors Paul Burgensis, 184, 190. - issues a bull against the Jews, 215-216. - plans the conversion of the Jews, 207. - - Benevento, Inquisition at, 385. - - Benfelden, council of, declares Jews outlaws, 107. - - Benjamin, friend of Immanuel Romi, 68. - - Benjamin, of Tudela, alluded to, 127. - - Benveniste, Abraham, Senior (Coronel), tithe-collector, accepts - Christianity, 351. - convenes a synod, 229. - friend of Isaac Abrabanel, 341. - holds office in Castile, 228. - negotiates a royal marriage, 280. - - Benveniste, Judah, center of the Salonica community, 405. - - Benveniste, family of Gracia Mendesia, 571. - - Berab, Jacob, rabbi in northern Africa, 390, 393, 418. - revives ordination, 531-536. - - Berber princes, tolerance of, 197. - - Berlin, Jews of, persecuted, 652. - - Bernaldez, Andreas, quoted, 349. - - Bernard, of Siena, master of John of Capistrano, 257. - - Bernardinus, of Feltre, hostile to Jews, 295-299. - - Bernardo instigates Lisbon against Marranos, 487. - - Berne, Jews of, tortured, 104-105. - - Berthold, bishop, hostile to Jews, 107. - - Beth Israel, third synagogue in Amsterdam, 680. - - Beth Jacob, first synagogue in Amsterdam, 667, 671. - - Beya, de, Abraham, Portuguese traveler, 368. - - Beziers, Jews of, expelled, 48. - - Bibago, Abraham, employed by John II, of Aragon, 275. - - Bible, the, allegorized, 23. - Christian doctrines in, 141-142. - commentary on, 70. - concordance of, 234-235. - Karaite interpretation of, 269. - polyglot, 651. - slandered, 547. - studied by Portuguese Marranos, 485. - studied in Spain, 91, 231. - study of, cultivated, 474-476. - translations of, 475, 576, 647. - translations not authoritative, 237. - - Black Death, the, alluded to, 111, 112, 113, 127, 133, 135, 172. - attributed to the Jews, 100-106. - - Black Prince, the, and the civil war in Castile, 124, 125. - - Blanis, de, Judah (Laudadeus), physician at Perugia, 411. - - Blanche de Bourbon, wife of Pedro the Cruel, 116-117, 121, 122. - - Blandrata, religious reformer, 647. - - Blood-accusation, 223, 227, 261-262, 298, 642. - by Eck, 547. - forbidden in Poland, 264-265. - See also Accusation of child-murder. - - Boabdil, last king of Granada, 345. - - Bohemia, Jews of, banished, 544-545. - pay a war-tax, 703. - persecuted, 98, 165-166. - privileges of, extended, 707. - - Boleslav Pius, duke of Kalish, friendly to Jews, 111, 263. - - Bologna, Jewish printing-house in, 289. - Jews of, tried, 590-591. - synod held at, 218, 219. - - Bomberg, Daniel, of Antwerp, publishes the Babylonian Talmud, 468. - the Old Testament, 476. - - Bonafoux, Vidal, partisan of Abba-Mari, 28. - - Bonastruc, Isaac, and Jewish immigrants in Algiers, 199. - - Bonfed. See Solomon ben Reuben Bonfed. - - Boniface VIII, pope, alluded to, 144. - - Boniface IX, pope, forbids forcible conversions, 173. - - Bordeaux, Jews of, perish, 56. - - Borgia, cardinal. See Alexander VI. - - Botarel, Moses, Messianic pretensions of, 197. - - "Bow and Buckler," controversial work, 238. - - Brahe, de, Tycho, alluded to, 638. - - Brandenburg, Jews of, accused, 439-440. - persecuted, 652. - - Brazil, Jews settle in, 693. - - Breslau, Jews of, accused of child-murder, 261-263. - annihilated, 109. - - Broussa, Spanish exiles in, 405. - - Bruna, Israel, rabbi of Ratisbon, 300, 302-304. - - Brunetta, of Trent, 297, 298. - - Bruenn, Jews of, banished, 263. - - Brunswick, Jews of, expelled, 652. - - Brussels, Jews of, killed, 112. - Jews settle in, 662. - - Budny, Simon, founder of a Christian sect, 647. - - Buen-Giorno, David Bonet, and Profiat Duran, 188-190. - - Bugia, Spanish exiles flee to, 361. - - Buja, Jews settle in, 197. - - Bull (papal) against Jewish emigration to Palestine, 274. - based on Innocent IV's, 165. - by Benedict XIII, 215-216. - by Clement VI, 173. - by Clement VII, 507-508, 515, 516. - by Clement VIII, 671. - by Eugenius IV, 250-252. - by Gregory XIII, 654. - by Julius III, 565. - by Martin V, 219-220, 226-227. - by Nicholas V, 253, 254, 287. - by Paul III, 516, 520, 526. - by Paul V, 566. - by Pius IV, 588, 589. - by Pius V, 591-592. - by Sixtus IV, 311, 319, 321, 322, 323. - by Sixtus V, 655-656, 658. - - Burgos, cortes of, hostile to Jews, 52, 124, 229. - - Burgos, Jews of, and Pedro the Cruel, 123, 124. - baptized, 205. - persecuted, 170. - - Burgos, religious disputation at, 140. - - Busche, von, Hermann, alluded to, 456. - - Byron, quoted, 127. - - Byzantine Empire, rottenness of, 267. - toleration of, 285. - - - Caballeria, de, Alfonso, opposes the Inquisition, 329. - - Cabrera, governor of the Alcazar of Segovia, 283. - - Cadiz, Marrano victims of the Inquisition in, 317. - Marranos take refuge in, 313. - siege of, 665. - - Cairo, Jews of, attacked, 396. - Karaite stronghold, 71. - - Calabrese, Chayim Vital, Kabbalist, 618, 623. - Messianic claims of, 625. - - Calatayud, conversions in, 214. - - Calatrava, Grand Master of, executed, 118. - - Calixtus, pope, alluded to, 275. - - "Calumniator, The," sobriquet of Geronimo de Santa Fe, 217. - - Campanton, Isaac ben Jacob, Talmudist, 230. - - Campeggio, cardinal, opposes the Portuguese Inquisition, 514-515. - - Candia, Spanish exiles in, 363-364, 406. - - Cantori, dei, Joshua, hostile to the Talmud, 583. - - Capistrano. See John of Capistrano. - - Capnion. See Reuchlin, John. - - Capron, Ruy, alluded to, 278. - - Caraffa, Pietro. See Paul IV. - - Carca, Samuel, quoted, 137. - writes a commentary, 144. - - Cardozo, Elihu Aboab, erects a synagogue at Hamburg, 689. - - Caro, Isaac ben Joseph, victim of Portuguese persecution, 378. - - Carpentras, Jews of, protected, 177. - - Carrion, Jews of, persecuted, 170. - - Casimir III, of Poland (the Great), favors the Jews, 111-112, 263. - - Casimir IV, of Poland, bestows privileges upon the Jews, 263-265, 419. - revokes the privileges of the Jews, 266. - - Caspe, Jews of, converted, 214. - - Castel-Branco, de, Joao Rodrigo. See Lusitanus, Amatus. - - Castile, center of Jewish culture, 75. - civil war in, 118-119, 123-126. - cortes of, hostile to Jews, 229. - deficient in Jewish scholars, 86, 139-140. - - Castile, Jews of, accused of proselytizing, 157. - admitted to public employment, 228-229. - appoint their own alcaldes, 116. - attached to Pedro the Cruel, 114, 123, 124, 125, 137. - baptized, 137, 205. - deprived of criminal jurisdiction, 157. - enjoy peace, 53, 113, 274-275. - hated, 138-139. - invested with criminal jurisdiction, 155. - partisans of Maria de Padilla, 117. - prominent at court, 51-53, 75-76, 84, 115-116, 138. - suffer during the civil war, 125, 136-137. - take part in debates, 140. - threatened, 84-86. - under Alfonso XI, 75-76. - under Henry III, 193. - under Juan II, 194, 251-253. - under Maria de Molina, 52. - under restrictions, 52, 139, 158, 203-204, 250, 278. - usurers, 80. - See also Spain. - - Castile, Marranos of, 309. - - Castro, de, Abraham, master of the Egyptian mint, 393, 395. - - Castro, de, Moses, rabbi at Jerusalem, 534, 535. - - Castro, de, Rodrigo, Marrano physician, 686-687, 688. - - Catalina, of Castile, 217, 228, 275. - lays restrictions upon the Jews, 203-204. - relaxes the anti-Jewish laws, 205. - - Catalina, of Lancaster, regent for Juan II, of Castile, 193-194. - - Catalonia, Jews of, invested with criminal jurisdiction, 155. - loyal to their faith, 215. - persecuted, 102-103, 112-113, 172. - - "Catalonian grandees," 153. - - Catechumens maintained by Jews, 566. - - Catherine de Medici, and the Polish election, 604. - alluded to, 598. - - Catherine, of Portugal, hostile to Marranos, 489. - - Catholic reaction, the, 650-651. - - Cathunho, Isaac, Jewish official at Recife, 693. - - Censorship of the press, 562-563. - - Censorship of the Talmud, 658, 659-660. - - Cervera, Jews of, attacked, 94, 103. - - Cesis, cardinal, opposes the Portuguese Inquisition, 514-515. - - Chabib, Levi ben Jacob, rabbi of Jerusalem, 378, 532-536. - and Jacob Berab, 533-536. - - Chacon, of Vitoria, employed by Henry IV of Castile, 275. - - "Chain of Tradition, The," by Gedalya Ibn-Yachya, 616. - - Chaldee, language of the Zohar, 12. - - Chambery, center for the supposed Black Death poisoners, 102. - - Chanceller, assistant of Ar-Rabbi Mor, 159. - - Chanina, Ishmael, rabbi of Bologna, 591. - - Charisi, as a character in Immanuel Romi's works, 67. - translator of Maimuni, 61. - - Charles IV, emperor, 164, 695. - and the Jews of Nuremberg, 110. - and the Jews of Worms, 108. - grants "servi camerae" to electors, 128. - protects Jews, 106. - punishes murderers of Jews, 109. - - Charles V, emperor, and Clement VII, 492. - and Luther, 469. - and the Jews of Naples, 543-544. - and the Jews of the Netherlands, 661-662. - and the Portuguese Inquisition, 507, 509, 517-518. - crowned emperor of Rome, 503. - favored by Humanists, 468. - has Molcho burnt, 510-511. - hostile to Marranos, 484. - in debt to the Mendes family, 572. - opposes Paul III, 526. - opposes Reuchlin, 464. - renews the privileges of the Jews, 547. - - Charles IV, of France, alluded to, 77. - - Charles V, of France, 150. - and the Jews, 129, 131, 132, 133. - - Charles VI, of France, and the Jews, 174, 176. - - Charles VII, of France, 373. - protects the Jews, 152. - - Charles VIII, of France, alluded to, 360. - - Charles IX, of France, alluded to, 604. - - Charles III, of Navarre, alluded to, 184. - - Chasdai ben Abraham Crescas, philosopher, 145-147, 149, 172, 208, - 230, 239, 342. - appealed to, 150, 153. - articles of faith by, 193. - attacked by Paul Burgensis, 185. - describes the persecution of 1391, 172. - his view of life, 240. - imprisoned, 150, 155. - independence of, 146, 192. - philosophical work of, translated, 235. - philosophy of, 191-193. - treats of Christian doctrines, 187-188. - - Chasdai ben Solomon, 162. - denounces Chayim ben Gallipapa, 149. - - Chastelard, Jews of, tortured, 104. - - Chatel, Jews of, imprisoned, 103-104. - - Chayim ben Gallipapa, rabbi, 148-150. - - Chayim, of Landshut, appoints Judenmeister, 227. - - Chayyat, Judah ben Jacob, Kabbalist, 481. - describes the sufferings of the Portuguese exiles, 369-370. - - Chemnitz, Dr., and the Jews of Worms, 698-699. - - Chendali, Elias, husband of Esther Kiera, 629. - - Chesheb-Efod, history by Profiat Duran, 191. - - Chiddush, Talmudic term, 641. - - Chillon, Jews of, imprisoned, 103-104. - confessions of, 108. - - Chilluk, Talmudic term, 641. - - Chinon, college of, dispersed, 48. - Jews of, persecuted, 57-58. - - Christian IV, of Denmark, and the Jews, 675, 692. - - Chronologies used by Jews, 394-395. - - Clement VI, pope, and Gersonides, 94, 103. - forbids forcible conversions, 173. - protects the Jews, 103, 105. - - Clement VII, pope, 407. - and Molcho, 503, 507. - and the Portuguese Inquisition, 507-509, 513-514. - death, 515. - permits Marranos at Ancona, 500. - quoted, 513-514. - receives David Reubeni, 492-493. - - Clement VIII, pope, and Portuguese Marranos, 528, 671. - expels the Jews, 659. - - Clemente, Philip, opposes the Inquisition, 329. - - Cleve, von, Eberhard, in the Reuchlin quarrel, 465-466. - - Closener, of Strasburg, historian, quoted, 106. - - Cohen, Aaron, describes the sufferings of French exiles, 49. - - Cohen, Daniel, scholar, 405. - - Cohen, Gershon (Soncinus), printer at Prague, 418. - - Cohen, Joseph ben Joshua, of Genoa, historian, 555-557, 608. - his chronicle, 555, 556, 557, 561. - on Molcho, 511. - - Cohen, Joshua Falk, president of the Polish synod, 645, 703. - - Cohen, Moses, de Tordesillas, controversialist, 141-142. - - Cohen, Perachyah, physician, 405. - - Cohen, Saul (Ashkenasi), disciple of Elias del Medigo, 293, 386. - Hebrew style of, 389. - - Cohen, Saul Astruc, physician, 198, 199. - - Coimbra, Inquisition at, 508. - - Colleges, Jewish, in France, 48. See also Educational institutions. - - "Collegium Germanicum," propagandist seminary, 654. - - "Colloquium Middelburgense," controversial work, 691. - - Colmar, Jews of, banished, 416. - - Cologne, authorities of, defend the Jews, 105-106, 108. - Jews of, expelled, 227, 413. - seat of Dominicans, 424. - See Chapter XIV. - - Columbus, alluded to, 368. - - "Concerning the Jews and their Lies," pamphlet by Luther, 548-549. - - Confiscation of Hebrew books, 437-438, 439, 441, 444. - advised by Luther, 550. - by Pfefferkorn, 429-431. - in Cremona, 582-583. - in Prague, 584-585. - in the Papal States, 565, 567. - under Gregory XIII, 654. - under Sixtus V, 657-658. - - "Conflict of Duties," controversial work, 238. - - Conrad of Wintertur, defends the Jews, 106, 108. - - Conservateur, protector of the French Jews, 130. - - "Consolation for the Sorrows of Israel," by Samuel Usque, 558-561. - - Constance, Jews of, persecuted, 105. - - Constance, council of, 215, 218, 248. - condemns Vincent Ferrer, 217. - deposes Benedict XIII, 216. - elects Martin V pope, 219. - sentences Huss, 221. - - Constantine, Jews settle in, 197. - - Constantine, emperor, alluded to, 267. - - Constantine Dragosses, alluded to, 267. - - Constantinople, fall of, 267. - Jews of, 402-404. - Jews permitted in, 268. - Karaites settle in, 269. - Karaite stronghold, 69. - rabbis of, issue a ban against Paul IV, 580. - - "Constitutions," Inquisition code, 326, 328. - in Portugal, 508. - - Conti, Vincent, publisher, 583-584. - - Contra-Remonstrants, religious sect in Holland, 673-674. - - "Contrasts and Greatness of Constantinople," by Moses Almosnino, 608. - - Controversial literature, 231-238. - - Conversions to Christianity, 48, 56, 107, 111, 126, 137, 150, 169, - 171, 172, 175, 177, 179, 191, 205, 206, 214, 215, 224, - 232-233, 245-246, 247, 254, 262, 288, 298, 301, 334-335, 361, - 375-378, 380, 440, 570, 706. - - Conversions, forcible, forbidden by popes, 165, 173. - - Cordova, Inquisition at, 325. - Jews of, persecuted, 169. - Marranos in, 484. - Marranos massacred in, 281-282. - - Corfu, Spanish exiles in, 363, 364, 384. - - Coronel. See Benveniste, Abraham. - - Coronel, David, Senior, official at Recife, 693. - - Costa, da, Emanuel, Marrano, 520-521. - - "Correction of the False Teacher," controversial work, 234. - - Costnitz. See Constance. - - "Counsels and Lessons," poem by Santob de Carrion, 115. - - Court Jews at Vienna, 702. - - Coutinho, Ferdinand, bishop, defends Marranos, 500. - opposes forced conversions, 375. - quoted, 376. - - Cracow, Jews of, massacred, 111. - second Jewish community in Poland, 632. - - Creation, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - Cremona, Jews of, expelled, 660. - Talmudic center, 582. - - Crescas Barfat, imprisoned, 150. - - Crescas, Chasdai. See Chasdai ben Abraham Crescas. - - Crescas Vidal, partisan of Abba-Mari, 28-29. - - Cretensis, Elias. See Del Medigo, Elias. - - "Crown of Israel," Toledo, 136. - - Curiel, Jacob, Portuguese agent, 681, 692. - - Cusa, de, Nicholas, cardinal, hostile to Jews, 255. - - Cyprus, conquest of, 600-601. - - Czechowic, Martin, Unitarian, 648. - - - Dafiera, Solomon, poet, 230. - - Dalburg, bishop, alluded to, 454. - - Damascus, exiles settle in, 399-400. - - Daniel, book of, commented, 482. - interpretation of, 120. - prophecies of, 149. - - Daniel, friend of Immanuel Romi, 66. - - Dante compared with Immanuel Romi, 65, 66, 67. - quoted, 325. - - Daroca, conversions in, 206, 214. - - Daud (David), physician, hostile to Joseph Nassi, 598-599. - - Dauphine, Jews protected in, 177. - - David, king, as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - - David, an immigrant, urges Jews to go to Turkey, 271. - - "Day of Hosannas" in Lurya's system, 626. - - Deckendorf (Deggendorf), Jews of, massacred, 98-99. - - Del Barco, Juan Lopez, Spanish inquisitor, 312. - - Del Medigo, Elias, classical scholar, 290-293, 386, 406. - relation to Judah Menz, 295. - - Delmedigo, Judah, rabbi, 406. - - Della Rovere, Francesco Maria, duke of Urbino, 501, 657. - - Della Ruvere, Marco, nuncio, 514. - - Desfar, Juan, governor of Palma, 246. - - Desmaestre, Bonastruc, delegate at the Tortosa disputation, 208. - - Deutz, Cologne Jews settle at, 227. - - Deza, second inquisitor-general of Spain, 356, 483-484. - - Dias, Andre, assassin of Henrique Nunes, 490. - - "Dialogues of Love," work by Judah Abrabanel, 480-481. - - Diego de Valencia, convert, 181. - - Diokna Kadisha, holy likeness, 538. - - Divorces among Kabbalists, 626-627. - - Dominicans denounce Jews and Hussites, 222, 226. - in the Reuchlin-Pfefferkorn quarrel. See Chapter XIV. - plot to expel the Marranos from Portugal, 486-488. - - Doria, Andrea, doge, 555. - protects the Jews of Genoa, 554. - - Doria, Giannettino, alluded to, 555. - - "Doubts of the Religion of Jesus," controversial work, 235. - - Duran. See Profiat Duran, Simon ben Zemach Duran, Solomon Duran, and - Simon Duran II. - - Du Guesclin, Bertrand, captain of the "white company," 123, 124, 126, - 137. - - - "Eben Bochan," controversial work, 142, 143. - - Ecija, Jews of, persecuted, 170. - - Eck, Dr. John, and the Jews, 546-547. - - Edict of Banishment from Spain, 347-348. - - Edict of Grace, 315. - - Edles, Samuel, Talmudist, 703. - - Edom, Christendom, 18, 506. - - Educational institutions (Hebrew), 48, 133, 145, 410, 681, 685. - - Efodi (Ephodaeus). See Profiat Duran. - - Efrati, Amram, alluded to, 162. - - Egidio de Viterbo, cardinal, 564, 583. - and the Kabbala, 481. - disciple of Elias Levita, 472. - opposes the Portuguese Inquisition, 507. - quoted, 457. - - Egypt, Jews in, 392-396. - - Eisenach, Jews of, slaughtered, 109. - - Eleazar ben Joseph, martyr, 49. - - Eliano Vittorio, grandson of Elias Levita, convert, 564. - editor of the Cremona Zohar, 584. - hostile to the Talmud, 583. - - Elias Levita, Hebrew grammarian, 471, 473. - grandsons of, 564. - invited into France, 473-474. - - Elizabeth, of England, alluded to, 664. - - Emden, Marranos in, 665. - - Emek ha-Bacha, work by Joseph Cohen, 590, 608. - - "Emunoth," Kabbalistic work, 197. - - En-Sof, Kabbalistic term, 14. - - En-Zag Vidal de Tolosa, rabbi, 155. - - "Enemy of the Jews, The," second pamphlet by Pfefferkorn, 427. - - England at war with Castile, 142. - - Enns, Jews of, charged with host-desecration, 223. - - Enoch, book of, source for the Kabbala, 17. - - "Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum," a satire, 461-462. - - Erasmus, humanist, 432, 433. - quoted, 462-463. - - Erfurt, Jews of, perish, 109. - - Eschenloer, quoted, 262. - - Escrivao, assistant of Ar-Rabbi Mor, 159. - - Eski-Crim, Karaite stronghold, 71. - - Esperaindo, de, Juan, assassin of Arbues, 330. - - Estella, Jews of, persecuted, 77-78. - - Esther (Esterka), wife of Casimir the Great, 112. - - Esther, book of, Spanish translation of, 148. - - Etampes, d', Count, protector of the French Jews, 130, 132. - - Eugenius IV, pope, 253, 275. - approves of John of Capistrano, 257-258. - confirms the privileges of the Jews, 249. - hostile to Jews, 229, 249, 250-252. - - Evora, Inquisition at, 508. - - Ezekiel, prophet, as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - - "Ezer ha-Emuna," controversial work, 141. - - - Fagius, Paulus, establishes a Hebrew press, 474. - - Falaquera, Shem-Tob, philosopher, 24. - - Falcos, Jews of, persecuted, 78. - - Falero, Abraham Aboab, builds a synagogue at Hamburg, 691. - - Farnese, Alexander, cardinal, protects the Jews, 567. - - Faro, count of, friend of Isaac Abrabanel, 338. - - Farissol, Abraham, geographer, and controversialist, 411-413. - - Father, Kabbalistic term, 19. - - Ferdinand and Isabella, of Spain, - and Isaac Abrabanel, 343. - appoint an inquisitor-general, 324. - blamed for expulsion of the Jews, 356. - censured by Sixtus IV, 318-319. - decree the expulsion of the Jews, 346-348. - protect and employ Jews, 336. - treaty with Boabdil, 345. - See also Ferdinand II of Aragon, and Isabella, of Castile. - - Ferdinand I, emperor, and Joseph Nassi, 597, 601. - banishes Jews from Bohemia, 544-545. - expels Jews from Austria and Bohemia, 585-586. - - Ferdinand II, emperor, and the Hamburg Jews, 689. - introduces conversion sermons, 706. - levies a war-tax upon Jews, 701-702. - - Ferdinand III, emperor, extends the privileges of the Bohemian Jews, - 707. - - Ferdinand I, of Aragon (Infante of Castile), regent of Castile, 194. - authorizes a disputation, 207. - lays restrictions upon the Jews of Castile, 203-204. - made king of Aragon, 205, 206. - - Ferdinand II, of Aragon, V, of Castile (the Catholic), 284, 309, 384, - 385. - approves of the Inquisition, 310-311. - his greed, 325-326. - his marriage, 280. - obtains the Inquisition for Aragon, 319. - threatens Navarre, 357. - See also Ferdinand and Isabella, and Isabella, of Castile, 340-341. - - Ferdinand, of Braganza, friend of Isaac Abrabanel, 338, 340-341. - - Ferdinand IV, of Castile, advised by Jews, 51. - - Ferdinand I, of Naples, 287, 383. - receives Jewish exiles, 358-360. - - Ferdinand, of Portugal, Jews under, 158-159. - - Ferdinand, of Tuscany, receives exiled Jews, 659. - - Ferrara, Jewish printing houses in, 289. - Jews of, endangered, 660-661. - Jews settle in, 544. - Marranos of, unfortunate, 581. - - Ferrer. See Ibn-Labi, Vidal ben Benveniste. - - Ferrer, Vincent, 233, 239, 246, 296. - converts Jews, 214-215. - his character, 200-202. - in Aragon, 205-206. - opposed by Joao I, of Portugal, 218. - preaches against Benedict XIII, 216-217. - preaches Christianity in synagogues, 204-205. - - Ferrus, Pero, convert, ridicules Jews, 181. - - Fettmilch, Vincent, and the Jews of Frankfort, 696-700. - - Fez, Jews in, 390. - Marranos emigrate to, 179. - Spanish exiles settle in, 361. - - Firme-Fe. See Nunes, Henrique. - - Fiesco's conspiracy, alluded to, 555. - - Flagellants persecute Jews, 111, 112. - - Florence, commerce of, 285. - Jews of, protected, 297. - - Foligno, di, Ananel, convert, denounces the Talmud, 564. - - Forli, synod held at, 218, 219. - - Formation, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - "Fortalitium Fidei," work by Alfonso de Spina, 277, 415. - - "Fortress, The," controversial work, 234. - - Fraga, conversions in, 214. - - France and Joseph Nassi, 597-599. - - France, Jews of, and lepers, 57. - and the ban against science, 40. - banished, 46, 48, 175-177. - claimed as "servi camerae," 47. - fix the conditions of their return, 53-54, 129-131. - hardships of the, 48-50. - impoverished, 128-129. - massacred by the Shepherds, 55-57. - persecuted, 57-58, 151-152. - privileges extended, 54, 131-132, 150. - protest against Meir Halevi, 152-153. - Talmudical studies, 133. - usurers, 174. - wear badges, 131. - - France, southern (Provence), clergy of, hostile to Jews, 132. - Jews of, persecuted, 53, 102-103, 173. - philosophers in, 87. - See also Provence. - - Francis I, of France, patron of Hebrew learning, 473-474. - - Franco, Christoval (Mordecai) Mendes, Portuguese Marrano in Holland, - 667. - - Franco, Nicolo, papal nuncio, 310. - - Franconia, Jews of, expelled, 259-260. - seat of the Rindfleisch persecution, 35-36. - - Frankfort-on-the-Main, confiscation of Hebrew books at, 429-431, - 437-438, 439. - - Frankfort-on-the-Main, Jews of, burn themselves, 109. - expelled, 698. - in the seventeenth century, 694-695. - mocked at, 299. - persecuted, 696-699. - threatened, 417, 463-464. - under restrictions, 700. - - Frederick, elector of Saxony, protector of Luther, 469. - - Frederick, elector palatine, alluded to, 678. - - Frederick III, emperor, 249, 416. - and the Jews of Ratisbon, 303-306. - Jewish favorite of, 224. - Jews under, 293, 294. - protects Jews, 413-414. - - Frederick, the Valiant, archduke of Austria, friendly to Jews, 111. - - Freiburg, Jews of, 105-107. - - Frohbach, alluded to, 638. - - Funes, Jews of, persecuted, 78. - - Furin al-Mizrayim, Cairo Purim, 396. - - - Galatino, and the Kabbala, 481, 583. - - Galilee, Kabbalistic center, 617. - - Gallaico, Elisha, indicts Azarya dei Rossi, 616. - - Gama, da, Vasco, alluded to, 367. - - Gans, David, historian, 638-639. - - Gaon of Castile, 230. - - Garcilaso, Spanish ambassador, 379. - - Gardien, protector of the French Jews, 130. - - Gascogne, Jews of, perish, 56. - - Gematria, Kabbalistic term, 5. - - Gemmingen, von, Uriel, elector and archbishop, addresses Maximilian I, - 431. - appointed to examine Hebrew books, 441. - imperial commissioner, 437. - interferes in the Reuchlin trial, 452. - opposes Pfefferkorn, 430, 431. - See Chapter XIV. - - Geneva (lake), scene of a Jewish persecution, 103-104, 105. - - Genoa, commerce of, 285. - Jews of, banished, 554. - Spanish exiles in, 362-363. - - German language cultivated by Polish Jews, 421. - - Germans in the Middle Ages, 422-423. - - Germany, cities of, re-admit Jews, 127-128. - - Germany, Jews of, and the ban against science, 40. - and the confiscation of Hebrew books, 438. - in the seventeenth century, 694-702. - intellectual decay among the, 96, 133-135, 227. - observe a fast day, 225-226. - oppose Pfefferkorn, 427. - persecuted, 96, 97, 98, 218. - poll-tax imposed on, 96-97, 166. - privileges confirmed, 219. - protected by emperors, 36, 98. - speak a jargon, 388-389. - under Emperor Frederick III, 293-294. - See also cities of Germany. - - Germany, North, Jews of, few in number, 111. - - Germany, southern, Jews of, - charged with the blood-accusation, 227. - treated with hostility, 258. - - George, elector of Bavaria, and Reuchlin, 454-455. - - Gerlach, archbishop, obtains "servi camerae," 128. - - Gerona, seat of the Kabbala, 1. - Jews of, massacred, 172. - - Geronimo de Santa Fe (Joshua Lorqui), convert, 200, 231, 232, 234, - 238, 256. - and the Tortosa disputation, 207, 208-209. - as the censor of the Talmud, 213. - called "The Calumniator," 217. - employed as a conversionist, 206, 207. - - Gersonides. See Levi ben Gerson. - - Gerundensis, Moses, alluded to, 442. - - Gerundi. See Nissim Gerundi ben Reuben. - - Gerundi, En-Vidal Ephraim, alluded to, 162, 171. - - Gesereth ha-Roim, massacre of the Shepherds, 55-57. - - Gesereth Mezoraim, the leper persecutions, 57-58. - - Ghent, Jews settle in, 662. - - Ghinucci, de, Geronimo, cardinal, opposes the Inquisition, 507, 520. - - Gibraltar demanded by Marranos as a refuge, 282-283. - - Gil-Nunjoz, bishop, imprisons Jews of Palma, 246. - - Glogau, Jews of, massacred, 111. - - God-flesh (Dios-Carne), Francisco (Astruc Raimuch), conversionist, - 182. - - Godfrey, of Wuerzburg, bishop, expels Jews, 259-260. - - "Golden Bull" promulgated at Nuremberg, 128. - - Gomez, archbishop, presides over a religious discussion, 140. - - Gomez, Duarte (Solomon Usque), poet, alluded to, 558. - - Gonsalvo de Cordova, 666. - favorable to Jews, 384-385. - - Gonzaga, Ludovico, duke of Mantua, alluded to, 287. - - Gonzago, Vicenzo, duke of Mantua, enforces regulations against the - Talmud, 659. - - Gonzalez, Luis, secretary in Aragon, and the Inquisition, 329. - - Gonzalo de Santa Maria, son of Solomon Levi, 216, 217. - - Gospels, Four, in Hebrew, 143. - - Gotha, Jews of, slaughtered, 109. - - Gracian, Solomon, partisan of Ben Adret, 45. - - Granada, a refuge for Spanish Marranos, 318. - ally of Pedro the Cruel, 125. - Jews of, Arabic scholars, 60. - makes Jews prisoners, 126. - Marranos emigrate to, 179. - negotiates with Martinez, 86. - war in, 344-346. - - Graes, de, Ortuin (Ortuinus Gratius), Jew hater, 424-425, 450. - - Gratino, Ezra, author of a commentary, 144. - - Gratius, Ortuinus (Ortuin de Graes), Jew hater, 424-425, 450. - - "Great Defender," Jacob ben Yechiel Loans, 414. - - Gregory XIII, pope, attempts to convert Jews, 654-655. - prohibits the employment of Jewish physicians, 653-654. - - Grimani, Dominico, cardinal, summons Hoogstraten, 458. - - Groede, first Jewish burial place in Holland, 672. - - Groenigen, von, Martin, translates the "Augenspiegel," 460. - - "Guide of the Perplexed," 479. - and the Roman Jews, 60. - attacked by Aaron ben Elia, 95. - Latin translation of, 474. - neglected, 143. - studied by Moses Isserles, 638. - - Guido Ubaldo, duke of Urbino, and the Marranos, 569, 578-582. - - Guienne, lepers in, poison the water, 57. - - Guilds opposed to Jews, 696-699. - - Gunther, of Schwarzburg, and Emperor Charles IV, 109, 110. - - Gustavus Adolphus, alluded to, 692. - - Guttenstein, count, alluded to, 424. - - - Halevi, Elias, influences Karaites to Rabbinism, 270. - - Halevi, Moses Uri, adviser of Portuguese Marranos in the Netherlands, - 665, 666, 671. - - Halevi, Samuel, ambassador to Pope Martin V, 219. - - Halevi, Serachya, delegate at the Tortosa disputation, 208, 212. - - Hamburg, 686-693. - clergy of, opposes Jews, 687-688, 689-690. - first synagogue in, 689. - German Jews settle in, 691. - Portuguese Jews granted residence in, 688. - - Hamon, Isaac, physician in Granada, 344. - - Hamon, Joseph, physician to Sultan Selim I, 401. - - Hamon, Moses, physician to Sultan Solyman I, 401, 402. - intercedes for Gracia Mendesia, 575. - protects Turkish Jews, 553. - - Hanau, Portuguese Marranos in, 695. - - "Handspiegel," work by Pfefferkorn, 446. - - Hanover, Jews of, persecuted by the flagellants, 111. - - Haquinet, son of Manessier de Vesoul, 150. - - "Harmony of Heaven," work by Judah Abrabanel, 480. - - Hartmann von Deggenburg, persecutor of the Jews, 98. - - Hebrew at the universities, 471, 473, 474. - - "Hebrew Physician, The," work by David de Pomis, 656-657. - - Hebrew studies among Christians, 433-434, 471, 473, 651. - - Hebron, occupations of inhabitants of, 75. - - "Hell of the Jews," Spain, 308. - - Heller, Lipmann, rabbi at Vienna and Prague, 703-706. - - Henrique, bishop, burns Portuguese Marranos, 499. - - Henrique, Infante of Portugal, grand inquisitor, 521, 523. - - Henry, bishop of Ratisbon, hostile to Jews, 301-302, 303, 304. - - Henry II, of Castile de Trastamare, son of Alfonso XI, 114, 120, 169. - and the Jews, 124, 125, 137, 139, 140. - appoints Jews to offices, 138, 156. - his war with Pedro the Cruel, 122-126. - - Henry II, of Castile, and Paul Burgensis, 185, 194, 196. - favorable to Jews, 190, 193. - - Henry IV, of Castile, and the Jews, 274, 275-276, 279-281. - deposed, 278. - opposed to the Inquisition, 310. - plot against, 283. - - Henry II, of France, 411. - and Joseph Nassi, 595-596, 597-599. - friendly to Jews, 544. - repudiates his debt to the Mendes family, 574. - - Henry III, of France (Henry of Anjou), candidate for the Polish - throne, 604-605. - - Henry IV, of France, alluded to, 672. - - Henry, of Orange, favorable to Jews, 678. - - Henry Julius, of Brunswick, expels the Jews, 652. - - Hercules d'Este I, of Ferrara, patron of Abraham Farissol, 412-413. - - Hercules d'Este II, of Ferrara, - friendly to Jews, 544. - protects Gracia Mendesia, 575. - - Hermandad, the, proscribes Jews, 251. - - Herrera, Marrano martyr, 494. - - Herrera, de, Alonso (Abraham), Spanish resident in Cadiz, 665-666. - - Herrera, de, Pedio, Marrano, 282-283. - - Hess, Hermann, appointed to direct the confiscation of Hebrew books, - 437-438. - - Hillel of Verona introduces a scientific method among Italian Jews, - 59. - - Hinderbach, bishop, hostile to Jews, 298-299. - - Historical studies promoted by persecution, 554-555. - - "History of the Jews" by Gedalya Ibn-Yachya, 616. - - Hochmeister, rabbis in Franconia, 259. - - Hochstraten. See Hoogstraten, Jacob. - - Holland, Jews plan to emigrate to, 283. - See also the Netherlands. - - Holy Land. See Palestine. - - Holy Roman Empire. See Germany. - - Holy Sepulcher, Church of the, alluded to, 272, 274. - - Homem, Gaspar Lopes, Portuguese Marrano, 664. - - Homem, Mayor Rodrigues, Portuguese Marrano, emigrates to Holland, 667. - sends her family to Holland, 664-665. - - Hoogstraten, Jacob, Dominican general, 424. - appeals to Leo X, 455-456. - appointed to examine into Hebrew books, 441, 444. - summoned to Rome, 458. - summons Reuchlin as a heretic, 450-452. - See Chapter XIV. - - Hosiander, supposed author of "Little Book about the Jews," 545. - - "House of Jacob," first synagogue in Amsterdam, 667, 671. - - Hubmaier, Balthasar, enemy of the Jews, 542-543. - - Huete, Jews of, persecuted, 170. - - Hungary, Jews of, emigrate, 111. - threatened by Turks, 268. - - Huss, John, 221-222. - - Hussite war against Catholicism, 222, 224-226. - - Hussites aided by Jews, 222. - and the Jews of Ratisbon, 301. - - Hutten, von, Ulrich, 468. - ally of Reuchlin, 456-457. - and the Dominicans, 465. - Jewish advocate at the imperial court, 431. - quoted, 462. - - - Ibbur, Kabbalistic term, 620. - - Ibn-Abi Zimra, David, Kabbalist, 481. - rabbi of Cairo, 393, 394-395. - - Ibn-Albilla, David, philosopher, 91. - - Ibn-Alfual, Joseph, translator of Maimuni, 60. - - Ibn-Almali, Nathaniel, translator of Maimuni, 60. - - Ibn-Askara, Chananel, Kabbalist, 74. - - Ibn-Benveniste Halevi, Joseph ben Abraham. See Joseph of Ecija. - - Ibn-Chabib, Jacob, Talmudist, 405. - - Ibn-Ezra, Abraham, 442, 476. - commented upon by Profiat Duran, 191. - studied by Jews of Spain, 143-144. - - Ibn-Ezra, Moses, poems of, in the Karaite prayer-book, 71. - - Ibn-Gaon, Shem Tob ben Abraham, Kabbalist, 74. - - Ibn-Gebirol, Solomon, 67, 230. - hymns of, in the Karaite prayer-book, 71. - - Ibn-Labi, Vidal ben Benveniste (Ferrer), neo-Hebraic poet, 230. - at Tortosa, 207-208, 211, 214, 215. - translator of Aristotle, 193. - work by, 233-234. - - Ibn-Latif, Isaac, Kabbalist, 3-4, 10. - - Ibn-Musa, Chayim, controversial writer, 235-237. - - Ibn-Nagrela, Samuel, alluded to, 337. - - Ibn-Nunez, Jacob, physician of Henry IV of Castile, 275. - - Ibn-Said, Isaac (Zag), publishes the Alfonsine Tables, 367. - - Ibn-Shaprut, Chasdai, alluded to, 119. - - Ibn-Shem Tob, Joseph ben Shem Tob, controversial writer, 235. - holds office in Castile, 228-229. - philosopher, 243-244. - - Ibn-Shem Tob, Shem Tob ben Joseph, father of the preceding, Kabbalist, - 196, 197, 239. - - Ibn-Shoshan, Abraham, rabbi in Egypt, 393. - - Ibn-Shoshan family visited by Black Death, 113. - - Ibn-Sid, Samuel, scholar, 392. - - Ibn-Tibbon, Samuel, translator of Maimuni's works, 32, 60. - - Ibn-Verga, Joseph, historian, 557. - - Ibn-Verga, Judah, Kabbalist and historian, 335, 336, 556. - - Ibn-Verga, Solomon, Marrano historian, 556-557. - - Ibn-Wakar, Jehuda ben Isaac, treasurer under Juan Emanuel, 52-53. - - Ibn-Wakar, Samuel (Abenhuacar), physician of Alfonso XI, 76, 79, 80, - 84. - offices of, 80, 81. - - Ibn-Yachya, David, rabbi of Naples, Talmudist, 410. - - Ibn-Yachya family, 159, 609. - - Ibn-Yachya, Gedalya, patron of learning, 609. - - Ibn-Yachya, Gedalya, grandson of the preceding, historian, 592, 609, - 615-617. - - Ibn-Yachya, Joseph, delegate at Tortosa, 208. - - Ibn-Yachya, Joseph, intercedes for the Spanish exiles in Portugal, - 366. - - Ibn-Yachya, Moses, philanthropist, 609. - - Ibn-Yachya Negro, favorites of Alfonso V, of Portugal, 339. - - Ibn-Yachya Negro, Judah, counselor of Joao I, of Portugal, 218. - - Ibn-Yaish, officer at the court of Castile, 84. - - Ibn-Zachin, martyr, 576. - - Ibn-Zarzal, Abraham, physician of Pedro the Cruel, 116, 121. - - Icabo, character in Samuel Usque's work, 558, 559. - - Ikkarim, work by Joseph Albo, 239. - - Ilhas perdidas, Jewish children at the, 371. - - Immanuel ben Solomon Romi, poet, 63-69, 230, 289. - a representative of the Roman congregation, 60. - compared with Dante, 65, 66, 67. - language and style, 63-64, 67, 68. - - "In Praise and Honor of Emperor Maximilian," pamphlet by Pfefferkorn, - 430. - - Index expurgatorius includes the Zohar, 584. - - Innocent III, pope, alluded to, 244, 562. - - Innocent IV, pope, deprecates forcible baptism, 165. - - Innocent VII, pope, 368. - opposed to the expulsion of Jews from Spain, 346. - - Inquisition, the, in Aragon, 319, 328-329. - in the Netherlands, 662. - resisted in Navarre, 357. - under Pope Paul IV, 568-571. - - Inquisition, the Portuguese, 499-500, 505, 513-528. - described, 522-523. - sanctioned, 518-519, 526-527. - - Inquisition, the Spanish, and the Marranos, 483-485. - at Benevento, 385. - at Seville, 312-314. - code, 326-328. - desired, 310. - first germs of, 256. - first Marrano victims of, 316-318. - judge of appeals appointed, 320. - statute ratified, 312. - tribunals multiplied, 325. - unpopular, 313. - - "Investigation of Religion, The," work by Elias del Medigo, 293. - - Isaac ben Jacob Campanton, Talmudist, Gaon of Castile, 230. - - Isaac ben Kalonymos (Isaac Nathan), controversial writer, and author - of a Bible concordance, 234-235. - - Isaac ben Moses. See Profiat Duran. - - Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat (Ribash), philosopher, 145-146, 147-150. - appealed to, 150, 153. - attacked by Simon Duran, 199. - imprisoned, 150, 155. - quarrel with Chayim ben Gallipapa, 148. - rabbi of northern Africa, 198-199. - - Isaac ben Todros, Kabbalist, 74. - - Isaac de Leon, last Toledan rabbi, 392. - - Isaac of Accho, Kabbalist, 20. - - Isaac of Salzuflen attempts to settle in Holland, 685-686. - - Isaac the Blind, supposed originator of the Kabbala, 21. - - Isaac Tyrnau compiles Jewish customs, 134-135. - his rigidity, 227. - - Isabella, of Castile, 309. - favors Marranas, 311. - influenced by Torquemada, 310. - marriage, 280. - party of, 279. - piety, 310. - queen of Spain, 284. - See also Ferdinand and Isabella, and Ferdinand II of Aragon. - - Isabella of Castile, wife of Manoel, of Portugal, 374, 381. - cruelty, 376, 379-380. - unfriendly to Jews, 373-374. - - Isaiah, prophet, as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - prophecies of, 149. - quoted, 211. - - Isaiah ben Abba-Mari, 162. - appoints his relatives to rabbinates, 153. - invested with authority over French Jews, 152. - - Ishmael, the Mahometan world, 18. - - Isny, Hebrew press at, 474. - - Israeli II, Isaac ben Joseph, astronomer, 51. - - Isserlein, Israel, partisan of Israel Bruna, 302, 303. - - Isserles, Moses, ben Israel, Talmudist, 634, 637-638. - - Israel of Enns accused of host desecration, 223. - - Italy, refuge for Marranos, 318. - - Italy, Jews of, culture of, 288-289. - hold synods, 218. - number of, 653. - petition Pope Martin V, 219. - under restrictions, 251, 253. - - Italy, Jews settle in, 352, 407-413. - toleration of, 285-286. - - Ivan IV, of Russia (the Cruel), and the Polish election, 603. - hostile to Jews, 633. - - - Jaabez, Joseph, opponent of free thought, 343, 479. - - Jacob ben Asheri, son of Asher ben Yechiel, Talmudist, 87-90. - his code commented upon by Karo, 537. - - Jacob ben Moses Moelin Halevi (Maharil), rabbi, 227. - arranges the ritual, 225. - compiles Jewish customs, 135. - - Jacob ben Machir Tibbon (Profatius), scientist, 30-31, 48. - and the ban against science, 42. - his ban against the proscribers of science, 40-41. - - Jacob, of Belzyce, controversialist, 648. - - Jacob, of Navarre, executed, 357-358. - - Jacob, of Segovia, Kabbalist, 2. - - Jacob Tam, alluded to, 609. - - Jacopo, Flavio, poet, quoted, 610. - - Jaen, Inquisition at, 325. - Jews of, imprisoned, 126. - - Jafa, Mordecai, president of the Polish synods, 645. - - Jaeger, Johann (Crotus Rubianus), author of the "Epistolae Obscurorum - Virorum," 456, 461. - - Jargon, 388-389. - - Jaroslaw, meeting-place of Talmudists, 640. - of the Polish synods, 644. - - Jehuda ben Asheri, son of Asher ben Yechiel, Talmudist, rabbi of - Toledo, 87-88, 90, 144. - - Jehuda ben Asher II, heroism of, 170. - - Jehuda ben Moses ben Daniel, (Leone Romano), scholar, 60, 68-69, 289. - - Jehuda Halevi, 67. - poems of, in the Karaite prayer-book, 71. - - Jerome, Church Father, alluded to, 83, 342, 433, 435, 552. - - Jerusalem, growth of, 396-397. - Jews of, build a synagogue, 273-274. - of the Occident, 136. - occupations of inhabitants of, 74. - pilgrims visit, 73. - Spanish exiles settle in, 396-398. - - Jesiba de los Pintos, Hebrew institute at Rotterdam, 685. - - Jesuits, order of, 524-525. - - Jesurun, Reuel, (Rohel Jesurun, Paul de Pina), poet, 669-670, 678-679. - - Jesurun, David, poet, quoted, 669. - - Jesus in the Old Testament, 141, 212, 256. - - Jew badges, abolished by Pius IV, 588. - decreed by popes, 216, 250, 566, 590. - enforced, 54, 131, 138-139, 150, 255, 258, 266, 278, 519, 543, 545, - 696, 702. - - Jewish colleges in France dispersed, 48. - - Jewish congregations autonomous, 40. - - Jew quarters decreed by popes, 250, 566, 590. - in Spain, 203, 335-336. - in Venice, 408. - - Jews aid Hussites, 222. - and Marranos, 334-335. - and the Black Death, 101-114. - and the Dutch in Brazil, 693-694. - and the Reformation, 470. - as artisans, 74-75. - as physicians, 275, 287, 407-408, 411, 653-654, 692. - as printers, 289, 581. - declared outlaws, 107. - divided into national groups, 478. - emigrate to Turkey, 273. - granted to electors, 128. - hated by Luther, 547-552. - in the fourteenth century, 127. - in the Peasant War, 542-543. - in the Thirty Years' War, 701-702, 707-708. - indispensable to Christians, 127, 137, 263, 353. - maintain catechumens, 566. - persecuted by the clergy, 163-164. - proscribed by the Council of Basle, 245-246. - protected by Charles IV, 106. - scientific inquiry among, 479. - spiritual condition of, in the Middle Ages, 477-479. - under Emperor Sigismund, 248. - wanderings of, 676. - See also the various countries, etc. - - Jikatilla, Joseph ben Abraham, Kabbalist, 3, 6, 10, 466. - - Joachim I, elector of Brandenburg, persecutes the Jews, 440. - - Joachim II, elector of Brandenburg, alluded to, 652. - - Joao, Infante of Portugal, and Leonora, 160. - - Joao I, of Portugal, protects new-Christians, 217-218. - - Joao II, of Portugal, 340, 373. - and Isaac Abrabanel, 341. - and Judah Abrabanel, 361. - and the Spanish exiles, 352, 365-366, 370-371. - lays restrictions upon Marranos, 368. - summons an astronomical congress, 367. - transports Jewish children, 371. - - Joao III, of Portugal, and David Reubeni, 493. - institutes a Jew badge, 519. - plans the Inquisition, 488-491, 499-500. - - Joanna, of Castile, alluded to, 373. - - Joanna, of Naples, hostile to Jews, 258. - - Job, book of, paraphrased, 140. - poem by Belmonte, 665. - - Jochanan, son of Matathiah Provenci, rabbi, 152, 153, 162. - - John II, duke of Brabant, and the Jews, 112. - - John II, of Aragon, Jews under, 274, 275. - - John Albert, of Poland, hostile to Jews, 419. - - John George, elector of Brandenburg, alluded to, 652. - - John Maurice, of Nassau, stadtholder of Brazil, 693. - - John of Capistrano, 249, 257-268, 276, 277, 296, 418, 419. - arouses hatred against Jews, 258-263, 266-268. - employed by Nicholas V, 253. - in Poland, 265. - in Silesia, 260-263. - in southern Germany, 258-260. - - John, of France, permits Jews to return to France, 128-129, 133. - - John XXII, pope, exiles Jews, 61. - opposed to a crusade, 55. - - John XXIII, pope, character of, 201. - - John of Valladolid, apostate, 140-141, 209. - - Jonah, rabbi of Vienna, 110. - - Joshua ben Joseph Ibn-Vives (Joshua Allorqui), opponent of Paul - Burgensis, 186-187. - - Joshua, father of Narboni, 94. - - Jose ben Jose, Hebrew poet, 67. - - Joseph, son of Manessier de Vesoul, convert, 150. - - Joseph ben Abraham Ibn-Benveniste Halevi. See Joseph of Ecija. - - Joseph ben Abraham Jikatilla, Kabbalist, 3, 6, 10, 466. - - Joseph ben Israel, father of Manasseh ben Israel, 671. - - Joseph de Avila discovers the spuriousness of the Zohar, 20. - - Joseph, duke of Mantua, banishes rabbis, 295. - - Joseph, Karaite, 269. - - Joseph of Arli, Kabbalist, 511-512. - - Joseph of Ecija (Joseph ben Abraham Ibn-Benveniste Halevi), treasurer - of Alfonso XI, 76, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84. - - Josephus, 614. - work of, translated, 608. - - Joslin of Rosheim. See Loans, Joseph ben Gershon. - - Juan Alfonso de Albuquerque, minister of Pedro the Cruel, 115, 117. - - Juan de Espana (Juan the Old), convert, 233. - - Juan de Lucena, executes the edict of banishment, 348-349, 355. - - Juan de Seville. See Abrabanel, Samuel (I). - - Juan Emanuel, regent of Castile, favors Jews, 52-53. - - Juan I, of Aragon, character of, 170. - - Juan I, of Castile, and the Jews, 157, 158. - and the regent of Portugal, 160. - crowned, 156. - regent of Portugal, 161-162. - - Juan II, of Castile, 193, 275, 277. - and the Jews, 228-229, 251, 252. - complains of the Marranos, 256. - permits a synod to be held, 229. - restrictions laid upon Jews under, 203-204. - - Judah, treasurer of Ferdinand of Portugal, 159, 160, 161, 162. - - Judah ben Baba, alluded to, 536. - - Judah ben Moses Tibbon, opponent of Abba Mari, 32. - - Judah ben Yechiel (Messer Leon), rabbi in Mantua, 289-290. - attainments and works, 289. - feud with Joseph Kolon, 295. - hostility to, 293. - - Judah, Siciliano, poet, 60, 68. - - "Judah's Rod of Correction," history by the Ibn-Vergas, 557-558. - - Judaism and the Reformation, 471-476. - - "Judaism, or the Jewish Doctrine," by John Miller, 692. - - Judenmeister, three rabbis in Germany, 227. - - "Judenstaettigkeit" residence of Jews in Frankfort and Worms, 695-696. - abolished, 700. - - Juderia, Jew quarter, 169. - - Juglar, Gaspar, inquisitor, 326. - - Julian, the Apostate alluded to, 267. - - Julius II, pope, alluded to, 407, 408. - - Julius III, pope, and the Portuguese Marranos, 528. - and the Talmud, 565. - - Justiniani, Augustin, Hebrew scholar, 473-474. - - - Kabbala, the, 1-23, 91, 196. - and Pope Sixtus IV, 292. - and Reuchlin, 466-467, 481. - Christian dogmas in, 291-292. - compared with the Talmud, 19. - Elias del Medigo on, 292. - in the East, 617-627. - studied by Pico di Mirandola, 291-292, 443. - - Kabbalistic centers, 1, 2, 399, 405, 538. - - Kabbalistic customs, 5-6. - - Kabbalistic terms, 4, 5, 6, 13, 14, 17, 18, 22, 572, 619, 620. - - Kabbalistic works, 6, 10, 196, 197. - the Zohar, 11-24. - translated, 443. - - Kabbalists, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 14, 20, 21, 74, 196, 197, 291, 335, - 369, 381, 399, 405, 466, 481, 511, 538, 556, 618, 623, 625. - - Kahal Kados, the Recife Jewish community, 693. - - Kahiya, advocate of Turkish Jews, 404. - - Kalish, Jews of, massacred, 111. - - Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, satirist, 61-63, 68. - - Kalonymos ben Todros, partisan of Abba-Mari, 34, 38, 39. - - Kalmann, of Ratisbon, convert, 288. - - Kalmann, an immigrant, urges Jews to go to Turkey, 271. - - Kapsali, Elias ben Elkanah, historian, 406-407, 557. - - Kapsali, Eliezer, influences Karaites to Rabbinism, 270. - - Kapsali, Elkanah, aids Spanish exiles in Candia, 364. - - Kapsali, Moses, chief rabbi of Turkey, 268-269, 402. - aids Spanish exiles, 364. - and Karaites, 270, 271. - - Karaism and Shemarya Ikriti, 69. - - Karaites, calendar, 70, 270. - converted to Rabbinism, 72. - dissensions among, 269-270. - establish pilgrim prayers, 73-74. - feud with Elias Mizrachi, 403-404. - instructed by Rabbanites, 269-271. - marriage laws, 70. - - Karben, von, Victor, convert, 424-425. - appointed to examine into Hebrew books, 441, 444. - - Kara, Avigedor, friend of Emperor Wenceslaus, 166. - - Karo, Joseph, 580, 599, 637. - and Molcho, 511, 537. - converted to Kabbalism, 496-497, 537. - his code, 539, 612, 613. - his Maggid, 497, 537-539. - opposes Dei Rossi, 616. - ordained, 536, 537. - - Kartiel, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - Kaspi, Joseph, philosopher, 87, 91. - - Kelifa (Kelifoth), Kabbalistic term, 17, 620. - - Kepler, alluded to, 638. - - Khataib, Spanish synagogue at Damascus, 400. - - Kiera, Esther, Turkish court Jewess, 629-630. - patroness of Jewish learning, 608, 630. - - Kimchi, David, alluded to, 476. - - Kimchi, Moses, grammarian, 474. - - Kimchis, the, alluded to, 442. - - King, Kabbalistic term, 18. - - Klausner, Abraham, compiles Jewish customs, 134. - - Klonowicz, Polish poet, 643. - - Kodesh ha-Kodashim, work by Ibn-Labi Ferrer, 234. - - Kolon, Joseph ben Solomon, rabbi of Mantua, 294-295. - - Koenigsberg, Jews of, burnt, 110-111. - - Krems, Jews of, commit suicide, 110. - - Kunigunde, influences Emperor Maximilian against the Jews, 428-429, - 437, 440. - - - La Asumcao, de, Diogo, convert to Judaism, 668-669, 670. - - La Caballeria, de, Pedro, apostate, 231. - - Ladislaus, of Bohemia, and the Ratisbon Jews, 303. - - Ladislaus, of Hungary, and the Jews of Bohemia, 417. - and the Jews of Breslau, 262-263. - - La Fuente, de, Juan, inquisitor, 484. - - Lagarto, Jacob, first American Talmudical author, 693. - - La Guardia, Jews of, accused of child-murder, 343. - - Laemmlein, Asher, forerunner of the Messiah, 482-483. - - Languedoc, Jews of, and the ban against science, 40. - protected by the governor, 132. - - Lansac, de, French ambassador, 577. - - Larta, Jewish exiles in, 406. - - Lateran Council (Fourth) and the Reuchlin quarrel, 464. - - Lates, de, Bonet, physician to popes, 407-408. - aids Reuchlin, 453-454. - - Leather-arms. See Armleder. - - Lecha Dodi, Sabbath song, 538. - - Lemberg, meeting-place of Talmudists, 640. - - Leo X, pope, 407, 408, 592. - and Reuchlin, 452-453, 465. - encourages the printing of the Talmud, 468, 565. - - Leo of Crema, alluded to, 287. - - Leo Medigo. See Abrabanel, Judah Leon. - - Leo the Hebrew. See Levi ben Gerson. - - Leon de Bagnols. See Levi ben Gerson. - - Leon, Jacob Jehuda, controversial author, 691. - - Leon, Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Leon, (Messer). See Judah ben Yechiel. - - Leonora d'Este, and Jews, 660. - - Leonora de Guzman, mistress of Alfonso XI, saves the Jews, 85, 113. - - Leonora, of Portugal, regent, plots against Juan I of Castile, 161. - removes Jews from office, 160. - - Lenoora, of Tuscany, and Benvenida Abrabanela, 410, 544. - - Lepers accuse Jews, 57. - - Lerida, Jews of, converted, 214. - massacred, 172. - - Lerida opposes the Inquisition, 332. - - "Letter of Aristas" translated by Dei Rossi, 615. - - "Letter of Warning," by Solomon Alami, 154. - - "Letters of Obscurantists," a satire, 461-462. - - Levi, Abraham, Kabbalist, 481. - - Levi, Astruc, delegate at the Tortosa disputation, 208, 214, 215. - - Levi ben Abraham ben Chayim, chief of the allegorists, 24-25, 91. - takes refuge with Sulami, 28-29. - - Levi ben Gerson (Gersonides, Leo the Hebrew, Leon de Bagnols), - philosopher, 87, 91-94, 146, 147, 197, 342, 442, 476. - and Pope Clement VI, 94, 103. - astronomer, and physician, 91-92. - author of a methodology of the Mishna, 92. - predicts the Messianic redemption, 120. - - Levi ben Shem Tob, convert, 375. - - Levi of Villefranche. See Levi ben Abraham ben Chayim. - - Levi, Solomon, (Paul Burgensis, Paul de Santa Maria), convert, - 182-190, 231, 256, 342. - favored by Pope Benedict XIII, 184, 190. - lays restrictions upon the Jews of Castile, 203-204. - revives anti-Jewish laws, 194-195. - work by, 233. - - Levita, Elias. See Elias Levita. - - "Light of the Eyes," work by Dei Rossi, 615, 616. - - Lima, de, David, builds the third Hamburg synagogue, 691. - - Limpo, Balthasar, bishop, and Pope Paul III, 525-526. - - Lindau, Jews of, charged with the blood-accusation, 227. - persecuted, 105. - - Lipmann of Muehlhausen (Tab-Yomi), scholar, 178. - - Lippold, physician, tortured, 652. - - Lisbon, port for exiles, 374, 376. - council of, hostile to the Jews, 160. - Inquisition at, 508. - Marranos massacred in, 487. - - Lithuania, Jews of, enjoy peace, 418, 420. - the Reformation in, 646-648. - - "Little Book about the Jews," pamphlet, 545-546, 547. - - Liturgy Kabbalistic, 481. - - Loans, Jacob ben Yechiel, physician to Frederick III, 413-414. - teacher of Reuchlin, 433. - - Loans, Joseph ben Gershon, and Molcho, 510. - representative of Jews, 414. - - Lodi, Jews of, expelled, 660. - - Logrono, Jews of, persecuted, 170. - - Longo, Saadio, Hebrew poet, 609. - - Lopes de Almeida, Portuguese ambassador to Rome, 340. - - Lopez, Pedro, poet and chronicler, quoted, 121, 122. - - Lorqui, Joseph. See Geronimo de Santa Fe. - - Lost Islands, Jewish children at the, 371. - Louis, duke of Bavaria, and the Jews of Ratisbon, 301-302, 303. - - Louis, duke of Landshut (the Rich), persecutes Jews, 253-254. - - Louis, emperor (the Bavarian), and the Jews, 96, 98. - sons of, favor the persecution of the Jews, 110. - - Louis, of Brandenburg, orders the persecution of Jews, 110-111. - - Louis, of Darmstadt, protects Jews, 699. - - Louis X, of France, recalls the Jews, 53, 54. - - Louis XII, of France, and Reuchlin, 459. - - Louis, of Hungary, and the Jews, 111. - - Louis, regent of France, extends the privileges of Jews, 150. - - Loyola, Ignatius, 525, 562. - - Lublin, meeting-place of Talmudists, 640. - of the Polish synods, 644. - - Lublin, third Jewish community in Poland, 632. - - Lucero, Diego Rodriguez, hangman in Cordova, 484, 489. - - Luna, de, Alvaro, minister of Juan II, of Castile, 228, 251, 256. - - Luna, de, Pedro. See Benedict XIII. - - Luenel, Jews of, accused of desecrating Christian symbols, 55. - expelled, 48. - side with Abba-Mari, 33. - - Lusitano, Abraham Zacuto, physician, 678. - - Lusitanus, Amatus (Joao Rodrigo de Castel-Branco), physician of Pope - Julius III, 569-570. - death, 610. - leaves Pesaro, 581. - - Luther, Martin, reformer, 467. - advises confiscation of Hebrew books, 550. - and the Jews, 547-552. - at Worms, 469. - maligns the Talmud, 549-550. - quoted, 470. - - Lutherans and the Spanish Inquisition, 485. - - Lurya, Isaac, Kabbalist, 618, 623-627. - and Chayim Vital Calabrese, 623-624. - effect of his teaching, 625-627. - his Messianic claims, 622, 624. - his system, 617-622. - - Lurya, Solomon, Talmudist, 634-637. - criticism of Jewish society, 635-636. - - Luzk, Karaites of, well treated by Casimir IV, 265. - - Lyra, de, Nicholas, 232, 342, 442. - admires Rashi, 185. - refuted, 237. - - - Maamad, rabbinical councils at Amsterdam, 684. - - "Maase Efod," Hebrew grammar by Profiat Duran, 191. - - Maccabees, the, and the biblical prophecies, 149. - - Machault, Denys, convert, 175. - - Madrid, cortes of, and usurers, 80. - - Maella, Jews of, converted, 214. - - Magdeburg, Jews of, banished, 416. - persecuted, 111. - - Maggid, dream-prompter, 496, 537-538. - - Maharil. See Jacob ben Moses Moelin Halevi. - - Mahomet II, sultan, and the Jews, 267-269. - - Mahomet IV, sultan, alluded to, 629. - - Maillotins, rising of the, 152. - - Maimi, Simon, martyr, 380-381. - - Maimonides. See Maimuni, Moses. - - Maimuni, Abraham II, and the Karaites, 72. - - Maimuni, David, Nagid, 72. - - Maimuni, Moses, 67, 93, 94, 146, 147, 192, 197, 239, 243, 290. - articles of faith by, 193, 240. - attacked by Aaron II, 95. - code of, 86, 88, 89. - defended, 41, 42, 43, 44, 392. - on Ordination, 530-531. - rationalizes the Scriptures, 23. - studied by Polish Jews, 633. - - Maimuni's works and the Roman Jews, 60. - commented, 191. - neglected, 143. - proscribed, 40. - - Maiora, martyr, 570. - - Majorca, French exiles settle on, 49, 50. - Inquisition on, 332. - - Majorca, Jews of, persecuted, 171, 246-247. - seek refuge in Africa, 197. - - Mallo, inquisitor, 521. - - Malmed, Jacob Anatoli's sermons, 32, 39, 40. - - Malta, Order of, hostile to Jews, 592, 656. - Mamson, tortured on the charge of poisoning, 104. - - Manasseh ben Israel, rabbi at Amsterdam, 682-684. - - Manessier de Vesoul, receiver general, 130, 132. - and the Jews of France, 129, 131-132. - sons of, 150, 151, 152. - - Manoel, the Great, of Portugal, and the Marranos, 485, 486, 488. - converts Jews by force, 375-377. - friendly to Jews, 372-374. - issues an amnesty, 379. - - Manrique, Inigo, inquisition judge of appeals, 320. - - Mansfield, general, alluded to, 701. - - Mantin, Jacob, physician and philosopher, 411, 515. - denounces Molcho, 506-507. - instructs Christians, 473. - - "Mappa," by Moses Isserles, 637. - - "Mar Mar Jesu," anti-Christian work, 215. - - Marcellus II, pope, alluded to, 566. - - Margaritha, Anton, convert, maligns Jews, 551. - - Maria de Medici, alluded to, 673. - - Maria de Molina, regent of Castile, 2, 52, 53. - - Maria de Padilla, wife of Pedro the Cruel, 116, 117, 122-123. - - Maria of the Netherlands, alluded to, 572. - - Maroli, Menachem, Karaite, 269. - - Marranos, (new-Christians, Anusim) forced converts, 179-181. - and David Reubeni, 494-495. - and Jews, 334-335. - and the Inquisition, 310-313. - attacked in Castile, 280-283. - catechism of, 311. - conspire against Arbues, 329-331. - excluded from church offices, 321, 582. - flee to Navarre, 357-358. - help the Spanish exiles, 354-355. - injure Judaism, 181. - of Ancona, 408, 500. - of Ferrara, 581. - of Pesaro, 578-582. - petition Alexander VI, 378-380. - protected by Joao I, 218. - signs of, 315-316. - sufferings of, 483-490. - troublesome to the church, 255-257. - under Henry IV, of Castile, 276. - victims of the Inquisition, 314, 316-318, 323-325, 350, 351. - - Marranos, Portuguese, and Clement VII, 509. - and Paul III, 516-517, 519-520. - and Paul IV, 568. - as physicians, 488. - burnt, 499. - culture of, 674. - emigrate, 485-486. - forbidden to emigrate, 508-509. - imprisoned, 670-671. - in Hamburg, 686-693. - in the Netherlands, 662-675. - informed against, 489-490. - keep an agent at Rome, 512-513. - massacred in Lisbon, 487. - persecuted, 521-522. - refused by Frankfort, 695. - settle in Italy, 568-571. - sufferings of, 528. - under restrictions, 368. - useful citizens, 527-528. - - Marseilles, Jews of, protected, 177. - - Martin V, pope, 229, 249, 253. - and the Jews, 219-220, 226-227. - - Martinez (Martin), Fernan, and Joseph Pichon, 156-157, 193, 335. - - Martinez, Gonzalo, favorite of Alfonso XI, 83-86. - - Mascarenhas, John Rodrigo, Marrano tax farmer, 486. - - Masserano, Bezalel, pleads for the Talmud, 658. - - Matathiah ben Joseph Provenci, chief rabbi, 133, 152. - - Matronita, Kabbalistic term, 18, 19. - - Matthias, emperor, abolishes Judenstaettigkeit, 700. - - Maurice, of Orange, favorable to Jews, 674, 678. - - Maximilian I, emperor, and Jews, 414-415, 423-429. - and the German Jews, 463-464. - and the Nuremberg Jews, 415-416. - and the Pfefferkorn-Reuchlin case, 429, 437, 441, 458-459. - - Maximilian II, emperor, 587. - and the Polish election, 603. - - Mayence, decisions of, 135. - exiles from, 294, 295. - - Mayence, Jews of, banished, 413. - massacred, 109. - - Medeiros, Francisco (Isaac) Mendes, Marrano, 667, 671. - - Medici, family of, alluded to, 289, 291. - - Medicine, study of, allowed, 40. - - Medigo, Leon. See Abrabanel, Judah Leon. - - Medina del Campo, cortes of, and the Inquisition, 310, 313. - Jews of, burnt, 278. - - Medina-Sidonia, Marranos take refuge in, 313. - - Medina-Sidonia, duke of, and Marranos, 282, 283. - - Megadef, sobriquet of Geronimo de Santa Fe, 217. - - Meil Zedek. See Menachem of Merseburg. - - Meir ben Baruch Halevi, rabbi, and the French Jews, 152-153. - compiles Jewish customs, 134. - - Meir ben Gabbai, Kabbalist, 481. - - Meir of Rothenburg, 34, 37, 74. - - Meir, son-in-law of Abraham Benveniste, 351. - - Meiri, rabbi of Perpignan, 26-27. - - Meiron, Simon bar Yochai buried in, 623. - - Meles, Moses Iskafat, partisan of Ben Adret, 44. - - Meliza, poetical prose, 65. - - Menachem ben Aaron ben Zerach, rabbi of Toledo, 77, 144-145. - - Menachem of Merseburg, Talmudist, 227-228. - - Mendes, Diogo, banker at Antwerp, 572, 573. - - Mendes, Francisco, husband of Gracia Mendesia, 571, 572. - - Mendes, Manuel, Marrano, 516. - - Mendes, Portuguese family in Holland, 667. - - Mendesia, Gracia (Beatrice), Marrano philanthropist, 571, 578. - at Antwerp, 572-573. - at Constantinople, 577. - at Ferrara, 575-577. - at Venice, 574-575. - eulogized by Samuel Usque, 575-576. - protects the Ancona Marranos, 578, 579-580. - - Mendeza, archbishop, prepares a catechism for Marranos, 311. - - Menz, Abraham, head of the Padua college, 410. - - Menz, Judah, Talmudist, 294, 406, 410. - and Elias del Medigo, 295. - - Menz, Moses, Talmudist, in Posen, 294. - - Merlo, de, Diego, member of the Inquisition commission, 312. - - Messianic pretenders, 7, 197, 482-483. - - Messianic prophets, 8-10. - - Messianic speculations, 7, 8-10, 18-19, 120, 141, 471, 482-483, - 494-495, 497, 530, 534, 622, 624, 625. - - Meshullam ben Jacob, patron of learning, 30. - - Meshullam, of Rome, 346-347. - - Meyer, of Breslau, accused of host-desecration, 261. - - Meyer, Peter, partisan of Pfefferkorn, 449. - - Michael, of Frankfort, and Luther, 551. - - Michael, the Old, Karaite, 269. - - Middelburg refuses Portuguese Marranos, 663. - - Midrash of Simon bar Yochai, the Zohar, 19. - - Milan, Jews of, expelled, 660. - - Milchamoth Adonai, work by Gersonides, 92, 93. - - Miliana, Jews settle in, 197. - - Miller, John, and the Hamburg Jews, 691-692. - quoted, 690. - - Minim imprecated in Jewish prayers, 83. - - Minyan Yavanim, Seleucidan chronology, 394-395. - - Miques, Joao. See Nassi, Joseph. - - "Mirror for Admonition," work by Ortuinus Gratius, 425. - - "Mirror of Morals," work by Solomon Alami, 154. - - Mistress, Kabbalistic term, 19. - - Mizrachi, Elias, chief rabbi of Constantinople, 402-404. - - Mocenigo, Luis, doge, hostile to Jews, 600-601, 606. - - Mocenigo, Pietro, doge, protects the Jews of Padua, 299. - - Mocho, John, arouses Lisbon against the Marranos, 487. - - Modena, duke of, invites Jews, 675. - - Molcho, Solomon (Diogo Pires), Marrano, 529-530, 622. - and David Reubeni, 495-496, 504. - burnt, 510-511. - denounced, 503, 506-507. - in Italy, 501-507. - predicts the Messiah, 497. - saved by Clement VII, 507. - - Moelin, Jacob. See Jacob ben Moses Moelin Halevi. - - Moncado de, Abraham, official at Recife, 693. - - Moncilla, Jews of, persecuted, 78. - - Montpellier, Jews of, and free inquiry, 29-30, 31, 38-39, 41, 50. - compelled to wear a badge, 54. - expelled, 48. - - Montano, Arias, publisher of a polyglot Bible, 651. - - Montalto, Elias (Felix), physician, 653, 670, 673. - - Montemar, marquis of, friend of Isaac Abrabanel, 338. - - Montiel, battle at, 126, 136. - - Moravia, Jews of, persecuted, 98. - - Mordecai ben Hillel, martyr, 36. - - Morenu, ordination of rabbis, 134. - - Morillo, Miguel, inquisitor, 312, 323. - censured, 318-319. - issues the Edict of Grace, 314-315. - - Moro, Joseph (Philip), denounces the Talmud, 564. - proselytizer, 581. - - Morocco, war with Castile, 84-85. - Jews in, 389-390. - Marranos emigrate to, 179. - - Morteira, Saul Levi, rabbi at Amsterdam, 673, 681, 682, 685. - - Moses ben Isaac (Gajo) da Rieti, neo-Hebraic poet, 230-231. - - Moses ben Joshua Narboni. See Narboni. - - Moses ben Nachman. See Nachmani. - - Moses ben Shem Tob (Moses de Leon), Kabbalist, 3, 622. - author of the Zohar, 10-12. - forgery of, revealed, 20-21. - - Moses, of Trent, tortured, 298. - - Moses, rabbi of Trent, 298. - - Moses, treasurer under Maria de Molina, 52. - - Mostarabi, Egyptian Jews, 395. - - Mucate, Jacob, official at Recife, 693. - - Muley Abu-Abdallah (Boabdil), last king of Granada, 345. - - Munich, Jews of, persecuted, 110. - - Muenster, Sebastian, disciple of Reuchlin, 434, 472. - - Murad III, sultan, and Joseph Nassi, 627-628, 629. - - Murviedro, Jews of, protected, 170. - - Musaphia, Benjamin, physician to Christian IV, 692. - - Mutafarrica, life-guard, 595. - - - Nachmani (Moses ben Nachman), 28, 71, 75, 208, 238, 242. - predicts the Messianic redemption, 120. - reputed discoverer of the Zohar, 20. - - Nagid, chief of Egyptian Jews, 392. - - Najara, Israel, Hebrew poet, 609. - - Naples, Jewish printing house in, 289. - Jews of, banished, 543-544. - Jews settle in, 358-359. - - Narboni, Moses ben Joshua (Maestro Vidal), philosopher, 87, 93-95, - 342. - - Nassi, Gracia. See Mendesia, Gracia. - - Nassi, Gracia, the younger, 572, 577. - - Nassi, Joseph (Joao Miques), duke of Naxos, 596-597, 611. - accused of treason, 598, 599. - aids Gracia Mendesia, 574. - as a statesman, 595-602. - at Antwerp, 572-573. - end of his power, 627. - favorite of sultans, 577, 593-595. - in Turkey. See Chapter XVII. - protects Marranos, 579-580. - receives Tiberias, 596-597, 611. - - Nassi, Reyna, daughter of Gracia Mendesia, 572-573, 577. - patroness of Jewish learning, 628. - - Nassi, Samuel, brother of Joseph, 577, 581. - - Nassir Mahomet, Jews under, 73. - - Nathan, Isaac. See Isaac ben Kalonymos. - - Navarre, Jews of, persecuted, 77-78. - Jews settle in, 352. - Spanish exiles in, 357-358. - - Navarro, Moses, rabbi of Portugal, 173. - - Naxos, duke of. See Nassi, Joseph. - - Nazarenes (Minim) imprecated in Jewish prayers, 83. - - Negro, David, Almoxarif, 160, 162. - rabbi of Castile, 161. - - Negroponte, Spanish exiles in, 406. - - Neo-Hebrew poetry, 67, 608, 609. - in Spain and Italy, 230-231. - - Netherlands, the, a refuge for the persecuted, 661-662. - Inquisition in, 662. - Portuguese Marranos in, 662, 675. - stadtholders of, favorable to Jews, 678. - See also Holland, and Amsterdam. - - Neto, Bras, Portuguese ambassador at Rome, 500-501, 505-506. - - "Neve Shalom", second synagogue at Amsterdam, 671. - - New-Christians. See Marranos. - - Nicholas V, pope, 275, 287. - appoints inquisitors, 256. - approves of Capistrano, 257-258. - denounced, 267-268. - issues anti-Jewish bulls, 253, 254. - - Nicholas-Donin, alluded to, 213. - - Nicopolis, exiles settle in, 405. - - Niemerz, son of Casimir the Great, 112. - - Nissim Gerundi ben Reuben, 144, 146, 149. - imprisoned, 150, 155. - preaches against Messianic speculations, 120. - - Nizuz, Kabbalistic term, 620. - - Nofeth Zufim, work by Messer Leon, 289. - - Noerdlingen, Jews of, banished, 416. - murdered, 163. - - Notaricon, Kabbalistic term, 5, 512. - - Novak, Peter, bishop, and Capistrano, 260. - - Novi, Jews settle in, 553-554. - - Numeo, a character in Samuel Usque's "Consolation," 558. - - Nunes, Duarte, da Costa, Portuguese agent at Hamburg, 692. - - Nunes, Henrique (Firme-Fe) informs against Marranos, 489-491. - - Nunes, Maria, Marrano captured by the English, 664-665. - - Nunez, Alvar, officer of Alfonso XI, 79. - - Nuremberg, diet at, promulgates the "Golden Bull," 128. - - Nuremberg, Jews of, expelled, 415-416. - persecuted, 35-36, 110. - - Nuremberg, synod at, 305. - - - Obadiah di Bertinoro, rabbi at Jerusalem, 279, 397-398, 399, 704. - - Ocana, cortes of, discuss the Jewish question, 279. - Jews of, persecuted, 170. - - "Of the Cross," bull, 526. - - Ojeda, de, Alfonso, and the Spanish Inquisition, 310, 312, 317. - - Olam ha-Tikkun, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - Old Testament. See Bible, the. - - Olesnicki, Zbigniev, cardinal, and the Jews, 265, 266. - - Olligoyen, Pedro, instigates a persecution of the Jews, 77, 78. - - Olmuetz, Jews of, banished, 263. - - "On the Errors of the Trinity," work by Servetus, 646-647. - - Oporto, a port for Jewish exiles, 374. - - Oppenheim, Jews of, commit suicide, 109. - - Orabuena, Joseph, rabbi and physician in Navarre, 184. - - Oran, Jews settle in, 197. - Spanish exiles flee to, 361. - - Ordenacoens, Portuguese code, 338-339. - - Ordination revived, 530-535. - - Orleans, college of, dispersed, 48. - - Osorio, David, founder of the third synagogue in Amsterdam, 680. - - Osorius, bishop, quoted, 372. - - Otto Henry, of Neuburg, protects the Jews, 545. - - Ottolenghi, Joseph, Talmudist, 582. - - Ouderkerk, burial place of the Amsterdam Jews, 672, 673. - - Ouvidores, provincial rabbis or judges in Portugal, 159. - - - Pablo Christiani, alluded to, 208, 246. - - Pacheco, marquis of Villana, and the Marranos of Segovia, 283. - arranges an anti-Jewish code, 278. - - Padua, Jews of, 299, 408. - quarrel at the University of, 291. - Talmudic center, 410. - - Palermo, Jews of, and Abraham Abulafia, 7. - - Palestine, conquered, 393. - culture in, 75. - emigration to, 74, 273, 274. - French exiles settle in, 49, 72. - Karaites of, converted to Rabbinism, 72. - Spanish exiles settle in, 396-399. - under Egyptian rule, 73. - See also Jerusalem. - - Pallache, Samuel, consul in the Netherlands, 663. - - Palma, Jews of, accused, 246-247. - persecuted, 171. - - Palma, Marranos take refuge in, 282, 283. - See also Majorca. - - Paloma, Jewish martyr, 362. - - Pamier, Jews of, protected, 176. - - Pampeluna, Jews of, escape persecution, 78. - religious discussion at, 142. - - Pantomime on the Reuchlin quarrel, 468-469. - - Papal States, Jews of, expelled, 591-592, 659. - under restrictions, 566-567. - - Parchi, Estori, describes the sufferings of the French Jews, 48-49, - 72. - - Pardes, work by Bedaresi, 43. - Pardo, David, rabbi at Amsterdam, 680, 682, 685. - - Pardo, Joseph, rabbi at Amsterdam, 671, 680. - - Pardo, Josiah, rabbi at Rotterdam, 685. - - Paris, college of, dispersed, 48. - re-established, 133. - - Paris, Jews of, persecuted, 51-152. - University of, against Reuchlin, 459-460. - - Parsophin, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - Paruta, religious reformer, 647. - - Passau, Jews of, executed, 306. - - Pascate, Jacob, messenger bearing the Black Death poison, 102. - - Pastoureaux, Shepherds, massacre the Jews, 55-57. - - Patras, Spanish exiles in, 406. - - Paul III Farnese, pope, 592. - and the Portuguese Inquisition, 516, 518, 519, 521-522, 526-527. - protects Portuguese Marranos, 516-517, 520, 527. - well-disposed to Jews, 515. - - Paul IV Caraffa, pope, and Marranos, 568, 582. - and the Jews, 566, 567, 581-582. - and the Talmud, 582-583. - ban against, 580. - death, 586, 587-588. - employs converts, 581, 584. - establishes the Inquisition at Rome, 525. - re-establishes church discipline, 562. - re-introduces censorship of press, 563. - sets free Turkish Jews, 577-578. - - Paul Burgensis. See Levi, Solomon. - - Paul de Santa Maria. See Levi, Solomon. - - Pauw, Reinier, burgomaster of Amsterdam, 674. - - Pavia, tolerance in, 288. - Jews of, expelled, 660. - - Paz, de, Duarte, advocate of Portuguese Marranos at Rome, 512-513, - 515, 519. - - Peasant War, the, and the Jews, 542-543. - - Pedro IV, of Aragon, imprisons Jews, 150. - petitioned by the Jews, 112-113. - revolt against, 102. - - Pedro, the Cruel, of Castile, 113-126, 173. - and Blanche de Bourbon, 116, 122. - and Samuel Abulafia, 116, 118-121. - civil wars under, 118-119, 123-126. - counseled by Santob de Carrion, 115. - employs Jews, 115-116. - favors the Jews, 113-114, 116, 121-122. - supported by Jews, 123, 124, 125. - - Pedro de Toledo, viceroy of Naples, 409-410. - - Pelka, son of Casimir the Great, 112. - - Penini, pseudonym of Yedaya En-Bonet Bedaresi, 42. - - Pentateuch translated into Persian, 401. See also Bible, the. - - Pernambuco, Jews settle in, 693. - - Perpignan, center of enlightenment, 25, 33-34. - - Pesaro, Marranos in, 501, 569-570, 578-582. - - Pessach (Peter), convert, accuses the Jews, 177-178. - - Pestilence, the, in Fez, 361. - in Naples, 359-360. - in Portugal, 368, 487. - - Peter Martyr, quoted, 484. - - Petit, Guillaume Haquinet, opponent of the Jews, 459. - patron of Hebrew studies, 473. - - Peyret, supposed manufacturer of the Black Death poison, 102. - - Pfefferkorn, Joseph, convert, 423-424, 425-432, 435-442. - at Frankfort, 428-430. - pamphlets by, 425, 427, 439. - preaches, 449. - visits Emperor Maximilian, 428. - See Chapter XIV. - - Philip IV, le Bel, of France, 2, 44, 47, 50, 77, 176. - decrees the expulsion of the Jews, 46-49. - - Philip V, of France, and the Jews, 54, 57, 58. - inspires a crusade, 55. - - Philip VI, of France, alluded to, 77. - - Philip III, of Navarre, and the Jews, 78. - - Philip II, of Spain, 566, 651, 661, 663, 667, 668. - and the Turkish Jews, 607. - introduces the Inquisition into the Netherlands, 601. - - Philip III, of Spain, and the Marranos, 670-671. - - Philip IV, of Spain, creates a Jewish count palatine, 692. - - Philo, alluded to, 614. - - Phineas, rabbi of Breslau, 262. - - Phylacteries, Kabbalistic use of, 5. - - Picho, Solomon, rabbi, 278. - - Pichon, Joseph, Almoxarif, 138, 156, 157. - - Pico di Mirandola, 433, 583. - and the Kabbala, 291-292, 443. - taught by Del Medigo, 290-291. - - Piedmont, French exiles in, 177. - - Pieva di Sacco, Jewish printing house in, 289. - - Pilgrims, Karaite prayers for, 73-74. - - Pilpul, a method of Talmud study, 418. - - Pimentel, Manuel (Isaac Abenacar), Marrano in Holland, 672. - - Pina, de, Paul (Rohel Jesurun), 669-670. - - Pinczovinians, anti-Trinitarians, 647. - - Pinel, de, Duarte. See Usque, Abraham. - - Pinheiro, Diogo, bishop, protects Marranos, 500. - - Pinto, Abraham and David, found the Rotterdam community, 685. - - Pinto, Diogo Rodrigues, Marrano advocate at Rome, 515, 516. - - Pires, Diogo. See Molcho, Solomon. - - Pirkheimer, Willibald, humanist, 416. - - Pisa, council of, deposes Benedict XIII, 206-207. - commerce of, 285. - - Pius IV, pope, and the Bohemian Jews, 586-587. - and the Jews, 588. - - Pius V, pope, 653. - hostile to Jews, 589-590. - - Plato, alluded to, 66, 232. - - Polak, Jacob, and the Pilpul, 418. - - Poland, a refuge for Jews, 263, 420, 631-632, 641-643. - election in, 603-605. - Jewish synods in, 643-645. - - Poland, Jews of, culture of, 633-634. - enjoy peace, 418-421. - - Poland, Reformation in, 646-648. - - Pomis, de, David, physician, 653, 656-657. - - Portaleone, di, Guglielmo, physician, 287. - - Porteiro jurado, assistant of Ar-Rabbi Mor, 159. - - Portugal, a refuge for Marranos, 318. - asylum for Jews, 173. - Jews leave, 369. - - Portugal, Jews of, under Alfonso V, 338-339. - under Ferdinand, 158-159. - - Portugal, Spanish exiles in, 365-369. - - Posen, conflagration of, 263. - first Jewish community in Poland, 632. - Jews of, attacked, 642. - - Prague, confiscation of Hebrew books in, 584-585. - - Prague, Jews of, expelled, 585-587. - persecuted, 164-165, 178. - threatened with expulsion, 417-418. - See also Bohemia. - - Prester John, alluded to, 368. - - Printing houses, Jewish, 289, 414, 418, 474, 581, 628. - - Privado, confidential counselor, 79, 116. - - Procureur, collector of Jew taxes, 130, 132. - - Profatius. See Jacob ben Machir Tibbon. - - Profiat Duran, a Marrano scholar, 188-190, 191, 238. - commentaries, history, and grammar by, 190, 191. - his satire on converts, 188-195, 235. - quoted, 190. - - Protestant hatred of Jews, 552. - - Provence, a refuge for French exiles, 49. - and Spanish Marranos, 318. - - Provence, Jews of, devotees of profane culture, 37. - persecuted, 102, 112. - protected, 177. - See also France, southern. - - Prud'hommes, superintendents over the Jews of France, 54. - - Pucci, Antonio, cardinal, and the Inquisition, 507, 514-515. - - Pucci, Lorenzo, and Molcho, 503, 507. - and the Inquisition, 505. - - Pulgar, Isaac, philosopher, 91. - satirizes Alfonso Burgensis, 82. - - Purim, Cairo, 396. - celebration of, ridiculed, 185. - in Saragossa, 148. - Vincent, at Frankfort, 700. - - - Quemadero, place of burning, 314, 317. - - Quinon, Denis, receiver general of Languedoc, 132. - - - Rabbanites, feud with Karaites, 403-404. - in Jerusalem, 74. - instruct Karaites, 269-271. - - Rabbinism, and Talmudical Judaism, 89. - conversions to, 72. - criticised by Shemarya Ikriti, 69. - - Radziwill, promoter of the Reformation in Poland, 646. - - Rafan, David, discovers the spuriousness of the Zohar, 20. - - Rahab, as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - - Raimuch, Astruc (Francisco God-flesh), conversionist, 182. - - Rashi, 442, 476, - admired by Christian writers, 185. - college of, dispersed, 48. - - Ratisbon, diet at, denounces Nicholas V, 267. - hostile to Jews, 258. - - Ratisbon, Jews of, appeal to Ladislaus of Bohemia, 303. - escape the Rindfleish persecution, 36. - exposed to a mob, 110. - persecuted, 300-307. - protected, 99, 305-306. - threatened, 254, 463-464. - under restrictions, 416-417. - - Ravenna asks for Jews, 286. - - Ravensburg, Jews of, charged with the blood-accusation, 227. - - Raymond de Penyaforte, Dominican general, 77, 208, 245. - - Receswinth, decrees of, 326. - - Receveur-general, collector of Jew taxes, 130, 132, 150. - - Recife, Jews of, 693. - - Reformation, the, 467-470. - and Judaism, 471-476. - and the Jews, 470. - effects, 540-541. - in Poland and Lithuania, 646-648. - - Reggio, Jewish printing house in, 289. - - Reis, chief of Egyptian Jews, 392. - - Remonstrants, religious sect hostile to Jews, 673-674. - - Rendeiros, tax-farmers, 339. - - Reubeni, David, and Charles V, 509-511. - and Molcho, 495-496, 504. - at Avignon, 499. - at Rome, 492-493. - at Venice, 504. - his mission, 491-492. - in Portugal, 493-500. - - Reuchlin, John, humanist, 431-432. - and the Kabbala, 481, 466-467, 583. - appeals to Leo X, 453-454. - appointed to examine into Hebrew books, 441-443. - at Speyer, 454, 455. - Hebrew scholar, 433-434, 471. - his anti-Jewish prejudices, 435. - honors bestowed on, 435, 436. - quoted, 447-448. - refutes Dominican charges, 446-447. - trial at Mayence, 450, 452. - See Chapter XIV. - - Reuchlinists, defenders of the Jews, 456, 457. - - Rheims, Hebrew studies at, 474. - - Rheingau, the, Jews of, expelled, 543. - - Rhine, the, island in, scene of a persecution, 107. - Jewish communities on, massacred, 225. - - Rhineland, the, Jews of, persecuted, 97, 107. - - Ribash. See Isaac ben Sheshet Barfat. - - Riccio, Paul, convert, 466. - - Rieti, da, Gajo. See Moses ben Isaac da Rieti. - - Rindfleisch, persecutor of the Jews, 35-36. - - Robert of Anjou, king of Naples, and Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, 61, 63. - and Shemarya Ikriti, 69, 70. - patron of learning, 59. - taught by Leo Romano, 68. - - Roim, shepherds, 55-57. - - Romano, Leone. See Jehuda ben Moses ben Daniel. - - Romano, Solomon (John Baptista), denounces the Talmud, 564. - - Rome, the oldest European Jewish community, 61. - exiles at, 363, 408. - inundated, 505. - - Rome, Jews of, culture of, 58-60. - threatened, 61. - See also Italy. - - Romi. See Immanuel ben Solomon Romi. - - Rosales, Immanuel, author, 692. - - Rossi, dei, Azarya ben Moses, critic, 613-615. - opposition to, 616-617. - - Rouelle, French Jew-badge, 131. - - Roussillon, French exiles in, 49. - Jews of, devoted to science, 25. - - Rotterdam, Jews settle in, 685. - - Roettingen, Jews of, persecuted, 35. - - Rubianus, Crotus (Johann Jaeger), author of the "Letters of - Obscurantists," 456, 461. - - Rudolph II, emperor, and the Jews, 652. - - Ruez, Juan, Spanish inquisitor, 312. - - - Saatz, imperial army at, 226. - - Saba, Abraham, Kabbalist, 381. - - Sabbation, a mythical river, 4. - - Sadolet, bishop, quoted, 515. - - Safet, Kabbalistic center, 74, 399, 405, 622-623. - ordination revived in, 531-532. - Spanish exiles in, 399. - - Safi, Jews in, 389. - - Sancta Anastasia, de, cardinal, favorable to Marranos, 379. - - St. Bartholomew, massacre, 604. - - St. Gall, Jews of, persecuted, 105. - - Salamanca, Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Salonica, Kabbalistic center, 405. - Spanish exiles in, 404-405. - - Salzring, place of execution in Breslau, 262. - - Samael, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - Sambation, a mythical river, 4. - - Samiel, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - Samson ben Meir, partisan of Abba-Mari, 38. - - Samson of Sens denounces the Karaites, 72. - - Samuel, Kabbalist, 6. - - Samuel, prophet, pilgrimages to grave of, 398. - - Samuel, treasurer under Ferdinand IV, of Castile, 51. - - San Benito, a garment, 317, 327. - - San Martin, de, Juan, Spanish inquisitor, 312, 318-319, 323. - - San Thomas, islands of, Jewish children at the, 371. - - Sanchez, Juan Perez, opposes the Inquisition, 329. - - Sancho IV, of Castile, employs Todros Abulafia, 2. - - Sangisa, sister of Pope John XXII, hostile to Jews, 61. - - Santa Cruz, de, Gaspard, conspirator against Arbues, 331-332. - - Santa Fe, de, Francisco, conspirator against Arbues, 331. - - Santillano, de, Diego and Francisco, plead for the Inquisition, 311. - - Santob (Shem Tob) de Carrion, troubadour, 87, 114-115. - - Saporta, Enoch, influences Karaites to Rabbinism, 270. - - Saragossa, celebration of Purim in, 148. - conversions in, 206, 214. - Inquisition at, 326, 329. - rising against the Marranos of, 330. - - Saragossi, Joseph, Kabbalist, 393. - - Sariel, Kabbalistic term, 17. - - Sarrao Thome, Marrano leader, 516. - - Saruk, Israel, Kabbalist, 625. - - Savoy, duke of, invites Jews, 675. - expelled, 294. - - Savoy, Jews of, persecuted, 104, 218. - privileges, of, confirmed, 219. - - Scaliger, Joseph, humanist, 685. - - Schaffhausen, Jews of, persecuted, 105. - - Schutz-juden, protected Jews, 688. - - Schwarz, Peter, convert, maligns the Jews, 302, 442. - - Schweidnitz, Jewish community of Silesia, 260, 261. - - Scotus, Duns, alluded to, 277. - - "Scourge of the Jews," sobriquet of John of Capistrano, 260. - - Scriptures, the Holy. See Bible, the. - - Scrutinium Scriptuarum (Searching the Scriptures), work by Solomon - Levi, 233. - - Sebastian, of Portugal, in Africa, 381. - - Sechel ha-Poel, in the Kabbala, 4. - - "Sefer Yochasin," chronicle, 391. - - Sefiroth, Kabbalistic term, 6, 13, 14, 17, 22, 619, 626. - - Segovia, Jews of, baptized, 205. - prepare for exile, 352. - Marranos of, massacred, 283. - synagogue of, turned into a church, 196. - - Seleucidan chronology, 394-395. - - Selim I, sultan, and the Jews, 393-394, 400, 401, 402. - - Selim II, sultan, and Joseph Nassi, 594-595. - Jews under, 602. - - Selve, de, George, disciple of Elias Levita, 472, 474. - - Semichah, ordination, 530. - - Sen Escalita. See Sulami. - - Senensis, Sixtus, proselytizer, 581. - and the Talmud, 582. - rescues the Zohar, 584. - - Senior, Abraham. See Benveniste, Abraham. - - Sens, college of, dispersed, 48. - - Separation, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - Sephardic Jews. See Jews of Spain, Africa, Italy, and the East. - - Septuagint, not authoritative, 237. - - Sepulveda, Jews of, persecuted, 278, 279. - - Serachya ben Shaltiel, promoter of culture among Italian Jews, 59. - - Serkes, Joel, Talmudist, 703. - - Servetus, Michael, anti-Trinitarian, 541, 646. - - "Servi camerae," coveted by petty rulers, 128. - Jews of France claimed as, 47. - protected by Charles of Luxemburg, 106. - under Louis the Bavarian, 96. - - Setubal, a port for Jewish exiles, 374. - - Seville, Inquisition organized in, 312-314. - - Seville, Jews of, cause the Spanish persecutions, 155, 157-158. - persecuted, 167-169. - - Seville, Marrano victims of the Inquisition in, 317. - Marranos of, attacked, 282-283. - - Seville, mayor of, opposed to the Inquisition, 313. - synagogues of, turned into churches, 169. - - Seven Planets, Tables of the, by Zacuto, 367. - - Sezira, John, friend of Isaac Abrabanel, 338, 340. - - Sforno, Obadiah (Servadeus), physician, 411. - Reuchlin's teacher, 434, 473. - - Sforza, Galeazzo, and Jews, 287, 296-297. - - Shachna, Shalom, Talmudist, 634, 639. - - Shalal, Isaac Cohen, Nagid, 392, 398. - - Shalom, of Austria, compiles Jewish customs, 134. - - Shaprut, Shem-Tob ben Isaac, controversialist, 142-143, 144. - - Shaltiel, Jewish advocate in Turkey, 494. - - "Shebet Jehuda," a history by the Ibn-Vergas, 557-558. - - Shemarya Ikriti, and the Karaites, 69-70, 71. - - "Shield and Sword," controversial work, 237. - - Shulam, Samuel, historian, 608. - - "Shulchan Aruch," code of Joseph Karo, 539, 612-613. - - Sibili, Astruc, denounces the Jews of Palma, 246-247. - - Siciliano, Judah, poet, 60, 68. - - Sicily, opposition to the Inquisition in, 319-320. - - Siddur Tefila, Karaite prayer-book, 71. - - Sidillo (Sid), Samuel, scholar, 392. - - Sigismund, emperor, 216, 218, 227. - and the Jews, 219, 248. - appoints rabbis, 227. - in the Hussite war, 225. - - Sigismund III, of Poland, friendly to Jews, 643. - - Sigismund Augustus, of Poland and Joseph Nassi, 602. - and the Reformation, 646. - protects Jewish trade, 633. - - Silesia, Jews of, persecuted, 260-263. - - Silva, de, Diogo, inquisitor-general of Portugal, 508, 513. - - Silva, de, Miguel, opposes David Reubeni, 498-499. - - Simon bar Yochai, pretended author of the Zohar, 12-14, 15, 16, 18, - 20, 21, 618, 623. - - Simon ben Zemach Duran, rabbi of Algiers, 199-200. - at Palma, 247. - controversial writer, 238. - - Simon Duran II, rabbi of Algiers, aids Spanish exiles, 390, 391. - - Simon of Trent, a supposed victim of the Jews, 298-299, 414. - - Simoneta, cardinal, opposes the Portuguese Inquisition, 520. - - Sixtus IV, pope, 340. - and Simon of Trent, 299. - and the Inquisition in Aragon, 319. - and the Spanish Inquisition, 311, 312, 318-119, 322-323. - friendly to Marranos, 320. - opposes Jewish church officers, 321. - votary of the Kabbala, 292, 443. - - Sixtus V, permits the printing of the Talmud, 658. - removes Jewish restrictions, 655-659. - - Soares, Joao, inquisitor, 521. - - Socinians, anti-Trinitarians, 647. - - Socinus, religious reformer, 647. - - Sokolli, Mahomet, vizir of Selim II, and Joseph Nassi, 596, 599, 611, - 627-628. - employs a Jewish negotiator, 602. - partisan of Venice, 600. - - Solis, de, Pedro, member of the Inquisition commission, 312. - - Solomon, king, as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - quoted, 33. - - Solomon, son of Manessier de Vesoul, 150. - - Solomon ben Abraham ben Adret, rabbi of Barcelona, 7, 26, 49, 51, 74, - 75, 91, 147. - attacked by Bedaresi, 42-44. - partisan of the obscurantists, 28-30, 33, 34, 39, 42, 50. - pronounces a ban against the Montpellier freethinkers, 38. - signs ban against science, 40. - - Solomon ben Jacob, translator of Maimuni, 60. - - Solomon ben Reuben Bonfed attacks Christian dogmas, 182. - neo-Hebraic poet, 230. - - Solomon Duran, rabbi of Algiers, controversial writer, 238, 390. - - Solomon of Montpellier, proscriber of Maimuni, 27. - - Solyman I, sultan, and Joseph Nassi, 594. - conspired against, 395. - favorable to Jews, 400, 402, 404. - intercedes for Turkish Jews in Ancona, 578. - protects Gracia Mendesia, 574-575. - - Soncino, Jewish printing house in, 289. - - Soncino, Gershon, printer, 586. - - Soranzo, Jacopo, Venetian agent in Constantinople, 606. - - Soria, cortes of, deprive the Jews of criminal jurisdiction, 157. - - Spain, exiles from, 357-364, 389-392. - first auto-da-fe in, 317. - Inquisition established in, 312. - See Inquisition. - - Spain, Jews of, banished, 81, 347-348. - controversial literature of, 231-238. - culture of, 37, 75, 387-389. - degeneracy of, 60, 86, 87, 91, 143-144, 153-155, 228. - employed by Ferdinand and Isabella, 336. - enjoy peace, 274-276. - humbled by the civil war, 126. - in Africa, 197. - influenced by Asheri, 51. - invited to adopt the ban against science, 40. - persecuted in 1391, 166-173. - plan to emigrate, 283. - prepare for exile, 349-352. - send an embassy to Martin V, 219. - supposed to have caused the Black Death, 101. - wealth of, 383. - - Spain misses the Jews, 353-354. - See also Castile, Aragon, etc. - - Spain, northern, Jews of, persecuted, 53. - threatened, 103. - - Spain, southern, Jews of, enjoy peace, 53. - - Spanish language cultivated by the exiles, 387-388. - - Speyer, decisions of, 135. - Jews of, persecuted, 107-108. - - Spina, de, Alfonso, preacher, hostile to Jews, 276-277. - - Spinoza, Baruch, alluded to, 93, 682. - - Sprinz, David, partisan of Israel Bruna, 302. - - Stein, inhabitants of, attack the Jews of Krems, 110. - - Strasburg, authorities of, defend the Jews, 105-108. - Jews of, imprisoned, 108. - - "Strengthening of the Faith, The," by Isaac Troki, 648-649. - - Sturm, Gosse, defends the Jews, 106, 108. - - Suabia, Jews of, banished, 307, 413. - persecuted, 97, 110, 163. - - Sulami, Samuel, patron of Levi of Villefranche, 25-26, 29. - - Sulchat, Karaite stronghold, 71. - - Suson, de, Diego, victim of the Spanish Inquisition, 317. - - Swaber, Peter, defends the Jews, 106, 108. - - Swedes, the, and Jews, 707. - - Switzerland, Jews of, persecuted, 104. - - Synhedrion, Maimuni's teachings on, 530. - value of a, 532. - - Synods of the Four Countries, 643-645. - - Syria conquered by Selim I, 393. - - - Tab Yomi. See Lipmann of Muehlhausen. - - "Table-cloth," work by Moses Isserles, 637. - - Talith, Kabbalistic use of, 5. - - Talmud, the, and the Kabbala, 19. - burnt, 50, 55, 582-583. - confiscated, 565-566. - declared hostile to Christianity, 444-445. - defended, 234, 238, 442-443, 657. - denounced, 213, 425-426, 439, 549-550, 563-564. - interdicted by popes, 215-216, 251, 565-566, 659. - permitted by Sixtus V, 658. - permitted to appear under another name, 589. - printed, 468, 589. - threatened, 141, 427-428. - used by controversialists, 142. - - Talmud, study of the, by Karaites, 269. - by Portuguese Marranos, 485. - in France, 133. - in Germany, 96, 134, 227. - in Jerusalem, 74. - in Padua, 410. - in Poland, 420, 634-641. - in Prague, 418. - in Safet, 399. - in Spain, 86, 144, 229-230. - neglected, 653. - spread by Asheri, 87, 88. - - Talmud Torah, Hebrew institute in Amsterdam, 681-682. - - Talmud Torah, Jewish synagogue at Hamburg, 689. - - Tam, college of, dispersed, 48. - - Tam, Jacob, alluded to, 609. - - Tamar as a character in Immanuel Romi's work, 67. - - Tamarica, Jews of, 693. - - Tamarite, Jews of, converted, 214. - - Tangier taken by Alfonso V, 286. - - Targum, the, not authoritative, 237. - - Tavs (Tus), Jacob, translator of the Pentateuch into Persian, 401. - - Taytasak, Jacob, scholar, 496. - - Taytasak, Joseph, Kabbalist and Talmudist, 405, 506. - - Tekanoth Shum, decisions of Speyer, Worms and Mayence, 135. - - Ten tribes, supposed home of, 4. - - Teneo, Jews settle in, 197. - - Teruel opposes the Inquisition, 328. - - Terza rima introduced into Hebrew poetry, 65. - - Testaments, Old and New, contrasted, 540-541. See also Bible, the. - - Teutonic knights defeat Casimir IV, 266. - - Texeira, Diego, de Mattos, prominent in Hamburg, 690-691. - - Thebes, Spanish exiles in, 406. - - Themudo, George, spies upon the Portuguese Marranos, 489. - - "Theorica," work by Frohbach, 638. - - Thirty Years' War, the, and the Jews, 701-702, 707. - - Thuringia, Jews of, slaughtered, 109, 225. - - Tibbon. See Jacob ben Machir, and Judah ben Moses. - - Tibbonides, party opposed to Abba-Mari, 32-33, 50. - defend Maimuni, 41, 42. - issue a ban, 40-41. - - Tiberias given to Joseph Nassi, 596, 610-611. - - Tiberinus, Matthias, and Simon of Trent, 298. - - Tilly, general, alluded to, 701. - - Tirado, Jacob, and Marrano fugitives, 664-665, 666, 667. - - Tlemcen, Jews in, 390. - Jews settle in, 197. - - Tob-Elem, Joseph, author of a commentary, 144. - - Tobias, a physician of Trent, 297. - - Todros, of Beaucaire, ally of Abba-Mari, 31. - - Tokat, Jews of, charged with murder, 553. - Spanish exiles in, 405. - - Toledo, autos-da-fe at, 332. - Black Death in, 113. - Inquisition at, 325. - - Toledo, Jews of, Arabic scholars, 60. - faithful to Pedro the Cruel, 124. - persecuted, 118, 169. - suffer during the civil war, 126, 136-137. - uncultured, 140, 142. - - Toledo, Kabbalistic center, 1. - rabbis of, asked to betray Marranos, 335-336. - supposed center of poisoners, 101, 102. - synagogue at, 119-120, 354. - - Tongern, Arnold of, theologian, 424, 450. - - Toro, fortress in Castile, 118. - cortes of, hostile to Jews, 138-139. - Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Torquemada, de, Thomas, inquisitor-general of Spain, 324, 336, 343, - 346, 353, 355. - appointed inquisitor, 319. - expels Jewish bishops, 333. - fears of, 356. - forbids Christians to help exiled Jews, 350. - influences Isabella of Castile, 310. - institutes Inquisition tribunals, 325. - publishes an Inquisition code, 326-328. - quoted, 348. - separates Jews and Marranos, 335-336. - - Tostosa, Jews of, converted, 206. - religious disputation at, 207-216. - - Tossafists, Talmud commentators, 133. - - Tossafoth Yom-Tob, work by Lipmann Heller, 704. - - "Touchstone," satire by Kalonymos ben Kalonymos, 62-63. - - Toulouse, Jews of, converted, 48, 56. - massacred by the Shepherds, 56. - protected, 176. - - Transformation, Kabbalistic term, 619. - - Transmigration of souls by Lurya, 619-622. - - Trani, di, Moses, rabbi at Safet, 540, 580. - - "Treatises of the Righteous Brethren," an Arabic cyclopedia, 62. - - "Tree of Life, The," Karaite philosophic work, 95. - - Trent, council of, and the Talmud, 589. - Jews of, charged with the blood-accusation, 297-299. - - Tria, Spanish exiles in, 405. - - "Trial of the World," poem by Yedaya Bedaresi, 49. - - Triana, the Inquisition in, 314. - - Triest, Isaac, Jewish advocate at the imperial court, 436-437. - - Tripoli, Jews in, 389. - - Troki, Isaac ben Abraham, controversialist, 648-649. - - Troki, Karaites of, well treated by Casimir IV, 265. - - Troyes, college of, dispersed, 48. - - Tsiruf, Kabbalistic term, 5. - - Tudela, Jews of, baptized, 358. - persecuted, 78. - - Tudela refuses to give up Marranos, 357. - - Tunis, Marranos emigrate to, 179. - - Turim (Tur), code of Jacob ben Asheri, 88-90. - - Turkey, a refuge for Jews, 271-273. - Jews in, 529. - - Turkey, Jews of, commerce, 579. - culture, 607-610. - judicial autonomy, 330. - prosperity, 400-402, 593, 607. - spiritual condition, 627. - - Turkey, Jews settle in, 352, 544. - Spanish exiles in, 364, 400-405. - - Tuscany, Jews of, protected, 297. - Jews received in, 659. - - Tyrol, the, Jews of, persecuted, 297-299. - - - Ueberlingen, Jews of, charged with the blood-accusation, 227. - persecuted, 105. - - Ulm, conference at, 166. - Jews of, banished, 416. - - Unitarians, 541-542, 647-648. - - Universities, and the Reuchlin-Pfefferkorn case, 459-460. - and the confiscation of Hebrew books, 437, 441, 444-445. - - Uranso, de, Vidal, assassin of Arbues, 330. - - Urban V, pope, quoted, 126. - - Usque, Abraham, and Gracia Mendesia, 576. - press of, closed, 581. - translates the Bible, 475. - - Usque, Samuel, historian, work of, 558-561. - quoted, 324-325, 380, 405, 409, 522, 575-576. - - Usque, Solomon (Duarte Gomez), poet, 558. - - Usury countenanced in Italy, 286. - encouraged by Alfonso XI, 80. - in France, 174. - legislated against in Castile, 139. - - Uziel, Isaac, rabbi at Amsterdam, 672, 680, 682, 683, 689. - - - Vaad Arba Arazoth, Synods of the Four Countries, 643-645. - - Valavigny, tortured on the charge of poisoning, 104. - - "Vale of Weeping," by Joseph Cohen, 590, 608. - - Valencia, count of, arranges an anti-Jewish code, 278. - - Valencia, Jews of, accused of child-murder, 344. - converted, 171, 205, 206. - invested with criminal jurisdiction, 155. - persecuted, 170-171. - - Valencia, revolts against the Inquisition, 328. - - Valladolid, cortes of, petition against Jews, 116. - against usurers, 80. - - Valladolid, Jews of, baptized, 205. - dispute with Alfonso Burgensis, 83. - plundered, 125. - - Valladolid, Marranos attacked in, 280. - - Vayol, Hans, convert, maligns Israel Bruna, 302, 303. - - Vaz, Diego, assassin of Henrique Nunes, 490. - - Vecinho, Joseph, physician to Joao II, of Portugal, 367. - - Vega, Judah, rabbi at Amsterdam, 680. - - Velasquez de Tordesillas, bishop, arrests Jews, 195. - - Venaissin, Jews of, expelled, 592. - protected, 177. - - Venice, and Jewish emigrants, 274. - and Joseph Nassi, 599-601. - and Solomon Ashkenazi, 605-607. - commerce of, 285. - Jews of, in the Ghetto, 408. - protects the Jews, 297, 299. - - Verdun, refuge for Jews, 56. - - Viana, Jews of, persecuted, 78. - - Vidal (Maestro). See Narboni. - - Vidal ben Benveniste Ibn-Labi. See Ibn-Labi, Vidal ben Benveniste. - - Vidal Menachem ben Solomon Meiri, rabbi, 26-27. - - Vieira, Antonio, quoted, 683. - - Vienna, Jews of, blood-accusation against, 223. - commit suicide, 110. - during the Thirty Years' War, 702-703. - protected, 99. - - Villadiego, Jews of, annihilated, 125. - - Villareal, Inquisition at, 325. - - Villaris, treasurer of Ferdinand and Isabella, 344. - - Viseu, de, Jose, physician, 367. - - Vitoria, Jews of, prepare for exile, 352. - lacks physicians, 353. - - - Waldenses, alluded to, 222. - - Weil, Jacob, partisan of Israel Bruna, 302, 303. - - Weil, Moses, German rabbi at Amsterdam, 681. - - Weissenfels, delegates to synod of, attacked, 163-164. - - Wenceslaus, emperor, and the Jews, 164-166. - - "White Company," enlisted by Henry of Trastamare, 122, 123. - - Widmannstadt, disciple of Reuchlin, 434. - - William I, of Orange, and Joseph Nassi, 601. - friendly to Jews, 663, 678. - - William II, of Orange, friendly to Jews, 678. - - Witold, duke of Lithuania, friendly to Karaites, 265. - - Wolfkan, of Ratisbon, and Simon of Trent, 298, 304. - - "Wonderful Word, The," work by Reuchlin, 433. - - Worms, decisions of, 135. - - Worms, Jews of, commit suicide, 108-109. - in the seventeenth century, 694-695. - persecuted, 698-700. - threatened, 463-464. - - Worms, synod at, 452-453. - - Wuerzburg, Jews of, persecuted, 35, 110. - - Wycliffe, alluded to, 202, 221. - - - Ximenes de Cisneros, inquisitor general, 484. - - - "Year of Penitence," preparation for the Messiah, 483. - - Yechiel of Pisa, banker, 286-287, 297, 340. - sons of, help Jewish exiles, 360. - - Yedaya En-Bonet. See Bedaresi, Yedaya En-Bonet ben Abraham. - - - Zacharias, founder of a sect, 633. - - Zacuto. See Lusitano, Abraham Zacuto. - - Zacuto, Abraham, astronomer, 367, 407, 678. - astrologer to Manoel, of Portugal, 372, 378. - at Tunis, 391, 392. - chronicle by, 391, 608, 609. - pronounces the funeral oration over Isaac Aboab, 366. - - Zacuto, Moses, Kabbalist, 682. - - Zacuto, Samuel, son of Abraham Zacuto, 378. - - Zaehringen, council of, and the poison made by Jews, 108. - - Zamora, council of, hostile to Jews, 52. - Jews of, baptized, 205. - - Zapateiro, Joseph, Portuguese traveler, 368. - - Zarfati, Isaac, quoted, 271-273. - - Zarfati, Simon, physician, 408. - - Zarfati, Solomon ben Abraham, Talmudist, 144, 162, 171. - - Zarko, Jehuda, Hebrew poet, 609. - - Zarzel, Moses, poem by, 190. - - Zaslaw, meeting-place of Talmudists, 640. - - Zealand refuses Marranos, 663. - - "Zeda la-Derech," work by Menachem ben Zerach, 145. - - Zemach ben Gershon, Mordecai, intercedes for the Jews of Prague, - 586-587. - - Zemach David, chronicle by David Gans, 638. - - Zicareo, character in Samuel Usque's "Consolation," 558. - - Zion, Jonathan Levi, Jewish advocate at the imperial court, 436-437. - - Zisca, Hussite hero, 225, 226. - - Zofingen, Jews of, persecuted, 105. - - Zohar, the, Kabbalistic book, 11-24, 196, 622. - and Lurya's system, 618-619. - author, 12-14. - Christian doctrines in, 23. - doctrines of, 14-18. - Messianic speculations, 18-19. - on the Index expurgatorius, 584. - printed in Mantua, 583. - spuriousness, 20-21, 292. - - Zosina, adherent of a Judaizing sect, 633. - - Zurich, Jews of, accused of poisoning the wells, 105. - - Zuetphen, counselor of Alva, 662. - - Zwingli and the Reformation, 469. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -Inconsistent use of small-caps and Proper caps in names unchanged. - -Inconsistent use of periods after Regnal numbers not changed. - -Due to light or faded printing, some page references in the Index -appeared to be separated by a space, rather than by a comma or a dash. -The transcribers attempted to remedy these, usually with dashes, by -examining the referenced text. - -The Index was not checked for correct page references. - -Text spells the twelfth Hebrew month as "Elul" and as "Ellul". - -Page 77: "It is not known in how far" was printed that way. - -Page 173: "If hundred Jews were assembled" probably should begin with -"If a hundred". - -Page 175: "kept in goal" possibly should be "gaol". - -Page 205: "wordly-minded" changed to "worldly-minded"; the latter -occurs elsewhere in this text. - -Page 331: "Francisco de Santa Fe" was printed as "Sante-Fe", but was -changed to be consistent with all similar constructs in this book. - -Page 419: "For though, constrained" was punctuated that way. - -Page 718: "Esther (Esterka), wife of Casimir the Great" was referenced -to page 122; the correct page is 112, and has been changed here. - -Page 710: The index references "Albassi, Jacob", but the name is -spelled "Abbassi" on the referenced page (60). Neither has been changed -here. - -Page 721: "Gonzaga, Ludovico," was printed as "Gonzago" but has been -changed here to match the spelling on page 287. The next entry, -"Gonzago, Vicenzo" has not been changed, as it is spelled "Gonzago" on -page 659. In modern references, both names are spelled "Gonzaga". - -Page 721: "Gratino" is spelled "Gatino" on the page it references; -neither has been changed here. The Index contains similar -discrepancies, most of which are not mentioned in these notes. - -Page 723: "Ibn-Gebirol" was spelled "Ibn-Gebriol" in the original, but -has been changed to match the spelling on the three pages this entry -references. - - - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of the Jews, Vol. IV (of VI), by -Heinrich Graetz - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF THE JEWS, VOL. 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