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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-03 11:35:52 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-03-03 11:35:52 -0800 |
| commit | 555990f7b80dfd9ddf9db723960f5a4d5cc8186c (patch) | |
| tree | 98941c5f5db04399496ff5fd4124099a5099f846 /43896-h/43896-h.html | |
| parent | e82eab9be86835f0b01ea9078ddeaa07a8fc5829 (diff) | |
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- float: left; - margin-right: 1em } - -.align-right { clear: right; - float: right; - margin-left: 1em } - -.align-center { margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto } - -div.shrinkwrap { display: table; } - -/* SECTIONS */ - -body { margin: 5% 10% 5% 10% } - -/* compact list items containing just one p */ -li p.pfirst { margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0 } - -.first { margin-top: 0 !important; - text-indent: 0 !important } -.last { margin-bottom: 0 !important } - -span.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; line-height: 1 } -img.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.5em 0 0; max-width: 25% } -span.dropspan { font-variant: small-caps } - -.no-page-break { page-break-before: avoid !important } - -/* PAGINATION */ - -.pageno { position: absolute; right: 95%; font: medium sans-serif; text-indent: 0 } -.pageno:after { color: gray; content: '[' attr(title) ']' } -.lineno { position: absolute; left: 95%; font: medium sans-serif; text-indent: 0 } -.lineno:after { color: gray; content: '[' attr(title) ']' } -.toc-pageref { float: right } - -@media screen { - .coverpage, .frontispiece, .titlepage, .verso, .dedication, .plainpage - { margin: 10% 0; } - - div.clearpage, div.cleardoublepage - { margin: 10% 0; border: none; border-top: 1px solid gray; } - - .vfill { margin: 5% 10% } -} - -@media print { - div.clearpage { page-break-before: always; padding-top: 10% } - div.cleardoublepage { page-break-before: right; padding-top: 10% } - - .vfill { margin-top: 20% } - h2.title { margin-top: 20% } -} - -/* DIV */ -pre { font-family: monospace; font-size: 0.9em; white-space: pre-wrap } - -</style> -<title>CHURCH AND NATION</title> -<meta name="PG.Rights" content="Public Domain" /> -<meta name="PG.Title" content="Church and Nation" /> -<meta name="PG.Producer" content="Al Haines" /> -<link rel="coverpage" href="images/img-cover.jpg" /> -<meta name="DC.Creator" content="William Temple" /> -<meta name="DC.Created" content="1915" /> -<meta name="PG.Id" content="43896" /> -<meta name="PG.Released" content="2013-10-05" /> -<meta name="DC.Language" content="en" /> -<meta name="DC.Title" content="Church and Nation The Bishop Paddock Lectures for 1914-15" /> - -<link href="http://purl.org/dc/terms/" rel="schema.DCTERMS" /> -<link href="http://id.loc.gov/vocabulary/relators" rel="schema.MARCREL" /> -<meta content="Church and Nation The Bishop Paddock Lectures for 1914-15" name="DCTERMS.title" /> -<meta content="church.rst" name="DCTERMS.source" /> -<meta content="en" scheme="DCTERMS.RFC4646" name="DCTERMS.language" /> -<meta content="2013-10-05T18:02:37.704534+00:00" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CDTF" name="DCTERMS.modified" /> -<meta content="Project Gutenberg" name="DCTERMS.publisher" /> -<meta content="Public Domain in the USA." name="DCTERMS.rights" /> -<link href="http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43896" rel="DCTERMS.isFormatOf" /> -<meta content="William Temple" name="DCTERMS.creator" /> -<meta content="2013-10-05" scheme="DCTERMS.W3CDTF" name="DCTERMS.created" /> -<meta content="width=device-width" name="viewport" /> -<meta content="EpubMaker 0.3.20a7 by Marcello Perathoner <webmaster@gutenberg.org>" name="generator" /> -</head> -<body> -<div class="document" id="church-and-nation"> -<h1 class="center document-title level-1 pfirst title"><span class="x-large">CHURCH AND NATION</span></h1> - -<!-- this is the default PG-RST stylesheet --> -<!-- figure and image styles for non-image formats --> -<!-- default transition --> -<!-- default attribution --> -<!-- -*- encoding: utf-8 -*- --> -<div class="clearpage"> -</div> -<!-- -*- encoding: utf-8 -*- --> -<div class="align-None container language-en pgheader" id="pg-header" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the </span><a class="reference internal" href="#project-gutenberg-license">Project Gutenberg License</a><span> -included with this eBook or online at -</span><a class="reference external" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a><span>.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<div class="align-None container" id="pg-machine-header"> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>Title: Church and Nation -<br /> The Bishop Paddock Lectures for 1914-15 -<br /> -<br />Author: William Temple -<br /> -<br />Release Date: October 05, 2013 [EBook #43896] -<br /> -<br />Language: English -<br /> -<br />Character set encoding: UTF-8</span></p> -</div> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst" id="pg-start-line"><span>*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK </span><span>CHURCH AND NATION</span><span> ***</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst" id="pg-produced-by"><span>Produced by Al Haines.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span></span></p> -</div> -<div class="align-None container titlepage"> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="x-large">CHURCH AND -<br />NATION</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="large">THE BISHOP PADDOCK LECTURES FOR 1914-15</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="medium">DELIVERED AT THE GENERAL THEOLOGICAL -<br />SEMINARY, NEW YORK</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="small">BY</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="medium">WILLIAM TEMPLE</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="small">HON. CHAPLAIN TO H.M. THE KING</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><em class="italics small">Rector of St. James's, Piccadilly, -<br />Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury -<br />Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and -<br />Headmaster of Repton</em></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="medium">MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED -<br />ST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON -<br />1915</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -</div> -<div class="align-None container verso"> -<p class="center pfirst"><em class="italics small">COPYRIGHT</em></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -</div> -<div class="align-None container dedication"> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="medium">TO -<br />MY MOTHER -<br />WHO FELL ASLEEP AS GOOD FRIDAY DAWNED -<br />APRIL 2, 1915</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="bold large">PREFACE</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>When I received and accepted the invitation -to deliver the Paddock Lectures for -the season 1914-1915, no one imagined that -these years were destined to have the historical -significance which they must now possess for -all time. I was myself one of those who had -allowed concern for social reform, and internal -problems generally, to occupy my mind almost -to the exclusion of foreign questions. I was -prepared to stake a good deal upon what -seemed to me the improbability of any -outbreak of European war. For all who took -this view the events of recent months have -involved perhaps a greater re-shaping of -fundamental notions than was required by -people who had thought probable such a -catastrophe as that in which we are now -involved. I found it impossible to concentrate -my mind upon any subject wholly unconnected -with the war, while at the same time it would -have been in the last degree unsuitable that -in my lectures to American Theological -Students I should deliver myself of such views -as I had formed concerning the rights and -wrongs of the war itself, or the questions at -stake in it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>These lectures, therefore, represent an -attempt to think out afresh the underlying -problems which for a Christian are fundamental -in regard not only to this war but to -war in general—the place of Nationality in the -scheme of Divine Providence and the duty of -the Church in regard to the growth of nations.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But in a preface it may be permissible to -say what would be inappropriate in the -Lectures themselves, and first I would take -this opportunity of reiterating certain -convictions which have formed the basis of a -series of pamphlets issued under the auspices -of a Committee drawn from various Christian -bodies and political parties, of which I have -had the honour to be Editor:</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>1. That Great Britain was in August morally -bound to declare war and is no less bound to -carry the war to a decisive issue;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>2. That the war is none the less an outcome -and a revelation of the un-Christian principles -which have dominated the life of Western -Christendom and of which both the Church and -the nations have need to repent;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>3. That followers of Christ, as members of -the Church, are linked to one another in a -fellowship which transcends all divisions of -nationality or race;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>4. That the Christian duties of love and -forgiveness are as binding in time of war as in -time of peace;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>5. That Christians are bound to recognise -the insufficiency of mere compulsion for -overcoming evil, and to place supreme reliance -upon spiritual forces and in particular upon -the power and method of the Cross;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>6. That only in proportion as Christian -principles dictate the terms of settlement will -a real and lasting peace be secured;</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>7. That it is the duty of the Church to make -an altogether new effort to realise and apply -to all the relations of life its own positive ideal -of brotherhood and fellowship;</span></p> -<ol class="arabic simple" start="8"> -<li><p class="first pfirst"><span>That with God all things are possible.</span></p> -</li> -</ol> -<p class="pfirst"><span>These propositions were very carefully -drafted by the Committee referred to above -and entirely represent my own beliefs; but -there is something more which I would add. -The new Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, -and Turkey is no accident; it is the -combination of just those three Powers which -openly and avowedly believe in oppression—that -is, in the imposition by force of the -standards accepted by one race upon people -of another race. All nations have at one time -or another practised oppression; certainly -Great Britain is not free from the charge, and -the history of Russia has many dark pages in -this respect. But we can all claim that when -we have been guilty of oppression it has been -under the influence of fear, whether of -revolution, anarchism, or some other force thought -to be disruptive of the State. With our -enemies this is not so. We all know about -Turkey; it is the essentially Mohammedan -power, and Mohammedanism is the religion -of oppression; it believes in imposing its -faith by means of the sword. The Austrian -Empire consists of three divisions in each of -which one race is imposing its manner of life -upon another. In Austria-proper the -Germans oppress the Czechs; in Galicia the -Poles have, in some degree at least, oppressed -the Ruthenes; in Hungary the Magyars have -systematically and avowedly oppressed the -Roumanians in the east, and the Croats in the -south and west. Germany has shown her -political faith by her conduct in Alsace-Lorraine, -and still more in Poland. Nothing -has yet appeared so illuminating with regard -to what is at stake in this war, as Prince -Bülow's chapter on Poland in his book, -</span><em class="italics">Imperial Germany</em><span>; he describes what seems -to us the most grinding oppression with -obvious self-contentment and without a -question of its righteousness; and there have been -abundant signs that, at least, many people -in Germany are willing to impose German -Kultur by the sword as Mohammedans impose -belief in their prophet.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>If this is true, and if the analysis in my -lectures of the Christian function of the State -and of the principles of the Kingdom of God -is sound, then it becomes clear that this war is -being fought to determine whether in the next -period the Christian or the directly -anti-Christian method shall have an increase of -influence. The three most democratic of the -great Western Powers—Great Britain, France, -and Italy—in conjunction with Russia, which -is after all profoundly democratic in its local -life though imperially it is a military -autocracy, are linked together in a natural union -on behalf of freedom as they understand it, -against an idea embodied and embattled which -is in exact opposition to all they live for. It -was therefore no surprise to find that all the -citizens of the United States with whom I came -in contact were quite definitely upon the side -of the Allies in sympathy. To advocate war -in the name of Christ is to adopt a position -which looks self-contradictory and which -certainly involves immense responsibility, and -yet if our people can maintain the attitude of -mind in which they entered on the war and -can secure at the end a settlement harmonious -with that frame of mind, I believe they will -have served the Kingdom of God through -fighting, better than it was possible to do at -this moment in human history by any other -means.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>W.T.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Lecture II. in this series is almost identical -with the pamphlet </span><em class="italics">Our Need of a Catholic -Church</em><span>—No. 19 of </span><em class="italics">Papers for War Time</em><span>. In -Lectures I. and III. I am under great -obligation to Professor A. G. Hogg, though my -position is not at all identical with his.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="bold large">CONTENTS</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE I</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#the-kingdom-of-freedom">THE KINGDOM OF FREEDOM</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE II</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#church-and-state">CHURCH AND STATE</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE III</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#justice-and-liberty-in-the-state">JUSTICE AND LIBERTY IN THE STATE</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE IV</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#holiness-and-catholicity-in-the-church">HOLINESS AND CATHOLICITY IN THE CHURCH</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE V</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#the-citizenship-of-heaven">THE CITIZENSHIP OF HEAVEN</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>LECTURE VI</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#god-in-history">GOD IN HISTORY</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>APPENDIX I</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#on-the-apocalyptic-consciousness">ON THE APOCALYPTIC CONSCIOUSNESS</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>APPENDIX II</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#on-moral-and-spiritual-authority">ON MORAL AND SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>APPENDIX III</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#on-justice-and-education">ON JUSTICE AND EDUCATION</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>APPENDIX IV</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#on-orders-and-catholicity">ON ORDERS AND CATHOLICITY</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>APPENDIX V</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><a class="reference internal" href="#on-providence-in-history">ON PROVIDENCE IN HISTORY</a></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="the-kingdom-of-freedom"><span class="bold x-large">CHURCH AND NATION</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="bold large">LECTURE I</span></p> -<p class="center mediumbold pnext"><span>THE KINGDOM OF FREEDOM</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"And Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, returned from the Jordan, -and was led by the Spirit in the wilderness during forty -days, being tempted of the Devil."—S. Luke iv. 1.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Our Lord, in accepting for Himself the -title of the Messiah, or the Christ, claimed -that it was His function to inaugurate upon -earth the Kingdom of God. Whatever else -might at that time be believed about the -Messiah, this at least was universally held, -that the Messiah, when He came, would -inaugurate upon earth the Kingdom of God. -That is the task of the Lord's ministry; -that is the task to which we, as His followers, -are pledged; and at this time when the -civilisation, which for nearly two thousand years -has been under the Christian influence, has -culminated in as great a catastrophe as has -ever beset any civilisation, Christian or Pagan, -it is well for us to go back and ask, What -are the fundamental principles of the Kingdom -which Christ founded, what the method by -which He founded it, and what are the -principles and methods which He rejected?</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There were various anticipations of the way -in which the promised Christ would do His -work; but broadly speaking there were two -main types of expectation. There were those -who supposed that the Messiah when He came, -would rule in the manner of an earthly ruler, -establishing righteousness by the ordinary -methods of law and political authority, and -this expectation undoubtedly derived some -colour from the way in which Isaiah had -envisaged the coming Christ:[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Isaiah ix, 6, 7.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"For unto us a child is born, unto us -a son is given; and the government shall -be upon his shoulder: and his name shall -be called Wonderful-Counsellor, Mighty -God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace. -Of the increase of his government and of -peace there shall be no end </span><em class="italics">upon the throne -of David</em><span>, and upon his kingdom, to -establish it, and to uphold it with judgment -and with righteousness from henceforth, -even for ever."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It is a king ruling upon the throne of David -that is suggested; and while it is only the -most foolish literalism which will say that the -Prophet himself was committed to such a view, -it was natural enough for those who read -his writings to conceive of the Messiah as -acting after that fashion.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The people went into captivity; and when -they returned, it was not to any realised -Kingdom of God upon earth, but rather to -difficulties greater than had ever confronted -them before, until at last Antiochus Epiphanes -initiated the great persecution whose aim was -to stamp out altogether the worship of Jehovah, -setting up as he did in the very Temple -Court at Jerusalem the altar of Zeus, on -which swine were sacrificed—"the abomination -of desolation standing where it ought -not." Out of the fiery furnace of that -persecution comes the glowing prophecy of Daniel. -What is the answer which he conceives God -as giving to the blasphemer Antiochus? It -is nothing less than the divine judgment -and the mission of the divine Deliverer:[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Daniel vii, 9, 10, 13, 14.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"I beheld till thrones were placed -and one that was ancient of days did sit: -his raiment was white as snow, and the -hair of his head like pure wool; his -throne was fiery flames, and the wheels -thereof burning fire. A fiery stream -issued and came forth from before him; -thousand thousands ministered unto him, -and ten thousand times ten thousand -stood before him; the judgment was set, -and the books were opened.... I saw -in the night visions, and, behold, there -came with the clouds of heaven one -like unto a son of man, and he came even -to the ancient of days, and they brought -him near before him. And there was -given him dominion, and glory, and a -kingdom, that all the peoples, nations, -and languages should serve him; his -dominion is an everlasting dominion, -which shall not pass away, and his -kingdom that which shall not be destroyed."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>This conception of the Messiah, coming -in the clouds of Heaven, establishing the -Kingdom of God by so manifest an exhibition -of the divine authority with which He is -endowed, that all doubt and hesitation are -quite impossible, is that which took the -greatest hold upon the religious imagination of -Israel, and particularly of that great body -of people, the heirs of the tradition of the -Maccabees, inheritors of the heroism which -had stood out against the persecution, whom -we know as the sect of the Pharisees—men -who lived in the strength of a fellowship -that had behind it the greatest religious -tradition in all the world, but who, because -they trusted more to their tradition than to -the God who inspired it, were unable to recognise -the still further call of God when it came to -them. The literature of the period between -the Old and the New Testament shows how -wide and deep was the influence of Daniel's -vision upon their Messianic hopes.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>At His baptism, the Lord is called to begin -His Messianic work; the voice which He heard -from Heaven spoke words which were by -all interpreters of the time believed to refer -to the Messiah:—"Thou art my beloved son; -in thee I am well pleased." The Messiah -will be endowed with Divine authority and -power. How shall He use it? And immediately -the Lord goes into the wilderness to -face the temptations that arose from precisely -the conviction that His Messianic work is -even now to begin.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The temptation has two sides to it—an -inward and an outward. As regards Himself, -what does the temptation mean? Let us -remind ourselves that there was apparently -no one with Him in this crisis; the story, -as we have it, must come from Himself. It -is His own account (of course in parable form, -like so much else in His teaching) of the -struggle of those early days. What is meant -by the parable concerning the turning of -stones into bread? Surely for Himself it -is the temptation to use the power, with -which us the Christ of Cod He is endowed, -for the satisfaction of His own needs, and -that in such a way as will do no kind of -harm to anybody else. No one will be the -worse for his satisfying His hunger in that -way. It is a self-concern from which nobody -can suffer; it is perfectly innocent and -perfectly rational. But no! It is not for -any selfish purpose, however harmless, that -the power of God is given; selfishness in its -most innocent form is set aside.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>How shall He set about His work? Shall -He fulfil that expectation which Isaiah's -vision had fostered? He looks out on the -kingdoms of the earth and the glory of them, -and He knows that they can be His, if He will -fall down and worship the Prince of the power -of this world. Shall He use worldly methods -to convert the world to God? No; worldliness -in its most attractive form is set aside.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Or shall He fulfil the expectation encouraged -by the vision of the Son of Man in Daniel, -appearing with the clouds of Heaven, descending -upon Jerusalem up-borne by angels, giving -that sign from Heaven which the Pharisees, -who particularly adopted this view of the -Messiah, were afterwards going to demand so -frequently? From His answer we know that -this is a temptation not only to give them a -sign, but to secure it for Himself, for the -answer is "Thou shalt not tempt,"—that is, -Thou shalt not put to the proof—"the Lord -thy God." The promise of God is to be trusted, -not tested. The test comes as we obey the -command and in that sense every act of faith -is an experiment, but there must be no test -cases to see whether God fulfils His promise. -Infidelity in its most insidious form is set -aside.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But there is an outward aspect also to the -temptations. Shall He use His power to -satisfy the bodily needs of men? Shall He -exert a power parallel with that of political -rulers, which will coerce their conduct without -first winning their free allegiance? Shall He -give such proof of divine authority that any -doubt, intellectual or otherwise, becomes -impossible? No; not any of these. And -as He leaves the temptation vanquished, what -He has set aside is precisely every method of -controlling men's action without winning their -hearts and wills. He has rejected coercion; -He has decided to appeal to Freedom.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>What is left? At first, only the commission -to proclaim the Kingdom; and He comes -proclaiming it. All through the early part of -the ministry He moves from place to place -preaching or proclaiming the Kingdom of God. -He does not at present announce that He is -King of that Kingdom; it is the Kingdom -itself on which all attention is concentrated. -He has indeed the power to do works of mercy, -and when with that power He stands in the -face of human need, He must for very love -exert the power and satisfy the need; so -people come crowding around Him, attracted -by His wonder-working. But that is not -what He desires. The disciples are excited -about it; but He has gone out a long while -before dawn, and is alone in prayer; and when -St. Peter finds Him, and says "All men are -seeking Thee," He does not say, "Then let us -go to them," but, on the contrary, "Let us -go into the villages that I may preach—that -I may make my proclamation—there also."[#] As -the deadness, the indifference, and hostility -of the people gradually shows itself to be -invincible, He gathers about Him those whose -hearts have been touched, and from among -them chooses twelve, "that they may be -with Him."[#] They are to live in His company, -catching His Spirit, learning to understand -Him. With them He goes on two long -journeys—north-west to Tyre and Sidon, -and then north-east, to Caesarea Philippi; -through all those journeys they are alone with -their Master, moving through country outside -the boundaries of the Jewish religion, and -therefore free from controversy.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. Mark i, 35-38.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] S. MArk iii, 14.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>At Caesarea Philippi He feels that the time -is ripe, and asks them, "Who do men say that -I am?" They mention the various -conjectures ... Elijah; John the Baptist; one -of the Prophets. "Who say ye that I am?" And -St. Peter with a leap of inspired insight -answers: "Thou art the Messiah."[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. Mark viii, 27-30.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The Lord recognises that this is the -revelation of God to faith: "Blessed art thou, -Simon, Son of Jonah; flesh and blood hath -not revealed it unto thee, but my Father -which is in heaven."[#] Immediately that He -has been thus spontaneously recognised, He -begins to say what He had never said before: -"The Son of Man must suffer." The Son -of Man is the title of the Messiah in glory, -as He was conceived in Daniel's vision and -the Apocalyptic writings which drew their -inspiration from it. "The Son of Man must -suffer;" that is the great Messianic act; that -is the way in which the Kingdom of God shall -be founded. But it was not what St. Peter -meant. "Peter took Him, and began to -rebuke Him ... Be it far from Thee, Lord; -this shall not be unto Thee." And our Lord -recognises the voice of the tempter in the -wilderness, who bade Him take thought for -self.... "Get thee behind me, </span><em class="italics">Satan</em><span>, for -thou thinkest not God's thoughts, but men's -thoughts."[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. Matthew xvi, 17.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] S. Matthew xvi, 22, 23.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Just as, when once He was spontaneously -recognised, He began to set forth the new -conception of the Messiahship, "The Son of -Man must suffer;" so too He immediately -starts on that last journey to Jerusalem which -culminates with the Cross. Arrived at -Jerusalem, He arranges the triumphal entry. He -carefully fulfils Zechariah's prophecy—thus -claiming the Messiahship, and challenging the -religious rulers. But the prophecy which He -thus selects for deliberate fulfilment is one -which represents the Messiah as a civil, not a -military authority (for this is the meaning of -the ass as distinguished from the horse), and -as one who shall speak Peace to the nations.[#] It -is the conception of the Messiah which in -all the Old Testament has least suggestion of -coercion and is therefore the nearest to His own.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Zechariah ix, 9, 10.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>But the primary purpose of the triumphal -entry is no doubt to make His claim and issue -His challenge. On the journey and after the -entry itself He declares with increasing -emphasis that the Kingdom of God is at hand; -those who stood there should see it come with -power; and as He stands before Caiaphas, He -answers the question "Art Thou the Christ? with -the words, I am, and from this time[#] -there shall be the Son of Man seated on the -right hand of power." Daniel's prophecy is -here and now fulfilled. In the moment that -love completes its sacrifice in death, the glory -of God is fully made known and the power of -His Kingdom is come; this is the Lord's -own Apocalypse.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Different words in St. Matthew and St. Luke, but agreeing -in sense, which sense the authorised version spoils.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] See </span><a class="reference internal small" href="#appendix-i">Appendix I</a><span class="small">.: </span><em class="italics small">The Apocalyptic Consciousness</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>So He had spoken on that last journey. -"Ye know that they which are accounted -to rule over the Gentiles lord it over them, -and their great ones exercise authority over -them. But it is not so among you; but -whosoever would become great among you -shall be your minister, and whosoever -shall be first among you shall be servant -of all, for verily the Son of Man came"—(again -the title of the Messiah in Glory)—"not -to be ministered unto, but to minister; -and to give His life a ransom for many."[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. Mark x, 42-45.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>So, too, St. John records His saying that in -precisely this way he would win His royalty—"I, -if I be lifted up from the earth, will draw -all men unto me."[#] The Cross was foreseen by -the Lord to be what, as we look back, we know -that it has been—the throne of His glory and -His power; and the capacity to realise it as -such is for St. Paul the touchstone of character, -the test of election—"We preach a Messiah on -a Cross—to Jews a scandal and to Gentiles an -absurdity, but to the very people who are -called, whether Jews or Greeks, a Messiah who -is God's power and God's wisdom."[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. John xii, 32.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] 1 Cor. i, 23, 24.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Here then is the mode of God's power, and -we know that it can be no other; for if God -is truly King, He must be King of our hearts -and wills, and not only of our conduct. There -is only one way to win men's hearts and wills, -that is by showing love; and there is only one -way to show love, and that is by sacrifice, -by doing or suffering what, apart from our -love, we should not choose to do or suffer. -Sacrifice is the Divine activity; Calvary is -the mode of the Divine omnipotence. It is -the actual Divine method and the ideal -human method.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>As we come to consider how far it has -become also the actual human method, we -are confronted at the outset by the sheer -impossibility of our applying this method, -just because we have not in ourselves the -necessary love.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our perfection, we are told, is to consist in -just that quality which shows the Father's -perfection, namely, that He is kind to the -unthankful and evil, and makes His sun to -rise on the evil and good and sends His rain -on the just and on the unjust; and we are to -be perfect in the way that He is perfect.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] S. Matthew v, 43-48.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>But until we reach that perfection we cannot -imitate His action; for a man's act is not -what He intends; nor is it the mere motion of -his body; but it is the whole train of -circumstances that he initiates. Christ in His -perfect purity may stand before the woman -taken in her sin and say, "Neither do I -condemn thee," because there is no possibility -that she will interpret His mercy as condonation -of the sin; but if we said it, people would -so interpret it, and usually quite rightly so.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our problem then is so to guide our conduct -that we come as near as we are capable of -coming to the divine ideal that is set forth in -Christ, and that we come perpetually closer -and closer to it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Lord in His temptation rejected all -use of force and substituted for it the appeal -of love expressed in sacrifice, so far as the -actual and positive building of His Kingdom is -concerned. For us there must always be -some use of the lower method, because we -are incapable of applying the highest. If -any man, when he is confronted with evil -which he can prevent by the exercise of force, -refrains from doing it, we must immediately -put to him the question, "But did you so -suffer under that act of evil that there is any -hope of your suffering proving to be the -redemption of the evil-doer? If so, well and -good; but, if not, then you are idle and -cowardly, not Christian." No one who is not -a Christian in spirit can perform the Christian -act; and the Sermon on the Mount is not -a code of rules to be mechanically followed; -it is the description of the life which any man -will spontaneously lead when once the Spirit -of Christ has taken complete possession of his -heart.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And yet there is a perfectly legitimate -use of force also, and a use which our Lord -Himself makes of it. We may use force in -various circumstances in spite of the fact -that for the positive work of the building -His Kingdom the Lord rejected it. It is -legitimate, in the first place, when it is applied -to immature characters—characters which -are, as all our characters are in early -childhood, a chaos of impulses and instincts, as -yet unregulated by any governing principle. -Here it may be necessary simply to restrain -the activity of one set of impulses without -converting the heart or will of the person -to whom that restraint is applied, merely -in order to give the other side of nature its -chance of development. So in education -it is legitimate to employ force in this -restraining way for the sake of the development -which is made possible thereby in the other -parts of nature.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But our Lord's example also shows us -that the use of force is permissible in dealing -with those who are so case-hardened that the -appeal of love can never reach them until -their present state of mind is broken up. -It is sometimes said that the Lord never made -use of physical force; but whether or not -that is true[#]—the question is unimportant, -because for all moral purposes there is no -difference whatever between physical and -non-physical force. The appeal to force always -means the appeal to pain or inconvenience, -for these are the only things that force can -inflict upon one. Physical force may break -a man's bones; but one may enforce a certain -kind of conduct by the threat, for example, -of social ostracism, which might break his -heart; and there is no difference whatever -between the two, except that the second is -a more refined form of cruelty. Now in our -Lord's denunciation of the Pharisees, in those -words which are thrown, burning and smashing, -into the self-complacent contentment of those -upholders of tradition, there is every moral -quality of force and violence. Their aim is -to batter down a state of mind, the state -of mind which cannot receive the appeal of -love, as it shows when it stands beneath the -very Cross and only jeers. But this use of -force is only negative and preparatory; it -is the effort of love to make ready for the -rebuilding which only love's own method -can really accomplish. Only with characters -quite immature and liable to develop in many -different directions, can force be used, except -in this wholly preparatory way; and even -there its work is preparatory, for at that stage -everything that is done is still preparatory.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] </span><em class="italics small">e.g.</em><span class="small">, whether or not He employed the scourge of small -cords to drive men from the Temple Courts as He certainly -did the animals; the Greek words suggest that He did not.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It is sometimes said that society rests -upon force. Of course it does not, and it -could not, because force is a dead thing which -can only operate as human wills direct it; -and, however much force there may be in -the maintenance of society, that force itself -must be controlled by the consent of human -wills. It is true, however, that society, -as we know it, rests simultaneously upon two -contradictory principles, upon the principle -of antagonism and the principle of fellowship. -So far as it is represented by the police force, -it rests upon antagonism. Men are selfish; -in their selfishness they are brought into -conflict with one another. In order that -anyone may be able to enjoy, however selfishly, -any property or comfort in life, it is necessary -to restrain to some degree the selfishness of -all the rest; and to secure that restraint -placed upon others, a man submits to a similar -restraint upon himself. And so we arrive at -that contract of which Plato speaks: "the -contract neither to commit nor to suffer -injury."[#] But, at the same time, as Plato immediately -afterwards points out, society would arise -quite equally if men were wholly altruistic, -because men's natures are different, and they -need one another for support, for protection, -and for the very instinct of fellowship.[#] Now -those principles are both present in all actual -societies; and progress has consisted of the -steady development of the principle of -co-operation and fellowship, at the expense -of the principle of competition and antagonism.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] [Greek: méte adikeîn méte adikîsthai.] -</span><em class="italics small">Republic</em><span class="small"> ii. 359*a*.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] The whole Ideal State. </span><em class="italics small">Republic</em><span class="small"> ii, -369*b* to vii end.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>That has been what we have meant in the -last resort by political progress; but the -conclusion inevitably follows that society makes -progress precisely in that degree in which it -realises more and more a relationship of love -between its various members, and becomes the -Kingdom which Christ came on earth to found. -Thus, at the very outset of our enquiry we find -that the principles of secular progress and of -the Divine revelation in Christ are identical.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I shall venture in a subsequent lecture to -trace out the way in which, as I think, further -progress in accordance with this principle -will lead us.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But let me close this lecture by recalling -our thoughts to that ideal method for men, -which is the actual method of God, setting -this in the words of a fable which I take from -the masterpiece of the most Russian of -the Russian novelists—Dostoievsky—merely -throwing it into my own language.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In the days of the Inquisition, this fable -runs, our Lord returned to earth, and visited -a city where it was at work. As He moved -about, men forgot their cares and sorrows. -He healed the sick folk as of old, and meeting -with a funeral procession where a mother was -mourning the loss of her only son, He stopped -the procession, and restored the dead boy to life.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>That was in the Cathedral Square, and at -that moment there came out from the -Cathedral doors the Grand Inquisitor, an old -man over ninety years of age, clad now, not -in the Cardinal's robe in which only the day -before he had condemned a score of heretics -to the stake, but in a simple cassock, with -only two guards in attendance. Seeing -what was done he turned to the guards -and said, "Arrest Him." They moved forward -to obey; and he sent the Prisoner to a cell -in the dungeon.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>That night the Grand Inquisitor visited his -Prisoner, and to all that he said the Prisoner -made no reply. "I know why Thou art -come," said the Inquisitor; "Thou art come -to spoil our work, to repeat Thy great mistake -in the wilderness, and to give men again Thy -fatal gift of freedom. What did the great -wise spirit offer Thee there? Just the three -things by which men may be controlled—bread -and authority and mystery. He bade -Thee take bread as the instrument of Thy -work; men will follow one who gives them -bread. But Thou wouldest not; men were -to follow Thee out of love and devotion or -not at all. We have had to correct Thy -work, or there would be few to follow Thee. -He bade Thee assume authority; men will -obey one who gives commands, and punishes -the disobedient. But Thou wouldest not; -men were to obey out of love and devotion or -not at all. We have had to correct Thy work, -or there would be few to obey Thee. He bade -Thee show some marvel that men might be -persuaded and believe. But Thou wouldest -not; men were to believe from perception of -Thy grace and truth or not at all. We have -had to correct Thy work and hedge Thee -about with mystery, or there would be few -to believe. And which of us has served -mankind the better? Thy appeal was to the -few strong souls. We have cared for the -weak. Many who would be disorderly and -miserable have been made orderly and happy. -And now Thou art come to spoil our work -and repeat Thy great mistake in the wilderness -by giving to men again Thy fatal gift of -freedom, through trust in the power of love. -But it shall not be; for to-morrow I shall burn -Thee."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Grand Inquisitor ceased; and still the -Prisoner made no reply; but He rose from -where He sat, and crossed the cell, and kissed -the old man on his bloodless lips. Then the -Inquisitor too, rose, and opened the door; -"Go," he said. The Prisoner passed out into -the night and was not seen again.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And the old man? That kiss burns in his -heart. But he has not altered his opinion or -his practice.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="church-and-state"><span class="bold large">LECTURE II</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">CHURCH AND STATE</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"He put all things in subjection under his feet, and -gave him to be head over all things to the Church, -which is his body, the fulness of him that, all in all, -is being fulfilled."—Ephesians i, 22, 23.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>If one of the great saints of the early Church -had been told that in the year 1915 the world -would still be waiting for the final consummation, -and had tried to conceive the life of -men and nations as it would be after that -long period of Christian influence, what would -his conception have been? Surely he would -have expected that all nations would be linked -together in the Holy Communion, the Fellowship -of Saints. Roman, Spaniard, African, -Syrian, those strange Germans, and the -barbarous Britons who lived in the remotest -corner of the earth, might have maintained -their own varieties of culture, but each would -find his joy and pride in offering his contribution -to the life of the whole family of nations. -Rooted in knowledge of the love of God, their -life would grow luxuriantly and bear fruit in -love of one another and service of the common -cause. Inspiring each and knitting all together, -the Holy Catholic Church, fulfilling itself in -service of the world, would gather up all this -exuberance of life and love into itself, and -present it to the God and Father of mankind -in unceasing adoration.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But the world in 1915 is not in the least -like that. The old man of our selfish nature, -selfish himself and therefore supposing that -others must be selfish too, so that he relies -upon the methods of cajolery and coercion, -has indeed received the kiss of Christ; and -while that kiss burns in his heart, so that -sometimes he is roused to an aspiration after -an order of things altogether different, his -opinions and his conduct remain fundamentally -unchanged. And the contrast between what -is and what might have been is due in part, -at least, to the failure of the Church to be -true to its own commission. It is also because -of this that no practical man dreams of turning -to the Church to find the way out from the -intolerable situation into which the nations -have drifted.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>An eminent politician is reported to have -defined the Church on a recent occasion in -the following terms: "The Church is, I -suppose, a voluntary organisation for the -maintenance of public worship in the interest -of those who desire to join in it." And it is -to be feared that many people regard it in -some such way as that. But of course the -Church is nothing of the kind; the Church is -the Body of Christ.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is not a "voluntary organisation" any -more than my body is a voluntary organisation -either of limbs or of cells. No one could -"voluntarily" join the Church, if by that -were meant that the act originated in his own -will. "No man can say Jesus is Lord, -but in the Holy Spirit."[#] A man cannot -make himself a Christian. The Apostles were -made Christian by Christ Himself—"Ye did -not choose Me, but I chose you"[#]; others were -made Christian by the Apostles, or (as they -always said) by Christ working in and through -them; and so successive generations have -been made Christian by the Spirit of Christ -operative in the fellowship of His disciples—that -is to say, in the Church. This is the -aspect of truth expressed and preserved in -the practice of infant baptism. We are -Christians, if at all, not through any act -initiated by our own will, but through our -being received into the Christian fellowship -and subjected to its influence. Just as we -are born members of our family, so by our -reception into the fellowship of the disciples -we are "made members of Christ." In the -one case as in the other, we may repudiate -our membership or we may disgrace it; -we can never abolish it. Let me hasten in -parenthesis to add, that this is only one aspect -of the truth, and the protest of those who -object to infant baptism will be a valuable -force in the Church, until we are finally secure -against the temptation to regard a sacrament -as a piece of magic. For of course it is true -that, while no man can make himself a Christian -by his own will, no man can be made a -Christian against or without his will. It is -precisely his will that the Spirit must lay hold -of and convert, and the will can refuse conversion.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] 1 Cor. xii, 3</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">[#] S. John xv, 16.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The Church, then, is not a "voluntary -organisation," but the creation of God in -Christ. In fact it is the one immediate result -of our Lord's earthly ministry. When His -physical presence was withdrawn, there -remained in the world, as fruit of His sojourn -here, no volume of writings, no elaborated -organisation with codified aims and methods, -but a group of people who were united to one -another because His Spirit lived and worked in -each. And the great marvel lay in this: -whereas all men realise that fellowship is -better than rivalry, and yet fail to pass from -one to the other because they are radically -selfish both individually and corporately, in -Christ men found themselves to be a real -community in spite of their as yet unpurged -selfishness. By the invasion of the Divine -Life in Christ, the ideal itself, the life of -fellowship, is given, and is made into the means of -destroying just those qualities which had -hitherto prevented its own realisation. The -ecclesiastical organisations of to-day are not -fellowships of this sort, but if the members of -the Church lose their hold on this central -principle of fellowship, as they have largely -done, we are thrown back upon the futile -effort to build up fellowship on the foundation -of unredeemed selfishness.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>As it is not true to say that the Church -is a "voluntary" organisation, so also it is -not true to say that it exists "for the -maintenance of public worship," at least in the -sense that most Englishmen would give to -the words. Certainly the Church, consisting -of men and women whom God of His sheer -goodness has delivered from the power of -darkness and translated into the kingdom -of His dear Son, will find its first duty, as also -its first impulse, in an abandonment of -adoration. But if the God who is worshipped is -not only some Jewish Jehovah or Mohammedan -Allah, but the God and Father of our -Lord Jesus Christ, this love and adoration of -God will immediately express itself in the love -and service of men, and especially in the -passionate desire to share with others the -supreme treasure of the knowledge of God. -The Church, like its Master, will be chiefly -concerned to seek and to save that which is -lost, calling men everywhere to repent because -the Kingdom of God is at hand. Worship is -indeed the very breath of its life, but service -of the world is the business of its life. It -is the Body of Christ, that is to say, the -instrument of His will, and His will is to save the -world.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The spiritual life of men is not limited to -this planet, and the fulfilment of the Church's -task can never be here alone. The Church -must call men from temporal to eternal hopes. -But in this way it will do more than is possible -in any other way to purify the temporal life -itself. For most temporal goods are such -that the more one person has the less there -is for others, so that absorption in them leads -inevitably to strife and war. But the eternal -goods—love, joy, peace, loyalty, beauty, -knowledge—are such that the fuller fruition of -them by one leads of itself to fuller fruition -by others also, and absorption in them leads -without fail to brotherhood and fellowship.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is not of worship, the breath of the -church's life, but of service, the business of -its life, that I wish to speak. But this can -only be misleading if the other has not first -been given prominence. The Church serves -because it first worships. Only because it -has in itself a foretaste of eternal life, the -realised Kingdom of God, can it prepare the -way of the Lord, so that His Kingdom may -come on earth as it is in heaven.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>One question which demands attention -concerns the nature of the Church which is to -perform this function. Is it enough that there -should be vast numbers of Christian individuals -gathering together in whatever way is proved -by experience to be the most effective for -edification, pursuing their profession as -Christians, and so gradually leavening life? Or is -there need for a quite definite society, with a -coherent constitution and a known basis of -membership? The former has much to -recommend it; it avoids the deadening influence -of a rigid machinery; it ensures freedom of -spiritual and intellectual development; it may -seem to correspond with that loosely -constituted group of disciples, which was, as we -have seen, the actual fruit of the earthly -ministry of Christ. Yet it is condemned by all -analogies, and is inadequate to the essential -nature of religion.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>All relevant analogy suggests that a spirit -must take definite and concrete form before -it can be effective in the world, even as God -Himself must become incarnate in order to -establish His Kingdom upon earth. No doubt -the form has often fettered the spirit and -sometimes even perverted it; the history of the -Franciscan movement is an instance of this; -but the influence of St. Francis would never -have done for Europe what it actually -accomplished if the Order had not been founded.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>One of the clearest illustrations of the -principle is before our eyes in our experience -to-day. When the spirit of national patriotism -makes its appeal, no one has to make any -effort to understand its claim; our nation -is a definite and concrete society in which we -easily realise our membership to the full. We -know that there is no escaping from it, and -that, when it appeals for our service or our -lives, we must either respond or refuse. But -the Christian Church, as we know it, is -powerless to bring home its appeal in the same way. -Largely because of its divisions and endless -controversy about the points, secondary though -important, which separate the various sections, -it has become curiously impotent in the face -of any great occasion such as the present, -and curiously unsuccessful in persuading either -its own members or the world outside of the -nature of its mission. We are not conscious, -for example, that we are permanently either -responding to, or else refusing, the appeal to -"preach the Gospel to every creature." That -appeal does not hit us personally as does the -appeal, "every fit man wanted." Our -membership in the Church does not in fact make -us feel a personal obligation to assist the cause -of the Church. We are content to "belong -to it" without admitting that it has any -power to dispose of its "belongings"; we -think that we "support" it by "going to -church" and contributing to "church -expenses." But we feel no link with our -fellow-Christians in Germany at all comparable -to that which binds us to an agnostic but -patriotic Englishman, or at all capable of -bridging spontaneously the gulf fixed by -national antagonism. By a deliberate effort -we can realise that we and they are equally -precious in the sight of God, and that they -are our fellow-members in Christ. But there -is no realised bond of corporate unity that -binds us to each other, and we rely upon -the very feeble resources of our personal -good-will and personal faith for any sense of unity -with them that we may attain. The Church -is less powerful than the nation as an influence -in our lives, partly at least because it is in -fact less actual. The Church universal, -whether as an organisation or as spirit of life, -is an ideal, not a reality.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Such an argument, however, simply invites -refutation. It is pointed out that when the -whole of one section of Christendom was -organised as a single religious community -under the Pope, men did, as a mere matter -of historical fact, fight and hate even more -bitterly than now. A common membership -in one Catholic Church did not prevent -Edward III. and Henry V. from making war -upon their neighbours across the English -Channel. And at this moment Roman Catholic -Frenchmen appear to be fighting against -Roman Catholic Bavarians with no more -signs of fellowship between the opponents -than appear in other parts of the field of war. -So far as the Church is organised as a unity, -this does not, in fact, create unity of spirit -in its members sufficient to mitigate national -antagonisms.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And this, it will be urged, is only to be -expected. "The wind bloweth where it -listeth," and machinery cannot control the -spirit. It is only a personal faith in Christ -that will lift men above natural divisions -so that they spontaneously recognise as -brothers those who have similar faith. To -build up again a great ecclesiastical organisation -which shall include all Europe, or even -all the world, will not of itself create friendship -between the members who compose it -if otherwise they are antagonistic. Individual -conversion, not ecclesiastical statesmanship, -is the one thing needful; nothing can take -its place.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No; of course nothing can take its place. -And of course an all-comprehensive lukewarm -Church will share the fate of its smaller -counterpart at Laodicea. When it is said that the -Universal Church is not a reality, it is not -only the absence of a world-wide organisation -that is deplored; still worse is the total -absence of any typical manner of life by which -members of the Church may be known from -others. Men die for Great Britain, not -because Britain is a united kingdom, but because -there is a definite British character which -is ours and which we love. But there is no -specifically Christian type of character actually -distinguishing members of the Church from -others which may make men ready to die for -Christendom. Christians differ from others, -as Spinoza bitterly remarked, not in faith -or charity or any of the fruits of the Spirit, -but only in opinion. Assuredly individual -conversion is the primary requisite.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But half our troubles come from these -absurd dilemmas. Do you believe in faith -or in organisation? Well; do I believe -in my eyes or my ears? Why not in both? -Of course organisation cannot take the place -of faith; of course faith without order is -better than order without faith. But why -cannot we have in the Church what we have -got in the nation faith operative through -order as loyalty is operative through the State -and in service to it?</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The earlier objection, however, is equally -serious. Catholicism has failed in the past -and is failing now. One main ground of its -failure is to be found, I believe, in its inadequate -recognition of nationality, which has avenged -itself by almost ousting Catholicism, and with -it Christianity itself, where national interests -are concerned.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] I am speaking throughout of the Western Church: the -Eastern Church has perhaps been, if anything, too national.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>This failure to give adequate recognition to -nationality arises from too exclusive emphasis -on the principle which is, quite rightly, the -root idea of Catholicism—the idea of transcendence. -Here in the last resort is the fundamental -distinction between naturalism and religion; -naturalism may take a form which stimulates -the religious emotions and supports a high -ethical ideal; but it confines itself to the -limits of secular experience. For naturalism -the history of man and of the universe is the -starting-point and the goal; this as fact is the -datum, this as understood is the solution. -The Will of God, on this view, is to be discovered -from the empirical course and tendency of -history. But religion begins with God; it -breaks in upon what we ordinarily call -"experience" from outside; in its monotheistic -form it regards the world as created by God -for His own pleasure, and lasting only during -that pleasure; in its pantheistic form it -regards the world as a phase or a moment of -His Being which is by no means limited to -that phase or moment. Its philosophy does -not elaborately conceive what God must be -like in order to be the solution of our -perplexities, but, starting with the assurance -of His Being and Nature, shows how this -is in fact the answer to all our needs.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is one peculiarity and glory of Christianity -that it unites both of those. Its faith is fixed -upon One who "for us men and for our -salvation </span><em class="italics">came down from heaven</em><span>," and who is -yet the eternal Word through which all things -were made, the indwelling principle of all -existence. Transcendence and immanence are -here perfectly combined. But because the -former is the distinctively religious element, -without which the latter would have been -in danger of relapsing into naturalism, the -deliberate emphasis was all laid on -transcendence. We can see, as we look back, -that when once the Incarnation has actually -taken place upon the plane of history, it makes -no jot of difference in logic, provided only -that the Life of the Incarnate is taken as -the starting-point and centre of thought, -whether terms of transcendence or of immanence -are used. The life of Christ is at once -the irruption of the Divine into the world—(for -the previous history of the world certainly -does not explain it)—and is also the -manifestation of the indwelling power which had -all along sustained the world. In other words, -the God who redeems is the same God who -creates and sustains. But it is still true that -the note of transcendence, of something given -to man by God as distinct from something -emerging out of man in his search of God, -is the specifically religious note.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And the Church, as the divine creation and -instrument, shares and must express this -character. It must be so constituted as to -keep alive this faith. That is the meaning -of hierarchies and sacraments. Whether any -given order is the most adequate that can be -designed, is of course a perfectly legitimate -question. But every order that aspires to be -catholic aims, at least, at expressing the -truth that religion is a gift of God, and not -a discovery of man. And certainly it is only -the gift of God that can be truly catholic -or universal. Man's discoveries are indefinitely -various; the European finds one thing, the -Arab another, the Hindu yet another, and -none finds satisfaction in the other's discovery, -though in all of them God is operative. Only -in His own gift of Himself is it reasonable to -expect that all men will find what they need; -only in a Church which is the vehicle of this -gift, and is known to be this, and not a mutual -benefit society organised by its own members -for their several and collective advantage—only -in a Church expressive of Divine transcendence -can all nations find a home.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Yet just because of a too one-sided emphasis -on this truth, the Catholic Church in the West -has, as a rule, not tried to be a home for nations -at all. "Christianity separated religion from -patriotism for every nation which became, -and which remained, Christian."[#] Patriotism -is particular; religion ought to be universal. -The nation is a natural growth; the Church -is a divine creation. And so the primitive -Church was organised in complete independence -of national life, except in so far as its -diocesan divisions followed national or -provincial boundaries. No doubt the conditions -of its existence made this almost necessary, -for the organised secular life of the Roman -Empire refused to tolerate it. But it was -its own principle, true indeed but not the whole -truth, which led to this line of development. -The same principle is apparent in the Middle -Ages, when there was no external pressure. -The Church, as it was conceived in the sublime -ideal of Hildebrand, was to belong to no -nation, because supreme over them all, binding -them together in the obedience and love of -Christ, and imposing upon them His holy will.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] "War and Religion" in </span><em class="italics small">The Times Literary -Supplement</em><span class="small">, Dec. 31, 1914.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The inevitable result of this was that the -instinct of nationality was never christened at -all. It remained a brute instinct, without -either the sanction or the restraint of religion. -But it could not be crushed, and so the -Church let it alone; with the result that, -though murder was regarded as a sin, a war -of dynastic or national ambition was not -by people generally considered sinful. No -doubt theologians condemned such war in -general terms; St. Thomas Aquinas, for -instance, seems to regard as fully justified -only such wars as are undertaken to protect -others from oppression, and some of the -greatest Popes made heroic efforts to govern -national policy according to righteousness. -But in the general judgment of the Church, -international action was not subjected to -Christian standards of judgment at all. This -way of regarding the Church sometimes leads -people to speak of "alternative" loyalties -so that they ask, "Ought I to be loyal to my -Church or to my nation?" And while faith -and reason will combine to answer "To my -Church," an imperious instinct will lead most -men in actual fact to answer "To my nation." The -attempt to exalt the Church to an -unconditional supremacy has the actual result -of making men ignore it when its guidance is -most needed.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Whatever truth there may be in the -statement that the Reformation was in part due -to the growing sentiment of nationality, is -evidence of the failure of the old Catholic -Church in this matter. In England at any -rate one main source of the popular -Protestantism was the objection to anything like -a foreign domination. No doubt the political -ambitions of the Papacy were largely responsible -for the feeling that the Catholic Church brought -with it a foreign yoke. But the whole principle -of the Church as non-national necessarily -meant that the Church was regarded as -"imposing" Christian standards rather than -permeating national life with them. The -Church tended to ignore the spiritual function -of the State altogether, claiming all spiritual -activity for itself alone; and thus it tended -to make the State in actual fact unspiritual, -and involved itself in the necessity of -attempting what only the State can do. It thus not -only tended to weaken the moral power of the -State, but also forsook its own supernatural -function to exercise those of the magistrate -or judge, so that faith in the power of God -was never put to a full test. The Reformation -was not only a moral and spiritual reform of -the Church, but the uprising of the nations, now -growing fully conscious of their national life, -against the cosmopolitan rule of Rome. But -the Reformation did not fully realise its task. -It expressed itself indeed in national Churches, -but in actual doctrine tended to individualism; -whereas Catholicism laid emphasis on religion -as the gift of God, Protestantism, at least in -its later development, laid stress on the -individual's apprehension of the gift. But -not only the individual—everything that is -human, family, school, guild, trade union, -nation, needs to apprehend and appropriate -the gift of God. The nation, too, must be -christened and submit to transforming grace.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The uprising of the national spirit has had -the deplorable result of contributing to the -break-up of Christendom, but it is not in itself -deplorable at all. All civilisation has in fact -progressed by the development of different -nationalities, each with its own type. If we -believe in a Divine Providence, if we believe -that the life of Christ is not only the irruption -of the Divine into human history but is also -and therein the manifestation of the governing -principle of all history, we shall confess that -the nation as well as the Church is a divine -Creation. The Church is here to witness to -the ideal and to guide the world towards -it, but the world is by divine appointment -a world of nations, and it is such a world that -is to become the Kingdom of God. Moreover, -if it is by God's appointment that nations -exist, their existence must itself be an -instrument of that divine purpose which the Church -also serves.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The whole course of Biblical revelation -supports this view. It is quite true that if -we were to read the New Testament for the -first time, knowing nothing whatever about the -Old, we should come to the conclusion that it -almost entirely ignored nationality and -everything which goes with it. But then the Church -has always maintained that the New Testament -grows by an organic life out of the Old, and -presupposes it; and when we go back to that, -there can be no doubt whatever about its -view of nationality. The whole of the early -books of the Old Testament are concerned -with this, and almost nothing else. The task -of Moses in the wilderness, of Joshua, of -the Judges and the early Kings, is precisely -to fashion Israel into a nation. So much is -all attention concentrated upon this that we -find a contentment with that contraction -of the moral outlook which presents to many -modern readers the chief stumbling block about -the Old Testament. Almost everything that -was serviceable to Israel is approved. Rahab -is guilty of sheer treason to her own city of -Jericho, but it is serviceable to Israel, and -there is no word of condemnation. Jael is -guilty of a very treacherous murder, but it -was serviceable to Israel, so "Blessed shall she -be above women in the tent."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Everything is concentrated upon this primary -object of fashioning Israel into a nation -and persuading individual Israelites to put -the welfare of the whole before the interest -and ambition of their own clique or faction; -and when the time came for an advance to -a wider view, it came precisely not by way of -saying that national divisions do not matter -and that national life itself is unimportant, -but by insisting that nationality is equally -precious in these other nations all around -Israel as it is within Israel itself.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The turning point here as in so much else -in the Old Testament is the Book of Amos, -the first of the written prophecies. It is -worth while to try to imagine the effect of -those opening clauses. The prophet begins -by securing a willing hearing from those to -whom he writes: in other words he begins -by abusing their neighbours.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Damascus, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof...."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Gaza, yea for four, I -will not turn away the punishment -thereof....</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Tyre, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof....</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Edom, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof....</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of the children of Ammon, -yea for four, I will not turn away the -punishment thereof....</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Moab, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof...."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>And then, without a change of phrase, -without even the compliment of a heightened -denunciation—</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Judah, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof....</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"Thus saith the Lord: For three -transgressions of Israel, yea for four, -I will not turn away the punishment -thereof...."[#]</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Amos i, 3-ii, 6.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It would be impossible more emphatically -to insist that all nations, Israel and the rest, -stand on an equal footing before the Judgment -Seat of God, and are to be regarded as real -entities, and real moral agents; but that -is not enough for the prophet.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"Are ye not as Children of the Ethiopians -unto me, O children of Israel?—saith -the Lord."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>I have no more care for you than the -Ethiopians—who then, as now, were black folk.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"Have not I brought up Israel out of -the land of Egypt, </span><em class="italics">and</em><span> the Philistines -from Caphtor, and the Syrians from -Kir?"[#]</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Amos ix, 7.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It is the God who had guided the history -of Israel who has equally guided the history -of the despised Philistine and the hated -Syrian. And this line of thought reaches its -culmination where we should expect to find -it, in the works of the statesman-prophet -Isaiah. His little country of Judah was -likely to be destroyed by the hostilities of -Assyria and Egypt, and in the middle of -that peril, when these nations were at each -other's throats, he looks forward and says:—</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"In that day there shall be a highway -out of Egypt to Assyria and the Assyrian -shall come into Egypt, and the Egyptian -to Assyria; and the Egyptians shall -worship with the Assyrians."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>There shall be free intercourse between -them, and worship of the one God shall be -the link between them.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"In that day shall Israel be the third -with Egypt and with Assyria, a blessing in -the midst of the earth, for that the -Lord of hosts hath blessed them, saying, -'Blessed be Egypt my people, and Assyria -the work of my hands, and Israel mine -inheritance?'"[#]</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Isaiah xix, 23-25.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Just picture the pallid frenzy of the orthodox -Jew at the words—"Egypt my people."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The teaching of the Bible is plain enough; -and as we come to the New Testament, with -all this in our minds, knowing the emphasis -that has already been laid upon nationality, -we find that there, too, is the note of patriotism.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No man has ever loved his nation more -than the Lord loved Israel, and in the -bitterness of disappointment in the lament over -Jerusalem we have the measure of His -patriotic love for the holy places of His people.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>St. Paul, the author of those great ejaculations—"That -there can be neither Jew nor -Gentile, Greek nor Scythian, bond nor free, -but one man in Christ Jesus"[#]—is also the -author of the most ardent expression of -patriotism in all literature.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Gal. iii, 28; Col. iii, 11.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"I say the truth in Christ, I lie not, my -conscience bearing witness with me in the -Holy Ghost, that I have great sorrow -and unceasing pain in my heart. For I -could wish that myself were accursed -from Christ for my brethren's sake, my -kinsmen according to the flesh; who are -Israelites, whose is the adoption, and the -glory, and the covenants, and the giving of -the law, and the service of God, and the -promises; whose are the patriarchs, and of -whom is Christ as concerning the flesh."[#]</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Rom. ix, 1-5.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>One can almost hear him panting as he -dictates the words.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Bible, then, strongly insists upon the -nation as existing by divine appointment, -and it looks forward, not to the abolition of -national distinctions, but to the inclusion of -all nations in the family of nations. So -it was well that nationality should insist -upon itself within the sphere of religion in the -movement that we call the Reformation. But -it left us with a broken Christendom, and with -what are called national Churches. The old -Church endeavoured to tyrannise over the -State; under the influence of the Reformation -the State tended to tyrannise over the Church. -Then comes a movement towards a free Church -in a free State; but we shall only find -satisfaction when we have a free State in a free -Church.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The nation is a natural growth with a -spiritual significance. It emerges as a -product of various elementary needs of man; -but having emerged it is found to possess -a value far beyond the satisfaction of these -needs. The Church is a spiritual creation -working through a natural medium. Its -informing principle is the Holy Spirit of God -in Christ, but its members are men and women -who are partly animal in nature as well as -children of God. The nation as organised -for action is the State; and the State, being -"natural," appeals to men on that side of -their nature which is lower but is not in itself -bad. Justice is its highest aim and force -its typical instrument, though force is progressively -less employed as the moral sense of the -community develops: mercy can find an -entrance only on strict conditions. The Church, -on the other hand, is primarily spiritual; -holiness is its primary quality; mercy will -be the chief characteristic of its judgments, -but it may fall back on justice and even, -in the last resort, on force.[#] Both State and -Church are instruments of God for establishing -His Kingdom; both have the same goal; -but they have different functions in relation -to that goal.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] See </span><a class="reference internal small" href="#appendix-ii">Appendix II</a><span class="small">.: </span><em class="italics small">On Moral Authority</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The State's action for the most part takes -the form of restraint; the Church's mainly -that of appeal. The State is concerned to -maintain the highest standard of life that can -be generally realised by its citizens; the -Church is concerned with upholding an ideal -to which not even the best will fully attain. -When a man reaches a certain pitch of development, -he scarcely realises the pressure of the -State, though he is still unconsciously upheld -by the moral judgment of society; but he -can never outgrow the demand of the Church. -On the other hand, if a man is below a certain -standard, the appeal of the Church will not -hold him and he needs the support of the -State's coercion.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Neither State nor Church is itself the -Kingdom of God, though the specific life of the -Church is the very spirit and power of that -Kingdom. Each plays its part in building -the Kingdom, in which, when it comes, force -will have disappeared, while justice and mercy -will coalesce in the perfect love which will -treat every individual according to his need.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Church which, officially at least, ignored -nationality has failed. The Church which -allowed itself to become little more than the -organ of national religion has failed. The -hope of the future lies in a truly international -Church, which shall fully respect the rights -of nations and recognise the spiritual function -of the State, thereby obtaining the right to -direct the national States along the path -which leads to the Kingdom of God. We are -all clear by now that the Christian Church -cannot be made the servant of one nation; -we must become equally clear that it cannot -be regarded as standing apart from them, so -that in becoming a Churchman a man is -withdrawn in some degree from national -loyalty. We must get rid of the idea of -"alternative" loyalties. The Church is -indeed the herald and the earnest of that -Kingdom of God which includes all mankind; -but unless all history is a mere aberration, -that Kingdom will have nations for its provinces, -and nations like individuals will realise -their destiny by becoming members of it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We shall, then, conceive the relation of -the nation to the Church on the analogy -of that between the family and the nation. -There is in principle no conflict of interest or -loyalty here. The family is a part of the -nation, owing allegiance to it; but the nation -consists of families and can reach its welfare -only through theirs. So the nation (in -proportion as it is Christian) must learn to regard -itself as a member of the family of nations -in the Catholic Church. No doubt in this -imperfect world there is often a conflict of -supposed interests, and sometimes even of -real interests. Moreover, there is often -room for doubt as to where the true interest -lies. But the family finds its own true welfare -in the service of the nation, and the nation -finds its own welfare in the service of the -Kingdom of God.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Catholic Church, which is itself not yet -a society of just men made perfect, while -upholding the ideal of brotherhood and the -love which kills hate by suffering at its hands, -and while calling both men and nations to -penitence and renewed aspiration in so far -as they fail to reach that ideal, will none -the less recognise the divinity of the nation -in spite of all its failures. It will not call -upon men to come out from their nation or -separate themselves from its action, unless it -believes that then and there the nation itself -is capable of something better, or unless the -nation requires of them a repudiation of the -very spirit of Christ, or an action intrinsically -immoral. If it is doing the best that at the -moment it is capable of doing, the Church -will bid its citizens support it in that act, -lest the nation be weakened in its defence of -the right or its control handed over to those -who have no care for the right.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Church then must recognise the nation -having a certain function in the divine -providence with reference to man's spiritual -life. It must not try to usurp the State's -functions, for if it does it will perform them -badly, and it will also—which is far more -serious—be deserting the work for which it -alone is competent; and the State must, in -its turn, recognise the Church as the Society -of Nations, of which it with all others is -a member.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Nothing but such a spiritual society can -secure fellowship among nations. Schemes of -arbitration, conciliation, international police -and the like, presuppose, if they are to be -effective, an admitted community of interest -between the nations. But this must be not -only admitted but believed in sufficiently to -prompt a nation which has no interest in a -particular dispute to make sacrifices for the -general good, by spending blood and treasure -in upholding the authority of the international -court or council. What will secure this, -except the realisation of common membership -in the Kingdom of God, and in the Christian -Church, its herald and earnest?</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And yet the Church we know is not only -divided but at war within itself. This, the -Creation of God in Christ, is not more free -from strife and faction than the nations, -which are natural growths. If grace fails, -how can nature succeed? Why should we -expect the nations of the world to be at -peace, when the sections of the Church are at -war?</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Because the Church is so far from what -we hope it may become, we can only sketch -that future Church in outline. Its building -will be the work of years, perhaps of centuries. -And probably enough our attempt will fail -as Hildebrand's failed; probably enough there -will be scores of failures; but each time we -must begin again in order that for Christ and -His Spirit a Body may be prepared, through -which His purpose may in the end of the ages -find its accomplishment, and the nations of the -earth bring their glory—each its own—into -His Holy City.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is the goal; dimly enough seen; but -the method is perfectly plain. "Thomas saith -unto Him, Lord, we know not whither Thou -goest; how know we the way? Jesus saith -unto him, I am the way." And when that -way led to the Cross, beside the innocent -Sufferer there were two others. One cried to -Him, "Save Thyself and us"; the other -recognised His royalty in that utmost -humiliation and prayed, "Jesus, remember me when -Thou comest in Thy Kingdom." He, and he -alone in the four Gospels, is recorded to have -addressed the Lord by His personal name. -Penitence creates intimacy, whether it be -offered to God or to man.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We have been made very conscious of the -burden of the world's pain and sin, though -perhaps that burden, as God bears it, is no -heavier now than in our selfish and worldly -peace. Will the Church pray to Him, "Save -Thyself and us"? or will it willingly suffer -with Him, united with Him in the intimacy -of penitence, seeing His royalty in His crown -of thorns? Will it, while bidding men bravely -do their duty as they see it, still say that the -real treasures are not of this world though they -may in part be possessed here, suffering -whatever may be the penalty for this unpopular -testimony? For the kingdoms of this world -will become the Kingdom of our God and of -His Christ only when the citizens of those -kingdoms lay up their treasure in heaven and -not upon the earth, only when, being risen -with Christ, they set their affection on things -above—love, joy, peace, loyalty, beauty, -knowledge—only when they realise their fellowship -in His Body so that their fellowship also in -His Holy Spirit may purge their selfishness -away.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Here is field enough for heroism and the -moral equivalent of war. The Church is to -be transformed and become a band of people -united in their indifference to personal success -or national expansion, and caring only that -the individual is pure in heart and the nation -honourable. In her zeal for that purity and -honour, and in her contempt for all else, -she may have to suffer crucifixion. It is -a big risk that the Church must run; for -if she does not save the world she will have -ruined it, besides sacrificing herself. If there -is no God nor Holy City of God, the Church -will have just spoilt life for all her faithful -members, and in some degree for every one -else as well. But if her vision is true, then -everything is worth while—rather the greatness -of the sacrifice is an addition to the -joy when the prize is so unimaginably great. -Can we bring this spirit into the Church? -On our answer depends the course of history -in the next century, and a new stage in the -Coming of the Lord.</span></p> -<blockquote> -<div> -<div class="line-block outermost"> -<div class="line"><em class="italics">The Spirit and the Bride say, Come.</em></div> -<div class="line"><em class="italics">And he that heareth, let him say, Come.</em></div> -<div class="inner line-block"> -<div class="inner line-block"> -<div class="line"><em class="italics">Yea: I come quickly.</em></div> -</div> -<div class="line"><em class="italics">Amen: come, Lord Jesus.</em></div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="justice-and-liberty-in-the-state"><span class="bold large">LECTURE III</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">JUSTICE AND LIBERTY IN THE STATE</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"Think not that I came to destroy the law or the prophets: -I came not to destroy but to fulfil."—S. Matthew v., 17.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>I.—In the last lecture I said that justice -would seem to be the typical virtue of the -State, as holiness of the Church. Let us, -then, first consider this virtue of justice in the -light of our Lord's teaching concerning one of -the most familiar aspects of justice—its penal -aspect.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Those sayings that have of late given rise to -so many searchings of heart among Christians—the -sayings about turning the other cheek -and the rest—are given by our Lord as -explanations of the saying that He came "not -to destroy the law but to fulfil it." The -words "to fulfil" of course mean not only -to obey and carry out, but to complete.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In what sense is this teaching of our Lord -the completion of the law? For the law of -Moses, like every other law, was concerned -with regulating the relations of men to one -another, as well as their duties towards God; -and it enforced what it enjoined by penalties.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>At first sight no doubt it looks as if He were -directly contradicting what had been said to -them of old time—</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"Ye have heard that it was said, -An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: -but I say unto you, That ye resist not him -that is evil; but whosoever smites thee -on thy right cheek, turn to him the other -also, and if any man will sue thee at the -law, and take away thy coat, let him -have thy cloak also."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>How is this the fulfilment or completion of -the Mosaic or any other law? At this distance -of time, it is hard to remember what was the -original significance of the law of retaliation. -We are inclined to think that the words -"an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" -are intended to give a licence to that degree -of vindictiveness; but on the contrary, in -the primitive stage in which that enactment -was given, it was not a licence given to man's -instinct for vengeance, but a limitation set -upon that primitive and animal instinct, -whose natural tendency, if unchecked, is to -take two eyes for an eye and a set of teeth for -a tooth. The </span><em class="italics">lex talionis</em><span> said—Only an eye -for an eye, and only a tooth for a tooth.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our Lord carries the same principle further; -not even that degree of vindictiveness is -allowed. The first necessity was to put -bounds upon man's natural and almost -insatiable lust for vengeance. The next -was to tell him that the whole method of -vengeance could never succeed in what is its -only really justifiable aim. For what is the -true function of the law, whether that of -Moses or any other? It is always two-fold; -it must always aim not merely at checking -the evil act, but at converting, if possible, the -evil will.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There has never, I suppose, been any legal -system which was not justified by its -upholders on this ground. No one is really -content, to think that the punishment which -he inflicts, or may imagine himself as inflicting -through the agency of the State, or in any -other way, is purely deterrent; he always -thinks it will also be reformative. But, how -are you as a matter of fact to attack the evil -will? The mere infliction of penalty will not -of any necessity achieve this goal at all. We -know that it is very seriously debated whether -our whole system of punishment in the -civilised States of to-day has any really moral -effect, at least upon those who fall under its -most severe penalties. Probably most convicts -leave prison worse men than when they -entered. For if a man is below a certain -level in moral attainment, pain, far from -purifying, only brutalises and coarsens. It is -only those who are already far in the path of -spiritual growth who are purified by suffering, -even as the Captain of our Salvation was thus -made perfect. But it is still true that the -aim of all penal law is twofold; to check the -evil act and, if possible, to convert the evil -will.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now, as I suggested previously, mere -restraint may have indirectly a positive moral -value; as for example in the case of a child, -who is potentially of very diverse characters. -He has the capacity to grow in many different -directions, and it will depend very much upon -his surroundings, and the influences which -play upon his character, whether this set of -instincts or that receives development; and -here merely to keep forcibly within bounds the -development of certain impulses, which tend -to grow out of proportion to the proper -harmony and economy of nature, may -indirectly have the effect of preserving that -harmony and thus develop genuine virtue in -the soul. And again, with those whose -characters are relatively formed, the direct -restraint, for example, of State action may have -positive moral value, inasmuch as it is the -expression of the moral judgment of Society. -What most of us would shrink from, if we were -in danger of imprisonment, would not be the -physical inconvenience, which is not very -great, but the fact that we should have brought -ourselves under the censure of Society, and -acted in such a way as to put ourselves below -the level which Society generally considers -itself justified in enforcing. And so the -purely restraining influence of the State, even -operating through force, may have a positive -moral value, because it represents, and is the -only way at present devised of representing, -the judgment of Society, and to shrink from -the judgment of Society is, so far as it goes, -a really moral fear. It is not indeed the -highest ground for the avoidance of evil, -but it is a moral ground, for it arises from -our recognition of our fellow-membership -in Society with those whose censure we fear.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But the State in all its actions is of necessity -mechanical, and cannot take account of the -individual, and all that makes him what he is. -The State officer cannot know the prisoner in -such a way as really to determine the -treatment allotted to him in the light of what is -best for his spiritual welfare; and therefore -he has to fall back upon rough and ready rules -which will never be perhaps very far from the -right treatment, though they may fail to -allot the ideal treatment in any single case. -And here, in parenthesis, let me just mention -that this is the chief reason why metaphors -and comparisons drawn from the law-courts -are so sadly misleading when used to illustrate -the relation between the human soul and God; -our only fear of the judge is concerned with -what he will do to us; but what we fear with -our father, on earth or in Heaven, is not so -much what he will do to us, as the pain we -have caused—"There is mercy with Thee; -therefore shalt Thou be feared."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our Lord's method is the only one that aims -straight at the evil will; it is the only method -which has in it any real hope of converting the -individual. It may fail time and again; but -it is the only one that has a chance of real and -absolute success.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Let us look for a moment at the instances -which He chooses to illustrate the principle, -and we shall see at once that they are carefully -chosen. All the acts chosen are such as are -particularly vexatious to the ordinary natural -and selfish man—being struck in the face; -having a vexatious suit brought against one; -being pestered by a beggar; being compelled -to do something for the public service when we -are busy. Those are just the things which the -natural man resents and which the real -Christian will not mind at all. For, after all, -there is no real injury in being struck in the -face, or having one's coat taken away. What -one minds is the insult to one's precious -dignity; and the Christian who, by definition, -has forgotten all about himself will not mind -such injuries at all. Therefore if the acts -commanded are spontaneously done and not -done with a laborious conscientiousness—that -is to say if they are done in the spirit of -Christianity, and not in the spirit of -Pharisaism—they will express a complete conversion -in the will of him who does them; they will -express absolute conquest of self, and a concern -solely for the welfare of him with whom we -are dealing; and there is no heart yet made -that can resist the appeal of love which is -constant in spite of every betrayal, the appeal -of trust which is renewed in spite of endless -disappointments.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"He that loveth his brother"—says -St. John—"walketh in the light." He is the -man who knows where he is going, because he -is the man who understands people and sees -into their hearts. They will reveal to him -secrets of their nature, which they will hide -from the contemptuous and indifferent; and -even if at first he is from time to time -disappointed and betrayed, in the end his method -will succeed, because love and trust create -what they believe in.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The justice then, which we find at work in -the State, is always a provisional thing pointing -us to something more, something which the -State itself by its very constitution is unable -to provide, but which God provides in Christ, -and will enable us in our measure to provide, -if we are faithful, at least in the circle of our -immediate activities, so far, that is, as the -range of our sympathy will carry us.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>II.—The value of the justice which the -State is able to secure actually resides for the -most part in the liberty which it makes -possible. Justice, as the State interprets it, -is of itself, as far as I can see, almost totally -valueless. I can see no kind of advantage in -merely allotting so much pain to so much -evil. There is moral evil in a man and you -put physical evil into him as well. I do not -see how you have made him or anyone else -the better. Only in so far as the punishment -is either deterrent or reformative, has it any -moral value at all; and only in the latter -case, where it reforms the character, can the -value be called in the strict sense moral. -So far as it only deters men from evil acts -which they would desire to commit, it may -add to the convenience of the other members -of Society, but it is not doing any direct moral -good.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Indirectly, however, it has moral results; -for when we enquire in what sense we can -say that such justice as the State secures -produces liberty, the first answer is to be -found in the obvious and elementary fact -that the liberty of every one of us depends -upon our knowledge that certain impulses -and instincts in other people, should they -arise, will be checked and not allowed to -receive full expression. Our liberty is -increased by that check put upon predatory -or homicidal impulses in other people, and -their liberty depends upon the suppression -of such impulses in us.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>So far it would seem that there must be -in the most obvious sense of the words -a certain curtailment of everybody's liberty -in order that anybody may have liberty at -all. If we are all to be free to indulge our -passions of anger and hatred, should such arise -within us, then it is quite clear that there will -be very little freedom of action in the Society -which rests on that principle. Everyone will -go about in fear of everyone else.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But that is a very small part of the business. -The chief contribution of such justice to human -liberty is that it supplies the necessary -conditions of discipline without which there -can be no liberty. We think of liberty as -meaning freedom from external constraint. -We think that an act of ours is free when -we can say, "I did it, and no one made me -do it"; but very little reflection is sufficient -to convince us that a man whose life is actually -governed by one or several over-developed -passions which he will, as a matter of fact, -always gratify when opportunity offers, in -spite of the damage that is done to his whole -life and to his permanent and deliberate -purpose, is not really a free man. To be tied -and bound with the chain of our sins is just -as much slavery as to be in the ownership -of another man; and we can acquire the real -liberty which is worth having, the liberty, -that is, to shape our lives, to live according -to our own purpose, following out our own -ideal, only in so far as our natures have been -welded by discipline into unity, so that we -are no longer a chaos of impulses and instincts, -any of which may be set in motion by the -appropriate environment, but are self-governing -persons controlling our own lives.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Liberty, in so far as it is of any value, -always means self-control in both the senses -of that term: in the sense that we are only -controlled by ourselves, and also in the -sense that by ourselves we are controlled, -and that every part of our nature is subservient -to the purpose to which our whole nature is -given. Legislation is really an instrument of -self-discipline. The people who write books -about political philosophy are mainly members -of the respectable classes. They naturally -find it rather difficult to envisage -themselves as liable to commit murder and the -like; and they are therefore very liable to -represent the criminal law of the State as -being enacted against a few undisciplined -or recalcitrant members. But when we look -at the thing more closely, we see that what -a community does, especially a democratic -community, when it passes a law, is to invoke, -every member upon his own head, the penalties -enacted by that law, if he should do the -act which the law forbids.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Let us consider, for example, an international -convention. What is the use of nations -agreeing with one another not to do -something, for instance not to poison wells, -unless there is some chance that in a moment -of strong temptation they may desire to do -it? They therefore strengthen their deliberate -purpose to avoid such acts by entering into -an agreement with one another always to -avoid them. There would be no object in -doing this unless they needed help, or thought -that they might at some time need help, -in living up to their own purposes.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And we have to remember that in this -way the law of the State is, as a matter of -fact, perpetually operating upon every one -of us. We are often liable to suppose that -it is only active in relation to those people -against whom it is definitely set in motion; -but it does operate in the life of every -one of the citizens of a community; because -the fact that certain actions would involve -us in State-penalty most undoubtedly does -keep all of us from indulging in those actions -at certain times, even though at calm moments -we recognise that it would be wrong to do so. -Trivial instances are nearly always the clearest. -Most of us, I suppose, are sufficiently honest to -desire in general terms to pay for what we -buy; and we should perhaps usually pay -for our places in the train, even if there were -no ticket-inspector; still, the existence of -the inspector just clinches the matter.[#] The -possibility of the penalty as a matter of fact -helps to maintain our general, permanent, -and deliberate purpose of honesty against -a momentary temptation to be dishonest; -and so far it is helping us to live up to our -purpose, or, in other words, is increasing -our real freedom. In fact, one main test of -good legislation is precisely whether it does -or does not in this way develop real freedom -by increasing people's power to live by their -own deliberate purpose.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] I owe the illustration to Mr. A. L. Smith, of Balliol.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Now so far we have been considering -Society as consisting of relatively free persons -(though the freedom exists in varying degrees, -both as regards the external constraint and -capacity for self-control), these persons having -various claims which have to be regulated -by the justice which the State upholds; -in other words, in this stage, we are regarding -justice in the way in which I suppose it is -most usually regarded, namely, as rendering -to a man what is due to him. That is the -definition with which Plato in </span><em class="italics">The Republic</em><span> -starts his enquiry, and he naturally found -very soon that it would not work.[#] It will -not work because the moral values of people -are not determinable. You cannot, as a matter -of fact, ever say what is the relative weight -of the various claims that may be made on -behalf of this or that man. Most particularly -there is the perpetual conflict between the -actual and the potential worth of any men.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] He appropriately puts it in the mouth of Polemarchus, -the well-brought up, but wholly inexperienced, young man.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Suppose that we decide that we will give -to all men in Society that which is their due. -How are we going to determine what is due? -Is it to be determined by their economic -value, for example by the amount they are -contributing to the economic or general welfare -of Society? Well then, there are a large -number of people at both ends of what we -call the social scale who ought to receive -nothing at all, because they are contributing -nothing economically, or, indeed, in any other -way, to the public welfare. And yet that is -not their fault; they have been brought up, -it may be in squalor, it may be in luxury, -but in either case in circumstances which -have made them almost incapable of -anything like good citizenship. Are we to kill -such persons, or leave them to starve, in the -interest of the public welfare? All human -instincts will protest that this is unjust, -and that they can claim more than they can -possibly be represented as contributing, simply -because they have had, as we say, bad luck, -and it is not their fault.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] See </span><a class="reference internal small" href="#appendix-iii">Appendix III</a><span class="small">, </span><em class="italics small">On Justice and Education</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Let us try what happens if after Plato's -example we turn the matter upside down, -and instead of saying that justice will be -found when there is rendered to each man -what is due to him, we say that justice is -found when each man contributes what is -due from him.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now logically, of course, these two are the -same, because duties and rights are absolutely -correlative. My rights constitute other -people's duties towards me, and their rights -constitute my duties towards them. The only -difference is that it is far more easy in any -given case to determine what is due from -somebody—what can be claimed from him—than -to determine what is due to him.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In this imperfect stage of the world, where -we are passing through the transition from -something like barbarism to Christian civilisation, -as we hope, it is possible that of two -correlative processes, one will actually carry -us further than the other even though it is -logically inseparable from it. And in fact we -find at once, that if we put it this way, and -say that the principle of justice is not that -each man should obtain what is due to him, -but that each should contribute what is due -from him, we are coming to the central -principle of God's administration of His -world, which is that we should render to every -man not according to his desert, but according -to his need. Indeed for practical purposes, -if we are wishing to bring justice into our -own dealings, and into the dealings of any -public body with which we may have influence, -this principle will carry us further than any -other—"Render to every man according to -his need."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Let us suppose that we meet on one day -with two beggars. One of them is a man who -has borne a good character throughout his -life, and has lost his work through no fault of -his own; the works on which he was employed -were closed, and he is now tramping in search -of more work. All of us of course will say—"He -deserves help and we will help him." Yes; -and it is quite easy to help him. We -have only to set him up again, and all will be -well. It is not his own fault and we can -rely upon him to make use of another -opportunity. The other beggar is a man who has -lost this place, as he has lost many before, -through indulgence in some vice, such as -drink. There are very many people who will -say, "Well, it is his own fault, and now he -must suffer for it." If God had taken that -line with us, where would our redemption -be?—"It is his own fault, now he must -suffer for it." To say that is to repudiate the -Gospel in its entirety. It is to call the Cross -absurd and scandalous. "God commendeth -His love toward us in that while we were yet -sinners Christ died."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No; the Christian will say, "This man -needs help more than the other." It will not -be the same kind of help. It is no use merely -to give him money. That may merely help -him to go wrong quicker than he would -otherwise. He needs something that will -cost us, probably, more than money; he -needs our time—time to make friends; time -to remove his suspicions; time to enter into -real sympathy with him, and to detect what -elements of strength there are in his character, -that we may build them up again. But he -needs help more than the other, and the -Christian will be bound to give it, and he will -say—"It was his own fault; he cannot -help himself; it depends entirely on us; we -will render to him according to his need."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And all of this would lead to another -formula for describing the justice which we -shall desire to practise in the State, and in all -our secular life of which the State is the -highest organisation—The recognition of -personality.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I do not know at all what forms your labour -unrest in takes in this continent, but I claim to -have considerable opportunities of knowing -what is the root of that unrest in England, -at least among the better type of working -people; for I am concerned with an organisation -which is at work among working folk -all over England, having an enormous -membership, and which aims at claiming for them, -and supplying them with, further facilities for -education. Those with whom I thus come in -contact are picked men, no doubt, because -those who join an educational association are -thereby marked off at once as intellectually -at least more alert than those who do not -join; but as I go about them, I find no room -whatever for doubting that the root of the -labour unrest in England is a sense that the -whole organisation of our life constitutes a -standing insult to the personality of the poor -man. Why, for example, he feels, should it -be possible for a well-to-do man to secure for -himself, or for his wife, or for his child, the -medical attendance that may be needed, while -he in very many parts of our country depends -upon institutions maintained by voluntary -contributions? It is quite compatible with -gratitude to those whose generosity maintains -these institutions to feel that for such service -he should not be dependent upon anybody's -charity at all—whether the solution is to be -that the State maintain such institutions or -that every man who is doing his fair share of -the country's work receive for himself the -wage that will enable him to deal with such -emergencies as they arise.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Above all, men feel the denial of their -personality in the organisation of industry -itself. Men have fought and died for political -liberty, which means the right to have a voice -in making the laws by which you are to be -governed. But the laws of the State do not -for the most part invade a man's home, -whereas the regulations of an industrial firm -do. They determine when he shall get up in -the morning and when he shall go to bed; -they determine whether he shall have any -leisure for the pursuit of any interest of his -own. In the making of those regulations he -has, as a rule, no voice whatever, and no -opportunity of making his views understood -except by threat, the threat of a strike. The -men feel that they are what they are sometimes -called, "hands" not persons. They are the -tools of other men. You must apply all this -to your own country, if and so far as it does -apply. But one might easily imagine a village -in Lancashire, or any other industrial district -where all the inhabitants are dependent upon -one industry; there are many such; and the -control of that industry may be in the hands -of a Board of Directors, settled perhaps in -London; it may only meet a few times a year -for the transaction of business, and otherwise -not exist at all. They never see the people -whose lives and destinies they thus control. -The shareholders who want their dividends -make no enquiries as a rule about the conditions -in which the work is done. If that Board of -Directors mismanages its business the village -in Lancashire goes hungry. If that Board of -Directors, when they have already got a full -supply of work, takes on another large -contract, that village in Lancashire works -overtime; and the people have no say in the -matter. Whatever else that is, it is not -liberty, and in the judgment of the people -themselves it is not justice. And indeed it -is not either justice or liberty as we have -learned in other spheres to understand those -terms. The economic organisation of life -comes far closer to the individual citizen than -the political organisation, and the development -of justice remains incomplete until it has -secured liberty of an economic as well as a -political kind.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>If it is true that the method of Christ is -to appeal to the free personality of the man, -so that he obeys out of love and devotion -and not from fear of penalty nor hope of -reward, other than the reward of realising -the love of the Master, then surely it is in -the true line of development towards the -perfected Christian civilisation if we demand -that these opportunities for the development -of free personality shall be afforded. No -doubt it must be done with wisdom. Rough -and ready methods, however well-meant, -might do far more harm than good, and -leave us in a situation even worse than -that which we know. But the Church has -paid scarcely any attention to those things -in England. It is very difficult to persuade -Church-people that, because they are followers -of Christ, and therefore might be assumed -to recognise that they are "members one of -another" with all these others, they are -therefore bound (for example) in investing their -money to find out the conditions under which -their dividends are going to be earned. In -almost every department of life we have -left such things alone. Under the stress of -war, we have suddenly become acutely conscious -of the drink evil. It was there before; -and we have been content that the great -majority of our fellow citizens should have -no opportunity for gratifying those instincts -of social life and merriment, which are the -birthright of all God's children, except in -places where the influence of alcohol was -supreme. We have been content with that. -We have not thought it was our duty to find -a means of supplying them with other places -of recreation and amusement; we have saved -our money. And then we have the impertinent -audacity to claim our own redemption -by the blood of Christ.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>One can go on with one evil after another -in the same way. This is what makes the -Church weak. It is no sort of use for us -to say that Christ is the Redeemer of the -world, and the Revealer of the way of life, -if with regard to just those evils which press -most heavily on men we have to say that -for them He has unfortunately not supplied -a remedy.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No doubt if these evils are to be dealt with -on a large scale, the work must be done by -the State, for nothing else is adequate; -and the Church here has two main tasks. -It is no part of the Church's task to advocate -general principles or particular maxims of -economic science, though its members, -in their capacity of citizenship ought to be -active in these ways. The first task of the -Church is to inspire the State, which after -all very largely consists of the same persons -as itself, with the desire to combat the evil; -and the second is to counteract the one -great difficulty which the State experiences. -When the State takes up such work as this, -there is one thing which we all fear: -"Officialism." What is "Officialism"? -Simply lack of love; nothing else in the world. -It consists in treating people as "cases," -according to rules and red tape, instead of -treating them as individuals; and the Church -which must inspire the State to want to -deal with these things, must then supply the -agents through whom it may deal with them -effectively, inspiring them with the love of -men which is the fruit and test of a true -love of God.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But beyond all this, the Church must be -making demands far greater than it has ever -made upon man's spiritual nature and spiritual -capacity, and must then point to the organisation -of our social life and say—"That organisation, -because and in so far as it deprives -men of the full growth of their spiritual -nature, because and in so far as it prevents -them from taking the share which belongs -to God's children in His worship and the -enjoyment of his gifts of nature and Grace, -is proved to be of the devil."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In our worship we find for the most part -what we expect to find. There may be gifts -offered us, gifts from God, that we never -receive because we have not looked for them. -It is in our intercourse with Christ that we -shall find the means of solving the horror -of our social problem, if we are expecting -to find it; but we have not expected it. -We have not really believed that He is the -Redeemer of the World; we have not looked -to Him for the redemption of Society. The -State by itself, until the Church comes to its -help, can do something indeed, but something -which by itself is almost worthless.[#] It -supplies the indispensable foundation without -which a spiritual structure cannot be built -up; but, if that building never comes, the -foundation by itself is little more than useless. -To those whom the social order favours -it offers real liberty and life, but no inspiration; -a perfect social order would offer liberty to -all, but still no inspiration. The State alone -can never be the house of many mansions -wherein every soul is truly at home.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] It is to be observed that the State is by its very nature -largely limited to the regulation of those human relationships -where men oppose each other with rival claims; as soon as men -rise to the reciprocity of friendship the method of the State -is inappropriate. People do not go to law to determine -whether either loves the other adequately.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="holiness-and-catholicity-in-the-church"><span class="bold large">LECTURE IV</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">HOLINESS AND CATHOLICITY IN THE CHURCH</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"This is the law of the house: upon the top of the mountain -the whole limit thereof round about shall be most holy. -Behold, this is the law of the house."—Ezekiel xliii, 12.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">"And I saw no temple therein: for the Lord God Almighty, -and the Lamb, are the temple thereof."—Revelation xxi, 22.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The Bible gives us two elaborately conceived -pictures of the perfected life of man. -The first is that which occupies the closing -chapters of Ezekiel's prophecy; its leading -feature is the immense separation which is -insisted upon between the Temple and the -secular City. The Hill of Zion has become a -very high mountain; upon the top of it the -Temple is set, and there is a wide space, -at least two miles, between it and the City of -Jerusalem, which has been moved away by -that distance to the south.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Indeed, if we take the description as intended -to be complete, the City seems to exist chiefly -to provide a congregation for the Temple's -services, and the Prince only to offer -representative worship on behalf of His people. -All attention is concentrated upon the place -of the worship of God, and the holiness which -is to be characteristic of that place. By thus -keeping the Temple holy, through separating -it from the body of the City and its secular life, -the Prophet attains no doubt the end he has -in view, but he also, of necessity, though -probably unintentionally, leaves the suggestion -that the secular life itself cannot be wholly -consecrated.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In sharp contrast with this is St. John's -picture in the Book of Revelation; here there -is no specific place of worship at all, for the -whole City is the Temple of God; more than -that, the whole City is the very Holy of Holies, -for it is described as being a perfect cube, and -the Holy of Holies in Solomon's Temple -was a perfect cube.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"And the city lieth four square, and -the length thereof is as great as the -breadth: and he measured the city with -the reed, twelve thousand furlongs; the -length and the breadth and the height -thereof are equal. And he measured the -wall thereof, and it was one hundred and -forty and four cubits."[#]</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Rev. xxi, 16, 17.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The City thus corresponds in symbolic form -with the Holy of Holies. It is become the -dwelling place of God. No special shrine is -needed, no place to which men draw apart, -because their whole life is an act of worship, -and God dwells among them in their daily -activities.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is one feature about this Heavenly -City, which is obscured through the use -of the old terms of measurement, for this -cube is described as being 1,500 </span><em class="italics">miles</em><span> high, -1,500 </span><em class="italics">miles</em><span> broad, and 1,500 </span><em class="italics">miles</em><span> long; -but the wall which stands for defence against -foes without and for the containment and order -of the life within, and indeed represents -in general the principle of organisation—the -wall is only 216 </span><em class="italics">feet</em><span> high; so small a thing is -order in comparison with the life which it -safeguards.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is between those two poles, which are set -for us as the extreme terms in a process, -that the Church must live its life. There is -truth in both of them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We were considering in the last lecture -justice and liberty, which are the supreme -achievements of the National State. Let us -to-day consider the Holiness and Catholicity, -which are the supreme treasures of the -Church.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Holiness must come first, Holiness which -means absolute conformity to the will of God. -Whatever obstacles there may be to overcome, -whatever seductions to avoid, the Church is -to remain absolutely devoted to the Divine -Will. Only so can it be catholic or universal. -It might for a moment achieve an all-embracing -unity by giving up everything that is offensive -to men, and gathering all within it under -the glow of a comfortable sentiment; but then -its life would be gone, and after a little while -the men who had all become members of it -would be just as though they had not. Only -a Church which is perfectly loyal to the Will -of God, can possibly be the home for all -mankind.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But Holiness has always had two meanings—an -outward and an inward, a ceremonial -and a moral. We shall agree, I suppose, -in saying that the outward and ceremonial -is in itself of no consequence, and exists -only in order to preserve and make possible -the inward and spiritual conformity to God's -Will; but for that purpose, as all human -experience has always shown, it is quite -indispensable. We are made of bodies as -well as souls, and if our whole being is to be -permeated, there must be bodily expression -of that which our souls enjoy or need. We -must worship with our bodies as well as with -our souls. So St. Paul, after all his emphasis -upon the spirit as against dead works, begins -his practical exhortation with the words, -"I beseech you, therefore, brethren, by the -mercies of God to present your bodies a -living sacrifice."[#] The physical and bodily -expression is always necessary, in this human -life of ours, to the full efficacy and to the -survival through the ages of the spiritual, -though this no doubt is alone of ultimate -consequence.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] Rom. xii, 1.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>If the Church is to maintain its Holiness, -it must of necessity be to some extent separated -from the world; it cannot mix as a Church -in all worldly activities. It cannot simply -set itself out to permeate the general life of -men, maintaining nothing that is separate -and apart for itself. If it does that, it will -simply be lost in the general life of the world.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In the last resort our characters depend -almost entirely upon the influences that play -upon them in our environment; the one place -where we have effective choice is in determining -the influences to which we will submit -ourselves. If there is no place in our society, -or in the world, where men may count upon -finding the power of God in purity, then men -will inevitably fail to rise above that sort of -character, which their worldly environment -happens to be forming in them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Church then, precisely in order to do -this work in the world, must keep itself in -some sense separate from the world; but -the vast majority of its members are people -in the daily life of the world, pursuing their -avocations there; and it would plainly be -wholly disastrous to require that all Christian -people, in virtue of their Christianity, should -withdraw themselves from the ordinary -concerns of men.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is, therefore, no means by which -this separateness of the Church can be achieved -unless there are certain persons set apart -to be representatives of the Church, and of the -Church only; and who, because they are -official representatives of the Church are -thereby deprived of the right to take part -in many worldly activities, though these in -themselves are right enough.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is not because they are more truly -members of the Church than others, nor -because there is a different moral standard -for clergy and laity, but because in the whole -life of the Church there are certain functions -which are incompatible with others, just as in -the State a man cannot be at the same time -an advocate and a judge, or commander-in-chief -and ambassador.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Thus, for example, as it seems to me, -one who is called to be a priest of the Church, -inevitably forfeits the right to take part in -the hurly-burly of party politics; partly -because, in a world which consists of many -parties, he is responsible for bringing before -men the claim of God to which all the parties -ought to bow; partly also because a man's -activities inevitably affect the quality of his -own mind, and if we are to be as it were -repositories of the Eternal truths, if we are -to have ready for dispensation all the treasures -which God commits to His Church, we need -a type of mind which cannot, at least by most -men, be maintained, if we are engaged in -heated controversy and frequent debate.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Another example may be found in the -question whether a priest should serve as -a combatant in his country's army. He is -called to represent the Church; and the -Church is essentially, not accidentally, -international; it is not international merely as -a scientific society may be, in that it is not -concerned with political frontiers and men of all -nations are welcome within it; but it is -international in the sense that it exists to bind -the nations of the earth in one. The officer -of such a society may be as patriotic in his -feeling as anyone else, but, just because he is an -official, for him to take positive action on one -side of the other weakens the Church's -international position, and is, therefore, a more -serious act than it is in the case of the layman. -Here again there are not two standards, -but there are diverse circumstances. If the -Church called on all its members to refuse to -serve, the result would be to interfere with -the freedom of the State to act in its own -sphere; if it allows everyone to serve, it is -deprived of its Catholic witness just when that -is most vitally needed. The only way of -doing justice to the legitimate claims of both -nationalism and Catholicity, is to differentiate -between persons; and there is no practicable -or even sensible way of doing this except -to make the Church's officers responsible for -the Catholic witness and its lay, or unofficial, -members for the national.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But does this not involve the danger of -a priestly caste? Yes, no doubt it does; -but there are two ways in which we may avoid -falling into that danger. The first is -perpetually to remember that men are called -by God to the different kinds of work which -He has for them to do; and we shall avoid -unctuousness, which is no doubt what men -most dread about a priestly caste, if we keep -it perpetually in our mind that we are not -personally holy because our calling is. We -are entrusted with this great charge. We -have to fulfil it. It is our work for Him. -But there are those whom He calls to serve -Him as politicians and as soldiers; if they -do their work as in His sight, and to His glory, -they are serving Him every bit as much as -we are. All the work of all the kinds of men -is needed in the world, and it is only if we -suppose that we are made more holy because -our calling is concerned with the specifically -holy things that we shall fall before that -danger.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And the other safeguard, paradoxical as -it may sound, is a very complete specialised -training. One of the reasons, I am quite -sure, why lay people often find us rather -stilted and uncongenial is because we have -not secured a sufficient grasp upon what is -our own special subject to feel full liberty -in conversation and to speak naturally. -We are perpetually wondering at what point -we shall be suddenly compromising that for -which we are responsible. We tend to utter -(and even to hold) merely conventional opinions -and to express ourselves only in the -stereotyped phrases, because we have not sufficient -grasp of spiritual and moral truth to trust -ourselves in forming individual opinions, or -in finding our own language for expressing the -opinions which we form. Precisely in the -degree in which we know our own work -and have full possession of what is entrusted -to us, shall we obtain liberty and ease of -manner, and be in general behaviour just like -other people, which is what we ought most -to desire.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Still it is in the person of its priests that -the Church must maintain that outward -holiness, that separation from the world, -which alone makes possible a concentration -upon things divine; and without this -concentration it can never become a catholic -or universal body. "Universal," here does -not, of course, mean all-inclusive. There are -those who definitely and deliberately reject -the claim of Christ, and those have never been -submitted in any way to His influence. -The unbaptized heathen are not members -of the Catholic Church; and if they refuse -the Gospel when it comes, they remain outside. -Moreover, as we have seen, there is possible -a vicious as well as a holy catholicity. There -is nothing so seductive as the temptation to -suppose that doctrine which evokes a response -is on that account true, or particularly to -be emphasised. Sometimes people dislike the -truth. There are people who are alienated by -it; and the attractiveness of our gospel to -people, irrespective of their frame of mind, -is no evidence of its divinity. There is a -picture in the Old Testament where Moses the -Prophet is apart upon the mountain top, -communing with God, while at the foot of -the mountain, Aaron, the official priest, is -ministering to the people the kind of religion -they like. He was encouraging them, as the -Psalmist satirically says, to worship: "the -similitude of the calf that eateth hay." There -was nothing very dignified about it. -But it was what the people liked; and the -response to his ministrations was immediate -and immense. Our task is to lay hold, so far as -we may in our infinite feebleness, of the truth -that was given to the world in Christ in all -its sternness as well as its love—or rather -in that sternness which is an essential part of -its love; and this is what we must present to -men.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Again, it is not in proportion to their -virtue in the ordinary moral sense that men -are drawn to the Church; it is in proportion -to their conscious need of God. It is perhaps -worth while just now especially to emphasise -the peril of a faithless virtue, and the depth -of error involved in any attempt to take for -the basis of a Church "the religion of all -good men." What will happen to a man who -sets his effort upon the building up of his -whole character according to an ethical ideal? -One of two things. Either he may in part -succeed, perhaps as much as he himself desires -to succeed, and then he may become -self-satisfied and a Pharisee; or else he will find -himself either failing altogether, or, having -succeeded in part, incapable of carrying the -success to its full completion, and not knowing -where to find the power that will take him -further; and so he ends in despair.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No, the appeal of the Church, as universal, -is simply that it has within it that which -answers the real and deepest need of every -human being. There everyone will find his -home, when once he has found his need of God, -if indeed the Church is holy.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And this is also its distinction from the -sects; for it endeavours to uphold the entire -body of the truth, every particle of it that -may be of service to anyone. I suppose -there are very few of us to whom the whole -of the Creed is a living reality. We may believe -it all, but what we live by is usually a small -part of it, and it is a different part with different -persons. The essence of sectarianism, as -I understand it, is the gathering together of -those people who live by the same part of the -Creed, in order that, like mingling with like, -they may develop a great intensity and fervour -of devotion. For a moment, indeed, they -may be far more effective than the great -body of the Church, and yet they cannot -become universal. There is something lacking -from what they uphold, which someone needs.[#] The -aim of the Church is to be universal -here also, and to uphold the entire body of -the truth, presenting it in its entirety, even -though the priest who is called upon to fulfil -that office of presenting it to the people may -himself be actually living by the slenderest -portion of it. No doubt we shall present -most forcibly that part of the whole truth -which is most real to ourselves; and for that -reason, if no other, we ought to try our utmost -to gain a personal apprehension of the whole. -But men's spiritual diseases are of many -kinds, and all the healing truths must be -offered by the Church in which all men are to -find life.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] This is a description of Sectarianism, not of any -particular Denomination. We are all infected with the sectarian -spirit. In many respects Rome is far more sectarian than the -great Presbyterian bodies in Scotland. With all its faults I -sincerely believe that the Anglican Communion is, in spirit, -more of a Church and less of a sect than any other body. -But then it contains several sects within itself, both "High," -"Broad," and "Low."</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The truth which it thus presents, the -Church believes to be the gift of God. This -above all is the idea which it tries to -safeguard by the outward signs of regular orders -and sacraments.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our belief about the communion service -is that there Christ comes to us just as once -the eternal Word, which was present with all -His creation, none the less came in full -manifestation under the limitations of time and -space at a particular moment and in a -particular country. So in the communion the -Divine presence which fills the whole world -("Heaven and earth are full of His glory," as -we say in the service itself) is offered to us, -and draws near to us; and that not because -of any virtue in us; it was while we were -yet sinners that Christ came and died; it -is while we are yet sinners that Christ offers -Himself to us; and it is as guarding against -any conception that we can determine how -He shall come, or when and where, and that -we can, as it were, manufacture His presence -in our own way, that the Church maintains -with the utmost emphasis the order that -is necessary for that service.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is to preserve the conception of spiritual -life as a gift of God, and of the Church as the -society which recognises and receives it as -such a gift, in distinction from a mutual -benefit society organised for the edification -of its own members, that the Church insists -upon the due order of its administration; -and it is through concentration upon this -idea of holiness, and all that it ought to mean -in our personal lives, that we can make our -greatest contribution towards bringing into -existence again a real Catholic Church, a -Church which shall genuinely include all the -persons who believe in Christ in one order and -fellowship. The first and indispensable -condition of re-union is fuller dedication to the -will of God in Christ. We shall be united to -one another when we are all truly united to -Him.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But, if that work is to be accomplished, -we shall also need wisdom, in order rightly -to counteract the effects alike of folly and of -sin in the past history of the Church; and -here every man must be willing to make -what suggestions he can, merely submitting -them for acceptance or rejection by the whole -body of the Church; because unless people -are prepared to speak of the problem as they -see it, leaving the final judgment to be formed -by the body of which they are members, -there is no hope of our making any progress -at all.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I will therefore, venture to suggest to you -six principles, upon which, as my vision is at -present, I think we might come near to -agreement among ourselves; and if we should -agree upon them, then we could offer these or -whatever modifications of these the Church -thinks fit, to those bodies which are at present -in separation from us.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I.—First, what do we mean by the Church? -Ideally and in its eternal reality it is the Body -and Bride of Christ, the instrument of His -will and the object of His love, worthy as -both. But in the process of time and upon -the stage of this world, what are we going -to mean by it, and who are we going to account -its members? When people begin to think -of this question, they always start with various -enthusiastic schemes. The members of the -Church are the people who have faith, or the -people who are conscious of the need of -pardon, and the like; but all of this breaks -down because you can never tell who these -people are. We must have some perfectly -plain outward sign if the Church is to be -an operative agency in this world; and you -will find, I think, that there is none which -you can reach except that it is the fellowship -of the baptized. Baptism is the Lord's own -appointed way by which men should be -received in the fellowship of His disciples. -We must take that as our basis.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is no business of ours to pronounce -judgment upon the spiritual state of other -persons. We shall thank God for every sign -of the Christian virtues and graces shown -in other persons who have not been brought -to baptism; we may believe that they are -members of the Church in heaven; but -still, I would submit, we must say for all -purposes of practical working, that the Church -on earth is the fellowship of the baptized.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>II.—That fellowship exists in fragments -and sections. What is the peculiar mark of -our fragment? This is authoritatively defined -for us in the Lambeth Quadrilateral,[#] but our -special character may be expressed briefly -by saying that we are trustees for the Catholic -order, who yet reject what seem to us the -accretions which the Church of Rome upholds.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] (</span><em class="italics small">a</em><span class="small">) The Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments. -as "containing all things necessary to Salvation," and as -being the rule and ultimate standard of faith.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">(</span><em class="italics small">b</em><span class="small">) The Apostles' Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol; and -the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian -faith.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">(</span><em class="italics small">c</em><span class="small">) The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself—Baptism -and the Supper of the Lord—ministered with unfailing -use of Christ's words of institution, and of the elements -ordained by Him.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">(</span><em class="italics small">d</em><span class="small">) The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods -of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and -peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Now some such order as that which we -maintain, is necessary, as it seems to me, to -the fulfilment of the duty of charity. I -hope I am not unfair to those who are separated -from us, and are influenced by the ideals of -Puritanism; but it has seemed to me that -their discipline is not always charitable. -Indeed, a Church must either excommunicate -freely or else possess a recognised order if it is -to avoid becoming indistinguishable from "the -world" about it; if it is to be both holy and a -friend of sinners it must have an order. The -order which we maintain is simply that -which has come down to us as the actual -order of historic Christendom.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>III.—Thirdly, I would submit that the Body -with its orders is a living whole, and that it -is illegitimate to discuss such a question as -the "validity" of Orders out of all relation -to the historic life of the Church. The question -of Orders must be considered in relation to -the whole life of the Body of which they -are an organic part.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] See </span><a class="reference internal small" href="#appendix-iv">Appendix IV</a><span class="small">. </span><em class="italics small">On Orders and Catholicity</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Thus, if we take the famous Quadrilateral -as our starting point, a body which -stands by the Canonical Scriptures, the -Creeds and the two great Sacraments, though -not upholding the episcopal succession, is -closer to the ideal than one which is indifferent -to any of these three as well as to the -succession; it has maintained many of the -(ex hypothesi) essential features of a true -Church; it approximates to the complete -requirement. Moreover, within the field of -the problem of Orders, there are degrees of -approximation; it is generally considered -that an agreement between the Anglican -and Presbyterian communions could be far -more easily reached than between the Anglican -and some other Protestant bodies. We -must, therefore, avoid two kindred errors. -One is to set up the abrupt dilemma—"Either -a true Church or not," and the -other is to regard the possession of "valid" -Orders as being the one and only condition -of the Catholicity of the body possessing -them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The Church Visible cannot be identical -with the Church Invisible; it is its sacrament. -And the question resolves itself into one -concerning the degree of adequacy with which -it expresses, </span><em class="italics">and thereby maintains through -the ages</em><span>, the fulness of the truth.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Our actual divisions in the West date -from the Reformation. No one disputes that -the Church just before that time was corrupt -to a horrible degree. It is possible to hold -that the corruption could have been purged -away without schism if the reformers had -been wholly free from pride and impatience; -I see no means of reaching a sound judgment -on such a point; but at least it would seem -that the guilt for the great division was as -much in Catholics as in Protestants. In so -far as there really was necessity of choosing -between moral purity with schism on the one -hand, and organic unity with sales of -indulgences and the like on the other, there can -be no doubt which the whole teaching of -Christ required His followers to choose. "I -will have mercy and not sacrifice"; "the -Sabbath was made for man, not man for the -Sabbath"; yet the Sabbath and the sacrifice -were of Divine appointment.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>If then a fragment of the Church, confronted -as it believes, with such a choice, breaks off -and organises itself afresh, intending to -maintain in purity all the Church's life and means -of grace, I cannot assert that it is for all -its generations deprived of Christ's -sacramental presence. But assuredly the loss -of the continuous order which so impressively -symbolises the Divine origin of the Church -and of its Sacraments tends to undermine -the intention to preserve the whole truth -and to obscure belief in it. For Orders, -as we understand them, are the pledge of -the unity of the Church across all space -and through all time, so that the priest -who celebrates, does so as the organ and -instrument of the universal Church, and the -congregation at every Eucharist is not the -few persons gathered together in that building, -but Angels and Archangels and all the -company of Heaven, with whom we join in prayer -and worship.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>IV.—Consonantly with this I would come -to my fourth principle—that the whole -question of Orders and Sacraments must be -considered in reference to the Church's life through -the ages, and not with direct reference to -the gift received by any individual at any given -service.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>How are we to secure (this is our -problem) that from generation to generation -men shall continue to feel that in the service -of the Holy Communion Christ comes to -them as by His own appointment, and they -have only to be ready to meet with Him; -and that in meeting with Him they are united -with the whole Church in the Holy -Communion, the Communion of Saints? I -believe that the continued recitation of the -Creeds in our own and other branches of -the Church is the main safeguard, not only -for ourselves but also for those who do not -say the Creeds, against that combination of -Pelagianism and Unitarianism to which men -always tend to drift; similarly I can conceive -that, just because we uphold the full conception -of sacramental worship, others are enabled -to receive sacramental grace at their -communions. It may be so; I know not. Of -course it cannot be received if it is not there; -but even if it is there, its full benefit will not -be enjoyed except by those who believe in -its full power. Two men may stand opposite -the same picture; both see the same lines -and colours, the accidents; but it may be -that only one sees the artistic reality or -substance—the Beauty—while the other is -blind to it. But the man who finds it does -not put it there; the artist put it there; -and if he had not done so no one could find -it there; so too the reality of the Sacrament -is the work of God. But our fruition of it -depends on our faith, and even on the exact -content of our faith. Now I do not for a -moment believe that that faith in the full -doctrine of sacramental grace can survive -through the centuries, if it is once separated -from the whole order which expresses it. -Therefore, while I am not entitled to deny, -as I am equally not concerned to assert, -that the members of other denominations -at their communion service receive the same -gift that we do; still I say that as trustees -for the Catholic order, and considering the -matter in the light of the centuries, we have -no right to sacrifice any of those means by -which this full doctrine has been given to -us, and by which perhaps it has been also -preserved for them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>V.—Fifthly, I would suggest that in any -scheme for practical reunion no man must -be required to repudiate his own spiritual -ancestry.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>After all, if the Church is the fellowship -of the baptized, then our brethren of the -separation, as we sometimes call them, are -members of the Church; but they are not -members of our branch of the Church; and -their faith is corporate and active in their -membership of their own bodies; consequently -we are bound to hold that they and their -bodies are parts of the Catholic Church -in this time of the division—the division which -is due to sin.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>If it is true that it was largely, and perhaps -mainly, the fault of the medieval Church -that the split became a necessity; if it is -true that it was partly, and perhaps mainly, -the fault of the Church of England that -the Wesleyan movement (for example) ever -broke off, because we refused to make room -for what was in its early stages most -undoubtedly a movement of the Spirit of God -in the world, then we have no right to -condemn those who by reason of our sin, at -least as much as their own, are outside our -fellowship; and we must recognise that, -just as in St. Paul's argument about the -true Israel, blindness in part happened -to Israel, and so God used the Gentiles -to provoke them to jealousy—so blindness -in part happened to Catholicism, and God -is using the Protestant bodies to provoke -us to jealousy.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We must, I believe, maintain that our order -is for us the only possible order for the reunited -Church. But order is not everything. The -wall of the Holy City is minute. When the -time for reunion comes, we must insist upon -our own part of the truth in such a way as -to avoid all condemnation of other bodies -for having been separated during this -time—at least, all condemnation which we do not -pronounce quite equally upon ourselves. What -has happened in the divisions of the Church -is a severance from one another of elements -which are every one of them necessary to -the healthy life of the Body. If one set of -people could only get dry food and no drink, -and another set could only get drink and no -food, neither would be healthy. They would -have to combine their stores before health -was possible. Catholics have preserved -perhaps a fuller sense of worship and of the gifts -of God; Protestants have perhaps a truer zeal -for righteousness and a more intimate access -to God in prayer. Let us not judge the past; -God will judge. But let us recognise our need -of one another and accept from each other -the positive truth and life which God has -given to either.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>VI.—Meanwhile, in the time of the division, -different bodies have developed different types -of religious life. There is a wealth of spiritual -activity in the world now such as it is difficult -to imagine under a rigidly united Church; -but we can easily preserve that if we are ready -that there should be within the United -Catholic Church different Orders—an Order -of St. George Fox for example, testifying to -the great ideal which Christ brought into -the world, not as I think, and as I have -already explained, the right ideal to be -followed by all men in all sorts of circumstances, -but undoubtedly the one method by which -in the end the work of God can be finally -accomplished, and for testimony to which -I believe some men, and indeed the whole -Society of Friends, are even now called by God. -Also there may well be an Order of St. John -Wesley, insisting more especially upon the -need of individual conversion, which the -Church, as a vast organisation concerned -with world movements, is perpetually tempted -to leave too much on one side. These Orders -can quite well govern themselves to a very -large extent, and order their worship in very -many ways, just as is the case in the Orders -familiar in the medieval Church, and in the -Church of Rome at this time.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>These are the principles which I would -venture to submit. Probably not one of -them will win universal assent even in our -own communion. But amid all our amiable -sentiments it is time for somebody to say -something definite, or as definite as the -complexity of the problem allows. In criticising -and rejecting individual utterances we may -at last reach a corporate mind.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But let me add one particular warning -about the way we go: for in my own mind -I am quite sure that the Communion is -just the place where we need to be divided -until our unity is real. People say "How -terrible to be separated there." Yes, terrible -indeed! It is the measure of the sin of schism. -But we must not try to escape the consequences -of the sin until we have got rid of the sin -itself. I say nothing of the problem of the -mission field or of the possibility of -exceptional occasions.[#] But I am quite sure that -in normal Church life, where all people have -access to their own services, intercommunion -can only be disastrous, as tending to obscure -the need for real unity, and the difference -between the various excellences whose -combination is to be desired.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] It must of course be recognised that the problem of -intercommunion in the mission field is of urgent practical -importance. On the present situation, the Archbishop -of Canterbury's statement, </span><em class="italics small">Kikuyu</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>But let us come back to what after all is -the only true guarantee and the only -condition of reunion—the achievement of holiness; -that holiness needs, as we have seen, to be -safeguarded, and the safeguarding of it is -peculiarly entrusted to us, the ministers of -the Church. What need then for personal -dedication! For upon the degree in which -we are wholly given to our work depends -in large measure the time when God will -reunite His Church.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We keep separate even from many right -activities, but only in order to keep -pure that spirit by which we are to -permeate the whole life of the world, bringing it -to bear, so far as we are able in our detachment, -upon every sort of problem, private or -public—industrial, commercial, political, -international—till at last the whole world is -governed by that spirit, and there is no need for -separation any more nor for any special -place of worship nor special order of religious -ministers; for then the world and the -Church will be indistinguishable in the Holy -City of God, wherein is no temple, because -the Lord God Almighty and the Lamb are -the temple of it.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="the-citizenship-of-heaven"><span class="bold large">LECTURE V</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">THE CITIZENSHIP OF HEAVEN</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"Our citizenship is in heaven."—Philippians iii. 20.</span></p> -<p class="noindent pnext"><span class="small">"He that hath seen me hath seen the Father."—S. John xiv. 9.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>We have considered in outline the functions -of the State and of the Church, the two great -instruments of God for the furthering of His -kingdom. Let us now turn to consider, still -in mere outline, for nothing more is possible, -the nature of that Kingdom itself.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There are very many ways in which the -subject might be approached, but I think -that it will be most consonant with the general -line of our thought in these meditations -that we should consider it as the home of man's -spirit, the fulfilment of his spiritual being. -And to that end, inasmuch as the Kingdom -can only be known by living according to the -principles of its citizenship, and our present -effort is by its very nature intellectual only, -we must try to reach it in thought as the goal -towards which the whole spiritual life of man -is tending.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No life can be set forth in scientific terms. -The moment it is analysed, the vitalising power -is gone. And even the poet, who has far more -chance than the logician of making us realise -what the life signifies for those who live it, -is still speaking of it from outside. It is only -by life itself that we can truly know the -Kingdom of God.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We find, all through the New Testament, a -contrast drawn between earth and heaven. -And it is worth while to consider the logical -principle of that contrast, even though the -result is somewhat dry and barren. The -place of careful analysis here is analogous to -that which criticism holds in relation to art. -The critical analysis of a work of art will -never of itself enable us to appreciate it, if we -are without the cultivated artistic faculty; -but it may enrich our appreciation. We may -thereby find more than we should otherwise -have found of the elements that are combined -together to make up the total effect. And -then in the unity of the renewed experience -we receive more enjoyment than we had done -before. So, too, the Kingdom of God, which -for us is something that we still hope to reach, -and of which the foretaste that we have as yet -received is a very slight earnest of the glory -that shall be revealed, may be a goal more -potent in its attraction to our wills, when we -have seen it as the fulfilment of the principles -of our whole spiritual life as these are -discoverable in other departments and activities.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The goods of this world, as we have already -noticed, are such that the more one has the -less there is for others. The goods of heaven -are of such a kind that the more one has the -more there is on that account for others. -So it is with the true virtues of the spiritual -life, with love and joy and peace, the fruits -of the spirit. So it is too with other excellences -which belong to man as a spiritual being, and -which are out of the reach of our animal -nature: loyalty, beauty and knowledge.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now the principle of this whole spiritual life is -precisely the principle of unity, not as distinct -from variety but as distinct either from -antagonism or transitoriness. The two things -that distress the soul of man are enmities, -and the passing away of that which he loves. -It is by rising above these evils, which beset -us in this earthly state, that the satisfaction -of the soul is found.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There are four main departments of the -spiritual life which aspire in this way to rise -above the evils which beset our mortal state. -They are Science and Art and Morality and -Religion. As we know them in our experience, -they are all of them due on the human -side to a dissatisfaction with our experience as -we find it. The scientific man is disturbed by -the apparent chaos in his experience, and he -sets out to give order to it, and he is satisfied -in so far as he discovers that all the while it -was not chaotic, as it seemed, but orderly. -The artist is craving for a beauty which, in -his ordinary experience, he does not find. -He selects, he concentrates attention on -certain aspects, to reach a satisfaction which -the world otherwise seems not to give. The -man of moral aspiration is dissatisfied with the -world as he sees it, and he sets himself therefore -to alter both himself and it, that it may be -modelled more in accordance with the heart's -desire. And the religious man finds all of -these sources of dissatisfaction working -together within his soul; he seeks, and in faith -finds, that which gives him both peace and -power.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Let us then begin with what is in itself -the least rich of these forms of human activity, -and consider how it is that Science reaches -its unity. Let us first recall that there are -two forms of multiplicity or division which we -are seeking to overcome: that which arises -from the clash of various ideals or desires, the -antagonism of man with man; and that -which arises from the changeableness of the -world as we see it. With regard to the latter, -science does indeed reach real unities; but -they are unities which leave Time out of sight. -Sometimes, no doubt, the subject matter -which is handled is itself non-temporal, but not -in the sense of being eternal. So, for example, -geometry is entirely without relation to time. -There is no temporal sequence between the -equality of the sides and the equality of the -angles in the isosceles triangle. But where the -subject studied is something that changes in -Time, it remains true that the aim of science -is to reach an unchanging principle. So, for -example, the student of biology may be -trying to discover the unchanging principle -which governs the successive variations of -species. But when he has found it he has not -really mastered the transitoriness; he has not -in any way gathered up the past and dead into -his present experience; he has merely found -the principle which applies to every stage as -that stage comes. He reaches some superiority -to the transitoriness of things, only by -abstracting from Time altogether.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And, similarly, the unity between men -which is produced by a common absorption -in such pursuits does not strike very deep. -For a man's temperament has nothing in -the world to do with his scientific conclusions, -or at least ought not to have. In the ideal -pursuit of knowledge, all of the things that -set men at variance count for nothing -whatever. Consequently the differences, just -because they are ignored, are not overcome, -with the result that, as at the beginning -of this war, we may find professors of the -various nations, who had been linked together, -as one might think, closely enough in the -pursuit of knowledge, hurling manifestoes -at one another across their national frontiers.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>When we pass to the second of the great -departments, a real progress may be noted -in just these points. For in the experience -of the artist Time is genuinely mastered. -We get some illustration of this from the -absorption which marks the aesthetic -contemplation of a picture or a statue. For -the time that we are really held by it, we -forget about time altogether. But the case -is clearer with regard to those arts which -handle temporal processes—music and poetry. -For it is the whole point, let us say, of a -drama, that it shall follow a certain succession; -it is vital to its significance that the scenes -shall be in that order and no other. If you -have two plays, each in three acts, in one of -which the first act is cheerful in tone, and -the second is neutral, and the third depressing, -while in the other the first act is depressing, -the second neutral, and the third cheerful, -the total effect of the two plays is not the -average of the three acts in each case, which -would be neutral for both, but is in the one -particularly depressing, and in the other -particularly cheering. For the play is grasped -as a whole. It makes a single impression, -if it is a good play. We know what it means—not -indeed because we can state it in other -words, for it is the only expression of its -own meaning; but it has a definite significance -for us. And the name of the play comes to -stand for that significance. This is especially -noticeable in tragedy, where the Greeks, -with their sure instinct, chose a story whose -plot is known to the spectator in advance, -so that we have throughout the play both -the impression of the entire story and the -particular impression of each scene as it comes -and passes. It is significant that the Greeks -did so choose for tragedy stories whose plot -was known, while their comedians invented -their own plots. And most will agree that -we enjoy a great play better when we have -read it in advance, or when we have already -seen it on the stage before; because then we -do reach something that may serve perhaps -as the nearest image that we can get for -eternity—a grasp of the whole stretch of -time, realised in its successiveness and in -the meaning which that successiveness gives -to it, and having the sense of the whole -throughout and seeing each moment, as it -comes, in the light not only of the past but -of the future too.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>On this side, then, art is able, for the -moment at least, and with regard to a period -definitely limited by our capacities of -comprehension, to master Time and give us a unity -which includes its successiveness within it; so -that the past, and even the future, are gathered -up into the real experience of the present, and -we are not only conscious of what is before -our eyes, but are conscious of it as a part of -the whole to which it belongs.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In a similar way we notice that while -different temperaments are needed for the -production of different types of art, yet in -appreciation all are united. For example, -it would be quite impossible for the great -Russian novels to be produced in any other -country than Russia; it would have been -quite impossible for the great German -philosophy to have been produced in any other -nation than Germany; it would have been -quite impossible for the great English poetry -to have been produced in any other nation -than England. These literatures belong to -the soil out of which they spring. But the -people of all the other nations can appreciate -them, and all are glad because they are -different. And so far as the artistic side of -our nature governs our whole being, it is -capable of linking us together in a real -fellowship, which includes and is based upon our -differences and the appreciation of them, -and is therefore firmly rooted, because what -might have been the source of antagonism -is become itself the bond of unity.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But we must notice that each of these only -reaches a very provisional attainment. If -science likes to mark off a certain department -of reality for its investigation, it can reach -something like finality concerning just that -department. I suppose that mechanics is -something like a complete system of truth, -so far as the mechanical aspect of things -can be isolated from all other aspects. But -then, nothing in the world is mechanical and -only mechanical. Nothing in the world is -chemical and only chemical. There are always -other qualities there, from which abstraction -has been made. Science therefore inevitably -sets before itself as its goal the -understanding of the universe, and it could not -reach any absolute certainty concerning any -real fact except so far as it had obtained -omniscience. In mathematics it reaches -certainty, because in mathematics the object is -what it is defined to be, and nothing else. But -no given material thing is just a triangle. It -may even be disputed whether any given -thing can be, according to the definition, -a triangle at all.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Science then is marked by a restlessness -until it reaches this omniscience. It began -when the first man said "Why?" The -moment that question is asked, Science is -launched upon its course. But the answer to -that question merely prompts anyone of -scientific instincts to say "Why?" to the -answer. Why is there a war? Historical -science will point to the diplomatic documents, -and from them to the course of history -moulding national aspiration. Then if we -say, "Why was the cause of war such? And, -why were there such national aspirations?" -we shall find ourselves soon investigating the -literature of the countries and then their -climates; from this we are shortly involved -in astronomy and geology and all the other -sciences. You can have nothing that is final -until you reach omniscience. And so Science -moves, perpetually saying "Why?" to every -statement that is made. Far in the distance, -in the infinite distance, is its goal of a -complete satisfaction gained through understanding -the universe in its entirety.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Art can similarly only achieve a provisional -attainment of its goal; but the attainment -while it lasts is more substantial. Its method, -as distinct from that of science, is mental rest. -The aim of the artist is to concentrate attention -upon the object, holding it there by various -devices. That is why pictures are put into -frames. Something abruptly irrelevant, -although not discordant, is put round the -object to help us fix our minds upon it. That -is why poetry is written in metre. The mind -is abruptly brought back by the recurrence -of the rhythm or the recurrence of the sound -in rhyme, and held within the total -composition. We notice that it is precisely where -the subject matter of the poem is slight that -the rhythm needs to be strongly marked or the -system of rhyme complicated; where the -subject matter itself has a strong appeal, -any rhyming seems to be out of place and -tiresome. The aim is simply to grip the -attention and hold it upon the object and -make us see it as it is; not after the fashion -of science, connecting it with other things, -but understanding it by getting to know it -in and for itself as thoroughly as may be.[#] Now -in thus concentrating attention upon -some one object and claiming complete -absorption in that object, art is implicitly -claiming to give a perfect mental satisfaction -and an absolute peace. But it can never -succeed in that unless the object upon which -it is concentrating our attention is an adequate -symbol for the whole truth of things in which -the whole of our nature will find such satisfaction.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] This is why no great work of art over becomes out -of date, whereas the work of a great scientist is always liable -to do so, because his successors revise it in the light of ever -widening knowledge.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Moreover, these activities of the mind or -spirit fail to govern our lives as a whole -precisely because they are contemplative and -not active. We stand before the world gazing -at it, setting our minds indeed to work upon -it in certain ways, yet not fundamentally -changing it. But we are active beings, with -wills as well as contemplative minds, and our -volitional action lies very largely outside the -range which these activities and interests can -control. And therefore it is that so little -real unity is reached by means of them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In Morality the practical instincts and -impulses are for the first time included. -Morality is the science or the art, or both, of -living in society; of living, that is to say, as -fellow members with other beings, who also -have aspirations and ideals as legitimate as -our own, so that our own claim to pursue our -own ideals must be won by recognition of -their equal claim to pursue theirs. And the -man who, with full mastery of himself, if such -a man exists, is following out a great purpose -that is adequate to satisfy his whole nature, -is a man who has achieved the conquest of -Time in the completest way. It is essential -to the pursuit of a purpose that we move -from stage to stage, as we adapt means to our -end, and yet all of it is one thing, thought and -experienced as one. Indeed a test that we -always instinctively apply to a biography is -whether it enables us to see the different -stages of a man's life as constituting one -spiritual whole. That is just what we desire -the biographer to set forth before us.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>At the same time Morality conquers -antagonism because it is the life of fellowship. -It begins with the recognition that other men -have as much right to live as we have, and we -buy our rights precisely by conceding theirs. -Its root principle is the recognition of this -brotherhood or fellow-membership. And yet -it, too, never reaches its goal; it fails in two -ways; every man in this world, however -perfectly he may achieve mastery of his own -nature—and it may be doubted if any man -has ever done even that by his own strength—is -so conditioned by circumstances that he is -never able to make his life a perfect masterpiece -of art; and as regards the whole fellowship -of which he is a member, and his own -relation to it, he can find no absolute rules -except the command to reach a state of mind -which he cannot reach by his own will. There -are no moral laws that are absolute except -the law to love one's neighbour as oneself. -All the rest have exceptions somewhere. -"Thou shall not kill," was the formula of the -old law. But we have altered it into, "Thou -shalt do no murder." It is always wrong to -murder, because murder is such killing as is -wrong. But it is not always wrong to kill. -And so we find no principle that can be made -entirely binding and universal, except the -law to love our neighbour as ourselves. But -how are we to do it? Is there any man who -seriously thinks that by taking thought he -can make himself love somebody else?</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>All of these three then, and the last as -emphatically as any, in spite of its -comprehending a greater section of human nature, -fail to reach their own achievement.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In the fourth stage, in Religion, all would -find their fulfilment. For the purpose of God, -if there be a God, is the principle of unity -which the scientist is seeking. The nature of -God, if there be a God, is that perfect beauty -which would be the culmination of the life of -Art. The righteousness of God, if there be a -God, is the satisfaction of the moral aspiration. -But we are not left so to conjecture what life -would be like if we could carry our own -spiritual faculties to their own highest development. -We are given the express image of the -person of God. "He that hath seen Me hath -seen the Father." We shall not indeed have -perfect knowledge of the sphere of religion -until we have seen how the whole of history -and every detail of our lives is, after all, the -result and work of creative Love; but while -Science and Art and Morality struggle towards -their goal and only realise their need for it, -God gives Himself as the satisfaction of that -need. It is His gift, not our discovery; but we -see that in this principle all Time is gathered -up, for if the life of Christ is the manifestation -of the nature of God, then it is the manifestation -of the root-principle of all history.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] I am aware that the argument here is </span><em class="italics small">per saltum</em><span class="small">, but -space forbids its full development. I hope soon to have -completed a book which will fill in the outline sketch offered in -this Lecture. Meanwhile I would refer to my essay on </span><em class="italics small">The -Divinity of Christ</em><span class="small"> in </span><em class="italics small">Foundations</em><span class="small">, specially pp. 213-223, -242-263.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Then we see, too, how all men may be -united in perfect fellowship, because all men -loving God will find themselves loving those -whom God so loves. This hope or conviction -remains in the region of faith, not of knowledge; -what of that? In the other departments also -we have found no knowledge. We have only -found approximation towards it. We have, -as it were, converging lines which never meet; -and we have also the point at which we see -they would meet if produced. Is that not -enough? Here we find is the principle that -will give unity, as we work it out, to the whole -scheme of our spiritual life. Morality says, -"Love all men." How can I? Science says, -"Realise the truth which explains the universe." How -can I? But I can gaze upon the -manifestation of God in Jesus Christ; I can -meditate upon His Cross and Resurrection. -I can see here and there how it may be true -that this is indeed the explanation of all the -sorrow, even of all the sin. For if it is true -that the supreme manifestation of the love of -God was historically conditioned by the -supreme sin of humanity in the treason of -Judas, then surely one begins to see how even -out of the grossest evil the glory of God wins -triumph for itself, which we too may share if -we are first drawn to share the sacrifice.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>As I become absorbed in that contemplation -I find in the first place a new power to love -all men, as I remember that He died for them -just as He died for me. In the degree in -which I really believe that this is the -manifestation of the power of God and the governing -authority of the universe, I find this thought -over-ruling other thoughts and temptations to -hostility or enmity. As I remember that -those whom I am inclined to despise or hate -are those for whom He thought it worth -while to die, my contempt and my hatred are -rebuked and cancelled.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And similarly, if I realise—or in the degree -in which I realise—that here is set forth the -power that governs all things, that this is the -way in which God rules the world, and that -Calvary is the mode of His omnipotence, -I begin to find myself indifferent, and that -increasingly, to those things which are called -sorrow and pain.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But we shall only find this as we expect to -find it. All through our spiritual life we may -be perpetually in contact, as it were, with -the means of receiving what is good, and -never receive it because we are not expecting -it. We have not expected peace of mind from -our worship, we have not expected a sense of -security against evil; that is why we have not -found it; but it is our fault. And certainly -most of us have not expected to find fellowship -from worship. We have known something -of the grace of Jesus Christ, perhaps even of -the love of God; but of the fellowship of the -Holy Spirit, of the sense of being linked to one -another because all dominated by that one -power, most of us have found nothing, because -we have not expected it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But if we are expecting this, all the testimony -of the saints in every generation goes to show -that we shall find what we have expected.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The power that can give us security against -the transitoriness of the world and against the -instincts of antagonism is there in the faith -that we place in God. "I will put my trust -in God," the Psalmist says, "I will not fear -what flesh can do unto me." This is not -because flesh will not do such hurt as it can -to the man who puts his trust in God—the -Jews crucified Christ—but because to the man -who puts his trust in God, anything whatever -that happens becomes part of God's purpose -for his life, and therefore he will not fear it. -For "all things," sorrow as well as joy, pain -as well as pleasure, sin as well as righteousness, -"all things work together for good to them -that love God."</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="god-in-history"><span class="bold large">LECTURE VI</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">GOD IN HISTORY</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">"I am the Alpha and the Omega, saith the Lord God, which -is and which was and which is to come, the -Almighty."—Revelation i. 8.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>We have considered the two great instruments -of God by which He fashions the spiritual -life of man, and we have considered that -spiritual life itself in the outline at least of -its four main departments; and now, as we -close our line of thought, we need still to -consider how it is that, in these fields and by -these instruments, God carries forward His -work.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The conception of God as at work in human -history, guiding it, controlling it, and judging -men by its course, is the great contribution -of Israel to the religion of the world. It is -linked of course with that belief in the union -of perfect righteousness with the divine, power -which we usually speak of under the somewhat -cumbrous title of Ethical Monotheism. We -remember what was really at stake in that -great day upon Mount Carmel when Elijah -confronted the priests of Baal; it was whether -the conception of God as righteous and -demanding righteousness should prevail, or -the conception of God as a capricious Being, -needing only to be propitiated, and in -connection with whose very worship licentiousness -was tolerated and even encouraged.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But, after all, the greatest souls, at least -in every highly-developed religion, have -believed that God is righteous in Himself. -What gives to Israel its supreme significance -in the spiritual history of mankind is the -conviction that this righteous God is daily -and hourly at work in the history of men; -and that conviction gives to the faith of -Israel a primacy and supremacy over all the -other partial faiths, even though they may be -superior in certain departments.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>If we think of some of the conceptions by -means of which we try to bring before our -minds the meaning of the word "God," we -may find that with regard to several of them, -other nations had advanced further than -Israel before the coming of the Lord.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>God is Spirit. The Hindu knew that, and -knows it still, quite as much as Israel.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>God is Law. The more thoughtful at least -among the ancient Romans, and particularly -the great Roman Stoics, knew that with a -vividness that was scarcely ever attained in -Israel.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>God is Beauty. Assuredly the ancient Greeks -knew that as Israel never realised it at all.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But the conception of Israel that God is at -work in history means that the God of Israel -gives to these other gods or conceptions of -God, each its own time and place of emergence -and decay. The God who is revealed to us in -the Old Testament is Himself the Being who -appoints that the Indian or the Roman or the -Greek should reach these particular -convictions; and in these partial apprehensions -of the Divine, before the full revelation came, -the faith of Israel is determinative and -regulative for all the other faiths; and moreover, -it is this faith that God is at work in the actual -daily history of men, which makes the faith -of Israel the natural and proper introduction -to the Incarnation, where God Himself took -flesh and lived among men and died at a time -and in a place—in Palestine and under -Pontius Pilate.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>This exaltation of the Holy God, actually -at work within men and at their side, while -it leads to a sense of awe before the Holiness -of the Almighty, also leads to a sense of the -dignity of this world, and of man's life in it, -which is lacking, as a rule, from other great -religions, and that too in proportion as those -other religions are spiritual. For the Hindu, -for example, this world and all that is in it -is mere illusion. He is spiritual enough but -he is not material enough; and we find there -that contempt for the things of the body which -invariably issues in a contempt for moral -conduct; for our moral conduct here, while -we live upon this planet, is wrought out -through our bodies. But the religion of -Israel, and especially its completion in the -Incarnation, wherein God Himself came in -the flesh, gives at once a dignity to this world -of ours, to our bodies, and to all the material -side of life.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>When Christ stood before Pilate, the -Kingdom of God was in appearance, at least, -undergoing judgment at the hands of the kingdom -of this world; but it is not merely a contrast -of good with evil. It is a contrast of the -perfect with the very imperfect, but yet not -merely evil, power. Pilate is not Satan; -and the Lord Himself, in the moment of His -trial, recognises that the authority by which -He is condemned is an authority that is derived -from God—"Thou couldest have no power -at all against Me, except it were given thee -from above." The kingdoms of this world, -which are to become the kingdoms of our God -and of His Christ, are not simply something -evil. The contrast of Church and World is -not the contrast between good and evil; but -it is the contrast between two stages in the -work which God is accomplishing in history, -and those two may often come into conflict.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Let us then ask what is the central principle -of God's guidance of His people, so far -as it may be deduced from the tiny fragment -of history that we really know. In that -fragment at least, we may say, I think, with -little hesitation, that its method and its aim -is spiritual growth, or, if you like to put it -an expansion and enrichment of personality.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We are sometimes inclined to think our own -personality is something that is given to us -from the outset, and entirely belongs to us; -but that idea will not stand examination for a -moment. Individual personality is a social -product. It can only be developed under -social influences. A man may be born with -many great talents, but if his environment -does not encourage their development, these -talents will remain for the most part -undeveloped and unknown—either to himself -or to anybody else. Indeed the greater the -talent with which a man is endowed, the more -difference is made to him by the kind of -surroundings in which he is put. A man of -very few gifts and little natural capacity will -be much the same, whether he has abundant -opportunity for mental and spiritual growth -or little opportunity; but the man of great -capacities, needing for their development the -encouragement of surroundings, is an entirely -different being according as those surroundings -are favourable or the reverse; and so we -reach the curious result that the greatest -personality, while no doubt he must have -brought into the world something given to -him by God that was capable of development, -is yet more entirely dependent upon the -society in which he is living than people with -a less wide range of gifts.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Again, it is only within a society which has -developed some character for itself, which has -indeed a personality of its own, that individual -personality can reach very much development. -You cannot have genius in a savage tribe. -Genius is the focal expression of the -personality of a whole people. It is that people -coming to life, and possessed of voice; and -you do not find it where there is little social -development. It is only as the tribe or the -nation begins to have some definite character -of its own that it is itself sufficiently organised -to develop from its own individual member -those gifts, and elicit those activities, which -are the signs of genius.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We find then, that individual personality, -or spiritual life, is dependent upon the spiritual -life of society; and we need to notice that -this society has every mark by which we -distinguish personality in the individual. It -has aspirations: it has a predominant -character; it has claims, and it has duties. It has -in fact, in the literal sense of the word, -corporate personality, and just as the many -instincts and impulses which are to be found in -human nature, and may be very discordant -with one another, are welded together to make -up the single life of a human being, so the -whole gifts and instincts and ambitions and -aspirations of all the individual citizens are -welded together, to make up the personality -of the whole society.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Moreover, every nation is in itself not only -the combination of individual citizens, but also -of minor groups within itself, all of which have -these same marks, and all of which are in the -real genuine sense persons, spiritual individuals -with a life of their own.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now, as we look over the history of the -development which thus goes on side by side -in the individual and in society, we find that -its principle in the fragment of history that -we really know has been that isolated -excellences should be brought to perfection -first; and after something like perfection has -been reached in the separate departments -taken singly, the combination of them is -brought about, in order that the richer and -fuller life may be perfected, in which all of -them find a place.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>European history derives its whole life -from Palestine, Greece and Rome; and in -each of those three peoples, some one excellence -was developed to a peculiar degree. Rome -perfected and has bequeathed to us the -instincts for social order, as embodied in law. -The history of the Roman people is of -significance, precisely because one may there -trace the growth and working out of this -instinct for social or political life. There has -never been anything to rival it in history. -No modern nation has shown the same -extraordinary political sense and sanity. The -Romans were not great political philosophers. -They did not think very much about the -principles on which they acted; but simply -because of their peculiar gift in this direction -they welded together a social order which -lasted throughout their Empire in a wonderful -way; and to this day the law of Europe is to -an enormous extent the law of ancient Rome.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>To ancient Greece, it is hard to say what we -do not owe. Her peculiar characteristic is -intellectual passion; a passion for reaching -perfection in just what the intellect is -particularly qualified to grasp, truth and beauty. -No doubt the ancient Greeks themselves -thought a great deal about their ordinary -politics and their military activities, and -the wars between the various States; but -these matter very little. The Greek people -are significant for evermore not because of -the Athenian trireme or the Macedonian -phalanx, but because Aeschylus stood in -astonished awe before the operation of the -Divine Justice; because Sophocles reflected -the whole of human life, even its ugliest -manifestations, in the mirror of a soul so -calm and pure, that as we look at that -reflection all life seems bathed in peace and -beauty; because Euripides entered into the -sorrows of simple folk; because Thucydides, -with a still unrivalled zeal for the genuine -truth of history, said the wise word about -nearly every political condition that has -arisen since his time; because Plato dreamed -"a Vision of all time and all existence," -proclaimed that it can never be just to do harm -to any man whatever harm he may have done -to us; proclaimed also that "God is in no -way unrighteous, but in all ways absolutely -righteous, nor is anything more like to God than -whosoever among men shall become perfectly -righteous;" foreseeing also that if a perfectly -righteous man should come on earth he would -die, scourged and crucified.[#] There is nowhere -before the New Testament anything that comes -nearer to its own highest truths, not in the -Old Testament itself, than what you will find -in Plato.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] </span><em class="italics small">Republic</em><span class="small"> i. 335*d*; </span><em class="italics small">Theaetetus</em><span class="small"> 176*c*; -</span><em class="italics small">Republic</em><span class="small"> ii. 361*e*.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>This influence,—the influence of this -intellectual passion—has been the driving force -in nearly all the movements since that time. -It has been said there is nothing in the world -which moves that is not Greek in origin, and -it is almost true; it is from the Greeks that -we have learnt "the use of reason to modify -experience" and they derived it from the -intellectual passion for truth and beauty.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>To Palestine we owe the inspiring and -governing faith of which I have already -spoken—the one faith that can give real -significance to these other two, faith in the -Holy God at work in history.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is noticeable that each of these countries -was conspicuously weak in those other -qualities which were not especially entrusted to -it. Ancient Rome was not at all specially -religious and was conspicuously unintellectual. -The people of Greece again are not -conspicuously religious, though in their cults -there is a haunting beauty; and they were -not at all politically successful; the history -of Athens, the flower of Greece, is the history -of a State in which almost every generation -threw up a supreme genius who proceeded -to change the constitution in accordance with -his magnificent ideas; the result was political -instability of an appalling character.[#] And -Palestine has contributed very little to us as -regards social organisation, and is markedly -lacking in the scientific and artistic gifts. -We have only to consider the great images -that are set before us, let us say in the Book -of Ezekiel, or again in the Book of Revelation, -to see that there is no attempt in these efforts -of the imagination to achieve a beautiful or -harmonious whole. The symbolic elements -are added one to another because of the value -of their meaning; but there is no effort to -visualise the whole; and if we try to make it, -we quickly find that such a thing was never -intended.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] It is of course true that the Greek genius gave us what -we now mean by civilisation, namely, the combination of -political unity and personal freedom. On this see the -admirable first chapter of Mr. Edwyn Bevan's </span><em class="italics small">The House of -Seleucus</em><span class="small">. But it remains true that the race from whose -intellectual genius this whole product sprang had not in any -considerable degree the capacity for controlling their own -invention.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Each of these then reached a genuine -supremacy in its own department; and the -history of Europe is to an enormous extent the -history of the inter-action of these three -forces as they mingle and combine in the -polities of the barbarian invaders who wrecked -the Roman Empire. We watch the periods -of domination of each successively. Christianity -grew up within the Roman Empire, and the -fascination of that great Empire cast a glamour -about it in the minds even of those who -destroyed it, so that the life which emerges -out of chaos in the Middle Ages is -predominantly very Latin. The Renaissance is -precisely the invasion of Greek influence, and -the Reformation is very largely the rediscovery -of the Hebrew.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>For a while the three new forces worked -together, carrying men's thought and action -forward; and then in the 18th century it -would seem that there was, in England at -any rate, a torpor due to their exhaustion; -when revival came it was because Wesley -and his friends revived the Hebrew element -in our life, because Newman and Pusey with -their friends revived the Latin element, -and because F. D. Maurice and the Broad -Church movement revived the Hellenistic, -and this, with its passion for more -adequate comprehension and expression, is the -dominant force of our time. We watch these -three influences still at work; but as they -interact upon one another and within the -persons of the new races, a new product is -gradually being produced, and in those -corporate personalities which we call nations, we -see a character being born which is something -that history has not known before.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The first requirement of personality is -always freedom—freedom as we have already -said in its two senses, that conduct is not -dictated from without but is governed by the -whole person, and not by isolated elements; -and the corporate persons need freedom just -as much as the individual; hence the need, -the vital and absolute need, for political -sovereignty in any State which is conscious of -itself as a person, that is as having a single -spiritual life.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But that life and freedom are exercised -only in the citizens who are members of the -State. We cannot surely assert that the -corporate person is immortal, as the individual -is; and therefore, to destroy a State is to -inflict a more irreparable loss than to kill a -man, which is one reason at least, perhaps the -chief reason, why a man should die for the -political freedom of his country, and even, if -need be, kill for it; but, as freedom is the -first requirement of personality, fellowship is -its first duty, for it is true of corporate -personalities quite as much as of individuals -that they only find themselves and fulfil -themselves in their inter-action upon one another, -and the nations of the world do in fact need -one another, and need one another's full life.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In economics we found out long ago that -in order to be wealthy, a country needs rich -neighbours who may afford good markets. -It is so in every other department. We need -the gifts of the other peoples. We need that -they shall be free and vigorous. Indeed the -chief lesson which the world at this time needs -to learn is just this—that all the nations of the -world need one another, each needing also that -the others should be free, in order that they -may bring their contributions to the common -life in which all share.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But we should, I think, be reading the -signs of the times amiss if we did not also take -account of the fact that there has been growing -up lately a new type of corporate personality, -not known to history before, and exemplified -by your own United States and by the British -Empire; the conception of sovereign States -linked together in a single life, and exercising -therein a joint sovereignty in dealing with -those who lie outside the federation, is -something of which history bears no record; and -we need to try to understand its principle, and -see what it is capable of contributing to the -life of men in order that we may not fail to -use our opportunity, and bring our contribution.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] See </span><a class="reference internal small" href="#appendix-v">Appendix V</a><span class="small">. </span><em class="italics small">On Providence in History</em><span class="small">.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>There is our outline sketch of the way in -which the history of our own civilisation has -grown, within which the Church and Nation -are at work. We are members of both. -What duty falls upon us as the result of that -dual membership? The Christian citizen is -called of necessity to fulfil one of three -functions—prophet, priest and king.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The prophet is one who is called to testify -to the ideal unflinchingly, not considering -consequences, not perhaps considering ways -and means of reaching the ideal, but simply -insisting on its nature and calling men and -nations to penitence so far as they fail to -reach it. It may require more courage than the -office of the king or statesman, and yet in itself -it is the easiest, because it is relatively simple.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In all modern nations, and more so in the -degree in which they are democratic, every -citizen partakes of the duty of kingship. -He has some share in determining how his -nation shall act, either in the management of -its own internal affairs or in its dealings with -other people, and one who has this responsibility -and is also a Christian, is involved in -the absolute duty of trying to think, and to -think with genuine effort, how he may be -actually guiding his nation toward the ideal. -He must not be content with pious platitudes -leading to no action, nor content to consider -only his own country's welfare; but as a -member of the Church of Christ which embraces -all mankind, he is called to think out and, -having thought, to pursue in act the methods -by which his nation may genuinely be doing its -part to build up the one great Temple of -God—His Holy City.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The priest is prophet and statesman, both -at once. He, as minister of the Word of God, -must perpetually insist upon the true ideal, -and bid men to guard against all self-contentment -so far as they fail to reach it; and yet -he must be ready to take his stand by the side -of every individual or group of individuals, -even of the nation itself, nerving each to do -the best of which it then and there in the -circumstances of the day is capable. And -meanwhile he is a wretched human being -like the rest, terribly liable to pride if he -upholds an ideal higher than is usually recognised; -terribly liable to worldliness, alike in -his own soul and in his teaching, if for a single -moment he forsakes the Divine Presence; -and uniquely exposed to the deadliest of all -temptations; for while we preach what -neither we nor anybody else can practise, we -are sorely tempted to be content with spiritual -mediocrity ourselves.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But above all, at this time the necessity, -I think, is for a clear testimony concerning -the purpose of God for His people, and His -kingdom that shall surely come. We have -made our precepts so tame; our efforts for -peace and fellowship have been so much less -exhilarating than other men's efforts for war; -we have been very mild; and that is not the -spirit of Christ, or of His Kingdom. The spirit -of Christ is the spirit of all heroism in all ages.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In 1848, a little republic was founded in -Rome to stand for justice and purity of -government amid the corrupt States all -round. It was attacked by those States, -and at last it yielded; on the day when the -capitulation was signed masses of people were -gathered together in the great Piazza outside -St. Peter's, and there rode among them the -man whose faith and heroism had sustained -that siege for more weeks than the wiseacres -thought it could last days. When the cheering -had subsided, he made no acknowledgment, -but simply said:</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"I am going out from Rome. I offer -neither quarters, nor provisions, nor wages. -I offer hunger, thirst, forced marches, -battles, death. Let him who loves his -country with his heart not with his lips -only follow me."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>And they streamed out after him into the -hills. His name was Garibaldi; and because -of his heroism and theirs the kingdom of -Italy is in the world to-day.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But the invitation of Christ is in exactly -that spirit—"I offer neither quarters, nor -provisions, nor wages. I offer hunger, thirst, -forced marches, battles, death." "If any man -would come after Me, let him deny himself, -and take up his cross, and follow Me."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The cross, when our Lord spoke those -words, was quite a real thing. To take up the -cross did not mean bearing life's little -inconveniences with equanimity. It meant -literally to put the rope round one's neck, and -be ready simply for anything that might -come. That is the spirit in which we are -summoned to work for Christ. Can we rise -to it? The Prince of Peace was not a "mild -man." This is the vision that His disciple -had of Him:</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<!-- --> -<blockquote> -<div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"His head and His hair were white, as -white wool, white as snow; and His eyes -were as a flame of fire; and His feet like -unto burnished brass, as if it had been -refined in a furnace; and His voice as the -voice of many waters. And He had in His -right hand seven stars: and out of His -mouth proceeded a sharp two-edged -sword; and His countenance was as the -sun shineth in its strength. And when -I saw Him, I fell at His feet as one dead."</span></p> -</div> -</blockquote> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Can we present the figure of Christ as -endowed with anything like that compelling -power? If so, we are worthy ministers. -It not, we are making dull the one great -adventure of the world.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is only one way in which we can -succeed. It is that we cling to faith in God, -the Author of the drama, in which we play -our part; God, Himself the Guide along the -path we are to follow; God, not only the -Guide, but the very Way in which we are to -walk; God, not only the Guide and Way, but -the Strengthener within our souls, enabling -us to follow; and God the Guide, the Way, -the Strengthener, Himself also the Goal to -which we would come. "For in Him we move -and live and have our being."</span></p> -<blockquote> -<div> -<div class="line-block outermost"> -<div class="line"><span>Yea thro' life, death, thro' sorrow and thro' sinning</span></div> -<div class="inner line-block"> -<div class="line"><span>He shall suffice me, for He hath sufficed;</span></div> -</div> -<div class="line"><span>Christ is the end, for Christ was the beginning,</span></div> -<div class="inner line-block"> -<div class="line"><span>Christ the beginning, for the end is Christ.</span></div> -<div class="line"> </div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</blockquote> -<p class="pfirst"><em class="italics">I am the Alpha and the Omega, saith the -Lord God, which is and which was and which -is to come, the Almighty.</em></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="on-the-apocalyptic-consciousness"><span id="appendix-i"></span><span class="bold large">APPENDIX I</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">ON THE APOCALYPTIC CONSCIOUSNESS</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It is very difficult for the modern reader to -recover the frame of mind in which Apocalypse -has its origin, but we may do this more easily -if we look for parallels outside the field of -religious history. It has been well said that -the mediæval man looked upwards and -downwards—to Hell and to Heaven; his view of -the world is on a vertical plane; the modern -man has a horizontal view, looking to the past -and future—the past as it has existed, and the -future as it shall exist, in the history of human -society upon this earth. We need if possible -to combine these two, but it is a very difficult -achievement. With our point of view we -inevitably read Apocalypse as if it were a -literal history of the future written before -the event; but this is not its primary -significance. The religious consciousness from -which it springs was highly indifferent to the -lapse of time: very likely the seer expected -the speedy realisation of his vision so far as he -thought about things in that way at all, but -this was not his primary concern. Let us -take a parallel, as was suggested a moment ago, -from another field. The socialistic movement -in its early days seemed committed to an -immediate expectation of the millennium -following upon a catastrophic change in the -structure of human society. The arrival of -the millennium now seems postponed -indefinitely and evolution has taken the place of -revolution as a method, and yet a socialist -who is really in the movement does not feel any -breach of continuity; he knows that he is -one in spirit with the earlier writers and that -they were never mainly concerned either with -the date at which the millennium would come -or the means by which they imagined it brought -about, but precisely with the contrast between -the ideal as they conceived it and the actual -as they saw it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>We may take another instance from a -slightly different department of thought. -Dante imagined that the Mount of Purgatory -was the immediate antipodes of the Hill of -Zion, but if some traveller had gone round the -world and assured him that the Mount of -Purgatory was not there, it would not in the -smallest degree have affected his doctrine of -Purgatory. So it is with the apocalyptists; -there is an immense amount of machinery -provided by which this world is to be abruptly -changed into the Kingdom of God, and because -that Kingdom is so present to the consciousness -of the writer, he can speak of it as even -now about to appear upon the earth. But this -is not what chiefly interests him: his point of -view is vertical, not horizontal; all time-spans -are foreshortened into a moment, because his -whole interest is in the contrast between the -Kingdom of God and the kingdoms of this -world; we therefore do him wrong in supposing -that the postponement of his hope is any -grievous disappointment, or any proof of real -error. The date of its fulfilment was never a -matter of much concern to him.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>So we may, I think, reverently believe that -our Lord Himself passes through the experience -of the apocalyptists at moments of great -exultation, as, for example, when the seventy -return and say that the devils are made subject -to them, or when He realises the imminence of -the fall of Jerusalem, and therefore the -removal of the chief barrier to His Kingdom's -progress. All time is foreshortened; Satan -falls from Heaven and the Son of Man appears -in glory; but this is no forecast of history as -we understand history. One evangelist tells -us of a parable which He uttered precisely -because of His perception that the disciples -erroneously supposed "that the Kingdom of -God was immediately to appear." All His -insistence upon the coming Kingdom is -focussed in the Passion, as has been shown in -the text. When the revelation of God's -inmost nature was completed in the completion -of His own self-sacrifice, this brought with it -the power that could change the kingdoms of -this world into the Kingdom of our God and of -His Christ. From then onwards "He cometh -with the clouds"; but the completion of His -Kingdom when "every eye shall see Him, and -they which pierced Him," lies still in the future. -The contrast of tenses in this passage can -hardly be accidental; from the moment when -He was lifted up from the earth in the Passion, -Resurrection and Ascension (which are the -revelation in successive phases of the one -unchanging glory of God) His coming is a present -fact; but our perception of His coming is -something still growing as His Spirit guides us -into all the truth, until at last we know even -as we are known.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="on-moral-and-spiritual-authority"><span id="appendix-ii"></span><span class="bold large">APPENDIX II</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">ON MORAL AND SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>It may be objected that the Church should -never in any circumstances employ force—at -any rate, physical force. But I believe the -objection is due, partly to a latent Manichæism -which holds that matter is always evil, or at -least "unspiritual," and partly to a very just -fear that force may be wrongly used if its use -is permitted at all. Yet there are some cases -where the Church would plainly be not only -at liberty, but morally bound, to use force.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Suppose a clergyman begins to give teaching -that is absolutely at variance with the doctrine -of the Church, the Church may appeal to his -better feelings and ask him to resign; but if -he will not, the Church must assuredly have the -right to turn him out, and that, if necessary, -by force.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>No doubt in a civilised country what the -Church does as a rule is to ask the State to act -against the man, on the ground that he has -broken contract and holds his position on -false pretences. This is what the Mediæval -Church called "handing the offender over to -the secular arm."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But let us imagine the situation in a Mission -Church where a convert has, for penance, been -excluded from attendance at public worship -for a period. Suppose he insists upon coming; -then certainly the congregation would be right -forcibly to remove him. Again, supposing the -use of force as discipline may be of advantage -to moral development (and up to a certain -stage I am sure it may), and supposing there -is no civilised State to employ it, the Church -will be right to do what is best for the -character of those for whom it is concerned. But -no doubt all this is purely preparatory to the -positive spiritual work of the Church, which -must always take the form of appeal and not of -force.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is, however, so much confusion on the -subject of moral and spiritual authority in -general, that it may not be out of place to -add here some remarks upon it.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The word "authority" is derived from a -Latin word which may perhaps be best -translated by "weight."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>When we speak of a man of weight, or an -opinion that carries weight, we have something -very near the original meaning of the term -authority. Sometimes we are inclined to -think of authority as best represented by the -political ruler, or the military commander. -But these are not really typical kinds of -authority. They are very special cases where -authority is clothed with compelling force. -But in the spheres of which we are thinking -there is not necessarily present any compelling -force at all. When we think of authority in -religion, in its connection with morals and such -questions, there is no force, at any rate -necessarily, present at all, and the Church's -authority in the true sense is not any the less -because it does not practise the methods of the -Inquisition: nor was it any greater in the -days when to its own proper authority it -added coercive power, appealing to people in -the name of what is in itself not authority -strictly speaking, at all. For if I believe just -because the Church is an assembly of the -saints of God and its formularies are -summaries of their experience, then I am believing -on the ground of the Church's authority. But -if I believe because an officer of the Church -threatens me with the rack in the case of -disbelief, I am believing not because the Church -has authority, but because I dislike physical -pain.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>So authority always in the end means -weight—what carries weight with our judgment. -We can weigh one authority against another; -we may weigh the authority of one theologian -with that of another by considering which has -shown the greater knowledge of the subject in -question and the sounder judgment in dealing -with it. In moral questions we do as a -matter of fact perpetually come back to the -man of moral weight. And what constitutes -his weight is to begin with a certain uprightness -in his own character, and then a certain -sympathy and insight which enables him to -understand how he would apply to the -circumstances of other people the principles by -which he lives in his own. So, for example, -Aristotle in the end determines all moral -questions by reference to the standard which -the man of moral sense would use; everything -in the last resort is determined simply by his -judgment. Virtue, he says, resides in a mean -between two vicious extremes, and the mean -is to be determined by a principle which the -man of moral sense would use. Later on, after -an interlude of two or three books wisely -interpolated, he comes to ask, Who is the man -of moral sense? and he turns out to be the man -who has the right principle enabling him to -determine the mean between vicious extremes; -that is to say, that his standard of judgment -in the end is simply the good, sensible man, and -for practical purposes that does well enough, -because for practical purposes we do know -whose judgment we value, we do know who -it is whose approval we should care to win, -whose approval would of itself assure us that -our conduct was right, and whose disapproval -would of itself go far at least to assure us that -our conduct was wrong, or at any rate that -the matter needed careful reconsideration.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>There is indeed another method than this -of reliance upon the authority of a wise man, -and it is represented by the other great thinker -of Greece, by Plato. Plato's ideal method in -moral questions was to try to determine the -purpose of the whole universe and then -determine how in any given circumstances a man -may serve that purpose. The basis of his -morals, in other words, was what we should -call theological; and so far as we are able to -apply this, it is the only finally satisfactory -method; so far as we can say that the -principles of Christianity imperatively demand -some particular action or attitude of mind, -we shall not care how little other authority we -can quote, but shall say that we can see quite -clearly that our allegiance to Christ and His -religion involves a certain point of view for us; -and if no one else has taken that point of view, -provided we can find no flaw in our reasoning, -we shall say none the less, This is the point of -view which we, as Christians, are bound to take.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>That has been the method by which, as a -matter of fact, most Christian reforms have -been carried out. That was the way by which, -in an instance to which I shall return in a -moment, slavery was abolished. Slavery had -been tolerated by the Christian Church for -centuries. The authority of the Christian -Church might therefore have been quoted -as substantially in favour of it. A very large -number of Christians did, in fact, favour -retaining it, because, of course, the abolition -of the slave trade was an interference with -property, and heartrending appeals were -made in the name of "the unfortunate -widow with a few strong blacks," as in -our day appeals are made against legislation -in the name of the widow who has shares -in breweries. But Wilberforce's point of -view was simply this, that whatever the -Church may have said through all these -centuries, when you look at the Christian -principle of the right way to treat human -beings it condemns slavery; and if all the -Christians in all the ages had denied that, it -would not have altered the fact that, as we -see it—so Wilberforce and his friends would -have urged—as we see it, slavery is -condemned; that is enough for us; we go -forward in the certainty that we are carrying -out the will of God. Wilberforce brought -people round to his point of view; now you -will hardly find a Christian to defend slavery -as an institution. Some day, perhaps, it will -be the same with war.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But in most moral questions the authority -to which we appeal is not that of the good and -wise individual, but that of the moral sense -of our civilisation. We can very seldom give -an adequate reason for those points on which -we have the strongest moral convictions. -For example, in argument I suppose we should -most of us find it very difficult to produce -a case for monogamy as against polygamy -anything like so strong as the feeling which we -have in favour of the one against the other. -That feeling is implanted in us by the -experience of our civilisation, a civilisation which -has, in fact, emerged from one into the other, -and these very strong instinctive feelings, -which are common to great masses of people -and for which usually any one individual in -all that mass can only give a most inadequate -reason, are something to which an enormous -volume of human experience has contributed. -Generation after generation has come to feel -that certain relations of the sexes are, as a -matter of fact, the only ones that can be -maintained with real wholesomeness, and this -belief becomes so strong in the community -that it is received with the air we breathe all -through the formative years of our life, and -the result is an intense conviction for which, -as I say, we can hardly give any argument—an -intense conviction that one sort of thing is -right and the other wrong; and what most of -us mean by our conscience is just this body -of feeling concerning right and wrong which -has been implanted in us as the result of the -accumulated experience of civilisation. From -the point of view of the individual it is usually -more an emotion than a reasoned judgment; -and it is much more of the nature of prejudice -than of an argumentative conclusion. When -people talk about conscientious objections to -obeying the law, it is always quite impossible -to distinguish between their prejudice and their -conscience; there is no standard by which to -determine. But the fact that it is unreasoned -in the individual does not mean that it is -irrational, or without reason in itself. What -has been built up by the steady pressure -of whole centuries of experience has enormous -weight of pure reason behind it, even though -the individual cannot himself give the reason, -and even though there may be no individual -alive who can give it; it has come out of -the logic of experience; it has been built -up in the strictly scientific way by a whole -series of facts. There is an enormous -inductive background, an enormous scientific -basis for the moral convictions of the better, -more self-controlled members of any civilised -society. The moral verdict of society, and -the conscience of the individual, which is his -own echo, for the most part, of that moral -verdict, is a thing of quite enormous authority.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But, it will be urged, the authorities clash. -The verdict of European civilisation is for -monogamy; the verdict of certain other -civilisations is quite as emphatically against -it. Does this mean that the whole distinction -of right and wrong is a mere matter of -convention? No, it does not. But even if it -did, the thing would not be as bad as people -often imagine, because convention is not -something artificial in the sense of contrary -to nature or fictitious; a convention is simply -the expression of human nature working on a -large scale. Man is a being whose nature it is -to set up conventions, and a convention -is a product of human nature, a property and -mark of human nature, just as much -gravitation is a property and mark of -mechanical nature; and it only becomes contrary -to nature and a nuisance when it has survived -the purpose for which it originally grew up. -But none the less there is something more than -any convention or social growth about the -distinction of right and wrong; the distinction -in itself is absolute and fundamental. It is -the distinction between recognising oneself as -member of a community and not so recognising -oneself. Morality is always recognition -of a claim on the part of other persons, the -recognition that their point of view and their -interests have to be taken into account in the -determination of my conduct. As man is by -nature social, as by nature he is designed to -live in communities, the distinction of right -and wrong, that is the recognition of the claim -of the community and of the members in it, -is absolute and final.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But what is the content of the two terms -right and wrong, what actual action shall be -called right and what wrong on any given -occasion, may vary easily according to -circumstances, according to the degree of social -development and the like. There is conduct -which is right at one stage of society and -wrong at another, precisely because at one -stage it tends to the health of society, while -at another it will be bad for the health of -society; just as there are ways in which it is -good from time to time to train children in -which it would not be well to train grown-up -people; and there is conduct which is -appropriate to earlier stages of society, because -beneficial to society, which becomes inappropriate -and harmful at any other stage. What -is right and what is wrong may depend very -largely upon circumstances, stage of development, -spiritual receptiveness, and a host of -other things; but the distinction between -right and wrong itself remains unaffected by -all these, and absolutely fundamental and -invariable.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now, how is it that in society progress is -actually made in morals? The appeal to -authority can always be made in two ways. -It can be made in the most obvious form in -the interest of mere stagnation, by saying, -"What was good enough for our fathers is -good enough for us," a thing nobody ever does -say; or by saying, "What is good enough for -us is good enough for our children," a thing -which numbers of people say. While the first -form may be some safeguard against wild -experiments—and wild experiments in morals are -more dangerous than wild experiments anywhere -else in life, for a reason I will mention -in a moment—yet the tendency of this appeal -is to pure stagnation. But the right appeal -is to ask, not what the great men of the -past actually did, but what were the principles -upon which they acted. What we want to be -doing with the prophets of the last generation -is not saying again, like parrots, just what they -said, but finding out the principles and spirit -of their life and applying that same spirit to -circumstances which are changed just because -those prophets lived and wrought. They -would not have been prophets, they would not -have been great men, if they had not changed -in some degree the world they lived in. Then -just because they have changed the world -their action may no longer be appropriate; -it is not the action which they themselves -would now take if they were still alive and -retained their power of development. What -we do then is to appeal, not to their conduct -but to the principle of their conduct. So -when Wilberforce started the campaign against -slavery what he did was to appeal from the -conduct of the Church to the principle of that -conduct which it professed and admitted. In -other spheres it admitted the sanctity of -human personality; but it had never applied -this principle to the particular problem of -slavery.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In this way the appeal to authority is both -just, safe, and progressive. It is only a fool -who will throw away all that the experience of -the ages has built up. But the wisest man of -all is surely he who, rejoicing in that great -inheritance, can still appeal not to its outward -form, but to its indwelling, living spirit, and -carry forward the work which the past has -done. The ages in the past that we value -are not those in which people were mainly -concerned to praise their predecessors, but -those in which men were agreed to press -forward to whatever new life God has in store. -So it must be here: if we would be true to the -great men of the past, to the authority of those -who have built up our moral life, it will not -be by standing still, but by moving on in the -direction to which they point.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The appeal to authority, then, will not be -an appeal to practice, but always an appeal -to principle; and so we shall be saved from -that danger of moral experiment, a danger -that is so immensely great because the -individual who has made the experiment has thereby -very often spoilt himself. One cannot -experiment in the moral life with the detachment -that we use in science. I may try mixing a -couple of fluids together to see what happens, -and I can regard the result quite accurately; -but I cannot try the experiment of stealing, -or of murder, in order to see what the real -moral value of the thing is, because in the -process of doing the act I shall vitiate my own -soul; here the material in which we experiment -is itself the instrument by which we -have to judge; and the man who has once -done an evil thing himself, very seldom has -the same clearness of vision concerning its -good and evil as the man who has kept true to -some lofty purpose. The mere experiment, -the mere trying what it feels like to be a -murderer—not that anyone would take so -extreme an instance as that—is always a -method condemned in advance to futility, -because in the process of making the -experiment we destroy our power of judging the -result. We want therefore to rely upon -some authority; being unable to experiment -for ourselves, we must follow the general rule -that I have stated; the authority to which we -appeal must be an authority of principle and -not of practice.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But what of the authority of our Lord -Himself? To us who have accepted it, or -who are trying to accept it, it is final; yet -still, surely, in the spirit rather than in the -letter. Why did He teach by a series of -amazing paradoxes if it was not to prevent us -setting up a code of rules as His legislation, -if it was not to force us back upon the spirit -of His teaching, behind the detailed -regulations in which that spirit was embodied? -Even here it is still true that the appeal is to -the authority of His Spirit and not to that of -detailed action or individual precept.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>And beyond all this, it is certain that He -Himself wins His authority by first submitting -Himself to the moral judgment of His people. -He rejects, in the second and third of the -Messianic temptations after His baptism, the -method of coercion. He rejects this, and -stands before men submitting Himself to their -moral judgment, to their conscience, to their -capacity to understand pure goodness and -love, as that capacity has grown through the -civilisation which God Himself had guided as -the preparation for His final revelation in His -Son. So He submits Himself first of all to our -moral judgment; and thus our conscience, -coming down to us, as it does, out of the -Divinely-guided history of the past, is the -supreme authority; if we choose Him to be -the Guide of our life it is because our conscience -has first pronounced Him to be the highest -and the holiest, which we must needs love -when we see it.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="on-justice-and-education"><span id="appendix-iii"></span><span class="bold large">APPENDIX III</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">ON JUSTICE AND EDUCATION</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>As long as there are great numbers of -citizens whose faculties are undeveloped it is -impossible for society to be justly ordered. -The democracies of the world have been -curiously blind to this truth, as they have to -the parallel truth that education is essential -to true liberty.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>As long as there is a vast difference between -a man's actual worth to society and his -potential worth, there will be two just claims -concerning him, and no possibility of -adjudicating between them. To treat a man who is -in fact useless as though he were useful, is to -injure the community by encouraging a -parasite; to treat him as useless, when only -lack of opportunity has prevented his becoming -useful, is to injure him. A vast amount of the -existing social order is an attempt to -compromise between these two injuries, by -inflicting a little of both. The only real solution -is to be found in a complete educational -system which will raise the actual worth of -every man to the level of his potential work -precisely by enabling him to realise his -potentialities.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>But education which is to have this effect, -without producing mere selfishness and -aggressiveness and thereby defeating its own object, -must be a moralising force; and that means, -if the argument of Appendix II is sound, that -its processes must be largely sub-conscious. -In fact, one root of the great sin of Germany -is to be found in the effort to control life -through the highly developed conscious -intellect. The specialised training of -administrators and the attempt to guide human -action by scientific method is doomed to -failure. If it were possible to collect all the -relevant facts, it might be right merely to form -an inductive conclusion and act upon it. But -in regard of any human problem it is never -possible to collect all the facts; they are at -once too numerous and too subtly differentiated. -Consequently the English method, -though grotesquely deficient just where the -German is strong, is yet morally preferable -and politically more successful. It takes a -boy and throws him into a society of boys -which largely governs itself; appalling risks -are taken and disasters are not unknown; -boy standards are allowed to prevail, with the -result that form-work is regarded as a tiresome -though inevitable adjunct rather than the -chief business of school life. Perhaps it is as -well to mention here that the exaltation of -games over work, however disastrous in its -exaggeration, is yet morally sound; for the -boy feels that in his games he plays for his -house and school, while his work is done for -himself. Wise seniors will tell him from the -pulpit that he should work hard at school so -as to fit himself for the service of the -community in later years; and this is true enough; -but the boy will be a terrible prig if he is -continually conscious of its truth.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The same principle determines our University -ideal. The primary test for a degree is -"residence"—that is, an adequate share in a -general life. Colleges may require attendance -at lectures, but the University does not. -It demands that a candidate for a degree -should have some knowledge—not very much, -it is true—but it never asks where or how he -got it; it only asks if he has "kept his terms."</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>At the end of the process there are some -failures, of course; but those who represent -the system's success, and they are the great -majority, though they may not have any -large amount of knowledge, have acquired the -instinct to act wisely in almost any emergency -with which they may be confronted. Very -often they could not give any theoretical -ground for acting as they do, for their wisdom -is largely sub-conscious or instinctive; but -the action is right all the same.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>In England we are at the present time -witnessing the collision of two educational -types, of which I have outlined the older and -more traditional. But this collision is itself -of such exceeding interest that, at the risk of -some repetition, I would venture to sketch -out the two opposing types and attempt to -indicate the mode of their interaction.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The aim of education may be defined as the -attempt to train men and women to understand -the world they live in, so that they may be -able to assist or resist the tendencies of their -time in the light of ideals and standards -resting on the widest possible foundation of -knowledge and experience.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now, our educational history for the last -hundred years has been the result of the -interaction between two predominant educational -types, which I may call, simply for the -purposes of description, the traditional and the -modern. The traditional type comes down -to us (with modifications, no doubt) by a -continuous history from the Middle Ages, -and its chief representatives in England at -the present time are those large private -institutions which are called public schools, -and the two older universities. The first -great mark of this type of education is that in -practice—whatever its theory may have been—in -practice it is corporate. It has believed -in educating people rather through influence -than through instruction, and it has believed -in educating them in direct relation to their -social context and setting. Now that, in a -country of aristocratic organisation, inevitably -involved an exclusive and aristocratic type of -education. If you have got a society stratified -in layers one above the other, and you are then -going to educate people in direct relation to -their social context, your educational system -is bound to be similarly stratified. That is -inevitable, and consequently, through the -social conditions of the time, the education -which is most strongly corporate in tone and -spirit has also tended to be aristocratic. As -I have said, this method deals with people -rather through influence than through instruction. -Of course, it does not ignore instruction, -but it is true that not very long ago I heard a -very distinguished lady asked whether a -certain school was what we call a public -school; "Oh, yes," she replied, "it is a real -public school. I mean they don't learn -anything there." The instruments which for the -most part this education has used have been -the great literatures of all ages, and -particularly the literatures of Greece and Rome, and -their civilisations. These literatures and -civilisations have a great advantage over all others -as instruments of education, because, while they -are in many ways closely akin to our own, -which are descended from them, they are -complete and can be studied in their entirety. -The aim of this type of education has been to -bring the student's mind into closest possible -contact with the greatest minds of the human -race in all ages, with the minds that have -done or attempted most (in history), with -the minds that have thought most accurately -and deeply (in science and philosophy), with -the minds that have felt most tenderly and -truly (in poetry). It may, or may not, succeed -in that aim. It may attempt it in the case of -individual students who are particularly -ill-suited for it; but that is its aim, and no one is -going to say that it is an ignoble aim. In doing -this, it has supplied to those who have been -most able to profit by it standards of -judgment, standards of criticism. This enables a -man to stand apart from the tendencies of -the moment and to pronounce judgment on -them in the light of what has been best in -human experience. Those are the strongest -points, as I consider, of the old traditional -type. But it has certain faults, one of which -I have already mentioned, which is a fault in -our day if it was not a fault in the day in which -this type of education became predominant. -I mean that it is liable to be exclusive, to shut -up people within the limits of their own class -so that they are unable to acquire any living -acquaintance with the great movements going -on in the world around them.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The other system has not these particular -evils; this more modern type of education, -so far as you can draw lines across history at -all, may be said to begin with Rousseau; it -is predominantly individual rather than -corporate, intellectual rather than spiritual, -democratic rather than aristocratic; it supplies -people with knowledge of facts rather than -with standards of judgment. It is individual -rather than corporate, for it began to take -possession of the world when the forces of -progress were almost all of them strongly -individualistic; at that time the demand of -democracy was for the abolition of privileges, -the breaking down of class restrictions and the -insistence that the individual must be able to -live his own life; with all of which we entirely -agree, though we think it needs a good deal of -supplementing; and, consequently, its tendency -has been to suggest to people that the -aim of education is that they may get on in -the world. The instrument which it has used -has been for the most part instruction, and its -appeal has been, not as in the traditional -system to sympathy and imagination, but to -intelligence and memory. This, it seems to -me, is precisely because it believes in the career -open to talent, and so far cuts across all social -divisions.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Its ideal is the educational ladder. Now -there would be no objection to the educational -ladder if people went down it as well as up, -if, that is to say, men of small ability and -character always sank in the social scale and -men of great ability and character always rose. -But so long as you have social classes -maintained in their position, not by ability and -character alone, but by the mere accident of -possession, so long it will be true that to lift a -man by education from one social stratum to -another is to expose him to a terrible -temptation—the temptation to despise his own people. -And when once a man's native sympathies -have been rooted up, it is hard for any more -to grow. There is real danger that the more -modern type of education may serve to -produce a race of self-seekers. But this modern -type has great advantages. It is alive and in -touch with the world at the moment; and -the people who receive education of this kind -will probably be very vitally aware of most of -the living interests of their own time. But it -fails to supply standards of judgment.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now, of course, no existing institution -belongs purely and entirely to either of these -types; but we can all think easily of institutions -in which one or the other is the predominant -characteristic. And one of our troubles -is that most parents like the faults and dislike -the virtues of both types. They like the -aristocratic and exclusive tone of the -traditional type; and they like the pushfulness and -"get-on-in-the-world" tone of the modern type.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The great problem before the educational -world in the next period is to draw the two -types and tendencies in education closer -together, to leave the whole strength of both -unimpaired, but to unite them. It is not -easy to do. It is a very big problem, easily -stated, but very hard to solve in practice. -I would suggest that one of the flaws of the -modern tendency is that it leaves people very -strongly aware of what is going on at the -moment, but not always equally aware of -what has been thought by the greatest men in -the history of the world. This is very liable -to lead people to suppose that whatever is -modern is on that account good. Now that -is exactly as foolish as to suppose that -whatever is ancient is therefore good. The fact -its antiquity or modernity has nothing to do -with its value at the present moment. Of -course, it is true that any institution which -has lasted through many centuries is likely to -be of use again, though we may always have -just reached the point at which it begins to -be an incubus. Of course, it is true that an -idea which arises out of the stress of life at the -moment is very likely to be very well adapted -to the realities of that moment in which it -arises, but, also, it may be well adapted to -assist a downward course. What we want is -that the people shall know the facts and also -have the power to judge them—to be able, as -I said, to assist or resist the tendencies of their -time, in the light of the best ideals and -standards. There is a very strong inclination -among many of us (I am personally very much -aware of it in myself) to think that the new -thing must be good; and yet one remembers -the words of Clough:—</span></p> -<blockquote> -<div> -<div class="line-block outermost"> -<div class="line"><span>"'Old things need not be therefore true,'</span></div> -<div class="line"><span>Oh, brother men! nor yet the new."</span></div> -<div class="line"> </div> -</div> -</div> -</blockquote> -<p class="pfirst"><span>Again, the old type which trains people -through their social setting is very largely -co-operative in its methods. It merges the -individual in his school, or his college, so -that he comes quite genuinely to care more -keenly for the welfare of his house and -school and college than for his own progress. -Nobody who has had any intercourse at -all with the life of public schools or -universities can doubt that. The modern -method, on the whole, I suppose, trusts mainly -rather to competition. It aims at assisting -people to put out their best energy by pitting -them against one another. I want to raise a -very serious question to which I am not -prepared to give an answer. I want all people -interested in education to consider it. Is it -worth while to get the greatest effort out of a -person at the cost of teaching him that he is -to make efforts in his own interest? I am -very doubtful.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I heard a little while ago a distinguished -schoolmaster describe the visit of the father -of one of the boys in his house; the boy -was being very idle, and this distinguished -man said, "I wish you would speak to him -as seriously as ever you can"; the father -said, "I will." He saw the boy and when he -came back he said, "I spoke to him very -seriously, in fact I spoke to him quite -religiously. I said 'You must be getting along, -you know, or other people will be pushing -past you.'" The religion would appeal to -be of a "Darwinian" type.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>Now I wish to express a purely personal -conviction with regard to these two types of -teaching, and it is this: while we have got to -incorporate all, or at any rate, nearly all, that -the more modern type of education has given -us, it has got to be used in such a way as to -leave the great marks of the traditional type -predominant. Education, I hold, should remain -primarily corporate rather than individual, -primarily spiritual (that is, effective through -influence, and through an appeal to sympathy -and imagination), rather than primarily -intellectual (that is, effective through an appeal -to intelligence and memory), primarily -concerned with giving people the power to -pronounce judgment on any facts with which they -may come in contact rather than supplying -them simply with the facts. It should be -primarily co-operative and not primarily competitive.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>It is mainly the new democratic movements -in education which have emphasised this view. -Indeed, the Workers' Educational Association -has understood more definitely than any other -body I am aware of, that what it finds of -supreme value in the great centres of education -is the spirit of the place rather than the -instruction; and those of us who have received -the best, or at all events have been in a position -to receive the best, that Oxford can give, and -those who have had just a taste of her treasures -at the Summer School, will agree that Oxford -does more for us than any lectures do. But -while we say that, we need also to insist on a -greater energy and efficiency, a greater and -more living contact with the world of to-day -in some, at least, of the centres of the old -traditional type. Yet it is the traditional -type that must control, because the traditional -type on the whole stands for spirit against -machinery. I have no doubt it is true that -the old schools and universities are amateurish -in method; and I have no doubt that we ought -to organise ourselves more efficiently. There -is a good deal of waste that may be saved; -but I shall regret the day when we become -efficient at the cost of our spirit.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>I believe that in the University Tutorial -Classes organised by the Workers' Educational -Association you will find upon the whole the -soundest educational principles which are at -this moment operative anywhere in England. -The classes choose their own subjects, and, as -a general rule, they choose those subjects -about which nobody knows the truth. Those -are always the best instruments of education; -for if anyone knows the truth, he has only to -say what it is and his hearers believe him. -That may be instruction, but it is not education. -Real education is always best conducted -as a joint search for truth; and in these -Tutorial Classes we have, not one teacher and -thirty hearers, but thirty-one fellow students, -one of whom has commenced the study earlier -than the rest, and can therefore act as guide.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>These are wide-reaching problems; and, -indeed, there is no limit to the range of the -influence of education. It is the supreme -regenerative force. What is the chief obstacle -of all who work for progress in any department -of life? Always the apathy of those -whom we especially wish to help. And why -are they apathetic? Simply because they -have had no opportunity of finding out what -is the life from which they are excluded. But -open by the merest chink the door of that -treasure-house wherein are contained the -garnered stores of literature and science, of -history and art, and they will be foremost in -demanding that they shall no longer be -excluded from the birthright of the sons of -civilisation. These are the good things of -which no one is deprived because another -possesses them; they are the true social goods -of which possession by one redounds to the -enrichment of all. It is the taste of them that -can most stimulate the zeal for progress; and -as it supplies the motive power, so it supplies -also the directive wisdom. The perfecting -and expansion of our education is just what is -most vital for social progress to-day, and for -the establishment of real justice in our social -life, for it alone can bring within the reach of -all that knowledge which is at once the source -of power and the guarantee that the power -shall be beneficent.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="on-orders-and-catholicity"><span id="appendix-iv"></span><span class="bold large">APPENDIX IV</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">ON ORDERS AND CATHOLICITY</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The position taken in the text of these -lectures might be summarised as follows: -It is the living body which gives authority -to its Orders; it is not the possession of -valid Orders which gives authority to the -body. In support of this view I have the -kind permission of Dr. Headlam to quote -the following from his article—"Notes on -Reunion: The Kikuyu Conference," in the -</span><em class="italics">Church Quarterly Review</em><span> for January, 1914.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"On December 20th, 1912, the Bishop of -Madras delivered an informal speech to the -members of the National Conference of -Missionaries, at Calcutta. This created in India -and elsewhere a considerable amount of -sensation. As in that speech he referred to -something which the present writer had -written and to an article in the </span><em class="italics">Church -Quarterly Review</em><span> by Dr. Frere,[#] and as his -speech has been very widely misunderstood, -I think I may be allowed to refer briefly to -the points he raised. The views which he -propounded were those which I had put -forward in the 'Prayer Book Dictionary,' -and I should like to be allowed to quote them -again:</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] "The Reorganisation of Worship," by W. H. Frere, D.D., -Superior of the Community of the Resurrection, Mirfield -(</span><em class="italics small">Church Quarterly Review</em><span class="small">, October, 1912).</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"If we combine the Patristic theory of -Orders with the rule of ordination, we shall -be able to put the idea of Apostolic Succession -into its right place. It is really a deduction -from the right theory of Orders, and the -mistake has been to make Orders depend upon -Apostolic Succession and transmission.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"The authority to consecrate and ordain, -or to perform all spiritual offices, resides in -and comes from the Church to which God -gives His Holy Spirit. From the beginning -this work of the Church has been exercised -by those who have received a commission for -it, and the rule of the Church has been that -that commission should always be given by -those who have received authority from others -with a similar commission. The historical -fact, therefore, of Apostolic Succession has -resulted from the rule of the Church being -always regularly carried out. If this be -correct, the following further deductions may -be made:</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"1. The idea of 'transmission' is an -additional and late conception which, instead -of expressing the idea of Succession, has, by -its exaggeration of it led to a rigid and -mechanical theory of the Ministry.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"2. As the grace of Orders depends upon -the authority of the Church and not upon -mechanical transmission, all objections from -supposed irregularities of ordination are beside -the point, and the opinions of churchmen and -others who have maintained that in certain -circumstances a presbyter may ordain are -explained. Ordination depends upon the -authority of the Church, and not the Church -upon ordination.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"3. The idea of Succession, which results -from the Church's rule of ordination, is an -historical fact, and not a doctrine. It -represents an external connection with the first -beginnings of Christianity of infinite value -for the Church; and nothing should be done -to break such a connection, as it acts like a link -for binding together the Churches as parts -of a living whole.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"4. One part of the work of Christian -reunion should be to restore and secure the -links of Succession throughout the whole -Christian world; but no rigidity or mechanical -theory of Orders need compel us to deny -divine grace to those separated from us.[#]</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] </span><em class="italics small">The Prayer Book Dictionary</em><span class="small"> (Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, -Ltd., 1912), p. 42.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"The particular point that I wish to -emphasise is that there are two things to be -separated—the one the rule of the Church, -the other the theory of that rule. I do not -believe that it would be possible on any -Catholic principle to depart from the rule of -the Church with regard to Orders; I should -go further and say that I believe that no real -reunion would ultimately be possible except -on the basis of that rule. At the present -time, however, continuous emphasis is laid -on the theory of Orders, and that theory is -often put as an extreme form of a mechanical -conception of the Apostolic Succession. Now -it is quite true that from the beginning -Bishops have been looked upon as 'the -successors' of the Apostles, but I can find -no authoritative interpretation of that phrase -other than that they perform at the present -day those functions of the Apostles which -were not miraculous or extraordinary.[#] Neither -the formularies of the Church of England nor, -so far as I am aware, those of any other Church, -lay down any theory of ministry, and to -impose, therefore, any such theory on the -Church is to depart from Catholic tradition.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span class="small">[#] See, for example, Van Espen, i. 16, 1. Council of Trent, -Sessio xxiii., Cap. iv.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>"An incidental result of this is that our -attitude towards Sacraments of Nonconformist -bodies will not partake of that rigid character -which is so characteristic of some in the -present day. We are glad to see that Dr. Sanday -takes exception to these. 'It seems to me -to be a very delicate matter, and, indeed, -scarcely admissible for one Christian body to -take upon itself to pronounce upon the validity -or otherwise of the ministrations of another. -I think that at least the question ought not -to be put in that bald and sweeping form.' It -is interesting to note that Dr. Pusey would -have been equally averse to such language. -He of course accepts the doctrine of Apostolic -Succession in very definite form, but he -writes as follows:</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"'But while maintaining that they only -are commissioned to administer the -Sacraments who have received that commission -from those appointed in succession to bestow -it, we have never denied that God may make -His own sacraments efficacious even when -irregularly administered; we should trust it -might be so.'</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>"It would be of great advantage if we were -to speak of non-episcopal orders and sacraments -as 'irregular,' which we know they are, -not as 'invalid,' about which we know -nothing."</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>With these words of Dr. Headlam I am in -profound agreement. But there is another -quite different matter to which I would allude. -If the Church is indeed to be the vehicle of -the power of Christ in its plenitude, it must be -Catholic not only in principle and right, but -in actual fact. Deeper than all divisions of -"Catholic" and "Protestant" is the division -of the great human family—European, Indian, -Chinese, and so forth. These great civilisations -must each bring its own gift, consecrated -by the Spirit of Christ, to the life of the whole -Body before that Body reveals the measure -of the fulness of the stature of Christ. A -merely European Church cannot be fully -Catholic, nor can it ever do, even for Europe, -what the Catholic Church is called by God -to do for the nations which become its provinces.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst" id="on-providence-in-history"><span id="appendix-v"></span><span class="bold large">APPENDIX V</span></p> -<p class="center pnext"><span class="bold medium">ON PROVIDENCE IN HISTORY</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="pfirst"><span>The most outstanding facts in the history -known to us, which plainly reveal the providential -guidance of its course, are the careers -of Alexander the Great and Napoleon. There -had developed in Greece the whole spirit of -civilisation in reference to the small problems -of the city-state; the whole principle of -civilisation which had been thus worked out -was now established; Greek civilisation was -so perfectly developed that it had even a -perfect theory of itself in Plato and Aristotle. -Just at this moment there appears upon the -scene the absolutely amazing figure—Alexander -of Macedon, himself the pupil of the man -in whom the Greek spirit reached its final -formulation. He carries that spirit in his -astounding triumphs through Asia Minor and -Syria to the Western Provinces of India. -As a military achievement the mere leading -of his troops to the banks of the Indus is one -of the supreme wonders of the world. No -doubt he was conscious of a mission to spread -the gifts which Greece held in trust for -humanity; but also no doubt he was very -much concerned with the political fabric which -his conquests set up. The moment his work -is finished, he himself dies. Politically his -Empire was not established and it immediately -fell to pieces. Spiritually it remained. It -supplied the inspiration of Chandra gupta, and -the career of Asoka is unintelligible apart from -Alexander. The arrival of the Greeks in -India is, I am assured, the beginning of all that -we now understand by Indian art. Far more -important to the history of the world was the -bringing of Greek culture into Palestine; -this culture in itself was no doubt decadent, -and the Chasidim and Pharisees were right -enough to resist it: yet the leaven of this -humanising influence is an essential part of -the preparation for the Incarnation in the -soil of Judaism. It is to be noticed that -Galilee was a region particularly affected by -the Greek influence and the settlement of -Decapolis was still mainly Greek in the Gospel -period. Asoka and St. Paul are not at -all the kind of successors that Alexander -would have anticipated or desired, but his -conscious desires were utilised by Providence -to serve an end of which he never dreamed. -His early death before his Empire could be -consolidated in a political sense is as markedly -providential as his emergence at the precise -moment of history when he appears upon the -scene.</span></p> -<p class="pnext"><span>The case is similar with Napoleon. Alexander -at his death was 32 years old. Napoleon -was 52. He also appears at a critical moment, -is active precisely as long as he can serve -what we now see to have been the cause of -progress, and is then removed. The great -feature of the period is the growth of the -sentiment of nationality. This is the sense -of membership in a people united by -common characteristics and a common purpose; -it is therefore always democratic in spirit -though it need not at all necessarily be -democratic in machinery. The old European -constitutions, which had been valuable enough -in their time, were becoming a barrier to its -further development; the flood of progress -burst the dam in France, and soon after there -appears the supreme genius, not himself a -Frenchman, who was to carry the spirit of -which France had just become consciously -possessed through the entire length and -breadth of Europe. Napoleon, like Alexander, -was conscious of his mission; he thought of -himself as being the organ of the Revolution; -he is reported to have said that moral -principles did not apply to him; they applied -only to persons, and he was a force. But -there can be no doubt that he was as much -concerned with establishing a vast French -Empire as he was with merely carrying the -principles of the French Revolution into the -other nations. He is allowed success so long -as the work of destruction is still needed; -his activities first as general and then as -ruler began the unification alike of Italy and -Germany; but as soon as the spiritual work -which he was to do is fully accomplished, the -political construction, which was as a great -scaffolding surrounding it, falls to pieces, and -he is driven into exile to end his days in -solitude and impotence. Perhaps some day -people will look back upon the horror that -now lies upon the world and not only believe -that God was active in it, but see the blessings -which He was conferring by its means.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span class="small">PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY -<br />RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED, -<br />BRUNSWICK STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.E. -<br />AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 3em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><span>* * * * * * * *</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 4em"> -</div> -<p class="center pfirst"><em class="bold italics medium">By the Rev. WILLIAM TEMPLE.</em></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 2em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>THE FAITH AND MODERN THOUGHT. SIX LECTURES. -With an Introduction by Professor Michael Sadler.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>THE KINGDOM OF GOD. A COURSE OF FOUR LECTURES.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>THE NATURE OF PERSONALITY. A COURSE OF LECTURES.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>STUDIES IN THE SPIRIT AND TRUTH OF CHRISTIANITY. -BEING UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL SERMONS.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>REPTON SCHOOL SERMONS. -STUDIES IN THE RELIGION OF THE INCARNATION.</span></p> -<div class="vspace" style="height: 1em"> -</div> -<p class="noindent pfirst"><span>FOUNDATIONS. -A STATEMENT OF CHRISTIAN BELIEF IN TERMS OF MODERN THOUGHT. -By Seven Oxford Men: B. H. STREETER, -R. BROOK, W. H. MOBERLY, R. G. PARSONS, -A. E. J. RAWLINSON, N. S. TALBOT, W. 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