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diff --git a/43884.txt b/43884.txt deleted file mode 100644 index f6f0737..0000000 --- a/43884.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13237 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hallowed Heritage: The Life of Virginia, by -Dorothy M. Torpey - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Hallowed Heritage: The Life of Virginia - -Author: Dorothy M. Torpey - -Release Date: October 4, 2013 [EBook #43884] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HALLOWED HERITAGE *** - - - - -Produced by Mark C. Orton, Julia Neufeld and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - - - - HALLOWED HERITAGE - - - [Illustration: decorative] - - Hallowed Heritage: - - T H E L I F E O F V I R G I N I A - - [Illustration: publisher's mark] - - _by_ - - DOROTHY M. TORPEY - - _Head of Social Studies Department_ - - FRANCIS C. HAMMOND HIGH SCHOOL - - ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA - - 1961 - - WHITTET & SHEPPERSON, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA - - [Illustration: decorative] - - - - - Copyright 1961 by Dorothy M. Torpey - - Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 60-53266 - - Printed by Whittet & Shepperson, Richmond, Virginia - - - - - TO - MY MOTHER AND BILL - _whose encouragement and understanding - were inspirational_ - - - - -[Illustration: landing on shore] - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -From the founding of the first permanent English settlement in -America at Jamestown to the present-day launching of the country's -largest ships at Hampton Roads, the name "Virginia" suggests a -geographical area which has formed the background for innumerable -local, state, national and international events. An understanding -of "The Life of Virginia"--geographical, historical, economic, -cultural and political phases of living--should result in a -better appreciation of the unique role played by Virginia in the -development and progress of the United States of America. - - --D. M. T. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Introduction 5 - - Chapter One: Geographical Life 11 - - _Location and Topographical Regions_ - _Unique Features_ - _Rivers and Lakes_ - _Climate_ - _Natural Resources_ - _Human Resources_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Two: Historical Life, 1584-1775 24 - - _Exploration and Colonization_ - _The Commonwealth and the "Golden Age"_ - _The Pre-Revolutionary War Era_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Three: Historical Life, 1775-1860 63 - - _The Revolutionary War Era_ - _The Adoption of the United States and State Constitutions_ - _State and National Events (1789-1860)_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Four: Historical Life, 1860-Present 108 - - _The War Between the States_ - _The Reconstruction Period and Its Aftermath_ - _Twentieth Century Developments_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Five: Economic Life 150 - - _The Work Force_ - _Types of Employment_ - _Importance of Transportation_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Six: Cultural Life 163 - - _Literature_ - _Art and Sculpture_ - _Architecture_ - _Music and Drama_ - _Education_ - _Summary_ - - Chapter Seven: Political Life 201 - - _Background of Present State Constitution_ - _The Virginia Bill of Rights_ - _Election Requirements, Offices and Procedures_ - _Legislative, Executive and Judicial Departments_ - _Local Governmental Units_ - _Education and Public Instruction_ - _Miscellaneous Provisions_ - _The Amendment Process_ - _State Symbolism_ - _Summary_ - - - - -HALLOWED HERITAGE - - - - -1 - -Geographical Life - -_Location and Topographical Regions_ - - -The Commonwealth of Virginia is located in the eastern part of the -United States, approximately midway between the North and the South, -and it is classified geographically as a South Atlantic State. The -shape of the state suggests an irregular triangle: the base of -the triangle, the southern boundary of the state which divides it -from North Carolina and Tennessee; the left side or western side, -dominated by the Blue Ridge, the Appalachian and the Allegheny -Mountains; and the right side or eastern side, the Coastal Plain. - -Virginia is bounded on the north by West Virginia, Maryland and -the Potomac River which forms the boundary between Virginia and -Maryland and Virginia and the District of Columbia; on the east by -the Potomac River, Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay, and the Atlantic -Ocean; on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee; and on the west -by Kentucky and West Virginia. - -The area of the state is approximately 40,815 square miles. This -area places Virginia thirty-sixth in rank in area among the States -of the Union. Approximately 2,000 square miles of this area consist -of water. The southern boundary extends approximately 450 miles from -east to west and the distance from north to south is approximately -200 miles at its widest point. The geographical center of Virginia -is at a point eleven miles south of east of the town of Amherst in -Appomattox County. The highest point is Mount Rogers located in -Smyth and Grayson Counties with an elevation of 5,719 feet. The -lowest altitude is sea level along the Atlantic Coast. The average -elevation of the state is 950 feet. - -Topographically, Virginia may be conveniently divided into five -major regions: - - (1) the South Atlantic Coastal Plain--As the name suggests, - this region extends along the coast from the Atlantic Ocean - to the Fall Line Zone. The Fall Line Zone refers to a section - where the streams pass from the rocky areas of the mountain - region or high land to the level area or low land; at such - points, falls or rapids develop. The Great Falls of the Potomac - in Maryland and in Virginia, the Falls of the Rappahannock at - Fredericksburg, the rapids of the James River at Richmond and - the Falls of the Appomattox at Petersburg illustrate the concept - of the Fall Line. Consequently, the so-called Fall Line extends - from Washington, D. C., through Alexandria, Fredericksburg, - Richmond, Petersburg and Emporia in Virginia. Thus, the South - Atlantic Coastal Plain region of Virginia is located along - the Atlantic seacoast from the Potomac River at Alexandria to - the North Carolina boundary line and as far west as the Fall - Line Zone. The width of this area varies from 35 miles to 120 - miles. This region is also called "Tidewater" Virginia because - the level land here is so low that the ocean tides may often - be seen in the inland streams. "Tidewater" Virginia includes - five peninsulas formed by the Chesapeake Bay, the Potomac, - the Rappahannock, the York and the James Rivers. These five - peninsulas are: - - a. the Eastern Shore--Although most of Tidewater Virginia is - located on the western side of the Chesapeake Bay, a unique - peninsula called the Eastern Shore extends southward from - Maryland and is separated from the rest of Virginia by the - Chesapeake Bay. Thus, in order to travel by land from the - mainland of eastern Virginia to the Eastern Shore, it is - necessary to travel via Maryland. - - b. the Northern Neck--This peninsula lies between the Potomac - and the Rappahannock Rivers and is only 22 miles at its widest - point. - - c. the Middle Peninsula--This peninsula lies between the - Rappahannock and the York Rivers. - - d. the Peninsula of the Lower York-James Peninsula or the - Williamsburg Peninsula--This peninsula is located between the - York and James Rivers. - - e. the Norfolk Peninsula--This peninsula is located between - the James River and the Virginia-North Carolina boundary line. - In general, the land in this region is a flat plain. The tidal - rivers mentioned previously are actually estuaries of Chesapeake - Bay and they flow periodically inland. Therefore, they are an - unusual combination of waters from the Bay itself and from the - Atlantic Ocean whose pressure pushes the tides inland. The - strong influence of geography upon occupations in this region is - exemplified by the importance of commercial fishing (especially - oysters, scallops, clams and crabs), ocean transportation (the - large area of deep water in the Chesapeake Bay encourages - ocean-going commercial ships to seek inland ports in this - region--especially around Hampton Roads), truck farming (the - clay loam soil and the sandy loam soil here provide excellent - productivity of potatoes, early vegetables, corn and hay), and - the manufacturing of fertilizer (particularly from fish and fish - scraps), bricks (an abundance of sand and gravel encourages the - making of bricks), pulpwood, railroad ties, barrel staves and - other lumber products (60% of the Tidewater area is covered with - forests). - - (2) the Piedmont Plateau--This region extends from the Coastal - Plain westward to the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains. The word - "Piedmont" literally means "at the foot of the mountain." A - plateau is defined as a high lowland; therefore, this section is - higher in elevation than the Coastal Plain region. This area is - characterized by rolling hills and many swift streams. The width - of the plateau varies from forty miles in Northern Virginia - to one hundred ninety miles in the southern part, gradually - broadening as one travels southward. The plateau rises gradually - from an elevation of 200-700 feet at the eastern end of the - plateau until, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, it - reaches approximately 1500 feet near the Virginia-North Carolina - border. The Piedmont area located south of the James River is - known as the Southside. Agriculture is the chief occupation - because, in general, this land is fertile due to the presence - of limestone soils and clay deposits. Large amounts of tobacco - are grown here. The Piedmont also has a great variety of rocks, - including granite and soapstone which are currently commercially - important. - - (3) the Blue Ridge and Valleys--Although the Blue Ridge - Mountains are a part of the Appalachian Range, they are, - geographically, sufficiently significant to afford them a - separate listing in a topographical description of Virginia. - The Blue Ridge Mountains, located between the Potomac and - the Roanoke Rivers, cross Virginia in a northeast-southwest - direction and are from three to twenty miles wide. The Blue - Ridge of Virginia originates at the junction of the Potomac and - the Shenandoah Rivers and continues southwestward to the North - Carolina line. From a distance the mountain ridges usually - appear to be covered with a blue haze; therefore, the term "Blue - Ridge" is believed to have originated from such an observation - in early colonial Virginia days. This region constitutes a - distinct contrast to the Piedmont area since the ridges appear - abrupt yet lofty in height: in the northern half of Virginia, - Stony Man Ridge (4,010 feet) and Hawksbill (4,049 feet); in - the central part, Peaks of Otter (Flat Top--4,001 feet and - Sharp Top--3,875 feet) and in the southwestern part, White Top - Mountain (5,520 feet) and Mount Rogers (5,719 feet), the highest - point in Virginia. In the southern part, the Blue Ridge becomes - a rugged plateau with stony land and jagged ravines unsuited for - commercial agricultural pursuits. This entire area is heavily - forested with white pine, white oak, poplar, hemlock, black - oak, yellow pine, chestnut, locust and chestnut oak trees. The - famous Skyline Drive in the Shenandoah National Park extends one - hundred miles along the crest of the Blue Ridge Mountains in - this area from Front Royal to Waynesboro. - - (4) the Appalachian Ridge and Valleys--This region is located - west of the Blue Ridge and Valleys. The Appalachian Ridge - consists primarily of a narrow strip of land thirty-five - to one hundred miles wide. The Allegheny Mountains border - Virginia along the west and numerous high, narrow ridges are - found here. The Appalachian Valley in Virginia, like the Blue - Ridge, originates at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah - Rivers. This valley extends for approximately three hundred and - fifty miles to the borderline of Tennessee. The eastern part - of this valley is often referred to as the Great Valley or the - Valley of Virginia. This valley is actually a series of valleys - separated by crosswise ridges and drained by five rivers: the - upper James, Roanoke, New, Holston and Powell. An abundance of - limestone makes the soil exceptionally fertile and productive. - In the northern part of the Valley of Virginia is the famous - Shenandoah Valley, about 150 miles long and ten to twenty miles - wide, divided in the north by the Massanutten Mountain, a high - ridge approximately forty-five miles long. There is a great - variety of soils found here, and most of them have a fair degree - of plant fertility. Corn and winter wheat are the agricultural - specialties of the Shenandoah Valley. Other valleys included in - the Valley of Virginia are the Abingdon Valley, Dublin Valley, - Fincastle Valley, Powell Valley, Roanoke Valley, New River - Valley, Holston Valley and Clinch Valley. - - (5) the Appalachian Plateau--This region is located in - southwestern Virginia and is often referred to as the - Southwestern Plateau or Allegheny Plateau. It extends only a - short distance into Virginia and consists mainly of rough, - rugged terrain. Water gaps, gorges, sandstone walls, rock - formations and dense forested areas make southwestern Virginia's - scenery distinctly different and picturesque. The Cumberland - Mountains form its western boundary. Coal-mining is the chief - occupation in this region, and this is the area where the - largest and most productive coal-fields of Virginia are located. - Lumbering is also carried on extensively. In addition, some - cattle, hogs, corn and vegetables are raised here. - -The combination of these five regions suggests a one-word -description of Virginia's topography, namely, diversified. - -[Illustration: _Topographical Regions of Virginia_] - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Natural Tunnel_] - - -_Unique Features_ - -Each state of the United States generally has at least a few -geographical oddities or unusual geographical formations. Virginia -has been richly endowed with caverns, springs, unusual rock -formations and a dense, swampy wilderness. - -The chief caverns are called Endless (near New Market), Grand (at -Grottoes), Luray (near Luray)--the largest in Virginia, Massanutten -(near Harrisonburg), Melrose (near Harrisonburg), Shenandoah (near -New Market) and Skyline (near Front Royal). These caverns are of -limestone formation and contain stalagmites (upward-projecting forms -on a cavern floor) and stalactites (downward-projecting forms from -a cavern ceiling) in diverse shapes and colors. The Blowing Cave in -Bath County received its name from the inhalation of cold air during -the winter and the expulsion of cold air during the summer. - -Burning Spring is located in Wise County and is so named because of -the liquid flames which seethe through the surface of the earth in -this area from unknown sources. Crystal Spring in Roanoke received -its name from the approximately five million gallons of crystal -water per day which likewise appear from some unknown source. - -The famous Natural Bridge of Virginia is considered one of the seven -natural wonders of the new world. It is located near Lexington in -Rockbridge County (the county so-named because of the existence of -the bridge of rock) and is a bridge of stone ninety feet long and -two hundred and fifteen feet high spanning a gorge cut by Cedar -Creek. So unique is this formation that Indian lore relates that -it was referred to as "the Bridge of God." In this same region, in -Patrick County, may be seen crystals in the shape of crosses in -certain rock strata. So rare is their structure and clarity that -they are often called "Fairy Stones" or "Cross Stones." - -The Natural Tunnel located in Purchase Ridge near Big Stone Gap -and Bristol is a tunnel approximately nine hundred feet long, one -hundred and fifty feet wide and one hundred feet high, carved by -flowing water through solid mountain terrain. The tunnel itself -includes a reverse curve, and, at the present time, railroad tracks -and Stock Creek waters run through it. - -Crabtree Falls in Nelson County, Central Virginia, is believed to -be one of the highest waterfalls east of the Mississippi River. -These falls are formed by a branch of the Tye River, the South Fork, -descending two thousand feet below in cascade formation. - -The Great Falls of the Potomac, located on the boundary between -Virginia and Maryland, is one of the highest waterfalls east of the -Rockies with an elevation of ninety feet. - -The Natural Chimneys located at Mt. Solon are seven large towers of -stone carved by erosion out of a mountain. These rock strata are so -straight and so symmetrical that they resemble a series of chimneys -suggesting their name. Two of the chimneys have tunnels carved -through the bases, and cedar trees appear to grow out of the rock. - -The Great Dismal Swamp, approximately fifteen hundred square miles -in area, is shared by Virginia and by North Carolina. It is noted -for its dense tropical growth, its fur-bearing game (particularly, -black bear), its massive timber varieties and its disorderly plant -vegetation. Juniper trees, sometimes called red cedar, and cypress -trees are abundant around Lake Drummond in the Great Dismal Swamp. -The swamp is more easily accessible from Virginia than from North -Carolina. - -In addition to the above natural wonders, there are numerous mineral -springs, canyons, mountain peaks and deep gorges. Virginia has nine -State Parks including Douthat State Park (near Clifton Forge), -Fairystone State Park (near Bassett and Martinsville), Hungry -Mother State Park (near Marion), Seashore State Park (near Cape -Henry), Staunton River State Park (near South Boston and Halifax), -Westmoreland State Park (near Montross and Fredericksburg), Claytor -Lake State Park (near Dublin and Radford), Prince Edward Lake State -Park (near Burkeville) and Pocahontas Memorial State Park (near -Richmond and Petersburg). The Breaks Interstate Park controlled by -Virginia and Kentucky has scenery so similar to the Grand Canyon -that it is often refered to as "The Grand Canyon of the South." -The Virginia area of the Breaks is located in the northern part -of Dickenson County. Virginia also has a prominent National Park, -Shenandoah National Park, established in 1935, which consists of -approximately 193,000 acres. This park includes the beautiful -Skyline Drive. Cumberland Gap National Historical Park is located in -parts of Kentucky and Tennessee as well as in Virginia. - - -_Rivers and Lakes_ - -Because of the varied topography, there are many swift streams -which are available (although not yet completely utilized) for -water power. Virginia has parts of eight different river systems -within its boundaries. They are the Potomac River (including its -chief tributary, the Shenandoah), the Rappahannock River (including -its chief tributary, the Rapidan), the York River, the James River -(including its tributaries, the Chickahominy and the Appomattox), -the Meherrin, Nottoway and Blackwater Rivers (the chief tributaries -of the Chowan River in North Carolina), the Roanoke River (including -its chief tributary, the Dan), the New River and the Holston, Clinch -and Powell Rivers (the chief tributaries of the Tennessee River -System). These rivers furnish excellent waterpower and drainage. - -In addition to these important rivers, Virginia has several -valuable lakes. Included among these are: Crystal Lake near Cape -Henry, Lake Drummond (the largest body of fresh water in the state, -approximately five square miles in area and twenty-two feet in -altitude) in the heart of the Dismal Swamp and in the highest part -of the Dismal Swamp, Lake Jackson near Centerville, Mountain Lake -near Blacksburg (thirty-five hundred feet above sea level and noted -for the clarity of its water), Pedlar Lake in Long Mountain Wayside -Park, Claytor Lake near Pulaski, Bear Creek Lake near Richmond, -Bedford Lake at Bedford and Prince Edward Lake in Prince Edward -State Park. Some of these lakes are noted for their fish, especially -bass and trout, while others contribute primarily to the scenic -grandeur of Virginia. - - -_Climate_ - -The climate of Virginia is classified as continental--characterized -by frequent moderate extremes in temperature and a medium length -summer growing season. Since elevation generally affects climatic -conditions, the temperature in the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian -Ridge sections varies according to the altitude. In the Piedmont -and Appalachian areas, during the winter months the temperatures -are lower than on the plains; likewise, in the former areas, -greater seasonal contrasts occur. In general, the climate of the -entire state is mild with few extremes in temperature. The average -temperature is approximately 40 degrees Fahrenheit, winter; 60 -degrees Fahrenheit, spring and fall; and 80 degrees Fahrenheit, -summer. The greatest ranges of temperature occur in the Piedmont -and in the Great Valley. Snow falls very infrequently except in the -mountain areas and usually is of short duration whenever it appears. - -With respect to annual precipitation, the average rainfall for -Virginia is approximately forty-five inches, with variations in -different regions. In some regions it is as high as forty-nine or -fifty inches and, in others, as low as thirty-six or thirty-seven -inches. Rainfall typically is abundant and well-distributed -throughout the year. The heaviest rainfall usually occurs, however, -during the summer. As a result of the climatic conditions of -temperature and precipitation, the growing season varies from -approximately one hundred and fifty to two hundred and ten days. -Consequently, agricultural products are well diversified. - - -_Natural Resources_ - -The economic destiny of a region is greatly influenced by its -natural resources as well as by its location. It has already been -pointed out that Virginia has a most desirable location. Virginia -also has numerous natural resources. - -One resource so influential that it often shapes the economic -pattern of a state is soil. Virginia is fortunate in having numerous -types of soil: rich, black loam; light, sandy loam; clay and sand -loam; limestone and clay soils. Most of these soils are easily -adaptable to cultivation, and the use of crop rotation and of marl -(a soil neutralizer) has fostered extensive production. - -Forests constitute approximately three-fifths or 60% of Virginia's -total land area. There are many hardwood and softwood varieties -in Virginia. The term, "hardwood," is sometimes a misleading one -because a few of the so-called "softwood" trees are actually hard -in substance. Hardwood trees shed their leaves annually, and they -are called deciduous trees. Since softwood trees bear cones, they -are called coniferous trees. The southern or yellow pine is the -leading softwood or coniferous tree which thrives in Virginia -because of the sandy soil of the coastal plain. Other softwoods are -red spruce, hemlock, red cedar and cypress. Hardwoods include oak, -chestnut, locust, hickory, walnut, gum, white ash, magnolia and -dogwood. Although the forests are scattered throughout the state, -the Tidewater, Piedmont and western portions of the state have the -largest forested area. - -Fish are plentiful in Virginia because of the Atlantic Ocean, -the Chesapeake Bay and the numerous rivers and mountain streams. -Virginia usually ranks annually among the first ten states in the -value of its fisheries. The principal fish are oysters and clams -in Chesapeake Bay, blue crabs and shrimp in the Tidewater area, -scallops in seacoast inlets, bads, bream, perch, pike, carp, catfish -in inland waters and speckled and rainbow trout in mountain streams. -Menhaden fish, found near the surface of the water, are inedible but -are now being used for making fertilizer and oil in Virginia. - -The amount of waterpower is above average in Virginia due to many -swift streams and rivers and the high elevation. This resource -combined with an ample supply of steam coal has resulted in the -production of electric power in Virginia at a much cheaper rate than -in many other states. Furthermore, it is estimated that Virginia -industry at the present time is using only approximately 10 per cent -of its available waterpower supply. - -With respect to minerals, approximately one hundred and fifty kinds -have been found in Virginia, and approximately forty have been mined -and quarried recently. However, Virginia ranks nineteenth in United -States mineral production and provides approximately 1.25% of the -total United States mineral value. - -The most valuable and most abundant mineral resource found in -Virginia is coal. There are four types: bituminous (soft), -anthracite (hard), semi-bituminous and semi-anthracite. The -bituminous coal far surpasses the other types in quantity. The -coal supply is found primarily in three areas: (1) the Piedmont -region--the Richmond Basin and the Farmville area--bituminous; -(2) the west side of the Great Valley of Virginia--anthracite and -semi-anthracite and (3) the Southwestern Plateau--bituminous and -semi-bituminous. The first coal to be mined in the United States was -located near Richmond in 1745. At the present time, Virginia ranks -sixth in the United States coal production and is believed to have -more coal seams now available than any other mining district in the -United States. Coal is mined most frequently in Buchanan, Wise and -Dickenson Counties. - - * * * * * - -Various types of stone resources rank second in financial value of -minerals. These include: - - Calcareous marl (an earthy deposit containing usually lime, clay - and sand)--in the Tidewater section--used as a soil neutralizer - - Cement rock--limestone, marl, shale and clay--in the - Coastal Plain and in Augusta, Botetourt, Norfolk and Warren - Counties--used in forming portland cement and masonry cement - - Dolomite (a brittle calcium magnesium carbonate)--in the Valley - west of the Blue Ridge Mountains--used as a source of magnesium, - for the manufacture of refractories, for building and crushed - stone - - Granite--in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge provinces--used for - building monumental stone, crushed stone and paving blocks - - Greenstone (a dark-green crystalline rock)--in Lynchburg and in - the Piedmont area--used for crushed stone and one particular - type is used for ornamental stone - - Limestone--west of the Blue Ridge, in the Appalachian Valley and - in the far west of the state--used in the production of lime and - for manufacturing chemicals, for cement, as a soil conditioner, - for crushed stone and rock wool insulation - - Marble--in Rockingham, Rockbridge, Scott and Giles - Counties--used extensively for monumental stone: jet black, - green, white, red, reddish-brown, blue, gray, blue-gray, pink - and variegated (different colors within one type); the pink - marble is similar to the Tennessee marble and is found primarily - in Smyth County - - Shale (a fragile rock resembling slate)--in the Valley--used in - the manufacture of bricks, portland cement and rock wool - - Sandstone--Oriskany sandstone in Frederick and in Rockingham - Counties--chief source for the manufacture of all glass - - Slate--in Piedmont or eastern slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains, - in Albemarle and Buckingham Counties--used chiefly for roofs, - baseboards, blackboards, switchboards, sidewalks, flagstones and - asphalt shingles - -There are several miscellaneous minerals which, when combined, -rank third in financial value of minerals in the state. These -miscellaneous minerals include: - - Aplite--among Piedmont crystalline rocks along the Piney - River in Amherst County--used in the ceramic and glass - industry--Virginia ranks first in quantity and in value - - Bauxite--in Augusta County--used for manufacturing aluminum, - chemicals and abrasives - - Gypsum--in Smyth and Washington Counties--used primarily for the - manufacture of cement, plaster of paris, wallboards, fillers and - chalk - - Iron ore--in central and southwestern parts of the state--used - in furnaces for the extraction of the metal itself - - Kyanite--in Buckingham, Charlotte and Prince Edward - Counties--used in the manufacture of high-temperature - refractories, used by metallurgical and glass industries, for - insulators, for spark plugs, porcelains, boiler furnaces and in - the ceramics industry--Virginia ranks first in quantity and in - value - - Manganese--in central and southwestern parts of the state--in - Augusta, Bland, Smyth, Giles and Wythe Counties--used in the - manufacture of steel, dry batteries, chemicals, ceramics, - fertilizer, drier in varnish and printer's ink - - Petroleum--in Lee and Scott Counties--used primarily for fuel - - Salt--in southwest--in Smyth and Washington Counties--used - in the manufacture of various industrial chemicals and for - specialized used in food, clay, dye, glass and paper industries; - the brine used in manufacturing chlorine and soda ash - - Soapstone--in Albemarle, Franklin and Nelson Counties--used - for the manufacture of switchboards, electric insulators, - insecticides (ground soapstone) and for industrial and research - laboratories - - Talc--in Fairfax and in Franklin Counties--used as paint - extender and as pigment, paper and rubber filler, ceramic - products, lubricant, dusting material and abrasives - - Titanium concentrates--in Nelson, Hanover and Amherst - Counties--these minerals consist of ilmenite (used chiefly in - the manufacture of pigments and to a slight extent in making - steel) and rutile (used mainly for coating on electrical welding - rods); titanium is used for increasing the hardness, strength - and durability of steel and is sometimes used in making pottery, - china and stainless steel--Virginia ranks third in titanium - concentrates - -Sand and gravel, used primarily for roadbuilding and general -construction projects, rank fourth in value. Most of the sand and -gravel is located along the Coastal Plain, especially in Henrico, -Chesterfield, Prince George and Princess Anne Counties. Sand and -gravel are also used for "fill," for engine sands, railroad ballast -and glass. Clay (excluding that type used in the manufacture -of pottery) ranks fifth in financial value. Clay deposits are -widespread throughout Virginia--especially in Botetourt, -Buckingham, Chesterfield, Henrico and Prince William Counties--and -vary from red to light-colored to white. They are used chiefly for -brick and tile construction. - -With respect to metals, Virginia mines the following: - - Barite--widespread deposits--used in the preparation of oil well - drilling, muds, chemicals - - Diatomite--Tidewater section--an earthy material used as an - insulator, as a filter medium for oils, in sugar refining - - Feldspar--widespread deposits--chiefly in Amelia, Bedford and - Prince Edward Counties--used chiefly in the ceramics industry - for making pottery and in the manufacture of glass, enamelware, - enamel brick, and as an abrasive in soaps and cleansers - - Gold--northeast Piedmont and Blue Ridge Plateau--little gold - at present but the best developed gold deposits are located - in Fauquier, Buckingham, Culpeper, Goochland, Louisa, Orange, - Spotsylvania and Stafford Counties--chief uses of gold include - as a bullion for backing of United States currency, in the - manufacture of jewelry, in the process of gilding, lettering, - plating, and in the chemical industry - - Lead and Zinc--lead: in Albemarle, Spotsylvania, Louise and - Wythe Counties--used in the manufacture of paint, in storage - batteries, cable covering and as an alloy; zinc: in Scott, - Wythe, Rockingham and Spotsylvania Counties--used for producing - metallic zinc, for galvanizing and (when alloyed with copper) - for making brass - - Mica--among the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont - Provinces--white mica called muscovite is used chiefly for - electric insulation, for coating wallpaper, for roofing paper, - in lubricants and in heat-resistant windows; sheet mica is used - in electronic equipment--in Amelia, Bedford, and Henrico Counties - - Natural gas--in Buchanan and Dickenson Counties--used for fuel - and power - - Pyrite--widespread deposits, particularly in Carroll - County--used for its sulphur content in the manufacture of - sulfuric acid--Virginia ranks second in quantity - - Tungsten--in Mecklenburg County--used for making high-speed tool - steel and munitions - - Wool-rock--in the Valley of Virginia and the Ridge - provinces--used for the manufacture of rock wool for heat and - sound insulation - -As civilization progresses and new inventions are created, the -demand for natural resources will increase. As new processing -methods are devised, Virginia will undoubtedly increase the -development of such resources. - - -_Human Resources_ - -The natural resources of a state assume a comparatively minor role -unless there are human resources to develop and to utilize them. The -present population of Virginia is approximately 3,900,000 people. -This figure represents a gain of approximately 17% in the last -decade. Virginia now ranks sixteenth in population among the fifty -states of the United States. Of this total population, approximately -40% in 1960 lived in incorporated localities having a population -of 25,000 or more, an increase of approximately 4% over 1950; -approximately 78% are white and 22% are non-white. Of the non-white -population, approximately 21% are Negroes and the remainder consists -primarily of Indians, Chinese and Japanese. Most of the survivors of -the Mattaponi and Pamunkey Indians now live on reservations in King -William County and the Chickahominy Indians in New Kent and Charles -City Counties. Of the white population in Virginia, only 1.03% is -foreign-born. - -Density of population refers to the average number of people per -square mile in a state. Density is found by dividing the total -population of a state by the total land area of the state. The -density of population in 1960 was 96. The counties of Fairfax -(southwest of, and adjacent to, Arlington County) and of Henrico -(adjacent to Richmond) more than doubled their population from 1950 -to 1960. - -From 1880 to 1930, while the population was increasing rapidly in -most states of the United States, it was increasing very slowly -in Virginia--only a 5% increase. During this period, there was -a large migration from Virginia to other regions of the United -States, primarily to seek better employment opportunities. Of -this emigration, 65% consisted of non-whites. This emigration -practically ceased during the 1930's. During the Great Depression, -agricultural workers who had made up the large proportion of the -previous emigration realized the futility of migrating to urban -areas beyond the state, already overcrowded with unemployed people. -Although manufacturing activities in the nation declined during this -period, in Virginia such activities increased, causing the number -of employees in manufacturing to increase in Virginia. At the same -time, governmental activities within Virginia and in areas adjacent -to Virginia greatly expanded, thus affording more opportunities for -additional employment in Virginia than in many other states of the -Union during this time. - -In the 1940's Virginia had a percentage rate of population growth -of 23.9%, the highest percentage rate since the first census of -1790. This growth was partly a result of a high birth rate, a low -death rate and the greatest net immigration of people in Virginia's -history since the colonial period. Approximately 216,900 persons -became residents of Virginia during this decade. At the same time, -there was a high rate of development of employment opportunities -in Virginia as manufacturing, mining, tourist trade, wholesale and -retail trades and service industries expanded rapidly. The chief -factor, however, in the immigration increase was the widespread -increase of federal government employment, civilian and military. - -The total population of the state increased by 18% during the -decade 1950-1960. However, during the same decade, Virginia changed -in population rank from the fifteenth place among the forty-eight -states to the sixteenth place among the fifty states. The ten most -populated cities in Virginia are Norfolk, Richmond, Newport News, -Portsmouth, Roanoke, Alexandria, Hampton, Lynchburg, Danville and -Petersburg. During the past decade, the population of three cities -has been materially increased through annexation. In 1952, Hampton, -Phoebus and Elizabeth City County consolidated into the first class -city of Hampton. In the same year, Warwick County became a city -also. In 1955, Norfolk became the largest city in population in -the state when it annexed the Tanners Creek Magisterial District -of Norfolk County. In 1958, the cities of Warwick and Newport News -were officially consolidated into the one large city of Newport News -which now ranks third in population. - - -S U M M A R Y - -Since Virginia borders the Atlantic Ocean and is located almost -halfway between the northern and southern boundaries of the United -States, it has a very favorable geographical location. An abundance -of mountain and plain areas, rivers and lakes, a moderate climate -and the presence of varying altitudes from sea level to 5,719 feet -furnishes Virginia with five distinct topographical regions and -much scenic beauty. Several unique geographical features found in -Virginia such as Burning Spring, Natural Bridge, Natural Tunnel, -Crabtree Falls, Natural Chimneys, several caverns and the nine state -parks, in addition to the well-known Shenandoah National Park, -help to make Virginia a most desirable tourist area. A variety of -natural resources such as soil, forests, fish, waterpower, coal, -miscellaneous minerals and metals promote numerous occupations -within the boundaries of Virginia. Ranking thirty-sixth in area -and sixteenth in population among the states of the United States, -Virginia has an attractive environmental location with a large -diversity of skills among its inhabitants. Thus, Virginia is -well-endowed geographically and has many potential resources for -future progress. - - - - -2 - -Historical Life: 1584-1775 - -_Exploration and Colonization_ - - -Through the efforts of John Cabot who explored the coast of North -America in 1497, according to a patent granted to him by King -Henry VII, England had a substantial claim to New World territory. -Attempts at founding an English colony in America, however, were -not made until 1583 when Sir Humphrey Gilbert received permission -from Queen Elizabeth to settle a colony in the area now known as -Newfoundland. This attempt was unsuccessful and Sir Humphrey Gilbert -and his colleagues drowned during a storm at sea on their return -voyage. Nevertheless, Gilbert had selected a site for a colony and -had claimed the island for England. The proprietary patent which -Gilbert had received from Queen Elizabeth was renewed and passed to -his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh. - -In 1584, the name "Virginia" was given to the area of land claimed -by John Cabot, an area extending from Roanoke Island 600 miles in -an arc formation. Some historians state that Raleigh himself named -the area "Virginia" in honor of Queen Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen, -while others indicate that Queen Elizabeth herself named it in her -own honor. From 1584 to 1591, Raleigh made numerous attempts with -the use of his personal fortune to establish an English colony on -Roanoke Island--located off what is now known as the North Carolina -coast--but his efforts were futile and the so-called "Lost Colony" -resulted. In 1587, after Raleigh's second group of colonists had -arrived at Roanoke Island (the first group having returned to -England after unsurmountable difficulties had beset them), they -established a settlement there. This was the settlement where the -first child of English parents was born in America. Her name was -Virginia Dare (named in honor of her birthplace) and she was the -granddaughter of John White, Governor of the settlement. When the -colonists' provisions became low, Governor White returned to England -for additional ones. Four years passed before he returned to the -settlement because of the War between England and Spain, and upon -his return, he found no settlers on the island. Various areas and -locations were searched in vain and only one possible clue was ever -found: the letters, "CROATAN," carved on a tree. These letters -spelled the name of an island which had been inhabited by friendly -Indians of the same name. Thus, the "Lost Colony" remains an -historical mystery which has never been solved. - -The many sincere efforts on the part of Sir Walter Raleigh plus the -vast sums of money which he spent for these colonization attempts -convinced the English people that colonization was too complicated -an activity for individuals to pursue alone. Since the English -government did not desire to undertake these settlement projects, -charters were issued by King James I to stock and joint-stock -companies. Under this system, each stockholder bought a certain -number of shares. If the company succeeded, each stockholder earned -a profit based upon the number of shares he owned. On April 10, -1606, the Virginia Charter was granted under which two companies -were incorporated: the London Company consisting mainly of men -from London and the Plymouth Company consisting mainly of men from -Plymouth and neighboring towns. The charter granted them the right -to settle in the area in that part of the American coast known as -"Virginia" between 30 and 45 degrees north latitude and as far -inland as 100 miles. The London Company was granted for settlement -the coast between 34 and 41 degrees north latitude and fifty miles -north and south of the point of settlement; the Plymouth Company was -granted the coast between 38 and 45 degrees north. The overlapping -area between 38 and 41 degrees could be settled by either company -as long as the company did not colonize within 100 miles of a -settlement established by the other. The charter also guaranteed -the colonists and their descendants all rights, privileges and -franchises enjoyed by Englishmen living in England at this time. - -The government of the colony established by the Virginia Charter was -to consist of a Superior Council of thirteen members in England and -a Resident or Inferior Council in the colony itself, with complete -administrative powers and political control reserved for the King. -Each landholder was required to pay an annual quitrent to the Crown -and was forbidden to carry on trade with any foreign country without -a license. Before the charter was signed, in order to encourage a -large number of stockholders, the London Company agreed to make each -subscriber to its stock who paid twelve pounds and ten shillings the -"lord of 200 acres of land" which would be owned by "him and his -heirs forever." Consequently, the company raised sufficient money -to finance a colonizing expedition, and, shortly after the charter -had been signed officially by the King, the company sent its first -emigrants on the way. - -The settlements of the Plymouth Company were unsuccessful. The -London Company had six hundred fifty-nine members, many of whom -were knights, aristocrats and gentlemen of learning as well as the -usual merchant and middle class citizens. In general, there were two -groups of stockholders: the adventurers who purchased the stock but -remained in England, and the planters who personally established -the colony and then lived in it. Although the company was primarily -organized for profit making, it was also expected to help the mother -country, England, by supplying her with products which she herself -could not produce. Some of the colonists sincerely desired to -acquaint and convert the Indians to Christianity. The leader of the -London Company organization was Bartholomew Gosnold and his chief -associates were Edward Maria Wingfield, a rich merchant, Robert -Hunt, a clergyman, George Percy, a poet and scholar, and John Smith, -a versatile individual. - -On December 6, 1606, the London Company dispatched three ships from -Blackwell, London, England: the Sarah Constant (or Susan Constant), -captained by Sir Christopher Newport, the Admiral of the fleet; the -Goodspeed (or Godspeed), captained by Bartholomew Gosnold; and the -Discovery (or Discoverer), captained by John Ratcliffe. These ships -carried one hundred twenty passengers, men and boys, only sixteen -of whom died on the long journey to Virginia. This is a very small -number lost when one considers the size and type of ships used, the -extremely long voyage which lasted approximately four months, over -the Atlantic Ocean at its greatest width, the lack of proper food -and drinking water and the severe storm which the fleet encountered -off the Florida coast. This storm blew them off their intended -course to two capes which appeared guarding a huge bay. The settlers -sighted these capes on Sunday, May 6, 1607 and named them Cape Henry -for Henry, Prince of Wales, eldest son of James I, and Cape Charles -for Charles, the Duke of York, another son of James I. The bay was -Chesapeake Bay, so-named by the Indians. They sailed up a river -tributary, called Powhatan by the Indians, to the bay and then to a -peninsula located about fifty miles above its mouth. This site is -believed to have been chosen because the water was deep enough to -allow the ships to dock close to the shore and because a peninsula -could be comparatively easily defended against Indian attacks. -Here the settlers landed on May 24, 1607 and established the first -permanent English settlement in America. They called the settlement -Jamestown in honor of their King, James I, and called the river on -which they had traveled the James River. There, the minister, Parson -Robert Hunt, standing under a ship's canvas sail stretched between -four trees, led a thanksgiving service to God on behalf of all -the passengers for their safe arrival in America. He also had the -privilege of celebrating the first Holy Communion in America. Thus, -the settlement of Jamestown became the "Cradle of the Republic" -because it was the birthplace of the area now known as the United -States as well as of the State of Virginia. - -The colonists had been given sealed written instructions concerning -their local governmental leaders, and these instructions were -not to be opened until the ships reached Virginia. The council -members had no power to make laws but were appointed to see that -the laws approved by the King were enforced. Since John Smith had -shown strong leadership qualities, had frequently criticized the -management of the ships, and had exerted much influence on the -voyage to America, he had aroused jealousy on the part of some of -the other voyagers. As a result, the accusation was made that he was -desirous of becoming the King of Virginia. Fearing that he might -assume too much political power, his cohorts arrested him upon the -pretense of treason and mutiny and imprisoned him on shipboard until -the end of the journey. When the unsealed instructions were read, -the first Resident Council consisted of Bartholomew Gosnold, George -Kendall, John Martin, Christopher Newport, John Ratcliffe, John -Smith and Edward Maria Wingfield, president of the first council. -John Smith was later charged with sedition, acquitted, and finally -restored to his rightful council position. - -In addition to naming the members of the Resident Council, the -written instructions for the colonists provided that all the -colonists should work for a "common store." This rule resulted in -a great hardship because some of the physically able and capable -colonists left the tasks of planting, building, and performing of -additional necessary duties to others. Some of the colonists were -gentlemen by profession, unaccustomed to hard physical labor, and -interested mostly in finding gold or attaining a quick fortune and -then returning to England. A majority of the colonists, however, -worked hard and, after building a fort for protection, continued -to construct a storehouse, a church and log huts for residences. -The morale of the colonists became very low when the food supplies -became scanty; diseases of fever and dysentery appeared due to the -humid, marshy, mosquito-laden land area; and Indian attacks became -common. With arrows tipped with deer's horn and with sharp stones, -the Indians had shot at the colonists, severely injuring Captain -Gabriel Archer and one of the sailors. However, the first large -organized Indian attack occurred in the latter part of May when two -hundred Indians attacked the settlers. They were finally driven back -through the efforts of the colonists under the leadership of Captain -Edward Maria Wingfield. - -Captain John Smith, Captain Christopher Newport and twenty other -settlers decided to explore the general area of the Jamestown -region. From June to September, they journeyed the entire length -of the Chesapeake Bay and they witnessed the eastern shore of the -bay, the Potomac River, the Great Falls, the Susquehanna River, the -Rappahannock River, the York River and the Chesapeake River. Smith -carefully drew a map of the entire area and called it a "Map of the -Chesapeake." He sent it to England via Captain Newport, and it was -later published in London. - -The courage and persistent hard work of the settlers and the -leadership of Captain John Smith were invaluable. Captain John Smith -maintained harmony in the Council, encouraged friendly relations -with the Indians (eventually to the extent of getting corn, an -absolute necessity, from them) and changed the "common store" policy -to a "no work-no eat" policy which had most effective results on -the indolent settlers. In 1608, he wrote a fascinating narration -about the founding of the Virginia Colony which he entitled "A True -Relation." He is sometimes referred to as the "Father of Virginia" -because of his participation in so many activities: a governmental -official (president of the Council from September 1608 to September -1609), a diplomat in his relations with the Indians, a leader in -attempting to maintain peaceful, cooperative relations among the -settlers themselves, an observing prisoner of the Indians (during -which time he learned much of their culture and experienced the -miraculous saving of his life by the Indian girl, Pocahontas) and -a writer who tried to picture the happenings of the settlers in an -enjoyable fashion. - -In addition to saving Smith's life, Pocahontas helped the Virginia -settlers by having corn and venison brought to them and, later, by -warning John Smith of a proposed Indian attack. After John Smith -returned to England, Pocahontas stopped visiting the colony, and -the Indians soon refused to bring any more corn to the colonists. -Pocahontas was eventually captured by a Jamestown settler, Captain -Samuel Argall, through the trickery of an Indian who betrayed her -in return for a "copper Kettle and some trinkets." She was held -as a hostage in Jamestown in an effort to restore peace between -the Indians and the English. This strategy was so successful that -friendly relations were re-established. Two years later, in April, -1614, Pocahontas married John Rolfe, an English gentleman, at the -Jamestown Church. Pocahontas had met and had become well acquainted -with John Rolfe during her captivity at Jamestown. She had been -baptized at the Jamestown Church and had been given the name of -Rebecca. They lived for a while at Jamestown and then at Varina, -Rolfe's plantation. Three years after their marriage, Rebecca -and John and their baby, Thomas, age one, traveled to England, -accompanied by approximately a dozen Indians who desired to be -educated in England. Rebecca was received royally at the court, and -she was so well-mannered and charming that this lady who had grown -up in the wilderness of Virginia was readily accepted by London -Society. When Captain John Smith heard of her arrival in England, -he informed Queen Anne of the great help furnished to the Virginia -Colony by this Indian maiden during her youth. Pocahontas then -became Lady Rebecca and remained in England for over a year. As they -were getting ready to return to Virginia, Lady Rebecca died suddenly -and was buried in St. George's Church at Gravesend, England. Today, -two beautiful stained-glass windows may be seen in this church, a -gift of the Colonial Dames of Virginia, as a token of gratitude for -services rendered to the Colony of Virginia by Princess Pocahontas. - -John Ratcliffe and Captain John Smith succeeded to the presidency -of the council after Captain Wingfield. While Smith was president -of the council, King James I granted another charter for Virginia -in 1609 upon the reorganization of the London Company. This charter -provided that: (1) the area of Virginia was henceforth to include -all the land on its eastern coast 200 miles north and 200 miles -south of Old Point Comfort and extending from the Atlantic Ocean -west and northwest to the Pacific Ocean; therefore, Virginia -included at this time land now found in Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, -Maryland, North Carolina, West Virginia, Kentucky, Wisconsin and -part of Minnesota; (2) a Resident Council was to be established -which would have the power to distribute land, make all laws and -appoint all officers for Virginia's government; membership in the -council was to result from election by the members of the company in -England, a majority vote being required for the election; and (3) -the colonists were to take the Oath of Supremacy making the Church -of England the only recognized church of the colony. - -In the same year, Captain John Smith bought a tract of land located -near Richmond from the Indian Chief, Powhatan, and there he founded -a settlement which he called "None Such." He named it thus because -he believed there was "none such" site as scenically beautiful -anywhere. This site was formerly Emperor Powhatan's summer court -location. - -In the same year also Thomas West, Lord de la Warr (Delaware), -became the "Lord Governor and Captaine Generall" of the Virginia -colony. Although he held this office until June 1618, he remained in -England during this time because of ill health with the exception -of the period June 1610-March 1611. In May 1610, Sir Thomas Gates, -the first Governor of the colony of Virginia, arrived at Jamestown. -Captain George Percy had succeeded Captain Smith as president of the -Council. Starvation from a lack of food supplies followed, and the -population of the colony was reduced from 500 to 60 people. These -sixty were approximately fourteen miles away from Jamestown on their -way back to England when some of Lord de la Warr's ships arrived -bringing food and fifty additional settlers. Lord de la Warr was -responsible also for having a trading post established at Hampton. -Today, Hampton is the oldest continuous Anglo-Saxon settlement still -in existence in the United States. - -A short time later, Sir Thomas Dale (better known as "Marshall") -arrived from England as Governor of the colony. He was considered -a harsh Governor because his martial law administration was -characterized by severe punishment for wrongdoing. However, he was -responsible for having common property divided among the colonists -and for allowing them to own their shares privately. He ordered that -three acres of land be given to every man. In return for this land, -the owner was required to give six bushels of corn each year to the -colony. The owner then was allowed to keep the rest of his crops, -two acres of which had to be planted in corn before any tobacco -could be raised. This action was the first official recognition of -the right of owning property in America and such action resulted -in much more industrious efforts put forth on the part of the new -owners. - -In 1611, Sir Thomas Dale founded the third settlement in Virginia: -Henricopolis or the City of Henricus (named for the eldest son of -King James I, Prince Henry). Approximately 350 settlers, mostly -German laborers, soon colonized there. Two years later, Governor -Dale was also responsible for a settlement being established at the -site of the junction of the Appomattox and James Rivers. It was -called New Bermuda or Bermuda Hundred because of its similarity to -the British Island of Bermuda. For many years this settlement served -as a convenient shipping point and the present city of Hopewell is -an outgrowth of this early site. - -In 1612, a third charter was granted by King James I for the -Virginia Colony. This was a most liberal charter as it abolished -the Superior Council and gave full governing powers of the colony -directly to the London Company members, thus making the company a -self-governing corporation. The name was changed from the London -Company to the Virginia Company. The company was to hold four -meetings each year in London, and these meetings were called -meetings of the General Court or "Quarter Courts." At such meetings, -the officers were to be elected by the stockholders and the laws of -the colony were to be passed. The General Court also had the power -to manage the business of the company and to appoint the Governor -and councillors for the Virginia colony. The charter extended the -eastern seaboard boundary to include the Bermudas and, in addition, -gave the company the authority to hold lotteries for its own benefit. - -[Illustration: VA. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - -_Reproductions of Susan Constant, Godspeed and Discovery_] - -In the same year, John Rolfe began experimenting at Varina, his -plantation, with some tobacco seeds brought from the West Indies -or from South America. Pocahontas helped Rolfe in this task by -teaching him the necessity of keeping the young, tender leaves -protected from the cold and by showing him how gently the young -tobacco plants must be transplanted. Rolfe became the first white -man to raise tobacco successfully in Virginia. Then the problem of -curing tobacco in such a manner that it could reach England without -spoilage faced him. After some experimentation, his shipment was the -first one to reach England in good condition. As a result, tobacco -became the first important money crop and export of Virginia. In -addition to the price the planters received for this product, the -production of tobacco created employment for merchants and shippers. -After Rolfe's success in growing and curing tobacco, it was grown -by practically everyone in a variety of places: fields, gardens, -between graves and, in some instances, in the streets of Jamestown. -Prosperous times had finally arrived at Jamestown. When the -Englishmen at home realized the profit and excellent opportunities -available in tobacco growing, many journeyed to Virginia and began -tobacco raising. Previously, the settlers' occupations had consisted -primarily of farming (especially the cultivation of grapes) and -of the manufacture of potash, soap, glass and tar. The successful -growing of tobacco caused a tremendous increase in the population of -the colony and in the amount of tobacco shipped from Virginia. This -infant tobacco production was the background for the present day -high rank of Virginia in tobacco production. - -In 1616, the company allowed each settler to have 100 acres of land -for his personal use. A few years later, a 50-acre tract of land -was awarded to each settler who paid his own fare to America and an -additional 50 acres for every pioneer he brought with him. This land -arrangement, called the "Head-Right" system, formed the basis of the -Virginia land system. This system resulted in the creation of large -estates, and in the 1650's the average size land grant in Virginia -was approximately 500 acres. Such areas were commonly called -plantations, and the owners of such plantations, known as Virginia -planters, ultimately became the dominant influence in the Virginia -government. Some of these early plantation owners were William Byrd, -Thomas Warren, William Fitzhugh and Abraham Wood. - -After the Virginia Company had been given full governmental control -of its colony, there were some members in the General Court who -believed that Virginia settlers themselves should be given more -freedom. When these liberal-minded individuals gained control of -the company, their leader, Sir Edwin Sandys, was responsible for -obtaining ratification of "The Great Charter of Privileges, Orders -and Laws" by the General Court on November 28, 1618. In 1619, Sir -Edwin Sandys was elected head of the company and he immediately sent -Sir George Yeardley as Governor to Virginia to put the charter into -effect in order that the settlers would enjoy self-government. -Because of the sincere efforts put forth by Sir Edwin Sandys on -behalf of this self-government in Virginia, he is often referred to -as the "Father of Representative Government in America." - -According to the Great Charter, the Virginia Colony was to be -governed by two councils: one to consist of the Governor and -his advisers chosen in England by the Virginia Company itself -and the other council to consist of representatives, called -Burgesses, chosen by the Virginia settlers themselves. Governor -Yeardley carried out his instructions to have the free inhabitants -of the Virginia Colony choose representatives to help him and -his advisers in matters concerning taxation and laws for the -welfare of the settlers. The settlements were organized into four -"incorporations" or "parishes" with Jamestown, the titular capital -city of the colony: City of Henricus, Charles City, James City and -Kiccowtan (later called Elizabeth City). These parishes were then -further divided into eleven districts called boroughs, hundreds -or plantations. Each of these districts was asked to elect two -Burgesses as representatives in their local government. - -Governor Yeardley, therefore, called the first representative -legislature in America to meet in the little church at Jamestown, -July 30, 1619. This first General Assembly of Virginia consisted -of the Council, the upper house, and the House of Burgesses, the -lower house. This group was the first popular assembly in the New -World. There was a delay in the initial meeting because the local -elections had to be postponed until after the plowing and sowing of -seeds had been done. The session lasted six days and then adjourned -because of the severe heat. The session began with a prayer by the -minister and the Governor and Council members sat in the front pews -of the church. John Pory was the presiding officer of this first -General Assembly and he was called the Speaker. Each burgess was -called by name and then given the oath of supremacy in recognition -of the sovereignty of King James I. After the oath had been taken, -he officially entered the Assembly. Two burgesses were refused -membership in the Assembly due to an unusual land patent condition. -One of these prospective burgesses had been legally excused from -obeying colonial laws by his land grant terms. The action of refusal -was significant because it created the precedent that the Virginia -Assembly has the right to decide the qualifications of its own -members and to expel members even if they have been sworn in and -admitted to the Assembly if conditions so warrant. - -Although the session was very brief, much was accomplished, -including the acceptance of the charter by the General Assembly -members. Since this charter was the foundation of the laws used by -the General Assembly to rule the Virginia Colony, it was called a -constitution and was the first written constitution promulgated in -our country. Other petitions presented at this time are indications -of the trend of thought of these political leaders: former grants -of land should be confirmed and new grants made to the early -settlers, shares of land should be given to all male children born -in Virginia, rents of the ministers' lands should be made payable in -commodities instead of money, a sub-treasurer should be appointed -to live in the colony, and men should be sent to build a college in -the colony. Other laws passed by the Assembly itself concerned the -punishment of idlers, gamblers and drunkards, the payment of church -dues, the religious duty of the colonists, the regulation of trade, -the relations of whites to Indians, the regulation of the duties of -ministers and the conduct of servants. The Assembly also levied a -tax of one pound of tobacco on every male inhabitant over sixteen -years of age, the tax to be used for the payment of services of its -officers (speaker, clerk, sergeant and provost marshal of James -City). The Governor then adjourned the Assembly until March 1, 1620. - -In addition to the regular settlers at Jamestown, from time to time -indentured servants came to America. They were individuals who -signed contracts called "indentures" whereby they agreed to work as -apprentices or tenant farmers for a stated time in return for their -paid passage to America. On August 30, 1619, a ship that looked like -a Dutch man-of-war but actually was believed to be a pirate craft -came to Jamestown with a cargo of twenty Negroes which it sold to -the Governor and the colonists. This was the first recorded selling -of slaves in the area now called the United States. The Negroes -seemed to be more easily adaptable to hard, manual labor than the -Indians or indentured white servants had been. The need for labor -which could endure the intense sun of the tobacco fields made the -Negroes much more desirable than the whites since they seemed to -endure these conditions more satisfactorily. - -During the same year, another historical milestone occurred in -Virginia when a ship arrived at Jamestown with sixty young women -from England. Each bachelor who desired a bride had to pay 120 -pounds of tobacco for his bride's passage. The young women stayed -at the married planters' homes until their marriage. These brave -women made happy homes and helped shoulder the responsibilities so -that community life in Virginia became more settled. They wrote -such cheerful, courageous accounts of their life in Virginia -that a second shipload soon followed and more homes were rapidly -established. - -In July 1621, the London Company issued to Virginia a code of -written laws and a frame of government patterned after the English -type: the Governor of the colony was to be appointed by the company, -a Council was to be appointed by the company, and a House of -Burgesses was to be elected by the colonists themselves. Whenever -making laws, the councilors and burgesses were to sit together. A -law would be proposed, debated and, if passed, be submitted to the -Governor for his approval. The company in England would have the -final ratification or rejection. The right of petition and the right -of trial by jury were guaranteed. A unique feature was the provision -that the burgesses had the power of vetoing any objectionable acts -of the company. Thus, additional political rights were furnished to -the colonists by this so-called Virginia Constitution of 1621. - -At noon on March 22, 1622, the "Great Massacre" occurred. Complete -annihilation of all the Jamestown inhabitants by the Powhatan -Indian Confederacy was prevented primarily by the warning of an -Indian convert, a boy named Chanco. The settlement of Henricopolis -(now called Dutch Gap) was completely destroyed: 347 men, women -and children--approximately one-third of the total population -of the colony--were slain at this time under the strategy of -Opechancanough, the leader of the Indians. An ironic happening of -the Great Massacre was that one of the victims was George Thorpe, -superintendent of the planned college and university of colonial -Virginia. He had been a member of Parliament who had sold his estate -in England and had come to Virginia to spend his personal fortune -and the rest of his life for the conversion and the education of the -Indians. By 1619 the General Assembly had set apart 10,000 acres of -land for the construction and support of a college for educating -Indian youth in "true religion, moral virtue, and civility." The -College of Henrico, the first formal educational institution of -higher learning in the English colonies, was also destroyed during -this Indian Massacre. So strong was the vengeance of the British -upon the Indians that no more serious trouble with the Indians -occurred until 1644. - -Some influential people in England who did not approve of a British -colony in America tried to encourage the King to abolish the -Virginia Company's charter. The Great Massacre gave King James I -the opportunity he sought, and, since the company had been unable -to pay its dividends, he finally annulled the company's charter on -May 24, 1624. Virginia thus became the first royal or crown colony -in England's history. The greatest change under the new governmental -setup was that now the King, rather than the Virginia Company, -appointed the Governor and the councilors, thus making the Governor -a royal Governor rather than a company official. King James I died -the following year and his son, Charles I, succeeded to the throne. -Two years later, the King authorized the General Assembly to meet, -primarily in order that he could obtain the excellent monopoly of -the Virginia tobacco trade. Much to his surprise, the colonists -refused to grant him such monopoly, and, as a result, he did not -authorize another meeting for twelve years. - -From 1629 through 1632, two more provinces were carved from Virginia -by royal grants: the Province of Carolina to Sir Robert Heath and -the Province of Maryland to Lord Baltimore. The Virginians had not -protested much against the grant to Sir Robert Heath, but they did -protest strongly against the grant to Lord Baltimore. The leader of -this protest was William Claiborne who had previously organized a -colony and a trading post on part of the Maryland grant area. - -In 1634, the Virginia Colony was politically reorganized from four -parishes to eight shires or counties: Accawmack (an Indian name -meaning "the-across-the-water-place"; the name was later changed to -Northampton, an English county name and the two present counties of -Accomack and Northampton occupy the same original site), Charles -City (named for King Charles), Charles River (changed to York in -1642-43 in honor of the Duke of York), Elizabeth City (formerly -Kiccotan--named for Princess Elizabeth, daughter of King James), -James City (named for King James), Henrico (named for Prince Henry, -son of King James), Warrosquyoake (changed to Isle of Wight in -1637--some of the early patentees had come from the Isle of Wight in -the English Channel: the word, "wight," means a passage or channel; -therefore, it means "island of the channel"), and Warwick River -(changed to Warwick in 1642-1643, named after the Earl of Warwick -who was a prominent Virginia Company member). These counties were -the second oldest unit of local government in the United States, -the New England town being the first. The long distances between -plantations and the difficult transportation facilities on land and -on the rivers discouraged the use of the New England Town Meeting -type of local government in the Virginia Colony. The counties -themselves were patterned after the English counties. At this same -time, suffrage was extended to all free male citizens for electing -members of the House of Burgesses and county officials. - -On February 12, 1634, Benjamin Syms of Elizabeth City County gave -200 acres of land plus 8 cows for the establishment of a free school -for white children. This was the first legacy for the promotion -of public school education, and Elizabeth City County was the -birthplace of the Virginia public school system. - -In 1642 Sir William Berkeley arrived in Virginia as a royal -Governor. Until this time, there had been much religious tolerance -in the Virginia Colony although the Church of England was the -Established Church of the Colony. The religious laws were liberal, -and other religions had existed without interference. Sir Edwin -Sandys had encouraged some Separatists (Puritans) to live in -Virginia, and by the time of the dissolution of the Virginia Company -charter, thirteen parishes had been created and many clergymen had -been active in the colony. Governor Berkeley was an extremely strong -defender of the King and of the Church of England and disliked the -Quakers and the Puritans very much. He was directly responsible for -driving most of them from the Virginia Colony by enforcing a statute -of 1643 which provided that no individual who disbelieved the -doctrines of the English Church could teach, publicly or privately, -or preach the gospel within the limits of Virginia. - -In 1644 another Indian massacre occurred resulting in the death of -300-500 Virginians. This massacre was led by the aged, famous Indian -leader, Opechancanough. It took place on Holy Thursday and the -Puritans believed that this was a direct act of God as punishment -for their previous treatment in Virginia. The settlers finally -dispersed the Indians, destroyed their villages and destroyed the -Powhatan Confederacy which had consisted of approximately fifty -tribes. Opechancanough was later shot and killed. - -In the following year, the General Assembly allowed the election -of vestries by the qualified voters of each parish regardless of -their religious faith. As counties were organized in Virginia, -parishes likewise were established and vestries continued to be -elected by the qualified voters. The vestry was the governing -body of the parish, and although its membership number varied -between the parishes, the number was finally fixed at twelve. They -were self-perpetuating, and could only be removed by the General -Assembly. They had the power to select a rector as well as to carry -on regular parish duties. Under this arrangement, the Established -Church was part of the county government with the officers of a -parish having civil as well as religious duties and authority. Some -of the civil duties included levying tax rates on parish inhabitants -to raise revenue for carrying out their objectives, maintaining -roads to and from the church, keeping the vital statistics (records -of births, marriages, deaths, et cetera) and aiding the poor. - -During this period, the British Parliament began feuding with King -Charles. The Virginians strongly favored the King, and after he was -beheaded, the General Assembly passed a law recognizing Charles -II, the former King's exiled son, as the lawful King of England. -In return for their loyal support upon behalf of his father and -himself, Charles II bestowed the title of "The Old Dominion" on -the Virginia Colony, the only American colony ever to receive such -an honor. Parliament tried to combat this loyalty to the King by -appointing two Virginians, William Claiborne and Richard Bennett, -as commissioners whose duty was to influence Virginia and gradually -bring it under Parliamentary control. Parliament then provided them -with an armed force. Governor Berkeley made military preparations -also, but negotiations finally ended in a peaceful settlement -without resorting to open hostilities in Virginia. Individuals who -had favored the King during the Civil War in England between the -Parliament and the King were called Cavaliers. Since Virginia had -remained loyal to the King throughout this period, many Cavaliers -had sought refuge in Virginia at this time. This action caused the -Virginia Colony to receive the nickname of the "Cavalier State." - -In 1650, Mary, Margaret and Giles Brent erected homes on Aquia -Creek, Virginia. They were the first English Catholic inhabitants -of Virginia. In this same area, twenty-six years later, the first -English-speaking Catholic colony of Virginia was settled. In 1677, -a Catholic Church was erected here. After their nephew, George -Brent, and others had been successful in obtaining a Proclamation -from James II guaranteeing religious freedom on the 30,000 acres of -the Brenton Tract, many settlers came to this area. Today, a large -bronze Crucifix can be seen near the highway in Stafford County as a -reminder of the religious efforts of the Brent Family. - - -_The Commonwealth and the "Golden Age"_ - -The Virginia Colony finally received a charter of self-government -during Oliver Cromwell's rule in England and became the Commonwealth -of Virginia on March 12, 1651. The Treaty of Jamestown provided -that Virginians would be guaranteed the freedoms and privileges -of the English people in return for a recognition of the Puritan -Commonwealth of Cromwell in England. The colony prospered under -Governors Richard Bennett, Edward Digges and Samuel Matthews from -1652-1660. By 1660, the population of the Virginia Colony was -approximately 33,000 or over four times as much as in 1640. Many of -this number consisted of Cavaliers. The population which first had -centered around Jamestown, along the James River to the junction -of the James and Appomattox Rivers and along the navigable inlets, -now had broadened into the Tidewater area. As tobacco production -and the use of tobacco increased and as soil fertility became -exhausted, more land was added to the individual farms until large -plantations appeared almost common. Class society in Virginia -changed, generally, from a middle-class one to two distinct classes: -the wealthy plantation owner who could afford such personal workers -as slaves and servants and the tenant farmer who worked for a -plantation owner. In return for his services, he was usually allowed -to have a small plot of ground for his own use and a small farm -on which to live. When the Cavaliers, mostly wealthy gentlemen, -migrated to Virginia, they brought added aristocracy to the Virginia -Colony. - -In the meantime, other counties had been formed in Virginia. An -area which had been settled originally in Upper Norfolk was named -Nansemond County in 1642. "Nansemond" is an Indian word meaning -"fishing point or angle." In 1648, the county of Northumberland was -formed from a large Indian district formerly known as Chickacoan -and it was named for Northumberland County, England. From this -large area, one hundred sixteen counties were later formed. Within -a twenty-five year period, seven additional counties were created: -Gloucester County (formed from York and named for the third son -of Charles I, Henry-Duke of Gloucester), New Kent County (formed -also from York and believed to have been named either for the -English Kent or for Kent Island), Lancaster County (from York and -Northumberland), Surry (from James City County), Westmoreland (from -Northumberland and later an addition from James City County), -Stafford (from Westmoreland) and Middlesex (from Lancaster)--the -latter five named in honor of English counties. The formation of -many new counties during this time illustrates the great increase in -population which took place. - -When Charles II became King of England in 1660, Britain's colonial -policy changed. Previously, the colonies had been more or less -neglected, and interest in England had been chiefly centered upon -religion, intellectual achievement and local issues. After the -Civil War in England, the importance of the colonies seemed more -apparent, competition in setting up and controlling colonial empires -was greater and mercantilism became the key theory accepted by the -leading countries of Europe. Mercantilism was based upon the idea -that the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country and -that they had specific obligations or responsibilities to fulfill, -namely: (1) to produce the articles which the mother country needs -and which are impossible for the mother country to produce; (2) to -supply the mother country with foodstuffs which she needs, (3) to -furnish a market for the mother country's manufactured goods, and -(4) to export colonial goods in mother country ships only. Earlier -in 1651, Parliament had passed a law prohibiting foreign vessels -from trading with the American colonists. This law had been aimed -primarily at the Dutch. It also stated that all products sent by the -American colonies to England or sent from one colony to another had -to be carried in either English or American ships. However, there -had not been strict enforcement of this law in Virginia. - -The Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed providing that -goods imported into the colonies had to be carried by English, Irish -or American ships. The act further stated that certain "enumerated -articles" or exports could be sent only to the British Isles or -to the English possessions: for example, tobacco, sugar, apples, -wool, indigo and dyewood. The list was increased as time passed, -and the ill feeling of the Virginia Colony as well as the other -English colonies in America toward the mother country can be fully -understood, especially since higher prices for their articles -could be obtained from foreign countries. The second Navigation -Act required that all European goods destined for the American -colonies be sent to England and then shipped to America in English -ships. Thus, England tried to maintain a monopoly of her colonial -trade. The prosperity of the Virginia Colony was affected greatly by -these acts. Virginia's economy at this time was almost completely -dependent upon its export tobacco trade which was far in excess of -the amount of tobacco which England needed. The Navigation Acts -virtually closed all the markets except England and its possessions -to Virginia tobacco. As a result, the English market was suddenly -flooded with Virginia tobacco. There was much excess tobacco in -Virginia itself, some tobacco even rotting on the farms. The price -of tobacco accordingly dropped from fourpence a pound to a halfpenny -per pound by 1667. Virginia, as well as the other American colonies, -at times violated the above regulations and sent some of its goods -directly to other European countries in order to survive these -economic blows. Thus, the Restoration Period which the Virginians -had favored had some unexpected results for them. After the -Virginians had urged Sir William Berkeley to resume the governorship -prior to the Restoration, he had gone to England to intercede for -the colonists concerning the tobacco trade and the other Navigation -Acts, but his efforts had been futile. - -Another surprise was received by the Virginians at this time. While -Charles II was in exile in France in 1649, he granted more than five -million acres of land lying between the Potomac and the Rappahannock -Rivers to four Cavalier friends. This grant was called the "Northern -Neck Proprietary" of Virginia. Twenty years later, he granted a new -charter for the same territory to the surviving grantees. These -actions were unknown to the colonists, and much of this same land -had been settled under patents issued by the Colony itself. When -the colonists learned of the new charter, there was much protest, -and some of the colonists tried to buy out the grantees' interests. -However, in most cases, their efforts were in vain. This grant was -later referred to as the Fairfax Proprietary or Fairfax Grant. In -1673, the colonists found out that King Charles II had bestowed the -rest of the Colony as a gift upon the Earl of Arlington and Lord -Culpeper for thirty-one years. This eventually had no lasting ill -effects upon the colonists because Lord Culpeper later purchased the -Earl of Arlington's interest and King Charles himself bought back -the entire area from him for a six hundred pounds per year pension. -Lord Fairfax V became the owner in 1689 and the proprietary itself -was abolished by the Virginia General Assembly in 1786. - -In 1671, two explorers, Thomas Batts and Robert Fallon, traveled by -horseback from Fort Henry (present Petersburg area) up the Roanoke -Valley and across the Blue Ridge Mountains until they reached the -top of the Allegheny Mountains. They proceeded to the New River -and to an area in the present town of Narrows in Giles County. In -order to claim this land for their King, Charles II of England, they -had their Indian guides peel the bark off of four trees and then -burn a symbol--the initials of King Charles, of Governor William -Berkeley and of Colonel Abraham Wood (who was responsible for this -expedition)--on each tree with a pair of marking irons. Thus, they -took possession of this land and all the area west of it in the -King's name and provided a basic claim of land in Southwest Virginia. - -In this same year, a unique attitude concerning public education -was expressed by royal Governor Berkeley when he stated: "I thank -God, there are no free schools or printing presses and I hope we -shall not have them these hundred years: for learning has brought -disobedience and heresy, and sects into the world, and printing has -divulged them, and libels against the best government. God keep us -from both." - -In 1672, Parliament passed an act compelling each ship which left -the colonies for Europe to post bond that it would deliver its cargo -in England or otherwise pay the required duty. Colonial customs -collectors were to be appointed whose chief duty was to supervise -this trade. An export duty was to be paid on certain "enumerated" -articles--tobacco, indigo, sugar, apples, dyewood and later, naval -stores, molasses, lumber and hides--if such articles were sent from -one colony to another. Strict enforcement of this act would have -dire results on the Virginia colonists because their ships had been -carrying products from the West Indies and from Virginia to northern -ports and then to Europe. The colonists began to be extremely -dissatisfied with the mother country. - -Governor Berkeley at this time was aggravating the home situation of -the Virginia colonists. He had limited suffrage to freeholders and -householders only, had strongly influenced the election of Assembly -members to individuals who were personal friends and who favored -the King's policies and had been keeping the Assembly technically -in session for fourteen years without any elections taking place. -The grievance about which the colonists felt the most bitter, -however, was the inadequate protection of the frontier from the -Susquehannock Indian attacks. After these Indians had attacked a -plantation owned by Nathaniel Bacon and had killed his overseer and -one of his servants, Bacon decided that the colonists themselves -should take organized action against the Indians since the Governor -had practically ignored the attacks. One possible reason for the -Governor's hesitancy in interfering in these Indian affairs was the -high profit which he was receiving from the Indian fur trading. -Many of Bacon's neighbors agreed with him, and they prepared to be -the aggressors against the Indians. Bacon asked the Governor for -permission to do so and for a military commission for himself as -the leader. Both requests were refused, and Bacon and his friends -were declared rebels by the Governor. Consequently, Bacon and his -followers decided to take matters into their own hands without the -Governor's permission. They proceeded and successfully defeated -the Indians. This action aroused Governor Berkeley who immediately -considered Bacon a traitor, and a civil war or rebellion resulted. - -Bacon, in the meantime, had been elected as a member of the House of -Burgesses, and he went to Jamestown to participate in the Assembly. -Upon his arrival, he was arrested, brought to the State House and -charged with being a rebel. Governor Berkeley and the King's Council -discussed Bacon's activities, and Bacon agreed to apologize for -his actions if the Governor would grant him his commission. The -Governor agreed, but Bacon felt that the Governor had no intention -of carrying out his promise for a commission. Bacon discussed this -meeting with his neighbor friends who decided to accompany him -to Jamestown where he was to receive his commission. Bacon and -approximately four hundred planters marched to the State House at -Jamestown and demanded his commission. When none was forthcoming, -he ordered his men to aim their guns at the windows of the State -House where the House of Burgesses sat. At this drastic move, the -Burgesses quickly prepared the commission paper and persuaded -Governor Berkeley to sign it and then issued it to Bacon. Bacon -and his followers then returned home. Governor Berkeley thereupon -decided to fight Bacon and his associates. Berkeley then departed -from Jamestown and crossed the York River to Gloucester where he -called upon his friends to help him. Upon hearing that Bacon was -approaching Gloucester, Berkeley fled across the Chesapeake Bay -to Accomack. In August 1676, Bacon and his followers signed an -agreement whereby they all pledged to fight any and all soldiers -that Governor Berkeley might order from England to the colony. After -some Indians living near Richmond made new attacks upon the settlers -there, Bacon and his friends captured the Indian fort and killed or -imprisoned the remaining Indians. - -While Bacon was thus engaged, Governor Berkeley with eight hundred -soldiers and eighteen ships in the James River had occupied -Jamestown. Bacon proceeded next to Jamestown and defeated Governor -Berkeley's forces there. Governor Berkeley and many of his soldiers -fled to the ships and sailed away. Bacon realized that although he -had won on land, he would have no chance of holding out an attack -from the ships. Therefore, he and his friends burned the State House -and the rest of the capital, Jamestown, to prevent Governor Berkeley -from repossessing it. Bacon had become ill with a fever and died -shortly afterwards in October at the home of a friend in Gloucester -County. Governor Berkeley had twenty-three of Bacon's followers put -to death, but the principle for which they fought remained alive: -"the people must be heard." Bacon's Rebellion is remembered in -history primarily as a revolt of the plain, common man against a -privileged few. Governor Berkeley was later recalled to England, -and, upon his return, instead of being treated as a hero by the -King, he was regarded with contempt. - -In 1682, tobacco had been grown so extensively in Virginia that -the price of tobacco on the London market had declined rapidly. -When the British government refused a request from the Virginia -colonists to either restrict tobacco acreage or order a temporary -cessation of its growth, tobacco riots occurred in Virginia. During -many nights, thousands of young tobacco plants throughout the colony -were destroyed. Finally, after the execution of six tobacco plant -cutters, the riots ceased. Eventually, the customs duty on tobacco -was increased tremendously, and taxes in Virginia were increased at -the same time. - -In 1682, John Buckner established the first printing press in -Virginia at Jamestown. His printer was William Nuthead who published -several papers and two sheets of the acts of the Assembly of -November 1682, supposedly without a license. The Colonial Council -issued an order prohibiting anything from being printed until the -King had given his permission as there was strong opposition against -"the liberty of a press." Consequently, in December 1683, when King -Charles II prohibited all printing in Virginia, William Nuthead -moved his printing press to St. Mary's City, Maryland. - -From 1691 to 1703, seven additional counties were formed in the -Virginia Colony: Norfolk County (created from Lower Norfolk which -had become extinct and named for Norfolk County in England which -is also located on the water), King and Queen County (created from -New Kent County and named for the joint rulers of England: King -William III, Prince of Orange, and Queen Mary), Princess Anne County -(created also from Lower Norfolk and named for Princess--later -Queen--Anne of England), Essex (created from the then extinct -Rappahannock County and named either for Essex County, England or -the Earl of Essex), Richmond (created also from the then extinct -Rappahannock County and either named for territory resemblance to -Richmond, Surry County, England or in honor of an English Earl -or Duke of Richmond), King William County (created from King and -Queen County and named for William of Orange, King of England), -and Prince George County (created from one of the original eight -shires--Charles City County--and was named for Prince George of -Denmark, Queen Anne's husband). - -As mentioned previously, education in the Virginia Colony was -generally thought of as a family responsibility, not as a community -one. Nevertheless, by 1690, some families decided that there should -be an educational institution for higher learning in Virginia in -order that their sons would not have to travel abroad to obtain such -an education. A conference was held in Jamestown to consider the -founding of a college in the Virginia Colony. Those present led by -Colonel John Page drew up plans for such an institution and asked -the Governor and the King's Council to explain to the rulers of -England and to Parliament the purpose and the need of a college in -Virginia and to make a request for financial contributions for such -an enterprise. Reverend James Blair, a Scotch minister in Virginia, -went to England to ask King William III and Queen Mary for their -consent. He stayed in England for two years and, upon his return, -had a royal charter and numerous contributions consisting of land, -special tax funds and personal finances which had been encouraged -and strongly supported by King William and Queen Mary. Donations -from interested colonists themselves increased the building fund -considerably. On February 8, 1693, the official charter for the -college was granted. The college was named William and Mary College -in honor of the King and Queen who had granted its charter. Out of -respect for King William who belonged to the House of Orange, the -official college colors were designated as orange and white. The -General Assembly selected Middle Plantation as the most suitable -location for the college and the plans for the original building -were drawn up by the now-famous architect, Sir Christopher Wren. -The Wren Building, named in his honor, was constructed by 1698 and -it is the oldest academic structure still in existence. William and -Mary College was the second oldest college established in America: -Harvard College, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, having been -established in 1636. The first regular faculty consisted of six -professors and Reverend Blair, who had personally raised much of the -fund for the college, became its first president. - -After the burning of Jamestown during Bacon's Rebellion, the State -House was rebuilt, but it burned again in October 1698. Since the -Assembly then had no meeting place, it met in 1699 at the private -residence of Mrs. Sarah Lee and in a building of William and Mary -College. At one meeting, Governor Granci Nicholson suggested that -the capital be moved to Middle Plantation. After a successful vote, -the seat of the Virginia Colony government was officially moved -from Jamestown, the first capital, to Middle Plantation, the name -of which was changed to Williamsburg in honor of King William -III. Plans for the State House were immediately made and the main -street was named Duke of Gloucester Street, in honor of the Duke -of Gloucester who was Queen Anne's oldest son. The first official -Capitol building was constructed at one end of the main street and -the College of William and Mary had been constructed at the other -end. - -In 1698, a Scotsman, Francis Makemie, a Presbyterian missionary, -migrated from Pennsylvania to Accomack County, Virginia, where he -held services in his home. He was soon arrested for not having -a license to preach, but he was so sincere in his religious -beliefs that he was later awarded a license. He is the founder of -Presbyterianism in Virginia and, near Temperanceville, one may see a -monument consisting of a stone figure of Francis Makemie attired in -his usual clerical garb. - -Shortly before the beginning of the eighteenth century, the General -Assembly passed an act requiring an import tax of twenty shillings -upon each Negro imported into the Virginia Colony. England, however, -opposed such action and, as additional laws were passed by the -Virginia General Assembly levying high import taxes on slaves, -she consistently vetoed them. The number of Negroes in Virginia -increased as the production and the value of tobacco increased -until, by 1700, there were approximately 7,000 Negroes out of 72,000 -inhabitants within the colony. The colonists expressed their desire -to prohibit or at least restrict the importation of Negroes in 1713, -but the mother country would not authorize the Virginia Colony to -forbid slave importation. - -Another law passed at this time provided that any settler could buy -an unlimited area of land from the colony itself at the cost of -five shillings per fifty acres. This action was referred to as a -"Treasury Right." Therefore, the "Head-Right" system was no longer -the most common method of acquiring land settlements in the Virginia -Colony. The population of the Virginia Colony was predominantly -English and all types of social classes were now represented here: -from the aristocratic nobles to the uncouth convicts. With the -influx of the Cavaliers and with the reputation of the prosperity -of the Virginia Colony, the number of middle class and upper class -residents increased considerably during the Eighteenth Century until -such residents soon made up a majority of the inhabitants. By 1700, -the population of Virginia was approximately 70,000 including about -5,500 Negroes. - -By 1710, the practice had been established of allowing the Governor -of a British Colony to remain in England and to appoint deputies -to live in the colony and actually to rule the colony. At this -time, Alexander Spotswood arrived in Virginia as a royal Governor, -technically the Deputy to Lord George Hamilton, Earl of Orkney, the -official Lieutenant and Governor-General of the Virginia Colony. He -was the first royal Governor to live in the new Governor's Palace -at Williamsburg. Governor Spotswood remained in this position for -twelve years and was responsible for many improvements and much -progress in the Virginia Colony. He encouraged and helped carry out -the beautifying of Williamsburg, the new capital city. Ravines were -filled, streets leveled, some college buildings, a public magazine -(a storehouse for arms and ammunition) and a church were erected -primarily due to his influence. Since he believed in developing the -natural resources of Virginia, he had iron foundries established -along the Rapidan River, near Fredericksburg. As a result, the first -mining village in Virginia, Germanna, located near the Blue Ridge -Mountains, came into existence. This village was named in honor of -the German miners who came to Virginia to work the iron mines and in -honor of the German ruler, Queen Anne. - -In 1716, the Governor and some friends started out to explore the -Northwest. They stopped at Germanna to shoe the horses as protection -for them on the rocky, mountain roads. The Governor traveled by -stagecoach from Williamsburg to Germanna. Here he changed to -horseback and accompanied by two groups of rangers and four Indian -guides, in addition to the original group, he traced the Rapidan -River to its headwaters and then proceeded to climb the east side -of the Blue Ridge Mountains. They reached the top near Swift Run -Gap and, from this summit, viewed the great Shenandoah Valley and -the Allegheny Mountains about twenty miles away. They spent the -night there on the summit and then descended the west slope of the -mountain, finally arriving at a river which they called Euphrates. -This same river is known today as the Shenandoah River, an Indian -name meaning "Daughter of the Stars." As had happened earlier on the -Batts-Fallon expedition, a volley of gunfire was shot, and Governor -Spotswood claimed possession of the land in the name of George I, -then King of England. The highest mountain peak which they had -climbed they called Mount George in his honor, and the next highest -one was called Mount Alexander in honor of the Governor himself. -The expedition had been such a pleasant one for the Governor that -legend states that he sent to England for small individual golden -horseshoe pins with diamonds symbolizing the nailheads and presented -one to each of his companions on this memorable trip, bestowing -upon them the title of "Knights of the Golden Horseshoe." Governor -Spotswood also was a most able diplomat with the Indians, and he -tried conscientiously to help them get better educated. For example, -he sent white teachers to help them to develop their handicraft -and the arts of civilization, and later, he encouraged many of the -Indian boys to attend William and Mary College where they could -specialize in their particular abilities. Spotswood was later -appointed Postmaster General for the Colonies and was responsible -for initiating a postal system extending from Charleston to Boston. -Colonel Hugh Drysdale succeeded him as Governor for the next four -years. - -In 1716, the first theater in America was built by William -Levingston at Williamsburg. It was constructed for the acting of -"Comedies, Drolls and other kind of stage plays ... thought fitt to -be acted there." Mary Stagg, the wife of Charles Stagg, who was the -manager of the theater, is considered the first theatrical leading -lady in America. Although many British actors and musicians were -participants in this theater, it often suffered from financial -stress. Thus, twenty-nine years later, this theater was donated to -Williamsburg to be used as a town hall. - -In 1722, Williamsburg, the capital of Colonial Virginia (1699-1780), -became the first incorporated municipality in Virginia. It became -the leading political, economic, educational and social center of -the colony, especially during legislative sessions. Eight years -after Williamsburg had been incorporated, William Parks arrived -there as a public printer. He set up the first permanent printing -press in Virginia and approximately six years later, Virginia's -first colonial newspaper, the "Virginia Gazette," was printed. - -Colonel Robert Carter, President of the Council, succeeded Governor -Drysdale in July 1726. Carter was a very wealthy man whose land -holdings--300,000 acres total--were second in Virginia only to the -Fairfaxes. Because of his enormous wealth and arrogant manner, he -was nicknamed "King" Carter. - -In 1728, William Byrd II was the leader of a survey group -which followed the Virginia-North Carolina borderline from the -Atlantic Ocean two hundred and forty miles westward. This action -provided Virginians with knowledge of the type of terrain and its -potentiality along this important borderline. - -It was in the period 1730-1760 that a majority of the beautiful -brick and stone plantation mansions were constructed. The wealthy -families preferred the country-side. Some of the mansions built at -this time included Westover (William Byrd family), Stratford Hall -(Thomas Lee family), Ampthill (Archibald Cary family), Carter's -Grove (Robert Carter Burwell family) and Mount Airy (John Tayloe -family). - -Sir William Gooch was acting chief executive of Virginia for -twenty-two years, 1727-1749. His greatest project during this period -was the development of settlements in the Shenandoah Valley. At the -beginning of the Eighteenth Century, some Scotch-Irish, Germans -and French Huguenots settled in Virginia. The Scotch-Irish had -migrated first to Pennsylvania and to New Jersey. Upon hearing about -the beautiful valley seen by Governor Spotswood, they decided to -settle there. Their main settlement was located in the area now -included in the Winchester and Staunton areas and in the counties of -Augusta and Rockbridge. It became so densely populated with people -originally from Northern Ireland that it was called the "Irish -Tract." Later, additional Scots direct from Scotland migrated here -in large numbers. Germans had already migrated in large numbers to -Germanna, the mining town. The French Huguenot immigrants settled -mainly along both sides of the James River at Manakintown. Thus, -the Shenandoah Valley and the area beyond the Blue Ridge and the -Allegheny Mountains were colonized primarily by the Scotch-Irish, -German, and French Huguenots. - -Two years later, the Quakers organized a church at Hopewell which is -the oldest church in northern Virginia. Six years later, the oldest -Lutheran church in the South was built in Madison County by some of -the Germans from Germanna. Its financial support originally came -from friends in Germany, and it was called Hebron Church. - -In 1749, Augusta Academy was founded by the Presbyterians in Augusta -County, and it was the first classical school located west of the -Blue Ridge Mountains. Its name was later changed in 1775 to the -patriotic title of Liberty Hall. This academy was the forerunner of -the Washington and Lee University. - -Colonel Thomas Lee was acting Governor from 1749 to 1751. He -encouraged westward expansion in the Virginia Colony and believed -that the French should be expelled from America. He was the father -of the most famous family in Virginia history: the Lee family. He -built the now-famous family homestead, Stratford, in Westmoreland -County in 1725-1730. During his governorship, some wealthy -Virginians formed the Ohio Company whose purpose was to settle a -colony west of the Allegheny Mountains on a tract of land 500,000 -acres in size. Four years later, the company constructed a fort -at the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers where the -present city of Pittsburgh is now located. One hundred and twenty -miles north of this fort, the French proceeded to construct Fort -LeBoeuf on the Allegheny River. Since many Virginians and other -Englishmen from other colonies had been settling in the Ohio Valley, -they became much alarmed at the construction and occupation of this -French fort. Consequently, the British-Americans began to observe -carefully the activities of the French in this region. Colonel Lee -had the unusual distinction of being the only Virginian to have a -Crown Commission of Governor awarded to him even though he died -before the commission reached him. - -From 1721 to 1750, nineteen new counties were created: Hanover -(formed from New Kent and named for the Duke of Hanover who later -became King George of England), Spotsylvania (formed from Essex, -King William and King and Queen Counties and named for Lieutenant -Governor Spotswood), King George (formed from Richmond and later -a part of Westmoreland County and named for George I, King of -England), Goochland (formed from Henrico County and named for -William Gooch, the Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia at the time), -Caroline (formed from Essex, King and Queen and King William -Counties and named for Queen Caroline, George II's wife), Prince -William (formed from Stafford and King George Counties and named for -William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland), Brunswick (formed from Prince -George and parts of Surry and Isle of Wight Counties and named for -the Duchy of Brunswick in Germany), Orange (formed from Spotsylvania -and named for William, Prince of Orange, an English king), Amelia -(formed from Prince George and Brunswick Counties and named for -Princess Amelia, King George II's youngest daughter), Fairfax -(formed from Prince William County and named for Lord Fairfax), -Frederick (formed from Orange County and named for Frederick, -Prince of Wales, George II's son and George III's father), Louisa -(formed from Hanover County and named for King George II's daughter, -Princess Louisa, who was also the wife of King Frederick V of -Denmark), Albemarle (formed from Goochland County and named for -William Anne Keppel, the second Earl of Albemarle, Governor-General -of the Colony who remained in England during the entire time), -Augusta (formed from Orange and named for Princess Augusta, wife of -Frederick, Prince of Wales, George III's father), Lunenburg (formed -from Brunswick and named for one of George I's titles: Duke of -Brunswick-Lunenburg), Chesterfield (formed from Henrico and named -for the famous Lord Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope), Culpeper -(formed from Orange County and named for Lord Thomas Culpeper, -Governor of Virginia, 1680-1683), Southampton (formed from Isle -of Wight County and named for Henry Wriothesley, the third Earl -of Southampton and a leading member of the Virginia Company) and -Cumberland (formed from Goochland County and part of Buckingham -County and named in honor of William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland). - -By 1750, the Virginia colony was enjoying prosperity. Numerous large -plantations had come into existence. As more and more soil became -impoverished due to a lack of crop rotation, non-use of fertilizer -and the intensive planting of the tobacco crop which requires a -rich soil, additional land was purchased and added to the existing -homestead. Consequently, plantations of 100,000 to 300,000 acres -became common, especially around the Tidewater area. The larger the -tobacco plantation, the greater the need for cheap labor became -apparent. Consequently, the number of Negro slaves increased in -Virginia until by 1750, there were approximately 115,000 Negroes and -approximately 170,000 free whites. The increase in huge plantations -caused the middle class tobacco farmer to migrate westward as he -could not successfully compete with the larger tobacco planters. -The Virginia plantation owners had become accustomed at this time -to allowing the London tobacco merchants to act as their bankers: -they would order their necessities, supplies and luxuries (glass, -silver, china) via their tobacco credits. Such a system furnished -an immediate advantage for the plantation owners but also created -a situation whereby the Virginia planters became heavily indebted -financially to the London merchants. The plantation owners also -became the influential individuals within the colony--politically, -economically and socially. Thus, Virginia at this time was -practically ruled by an aristocracy. Although the governing power -of the assembly had increased gradually, the political power of -the commoner or average citizen had not increased accordingly. -Membership in the Virginia Council was considered a position of the -greatest prestige and was almost an hereditary position. The two -required qualifications were wealth and social position. The era -of aristocratic living which predominated in the Virginia Colony -between 1700-1750 is often referred to as the "Golden Age" of -Virginia's colonial history. - - -_The Pre-Revolutionary War Era_ - -While Robert Dinwiddie was the acting Governor of Virginia, the -English and French rivalry in colonial settlements was becoming -bitter in America. In 1753, Governor Dinwiddie selected George -Washington to visit General St. Pierre, the commander in charge of -the French fort at Presque Isle on the shore of Lake Erie, and to -inform him that the Ohio country belonged to the English and that he -should withdraw his troops from there at once. Dinwiddie sincerely -believed that the land upon which the French fort had been built was -English territory. Washington and four comrades rode on horseback -from Williamsburg to Fredericksburg where he hired Jacob Vanbraam as -an interpreter since Washington could not speak French. They rode to -Alexandria where Washington purchased food and essential equipment -because there were no towns between Alexandria and Winchester. -Two weeks later he reached Winchester, after having made the -dangerous crossing of the unbridged Shenandoah River. At Winchester, -Washington hired a well-known guide, Christopher Gist, to assist -him on his journey to Fort LeBoeuf where the French General had -arrived to supervise its fortifications. Two Indian traders also -accompanied him. They traveled to Maryland and to Pennsylvania until -they reached the French fort, Fort LeBoeuf. The destination was -approximately five hundred miles from Williamsburg. Although St. -Pierre was polite and friendly, Washington was informed that the -French had been ordered to eject every Englishman from the Ohio -Valley and that the French had the rightful claim to such territory. -Before he departed, Washington noticed a large fleet of birch-bark -canoes and boats of pine and was convinced that a war between the -English and French would be necessary to settle the dispute over the -control of the Northwest. - -Washington returned to Williamsburg in January 1754, and reported -to Governor Dinwiddie a detailed account of his journey. Washington -then prepared a written report which persuaded the members of the -General Assembly to realize the seriousness of this matter. Colonel -Joshua Fry, with Washington second in command, marched with a -troop of one hundred and fifty men against the French in the Ohio -Valley. On March 28, near Great Meadows, Washington's group killed -the French commander, Coulon de Jumonville, and killed or captured -all his soldiers except one. On March 31, 1754, Washington was -granted a commission as Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Regiment, -which he later received at Gadsby's Tavern in Alexandria. In the -meantime, Colonel Fry had died suddenly from an accidental fall, and -Washington had succeeded to the command. - -Fort Necessity, near Farmington, Pennsylvania, a crude structure of -defense, was in the process of being constructed by the Virginians -at the forks of the Ohio River when seven hundred French soldiers -appeared, outnumbering the Virginian troops by at least four -hundred men. Washington and his troops were forced to surrender, -were allowed to leave with the honors of war and finally trudged -back to Winchester. The Battle of Great Meadows and the Battle of -Fort Necessity were of historical importance because they marked -the beginning of the French and Indian War in America, they were -actually the first fighting attacks in the Seven Years War in Europe -between the English and the French, and they provided the first -real combat fighting experience for George Washington who was only -twenty-two years old at the time. The French proceeded to occupy -Fort Necessity and after improving it considerably, they changed its -name to Fort Duquesne, in honor of Canada's governor. - -The following summer, in 1755, Washington returned with a larger -army to the Ohio area. Two regiments, one thousand, of British -regulars had been sent from England under the command of General -Edward Braddock. These soldiers arrived at Alexandria from -England, and Washington, having been assigned as an aide-de-camp -to General Braddock, joined them there. A conference of five royal -Governors--Dinwiddie (Virginia), Morris (Pennsylvania), Sharp -(Maryland), DeLacey (New York) and Shirley (Massachusetts)--was -held at the Carlyle House in Alexandria on April 14 to formulate -plans for the protection of the western frontier against the French -and Indian raids along the Ohio River. After much discussion, a -campaign plan was adopted whereby General Braddock was to capture -Fort Duquesne and expel the French from the Ohio Valley. At this -same conference, the suggestion was made that the British Ministry -could levy taxes on the colonies to help pay the expense of the war. - -Braddock and his troops marched westward from Alexandria into -western Pennsylvania near Fort Duquesne through dense wilderness -from April 12 to July 9. General Braddock had been accustomed to -fighting the European tactics way, but he was wholly unfamiliar with -Indian and ambush fighting. Washington anxiously warned Braddock -of ambush possibilities, but Braddock continued to have his army -march in regular step in close order and in full uniform regalia -through the underbrush. Indian scouts daily reported the progress -of Braddock's army to the French at Fort Duquesne. When the British -troops were within eight miles of the fort, they were attacked by -the French and the Indians. The Virginia soldiers, many of whom were -experienced in wilderness fighting, ran for cover behind the trees. -Braddock, however, ordered his men to keep their formation and fire -simultaneously. Thus, they were easy targets for the French and the -Indians. Finally, they became so frightened at this unusual type of -fighting that they broke ranks and tried to flee. Half of Braddock's -1600 troops were killed or wounded, Braddock himself being fatally -wounded in action. This defeat occurred on July 9, 1755. - -In addition to this military slaughter, numerous Cherokee Indian -raiding parties took place from 1759-1760 in the Shenandoah Valley -of Virginia where homes were burned and men, women and children were -killed unmercifully. Washington was put in charge of this frontier -campaign with his headquarters at a fort in Winchester. Eventually, -the General Assembly of Virginia raised troops of its own for its -defense. The General Assembly then passed a law whereby a "Scalp -Market" was established, and anyone bringing male scalps of hostile -Indians above the age of twelve years to the market would receive -ten pounds per scalp in 1755 to forty-five pounds per scalp in 1758 -when the law expired. In July, the British General John Forbes with -a large number of English soldiers and some Cherokee allies went to -Fort Duquesne via Philadelphia. They were rejoined in September by -Colonel Washington. Fort Duquesne was finally won by the English and -colonial and Indian soldiers, and Washington, himself, raised the -British flag over its ruins on November 25, 1758, ending the Indian -attacks also on the frontier. Fort Duquesne had its name changed to -Fort Pitt in honor of William Pitt the Elder, a British statesman, -who had given ample support to Virginia's colonial policies. Thus, -the inhabitants of Virginia played their role in the French and -Indian War, apparently a misnomer because the war was actually -fought between the French and the Indians and the British and the -Indians. - -In December 1763, Patrick Henry distinguished himself as a young -lawyer by challenging the authority of Parliament and the King in -a case commonly called the "Parsons' Cause." The Church of England -was the established church of Virginia, and the people were taxed -for the parsons' salaries. Because coin money was scarce in the -colonies, Virginia, like the other colonies, had adopted the custom -of paying their clergymen in tobacco. One disadvantage of this -system was the fluctuation of the value of the tobacco, based upon -the law of supply and demand. Whenever there was a tobacco crop -failure, the value of tobacco increased considerably. This occurred -in 1758 when there was so little tobacco available that the House of -Burgesses passed a law stating that all debts payable ordinarily in -tobacco might be paid in money at the rate of two pence per pound -of tobacco. The parsons' salary was 16,000 pounds of tobacco. When -the above law was passed allowing the parsons to be paid in money, -they felt that it was unfair because tobacco at that time was more -valuable at the rate of six pence per pound of tobacco than the -money value itself. Furthermore, the parsons had had to accept the -same amount of tobacco when the prices had previously declined. King -George agreed with the parsons and requested that they be given -their 16,000 pounds of tobacco or else a sum of money equivalent -to the amount which 16,000 pounds of tobacco would be worth. Such -an order was contrary to the law passed by the House of Burgesses -and was a continuation of a custom which England had been using -of "disallowing" a law passed by the colonial legislature. The -Burgesses refused to accept the "disallowing" of their law; in turn, -the parsons, knowing that the King had favored their opinion in -the matter, took their problem to the Hanover County Court as they -believed they were entitled to the back pay for the time which the -House of Burgesses' law was in effect. The court had ruled that the -parsons were entitled to the back pay and was ready to proceed with -the problem of deciding upon the amount which it believed was due -each parson. - -When this case was first brought to the court for consideration, the -individual citizens of the colony tried to obtain the services of -a lawyer who would fight against the parsons. Since such a lawyer -would be fighting not only against the parsons but against the -King himself, some of the lawyers, when asked to act as attorney -against the parsons, refused the offer. Patrick Henry, who was only -twenty-seven at the time and practically an unknown individual as -far as law was concerned, accepted the offer. The self-educated -Hanover County resident surprised the people in the court when he -began to speak, at first hesitatingly and then most confidently. He -first criticized the parsons for trying to take advantage of the -scarcity of the tobacco which caused its extraordinarily high price. -He then dared to speak against the British Parliament and the King -for usurping the power of "disallowing" a law passed by the Virginia -legislature. The following quotation illustrates the strong language -which he used to express his attitudes in these matters: "The king, -by ... disallowing acts of this salutary nature, from being the -Father of his people degenerates into a Tyrant, and forfeits all -the rights to his subjects' obedience." Thus, he questioned the -right of the King to veto a colonial law. He followed these words -with comments concerning the rights and privileges of the colonists -and the unjust taxing of the colonists for goods brought to the -Virginia Colony from England. The jury handed down the verdict that -the parsons were entitled to their back pay but awarded damages -of one penny to each parson. As a direct result of this case, -Patrick Henry became famous and he became a member of the Virginia -House of Burgesses shortly afterward. He had dramatically, though -unexpectedly, expressed the attitude of most of the colonists toward -Parliamentary and royal control of their colony. - -In spite of Patrick Henry's strong protests against the taxes -imposed upon the colonists, Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 -whereby the colonists were required to put stamps of differing value -upon wills, deeds, mortgages, newspapers, almanacs, advertisements, -college diplomas and all other legal documents. This tax was not -directly levied for protection as the regular duty tax on imports -had been but was levied for revenue purposes. The revenue from the -sale of these stamps was to be used in paying the governmental -cost in the territory acquired from the French and Indian War and -for defending the colonists. Previous acts and taxes had affected -a comparatively small number of colonists and usually only one or -two social classes. The Stamp Act, however, affected practically -every class, particularly editors, lawyers and parsons who usually -exert strong influence upon any group of people. The Stamp Act was -the controversial issue at the time Patrick Henry became a member -of the Virginia House of Burgesses. Some of the members felt that -Parliament had the right to tax the colonists and others felt -that it was illegal for them to do so. Patrick Henry offered five -resolutions against the Stamp Act to the effect that the "General -Assembly of the colony have the only sole and exclusive right and -power to levy taxes." A fiery discussion then occurred over these -resolutions, and, after hearing the heated arguments on both sides -on May 29, 1765, Patrick Henry rose in the House and described -Virginia as being tethered in chains under the rule of Parliament -and the King. Then he shouted: "Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I, -his Cromwell, and George III...." Here he was interrupted by cries -of "Treason! Treason!" Very calmly he finished the sentence by -saying "may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the -most of it!" Patrick Henry's brilliant oratory persuaded public -opinion again, and his "Virginia Resolves" against the Stamp Act -were passed by a majority of one vote. Such a small majority seems -insignificant, but these Resolves were publicized throughout the -colonies and played an important part in creating serious opposition -to England throughout the British colonies. Soon similar resolutions -were adopted in the other colonies. - -The first Colonial Congress was called to meet in New York City -in October 1765 to form a plan of resistance to the Stamp Act. -Although delegates from nine colonies attended, Virginia was not -represented because the Virginia legislature had adjourned before -Massachusetts had sent its invitation circular to her. However, -Virginia approved a three point program of this "Stamp Act Congress" -at its next legislative session: namely, a Bill of Rights, a -statement of grievances and the principle of no taxation without -actual representation. The colonists believed that, since they had -no actual representation in Parliament, there could be no taxation -except that authorized by their individual legislatures. Therefore, -the members of the Stamp Act Congress adopted petitions to the -King, the House of Commons and the House of Lords asking repeal of -the Stamp Act. This congress was the first significant step in the -direction of unity for the British colonies in America. In addition -to this orderly method of opposition, in some of the colonies mob -violence, rioting and even personal molesting of the stamp officials -took place. - -On February 8, 1766, the Northampton County Court severely opposed -the Stamp Act by stating that "the said act did not bind, affect or -concern the inhabitants of this colony, inasmuch as they conceive -the same to be unconstitutional, and that the said several officers -may proceed to the execution of their respective offices, without -incurring any penalties by means thereof." - -On February 27, 1766, a group of one hundred and fifteen planters -met at Leedstown in the Northern Neck to publicly oppose the Stamp -Act. A series of resolves or resolutions written by Richard Henry -Lee but presented by Thomas Ludwell Lee, his brother, were passed by -those present. These resolves condemned the Stamp Act and defiantly -acclaimed the rights which they considered essential to civil -liberty. These resolves are usually referred to as the Leedstown -or Westmoreland Resolves because they were presented at Leedstown -which is located in Westmoreland County. In March of the same year -a pamphlet, entitled "An Enquiry into the Rights of the British -Colonies," was written and circulated by Richard Henry Bland which -strongly opposed the Parliamentary measures and stated that the -colonies were bound to England directly by the King and not by -Parliament. Therefore, Bland concluded that Parliament technically -had no jurisdiction over the American colonies. - -Finally, on March 18, 1766, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act but -at the same time passed the Declaratory Act stating that Parliament -had the authority to pass laws for the colonies "in all cases -whatsoever." In their triumph over the repeal of the Stamp Act, many -of the colonists overlooked the strong, powerful wording of the -Declaratory Act. - -Soon after the repeal of the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts were -passed in 1767. They were called the Townshend Acts because the -British Chancellor of the Exchequer (a position similar to the -present-day United States Secretary of the Treasury) who originated -them was Charles Townshend. The acts placed a duty (an external -tax) upon glass, paper, painters' colors, white lead and tea. The -revenue collected from these duties was to be used for the payment -of salaries of judges and other colonial officials in the attempt -to make such positions less influenced by the colonial legislature. -The colonists objected strongly to the Townshend Acts, again stating -that the taxes so collected were for the purpose of revenue and not -for protection. - -The merchant class of the large cities in the colonies and the -Virginia planters in particular were so strongly affected by -these acts that they formed a retaliatory organization called the -Non-Importation Association. Although Lord Botetourt, the royal -Governor of Virginia at this time, dissolved the Virginia Assembly, -and individual members met privately at the Raleigh Tavern in -Williamsburg and agreed to enter into such a non-importation -agreement. This group agreed not to import slaves, wines or goods -from Great Britain unless the objectionable taxes were abolished. -This agreement caused a great reduction in the number of imports -from Great Britain to these colonies. Since Virginia had the largest -amount of commerce trade in England at this time, this method -proved effective. Acts of violence even occured in some of the -colonies--for example, the Boston Massacre. Finally, on March 5, -1770, the Townshend Acts were repealed with the exception of the tax -on tea: three pence per pound. This tax was retained supposedly to -assert the right of Parliament to tax the colonists whenever it so -desired. - -In spite of this repeal, friction between colonial legislatures and -royal Governors continued. Under the leadership of Samuel Adams of -Massachusetts, Committees of Correspondence were appointed in 1773 -whose chief objective was to keep the various colonies informed by -correspondence of the events occurring within their colony which -were contrary to the rights and privileges of the colonists. The -Virginia General Assembly appointed a Committee of Correspondence -under the leadership of Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Patrick -Henry and George Mason. The condition which caused this permanent -committee to be organized at this time was the continuous threat -of England to force Americans to be tried in England for offenses -against the law. These committees within the various colonies became -very active and persuasive. The British soon abandoned their idea of -sending Americans to England to be tried. However, these committees -increased rapidly in number as the grievances of the colonists -increased, and they gradually created a feeling of unity in the -colonies as a result of a better understanding of common problems. - -The next act which is believed to have led directly to the -Revolutionary War is the Tea Act. After the three pence per pound -tax on tea was levied, some of the colonists bought their tea from -smugglers who had purchased it from the Dutch East Indies. In -1773, in an attempt to curb this illegal trade and to help create -a monopoly of the tea trade for the East India Company, Parliament -passed a law allowing this company to ship tea from Asia directly -to the American colonies without bringing it to English warehouses -first, as had previously been the regulation. This situation -resulted in the East India Company selling its tea cheaper than the -other companies. In spite of this change, Parliament refused to -repeal the three pence duty tax on tea which still had to be paid by -the colonists. - -The American colonists realized the scheme of England, and not -wanting to admit the right of Parliament to tax them even under -these conditions, they decided not to submit to the payment of the -duty tax. When the ships from the East India Company sent cargoes -of tea to Charleston, Philadelphia, New York and Boston, some of it -was stored indefinitely (at Charleston), some was returned (from -Philadelphia and from New York City) and the rest was dumped into -the Boston Harbor on December 16, 1773. The famous Boston Tea Party -caused Parliament to pass the "Intolerable Acts" as punishment for -the colonists of Massachusetts: (1) the Boston Port Bill closed -the port of Boston to all trade until the colonists there had paid -for the tea which had been destroyed and had agreed to obey the -laws of Parliament and to maintain peace in the future, (2) the -Massachusetts Government Act changed the charter of Massachusetts so -that more governing power was in the hands of the royal officials -and much less in the hands of the colonists, (3) the Administration -of Justice Act provided that British officials in Massachusetts who -had been charged with serious violations of colonial laws were from -that time on to be sent to England for their trial and (4) an act -provided that any colonial Governor was empowered from that time on -to quarter British soldiers in barns or vacant buildings whenever -the need arose. The first of these acts was to go into effect on -June 1, 1774. Therefore, the colonists realized that something had -to be done immediately if their resentment and ill feeling was to be -recognized by Parliament and acted upon accordingly. - -A description of the Boston Tea Party first reached Virginia from -a visitor to the old Market Square in Alexandria. The Virginia -House of Burgesses was in session when the Virginians learned of -the "Intolerable Acts." Led by Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and -Richard Henry Lee, the members of the House of Burgesses passed a -resolution designating June 1, the day on which the "Intolerable -Acts" were to be enforced, as a day of fasting and prayer to God to -encourage Parliament to abandon its unwise punitive policy towards -the people of Massachusetts. When Governor Lord Dunmore, who had -succeeded upon the death of Governor Botetourt, heard of this -resolution, he dissolved the House of Burgesses. Before all the -members had left Williamsburg, a messenger arrived from Boston with -a circular letter which pleaded with the colonies for united support -and which suggested the cessation of all trading relations with -Great Britain. The twenty-five Burgesses members, who were in the -Apollo Room of the Raleigh Tavern when the letter arrived, discussed -its contents and decided that it was too important a matter for -the Committee of Correspondence to assume complete responsibility. -Consequently, they asked the counties to appoint deputies to a -special convention to be held on August 1, 1774 at Williamsburg -for a two-fold purpose: to consider the possibility of complete -cessation of trade with Great Britain and to choose delegates to -a proposed Continental Congress. Peyton Randolph, Speaker of the -House of Burgesses, is believed to have been the leader of this -special convention movement. The actual summons was signed by Thomas -Jefferson, George Washington and Henry Lee. The calling of this -First Virginia Convention is most significant in American history as -well as in Virginia history because it was a positive action on the -part of the American colonists to assert the people's sovereignty -over and against the King's authority. - -The convention at Williamsburg which began August 1, 1774 lasted -for six days and representatives attended from fifty-six counties -and four boroughs. Each county sent two delegates and each borough, -one. Peyton Randolph was chosen as president of the convention. -The convention members agreed to purchase no goods, with the -exception of medicine, from Great Britain after November 1, 1774 and -agreed neither to import slaves nor to buy imported slaves after -November 1. Seven members were selected to represent Virginia at a -Continental or General Congress: Richard Bland, Benjamin Harrison, -Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, Edmund Pendleton, Peyton Randolph -and George Washington. The convention delegates also stated that -unless American grievances were diminished by August 10, 1775, all -exports of Virginia products to Great Britain would be stopped. It -was at this convention that a written treatise on American rights -was prepared for the convention by Thomas Jefferson. This paper, -later entitled "A Summary View of the Rights of British America," -was published by the Virginia convention and was responsible for -making Jefferson's great ability as a writer well known. This -pamphlet was a forerunner of the Declaration of Independence. - -While the colonists were having political and economic difficulties -with Great Britain, other domestic difficulties were occurring -on the frontiers. As mentioned previously, the Piedmont area -of Virginia, located between the Fall Line and the Appalachian -Mountains, was actually the first American frontier. People who -settled there came originally for several purposes: to acquire -fertile but cheap land, to enjoy new personal freedom (in many -cases, the settlers were former indentured servants), to carry -on fur trade with the Indians, to obtain fresh pasture land for -cattle and to establish plantations. After the Piedmont area became -heavily settled, the westward movement continued. The settlements -in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia followed directly after the -crossing of the Blue Ridge Mountains. In the late 1760's, William -Bean, a Virginian, constructed the first cabin along the Watauga -River, and later, James Robertson and John Sevier pioneered in the -Watauga Valley. Settlements were also made at this time along the -fertile Holston River Valley in eastern Tennessee. During this -period, Daniel Boone explored the Cumberland Gap area and started a -settlement in the region now known as Kentucky. While he was taking -a group of approximately eighty settlers to this region, he was -attacked by a band of Indians. The group decided to return to North -Carolina with the exception of the Boone family, and they stopped -near the Kentucky-Tennessee border. - -Indian uprisings were common until the soldiers of Virginia defeated -them in Lord Dunmore's War. As the settlers pushed westward, more -and more of the Indians' hunting grounds were being seized and -used for farming. Since the Indians felt that this was most unjust -treatment, they resorted to making war upon the settlers. In -1774, many frontier Indian raids occurred involving the Shawnees, -Cherokees, Mingos, Delaware and Wyandots. One incident which had -great repercussion was the killing of nine members of the family of -John Logan, a friendly Mingo chief, by a group of white settlers. -This incident caused the Indians to be extremely revengeful. - -When Lord Dunmore became the new royal Governor, the settlers -appealed to him for protection and asked that he send military -troops at once. He decided personally to command one group of troops -at the Forks of the Ohio River and he ordered Major Andrew Lewis, a -pioneer's son of Augusta County whose father had founded Staunton, -Virginia, to raise a force of Virginia troops and bring them to a -meeting-place located at Camp Union (now known as Lewisburg, West -Virginia). With approximately 1100 men, General Lewis started on -his march to the Ohio River in September 1774 to fight the Indians. -After nineteen days of marching, they arrived at Point Pleasant, -the site at which the Kanawha River empties into the Ohio River, -approximately 160 miles from their starting point. General Lewis -and his troops waited four days and heard no word from Lord Dunmore -although he had ordered them to this particular position. On October -10, two of Lewis' men went hunting, strictly against his orders. -Two miles from camp they were attacked by the Shawnee Indians, and -one of them was killed. The other escaped, rushed back to the camp -and reported to General Lewis that he had observed "four acres of -ground" of Indians. General Lewis then commanded his men to form -two lines of battle, one to be under the leadership of his brother, -Colonel Charles Lewis, and the other under the leadership of Colonel -William Fleming. He himself was to be the supreme commander. The -battle began immediately, and after the Indians rushed forward -the first time, Charles Lewis was killed and Colonel Fleming was -wounded. The Indian leader was Chief Cornstalk who was a popular -and powerful Indian warrior. However, after fighting all day, the -Indians finally retreated across the Ohio River, and the Virginians -were considered the victors of the Battle of Point Pleasant or the -Battle of Great Kanawha because they were not driven back by the -Indians. Consequently, Lord Dunmore's War was fought without his -presence, although it is believed that he may have been negotiating -a peace treaty with the Indians simultaneously at some distant -place. The winning of this war by the Virginians made the winning of -the west much easier for the later settlers. - -On September 5, 1774, the first Continental Congress was called -by Virginia, and invitations were issued by Committees of -Correspondence. The purpose of this Congress was "to deliberate -and determine wise and proper measures, to be by them recommended -to all the colonies, for the recovery and establishment of their -just rights and liberties, civil and religious, and the restoration -of union and harmony between Great Britain and the colonies most -ardently desired by all good men." The Continental Congress -began in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, on September 5, 1774 -with 56 members present. Two-thirds of these were lawyers, and -the membership itself consisted of representatives of both the -liberal and the conservative groups although the majority appeared -to be in the former group. The Virginian, Peyton Randolph, was -unanimously elected President of the First Continental Congress. -During the Congress, Patrick Henry expressed the need for unity -when he exclaimed: "The distinctions between Pennsylvanians, New -Yorkers and New Englanders are no more. I am not a Virginian but an -American." Concerning its chief accomplishments, the Congress (1) -drew up a Declaration of Rights (a series of resolutions declaring -that the colonists were entitled to certain rights: life, liberty -and property, the right to vote their own taxes and the right to -trial by jury; that these rights had been violated by the King and -by Parliament since 1673; that unjust taxes and standing armies -had been imposed upon them and their local assemblies unfairly -interfered with by Parliament; that their repeated petitions for -a redress of their grievances had been practically ignored in -England) and (2) adopted "a non-importation, non-consumption and -non-exportation agreement" called the Continental Association Plan. -It should be noted that complete separation from England was not -demanded at this time but rather cooperation from, and peace under, -English rule. The session lasted approximately seven weeks, and then -on October 26, 1774, after a motion had been passed setting May -10, 1775 as the date of a second congress meeting, the session was -adjourned to await a reply from the King of England. - -The resolutions passed by this Congress were circulated throughout -the colonies for their approval. All sections of the Virginia colony -approved them, even sections as far west as the area now occupied by -the State of Kentucky. Two illustrations of such approval are the -Fairfax Resolutions and the Fincastle Resolutions. The freeholders -of Fairfax County met in Alexandria in July 1774 and passed the -so-called Fairfax Resolutions, written by George Mason. The Fairfax -Resolutions or Resolves, as they are sometimes called, reflected -Virginia's attitude toward taxation, Parliament and even the -King. In January 1775, at Lead Mines, Fincastle County seat, the -freeholders met and prepared a paper congratulating and thanking the -Virginia delegates for their part in the First Continental Congress. -These Fincastle Resolutions also included strong written opposition -to English tyrannical power. - -In November 1774, Virginia had a tea party, similar in purpose to -Boston in that it was an act of defiance against Great Britain's -tea tax. On November 7, the Virginians discovered that a British -ship, "Virginia," which had docked in the York River at an earlier -date, contained tea cargo. The Committee of Safety for York County -immediately sent to the House of Burgesses (which was meeting at -Williamsburg) a message in the form of a protest against accepting -this tea for sale in the colony. The Committee received a reply to -the effect that the matter would be discussed in the House and an -answer would be forthcoming the next Monday morning. Large groups -of people gathered at Yorktown where the boat had been docked and -waited for the reply. The House of Burgesses failed to send the -reply, and the captain of the ship declared that he had received no -message. The Committee waited a while longer and then proceeded to -throw the tea out of the ship's hold into the York River. By this -time, the Yorktown inhabitants had been informed of the "Intolerable -Acts" which had been passed to punish the inhabitants of Boston. -Therefore, they filled the ship with necessary supplies and sent it -to the Bostonians. This incident was another example of the methods -by which the colonists were learning to unite and to help each other -in their common objectives. - -When the American colonists began to carry out the non-importation -agreement, the British merchants were very much affected: for -example, the import trade from Great Britain to the American -colonies declined about 95% by 1775. The Americans had some great -British leaders on their side, but they were definitely in the -minority. Edmund Burke and William Pitt urged that the "Intolerable -Acts" be repealed and predicted that war was approaching with -the American colonies if most of the objectionable laws were not -repealed at this time. Burke and Pitt were overruled, however, in -Parliament. Thus, the breach between the American colonies and the -mother country became wider as time passed. - -Continued growth in the number of counties reflected increases in -population and a trend toward the rising importance of community -life. From 1750 to 1775, several additional counties were formed: -Halifax (formed from Lunenburg and named for George Montagu Dunk, -Second Earl of Halifax and the first Lord of the Board of Trade), -Dinwiddie (formed from Prince George County and named for Lord -Dinwiddie, acting Lieutenant Governor of the Virginia Colony -from 1751-1758), Prince Edward (formed from Amelia County and -named for Edward Augustus, Prince of Wales), Bedford (formed from -Lunenburg and part of Albemarle County and named for John Russell, -Fourth Duke of Bedford, Secretary of State in Great Britain from -1748-1757), Sussex (formed from Surry County and named for Sussex -County, England), Loudoun (formed from Fairfax County and named -for John Campbell, Fourth Earl of Loudoun, Commander-in-Chief -of the British forces during the latter part of the French and -Indian War and Governor-General of the American Colonies from 1756 -to 1763), Fauquier (formed from Prince William County and named -after Francis Fauquier, Lieutenant Governor from 1758 to 1768), -Buckingham (formed from Albemarle County and named probably for -the Duke of Buckingham), Charlotte (formed from Lunenburg and -named for Princess Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg, George III's -queen), Mecklenburg (formed from Lunenburg and named in honor of -the same queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz), Pittsylvania -(formed from Halifax County and named for Sir William Pitt, a famous -English statesman who was pro-American toward the British Colonies -in America), Botetourt (formed from Augusta County and part of -Rockbridge County and named for Norborne Berkeley, Lord Botetourt, -Governor of Virginia from 1768 to 1770) and Amherst County (formed -from Albemarle County "and certain islands in the Fluvanna River" -and named for Sir Jeffrey Amherst, Governor-General of Virginia, -1759-1768). - - -S U M M A R Y - -The historical Life of Virginia from 1584 to 1775 illustrates -the "trial and error" method of learning to live cooperatively, -comfortably and profitably in the New World. The inhabitants of -the "Cradle of American Civilization" were faced with severe -personal handicaps, problems of government (many of which had to -be solved in an original fashion), explorations into untrodden and -often uncivilized areas, the task of establishing a land economy, -rebellions of the common man against the privileged few and the -establishment of a culture and way of life adapted to the type of -environment and peoples living in the area. The efforts of such -leaders as John Smith, John Rolfe, Edwin Sandys, George Yeardley, -Benjamin Syms, Thomas Eaton, James Blair, Alexander Spotswood, -Thomas Lee, Robert Dinwiddie, George Washington, Patrick Henry, -Richard Bland, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Peyton Randolph -and Andrew Lewis helped unite the colonists in Virginia in their -development of democratic living. - -During this period, the first representative legislative assembly in -America was held, the first group of Negro slaves were imported to -America, the first group of unmarried women arrived in the colonies, -the first royal colony of England was organized, a county system of -local government was established, the Commonwealth of Virginia was -created, the second oldest college in America was founded, the first -theater in America was built, many of the most beautiful plantation -houses were constructed, the British became the dominant colonists -in America, slavery became an accepted characteristic of plantation -life, fifty-four counties were formed and strong opposition of the -colonists in Virginia to political and economic control by the -British King and Parliament was becoming very apparent. The first -special Virginia Convention held in Williamsburg to determine -the extent of Virginia's boycott of British goods and to choose -delegates to a Continental Congress and the York River Tea Party -at Yorktown exemplified mounting opposition. The stage of life in -Virginia seemed naturally set for specific action against strict -foreign regulation and control. - - - - -3 - -Historical Life: 1775-1860 - -_The Revolutionary War Era_ - - -A second Virginia Convention was held from March 20 to March 27, -1775 at St. John's Church, Richmond. Peyton Randolph was again -chosen president of the convention. The members of this convention -soon were divided into distinct groups: (1) the conservative group, -led by Peyton Randolph, which deplored radical thinking and actions -and still favored reconciliation with the mother country, England, -and (2) the aggressive group, led by Patrick Henry, which believed -conciliation and compromise were no longer possible or feasible and -advocated military preparedness within the colony. - -On the first day, March 20, Patrick Henry delivered his famous -speech, the most significant and oft-repeated section stating: -"Gentlemen may cry: Peace! Peace! but there is no peace. The war -is actually begun!... Is life so dear or peace so sweet as to be -purchased at the price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty -God! I know not what course others may take, but, as for me, give -me liberty, or give me death!" This fiery speech combined with -his others earned for Patrick Henry the title, "The Tongue of the -Revolution" or "The Mouthpiece of the Revolution." The first three -days passed without either group committing itself. On the fourth -day, however, a resolution was adopted bestowing thanks upon the -Assembly of Jamaica for its petition to the King on behalf of the -American colonies and stating an ardent desire for peace. Patrick -Henry then proposed an unusual resolution to follow the preceding -one, namely: the establishment of "a well-regulated militia, -composed of gentlemen and yeomen." His brilliant oratorical powers -of persuasion caused the resolution to be carried, and the military -resources of the colony were immediately directed to be organized -and made efficient. The convention also appealed to all the people -for contributions for the relief of the Bostonians because they -were "suffering in the common cause of American freedom." Later at -this convention, delegates to the Second Continental Congress were -elected: Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, Peyton -Randolph and George Wythe. - -On April 21, 1775, Governor Dunmore, who had unsuccessfully tried -to prevent the Richmond convention from taking place in order that -delegates could not be elected to attend the Second Continental -Congress, became very much aroused over the bitter feeling of the -colonists toward Great Britain. He decided that he could break down -some of the colonial assuredness and resistance against the King -and against his personal orders if he could remove from the powder -magazine at Williamsburg the munition powder which belonged to the -colony. Therefore, he ordered twenty sailors from a British ship -anchored at Williamsburg to obtain this powder. They hid in the -Governor's Palace; during the night, they visited the magazine, -removed all the powder which they could fit into the Governor's -wagon and took it to their armed ship, the "Fowey," in the harbor -for safekeeping. When the colonists learned the next morning of -this activity, a company of Hanover volunteers, led by Patrick -Henry, marched upon Williamsburg and forced the King's sailors to -compensate by giving bills for the value of the powder taken from -the magazine. Governor Dunmore was then beseeched to pay for the -cost of the powder, at least in sterling. He finally paid this -amount because of the persistence of Patrick Henry. Only strenuous -efforts on the part of Patrick Henry's personal friends kept him and -the local militia from imprisoning the Governor himself for such -action. Patrick Henry was declared an outlaw by Governor Dunmore. -Anti-British feeling rapidly increased on the part of the colonists -after this incident. - -Approximately a week after this unpleasant incident, John Paul -Jones, a Scottish-Virginian who was a resident of Fredericksburg, -recommended that the colonies should have an official navy. He was a -former British seaman, and he offered his services to the colonies -at this time in an attempt to raise a naval force. The Second -Continental Congress later appointed a Naval Committee whose chief -duty was to organize a naval force. At its invitation, John Paul -Jones explained to the Committee the great strength of the British -Navy and the futility of the colonists to try to compete with it. -He stated, however, that, if the colonists had fifteen ships armed -with guns, these could be successfully utilized to annoy British -ships. His suggestion was accepted, and thirteen frigates plus two -brigs made up the first American Navy. John Paul Jones received the -first naval commission at Independence Hall on December 22, 1775. -Therefore, he is often referred to as "The Father of the American -Navy." - -Before the Second Continental Congress was due to meet, the Battle -of Lexington and Concord (near Boston) had taken place on April 19, -1775. After this "shot heard 'round the world," the Americans were -most sympathetic toward their fellow-colonists of Massachusetts. On -May 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress began in Independence -Hall, Philadelphia. Although there was a majority of the members -who now believed a revolution was inevitable, there were also many -conservatives who preferred compromise of any type rather than war. -This congress proceeded to take necessary steps for organizing and -equipping an American army. On June 16, 1775, it assumed control -of the colonial forces already formed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, -after the Battle of Lexington and Concord. It appointed George -Washington as Commander-in-Chief of this American Continental Army -and assumed complete responsibility for the salaries and supplies of -the servicemen. - -On June 1, 1775 Governor Dunmore called the Virginia House of -Burgesses together for the purpose of discussing some British -proposals originated by Lord North. The members did not favor -these, however, and proceeded to suggest the levying of a tax -of five pounds per head on each imported slave as an attempt to -raise revenue for payment of the recent Lord Dunmore War with the -Indians. In order to protect the slave trade benefits for England, -the Governor vetoed this proposal. This action was his last veto -in the Colony of Virginia. Later that month, Lord Dunmore, sensing -the sincerity of the Americans in this revolution, feared for -his royal governorship life. Consequently, on June 8, he fled -from Williamsburg to a British man-of-war ship, the "Fowey," in -the Yorktown harbor. His flight practically dissolved the royal -government in Virginia. The Virginia Assembly asked Governor Dunmore -to return under its protection but he refused to do so. His refusal -to return after an official petition had been issued was considered -by the Virginians as abdication on his part from office. Thus, when -it adjourned on June 20, 1775, the last Virginia colonial General -Assembly ended. - -On July 3, 1775, Washington took official command of the American -Continental Army at Cambridge, Massachusetts, and his first military -objective was to drive the British away from Boston. After he had -been there a few weeks, he visited some troops for inspection. Upon -inquiring about the place of origin of one company, he was surprised -and delighted to hear the answer, "General, from the Banks of the -Potomac." The speaker was Daniel Morgan, who had accompanied his -corps of riflemen from Winchester, Virginia to Boston, 600 miles -distance in twenty-one days without a single death. Morgan had -fought with Washington during the French and Indian War and had -participated in the war against the Indians in the Ohio Valley -campaign. Washington was so happy to see these fellow-Virginians -that he took time from his busy schedule to shake hands personally -with each member of the corps. After Morgan and his troops had -participated successfully in the Massachusetts Campaign, he -later sent them to Canada for the Quebec campaign. This campaign -unfortunately resulted in a defeat for the Americans, and Morgan -was taken prisoner. Although Morgan was offered a commission in the -British army while he was imprisoned, he violently rejected the -offer. Although he remained a prisoner for a long time, he rejoined -the American Army as soon as he was free to do so. The famous -American victory at the Battle of Saratoga is now accredited to the -military strategy and tactics of General Daniel Morgan. Another -important later victory for which he was directly responsible was -the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina. He is one of the many great -military men furnished by the colony and by the state of Virginia. - -From July 17 to August 26, 1775, the Third Virginia Convention -was held. The meeting place was Richmond, and Peyton Randolph was -elected president of the convention. George Mason had been appointed -to succeed George Washington at this convention because Washington -was busily engaged as Commander-in-Chief of the American Army. -Since Governor Dunmore had already fled from the colony, the royal -government had been theoretically dissolved and Virginia gained -the status of an independent state. Therefore, the members of this -convention believed that they had to assume responsibility for -governing Virginia under the circumstances. Consequently, the one -hundred and fifteen delegates present proposed acts and passed them -as laws called ordinances. Ordinances passed contained the following -provisions: (1) the organization of military forces for the defense -of Virginia into two regiments; (2) the creation of an executive -body called the Committee of Safety to act as the government while -the convention was in recess; (3) a plan for adequate revenue for -the provisional government and for the Army of Virginia; (4) the -establishment of executive county committees; (5) the regulation of -the election of delegates to future conventions; (6) the election of -new representatives to a future Continental Congress, and (7) the -division of Virginia into sixteen military districts. - -On August 17, 1775, the first Committee of Safety for Virginia was -appointed by the Virginia Convention of July 1775. It consisted -of eleven members, namely, Richard Bland, Carter Braxton, William -Cabell, Paul Carrington, Dudley Digges, Thomas Ludwell Lee, George -Mason, James Mercer, John Page, Edmund Pendleton and John Tabb. -Edmund Pendleton was the chairman of this committee. Various members -of the Committee of Safety actually ruled Virginia from the time -it ceased to be a British colony until it officially became an -independent state. - -On December 1, 1775 the Fourth Virginia Convention was held at -Richmond, but soon after the convention had become organized, it -moved to Williamsburg. Edmund Pendleton was elected president -of the convention. The chief problem of this convention was -military protection and security for Virginia in the face of war. -The army was increased from two regiments to nine regiments with -an enlistment requiring two years of military service. The chief -measures passed during the Fourth Virginia Convention of December -1775-January 1776 included the appointment of a commission of five -men in each county to try cases of those individuals believed to be -enemies of America, the creation of an admiralty court to hear cases -involving maritime or naval affairs, the granting of permission -for county courts to elect a sheriff for a one-year term and the -issuing of special instructions to the Virginia delegates to the -next Continental Congress to encourage the opening of American ports -to the commerce of all foreign nations except Great Britain and the -British West Indies. It was also decided at this convention to allow -the Virginia troops to be merged or absorbed into the Continental -Army and to have future military officers commissioned by the -Continental Congress rather than by individual state or colonial -legislatures. Another Committee of Safety for Virginia was named: -nine members were re-appointed and two new members were substituted. -Edmund Pendleton was still the chairman and the other committee -members were Richard Bland, William Cabell, Paul Carrington, Dudley -Digges, Joseph Jones, Thomas Ludwell Lee, James Mercer, John Page, -John Tabb and Thomas Walker. On January 20, 1776, the convention -adjourned. - -During the convention, another Lord Dunmore episode took place. Lord -Dunmore had become a real threat to the Virginians because, after he -had fled from Williamsburg and from Yorktown, he armed many Negroes -and persuaded them to fight for the King in return for their future -freedom. He commanded a force which at this time was in possession -of Norfolk and its adjacent areas. Eight days after the convention -began, Lord Dunmore dispatched a few of his British regulars to -attack some of the Virginian troops under Colonel William Woodford. -These Virginians had constructed a breastwork along the southern -branch of the Elizabeth River, approximately twelve miles from -Norfolk. Colonel Woodford's Virginia troops killed almost all the -British regulars, much to the surprise of Lord Dunmore, who quickly -retreated to a part of the British fleet docked in Norfolk harbor. -Later, while the convention was still in session, on January 1, -1776, Lord Dunmore with a small land and sea force bombarded and -burned Norfolk itself which consisted of about 6,000 residents -at the time. Many houses were completely burned and others badly -damaged. St. Paul's Church was the only building to survive this -bombardment and embedded cannon balls in the south wall of the -church may still be seen which were fired from the ships in the -harbor. Dunmore and his forces finally sailed up the Chesapeake -Bay and stationed themselves off Gwynn's Island, near the present -Mathews County mainland. From this area, Dunmore and his friends -made repeated plunder attacks along the coast of Virginia until -summer. - -During the same month of January, a dramatic episode occurred at -Woodstock. John Peter Gabriel Muehlenberg, an ex-German soldier -who had migrated to Virginia and had become a minister, was very -strongly pro-Virginia and very strongly anti-British King. He had -received a military commission as a colonel from General George -Washington due to his past military experience. His duty was to -form a regiment of Germans living in the valley. On this particular -Sunday, he ascended the pulpit and began to preach concerning the -theme, "There is a time to every purpose ... a time to war and a -time to peace!" He proceeded to describe the unjust treatment which -the American colonies had received from the British King and the -Parliament. At the conclusion of his sermon, he stated: "There is -a time for all things--a time to preach and a time to pray; but -there is a time to fight, and that time has come now." With these -surprising words, he threw back his minister's attire and stood -fully clothed in the blue and buff uniform of a Continental Colonel -with the official sword at his side. He immediately descended -from the pulpit and, in a very short time, had enlisted three -hundred citizens within this small community in the Eighth Virginia -Regiment. Thus, Muehlenberg earned for himself the title of the -"Fighting Parson" and with his regiment marched directly to help -the South Carolina Army. The regiment was later referred to as the -German Regiment because it was made up solely of German Americans. -It served with great honor during the Revolutionary War. Muehlenberg -himself had the distinction of being with General Washington when -Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. - -The Fifth Virginia Convention, now called the Virginia -Constitutional Convention, began on May 6, 1776 at Williamsburg. By -this time, the British had been driven out of Boston and out of the -New England area in general. The American attempt to invade Canada -had been unsuccessful, but the British had been defeated in North -and South Carolina. Public opinion in Virginia which had been only -"lukewarm" to complete separation from England at the early stages -of the war now became very strongly in favor of it--particularly -after the bombardment and burning of Norfolk. Most of the delegates -had been instructed before coming to the convention to work toward -two specific objectives: American independence and a representative -government for Virginia. There were one hundred and thirty-one -delegates present at this convention, representing sixty-six -counties and corporations. Some of the outstanding members at this -convention were James Madison, Edmund Randolph and Archibald Cary. - -The various sections of Virginia were represented at the Fifth -Convention. The type of clothing worn at the convention made the -sections easily recognizable: there was an outstanding contrast -between the homespun, practical clothing of the frontiersmen and the -fancy British-made clothing of the wealthy traders and plantation -owners. The convention members elected delegates to the Continental -Congress and instructed them to propose American independence from -England. The delegates chosen were George Washington, John Blair, -James Madison, George Mason, James McClurg, Edmund Randolph and -George Wythe. On May 15, a resolution was introduced by Archibald -Cary and passed which declared the colony of Virginia a free and -independent State. Immediately the British flag was lowered from the -Capitol at Williamsburg and the colonial colors were raised instead. -At this same convention, on May 27, Archibald Cary presented to the -members the "Declaration of Rights" prepared by George Mason for -this convention. This document stated the fundamental rights of -English colonists as well as of Englishmen. - -On June 12, 1776 Mason's "Declaration of Rights" was unanimously -adopted. Its principles were considered so important that they -were later the basis of the Bill of Rights in the United States -Constitution and eventually were used as the background for state -constitution Bills of Rights. The Virginia Bill of Rights is often -referred to as the "Magna Charta of Virginia." George Mason also -recommended the original motto of the official seal of the State of -Virginia at this convention: "Sic Semper Tyrannis"--"Thus Always (or -ever) to Tyrants." - -In the same session, James Madison actively participated in a -discussion concerning religious liberty and tolerance. He proposed a -clause in the Virginia Bill of Rights to allow the "free exercise of -religion" because he strongly believed that the state should have no -coercive power over religious thought. This clause was adopted, and -James Madison for the first time attracted state-wide attention to -his thinking and philosophy. - -Once the idea of independence from England was formally expressed -and a specific objective was established, the Virginians at this -convention proceeded to write a state constitution for Virginia. -This constitution, the first written state constitution, was -officially adopted on June 29, 1776, making this the birth date of -the State of Virginia. Since George Mason was primarily responsible -for the actual wording of the constitution, he is called the -"Father of the Virginia Constitution." Virginia was organized as -the Commonwealth of Virginia, the name believed patterned after the -Commonwealth of England, the title acquired by the government of -England after its Civil War. The first constitution for Virginia -provided for a bicameral (two-house) legislature: the Senate and -the House of Delegates. Membership in these groups was to be by -election by the qualified voters. Each county was to choose two -delegates annually to represent them and one-fourth of the Senate -was to be elected annually. The combined balloting of the House and -the Senate was to determine the election of the Governor (whose -term was to be one year with a maximum three years possible), an -eight-man Council of State and members of the Congress of the United -States. A general system of courts was created. Patrick Henry was -elected the first Governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia and he -served from 1776 to 1779. The Commonwealth of Virginia was now ready -to function, and the new government went into effect immediately. -The Williamsburg Convention which began May 6, 1776 adjourned on -July 5, 1776. - -While this convention was in session, the Second Continental -Congress was meeting at the State House, now called Independence -Hall, in Philadelphia. On June 7, 1776 Richard Henry Lee, a -Virginian, introduced a resolution "that these United Colonies are, -and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they -are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all -political convention between them and the State of Great Britain is, -and ought to be, totally dissolved." The motion was seconded and -urged strongly by John Adams of Massachusetts. The usual discussion -and argumentation period followed, and it became obvious that six -states hesitated to vote favorably for the resolution at this time. -Consequently, the official voting was postponed for three weeks, -but Lee's resolution was adopted by the Congress on July 2, 1776. -However, a committee of five was selected on June 10 to draw up a -declaration of independence: Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Benjamin -Franklin (Pennsylvania), John Adams (Massachusetts), Roger Sherman -(Connecticut) and Robert H. Livingston (New York). Although Thomas -Jefferson was one of the youngest Continental Congressmen, he -was selected as the chairman of this committee. Since only a few -deletions in the original plan drawn up by Jefferson were made -by the other members of the committee, the writing of the formal -Declaration of Independence is justly attributable to Thomas -Jefferson, the Virginian. This Declaration of Independence coupled -with his "A Summary View of the Rights of British America" later -earned for Thomas Jefferson the title "The Pen of the Revolution." - -The logical, thorough reasoning behind the content of the -Declaration is easily apparent. The first part of this document -describes the nature and the purpose of a government and the -belief that a people have the right to change their government -when it no longer fulfills the purpose for which it was created. -Then Jefferson enumerated the various acts of the King and of the -British Parliament which the American colonists considered most -unfair and contrary to the purpose of the original founding of the -colonies, as justification for their desire to change their type of -government. The next section reaches a conclusion from the previous -two sections: namely, that the colonists are renouncing their -allegiance to the King and are declaring that "these colonies are, -and of right ought to be, Free and Independent States." - -On July 4, 1776 twelve states had voted for the adoption of the -Declaration of Independence. The thirteenth one, New York, accepted -it on July 9. On July 19, a resolution was adopted by the Second -Continental Congress to have the July 4 Declaration engrossed on -parchment entitled "The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United -States of America" and, upon its completion, to have it signed by -each member. Fifty of the fifty-six members signed the official -document by August 2, and, of the remaining six signers, two were -Virginians: George Wythe who signed it later in August and Richard -Henry Lee who signed it in September. The seven Virginia delegates -who signed the Declaration of Independence were Carter Braxton -(farmer), Benjamin Harrison (farmer), Thomas Jefferson (lawyer), -Richard Henry Lee (farmer), Francis Lightfoot Lee (farmer), Thomas -Nelson, Jr. (soldier) and George Wythe (lawyer). - -After Richard Henry Lee had introduced his independence resolution, -he proposed another one suggesting that a permanent central -government be created for the new United States. A committee was -appointed to draw up such a plan and, in 1777, it submitted the -Articles of Confederation to Congress. From 1775 to 1781, the -Continental Congress acted as the central governing body of the -United States. - -After Lord Dunmore had bombarded Norfolk in January 1776, he went up -the Chesapeake Bay to Gwynn's Island, near the present-day Mathews -County mainland. With about 500 men he set up a camp there in May -1776. General Andrew Lewis, whom he had fought previously along -the Ohio River, encamped with a small Virginia army on the shore -opposite the island on July 8. Although it was very difficult to -plant the cannon on the sandy shores, the next day General Lewis -and his troops fired upon the camp and the fleet and badly damaged -many of the ships. However, when his men invaded the island on the -next day, they found it evacuated. Lord Dunmore had sailed away -from Virginia taking with him the last governorship endowed with -royal power. Thus, the Battle of Gwynn's Island or Cricket Hill was -famous because of its effect of driving the last royal Governor -from Virginia. It was, in a sense, ironic that Patrick Henry, who -had been detested by Lord Dunmore while Dunmore was Governor of -Virginia, became the first elected Governor of the Commonwealth of -Virginia. - -During the governorship of Patrick Henry, population growth was -again apparent by the formation of eight new counties in 1777-1778. -These counties were: Montgomery (formed from Fincastle County and, -later, parts of Botetourt and Pulaski and named for General Richard -Montgomery--an American Revolutionary officer), Fluvanna (formed -from Albemarle County and named for Queen Ann), Washington (formed -from Fincastle County and, later, parts of Montgomery, named for -George Washington and having the distinction of being the first -locality in the United States so named), Powhatan (formed from -Cumberland County and named for Powhatan, the father of Pocahontas), -Rockbridge (formed from Augusta and Botetourt Counties and named -in honor of the Natural Bridge--a natural wonder of Virginia), -Rockingham (formed from Augusta County and believed named for -the Marquis of Rockingham, England's Prime Minister), Shenandoah -(originally, Dunmore County and named for the Indian-named -Shenandoah River which translated means "Beautiful Daughter of the -Stars") and Henry (formed from Pittsylvania County and named in -honor of Patrick Henry). - -George Rogers Clark, an older brother of William Clark of the -well-known Lewis and Clark expedition, had explored and had -surveyed much of the territory south of the Ohio River in the -area now called Kentucky: at this time, it was the western part -of Fincastle County. He believed that this section was ready to -become an independent county and felt that, under such political -status, the settlers could better organize and protect themselves. -Only the Virginia Assembly could authorize the formation of this -new county in 1776. Clark, therefore, called the settlers together, -explained his objective for Kentucky and succeeded in getting -John Gabriel Jones and himself elected as delegates to make a -personal visit to the Virginia General Assembly at Williamsburg. -The trip was long, difficult and dangerous, and to their dismay, -the Assembly had already adjourned before they arrived. Being a -determined individual, however, Clark decided to talk to the newly -elected Governor, Patrick Henry, at his home. Hence, he traveled -to Hanover County, discussed his problem with the Governor and -sought permission to fight the Indians of the Kentucky area and to -secure powder for the settlers' muskets. His trip was successful -and, on December 7, 1776, the western part of Fincastle County was -authorized to become the County of Kentucky in Virginia. - -The British had been helping and encouraging Indian raids at this -time in Kentucky, along the border settlements of Virginia and in -the Illinois area. Clark believed that the Illinois area rightfully -belonged to Virginia and felt that it must be conquered in order -to attain peace for the Virginia settlers. The reports of official -observers convinced him that this land could be invaded and captured -with little effort. He returned to Williamsburg to get Governor -Henry's approval for this objective and was happy to be commissioned -to raise several companies of soldiers to be used in the invasion -of the Illinois territory. Clark obtained his troops, and, after -traveling north through Virginia and then westward to the Ohio -River, they floated down the Ohio River on rafts and in boats. They -landed near Louisville on the northern bank of the Ohio and marched -westward approximately two hundred miles to Fort Kaskaskia. On July -4, 1778, they captured Fort Kaskaskia and its leader, Colonel Henry -Hamilton. Marching another 150 miles northeastward, on February -25, 1779 they captured Fort Vincennes on the banks of the Wabash -River. The post of Cahokia was also captured. In honor of his great -bravery and extremely difficult marching, Clark was entitled the -"Hannibal of the West." This entire area was known as the Northwest -Territory, and these conquests of Clark and his troops gave Virginia -complete claim for the control of this area as part of the Virginia -state at the end of the American Revolution in 1783. Without such -conquests, England would undoubtedly have held this territory after -the Revolution, and it would probably have been an important part of -Canada today. Simultaneously, the capture of these forts reduced the -danger of Indian attacks considerably. - -When the city of Philadelphia was about to be occupied by British -troops on September 18, 1777, the famous Liberty Bell was taken from -the State House in Pennsylvania for safekeeping. It was camouflaged -with the heavy baggage of the American army in a supply train of -700 wagons and was carefully guarded by two hundred Virginian and -North Carolinian cavalry-mounted troops. It was hidden in the Zion -Church in Allen town, Pennsylvania, until June 27, 1778 when it was -returned to its tower in Independence Hall. - -During the same month and year, Henry Lee, a native of Westmoreland -County, Virginia, who had been a captain in Colonel Thomas -Bland's legion of Virginia cavalry, joined Washington's army in -Pennsylvania. His personal achievements were many in this assignment -and his excessive courage was noted by Washington. He was soon -promoted to major and was given special command of three troops of -horsemen plus an infantry company. He became a great annoyance to -the British while they were on the march as well as in camp. This -comparatively small group became so distinguished that they earned -the tide of "Lee's Legion" and Henry Lee was nicknamed "Light Horse -Harry" Lee. He later captured an important British post at Paulus -Hook, New Jersey, and fought diligently also in South Carolina, -North Carolina and Georgia. He was awarded a gold medal by the -Continental Congress for his brilliant cavalry exploits during the -Revolutionary War. - -On May 9, 1779, a Britisher, General George Collier, arrived at -Hampton Roads with approximately 2,000 troops. They used Portsmouth -as a base and after making several raids in that area, destroyed not -only the American navy yard at Portsmouth (called Gosport at this -time) but also large supply deposits stored there. After awaiting -reinforcements from General Henry Clinton in New York, they decided -to abandon Virginia because they believed a Virginia blockade had -prevented these reinforcements from arriving. Upon their departure, -the inhabitants of Virginia were once more able to carry on -necessary and important trade with the West Indies. - -During this same year, a most unusual naval feat occurred in the -Revolutionary War. John Paul Jones was in command of an American -ship called the "Bonhomme Richard" off the coast of England when -he spotted a British warship, the "Serapis." After fierce fighting -between the two ships, although his own ship sank, he captured the -"Serapis" and sailed away in it. Virginia had the honor of providing -the greatest naval hero of the Revolutionary War, John Paul Jones. - -Thomas Jefferson was the second elected Governor of the Commonwealth -of Virginia. He held this office during most of the Revolutionary -War Period. In addition to peace and military warfare, Jefferson -had personal interest in religion and in education. In 1779, he -wrote a proposed "Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom." He -believed that the State Constitution had not included practical -religious liberty although the theory of religious freedom had -been guaranteed. Jefferson's proposal was finally passed by the -General Assembly of Virginia in 1785. It is considered as one of the -greatest Virginia documents because it guaranteed religious freedom -to all. - -While serving as Governor, Jefferson proposed a plan for education -called "A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge." He -based this plan upon the premise that democracy would be more -successful if greater numbers of individuals were educated. The plan -was an attempt on his part to encourage the establishment of free -public schools for the children of the wealthy and the poor alike. -This proposal suggested three years of free elementary schooling for -all children regardless of their social or financial condition, free -secondary education for those individuals who were mentally equipped -to gain from this experience and free higher education for those who -had displayed above average scholastic qualifications. The bill was -not passed, but it resulted in a consideration of the possibility -of public education at this time. Another example of Jefferson's -enthusiastic interest in education was his personal establishment, -in 1779, of a chair of law at William and Mary College in honor of a -former teacher, a great lawyer and a personal friend, George Wythe. -As a result, George Wythe had the distinction of being the first -professor of law in the United States in the first law school in -America. - -While Jefferson was still Governor, the capital was moved in 1780 -from Williamsburg to Richmond in an effort to escape the invading -British soldiers and to provide a safer place of protection for -the future. Lord Cornwallis, at this time, was proceeding with his -plans to move north through the Carolinas to Virginia. Cornwallis -had had a great victory at Camden, South Carolina, and had decided -to persuade many of the western mountain people to fight on behalf -of the British. Americans who favored the British in this revolution -were called "Tories" and those who favored the Americans were called -"Patriots." - -Cornwallis sent Major Patrick Ferguson and approximately a -thousand Tories to threaten these mountain folk in North Carolina -and Southwest Virginia to the extent of marching over their -land, causing destruction and hanging their leaders unless they -discontinued their past resistance to the British army. Two American -military frontiersmen, Colonel John Sevier and Colonel Isaac Shelby, -decided to organize a group of riflemen and attack Ferguson before -he had the opportunity to cross the mountains and attack them. -They contacted Colonel William Campbell whose duty had been to -protect the lead mines in Wythe County whose resources were being -mined and smelted for equipment for the American soldiers. Colonel -Campbell was invited to join Colonel Sevier and Colonel Shelby in -their attack against Ferguson. He accepted and later was selected -by the officers as their commander. Ferguson heard of their plan -and selected a wooded mountain ridge on the border between North -Carolina and South Carolina, called King's Mountain, for his -battlefield. Ferguson's troops far outnumbered Colonel Campbell's -troops and were much better equipped with military supplies. Colonel -Campbell's troops, however, defeated the British badly on October 7, -1780. Major Ferguson and two hundred other Britishers were killed in -battle. This Battle of King's Mountain is often called the turning -point of the Revolutionary War in the South because not only did it -upset the military strategy of Cornwallis but it also encouraged the -southern patriots at a time when the morale had been low. Colonel -Campbell was promoted to a Brigadier-General as a direct result of -this battle. The British in the meantime had sent General Alexander -Leslie to Portsmouth with approximately 3,000 troops. After the -severe British defeat at King's Mountain, he left Portsmouth and -headed his troops south to join Cornwallis. - -Morale in Virginia at this time was very low because there was a -great shortage of clothing, military equipment and supplies, there -was a lack of money in the state treasury, Virginia soldiers were -fighting outside their state and British soldiers in large numbers -were stationed in eastern and central Virginia. General William -Phillips and Cornwallis had seized and destroyed property valued at -ten million dollars in eastern Virginia alone by the spring of 1781. - -Meanwhile, by March 1, 1781, the Articles of Confederation had been -ratified by all the states and thereby became the basis for the -central government of the United States. Since Maryland had refused -to ratify the Articles until the states which owned large western -land-holdings would cede them to the central government, Virginia, -following a pattern of New York State, surrendered most of its large -holding claims in 1784. By this action, Virginia ceded the Northwest -Territory to the new nation, the United States. The entire region -beyond the Ohio River (now comprising the states of Ohio, Indiana, -Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin) had rightfully been claimed by -Virginia and cession to the United States for the beginning of its -public domain was a most generous gesture on the part of Virginia. -This action played an important part in creating a stronger feeling -of unity on the part of the thirteen original colonies and in giving -Virginia another nickname, "Mother of States." - -The Confederation Congress was later faced with the problem of -raising revenue for the new government under the Articles of -Confederation and for payment of debts caused by the Revolutionary -War. The Northwest Territory which Virginia had ceded to the central -government had become part of the national domain, public lands of -the United States. Congress decided to sell some of this land to -obtain necessary revenue. It passed the Land Ordinances of 1785 -and 1787, which became practically the written bases for the rest -of the frontier settlements. The plan which was the forerunner of -these ordinances concerning the public domain was proposed by Thomas -Jefferson and enacted on April 23, 1784. In his plan, he outlined -the territorial status preceding statehood and originated the idea -of dividing the public domain into districts before statehood could -be achieved. Two years later, the Confederation Congress gave a -grant of 150,000 acres of land to George Rogers Clark and his -followers as a reward for their great services in conquering the -Northwest Territory and in establishing the only legal claim to this -land on behalf of the United States. Virginia also reserved the -ownership of 6,000 square miles of land called the Virginia Military -District (presently located in the southern part of Ohio). - -While General William Nelson, commander of the Virginia forces, -was recruiting additional militia in the counties near the coast, -twenty-seven British ships entered the Chesapeake Bay and headed -for the mouth of the James River. Since Governor Jefferson believed -Richmond was not militarily prepared for such an attack, he had the -only five brass cannon of the capital city thrown into the river -and had the remaining arms and ammunition taken seven miles from -Richmond to Westham. On July 4, the Governor evacuated from Richmond -and most of the inhabitants did likewise. On the next afternoon, -General Benedict Arnold, the American traitor who had joined the -British forces, accompanied by nine hundred British soldiers -captured and burned Richmond unopposed. For two days the British -burned and destroyed public and private property and later returned -leisurely to Portsmouth. - -Subsequently, as some of the British vessels attempted to sail up -the Appomattox River, General Smallwood accompanied by three hundred -American soldiers armed only with muskets attacked the British -fiercely and drove them down the river. A short time later, General -William Phillips brought additional British troops to combine with -those of Arnold and took command over General Arnold. The combined -forces marched first to Petersburg and then to Manchester (now, -South Richmond). Lafayette had been placed in charge of the defense -of Virginia at this time and he arrived in Richmond two days after -Phillips had arrived. When General Phillips heard that Lafayette -was in Richmond, he changed his mind and decided not to attack this -city. In the meantime, Colonel Simcoe had been sent by General -Arnold to Westham where he destroyed the military stores and the -foundry. During this same period, General Phillips had sent General -Arnold to Chesterfield Court House where he destroyed the barracks -and burned the flour as they had previously burned the tobacco -at Petersburg. As General Phillips was proceeding down the James -River towards Chesapeake Bay, he received a message from General -Cornwallis ordering him to meet with his forces at Petersburg so -Phillips returned to Petersburg. Four days after he had arrived, -General Phillips died of a fever in Petersburg and General Arnold -succeeded to the command once more. - -General Arnold, however, realized the hatred of the Virginians -toward him for the burning and destruction for which he was -responsible in Richmond. Consequently, after his army had united -with Cornwallis' troops at Petersburg, he asked for a transfer to -New York. Cornwallis, who disliked Arnold himself, granted the -request. When Lafayette was informed of the tremendous number of -British soldiers massed in Petersburg, he realized that it would -be futile for his comparatively small force of 3,000 men to try -to combat them. Consequently, he retreated slowly from Richmond -towards Fredericksburg where he was joined by General Anthony Wayne. -Cornwallis who had expected to trap Lafayette and his army was -surprised by the orderly retreat and decided not to attack Richmond -again as the legislature had already withdrawn to Charlottesville. -On May 10, 1781, as the British neared Richmond, Governor Jefferson -had ordered the General Assembly, which was then in session, to -leave Richmond and continue the session at Charlottesville on May -24. Thus, Charlottesville for a brief time was the official capital -of Virginia. Governor Jefferson's home, Monticello, was used as a -guest house for many of Jefferson's legislative friends. Cornwallis -decided to capture Jefferson who was at his home at Monticello, -approximately three miles from Charlottesville, to seize the -legislators at Charlottesville and to destroy a large quantity of -military stores at a place called Point-of-Fork (at the junction of -the Rivanna and James Rivers). Cornwallis believed that such a plan, -if successfully carried out, would result in the complete surrender -of the State of Virginia. Therefore, Cornwallis divided his cavalry -into two groups: one commanded by Colonel John G. Simcoe who was to -proceed to Point-of-Fork and the other commanded by Colonel Banastre -Tarleton who was to proceed to Charlottesville, approximately -seventy miles from his headquarters. After accomplishing these -objectives, Tarleton was to continue to Point-of-Fork and help -Colonel Simcoe. - -General Baron Von Steuben heard about Simcoe's plan and was able -to have all the military stores hauled across the river before his -arrival. Simcoe, however, used military strategy in this instance -which worked most successfully: he had his men spread out, cut -down trees and build large camp-fires at great distances apart -thus giving the impression that all of Cornwallis' army was on -this campaign. General Steuben observing the large radius of camp -concluded that Cornwallis' entire force was across the river. -Consequently, he had his lighter baggage moved and had his troops -evacuate the area. Simcoe destroyed all the heavy baggage and -military stores and returned successfully to Cornwallis the next -morning. - -The British soldiers under Colonel Tarleton stopped for refreshments -in Louisa County at a place called Cuckoo Tavern. The tavern keeper -had an American soldier son, Captain Jack Jouett of the Virginia -Militia, who happened to be at the tavern but out of sight of tavern -visitors on that particular Sunday afternoon. He observed the two -hundred and fifty British soldiers, overheard some of their personal -conversations and their casual references to their military mission. -He waited until the British had departed from the tavern and then he -traveled on horseback over a different road--forty miles of brush -and thicket, field and forest, vines and brambles. He rode without -delay although the scars of some of the branches which struck him -in the face as he was riding so rapidly became permanent ones. He -believed that the British would probably make another stop for -refreshments at the home of Dr. William Walker, the only one in the -vicinity. Thus, he took time out to warn them of Tarleton's plans -and to urge them to delay the British as long as possible. Jouett -reached Monticello at dawn, roused the inhabitants within and -informed them of Tarleton's plan. Jefferson and his guests fled on -horseback and Mrs. Jefferson and their three children escaped to a -neighbor's house by carriage. As the British rode up one side of -the steep hill of Monticello, the Governor and his friends reached -the bottom of the hill on the other side. Jouett then safely led -the Governor's party via a secluded road to Staunton, which became -another temporary capital. In the meantime, Tarleton had tarried -before coming to Monticello to burn a wagon train filled with -Continental Army supplies and had stopped as predicted at Castle -Hill, the home of the Walkers. Mrs. Walker fed the soldiers before -the officers, thus causing an added delay in their departure. Jack -Jouett can be truly classified as the "Paul Revere of the South." -The Assembly members were so appreciative of the courage and -perseverance of Jouett that they subsequently presented him with a -sword and a pair of pistols. - -[Illustration: RICHMOND CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Gunston Hall_ - -_Home of George Mason, Author of "Declaration of Rights"_] - -On July 4, 1781, General Cornwallis and his troops left -Williamsburg, fought an inconsequential battle at Greenspring (near -Jamestown) and then crossed the James River to Portsmouth where -he proceeded to Yorktown. By September 1781, he had approximately -eight thousand soldiers garrisoned on the peninsula at Yorktown. He -had selected this site because he thought it was a secure one: the -Chesapeake Bay was on the east, the York River on the north and the -James River on the south. Actually, he had placed his soldiers in a -most penetrable trap. - -Marquis de Lafayette played an important part in the Revolutionary -War. An outstanding example of foreign help received by the -Americans, Lafayette had volunteered at the age of nineteen to -serve in the American Army in 1777. After arriving from France -in North Carolina, he rode horseback to Philadelphia to appear -personally before the Continental Congress to offer his services -to the American colonies. He had been appointed a Major-General by -Congress and had been placed on Washington's staff. He had fought -in the Battle of Brandywine Creek (Pennsylvania) and had been -seriously wounded. His outstanding bravery had been recognized by -Washington and they had begun a strong friendship which was to -continue throughout their lives. He had endured with Washington the -terrible winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania (1777-1778) and acted -as a morale builder to Washington's disheartened forces. He had -been the hero at the Battle of Monmouth, New Jersey. After France -had officially recognized the independence of the United States, -Lafayette had returned to France, and, after encouraging many French -soldiers to help the Americans fight, he had rejoined Washington. -In 1781, Washington had sent him to defend and protect Virginia -where he had cleverly pursued Cornwallis from near Charlottesville -to Yorktown. After his role in the final strategy of Yorktown -defense and his return to France, one can understand why Virginians -consider Lafayette one of their heroes and have a famous bust of him -created by the great sculptor, Jean Antoine Houdon, located in the -rotunda of the State Capitol Building in Richmond. - -As soon as Lafayette had noticed Cornwallis gathering his troops at -Yorktown, he realized the possibility of surrounding Cornwallis and -his forces since Lafayette was so well acquainted with this terrain. -He immediately informed Washington of this situation and Washington -quickly headed for his home state. In the meantime, General -Lafayette surrounded Cornwallis and his troops on the south and on -the west. Simultaneously, a fleet of twenty-five French warships -from the West Indies under command of Admiral de Grasse sailed up -the Chesapeake Bay with 3,000 French troops. This movement prevented -Cornwallis from either receiving British enforcements or from -escaping out to sea. General Washington, after feigning an attack -against General Henry Clinton in New York, rapidly moved his army -southward, joined with the forces of General Count de Rochambeau. -Washington soon attacked the British on the north and on the west. -Although Cornwallis realized that he was completely surrounded by -American and French forces, he and his troops fought valiantly for -weeks. - -The home of General Thomas Nelson, the Governor of Virginia at -this time, was located in Yorktown. General Cornwallis had taken -possession of this house for his headquarters at Yorktown. Out of -deference to the Governor, the American soldiers had refrained from -firing upon it. However, General Nelson ordered them to fire upon -the house, regardless of its sentimental value, because it housed -British officers. The first shot killed two British officers and a -cannon ball still embedded in one wall may be observed today in the -Nelson House at Yorktown. - -Finally recognizing the futility of fighting any longer, on October -17, 1781, General Cornwallis requested a parley, ordered a cease -firing, and exchanged messages with Washington. At two o'clock of -the next afternoon, Cornwallis selected the Moore House in Yorktown -for a discussion of surrender terms: this house was out of range of -the firing and conveniently located. The British, the French and the -Americans sent representatives for the consultation, John Laurens -representing the Americans. After long discussion and debate, the -articles of capitulation were agreed upon and the generals signed -them the next day. At twelve o'clock on October 19, 1781, the -British signing was done by General Cornwallis and Thomas Symonds, -the American signing by General Washington, and the French signing -by General Rochambeau and Count de Barras for Count de Grasse. On -October 19, at 2 p.m., as agreed upon by the surrender terms, the -British army of 7,000 troops left Yorktown and laid down their arms -at Surrender Field, just south of the town. They marched between two -long lines of the French on one side and the Americans on the other -side. General Charles O'Hara, the leader of the British, apologized -to Washington for the non-appearance of Lord Cornwallis who was -reported ill. The Battle of Yorktown ended the Revolutionary War -although the peace treaty was not signed until 1783. - -In this same year, the American army was demobilized. George -Washington bade farewell to his officers at Fraunces' Tavern, New -York City, on December 4, resigned on December 23 and returned to -Mt. Vernon to retire. Already he had won the admiration of the -new nation for his continued courage, bravery and great military -strategy so ably exemplified during the American Revolutionary -War. He also had earned the well-deserved title: "The Sword of the -Revolution." - - -_The Adoption of the United States and State Constitutions_ - -By 1785, the Americans began to realize that the Articles of -Confederation were too weak to become effective. The central -government did not have sufficient political power to govern, -the lack of a single executive resulted in a lack of leadership, -the Confederation Congress could make laws but had no power to -enforce them, the Congress could issue paper money and coins but -had no power to buy gold and silver for backing this money and the -Congress could levy taxes but had no power to collect them. There -was no provision for a national court system. In order to pass a -law, nine states had to agree in its favor; in order to amend the -Articles, all thirteen states had to agree. Under the Articles of -Confederation, the government was a confederacy in which each state -retained its own political authority and the central government was -responsible to the states. The control of foreign and interstate -commerce was left entirely to the individual states. Chaos and -confusion resulted. Consequently, in 1785, George Washington invited -some representatives from Maryland and from Virginia to meet with -him to discuss the problem of a stronger central government and to -settle a dispute which had arisen concerning the navigation of the -Potomac River. - -The conference started at the City Tavern (later known as Gadsby's -Tavern) in Alexandria and was later continued at Mount Vernon, -home of Washington. During the discussion, Washington stated -that there should be a common money system for all the states -as well as a common plan for regulating domestic and foreign -commerce. James Madison was one of the Virginians present, and -he felt that there must be other problems of common interest to -all the states. Therefore, when the next General Assembly met in -January 1786, Madison proposed that representatives from all the -states should meet at Annapolis, Maryland on September 11, 1786 -to discuss trade problems and other areas of mutual interest. The -Virginia legislature, therefore, invited all the states to send -representatives to Annapolis to attempt to formulate a uniform -currency and commerce system for all the states. - -In September 1786, only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis -meeting: Virginia, Delaware, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. -These delegates, nevertheless, suggested that a convention be held -on May 25, 1787 at the State House in Philadelphia for the purpose -of revising the Articles of Confederation. After this recommendation -had been submitted to the Confederation Congress, it hesitatingly -invited all the states to meet the next year at Philadelphia. -Virginia sent seven delegates to this Philadelphia convention: -George Washington, John Blair, James Madison, George Mason, James -McClurg, Edmund Randolph (Governor at this time) and George Wythe. - -Seventy-three individuals had been chosen as delegates from the -twelve states, but only fifty-six members were present at the -convention. All the states were represented at the convention except -Rhode Island. When the convention began on May 25, 1787, George -Washington was unanimously chosen President of the convention to -preside over the meetings and rules of procedure were adopted. -It is significant to note the absence of three of the Virginia -Revolutionary Period leaders: Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson -and Patrick Henry. Lee declined membership because he believed that, -since he was a member of the Confederation Congress and since he -thought the revised Articles would be submitted to this Congress -for approval, he should not become a member of the Convention to -revise the same and, subsequently, be a member of the Confederation -Congress which would be asked to pass upon the revised plan. -Jefferson was the United States Minister to France at this time and -was out of the country. Although Patrick Henry had been elected as a -delegate to the convention, he had refused to accept the assignment -because he was skeptical about governmental changes which the -convention might make. Two Virginians who were present made written -comments concerning the type of individuals who represented their -states as follows: - - (1) George Mason (in a letter to his son)--"America has - certainly, upon this occasion, drawn forth her first - characters.... The eyes of the U. S. are turned upon this - assembly, and their expectations raised to a very anxious - degree." Mason's personal attitude toward the responsibility of - being a state delegate at this convention is summarized in this - remark: "I would not serve upon pecuniary reasons alone in this - convention for a thousand pounds a day." - - (2) James Madison--"It contains in several instances the most - respectable characters in the U. S., and in general may be said - to be the best contribution of talents the States could make for - the occasion." - -The meetings were held secretly behind closed doors because of -the grave problems which the convention had to solve. After the -delegates began to discuss the necessary changes which had to -be made, they realized the impossibility of simply revising the -Articles of Confederation and the absolute necessity of writing a -new constitution which would make the central government a much -stronger political power. James Madison, a most profound student -of government, is considered as the most influential member of the -convention. He was the most active speaker at the convention and he -kept careful notes of the entire session. Madison is regarded as the -"Father of the United States Constitution." - -One of the first questions to be decided at the convention was the -type of organization of the government. Governor Edmund Randolph -presented Madison's "Virginia" Plan recommending a strong, central -government and one in which each state would be represented in -proportion to its population. This plan is sometimes referred to as -the "Large State" Plan because most of the larger states favored -it: according to this plan, the more population a state had, the -greater the representation. The small states had their plan also: it -was presented by William Paterson of New Jersey and is known as the -"Paterson" or "New Jersey" or "Small State" Plan. The small states -favored states' rights rather than a strong, central government and -believed that each state should be represented equally regardless of -its population. The "Great Compromise" which was finally adopted was -a combination of both plans: a bicameral legislature called Congress -was to be created consisting of (1) the House of Representatives -with membership from each state based upon the population of -the state and (2) the Senate with membership based upon equal -representation from each state--two Senators from each state. The -plan of government finally adopted provided for a strong central -government but with the state governments retaining essential -reserve powers. - -After the Constitution had been completed on September 17, 1787, it -was submitted to the Confederation Congress with the recommendation -that Congress inform each state legislature about the Constitution -and ask for state ratification. The Constitutional requirement for -making the document effective was ratification by nine states. -Washington was very eager for the Constitution of the United States -to be adopted. He wrote many personal letters favoring its adoption -including a public letter in which he reminded the states that each -state must be willing to make certain concessions for the benefits -of the country as a whole. - -Thirty-nine of the fifty-six delegates signed the Constitution. -Only three of the six delegates from Virginia signed it: George -Washington, John Blair and James Madison. Madison, in fact, was -consulted for an opinion on almost every phase of the Constitution. -During the campaign period for and against ratification, Madison -joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay of New York and contributed -to a series of essays called "The Federalist." The essays included -a discussion of the meaning of the various provisions of the -Constitution and attempted to prove that the federal or central -government would not misuse the power granted to it. Madison wrote -twenty of the eighty-five essays contained in "The Federalist." This -series of essays is believed to have influenced more people to favor -the adoption of the Constitution than any other written or oral -effort. - -The most influential writings against the adoption of the -Constitution were authored by Richard Henry Lee in his "Letters of -a Federal Farmer." George Mason and Edmund Randolph refused to sign -the Constitution of the United States because it contained no bill -of rights, it did not provide either for the immediate prohibition -of slave traffic or for the eventual abolition of slavery and, -in their opinion, gave Congress too much control over navigation -and tariff policies. Edmund Randolph, Governor of Virginia and a -delegate at the Philadelphia Convention, played an unusual role: he -did not sign the Constitution himself because he did not approve of -the final document but he did urge the State of Virginia to accept -it because he believed that a union of states was necessary. James -McClurg and George Wythe did not sign it because they were absent, -but they did encourage the ratification of the Constitution by -Virginia. - -On June 2, 1788, a Virginia State Convention was held in Richmond to -determine whether or not Virginia would accept the new Constitution -of the United States. There were one hundred and sixty-eight -official delegates present, and they elected Edmund Pendleton -president of the convention. Sectionalism appeared obvious in -the state at this time: the Piedmont area and the southwest area -which did not have many slaves opposed ratification while the -Tidewater area and the northwest area favored the adoption of the -Constitution. James Madison, John Marshall (who actually explained -much of the Constitution to the members of the convention), Edmund -Randolph, George Wythe and General "Light Horse Harry" Lee spoke on -behalf of the Constitution; George Mason, Patrick Henry, Richard -Henry Lee, James Monroe and William Grayson spoke very strongly -against it. The chief arguments against ratification were that -the central government had been given far too much power and the -individual states far too little power, that the commerce clause -was too powerful and that the continuance of the slave trade was -permitted. Finally, after Madison had agreed to suggest and to urge -adoption of many amendments, the Virginia convention ratified the -Constitution of the United States by the close vote of 89 to 79 on -June 26, 1788. It is interesting to note that, at this time, the -State of Virginia included the present area of Virginia and the -area now included in the States of Kentucky and of West Virginia. - -The State of Virginia missed by five days the honor of being the -necessary ninth state to ratify the Constitution, New Hampshire -having this honor. As Virginia became the tenth state to ratify -it, the following declaration was officially recorded: "We, the -Delegates of the People of Virginia, ... Do, in the name and in -behalf of the People of Virginia, declare and make known, that the -powers granted under the Constitution, being derived from the People -of the United States, may be resumed by them whensoever the same -shall be perverted to their injury or oppression, and that every -power not granted thereby remains with them and at their Will; that -therefore no right of any denomination can be canceled, abridged, -restrained, or modified by the Congress ... or any department or -Officer of the United States, except in those instances in which -power is given by the Constitution for those purposes: and that, -among other essential rights, the liberty of Conscience and of the -press cannot be canceled, abridged, restrained or modified by any -Authority of the United States." This declaration expressed fear -on the part of Virginians concerning the new Constitution. At the -same time, the members of the Virginia convention proposed forty -amendments which became the bases of the ten amendments of the Bill -of Rights in the Constitution of the United States: James Madison -introduced the first nine amendments and Richard Henry Lee, the -tenth amendment, to the Constitution of the United States--all -eventually adopted in 1791. - -Between 1783 and 1789, on the domestic scene, Virginia had gained -five new counties: Campbell (formed from Bedford County and named -for General William H. Campbell, the hero of the Battle of King's -Mountain), Greensville (formed from Brunswick County and, later, -parts of Sussex County and named for General Nathaniel Greene or Sir -Richard Grenville), Franklin (formed from Bedford and Henry Counties -and, later, parts of Patrick and named for Benjamin Franklin), -Russell (formed from Washington County and named for General William -Russell, a military hero also at the Battle of King's Mountain in -the Revolutionary War) and Nottoway (formed from Amelia County and -named for an Indian tribe, "Nottoway"--the word meaning "snake or -enemy"). Two years later, Patrick County was formed from Henry -County and was named in honor of the patriot, Patrick Henry. - -Another domestic problem during this period concerned the boundary -dispute between Pennsylvania and Virginia. When the Penns colonized -Pennsylvania, they claimed the 39th degree parallel as their -southern boundary. Virginia, however, claimed all the territory as -far north as the 40th degree parallel including the choice section -of Fort Pitt (now the site of Pittsburgh). After Pennsylvania -authorities had established courts at Hanna's Town (now Greensburg), -Governor Dunmore of Virginia sent Dr. John Connelly to establish a -rival court with competing magistrates in 1773. The struggle for -ownership of this area was temporarily postponed during the American -Revolution, although the Virginia courts continued to remain -in session in western Pennsylvania from 1774 to 1780. Finally, -negotiations took place, and an agreement was adopted to allow a -survey to be made in the region and to accept a boundary recommended -by the joint boundary commission. The Mason and Dixon Line was -extended to the southwest corner of Pennsylvania in 1784; the -western boundary line of Pennsylvania was permanently agreed upon in -1785-1786. - -In the following year, in December, an historical event took -place which contributed greatly to science. James Rumsey, a -native Marylander who had moved to Bath, Virginia (now Berkeley -Springs, West Virginia), was interested in boat-building and in the -possibility of steam propulsion. After the Virginia General Assembly -had given him exclusive permission to navigate specific types of -boats constructed by himself on the state waterways for ten years, -he successfully transported six individuals for the first time in a -steamboat four miles up the Potomac River near Shepherdstown. Rumsey -continued to experiment with additional steamboats on the Potomac. -In order to obtain financial assistance, he traveled subsequently -to London and ironically died there before his second boat, the -"Columbia Maid," had been completely constructed. This event -occurred twenty years before Robert Fulton made his historic trip up -the Hudson River in the "Clermont." - -By 1789 George Washington had retired to Mount Vernon and had -become a gentleman farmer at the time of the adoption of the -Constitution. He was overseeing his fields on horseback one day when -a messenger arrived from New York City informing him that his name -had appeared unanimously on the ballot of every elector, electing -him as the first President of the United States--"The Father of His -Country." The American people still remembered his great leadership -qualities during the Revolutionary War and during the Constitutional -Convention. Thus, Washington was faced with a most difficult task: -to make a new government work successfully though it was practically -only in outline form and even though there was opposition and -criticism awaiting the first President. Washington was also informed -that the new government was to begin operating on March 4, 1789 -and that Congress desired that he arrive in New York City for his -inauguration on that date. - -It took the Congressmen themselves longer to arrive from their -various states, however, than they had expected. John Adams, the -Vice-President, did not arrive until April 22 from Massachusetts -to take his oath of office. Washington had much farther to travel -than did John Adams and had many preparations to make before -leaving Mount Vernon. He visited Fredericksburg to bid his mother -farewell and traveled via stagecoach through Maryland, Delaware -and Pennsylvania to New York. Roads were in poor condition making -traveling very slow and Washington was such a prominent figure that -he was stopped along the way by his old friends, especially in New -Jersey. One significant incident was his welcome at Trenton, New -Jersey, part of which consisted of a presentation of flowers by -thirteen young ladies dressed in white, symbolic of the thirteen -stars of the flag of the United States and of the thirteen states -that had honored him by electing him to the Presidency. When he -arrived at the New York ferry, thirteen sailors in red, white and -blue uniforms were waiting to row him across the Hudson River to New -York City. On April 30, 1789, Washington took his official oath of -office in Federal Hall as the first President of the United States. -A marble statue stands today on the spot on Wall Street where this -event took place. New York became the first capital city of the -United States. Since the capital was changed to Philadelphia in the -following year, Washington was the only President of the United -States to be inaugurated in New York City. - - -_State and National Events (1789-1860)_ - -Since Washington was a strong believer in the Constitution of the -United States and had put forth much effort in getting it ratified, -he tried conscientiously to set up a government satisfactory to all -Americans. He wisely used his talent of recognizing individuals with -a particular skill when he selected his first cabinet to advise him: -Thomas Jefferson (Virginia), Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Alexander -Hamilton (New York), Secretary of the Treasury, and Henry Knox -(Massachusetts), Secretary of War. Edmund Randolph, a Virginian, was -appointed Attorney-General, but this office did not become a cabinet -post until 1814. The men holding these positions for the first time -had a heavy responsibility in deciding specifically the range of -duties each position should include and in properly carrying out -these duties. - -The practice of "log-rolling," defined as the "joining together of -politicians to mutually further each other's plans of activities," -was followed at this early time of our new government. The question -had arisen in Congress whether or not Congress should assume -the state debts, most of which had been accumulated during the -Revolutionary War. The Congressmen who favored such assumption -believed that such action would not only tend to strengthen security -and confidence of the American people in their new government but -would also make it easier for the United States to borrow money, -either at home or from a foreign country. Since Virginia and many -of the Southern States had already assumed and had paid most of -their debts, the Virginia legislature opposed this bill strongly -in 1790 and believed that it placed an unjust hardship upon the -State. This state legislative objection was the first official -action of a state against a federal bill. Since the Northern States -preferred a location in the north for the national capital, Hamilton -and Jefferson encouraged their friends to vote for each other's -proposals. Hamilton's friends in the north voted for locating the -capital along the Potomac in return for Jefferson's friends in the -south voting for the assumption of state debts by the national -government. - -There had been discussion for a long time about changing the -location of the national capital from New York City to a more -central location along the Atlantic seaboard. When a site along the -Potomac River was finally agreed upon, Maryland and Virginia agreed -to cede part of its land for the establishment of a Federal District -to become the seat of government of the United States. On December -3, 1789, Virginia ceded thirty and three-quarters square miles of -land including the town of Alexandria and part of Fairfax County. -The stone locating the original southern corner boundary, officially -laid by Dr. Elisha Cullen Dick, may still be seen near Jones Point, -Alexandria. - -Early efforts to commercialize waterways materialized in 1790. -One of the earliest commercial canals built in either Virginia -or in the United States as a whole was the James River Canal. It -was constructed by the James River Company, and, although it was -only seven miles in length, it connected Richmond with Westham and -was parallel to the James River. This marked the beginning of the -canal-building era in the United States. - -An event which affected the United States and the State of Virginia -occurred in 1792 when Kentucky was admitted into the Union as the -fifteenth state (Vermont had entered as the fourteenth one in -1791). This action deprived the State of Virginia of approximately -75,000 inhabitants, of 40,395 square miles of territory and of nine -counties. Kentucky was originally part of Fincastle County, Virginia -and later had gained status as an independent county in Virginia, -called Kentucky County. Virginia gave the necessary consent for -the independence of Kentucky, required before statehood could be -granted. The boundaries of the State of Virginia thereafter remained -fixed from 1792 until 1861 when West Virginia became a separate -state. - -Washington, during his Presidency, showed his ability to lead in -civilian affairs as well as in military affairs. His diplomatic -ability predominated in the torn loyalty toward England and toward -France when these nations fought each other in 1793: he issued -the Neutrality Proclamation whereby the United States would take -neither side in this conflict. Throughout his two terms, he created -precedents and made decisions of lasting value for the United -States. Such a precedent was his refusal to run for a third time as -President of the United States, a precedent which was not broken -until 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt accepted the nomination for -the Presidency. - -While Washington was President, the population of Virginia continued -to grow. Six new counties were created during this period: Wythe -(formed from Montgomery County with later additions from Montgomery -and Grayson Counties and named in honor of George Wythe, a Virginia -signer of the Declaration of Independence, a famous lawyer and -the first Professor of Law in the United States), Mathews (formed -from Gloucester County and named for Major Thomas Mathews of the -Revolutionary War), Bath (formed from Augusta, Botetourt and -Greenbrier Counties and named because of the medicinal springs -located in the area), Grayson (formed from Wythe County and, later, -additions from Patrick County and named for Colonel William Grayson, -a United States Senator from Virginia), Lee (formed from Russell -County and, later, additions from Scott County and named for General -Henry Lee, Governor of Virginia, as well as an outstanding military -leader), and Madison (formed from Culpeper County and named for -James Madison, a state legislator and member of the United States -House of Representatives during this period). - -After John Adams had been elected to the Presidency in 1796, the -Democratic-Republican Party began to use the typical political -method of attacking the party in power, namely the Federalists, -through newspaper articles and through written pamphlets. Since -many of the foreigners who had come to America at this time were -Democratic-Republican in their political beliefs, numerous articles -criticizing President John Adams and his administration were written -by them. In order to combat these political attacks, the Federalist -leaders were responsible for getting two most unusual laws passed: -the Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Act provided that the -residence time required of foreigners for naturalization (the -process whereby a foreigner becomes a citizen) was to be fourteen -years instead of five years and that the President was henceforth -authorized to imprison or deport without trial foreigners whom he -considered dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States -or to allow others to remain. The Sedition Act stated that any -person convicted of defaming, either by spoken or by written word, -the government of the United States or the President of the United -States or the Congress of the United States was subject to a fine of -not more than $2,000 and to imprisonment for not more than two years. - -Several Federalists considered the passage of these laws unjust. -Thomas Jefferson, the Vice-President of the United States at the -time of their passage, decided to attract the attention of voters -to the passage of such laws. He drew up resolutions in 1789 which -stated that: (1) the Alien and Sedition Laws were unconstitutional -because the President of the United States had no power to imprison -or deport any person without a judicial trial and because Congress -did not have the right to limit the freedom of speech and of -press and (2) since the Union was a compact of states and since -the federal government had only the particular powers granted -to it by the states, each state had the right to decide the -constitutionality of Congressional laws. Because these resolutions -were first introduced into the Kentucky legislature, they were -later called the Kentucky Resolutions. At the same time, James -Madison drew up similar resolutions which were introduced into the -Virginia Assembly. The Virginia Resolutions are significant since -they explain the theory of "strict construction" (that the federal -government has only those powers specifically delegated to it) and -they illustrate the strong "states' rights" feeling which existed -in the State of Virginia. Virginia and Kentucky were the only two -states to openly protest the Alien and Sedition Acts. Many of the -northern states denied on this occasion the right of a state to -judge a federal law. They affirmed, on the contrary, the belief -that only the federal courts can decide the constitutionality of a -federal law. - -On December 14, 1799, George Washington died at Mount Vernon where -he had retired after his Presidency. His military genius and -brilliant statesmanship are probably best summarized in the "Funeral -Oration upon President Washington" by Henry Lee in his now-famous -phrase: "First in War, First in Peace and First in the Hearts of His -Countrymen." - -In 1800, Virginia was considered first among the sixteen states of -the Union (Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee having been admitted into -the Union before 1800) in wealth and in population: 447,800 whites -and 359,777 Negroes. The influence of Virginia in the political, -economic and social life of the country was a profound one. The -majority of residents now consisted of "average" individuals who -regarded the democratic ideas of Thomas Jefferson as a basic -philosophy for everyday living. The polite courtesy and hospitality -of the olden days still remained, but many of the traditional, -dignified ceremonies had become outmoded. The descendants of the -aristocratic planters of the early nineteenth century were usually -people of limited means and limited acreage because the war and -its aftermath had decreased much of their wealth. However, the -typical Virginian who could afford it still preferred to live in the -country, own horses, dogs and fine cattle, enjoy fox hunting and the -social gatherings of friends, celebrate traditional activities and -understand and cherish the rich heritage which was theirs. - -In 1800, Thomas Jefferson, a native of Shadwell, Virginia, was -elected third President of the United States. He was the first -President to be inaugurated at Washington, D. C. His ideas -concerning government were so numerous and thought-provoking that -his political philosophy has been termed "Jeffersonian Democracy." -He had strong faith in the ability of the common man, believed -in government economy and practiced this belief throughout his -administration. He exhibited his broadmindedness by allowing many -government officials of opposite political party beliefs to retain -their same positions after he became President and he was a strong -advocate of States' Rights. After Jefferson became President, -he appointed John Marshall of Germantown and Richmond as Chief -Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall had -been a member of the state legislature, an outstanding lawyer, a -Congressman and had served as Secretary of State under President -John Adams. John Marshall remained Chief Justice for thirty-four -years and holds the record for length of service on the Supreme -Court of the United States. He was personally responsible for -creating a strong foundation for the Supreme Court. Although he -was the second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, it was during -his judgeship that for the first time, a Congressional law was -declared unconstitutional in the case of Marbury versus Madison. -This decision greatly strengthened the theory of judicial review of -national legislation. It is interesting to note that John Marshall -was as strong a Federalist as his cousin, Thomas Jefferson, was a -strong "States' Rights" man. - -While Jefferson as President was solving national problems, his home -state was solving problems, too. In August 1800, Virginia had its -first organized slave insurrection. Led by Gabriel, approximately -one thousand slaves in the area around Richmond decided to march on -Richmond and massacre the white inhabitants there. However, at the -scheduled time for the march to begin, a severe rainstorm delayed -the march. During the delay, Pharaoh, one of the Negroes, decided -to warn the Richmonders of their impending disaster. In spite of -the heavy rains and the fact that it became necessary for him to -swim certain swollen streams without being caught by one of his own -group, he continued to Richmond and warned the authorities in time. -He informed them of the proposed plan to kill the male inhabitants, -capture the women inhabitants, seize the public arms and create -a general slave insurrection. Consequently, the conspirators, -including Gabriel, were caught, convicted and executed. The -Virginia Assembly rewarded Pharaoh for his courageous act by giving -him complete freedom. - -While the State of Virginia was increasing its counties, the -United States was beginning to expand beyond its original boundary -established after the Revolutionary War. President Jefferson had -heard rumors that Spain had ceded Louisiana back to France in secret -diplomatic relations. If true, such a condition could ruin American -trade along the Mississippi River and could suggest a possibility of -a French empire in America. Jefferson decided to have the government -of the United States purchase the Island of Orleans, near the mouth -of the Mississippi River. After the United States Ambassador to -France had been unable to purchase only the Island of Orleans, -Jefferson sent James Monroe, a native of Westmoreland County, to -assist the Ambassador. In 1803, the treaty making the purchase of -Louisiana, that vast area of land west of the Mississippi, official -was ratified by the United States. This purchase added 827,000 -square miles to the area of the land under the jurisdiction of the -United States government at the cost of $15,000,000. - -President Jefferson was also very much interested in the Oregon -Country. He had made frequent attempts to have this region explored -but all his attempts were unsuccessful. However, after the purchase -of Louisiana, he persuaded the federal government to finance, by -means of a $2500 appropriation, an official government expedition -to make the first overland route to the Pacific Ocean and to -explore the region which the United States had recently acquired. -He selected Captain Meriwether Lewis of Ivy, Virginia, to head this -expedition and Lieutenant William Clark, a very close Virginian -friend of Lewis' to accompany him. Their group left St. Louis in -the spring of 1804, traveled up the Missouri River, spent a rigid -winter in an area now located in North Dakota, continued traveling -up the Missouri in the spring of 1805, crossed the Rocky Mountains, -and built and paddled canoes until they reached the mouth of the -Columbia River in November, 1805. There they built a fort near the -present site of Astoria. They remained on the Pacific Coast during -the winter and returned to St. Louis in 1806. Lewis and Clark were -aided considerably in their travel route directions by an Indian -woman guide, Sacajawea. This expedition to the Northwest furnished -the best claim of the United States in later ownership disputes with -England. - -Aaron Burr, long the political opponent of Alexander Hamilton, -lived in Petersburg. In 1807, Burr was accused of a conspiracy to -invade Mexico, to snatch it from Spanish control and to establish an -independent Mexican government with himself as the self-appointed -ruler. Furthermore, he was accused of having laid plans for setting -up a government in the western territory of the United States with -the objective of eventually organizing this area into a separate, -independent government with himself the self-appointed ruler. -Burr was officially tried on a charge of treason at the State -Capitol Building in Richmond. Chief Justice John Marshall was the -presiding judge. Jefferson, who had disliked Burr for political -reasons for a long time and who believed that Burr was guilty of the -aforementioned treasonous actions, wanted Burr convicted. Although -the trial involved many political entanglements, Burr was finally -acquitted. - -During the same year, Virginia made national headlines again when -the "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair took place. France and Britain had -been having personnel problems with their navy crews, each accusing -the other of trying to encourage desertions. Britain had sent a -fleet over to Norfolk in an attempt to intercept some French ships -harbored in the Chesapeake Bay. One of the British ships had its -entire crew desert, and it was believed that they had dashed to -Norfolk and would be hiring out soon on a French or American ship. -The British captain of the fleet had been informed that these crew -members supposedly had enlisted on the "Chesapeake," a new American -naval vessel. A British vessel, the "Leopard," was ordered to search -the "Chesapeake" outside the jurisdiction of the United States. -Consequently, the "Leopard" followed the "Chesapeake" out beyond -Cape Henry and then demanded that the "Chesapeake" be searched -by British officers. When the "Chesapeake," under the command of -Commodore James Barron, denied having any deserters and refused -the right to search, the "Leopard" approached very closely the -"Chesapeake" and fired at it broadside. Three Americans were killed, -seventeen others wounded and four deserters were surprisingly found -aboard the "Chesapeake." Although many Americans clamored for -war as a result of this incident, Jefferson, who still preferred -peace, retaliated by having Congress pass the Embargo Act whereby -no American ship could depart for any foreign port. Jefferson -believed the lack of American exports would cause the countries of -Europe to cease the practice of impressment of American seamen. The -Americans, however, suffered more from this act than did the French -and the British; eventually, it was repealed and a law was passed -allowing American vessels to trade with any country except England -and France. By the end of Jefferson's administration, nevertheless, -the American people were very restless, and in some sections of -the country war was believed to be inevitable with England or with -France. - -On March 4, 1809, Virginia had another one of her sons, James -Madison, inaugurated as President of the United States. He was born -in Port Conway, Virginia, and, after graduating from Princeton, he -had fought in the Revolutionary War. He had served in the state -legislature, had been a member of the Second Continental Congress, -had been a member of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia -where he had earned the title "Father of the Constitution of the -United States" and had contributed to the "Federalist" papers -encouraging the adoption of the Constitution. After serving in the -United States House of Representatives, he had retired from national -politics and had centered his interest upon state government -functions. He had written the "Virginia Resolutions" and had served -as United States Secretary of State at the request of President -Jefferson. Therefore, he came to the Presidency well prepared to -assume presidential duties. - -In contrast with his desire for peace, Madison held the office of -President of the United States during the War of 1812 with England. -Only a few battles were fought near Virginia in this war. The -British had as one of their objectives the capture of the City of -Norfolk. George Cockburn, a British Admiral, entered Chesapeake Bay -with a fleet of approximately 1800 men, and they plundered many -plantations along the coast of Maryland and Virginia. An American -ship, the "U. S. S. Dolphin," was captured by the British ship, "St. -Domingo," in the Rappahannock River. A sea battle was later fought -at Craney Island, located at the entrance of Norfolk Harbor where -American sailors, marines and militia men were defending the small -island. As the British rowed toward the island shore on barges, -heavy artillery fire sank many of the boats causing hundreds of the -Britishers to drown. The British subsequently withdrew and Norfolk -escaped serious damage. The British soon desired to attack Hampton. -They successfully pillaged the town and proceeded to the Carolinas. -Several Virginians participated in the War of 1812 and the students -of Hampden-Sydney College, as in the Revolutionary War, volunteered -as an entire student body to fight for their country. - -Virginia became a famous place of refuge during the War of 1812. -When the British invaded Washington in August 1814, President -Madison and his wife, Dolly Madison, fled from the White House on -August 24 to Salona, a house located in Falls Church. It is believed -that Dolly Madison crossed the Chain Bridge over the Potomac River -and traveled rapidly over the secondary roads until she finally -reached the house of Reverend and Mrs. William Maffitt. Dolly -Madison carried with her the Declaration of Independence and the -famous portrait of George Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart. Mrs. -Maffitt quickly admitted Dolly Madison, and the President himself -and some of his cabinet members arrived later with Reverend Maffitt. -They could see the burning White House from the Maffitt residence. -Although the President had to depart shortly afterwards, Dolly -Madison stayed there for the duration of the war. - -After his Presidency had ended, James Madison returned to -Montpelier, the family homestead near Orange, where he lived until -his death in 1836. - -While Madison was occupied with national affairs, there were -several important events happening in his home state. In 1809-1810, -a Literary Fund for Virginia was established as an aid to public -education by providing money for school expenses. The state -legislature under the direction of Governor John Tyler, Sr., -provided that "all escheats (land the title to which was reclaimed -by the state), confiscations, penalties and forfeitures, and all -rights in personal property found derelict (deserted or abandoned) -should be appropriated to the encouragement of learning." As time -passed, this fund expanded considerably and was used to improve -elementary education. Only the most proficient students were allowed -to attend public secondary schools. The General Assembly encouraged -the establishment of classical schools and academies via revenue -secured from lotteries. In 1816, the Federal Government paid -$1,210,550 to Virginia in return for a loan granted to the Federal -Government by Virginia for the defraying of expenses incurred during -the War of 1812. This payment was allotted to the Literary Fund. - -From 1800 through 1816, the State of Virginia had four new counties -formed: Tazewell (formed from Wythe and Russell Counties and named -for Henry Tazewell, a United States Senator), Giles (created from -Montgomery, Monroe and Tazewell Counties and named for William -Branch Giles, a Congressman from Virginia who served four terms), -Nelson (formed from Amherst County and named for General Thomas -Nelson, military leader and Governor of Virginia in 1781), and Scott -(formed from Lee, Russell and Washington Counties and named for -General Winfield Scott, lawyer and military leader). - -In 1811, Richmond suffered from a dreadful tragedy. Richmond had -grown in approximately twenty-five years from a village to a -thriving city. As the capital city of the state, it had become a -center of wealth, social activities and entertainment. The leading -actors and actresses of the country played at the Richmond Theater -with pride. On the evening of December 26, 1811 as a play was in -progress, the scenery at the back of the stage caught fire. When an -actor shouted "The house is on fire!", chaos and confusion resulted. -In addition to the flames which rapidly roared through the theater, -the panic and hysteria contributed to the death of seventy-three -individuals, including Governor George W. Smith and many other -distinguished citizens. Gilbert Hunt, a slave, is credited with -saving approximately twenty women and children by catching them as -they were hurled to safety from flaming windows. The doors of this -theater had been constructed in such a way that they only opened -inwardly. Thus, when the audience madly rushed for an exit, numerous -individuals were crushed since the doors could not be opened -outwardly. As a result of this terrible tragedy, theater doors in -Virginia and in other states were constructed in the future to open -outwardly from the inside. A structure of stuccoed brick, known as -Monumental Church, has been built by the architect, Robert Mills, -upon the site of the old theater, and on a monument at the door is -an inscription bearing the names of those who died in this incident. - -In 1816, thirty-five western counties of Virginia held a convention -at Staunton and demanded that the General Assembly be informed of -their grievances and be asked to adjust same. After the War of -1812, the western counties believed that the State Constitution -of 1776 was no longer appropriate and that the earlier counties, -in spite of their longer political experiences, were greatly -over-represented in proportion to their population as compared with -the population of the western counties. One particular criticism -was the representation plan of membership in the General Assembly. -Although the white population was much greater in number west of -the Blue Ridge than in the east, the western counties had only four -delegates in the Assembly in comparison to thirteen delegates from -the east. Therefore, these convention delegates demanded a revised -or new state constitution which would include fair treatment, in -their opinion, for the western counties of Virginia. The Staunton -convention of 1816 caused other residents of Virginia, especially -the politicians, to realize that this mountainous area was -increasing in population and in interest in state and in national -affairs and that it expected a similar increase in power and in -influence in the state government of Virginia. - -In 1817, James Monroe was inaugurated the Fifth President of the -United States. A native of Westmoreland County, Monroe had had -considerable political and diplomatic experience before becoming -President. He had been a practicing lawyer in Fredericksburg, a -Revolutionary War participant who had been wounded in the Battle -of Trenton, New Jersey, a delegate to the Virginia Constitutional -Convention at Williamsburg, a member of the Virginia General -Assembly, a United States Senator, an American envoy to France, a -Governor of Virginia, a United States Minister to France where he -helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase, a United States Minister -to Spain, a United States Secretary of State and a United States -Secretary of War under President Madison. His two presidential terms -are often referred to as the "Era of Good Feeling" because wars and -international disputes were unknown in this period. - -Foreign policy was a highlight of Monroe's two years. A treaty -with Spain in 1819 transferred East Florida to the United States, -included an official admission that West Florida rightfully belonged -to the United States, provided that the United States would assume -and pay claims of citizens of the United States against the Spanish -government amounting to five million dollars and defined the -boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Another incident taking place in -this general area of the United States was the permission granted -by the government of Mexico to Stephen Fuller Austin, a native of -Austinville, Virginia, to establish a settlement for colonization -on a land grant in Texas. He became the leader of the section and -participated in so many happenings in the history of Texas that -later, the capital, Austin, was named in his honor. - -While Monroe was President, Congress had a difficult situation to -face. Missouri applied for admission to the Union in 1819. Since -there were eleven free and eleven slave states in the Union at this -time, there was equal representation in the Senate from the North -and from the South. However, the North had increased much more -rapidly in population than had the South with the result that there -were 105 Northern representatives in the House of Representatives -and only 81 Southern representatives in the same body. Therefore, -the South did not want any additional free states admitted to -the Union at this time to upset the equal balance in the Senate. -Consequently, a bill which had been proposed to admit Missouri to -the Union with the understanding that slavery was to be abolished -there directly upon such admission failed to pass in the Senate. -In the same year, Maine, a free state, applied for statehood. -Slavery had become a significant sectional issue by 1819 and Henry -Clay, a native of Hanover County, proposed the now-famous Missouri -Compromise of 1820: Maine was to be admitted as a free state, -Misouri as a slave state; slavery was to be forever excluded in -the rest of the Louisiana Purchase Territory north of the parallel -of 36' 30'' (southern boundary of Missouri). Although Henry Clay, -later known as the "Great Pacificator" or "Peacemaker" because of -his ability to make compromises in difficult situations, moved to -Kentucky in his "twenties," he studied law with the famous Virginia -lawyer, George Wythe, and acquired many of his political beliefs in -Virginia. President Monroe signed the Missouri Compromise expressing -his approval of this bill. - -A new trend in foreign policy was formulated by President Monroe, -with the help of his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, in -his annual message to Congress on December 2, 1823. The Monroe -Doctrine, as it was later termed, stated that there was to be no -further European colonization in the Western Hemisphere, that no -European nation was to interfere in the government of any nation in -the Western Hemisphere and that violation of either of the previous -principles would be considered unfriendly to the government of the -United States. In return, the government of the United States would -not interfere in the governments of Europe. - -From the time of the Revolutionary War, societies opposed to slavery -were organized in the United States. Religious and non-religious -groups favored the emancipation of the slaves, but the greatest -problem facing those who favored freedom for the slaves was the -finding of a suitable environment for the freed, uneducated Negroes. -The South which had the greatest number of Negroes would have -favored emancipation much more readily if this problem could have -been solved satisfactorily. Washington and Jefferson both opposed -slavery and Washington in his will provided for the freeing of his -slaves upon the death of his wife. Jefferson proposed that the -Negroes be freed and then sent out of the United States. Monroe -likewise strongly opposed slavery and suggested that the Negroes be -allowed to settle in an independent country of their own. - -In 1816, an American Colonization Society was formed which was -granted permission by the Congress of the United States to send -emancipated volunteer Negro slaves to Liberia, Africa where they -could organize an independent country of their own. The Virginia -legislature heartily supported this project. Bushrod Washington, -a nephew of George Washington, served as one of the presidents of -this national colonization society. John Marshall was the first -president of the state branch at Richmond. The capital of Liberia, -an independent republic since 1847, is Monrovia, named in honor -of James Monroe, who personally urged the establishment of this -independent country for Negroes. - -On March 4, 1825, the "Virginia Dynasty" ended, and President -Monroe returned to his home state, Virginia, where he remained -until the death of his wife. Virginia had earned the title of -"Mother of Presidents" because it had furnished four of the first -five Presidents of the United States: George Washington, Thomas -Jefferson, James Madison and James Monroe. By 1825, Virginia had -lost its first rank in population to New York State, primarily -because of the large number of immigrants in the North. The -population of Virginia, however, had passed the million mark. - -During Monroe's presidency, an ex-President of the United States -undertook a task in his home state which he had patiently -waited to perform. In 1819, the Virginia legislature passed an -act establishing a state university in Virginia. Jefferson had -worked very hard to get this personal ambition of his realized -because he believed that a state has the obligation of educating -its citizens. He constantly discussed his idea with influential -men of the time and was elated when the University of Virginia -was finally created by law. Jefferson personally recommended -the accepted site of Central College in Charlottesville, drew -up the plans for the university building and grounds, chose the -materials for construction, selected the workmen and then assumed -the responsibility of personally supervising and directing the -actual building project. One of the outstanding architectural -characteristics of the University grounds is the famous Serpentine -Wall designed and built by Jefferson himself. Jefferson's interest -did not cease with the supervision and construction of the buildings -but extended to the intellectual area with his outlining the course -of study which was followed carefully at the University for several -years. The University of Virginia was opened for students for the -first time in 1825 with an enrollment of forty students and seven -faculty members. It has continued to be an outstanding institution -for higher education in the United States. This institution, unlike -the former ones in America, was independent of a church and was the -first institution to offer the elective system of subject matter, -allowing students to make their choice with music and liberal arts -first included in any curriculum of higher education. Jefferson thus -participated significantly in the education field in addition to -making political, historical and inventive contributions. - -In 1829 the citizens of Virginia voted for a special state -convention to be held for the purpose of drafting a new state -constitution. When the delegates met in Richmond on October 5, -ex-President James Madison was selected as President of this -Virginia Convention. Other notables present included ex-President -Monroe, Chief Justice Marshall and John Randolph. It was soon -obvious that there were two distinct types of delegates: the -eastern "conservatives" and the western "reformers." Debates and -discussions became so heated that this convention is often compared -to the federal convention of 1787 which exposed sharp differences -between the North and the South as separate sections. Governor -William B. Giles, A. P. Upshur, Benjamin Leigh, John Randolph and -Littleton Waller represented the east or Tidewater section while -Alexander Campbell, John R. Cooke, Philip Doddridge and Charles -Faulkner represented the western or mountainous counties. The most -objectionable features of the State Constitution of 1776, in the -opinion of the western counties delegates, were the following: (1) -the voting requirement of freehold land tenure, (2) the election -of the Governor by the state legislature rather than by the voters -themselves, (3) the actual carrying out of some of the Governor's -duties by a nine-man Council of State, (4) the equal representation -in the House of Delegates from each county regardless of population, -and (5) a procedure in the local and state courts which often -resulted in favoritism. The easterner combatted the criticism about -representation with the fact that he paid much higher taxes on his -land (in some instances as much as nine times more per acre). After -lengthy discussions, the new state constitution was finally written -and recommended for adoption. The following changes were included: -(1) voting was extended to leaseholders and householders, (2) the -Governor was chosen by a joint ballot of the Senate and the House -of Delegates, (3) the power and the responsibility of the Governor -was increased and the number of men and the powers of the Council of -State were decreased, (4) the representation of the western counties -in the Assembly was increased slightly, and (5) state courts were -slightly revised but county courts were practically unchanged. The -Constitution of 1829 was adopted, and John Floyd was the first -Governor elected under the new system. - -The strong feeling of states' rights in Virginia became apparent -once more. When President Andrew Jackson threatened to use armed -force upon South Carolina in his attempt to coerce South Carolina -into paying Federal taxes, according to the Tariff of 1828 ("The -Tariff of Abominations"), Virginians became very alarmed. John -Randolph, a sick man at the time, traveled throughout the country -denouncing Jackson's coercive attitude. Virginia then sent Benjamin -Watkins Leigh to South Carolina to try to bring peace within the -Union again and to prevent South Carolina from seceding from the -Union. Governor John Floyd of Virginia stated that federal troops -would meet armed opposition if President Jackson ordered them to -march through Virginia to South Carolina and to force South Carolina -to pay the exorbitant tariff rates. Henry Clay's compromise tariff -law providing for gradually reduced tariff rates prevented possible -secession from occurring at this time. - -In August 1831, a Negro preacher of Southampton County, Nat Turner, -started a local slave insurrection by persuading the Negro slaves -that it was time to kill the white people. Sixty whites, mostly -women and children, were killed before the rebellion could be -suppressed. Nat Turner and twelve of his accomplices were hung. -Many Virginians believed that Nat Turner's Rebellion took place -as a direct result of the writings of William Lloyd Garrison of -Massachusetts who published the "Liberator," a newspaper which -demanded the immediate abolition of slavery. The southerners, -in general, were so aroused by this rebellion that southern -legislatures passed laws prohibiting slaves from being taught to -read. In fact, a reward was offered for Garrison himself. Many -southern states passed resolutions requesting the northern states to -forbid the publication of abolitionist papers. In 1832 at a regular -session of the Virginia General Assembly, an act was proposed -whereby all slaves born after July 4, 1840 were to be free and to -be removed from the State of Virginia. The act was defeated in the -House of Delegates by a close vote of 67 to 60. - -In 1831, Cyrus Hall McCormick of Rockbridge County invented the -"Virginia Reaper," a mechanical harvester which could harvest wheat -at a much faster rate than previously harvested by hand with a -sickle or a cradle. He did not get it patented, however, until -three years later. This was a most significant invention for the -State of Virginia as well as for the nation as a whole. The Virginia -Reaper affected grain, as the cotton gin had affected cotton, by -making it possible for grain to be grown and harvested in much -larger quantities. When Virginians first used the reaper, Virginia's -total wheat production increased so rapidly that Virginia ranked -fourth among the wheat-raising states in 1840. However, the climate -and soil of the West were more conducive to wheat-raising than in -Virginia, and, when the western farmers heard about the Virginia -Reaper, they were anxious to acquire such a machine for their own -use. The usual journey for such reapers included a wagon trip from -Rockbridge County over the Blue Ridge Mountains to Scottsville, a -canal trip from there to Richmond, a boat trip from Richmond down -the James River to the Atlantic Ocean, from Norfolk an ocean trip to -New Orleans and then a boat trip up the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers -to their specific destination in Kentucky or Ohio--a water trip of -approximately 3,000 miles. Since the demand for his invention was -much greater in the West, McCormick moved from Virginia to Chicago -to build his factory in order that he could reduce his shipping -costs considerably. However, one may still see one of the original -binders at Walnut Grove, the restored McCormick homestead located -near Midway, Virginia. - -In 1836, Samuel Houston, a native Virginian of Rockbridge County who -had migrated to Texas, became the heroic leader at the Battle of -San Jacinto in the Texas Revolt from Mexico. General Houston with -a small group of Texans captured Santa Anna, President of Mexico, -in this battle and forced him to grant Texas its independence from -Mexico. Houston became the first President of the Republic of Texas -and, later, the first Governor of the State of Texas after its -annexation to the United States. The City of Houston was named in -his honor. - -On November 11, 1839, the Virginia Military Institute, the first -state military school in the United States, was founded at -Lexington. This school was located adjacent to the Washington -Academy which is now known as Washington and Lee University. The -Virginia Military Institute was greatly appreciated because it -was no longer necessary for the Southern young men to travel to -West Point for military training and discipline. V. M. I. opened -originally with twenty-three cadets and two teachers: Francis Smith -and J. T. L. Preston, a lawyer who is accredited with having the -concept of a state military institute. It became the first normal -school in the state because during the first year of its existence, -the state legislature passed a law stating that the training of -teachers was to be considered as its chief objective. When the War -between the States took place, V. M. I. supplied the Confederate -forces with many of its military leaders, earning for itself the -title, "The West Point of the Confederacy." At the Battle of New -Market in 1864, V. M. I. cadets led by General John C. Breckinridge -defeated the Union Army by the remarkable capture of a Union battery. - -From 1822 to 1850 thirteen additional counties had been created: -Alleghany (formed from Bath, Botetourt and Monroe Counties and named -for the Indian word, "Alleghany" meaning "Lost"), Page (formed -from Rockingham and Shenandoah Counties and named in honor of John -Page, Virginia Governor [1802-1805]), Floyd (formed from Montgomery -County and later, part of Franklin County and named for John Floyd, -Virginia Governor [1830-1834]), Smyth (formed from Washington and -Wythe Counties and named for Alexander Smyth, Inspector-General -of the Army in 1812 and a Congressman), Rappahannock (formed from -Culpeper County and named for the Rappahannock Indian tribe which -lived along the Rappahannock River which flows in this county), -Clark (formed from Frederick and named for General George Rogers -Clark), Warren (formed from Shenandoah and Frederick Counties -and named for Major General Joseph Warren who died in the Battle -of Bunker Hill), Roanoke (formed from Botetourt County and named -for the term, "Roanoke," which was used by the colonists to -indicate the shell-beads which the Indians used for money and -for decoration), Greene (formed from Orange County and named -for General Nathaniel Greene of the Revolutionary War), Pulaski -(formed from Montgomery and Wythe Counties and named for Count -Casimir Pulaski, Revolutionary War Polish Patriot), Carroll (formed -from Grayson County and named in honor of Charles Carroll of -Carrollton), Appomattox (formed from Buckingham, Prince Edward, -Charlotte and Campbell Counties and named from the Indian word, -"Appomattox," meaning "tobacco plant country") and Highland (created -from Pendleton and Bath Counties and named for the extremely high -altitude of this mountainous area). - -In 1841, William Henry Harrison became the ninth President of the -United States and John Tyler became the Vice-President of the -United States. Both were born in Charles City County, approximately -twenty-four miles from Richmond. William Henry Harrison had -successfully defeated the Indian chief, Tecumseh, and his brother, -"The Prophet," at Tippecanoe River in Indiana. From this experience -he earned the title, "Old Tippecanoe" which became a part of the -1840 presidential campaign slogan: "Tippecanoe and Tyler too." -William Henry Harrison has a most unique distinction in the history -of the United States in that he served the shortest term of any -President--March 4, 1841 to April 4, 1841. Upon his death from -pneumonia, believed contracted during the inauguration ceremonies, -the other Virginian, John Tyler, succeeded to the Presidency. -Tyler had been a Congressman, a state legislator, a Governor of -Virginia and a United States Senator before becoming President. -During his term of office, the United States and Canada agreed upon -a final boundary in the Treaty of Washington. Tyler approved the -annexation of Texas to the Union near the end of his Presidential -administration. - -The annexation of Texas to the United States caused bitter feeling -between Mexico and the United States. In the Mexican War which -followed, two Virginians, General Zachary Taylor of Orange County -and General Winfield Scott of Dinwiddie County, participated in -an outstanding manner: the former, in charge of the campaign at -Monterey and at Buena Vista and the latter, in charge of the -campaign at Vera Cruz and Mexico City. Other Virginians who received -first-hand military experience during the Mexican War were Robert E. -Lee, Thomas J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston. - -On September 7, 1846, the land including the town of Alexandria -(originally Belhaven) which Virginia had ceded to Congress in -1789 was retroceded to Fairfax County. In the following year, -Alexandria County was formed from that part of the District of -Columbia which had formerly been a part of Fairfax County and the -town of Alexandria became the county seat. Five years later, the -town of Alexandria became the city of Alexandria through a charter -regulation of the General Assembly, and its status as an independent -city (not subject to county jurisdiction) was granted. - -While Alexandria was changing from a town to a city, another -Virginian was elected President of the United States. Zachary -Taylor, a native of Orange County, became the twelfth President of -the United States. He had achieved national fame during the Mexican -War and had earned the title "Old Rough and Ready." He defeated his -military colleague, General Winfield Scott, at the Whig convention -by winning the presidential candidacy and proceeded to defeat Martin -Van Buren for the Presidency. After serving only sixteen months of -his term, he died of typhus on July 9, 1850. The most important -issue during his administration was the slavery controversy. - -As in the slavery issue in 1820, Henry Clay once more proposed a -compromise measure in an attempt to prevent, or at least postpone, a -secession movement. The Compromise of 1850 was eventually passed and -is often referred to as the "Omnibus Bill" because it included many -miscellaneous provisions, namely: (1) California was to be admitted -as a free state, (2) slavery limitation in the Mexican cession land -was to be decided upon by the residents of the particular area -involved, (3) Texas was to pay ten million dollars for giving up -its claim to territory west and north of its present boundary, (4) -slave trade but not slavery was to be prohibited in the District -of Columbia, and (5) a more effective fugitive slave law was to be -passed and to be enforced. - -While the United States government had numerous national problems -with which to cope during this period, Virginia had several -governmental problems. In 1850-1851, a second state constitutional -convention was held. The age-old feud concerning representation, -voting qualifications and election of the Governor continued until, -finally, a compromise was reached. Main provisions of the compromise -were: (1) every white male citizen, except the insane, minors, -paupers and criminals, was to be allowed to vote from that time -forward, (2) the Governor was to be elected directly by the voters -themselves rather than by the General Assembly and his term was -to be extended from three to four years, (3) the Council of State -was to be abolished, (4) membership in the House of Delegates was -to be selected upon the basis of population, thereby giving the -western counties a majority number; membership in the Senate was to -be based upon population and property, thereby giving the eastern -counties a majority, and (5) the voters were to be allowed to vote -for judges, county officials and members of the Board of Public -Works. In addition, the General Assembly was to meet every other -year instead of annually. The 1851 State Constitution was ratified -by the voters by an overwhelming majority at the next election. -The western counties of Virginia had finally been recognized as -an important area whose ideas and opinions were to be considered -seriously. Although the economic and social life of the inhabitants -of the western part of Virginia were different from those of the -inhabitants of the eastern part of Virginia, this Constitution which -granted the western counties most of their desired reforms fostered -better unity within the state. - -In 1855, a dreadful epidemic of yellow fever spread throughout -Norfolk and approximately one tenth of its total population -succumbed. A Negro gravedigger, nicknamed "Yellow Fever Jack," was -considered the hero of this situation because he painstakingly kept -burying the dead until he too died from the fever. A monument has -been erected in his honor in the Norfolk Cemetery. - -In 1857 James Ethan Allen Gibbs, a native of Rockbridge County, -secured a patent to make a "twisted loop rotary hook sewing -machine," an invention which he had created as a result of watching -his mother sew by hand. He was unaware at the time of Elias Howe's -sewing machine invention of 1846. After a few years, James A. -Willcox added some improvements to Gibbs' sewing machine, and their -combined efforts resulted in the Willcox and Gibbs Sewing Machine. - -On October 16, 1859, John Brown, a freesoiler and an ardent white -abolitionist of Kansas and Ohio, led his five sons, eight northern -white men and a group of five Negroes on a raid of the federal -arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (now located in West Virginia). -Rifles were made and stored here. John Brown had decided to show -these slaves how to revolt against their masters. Therefore, he -equipped them with arms, ammunition and with steel-tipped pikes -which he had brought with him from Kansas. After they had seized -the arsenal, he urged them to start an insurrection. They captured -many of the gentlemen slaveholders of this area, and then John -Brown suggested that they use their pikes to "strike for freedom!" -The Negroes of this area and those of the south in general did not -respond to his encouragement. His band killed five people including -the mayor of Harper's Ferry and a free Negro porter of the Baltimore -and Ohio Railroad. On October 18, Colonel Robert E. Lee of the -United States Army, who was a native Virginian, was placed in charge -of the situation. James Ewell Brown Stuart (later, commonly known -as "J. E. B." Stuart) was appointed aide-de-camp to Lee. Stuart -was assigned the task of presenting the summons to John Brown to -surrender after one hundred United States Marines had surrounded -the arsenal and had captured the raiders. Stuart successfully -performed his task and was admired by many Americans for his staunch -courage in this action because John Brown was such an unpredictable -individual. Lee then sent John Brown to Charlestown, Virginia (now -located in West Virginia) where he was tried by a Virginia Circuit -Court for treason and for murder because of the capture of guns -and supplies belonging to the government, was found guilty and was -hanged on December 2, 1859. Ten of his followers were also killed. -This incident caused hostile feelings between the sections to -increase and made the Virginians very angry upon finding out the -extent to which some individuals would conspire to incite Negro -hatred for their masters. - -By 1860, the population of Virginia had reached over one and a half -million including 490,865 slaves and 58,042 free Negroes. From 1851 -to 1861, four counties were added: Craig (formed from Botetourt, -Giles, Monroe and Roanoke Counties and named for Robert Craig, a -Virginia Congressman), Wise (formed from Lee, Scott and Russell -Counties and named for Henry Alexander Wise, Governor of Virginia, -1856-1860), Buchanan (formed from Tazewell and Russell Counties and -named in honor of President James Buchanan) and Bland (formed from -Giles, Wythe and Tazewell Counties and named for Richard Bland, a -Virginia statesman during the Revolutionary War Period). - - -S U M M A R Y - -After Virginia had furnished many leaders for the First Continental -Congress, another special Virginia convention was held in Richmond -where a resolution for military preparedness was passed and -delegates were elected to the Second Continental Congress. Three -additional special conventions were later held in the Virginia -colony alone which resulted in the abdication of the last colonial -Governor of the colony, the declaration of Virginia as a free -and independent State, the writing of the Virginia Declaration -of Rights, the adoption of an official State seal and motto, the -creation and adoption of a State Constitution establishing the -Commonwealth of Virginia, the adoption of the Statute of Virginia -for Religious Freedom and the eventual ratification of the United -States Constitution. In the political field, the names of Patrick -Henry, Peyton Randolph, George Washington, George Mason, George -Wythe, Edmund Pendleton, James Madison, Edmund Randolph, Archibald -Cary, Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe suggest numerous -contributions made by Virginians during the period, 1775-1860. - -Virginians also had major roles in the military history of our -country during this same period: George Washington, John Muehlenberg, -Henry Lee, Jack Jouett, Andrew Lewis, Daniel Morgan, John Paul -Jones, Samuel Houston, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, -Winfield Scott and Robert E. Lee. In the meantime, the capital had -been moved from Williamsburg to Richmond, Virginia had ceded its -Northwest Territory to the new national government and Yorktown had -become internationally famous as the area where the British had -surrendered to the Americans. It is a unique historical fact that -the site where the British armies were forced to surrender in 1781 -was located only a few miles from the site where the first permanent -English settlement in America was established. - -The Presidency of George Washington started the so-called "Virginia -Dynasty" of Presidents. By 1861, the Commonwealth had furnished -the United States with seven Virginia-born Presidents: George -Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, William -Henry Harrison, John Tyler and Zachary Taylor. For this achievement, -Virginia has earned the title of "Mother of Presidents." - -During the period of 1775 to 1860, many significant activities -of Virginians took place at both the state and federal levels of -government: the "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair, Jeffersonian Democracy, -John Marshall's role as Chief Justice of the United States Supreme -Court, the consent of Virginia allowing Kentucky County to become -an independent state in the Union, the Lewis and Clark Expedition -to the Northwest, the role of Norfolk, Hampton and Falls Church -during the War of 1812, the Monroe Doctrine, the efforts of Henry -Clay ("The Great Compromiser"), the historical connotation of the -capital city, Monrovia, in Liberia, the creation of a non-sectarian -state university and of the first state military school in the -country, the attitude of Virginians toward the sectional issues -of tariff, secession and slavery, the inventions of the McCormick -Virginia Reaper and the Willcox-Gibbs Sewing Machine and the active -participation of Virginians in the Texan Revolt and the Mexican -War. John Brown's Raid at Harper's Ferry increased sectionalism -and intensified the slavery problem. By 1860, the population of -Virginia had reached over one and one-half million people, including -approximately 500,000 slaves. - - - - -4 - -Historical Life: 1860-Present - -_The War Between the States_ - - -In November 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the -United States. He represented the Republican Party which strongly -opposed slavery, and he had made numerous speeches stating his -personal opposition to it. Although Lincoln had declared that he had -no desire to interfere with slavery in the states where it already -existed, he also had made the following statement: "A house divided -against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure -permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to -be dissolved: I do not expect the house to fall; but I do expect -that it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or -all the other." Thus, on December 20, it was not a complete surprise -that a special convention held at Charleston, South Carolina, -resulted in the secession of South Carolina, a strong pro-slavery -state, from the Union. By February 1861, six other southern states -had acted likewise. The Confederate States of America was organized -at Montgomery, Alabama, with Jefferson Davis as its President. - -Until this time, Virginia had not declared herself. Like her -neighboring states, she had to make the momentous decision. The -Governor of Virginia at this time was John Letcher, later known -as the "War Governor" of Virginia. The people of Virginia did not -enthusiastically favor secession, that is, they did not have an -ardent desire to leave the Union as South Carolina had had. Neither -did Virginia believe in the national policy of coercion of a state -to return to the Union. In an attempt to bring the seceded states -back into the Union and to try to find some solution to the slavery -problem, the Virginia legislature invited delegates from all the -states to attend a national "Peace Conference" at Washington on -February 4. Virginia appointed John Tyler (ex-President), Judge John -Robertson, James A. Seddon, William C. Rives and George W. Summers -to attend this conference. There was so much sectionalism bitter -with political and economic rivalries at the conference that it was -unsuccessful. - -On February 13, 1861, a special state convention was held in -Richmond to discuss the possibility of secession. When the counties -elected the 152 delegates to this special state convention, their -choice resulted in several pro-Union, anti-secession residents of -the state. John Janney was the presiding officer of the convention. -It was evident that the majority of the delegates hesitated to -leave the Union because they had very strong ties with the Federal -government. Virginia had played an important role in creating -the Union and had furnished one-third of all the Presidents, -numerous cabinet members, a Supreme Court Chief Justice who held -this position for thirty-four years (John Marshall), and other -less important Federal officials. The convention delegates sent a -committee consisting of William B. Preston, George W. Randolph and -Alexander H. H. Stuart to President Lincoln to plead for a peaceful -solution to the slavery and secession problems. - -On March 10, 1861, the Committee on Federal Relations at the -Richmond convention submitted reports consisting of fourteen -resolutions to the convention. These resolutions expressed the -doctrine of states' rights, criticized slavery interference, -advocated the right of secession and resolved that Virginia would -be justified in seceding only if the Federal government usurped -state powers or if it attempted to force the payment of tax duties -from the seceded states or if it recaptured certain Southern forts. -The first twelve resolutions had been adopted at the time of the -unofficial firing on Fort Sumter, near Charleston, South Carolina -on April 12th and the forced surrender of the Federal garrison. -The Federal government had sent arms, troops and provisions to the -aid of Colonel Robert Anderson at Fort Sumter. The Confederate -government had considered the action a hostile act and had acted -accordingly. The actual signal for the attack was given by Roger -Pryor, a strong secessionist from Virginia; furthermore, the actual -shot was fired by another Virginia secessionist, Edmund Ruffin. The -ultimate surrender of Fort Sumter to the Confederates resulted in -an immediate call from President Lincoln for volunteers to save the -Union. - -Even as late as April 4, the Richmond convention had rejected -secession by a vote of two to one. Some of the minority were strong -in their wishes to secede immediately and to join the Confederacy, -and they used the issues of self-government, states' rights and -slavery as their points of variance with the national government. -Furthermore, these advocates believed that an alliance with the -Confederacy would at least remove them from the direct influence -of high protective tariffs since a clause prohibiting protective -tariffs had been included in the Constitution of the Confederacy. -Two days after the firing on Fort Sumter, April 15, President -Lincoln called on all the states in the Union to send volunteers, -numbering 75,000 total, to invade the seceding states and to coerce -them back into the Union. - -Two days later, April 17, 1861, the Virginia Convention passed -an ordinance of secession by a vote of 88 to 55. Many pre-Union -Virginians at this convention preferred to choose secession rather -than to send troops to fight against their southern neighbor -states. In the previous election, the Virginia people voted -overwhelmingly to have the convention submit its results for their -voting approval or disapproval via referendum. On May 4, a large -majority of the Virginia citizens voted their approval of secession. -Nevertheless, although eastern Virginia voted almost solidly -for secession, western Virginia voted almost as solidly against -secession. Governor John Letcher of Virginia sent the following -reply to the United States Secretary of War, Simon Cameron: "In -reply to this communication I have only to say that the militia -of Virginia will not be furnished to the powers at Washington for -any such use of purpose as they have in view. Your object is to -subjugate the Southern States, and a requisition made upon me for -such an object--an object, in my judgment, not within the purview -of the Constitution, or the Act of 1795--will not be complied with. -You have chosen to inaugurate civil war, and having done so, we -will meet it in a spirit as determined as the Administration has -exhibited towards the South." - -On April 25, the same convention members passed an act which -provided for the adoption of the Constitution of the Provisional -Government of the Confederate States of America, and Virginia became -the eighth state of the Confederate States of America. Although -Montgomery, Alabama, had been the capital of the Confederacy, one -month after Virginia joined, Virginia invited the Confederacy -to make Richmond its capital. The offer was accepted on May 21. -Virginia thus became the focus of major battles of the War between -the States during the four-year period: 1861-1865. - -Colonel Robert E. Lee was a United States Army officer at this -time and had one of the most difficult decisions to make. He -was recognized as a man of great military ability, and the high -regard which the Federal government had for him was expressed in -the tremendously responsible position offered to him by President -Lincoln. Lincoln was familiar with his great military strategy which -had been followed in the Mexican War, his efficient administration -as Superintendent of West Point, his excellent cavalry supervision -on the frontier and his carefully planned capture of John Brown -and his raiders at Harper's Ferry. Consequently, on April 18, -President Lincoln had offered him the command of the Union forces. -Lee realized the wonderful honor for which he had been selected and -was deeply appreciative. However, he was a Virginian, and, after -his state had seceded from the Union, he believed that there was -no choice in the matter. His love of country was great, but the -love of his state and his fellowmen was greater. Therefore, he -sadly declined Lincoln's offer and stated that "though opposed, to -secession and deprecating war, I could take no part in an invasion -of the Southern States." Thus, as soon as Virginia seceded from the -Union, he resigned his United States Army Commission on April 20 -with the words: "Sir: I have the honor to tender the resignation -of my commission as Colonel of the first regiment of cavalry. Very -respectfully, your obedient servant--Robert E. Lee." - -Lee then went to Richmond at the invitation of the convention and -was made Major-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Virginia forces -on April 23. It should be noted here that Virginia did not have an -aggressive, warlike attitude toward the Union. Governor John Letcher -is quoted as speaking to Robert E. Lee in the convention itself in -the following manner: "Yesterday, your mother, Virginia, placed her -sword in your hand upon the implied condition that we know you will -keep to the letter and in spirit, that you will draw it only in her -defense, and that you will fall with it in your hand rather than -that the object for which it was placed there shall fail." - -For the first three and a half years of the War between the States, -the military actions took place simultaneously in two different -areas: a small area in northern and northeastern Virginia and a -western area in the region bounded by the Mississippi River, the -Cumberland River, and the Appalachian Mountains. For most of the -war, the Confederate forces were on the defensive side. With General -Robert E. Lee as Commander-in-Chief, the Confederates had unity -of command whereas the Union forces actually had five successive -generals before appointing Ulysses S. Grant as the supreme -commander. Many of the best military minds were fighting on the -Confederate side, and it is believed by several historians that only -their great strategic ability and planning against larger military -forces with better equipment and clothing kept the war from being -concluded at a much earlier date. - -The major objective of the Federal government became a clearcut one, -namely, to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy. Thus, -a chief aim of the military forces in Virginia was the protection -and defense of Richmond at all times. Virginia lost Accomack and -Northampton Counties on the Eastern Shore at the beginning of the -war and was unable to obtain control of Union Fort Monroe. - -On May 24, 1861 the Fire Zouaves, a unit of the United States Army, -marched from Washington to Alexandria, the first point of invasion -in Virginia in the War between the States. They took possession of -Alexandria in the name of the United States and found no organized -opposition because there were no Southern troops here. Virginia had -not been ready for war and had made no preparations for war. The -only standing army in the state at the time of her secession was a -group of soldiers whose duty had been to guard public property in -Richmond. Several volunteer companies had organized in various parts -of the state for the first time after John Brown's Raid. One of the -first immediate tasks to be done was the training of soldiers in -Virginia and the acquiring of cannon and fire-arms. Consequently, it -was not unusual for Alexandria not to have had an organized force -by May 24, awaiting Federal invasion. As these Fire Zouaves entered -Alexandria, they noticed a Confederate flag flying from the top of -a small hotel called the Marshall House. Colonel Elmer Ellsworth, -the Federal commander, decided to obtain this flag. He entered the -hotel, ran up the stairs to the roof and grabbed it. He had started -to descend the stairs with his trophy when, at the first landing, -he met the hotel owner, James W. Jackson, who had been curious to -know who had been rushing up the stairs and invading his hotel. When -he saw the Confederate flag in the hands of the Federal officer, -he shot him in the breast. Ellsworth died instantly and Jackson -was immediately killed by bullets and bayonets used by Ellsworth's -troops. This was the first blood shed in Virginia in the War between -the States. - -A skirmish took place at Fairfax Court House on June 1, 1861, which -caused the death of Captain John Quincy Marr of the Warrenton -Rifles. His death is considered the first Confederate battle death. - -In the same month, the first land battle of the War between the -States took place around and near the town of Philippi located in -western Virginia (today, in West Virginia). On June 3, Union troops -led by Colonel B. F. Kelly clashed with Confederate troops led by -Colonel George A. Portfield. This fighting was not only a victory -for the Union forces, but the retreat of the Confederates from the -surprise Union attack on a dark, rainy night was exceedingly rapid. -The Confederates fled more than thirty miles in one day to a town -called Beverly, thereupon earning for their action the title, the -"Philippi Races." - -On July 21, along a creek called Bull Run, near Manassas, -approximately twenty-five miles from Washington, some Union forces -under the leadership of General Irvin McDowell met Confederate -forces under the leadership of General Pierre G. T. Beauregard. -Manassas was the site of a key railroad junction, an important line -of supply and communication. Although the Union forces were at -first successful, the firm stand taken by the Confederate forces -on Matthews Hill and on Henry Hill led by General Thomas Jonathan -Jackson and a counter-attack led by Confederate General Joseph E. -Johnston's forces resulted in chaos in the Union army and a panicky -retreat to Washington. This was a most unexpected defeat for the -Union forces. "J. E. B." Stuart served under Joseph Johnston at -this time and led a successful mounted charge against the Federal -infantry. He also helped create disorder and panic in their lines. -This first Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Manassas was the occasion -for T. J. Jackson's famous nickname: "Stonewall." General Bernard -E. Bee, a South Carolinian, headed some troops which had become -panicky, and, as he saw T. J. Jackson's brigade in correct line -formation, he is said to have made the following comment to his -group: "Look! There is Jackson and his brigade standing like a stone -wall. Rally behind the Virginians." From that time on, T. J. Jackson -was called "Stonewall" Jackson. As the Union forces neared Manassas, -Captain Alexander, a Confederate officer, spotted their coming from -his lookout station. He relayed their approach by wigwagging signals -with flags. This action is believed to be the origin of semaphoring. -This battle caused the North to realize that the conquering of the -South was not the easy task that it had predicted or had assumed. -Their military slogan "On to Richmond" became a military challenge -rather than an accepted conclusion. - -President Lincoln had declared a blockade of the Southern ports as -soon as the war had started. The Federal Navy Yard at Norfolk was -captured by the Confederates without resistance. The United States -ships were only twelve in number at the beginning of the war, but -others were quickly constructed. The Confederates hoped to keep -the James River open at all times. They needed ships badly, having -had no navy to draw upon for ships. When the Federal employees had -abandoned the Norfolk Navy Yard, they had sunk a wooden frigate -called the "Merrimac." Governor Letcher of Virginia ordered that -this ship be raised and be converted into an effective, usable -frigate. Lieutenant John M. Brooke, John L. Porter, W. P. Williamson -and others planned together for a converted ship. Finally, the -hull of the old ship was covered with pine, oak and iron plates -from the famous Tredegar Iron Works of Richmond. It was equipped -with ten guns and an inexperienced crew under the ex-United States -Naval Commander, Franklin Buchanan. This iron-clad vessel was -renamed the "Virginia," and it traveled to Hampton Roads to attack -the Federal fleet on March 8, 1862. When it first received gunfire -from a Federal ship, the shots surprisingly glanced off its sides. -The vessel moved very slowly. When at close range, it pierced the -"Cumberland" with its iron ram causing it to sink. The next day, -much to its surprise, it was matched by a Union ship, the "Monitor," -designed by John Ericsson, which was ironclad, smaller, more agile -and newly constructed throughout. The ships fired upon each other, -but they could not inflict serious damage. The Battle of the -"Monitor" and the "Virginia" (formerly "Merrimac") was a draw or -indecisive from a victory point of view. However, it is important -historically as the first battle of ironclad vessels in the United -States. The "Virginia" was later blown up when the Confederates -evacuated Norfolk. - -On March 23 of the same year, "Stonewall" Jackson became the -aggressor and attacked a Union force at Kernstown, near Winchester. -However, when one of his brigade became short of ammunition, he had -to retreat southward. This battle was the beginning of Jackson's -"Valley Campaign." - -Beginning on April 5 and continuing for approximately one month, -an important siege took place at Yorktown. After a line of -fortifications had been erected across the Peninsula from the -Warwick River to Yorktown by the Confederate Commander John B. -Magruder, General Joseph E. Johnston entrenched his army here. -Union General George B. McClellan coming from Fort Monroe besieged -the area for weeks and finally mounted his large size guns. With -this action, Johnston withdrew since he was not equipped for such -heavy fighting. As General Johnston's forces were retreating from -Yorktown, they met an advance section of McClellan's army about one -mile east of Williamsburg. Johnston was forced to fight at this -time because he did not want them to capture his wagon train. Both -armies fought valiantly, and neither side could get the advantage of -the other. When night came, after a rainy day of fighting, Johnston -retreated westward toward Richmond under cover of darkness. Two days -later, Union General W. B. Franklin attempted to intercept Johnson -on his retreat toward Richmond by landing just south of West Point -on the eastern bank of the York River. However, General G. W. Smith -came to Johnston's rescue and successfully drove Franklin forces -back to the York River in order that Johnston could continue on his -way to Richmond. - -On May 8, 1862, "Stonewall" Jackson decided to prevent two Union -generals, John C. Fremont and Nathaniel P. Banks, from combining -their forces. He selected a position on a mountain top near -McDowell, a village in Highland County. When Fremont's troops -arrived under the leadership of General R. H. Milroy, they rushed up -the sides of the mountain, only to be attacked by the Confederate -forces under Jackson and driven back to a retreating position. - -On May 23, Jackson successfully captured the town of Front Royal -located in Warren County--an important area which had been held by -Union forces under General Banks. This was a great blow to Banks -as well as to his troops who rapidly retreated to Winchester. A -unique feature of this battle was that among the opposing forces was -the First Maryland Regiment, U. S. A. being attacked by the First -Maryland Regiment, C. S. A. (Confederate States of America). - -Two days later, Jackson rushed Banks at Winchester and surprised his -troops to such an extent that they were routed from the town and -driven across the Potomac in panic. Jackson who had been ordered by -Lee to strike at Banks unexpectedly and to create the impression -that it would be utterly impossible for him to converge with Fremont -had carefully and painstakingly carried out such an order. Jackson -is considered by many as second in military stature only to Lee -himself. - -On May 31-June 1, 1862 the Battle of Seven Pines or Fair Oaks took -place. The left wing of the Union army under McClellan was attacked -by Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston at Fair Oaks Station and -Seven Pines, located just east of Richmond. The Confederates won -at Seven Pines but were driven back at Fair Oaks. The Battle of -Seven Pines was considered indecisive. General Johnston was wounded -seriously in this battle, and, at this time, General Robert E. Lee -was put in command of the Army of Northern Virginia. - -On June 8-9, Jackson was slowly retreating up the Shenandoah Valley -when he decided to prevent two Union generals, John C. Fremont and -James Shields, from combining forces by checking or holding back -Fremont and then attacking Shields. He sent part of his troops -under General Richard S. Ewell to attack the forces under Fremont -at Cross Keys in Rockingham County. General Ewell defeated the -forces of Fremont very badly and kept Fremont's help completely -away from Shields. Jackson then led his remaining forces north -of Port Republic and encountered Shields there. Bitter fighting -followed. Shields was eventually defeated and driven down the -Shenandoah Valley. This was the final engagement of the so-called -Valley campaign. Jackson had proven himself a great military man -who had fought on both sides of the Shenandoah Valley and who had -marched approximately 700 miles in seven weeks in almost continuous -fighting with one or more of the Federal fighting forces. This -campaign included five major engagements: Kernstown, McDowell, Front -Royal, Winchester and Port Republic. Jackson suffered defeat only at -Kernstown by the Union General James Shields. Jackson then proceeded -toward Richmond to prevent General McClellan from entering there. - -On June 11, General Lee dispatched General James Ewell Brown ("J. -E. B.") Stuart with 1200 cavalry and infantrymen from Richmond -to obtain information behind the lines of the enemy concerning -the specific position of McClellan. In three days, Stuart and his -contingent had courageously ridden completely around the army of -McClellan, acquiring much valuable information for General Lee. Only -one of Stuart's men was killed during the assignment. Based upon -the information furnished by General "J. E. B." Stuart, General Lee -decided to advance his army on June 26. The Union forces under -General Fitz-John Porter had outposts near Richmond just north of -the Chickahominy River in the town of Mechanicsville. Confederate -General Ambrose P. Hill successfully occupied Mechanicsville and -then continued to attack General Fitz-John Porter's troops along -Beaver Dam Creek where he severely defeated them. - -From June 26 to July 2, the Seven Days' Battle occurred. This -included the fighting at Mechanicsville and at Gaines' Mill. -In these two skirmishes, Lee, after severe fighting, drove the -right wing of McClellan's army under General Porter across the -Chickahominy River. At Glendale, Confederate Generals James -Longstreet and Ambrose Hill fought terrific hand-to-hand skirmishes -with gun butts and bayonets against the rearguard of the forces -under McClellan. At nightfall, the Confederates retreated to Malvern -Hill. On the following day, the forces under McClellan set up -infantry fire with cannon fire just preceding it at the top of the -hill. As the separate Confederate detachments charged up the steep -hill, they were literally mowed down by the thousands. McClellan -retreated during the night to Harrison's Landing. In spite of these -military maneuvers, the army under McClellan was finally forced to -retreat at the end of the Seven Days' battle, and Richmond, the -"City of Seven Hills," still remained in Confederate control. - -On August 9, as Jackson was on his way to encounter the Union -General, John Pope, who had started southward, he unexpectedly met -Union General Nathaniel P. Banks near Cedar Mountain (later called -"Slaughter Mountain"), located just south of Culpeper. Severe -fighting resulted, and the forces under Jackson had almost been -annihilated when they received reinforcements which pushed the -Union forces back. Since the number of casualties was extremely -high during this battle, Jackson allowed Banks to bury his dead the -following day. - -On August 30, the Union troops made a second attempt to capture -Manassas. Jackson defeated Union General Pope in the Second Battle -of Manassas or Second Battle of Bull Run, after destroying large -quantities of his supplies. When the Confederate troops had used all -their available ammunition, they used stones until reenforcements -under General James Longstreet arrived. These soldiers forced the -Union troops under Pope to retreat to Centerville and eventually to -Alexandria. - -On September 5, 1862, General Lee, believing the time was suitable -for invading the North, advanced across the Potomac River into -Maryland. As they approached Frederick, they sang and marched to -"Maryland, My Maryland" but this gesture did not result in large -numbers of Marylanders joining the Confederate armed troops as they -had hoped. After Jackson had successfully captured Harper's Ferry, -Lee moved his remaining troops to Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg, -Maryland. Severe fighting with McClellan's troops resulted and the -Confederate forces in this area finally were forced to recross the -Potomac River into Virginia. - -On December 13, the Battle of Fredericksburg took place between -Confederate forces under General Lee and Union forces under General -Ambrose Burnside. Burnside had supplanted General McClellan. The -town itself was used as a battlefield and many of the individual -houses were completely destroyed. The city had been evacuated when -it was first bombarded by Burnside on December 11. He proceeded to -use five pontoon bridges to get his troops across the Rappahannock -River. Although this battle resulted in some of the heaviest losses -of the war, Burnside with his remaining forces was finally driven -back across the Rappahannock River with the Union casualties twice -as many as the Confederates. - -On March 8, 1863, an unusual incident occurred. At midnight, a group -of Confederate raiders, led by Colonel John S. Mosby, made a raid on -the Fairfax Court House which had become federally occupied. Noted -for its ruthless guerilla actions, this group of raiders then made a -daring invasion of the Union lines and continued to the headquarters -of Union Brigadier-General Edwin H. Stoughton. After cleverly -getting past Stoughton's guards in the middle of the night, Mosby -himself quickly captured Stoughton as a choice Confederate prisoner. - -On April 30, 1863, the Union army under General Joseph E. Hooker, -Burnside's successor, crossed the Rappahannock River again, -this time at Chancellorsville, approximately ten miles north of -Fredericksburg. "Stonewall" Jackson was in charge of the attack on -Hooker at Chancellorsville and his troops were forcing back the -troops under Hooker when fate seemed to take a hand. On May 2, -"Stonewall" Jackson had ridden beyond his own line of battle and was -returning at dusk when he was mistaken for one of the enemy and was -fired upon by a group of his own soldiers. He was wounded in the -left shoulder, forearm and right hand and had to have his left arm -amputated the next day. He was mortally wounded and died on May 10. -His death was a great shock to the Confederate forces. General A. -P. Hill had also been wounded at Chancellorsville. "J.E.B." Stuart -voluntarily took command of the corps originally under Jackson and -by his own audacious actions successfully led them in pursuit of -the Union forces under Hooker, as Jackson had originally planned. -Attacked by troops from the west under Stuart and by forces from the -east under Lee, Hooker and his army were finally driven back across -the Rappahannock River. - -On June 9, the famous Confederate cavalry leader, "J.E.B." -Stuart, met in combat the great Union cavalry leader, General -Alfred Pleasanton at Brandy Station, near Culpeper. Stuart had -been on a scouting trip between the Union forces and Washington, -seeking information for the proposed advance of Lee to Gettysburg; -Pleasanton had been seeking Confederate information for General -George G. Meade, who had succeeded Hooker in command of the Union -Army. Both cavalry groups consisted of approximately 10,000 troops -each. Excellent horsemanship was displayed in this action with -sabers as the chief weapons. Pleasanton and his men inflicted much -damage and then left in orderly fashion. Stuart withstood the -surprise attack very well and did not retreat in a panic, as might -have been expected. Since the Unionists lost more men than did -the Confederates in this practically evenly-matched fighting, the -Battle of Brandy Station is considered as a notable victory for -"J.E.B." Stuart and his men because Pleasanton had a highly skilled -group of infantrymen. This battle was the first real cavalry battle -of the War between the States. It is considered by many military -strategists as the greatest cavalry battle of the nineteenth -century. As soon as his battle ended, Stuart made another famous -ride directly behind the Federal fighting lines. He was later -criticized for this trip, however, because he had not been ordered -to make such a trip and was badly needed by Lee at this time to -screen planned operations and to keep Lee informed of the activities -of Meade and his troops. - -From June 13 to June 15, 1863, a second Battle of Winchester -occurred. Union General R. H. Milroy was forced to evacuate -Winchester and retreat across the Potomac due to the hard fighting -of Confederate General Richard S. Ewell whose troops had captured -not only valuable cannon and wagons but also approximately 4,000 -Union soldiers. - -At the beginning of the War between the States, forty western -counties of Virginia preferred not to secede from the Union. -Consequently, when Virginia joined the Confederacy, a majority -of the residents of the western counties voted to secede from -Confederate Virginia at a special Wheeling convention. They formed -a separate Unionist Virginia government and selected Francis H. -Pierpont as their Governor. They had already chosen two United -States Representatives from their Virginia government and they -proceeded to elect two United States Senators. State officers of -the Unionist Virginia government were required to take an oath of -allegiance to the federal government. This Pierpont government -was accepted by the President of the United States and Congress -as the official government of Virginia. Three months later, at a -second Wheeling convention, the strong desire on the part of many -residents of this area to become a separate state in the Union -resulted in Pierpont's calling together his legislature which gave -the necessary consent for the creation of an independent state from -within the original state of Virginia government boundaries. The -new area was first called "Kanawha" but later the name was changed -to West Virginia. On June 20, 1863, West Virginia was admitted -as the thirty-fifth state to the Union. Although this procedure -was apparently illegal and unconstitutional because the United -States Constitution provides that no new state can be formed within -the jurisdiction of any other state without the consent of the -state legislature so involved, President Lincoln and the United -States Congress overlooked this technicality because of a need for -military and political expediency in wartime. Governor Pierpont -and his Unionist government in August 1863 changed the location -of his "restored" or "reorganized" government from Wheeling to -Alexandria, which he termed the West Virginia capital city at that -time. Alexandria maintained this West Virginia capital city status -until the end of the war and the residents of Alexandria were -forced to live under the provisions of a Pierpont-drafted "state" -constitution. Later, Berkeley County and Jefferson County were -annexed to West Virginia by November 1863 and became an official -part of the state of West Virginia. Eventually, Virginia lost fifty -counties altogether to West Virginia, approximately one-third of its -total land area, with their human and natural resources as well as -their financial support. - -After the victories of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, Lee -decided to cross the Potomac again and invade the north once more. -When Lee found out that a large Union force under the command of -General George G. Meade, who had replaced General Joseph Hooker, -was at Frederick, Maryland, Lee decided to center his forces at -Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. On July 1, 1863, the Confederate forces -attacked Meade's forces and made temporary gains. Two days later, -three Confederate brigades commanded by General George E. Pickett -advanced to the Federal cannon center, now called Cemetery Ridge, -where mass slaughter of the Confederates took place. On July 4, -the remaining Confederates returned sadly across the Potomac -River into Virginia. Approximately two weeks after the Gettysburg -defeat, a surprise attack on Wytheville, Virginia, was thwarted by -the courageous efforts of Molly Tyres who rode rapidly over forty -miles of mountain road between Tazewell and Wytheville to warn the -inhabitants of the coming attack. Thus, did Virginians--military -and civilian--strive to help the Confederate cause in which they so -strongly believed. - -On May 5 and 6, 1864 the so-called Battle of the Wilderness was -fought in the heavily forested terrain of Spotsylvania County. As -General R. S. Ewell was returning his forces from Fredericksburg -to Orange, he encountered General Ulysses S. Grant who had become -commander of the Union army. At the same time forces under General -Ambrose P. Hill encountered the left wing force under Grant which -resulted in terrific fighting within the dense woods of the -wilderness. As the left wing force under Grant was breaking through -the forces under Hill, General James Longstreet approached and -forced the Union troops back to Spotsylvania Courthouse, southwest -of Fredericksburg. Grant retreated in this direction in an attempt -to keep Lee away from Richmond. However, Lee was ahead of Grant. -Although Grant tried repeatedly from May 8 to May 18 to break -through the Confederate lines at Spotsylvania with exceptionally -heavy musketry fire causing thousands of casualties, he was unable -to penetrate Lee's lines. Therefore, he moved southward to the North -Anna River. - -In the meantime, on May 10, when General Philip Sheridan tried to -make an unexpected rush on Richmond, "J.E.B." Stuart, with only -part of his cavalry, blocked Sheridan's way at Yellow Tavern and -saved the Confederate capital. Stuart was mortally wounded by a -close pistol shot in this fighting and he died on May 11, 1864 in -Richmond. He is considered by many military strategists as the -greatest cavalryman in United States history. - -On May 15, General Franz Sigel, a Union leader, decided to capture -Staunton in order to ruin the communication system there which Lee -had used to be kept informed about activities in the Shenandoah -Valley. He arrived as far as New Market, in Shenandoah County, -when he met Confederate General John C. Breckinridge who had a -comparatively small army consisting mostly of young Virginia -Military Institute cadets. They showed the benefits of their -military training and successfully captured a Union battery. After -this had been done, General Breckinridge advanced, defeated Sigel -and drove him down the Shenandoah Valley. - -On May 23-27, 1864, the North Anna River in Hanover County became -the next area of military concentration. General Lee and General -Grant were on opposite sides of the river. Although the forces -led by Grant were able to cross the river at various intervals, -they were unable to penetrate the forces led by Lee. Consequently, -Grant turned southwest and proceeded to march to Cold Harbor, -approximately ten miles north of Richmond. When Grant arrived at -Cold Harbor, he decided to have an all-out offensive against the -forces of Lee at this location. His attempt was in vain, however, -and he received very heavy losses on June 3. This caused him to -retreat to the James River south of Richmond. - -On June 11, 1864 there was an important cavalry battle at -Trevillians Station, in Louisa County, between Union General Philip -Sheridan and Confederate cavalrymen led by Wade Hampton and Fitzhugh -Lee. Sheridan had been trying to reach Union General Hunter who -was on his way to Lynchburg. After heavy fighting on both sides, -Sheridan was defeated and retreated eastward. - -In the meantime, after General Grant had found it impossible to -penetrate the lines established by Lee north of Richmond, he had -crossed the James River south of Richmond and had set up camp on -the outskirts of Petersburg. On June 15, 1864, Confederate General -Beauregard held the forces under Grant back for three days until -reenforcements under Lee arrived. Fighting continued between these -two groups until April of the following year. During this siege, -the Union forces decided to make a tunnel under the Confederate -defenses which surrounded the city of Petersburg and to blow up -the fortifications via a mine blast. Some Pennsylvania coal miners -in one Union regiment were assigned the task of making the tunnel -and laying the mine. On July 30, 1864 the mine was exploded, and -the shape of the area after the explosion resembled a huge crater -of a volcano. For this reason, this action is often referred to as -the Battle of the Crater. Two hundred Confederate soldiers lost -their lives due to the explosion. However, as the Union soldiers -were ordered to charge up the sides of the recently carved crater, -they found them too steep and while they were struggling to get out -of the crater, about 4,000 Unionists lost their lives. The Union -men could not see from behind the lines and continued to advance -according to their orders into the crater until the crater was -practically filled with struggling Union soldiers. The remaining -Unionists were driven at the point of bayonets out of the crater -back to their own lines. - -While the Petersburg siege was taking place, Lynchburg became -the next objective of the Union forces. When General Jubal Early -reached Charlottesville on his mission to block Union General -Hunter, he learned that Hunter was heading for Lynchburg, the -chief center of supplies of the Army of Northern Virginia and its -center of communications. Early's forces in this battle consisted -of two extremes in age: very young men cadets from the Virginia -Military Institute and older men whose hair locks were so white -that they were nicknamed "Silver grays." The fighting lasted from -the afternoon of the 17th to the end of the next day when Hunter -withdrew unexpectedly to the west. Early pursued him down the -Shenandoah Valley and across the Potomac River to the outskirts of -the Federal capital. Since Early, however, was not prepared for a -fight on Washington, D. C., he returned to Winchester. - -At approximately noon, on September 19, 1864, General Early -survived a surprise attack by General Sheridan and his forces near -Winchester. Early, in a victorious mood, even turned the tables -on the attackers and attacked them. Much to his surprise at three -o'clock of the same day, Sheridan returned and badly defeated Early, -driving him back to Winchester and eventually to a retreat up the -Shenandoah Valley. Sheridan, whose forces had been savagely attacked -by some Confederate guerilla bands, now retaliated by destroying -houses, barns and foodstuffs and by capturing or killing livestock. -The valley was completely devastated by his destructive campaign. - -One month later, however, Early made a surprise crossing of a branch -of the Shenandoah River and drove the forces of Sheridan northward -from Cedar Creek in Frederick County. As Sheridan and his forces -were fleeing, Union reenforcements arrived under the leadership of -General Horatio Wright. The combined forces of Sheridan and Wright -attacked the troops of Early and drove them from the area in great -chaos. This victory was the shortest victory in the War between the -States. - -During the war, several attempts had been made by the Union -forces in the Shenandoah Valley to capture and destroy the Salt -Works at Saltville, located in southwestern Virginia. In 1864, -the Confederate General John H. Morgan with a small cavalry -force successfully repulsed a Union force under General William -Averell. On December 18, 1864, however, the salt mines and the -Salt Works were destroyed by a small detachment of Union forces -who were ordered to Saltville while the Confederates were engaged -in severe fighting with the major Union troops at nearby Marion. -The destruction of the Salt Works was significant because this -location had furnished the principal source of salt supply for the -Confederacy. - -In spite of the many Unionist casualties at the Crater in 1864, -Grant continued to keep his army near Petersburg. Finally, both -sides made their camp there for the winter. General William Mahone -was the Confederate general in charge of the Petersburg defense at -this time. While the winter passed, the Union forces kept receiving -enforcements while the Confederate forces had no reenforcements. As -the Union forces were increased over a large area, the Confederates -were forced to station their meager forces farther apart. There -was a scarcity of food and clothing for the Confederates; the cold -climate was most uncomfortable and demoralizing for them. On April -2, General Grant succeeded in breaking through the Confederate -lines. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, was informed -while attending services at St. Paul's Episcopal Church in Richmond -that Petersburg could be held no longer by the Confederate forces. -The Virginians knew that, if and when Petersburg fell, Richmond -would fall next because Petersburg was the key to Richmond. The -next day, April 3, Richmond fell. As General Richard S. Ewell and -his Confederate troops evacuated the city, they burned bridges and -large tobacco and cotton warehouses to prevent the Union forces from -receiving beneficial goods. However, a surprising wind spread the -flames rapidly and resulted in approximately thirty million dollars -worth of damage to the City of Richmond. - -Three days later, the final battle of the Army of Northern Virginia -occurred at Sailor's Creek near Farmville. The rearguard of Lee's -Army on the way to Lynchburg was completely surrounded and attacked -by Unionists. The Confederates lacked equipment, especially cannon, -and were quickly overpowered by artillery fire. In the mass -surrender which resulted, two generals were captured: R. S. Ewell -and Custis Lee, son of General Robert E. Lee. - -While the rearguard of Lee's army was retreating toward Lynchburg, -the rest of his army was retreating from Petersburg. On April 8, -1865, two Confederate corps consisting of starved, poorly equipped -soldiers under General John B. Gordon and General James Longstreet -arrived at a village called Appomattox Court House. When General -Lee arrived, he noticed that his men were actually surrounded and -far outnumbered by General Grant's Army of the Potomac. He had been -corresponding with Grant concerning a surrender ever since the fall -of Petersburg. Lee, realizing the futility of the comparatively -small group of poorly equipped troops which he now commanded against -Grant's large army, asked for an official meeting at Appomattox -Court House. The meeting took place at noon on April 9, 1865, on -Palm Sunday in the parlor of Wilmer McLean's House. General Lee and -Colonel Charles Marshall, one of Lee's staff members and a most -distinguished officer, represented the Army of Northern Virginia -at the meeting while General Grant and fourteen federal officers -including General George A. Custer and Major General Philip H. -Sheridan constituted the remaining membership of the famous meeting. - -The contrasting appearance of the two leaders was very noticeable: -Grant, the victor, appeared straight from the battlefield in a -dusty, fatigue uniform of a private without side arms and Lee, -the vanquished, appeared in a new dress uniform of a Confederate -general--the only one he owned after his personal effects had been -burned in a wagon raid during an earlier retreat. Although the -two leaders had had only casual meetings in their earlier years, -their previous acquaintance seemed to lighten the tenseness of -the situation. After an exchange of formal greetings and general -conversation, the talks gradually shifted to a discussion of peace -terms of surrender. - -The terms have been described as most fair and generous and they -included the following: parole was given to the Confederate officers -and soldiers with the understanding that they were not to take -up arms against the United States during the period of exchange, -military weapons were to be relinquished to Union military officers -with the exception of the side-arms belonging to the Confederate -officers and baggage and privately-owned animals were to be kept -for the spring plowing. Thus, after four years of brave fighting, -General Robert E. Lee, in the name of the Army of Northern -Virginia, graciously accepted with dignity the surrender terms of -General Ulysses S. Grant and stated that the terms "will do much -toward the conciliation of our people." General Grant then proceeded -to furnish food for the starving Confederate forces. The formal -surrender took place the next day. When the Union forces began to -cheer during the surrendering of Confederate arms, Grant immediately -ordered the cheers to cease with the remark: "The war is over; the -rebels are our countrymen again." Thus, Virginia, where the first -blood of the War between the States was shed, was also the scene -where the final negotiations for the conclusion of the war were made. - -From April 3 to April 10, 1865, Danville was the capital of the -Confederacy. As the evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond took -place, Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, and his -cabinet moved to Danville. The present Danville Public Library -occupies the building known as the Confederate Memorial Mansion -where Jefferson Davis held his last cabinet meeting, making Danville -the Confederate capital for a few days. At the time of the meeting, -this beautiful building was the home of Major W. T. Sutherlin. -Governor William Smith of Virginia also evacuated from Richmond to -Lynchburg where the state archives had been sent earlier. - -After the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia, Jefferson -Davis and his cabinet fled to Greensboro, North Carolina, and -eventually, to Washington, Georgia, where they finally dispersed. -Davis was later confined for two years at Fort Monroe, Old Point -Comfort, Virginia, from May 10, 1865 to May 15, 1867. He was finally -released on bail furnished surprisingly by Horace Greeley and other -individuals who had strongly opposed Davis and his Confederate ideas -a few years previously. - -All the remaining Confederate troops had surrendered by the first -week of June, and the War between the States had ended. Since a -majority of the battles had been fought in Virginia, tremendous -damage had been inflicted upon Virginia during the war. The state -had been a constant battleground. Virginia troops, however, had -distinguished themselves in their excellent fighting tactics, -and the most brilliant military leaders of the Confederacy were -Virginia-born. - -Not only from a military viewpoint had the Confederacy welcomed -the addition of Virginia within its membership, but also from an -economic viewpoint. War munitions had been manufactured in huge -quantities for the Confederate forces by the Tredegar Iron Works -of Richmond. Richmond was also the home of the country's largest -flour mills at that time. Because of its plentiful farm products, -particularly wheat and corn, the Shenandoah Valley was called the -"Granary of the Confederacy." - -Even in defeat, the courageous spirit of the Virginians continued. -The role of women in Virginia as well as in the entire South cannot -be overemphasized. They had suffered physically, emotionally and -economically during the war. They made military uniforms by hand, -stood by helplessly as their homes and, often, life fortunes were -burned to the ground, experienced certain types of deprivation -such as a lack of proper food (particularly sugar, salt and meat), -clothing, shelter and medicinal needs and performed numerous -physical household tasks previously done by the Negro slaves -although many of these women were unaccustomed to such hard labor. - -Individual examples of bravery and courage, far too numerous to -mention, were common throughout the entire war. A most unusual -contribution of the women was their continuous experimentation -in the discovery of food substitutes: the use of blackberry and -sassafras leaves for tea; parched wheat, rye and corn for coffee -beans; sea water for salt; and corncob ashes for cooking soda. A -lack of processed candles and kerosene oil left only grease and wax -to be utilized for making handmade candles. Wood was frequently -substituted for leather and seeds for buttons. Formal education, of -necessity, was almost non-existent; with a few exceptions, like the -Virginia Military Institute, education became solely one of family -training. - -An incident of special interest was the activity of Sally Tompkins -of Gloucester who was eventually commissioned by President Jefferson -Davis as a Captain in the Confederate Army. She had charge of -Robertson Hospital located in Richmond after she had previously -used her own money and efforts to get this hospital established -because of the urgent need for a hospital in the Richmond area. -She influenced Judge Robertson to lend his house as a hospital -headquarters. Later, after the government of the Confederacy assumed -control of all the hospitals in the Confederacy, President Davis -appointed an army officer as a director for each one. Recognizing -the conscientious efforts of Sally Tompkins in establishing this -hospital at Richmond, President Davis commissioned her as Captain, -the only woman to be commissioned by the Confederate government. - -At the end of the war, Virginia was in a devastated condition: -private property as well as public property had in many cases been -completely destroyed by fire or by ammunition. Practically all the -livestock had been carried away. Family members had been decreased -in number, and disease and starvation conditions were common -throughout the state. Politically, economically, geographically, -historically and socially, the South had been affected: Virginia, in -the heart of the most severe battleground area, seemed to base its -existence for the future upon the "survival of the fittest" theory. - - -_The Reconstruction Period and Its Aftermath_ - -Returning Virginia soldiers found some houses completely destroyed -and large sections of land completely laid to waste. With little, if -any, livestock left and with farm tools missing, the serious problem -of reconstruction and rehabilitation can be easily understood. -Railroad tracks and bridges had been demolished; transportation -facilities in some areas were almost non-existent. Even fences, so -important to livestock raising, had been entirely demolished in most -instances. So hopeless did a recovery appear to many Virginians that -a few men proposed migration to Mexico rather than to start anew -with such poor living conditions. - -General Robert E. Lee still showed his leadership qualities when -he beseeched several Virginians, including Matthew Fontaine Maury, -the brilliant marine cartographer, not to abandon Virginia when the -state needed all her sons so badly. Maury was so impressed by the -plea of Robert E. Lee that he rejected offers of employment from -foreign countries which were familiar with his broad, oceanographic -knowledge. Instead, he accepted the chairmanship of the Meteorology -Department of the Virginia Military Institute. Robert E. Lee, -himself, had been offered various employment opportunities but the -honor which he deemed the highest of all was the position offered to -him as President of Washington College at Lexington. Lee's financial -gain from this position was to be a sum of $1500 per year plus a -house and a garden. He humbly accepted the position and was allowed -to keep his faithful horse, "Traveler," with him in a stable built -adjacent to the President's house. From September 1865 until October -1870, Robert E. Lee served as President of Washington College. - -Lee had two objectives which he hoped personally to achieve: (1) the -lessening of the hatred which then existed between the North and the -South so that all Americans might work together in unity for peace -and progress, and (2) the education of youth in such a manner as to -make them capable of living as successful citizens of the United -States. With his deep idealism, Lee was also a practical man. When -he recognized the interest of many young men in writing, editing -and publishing newspapers, he included a course in journalism at -Washington College. This was the first college journalism class -offered in the United States. He was also responsible for the -origin of the honor system whereby a student is on his personal -honor to refrain from cheating and is also honor-bound to report -any individual seen violating such code; this system is now used in -numerous institutions of learning. Many of the current attributes -of this college are traceable to the administration of Robert E. -Lee. In 1871, the name of the college was changed to Washington -and Lee University in honor of two Virginians who made numerous -contributions to American culture. - -After the war had ended, a most unusual situation existed in -Virginia. The "Restored Government" under Governor Francis Harrison -Pierpont claimed to be the official government of Virginia although -he and his cohorts were responsible for dividing the State of -Virginia and actually had set up an illegal Unionist Virginia -government at Wheeling. President Lincoln, however, had at one time -stated that "The government that took Virginia out of the Union is -the government that should bring her back." He suggested that the -present Governor of Virginia at that time, William Smith, should be -present to ratify such procedure. However, U. S. Secretary of War -Edwin Stanton persuaded Lincoln to withdraw this offer. Lincoln's -untimely death on April 14, 1865, when he was assassinated by John -Wilkes Booth at the Ford Theater in Washington, was a real blow to -the South in general because he was much more conciliatory toward -the South than the majority members of the Congress who were radical -about their military victory over the South. It is interesting to -note that, fifteen days later, John Wilkes Booth was shot to death -in a burning barn on the Garrett Farm near Port Royal, Virginia. -On May 9, 1865, President Andrew Johnson officially recognized -the "Restored Government" of Virginia, which had relocated in -Alexandria, and also recognized Pierpont as the Provisional Governor. - -On June 15, 1865, a Freedman's Bureau headed by General Orlando -Brown was established in Virginia. The Bureau was supported by the -United States Government and had charge of the interests, aid, -protection and guidance of the Negroes. This bureau distributed -food rations and clothing to the Negroes and provided educational -opportunities for them. Originally founded to help newly freed -Negroes, the Freedmen's Bureau soon became overshadowed with -political activities and severe radicalism with strong racial -prejudices resulted. - -From June 19 to June 23, 1865, Governor Pierpont had changed -his headquarters from Alexandria to Richmond and his "General -Assembly" of twelve representatives held meetings there. They -endorsed Lincoln's plan of reconstruction and were rejoicing at -the comparatively easy way in which Virginia was going to be -restored to the Union. In the meantime, the radical Congress in -Washington believed that the Confederate States had left the Union -voluntarily and should not be allowed to return until they had -fulfilled specific conditions. When the State of Virginia sent her -officially-elected representatives to Congress, they were refused -admission. Nevertheless, Congress did allow the Virginia General -Assembly to meet in regular session, and one of the measures passed -by this group consisted of a formal appeal to West Virginia to -reunite with the original State of Virginia. - -On March 2, 1867, Congress under the Reconstruction Act of 1867, -divided the ex-Confederate states (with the exception of Tennessee -which had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment providing citizenship -for the Negroes) into five military districts, each of which was -under the command of a Major-General of the United States Army. -Later, on March 23, the Commonwealth of Virginia became Military -District No. 1, and General John M. Schofield became the first -military Governor of District No. 1 in 1867. Since Pierpont had been -reelected Governor of Virginia in 1864 for a four-year term, he -was accepted as the civilian Governor by the radical Congress, but -subject to the authority of the military commander. - -On December 3, 1867, a convention was held in Richmond for the -purpose of writing a state constitution which would be accepted -by the Federal Congress. A large majority of the representatives -attending were radicals. Membership included twenty-five Negroes, -individuals of foreign birth who had drifted into the State of -Virginia after the War between the States, many northerners who had -come South to enter politics and a few eligible white men who had -changed to Republicanism. White men of the South who had held high -public office before the War between the States and those who had -helped or participated in the Confederacy in any way were barred -from voting or taking part in the Constitutional Convention. Since -the chairman or president of this convention was Federal Judge -John C. Underwood, the convention is sometimes referred to as the -Underwood Convention. The measures passed by these members were so -radical that even General Schofield himself appeared personally -before the convention and pleaded with the members to repeal a -clause, drafted by the convention delegates, which disfranchised -approximately 95% of the male white population of Virginia and -disqualified them from holding office and from serving on juries. -His plea, however, was ignored. - -At this time, a Committee of Nine Virginians was formed at the -suggestion of Alexander H. Stuart. The chief objectives of this -committee were to observe political developments in Virginia and to -determine the appropriate time to report to Washington on the state -of events in order to obtain a more favorable method for Virginia -to re-enter the Union. They bluntly stated that the Virginians -were definitely opposed to full Negro suffrage and declared that -many states other than the southern states, such as Kansas, Ohio, -Minnesota, Michigan and Connecticut, had refused to enfranchise the -Negro. - -General Schofield prevented the planned election of the Underwood -Convention from taking place in June by refusing to appropriate -money for election expenses. Such postponement gave the Committee -of Nine an opportunity to obtain public opinion backing before -the Senate voted for the Underwood Constitution. The House of -Representatives had already voted in favor of it immediately before -the Christmas recess occurred. A representative of the Committee -of Nine stated before Congress that the Committee advocated the -acceptance of full Negro suffrage as inevitable in order that -constitutional representative government might be restored at once. -Chairman Stuart had already successfully achieved the support of the -Boston "Advertiser," the Chicago "Tribune," the New York "Times" -and the New York "Tribune." President Grant, who had succeeded -President Johnson, suggested that, when the election took place in -Virginia, the Underwood Constitution be voted upon first and then -the test oath. As a result of the test oath, only individuals who -had never taken arms against the Union and had never given aid or -comfort to the Confederacy would be eligible to vote or to hold -office. Likewise, it was suggested that the extension of the white -disfranchisement be voted separately. When the election took place -on July 6, 1869, the Underwood Constitution was adopted, but the two -separate items mentioned above were defeated. - -Gilbert C. Walker, a conservative Republican from New York and -Pennsylvania, was appointed on September 21, 1869 as Governor of -Virginia by General Canby, a successor of General Schofield. On -October 8, 1869 the newly-elected General Assembly ratified the -Fourteenth Amendment--"All persons born or naturalized in the United -States are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein -they reside ..." and the Fifteenth Amendment--"The right of citizens -of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the -United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous -condition of servitude." Congress then approved the new state -constitution, and Virginia was officially re-admitted into the Union -on January 26, 1870. - -One of the biggest problems facing Governor Walker was the extremely -high debt of approximately forty-five million dollars which faced -the state. The Underwood Constitution had provided for numerous -additional office positions in an attempt to force the New England -Township plan upon the Virginia County plan and to create positions -for the many "Carpetbaggers" (northern politicians who came south -to gain control of the local governments) and "Scalawags" (southern -politicians who helped the "Carpetbaggers" get control). This -increased the cost of state government. To remedy this situation, -the General Assembly decreased its total membership approximately -one-fourth to help reduce expenses. - -Prior to the war, Virginia had embarked upon an extensive program -of internal improvements which under normal circumstances would -have paid for itself eventually and which during the war had -accumulated much unpaid interest on the bonded debt. This financial -burden would seem secondary to the tremendous poverty of the -Virginians themselves at the end of the war. However, the General -Assembly which had met prior to the adoption of the Underwood -Constitution pledged the payment of all the ante-bellum debt -plus the interest, even though Virginia had lost one-third of its -taxable assets because of the separation of West Virginia. Some of -the members still hoped and actually believed that West Virginia -might return to the fold of Virginia after the war had ended. At the -Governor's suggestion, in order to obtain revenue, the state sold -its railroad holdings at a great reduction. Another method was the -exchange of certain bonds for new ones at six per cent interest for -two-thirds of the amount of the old bonds. For the additional third, -certificates were issued endorsed against future settlement with -West Virginia. Although these attempts were made to obtain necessary -revenue, the amount received was very insufficient, and the state -actually became more indebted because of them. - -Another grave problem which faced the state at this time was the -establishment of a state system of free public schools. This action -was based upon a provision of the Underwood Constitution of 1869 -and although having a most worthy purpose, the action was a costly -one. Schools were to be furnished for the Negroes (approximately -30% of the total Virginia population) as well as for the whites, -and this condition made the problem more difficult since there was -a large number of illiterate Negroes. Dr. William H. Ruffner of -Lexington, the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction, -was elected by the General Assembly when the new state public -school system was organized in 1870. The formidable task facing -him can be better appreciated when one considers the creation of -an entire public school system with very little money and few -trained teachers available. The interest from the Literary Fund, -all the capitation or poll tax, a new state property tax and a new -one dollar annual tax on each male citizen twenty-one years and -older were to constitute the financial support of the public school -system. Local school and capitation taxes were optional with each -county and public school district. Dr. Ruffner received much help -from Dr. Benjamin Mosby Smith who helped him formulate a program and -at the end of the first year, twenty-nine hundred schools were in -operation with three thousand teachers employed to teach one hundred -and thirty thousand students. From time to time, the schools were -seriously threatened when the interest on the state debt was so high -that there was little surplus left for educational purposes. Dr. -Ruffner fought not only to keep the school funds from being used for -other state activities but also to encourage Virginians themselves -to favor a free public school system. - -In 1868, General Samuel Chapman Armstrong was responsible for -the founding of the Hampton Institute at Hampton, an educational -institution whose primary objective was the education of the -ex-slaves. The American Missionary Society, at the suggestion of -General Armstrong, purchased a farm in Hampton where the Federal -Government had established a hospital during the War between the -States. The school began with General Armstrong as the principal, -two additional teachers and fifteen students. Two years later, it -became the Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute. Since General -Armstrong believed in education of the "head, the heart, and the -hands," training of the mind, character training, and vocational -training were emphasized with the over-all objective of preparing -the students to earn a living. The now-famous Hampton singers, -originally led by General Armstrong, made their first tour through -England and New England in 1870. - -In the same year, Richmond was the scene of a dreadful disaster. -When a sensational political case was about to be tried by the -Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals which held its sessions above -the Old Hall in the State Capitol, the gallery in the court room -collapsed due to the weight of the spectators. It crashed so hard -that it broke through the ceiling of the Old Hall of the House of -Delegates causing the death of sixty-two persons and injury to -two hundred and fifty-one other individuals. This tragic incident -focused attention on the need for more careful supervision of the -construction and maintenance of buildings, especially where crowds -are likely to congregate. - -In the following year, the United States Supreme Court, which has -original jurisdiction in the settlement of disputes between two or -more states of the Union, was asked to settle a controversy between -Virginia and West Virginia concerning the joint boundary line. -The Supreme Court held that the new State of West Virginia was -valid and agreed with West Virginia as to the territory within her -jurisdiction. At the same time, the Virginia General Assembly passed -an act whereby the state debt of approximately forty-five million -dollars was to be funded. West Virginia was to be responsible for -funding one-third of this amount since she had helped accumulate -this debt before her separation from Virginia. - -In 1872, the Virginia General Assembly appropriated money to -establish an agricultural college at Blacksburg. This college was -created as a result of the Morrill Act of Congress whereby federal -funds were appropriated by Congress and awarded to colleges which -emphasized the teaching of agriculture and of mechanical arts. The -federal funds were received from the money collected from the sale -of public lands. Therefore, such colleges were called "land-grant" -colleges. The college of Blacksburg, originally known as Virginia -Agricultural and Mechanical College, was the first land-grant -college in Virginia and is now known as the Virginia Polytechnic -Institute. - -The recessions which took place in the United States in 1867 and -in 1869 and the Panic of 1873 indirectly helped Virginia because, -instead of devoting much time and effort to Virginia's internal -problems as had been planned upon its re-admission to the Union, the -Congressmen at Washington were busy with the national problem of -getting the United States in a more prosperous economic condition. - -When the political parties held their gubernatorial conventions -in Virginia in 1873, the Conservatives nominated General James -L. Kemper and the Republicans nominated Robert W. Hughes. Kemper -won, and the chief issue in the election was the debt problem. -The Conservatives had advocated payment of the debt in order to -maintain the credit of Virginia in the eyes of the public and to -assume what they considered a proper obligation. However, some of -the Conservatives believed that the debt would have to be lowered -somewhat if it were ever to be paid in full and that, from a -practical standpoint, it would have to be adjusted to the ability -of the state to pay. This group of Conservatives was called the -"Readjusters." In 1870, the state had been gerrymandered (districted -politically) in an effort to create Negro majorities which would -guarantee "carpetbagger" rule because the "carpetbaggers" seemingly -had been very helpful to the Negro. The Conservatives who had won -the election then enacted some reapportionment laws which resulted -in the restoration of white rule in the cities. They also took it -upon themselves to abolish approximately one-third of the local jobs -created by the Underwood Constitution. In 1876, a law was passed -which required the payment of a poll tax before voting in the state -of Virginia. Although originally this tax was levied for revenue -purposes, it automatically kept some of the Negroes from the voting -polls because they could not afford to pay this tax. At the same -time another law was passed, disfranchising all voters who had been -found guilty at any time of petty larceny. Since this method had -been commonly used by the Negroes directly after their emancipation, -this law was criticized by some individuals as discriminatory toward -the Negroes and contrary to the Fourteenth Amendment. - -As time passed, the old question of the state debt loomed more -important and more controversial than ever. The problem had two -types of backers: one group called the "Readjusters" who believed -that the debt should be drastically reduced or practically -repudiated; the other group called the "Funders" who believed -that Virginia was honor-bound to pay the original debt in full. -The "Funders" surprisingly enough consisted of the planter and -merchant class men whose financial losses had been the greatest -during the war. The "Readjusters" persuaded the Negroes to adhere -to their ideas primarily for political reasons. The arguments -centered around such issues as: (1) whether the interest on the debt -should have been cumulative during the War between the States, (2) -whether Governor Walker had greatly over-estimated the potential -resources of Virginia in considering the capacity of the ability -of the people to pay, (3) whether the payment of a debt primarily -because the honor of a state is involved is a major factor in an -economic world, (4) whether the Federal government had regarded -the State of Virginia as "conquered territory" and hence should -assume the ante-bellum debts of this "conquered territory," (5) -whether the debt itself should be reduced in all fairness because -of the severe war property destruction in Virginia and because -one-third of Virginia's entire state area had been reduced by the -creation of West Virginia as a separate and permanent state, (6) -whether Virginia had been forced by the Federal government to have -the status of Military District No. 1 from 1865 to 1870 and hence -would the state be held responsible for debts incurred during this -period, and (7) whether local state government debts should be paid -before payment should be made to outside debtors such as those in -New York and London. In 1877 Colonel Frederick W. M. Holliday, the -Conservative or "Funder" candidate, defeated General William Mahone, -the "Readjuster" candidate for the Governorship. - -Mahone subsequently succeeded in getting himself elected to the -United States Senate in 1879. He became so politically influential -that he eventually secured the nomination and the election of -a "Readjuster" Governor for Virginia in 1881 and a Republican -Lieutenant-Governor. At this time, he publicly declared himself a -Republican. His "Readjuster" friends gained control of the General -Assembly and removed several state government officials solely for -political reasons. Mahone was considered responsible for the use of -the "Spoils" System throughout the State of Virginia. During the -administration of a Readjuster Governor, the debt of Virginia, as -could be expected, was re-adjusted to approximately $23,000,000. -Since many of the Readjuster party members consisted of Negroes, the -poll tax was repealed also. The public school system and even the -court system became infiltrated with politics. Often the responsible -positions in these fields were filled by employees of political -ability or affiliation rather than by employees with qualifications -pertinent to such positions. After much rioting and corruption, -Mahone's political machine finally lost control of the state in 1883. - -A permanent reminder of the "Readjuster" Party was formulated in -1880 with the creation of Dickenson County from Russell, Wise and -Buchanan Counties. It was named for one of the leaders of the -"Readjuster" Party, William J. Dickenson. This county has the -distinction of being the youngest county in Virginia. - -In 1892, the state debt problem was settled more satisfactorily -when the balance of the debt was established at a figure lower than -the original but higher than the "Readjuster" figure and the rate -of interest was lowered. The creditors and the debtors cooperated -in this situation, and the credit of Virginia was gradually -re-established. - -During the Reconstruction Period, a great majority of the Republican -Party members in the South were Negroes. Lincoln, himself, had been -a Republican. Since it was during his administration that the war -started and that the Emancipation Proclamation had been issued, -the word "Republican" in the South had for many individuals the -connotation of a moral and social stigma. So permanent were the -scars of events of the Republican Reconstruction era that until -1920, the former seceded states never cast an electoral vote for a -Republican candidate in a national election. Thus, a vote solidly or -unanimously for the Democratic Party resulted and the term "Solid -South" came into existence. - -In the Spanish-American War of 1898, many Virginians fought -valiantly for their country. The outstanding contributions of such -Virginians as Dr. Walter Reed (birthplace, Gloucester County) -and his colleague, Dr. Robert Powel Page Cooke, in discovering -that yellow fever was transmitted to human beings by the bite of -mosquitoes, Major-General Fitzhugh Lee (nephew of General Robert -E. Lee) who served as United States Consul-General to Cuba in 1896 -and who was given the command of the Seventh Army Corps in the -Spanish-American War and Robley Dunglison Evans (Floyd) who was -Commander of the U.S.S. Iowa at the Battle of Santiago Harbor helped -considerably in the efforts of the United States to win this war. - -By 1900, although Virginia's population (both white and Negro) had -increased at a rapid rate, Virginia ranked seventeenth in population -in comparison to the other forty-four states in the Union. Virginia -had approximately 1,854,000 people including approximately 661,000 -Negroes. However, one-third of the area of the state--which had -become West Virginia--was permanently separated. In addition, -Kentucky had been carved from within the original boundaries of -Virginia with the consent of the state government. - - -_Twentieth Century Developments_ - -On June 12, 1901, a state constitutional convention was held in -Richmond at the request of Carter Glass, an outstanding Virginia -statesman from Lynchburg. The major issue of this convention was the -discovery of a method of reducing the large number of illiterate -Negro votes which in the 1900 election had outnumbered the white -votes in one-third of the counties of the state. Since there was a -large number of illiterate whites in the western mountain regions -of Virginia, careful consideration had to be given to any proposed -restrictions on suffrage so that these inhabitants whose ancestors -had fought bravely in the Revolutionary War and in the War between -the States would not be severely penalized. Consequently, the -Constitution of 1902 included the requirement that a poll tax of one -dollar and fifty cents had to be paid as a qualification for voting. -Furthermore, a constitutional requirement demanded payment of three -years' poll taxes six months before general elections. Since the -Negroes were financially very poor at this time, this requirement -indirectly caused a great decrease in the total number of Negro -votes cast. - -This constitution also included an "understanding clause" -provision which required voters to prove in written statements -their understanding of the government of Virginia. This provision -was to be replaced in 1904 by the requirement of each potential -voter passing an intelligence test proving that he could properly -interpret the constitution. Such provisions prevented many -uneducated Negroes from participating in elections. - -A State Corporation Commission was created for the first time -in the Commonwealth to control corporations such as the public -transportation companies and the telephone and telegraph companies. -Other governmental changes provided for in this constitution were: -the direct election of the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the State -Treasurer, the Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration and the -Superintendent of Public Instruction by the qualified voters; the -replacement of County Courts by Circuit Courts; the constitutional -requirement for the political status of a city: an incorporated -community with a minimum population of 5,000 inhabitants is eligible -to become an independent city, and, as the name implies, such cities -are not subject to county administration; the establishment of -racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia; a considerable -extension of the powers of the State Board of Education, and a -change in the age range used to determine school population as a -basis for distributing the common school fund from 5-21 years to -7-20 years. - -On May 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was "proclaimed" by the -convention members, whose delegates voted for its adoption. Although -this Constitution was never ratified by the voters themselves, it -was later approved by the state legislature. With certain revisions -which were added later, this Constitution of 1902 is the present -Constitution of the Commonwealth. - -In spite of the political influence which had been prevalent in -the public school system of Virginia in the 1880's, by the early -1900's numerous educational improvements had resulted: the local -general public began to favor a public school system; professional -teacher training methods were developed; a Virginia State Education -Association was formed; simultaneous examinations for teacher -certification throughout the state were standardized; state summer -normal schools were organized; teacher scholarships were created, -and education conferences were held. - -The oft-called "renaissance" in Virginia education occurred in 1905. -A New York educator had encouraged various educational conferences -to be held in the South in an attempt to improve education in the -South which had lagged far behind the rest of the nation. The -Virginia Cooperative Education Commission and the leaders of the May -Campaign of 1905 (so-called because the intensive campaigning took -place in the month of May) demanded improved schools, better school -regulations, an increase in the number of secondary schools and -institutions of higher learning and a revised curriculum. The State -Superintendent of Public Instruction at this time was Dr. Joseph -Dupuy Eggleston whose leadership contributed greatly to the success -of a movement to modernize and improve the educational standards of -the State of Virginia. Vocational training (examples, agricultural, -educational, manual training and domestic economy classes) which -had long been discussed by certain educators became a reality, -specific legislative appropriations for public high schools were -made, public school libraries were established, health checkups for -abnormalities were instituted in the school program and the number -of teacher-training schools was increased. - -Such educational progress was observed that, after five years of -the new education planning and of the execution of such plans, a -spokesman for the Carnegie Foundation remarked that "Probably no -educational development in any State of the Union is more remarkable -than that which is represented in the Old Commonwealth of Virginia." -Practical education as well as theoretical education was offered -with opportunities also available to study improved farming methods. - -In 1906, Virginia filed suit against West Virginia in the United -States Supreme Court concerning a judicial determination of the -amount of money which Virginia should rightfully receive from -West Virginia as partial assumption of the state debt accumulated -while West Virginia was still a part of Virginia. Eight additional -separate actions were filed against West Virginia by Virginia which -finally resulted in an investigation of the financial status of each -area, the debts incurred and the suggestion of a conference between -the two states. West Virginia originally evaded such a conference -but, later, appointed a commission to represent the state. More -deliberation and delay occurred until 1915 when the indebtedness of -the State of West Virginia to the State of Virginia was declared by -the United States Supreme Court as $12,393,292.50. Finally, after -continuous postponement and more court judgments, in 1919 a special -session of the West Virginia state legislature passed a law which -provided for the payment of the sum due Virginia. Over a million -dollars was paid during 1919, and, by issuing twenty-year bonds, the -balance of the debt with interest was paid by 1939. - -In 1908, the first municipality in the United States to adopt the -City Manager form of government was Staunton. After this form of -government had been successfully employed, many additional cities in -Virginia and in the other states proceeded to adopt the City Manager -Plan of local government. - -On March 4, 1913, Thomas Woodrow Wilson, a native of Staunton, was -inaugurated as the twenty-eighth President of the United States. He -was the eighth Virginia-born individual to attain this high office, -although he had left the state for a college teaching position and -later a gubernatorial post. From his experiences as a professor -of history and as the governor of New Jersey, he had formulated a -personal brand of political philosophy which he entitled "The New -Freedom." He believed that government leaders should act through the -people as well as for the people. During his first administration, -he signed the famous Federal Reserve Bank Act, authored by U. S. -Senator Robert Owen, a native Virginian, and Carter Glass, a U. -S. Representative at that time from Lynchburg. Although he was -re-elected President in 1916 as a peace candidate, Wilson soon had -to wage an intensive war against Germany as conditions warranted -such action. He stated his idealism in his famous words "to make the -World safe for Democracy" and "a War to end all Wars." His famous -"Fourteen Points" Speech before Congress concerning the war aims of -the Allied Powers was constantly referred to during the Armistice -negotiations and is still quoted in international conferences. His -personal visit to the peace conference at Versailles Palace near -Paris, France--the first personal visit of a President of the United -States to such a conference--was history-making in itself. He will -always be remembered for his idea of "A League of Nations," the -forerunner of the United Nations, a project for international peace -which is believed to have caused or, at least, to have hastened his -death due to his strenuous speaking tour on behalf of the League. - -In 1914, the General Assembly voted for a state-wide law providing -for the prohibition of liquor. This law went into effect on November -1, 1916. At the federal level, the Eighteenth Amendment to the -Constitution of the United States which prohibited the "manufacture, -sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors" throughout the -United States and its territories was submitted to the states by -Congress on December 18, 1917. Virginia was the second state to -ratify it. - -During World War I, the state contributed 91,623 men to the armed -forces, many of whom participated in the Somme, St. Mihiel and -Meuse-Argonne Forest campaigns. Most of the Virginia troops fought -with the 80th Infantry Division of the American Expeditionary -Forces. This division was called the Blue Ridge Division because -the Blue Ridge Mountains are located in the home states of the men -from Virginia, West Virginia and Pennsylvania who made up this -division. Noted for their bravery, this division was the only -division to enter the front lines three times during the offensive -and the only one to advance a maximum distance of twenty-two miles -against the enemy between the first offensive and the Armistice. -Many members of the 29th Infantry Division were Virginians who -served in France, particularly during the Meuse-Argonne Forest -campaigns. Thirty-six Virginians received the Distinguished Service -Medal of the United States Army, the French Legion of Honor or the -Croix de Guerre. - -On the home-front, World War I caused a tremendous increase in -business and, in some instances, prompted the construction of war -camps in various parts of the state. Camp Lee, near Petersburg, -was used as an infantry training base for 50,000 soldiers; Camp -Stuart at Newport News was used chiefly as an embarkation point and -Camp Humphreys, near Alexandria, was used as a training center for -engineers. Langley Field, near Hampton, was used as training grounds -for pilots; the Hampton Roads area was utilized for construction of -numerous United States ships and as naval and military bases. - -The present city of Hopewell actually owes its city status and -growth to World War I and the construction of a huge munitions -plant on Hopewell Farm by the E. I. DuPont de Nemours Company. As a -matter of fact, the manufacture of fertilizer from nitrogen in the -air still accounts for the great industrial activity at Hopewell at -the present time. During World War I also, the famous Tredegar Iron -Works in Richmond manufactured projectiles, explosives, shrapnel -shells and other war materials of necessity. - -Among prominent Virginians who played a major role during World War -I was Admiral David Watson Taylor. Admiral Taylor was chief of the -Naval Bureau of Construction and Repair (1914-1922) at Washington. -He had responsibility for the design and construction of naval -aircraft and he developed a type of flying boat during World War -I. His contributions were later acknowledged by the establishment -of the David Taylor Model Basin, a naval activity at Carteret, -Maryland, near the Virginia border. - -Health, too, was a critical problem on the home front during the -war. For example, a dreadful influenza epidemic occurred followed -by a severe fuel shortage due to a railroad strike. This condition -caused many "flu" patients to develop pneumonia and to die. In -Richmond alone, approximately eight hundred people succumbed during -this epidemic period. - -As a reminder of the sacrifices of Virginians during World War I, at -William Byrd Park in Richmond, is a 240-foot tower constructed of -pink brick. It is called the Carillon Tower and was erected in 1932 -as a memorial to the war dead. - -In 1918, women received special recognition in the state. For the -first time, women were admitted to the College of William and -Mary and to the graduate and professional schools of the state -university, the University of Virginia. It is interesting to note -that, in contrast to the educational status accorded women, the -state refused to ratify the proposed Nineteenth Amendment to the -United States Constitution. Contrary to this negative attitude -expressed in Virginia toward giving women the right to vote, the -Constitutional Amendment was officially ratified and adopted -nationwide in 1920. One of the first effects of this amendment in -Virginia was a legislative enactment requiring all women to pay the -poll tax. - -Virginia continued to play a key role in international events -during this period. For example, in 1926, Navy Lieutenant-Commander -Richard Evelyn Byrd, a native of Winchester, made the first polar -flight by flying over the North Pole and back in fifteen and a half -hours. He then flew over the Atlantic Ocean the following year with -Bert Balcher, Bert Acosta and George Noville. In 1929, he made the -first return flight over the South Pole. Rear Admiral Byrd led -four expeditions to the Antarctic and, just prior to his death in -1957, he was the leader of another expedition to Antarctica called -"Operation Deepfreeze" at which time he was consulted concerning -many ideas of importance to the safety and progress of the -expedition. During World War II, he did secret work for the United -States Government and furnished much valuable information concerning -terrain of the land which he had mapped on his third Antarctic -expedition. He wrote "Skyward," "Little America," "Discovery," -"Exploring with Byrd" and "Alone" describing his various -explorations. Richard Evelyn Byrd will always be remembered as one -of the greatest explorers in United States history. An eight-foot -high bronze statue of the late Admiral Richard E. Byrd was recently -erected on the Virginia side of the Potomac River between the -Arlington Cemetery and the Memorial Bridge. The statue depicts him -in his middle thirties when he was at the height of his exploration -career. He is clad in a fur outfit and is mounted on a four foot -pedestal with fitting carved maps of the Arctic and Antarctic -regions and an eagle as a background symbolizing his achievements. - -In 1926, the famous project now known as the Restoration of -Williamsburg began. The original purpose of the restoration was to -benefit the people of the present in "That the Future May Learn -from the Past." Dr. W. A. R. Goodwin, the late Rector of Bruton -Parish Church in Williamsburg, was responsible for interesting John -D. Rockefeller, Jr. in such a project. To date, not only have 350 -buildings been reconstructed, 82 buildings been restored and 619 -buildings been torn down, but also many of the early crafts such as -wigmaking, millinery-making, silversmithing, printing, shoe-making -and repairing, cabinetmaking, blacksmithing and glassmaking have -been revived. These craft shops are open to the public. A visit to -the Wren Building at the College of William and Mary, the Bruton -Parish Church (Episcopal), the Public Gaol, the Magazine, the -Raleigh Tavern, the Capitol or the Governor's Palace provides an -appreciation of life as it existed in the colonial period. - -During the early 1920's there was much discussion within the state -concerning the need for government reorganization at the state -level. During the governorship of Harry F. Byrd (1926-1930), -considerable effort was made to reorganize the state government -with the objective of increasing its efficiency. The Reorganization -Act of 1927 provided that only the executive offices of Governor, -Lieutenant-Governor and Attorney-General were to be elected by -popular vote; that the state legislature was to have the authority -to elect the auditor and that the Governor was to appoint other -executive officials with confirmation by the General Assembly. The -structure and functions of the various state departments were also -changed by this act to make each department more effective. Twelve -administrative departments were created, and, in most instances, -department heads were made appointive positions rather than elective -ones. The twelve departments created were: Finance, Taxation, -Agriculture and Immigration, Workmen's Compensation, Corporations, -Highways, Conservation and Development, Health, Public Welfare, -Education, Law, and Labor and Industry. - -During this same period, the "Pay-as-You-Go" system for roadbuilding -was adopted. This system means that, instead of floating large -bond issues to raise revenue for roadbuilding, the state pays for -the roads as they are built, with some of the revenue obtained -from gasoline taxes and fees from motor vehicle licenses. During -the first few years of the system while adequate funds were being -accumulated, the state did not have the total mileage of modern -roads which would have been built more rapidly through borrowing; -however, as the funds increased, the state was able to develop an -excellent system of state and local highways. The "Pay-as-You-Go" -system has reflected favorably on the state's financial reputation. - -Virginia made national headlines in the Presidential election of -1928. For the first time since 1872, the Republican set of electors -in Virginia was chosen by a majority of the Virginia voters. -Consequently, the Republican Presidential candidate that year, -Herbert Hoover, received the twelve electoral votes of Virginia. - -Virginia was fortunate in escaping the most severe pangs of the -depression years of the 1930's. The great variety of industries -and occupations kept the Commonwealth from becoming severely -economically stricken as was the case of states having one -specialized type of economic activity. Surprisingly enough, some -industries such as the tobacco industry and the rayon and cellophane -industries expanded considerably. In conjunction with the federal -government's construction program during the depression years as an -attempt to create new job opportunities, numerous bridges, public -school buildings and other structures--such as the Museum of Fine -Arts in Richmond--were built. Economy in government administration -was stressed and Governor John G. Pollard (1930-1934) reduced his -own salary ten per cent for one year as a part of the economy -program. Virginia was one of the three states which was successful -in maintaining a balanced budget in the depression years of the -1930's. Although the relief cost in Virginia was below the national -average relief, at one point during the depression, over 50,000 -families and single individuals had become dependent upon the dole -system--especially industrial workers in the cities. Job-finding -committees were organized in many sections of the state to stimulate -re-employment. - -After the national census of 1930 had been taken and the results -had been tabulated, the state legislature of Virginia passed an act -dividing the Commonwealth into nine Congressional districts instead -of its previous ten districts. This decrease took place because of -a smaller increase in population in Virginia in proportion to other -states of the United States. This act was found to be objectionable -by some residents who stated that the new seventh district was -disproportionately large. After suit had been filed, the Virginia -Court of Appeals declared the act invalid on the grounds that it -did not provide for equal representation as required by the United -States Constitution. As a result, in the 1932 national election, -all the United States Representatives from Virginia were elected -at-large by the whole state electorate rather than by particular -districts. Subsequently, the legislature redistricted properly, -and at the next election Congressmen from Virginia were chosen by, -and represented, particular Congressional districts. Like a large -majority of the states in the 1932 national election, Virginians -gave Franklin D. Roosevelt a victory at the polls with a plurality -of 114,343 popular votes. - -During Governor Pollard's administration, the General Assembly -passed the Optional Forms Act. Under this act, two types of county -government were made available for selection according to local -preference: the county-manager form, usually preferred by urban and -large rural county areas and the county-executive form, generally -preferred by small rural areas. As a result of this act, several -county administrative offices were merged for more efficient and -economical management. - -In August 1933, a special session of the Virginia legislature -was held to select delegates for a special convention to vote -on the repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States -Constitution. Although Governor Pollard at first refused to summon -the extra session, he was forced by petition of two-thirds of both -houses of the General Assembly to do so. Subsequently, the delegates -favored the repeal of the amendment by a vote of 96 to 54. The -vote by the people was actually a referendum vote, but ballots for -repeal automatically elected a slate of thirty delegates-at-large -who were pledged to a repeal vote. Later, at a special convention, -the delegates voted to repeal the Eighteenth Amendment by favoring -the Twenty-First Amendment. The General Assembly then created -its own regulations for the sale of liquor and provided for the -establishment of Alcoholic Beverage Control Boards throughout the -Commonwealth. - -When President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Claude A. Swanson -of Virginia as the first Secretary of the Navy in his cabinet, -ex-Governor Harry F. Byrd was appointed to succeed Swanson as United -States Senator. Harry F. Byrd was elected United States Senator at -the next national election. Thus, in 1933, Senator Byrd began one -of the longest periods of continuous service in the United States -Senate. - -In 1935, the first national park in Virginia and the second -national park east of the Mississippi River was established. It was -called the Shenandoah National Park and was dedicated by President -Franklin D. Roosevelt. This very scenic park, which now includes -the famous Skyline Drive, was made possible by the combined efforts -of many people: Governor E. Lee Trinkle who publicly advocated the -establishment of parks, numerous citizens who willingly donated -property (because Virginia had been informed by the federal -government that it would have to furnish the land), the state which -also contributed land after it had purchased it or condemned it and -the federal government which helped financially with appropriations -and with physical labor furnished by the Civilian Conservation -Corps. This park has attracted tourists from throughout the nation -with its breath-taking mountain scenery and diversity of trees and -wild flowers. - -Virginia made a very significant contribution to World War II. -When the nation began to mobilize for war, Governor James H. Price -created the Virginia Defense Council. Dr. Douglas Southall Freeman, -a noted author, was appointed chairman of this council, the first -in the United States. As in previous wars, the Hampton Roads area -became strategically important; navy activities increased rapidly -in this area; various camps including Camp Lee and Langley Field -were re-opened; and production, transportation and consumption -activities created new records in quantity and speed. Activities -at Camp A. P. Hill, Camp Pickett, Newport News, Norfolk, -Alexandria, Williamsburg, Quantico and Hampton Roads reflected much -of the war effort of Virginians in this conflict. The Tredegar -Iron Works in Richmond was consigned again to make munitions for -the armed conflict. Richmond along with Madison, Wisconsin, was -selected as a test city for a scrap aluminum drive. The test proved -most successful, and the scrap aluminum drives were soon extended -throughout the nation. Various federal government offices were -temporarily moved to Virginia, such as the United States Patent -Office which was moved from Washington to Richmond. Since Richmond -is located within a one hundred mile radius of the national capital -and is geographically and strategically situated from a military -viewpoint, it was designated as a "critical area." During the -1940-1945 period, Virginia furnished 137,000 men and 3,757 women to -the Army (including the Air Force) and 71,091 men and 2,055 women to -the Navy (including the Marines). Civilians in Virginia, as in all -other states, contributed much physical, mental and financial effort -during the war in their desire to bring peace again to the world. - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Shrine of Memory: Virginia War Memorial_] - -One impact of World War II upon state government was action during -Governor Colgate W. Darden's term to modify the poll tax requirement -as applied to Virginia members of the armed forces on active duty. -A special session of the Virginia legislature in 1944 attempted to -exempt those persons from poll tax requirements but the judiciary -nullified this measure as contrary to constitutional provision. -Subsequently, by referendum, the voters of the state favored the -calling of a limited constitutional convention to accomplish the -objective. A condition of the referendum restricted the delegates to -this convention to act solely upon the soldier vote and to agree not -to consider, adopt or propose any other law, amendment or revision. -The constitutional convention approved a measure which became the -seventeenth article of the Virginia State Constitution: this new -article allowed service men and women on active duty, otherwise -eligible to vote, to vote without payment of a poll tax or without -fulfillment of the registration requirement. - -Since the end of World War II, war memorials have been erected -in various communities as an expression of appreciation for war -sacrifices. The most famous such memorial constructed through state -or local action has been the state memorial erected in Richmond. A -million dollar white marble edifice known as the "Shrine of Memory" -consists of a structure twenty-two feet high and includes the names, -etched on glass panels and marble columns, of approximately 10,340 -Virginians who died in combat in World War II or in the Korean -conflict. The memorial, located on a four-acre site overlooking -the James River near the north end of the Robert E. Lee Bridge, -is also a tribute to the 360,000 Virginians who participated in -the armed forces during these two conflicts and to the 100,000 -Virginia volunteer civilian workers who contributed much in their -various types of activities. At the base of the statue to "Memory" -is a gas-fed torch, called the "Torch of Liberty," which burns -perpetually. Embedded in the floor of the "Shrine of Memory" are -memorial coffers which contain authentic, labeled ground and sea -battle mementos from battleground areas. The leading sculptor for -this unusually beautiful memorial was Leo Friedlander. - -The sites of two battles which took place during the War between -the States within the geographical area of Virginia have been -accorded official national recognition within the past few years. -Specifically, the Appomattox Court House National Historical -Monument was granted National Historical Park status in 1954. This -area of approximately 968 acres includes a reproduction of the -Wilmer McLean House in which the Confederate General, Robert E. Lee, -surrendered the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia to the Union -General, Ulysses S. Grant. The grounds where the two armies opposed -each other for the last time are also included in this park. In the -same year, the Manassas Battlefield of approximately 1,719 acres was -given the status of a National Battlefield Park. This area was the -site of the famous Battles of Bull Run or Manassas. - -During the 1950 session of the General Assembly, a bill was passed -which provided for a state tax reduction of approximately one -million dollars whenever the tax revenue exceeded the estimates by -certain amounts, the amount depending upon the state budget. This -law was later revised to the effect that if the general fund revenue -received from income taxes exceeded the estimates by five percent, -a tax reduction would automatically result. Since passage of the -act, Virginia taxpayers have benefitted considerably through its -provisions. On the other hand, several attempts have been made to -repeal the general poll tax. The United States Supreme Court has -upheld the legality of the poll tax by refusing to review a suit -against some local officials who had barred individuals from voting -because of non-payment of the poll tax. - -At the Democratic National Nominating Convention held in Chicago in -1952, the Virginia delegates under the leadership of Governor John -S. Battle refused to accept the "loyalty" pledge adopted by voice -vote in the convention. This "loyalty" pledge or "majority rule" -pledge required that each delegate agree to "exert every honorable -means" to have the names of the Democratic Party's Presidential -and Vice-Presidential nominees included on the Democratic ballot -of each state. President Harry S. Truman had encouraged federal -measures dealing with fair employment practices, the passage of -federal non-segregation laws and the enforcement of a strong federal -civil rights program. Some of the delegates who knew that many of -the Southern states did not approve of the Democratic legislative -program believed that the states of Virginia, South Carolina and -Louisiana would refuse to accept the "loyalty" pledge because -of this program. Consequently, when delegates from these states -refused to accept the pledge, they were not initially seated at -the convention. Southern delegates, however, protested that state -party rules or state laws prohibited them making such a commitment. -Governor Battle, the leader of the 28 member delegation from -Virginia, stated that a state law assured the inclusion of the names -of the Democratic Party nominees on the Virginia Democratic ballot -and that they rejected the pledge only as a matter of principle. -Ultimately, Virginia delegates as well as those of South Carolina -and Louisiana were given seats and full voting rights at the -convention. - -The Republican nominee for the Presidency in 1952, 1956 and 1960 -carried the state, contrary to previous usual voting results in the -state. In the 1952 election the Republican candidate, Dwight D. -Eisenhower, received 349,037 popular votes from Virginia and the -Democratic candidate, Adlai Stevenson, received 268,677 popular -votes. Thus, the Republican Party won the twelve electoral votes -of the state. In 1956, 386,320 popular votes from Virginia were -cast for the Republican electors and 264,110 popular votes for the -Democratic electors who represented the same Presidential candidates -as in 1952. In the 1960 election the Republican nominee, Richard -M. Nixon, won the popular vote of the state over the Democratic -nominee, John F. Kennedy. Virginia again cast her twelve electoral -votes for the Republican candidate. However, during this period, the -Governor, the two United States Senators from Virginia, eight of the -ten Virginia members of the United States House of Representatives -and a majority of the General Assembly continued to be members of -the Democratic Party, illustrating the traditional role of the -Democratic Party in the state since the Reconstruction Era. - -Public education has received much attention in Virginia, especially -since 1950. On several occasions, for example, the General Assembly -has approved million dollar appropriations of state funds for school -construction projects. The tremendous influx of youth in the public -schools during the decade of the 1950's accentuated the need for -more teachers as well as classrooms throughout the state. Hence, -rising costs of education have become a key matter at each recent -session of the General Assembly. During the last few years, however, -the question of integration of white and of Negro students in the -public schools of the state has been a paramount education issue. - -When the United States Supreme Court on May 17, 1954 handed down its -decision which in effect outlawed racial segregation in the public -schools of the nation, Virginia faced a very serious problem because -the State Constitution has required separate public schools for -white and for Negro children in the Commonwealth. Governor Thomas B. -Stanley soon appointed a commission of thirty-two state legislators, -under the chairmanship of State Senator Garland Gray, to advise him -concerning a course of action to be taken by the Commonwealth. The -commission conducted a study and subsequently transmitted to the -Governor its report, known as the Gray Plan. The plan recommended -consideration of an amendment to the constitutional provision -requiring separate schools and suggested that local communities be -enabled through their school boards to assign students to schools -for a variety of reasons other than race. Subsequently, a special -session of the General Assembly authorized a referendum election on -the calling of a constitutional convention. The referendum question -was worded as follows: "Should a Constitutional Convention be called -with authority to revise Section 141 of the State Constitution so -as to permit the General Assembly to appropriate public funds to -further the education of Virginia students in non-sectarian private -schools as well as in public schools?" A majority of the voters -voted in the affirmative at the referendum election held in January -1956. In March 1956 a Constitutional Convention was held in Richmond -and these delegates rewrote Section 141; hence it became permissible -under the Constitution of the Commonwealth to use public funds for -tuition grants for pupils in private non-sectarian schools. Later, -at a special session of the General Assembly in September 1956, -a pupil placement program was adopted under which the Governor -appointed a pupil placement board whose chief function was to handle -all student assignments in the state; under the program, parents of -all children entering the public schools were required to fill out -assignment applications which, in turn, were ultimately processed -through the board. - -In 1958, legislation provided for the automatic closing of any -school which might be policed by the federal government and -permitted the Governor to close any school in a locality in which -another school was already being so policed. The admission of -any Negro student to a public school for white students required -the Governor to close the school and assume full control. -Subsequently, federal court orders directed school boards in -Arlington, Charlottesville and Norfolk to admit students without -regard to race, effective September 1958; following state law, the -pupil placement board denied admission to Negro applicants in the -localities mentioned previously; the local school boards in these -areas and in Warren County initiated action to admit Negro students, -pursuant to federal court order. However, the Governor announced -the closing of the high school in Warren County, and similar action -was taken in Charlottesville and in Norfolk. During the Fall -semester of 1958, a total of nine schools (one in Warren County -and eight in Norfolk and Charlottesville) were closed to 13,000 -students, many of whom transferred elsewhere. When court decisions -in January 1959 voided the school closing law, the law cutting off -state funds and the law providing tuition grants of public funds for -segregated private schooling, the Governor stated that he could take -no further action to prevent the opening of public schools on an -integrated basis. Some public schools in Arlington, Charlottesville -and Norfolk, as well as in Alexandria, began integrated classes -in the Spring semester of 1959. Since that time, the number of -integrated schools has increased. The implications of the United -States Supreme Court decision of May 17, 1954 upon the public school -system of Virginia have presented to the Commonwealth one of its -most difficult problems of the Twentieth Century. - -As the population of Virginia cities and towns has grown during the -past two decades, persons have moved to the suburbs and surrounding -territory--sometimes at a faster rate than the increase in new -population in the urban centers. The 1960 census confirmed such -declines from the previous growth of cities in nearly all parts of -the nation. Attractions to persons who move from the urban centers -include larger amounts of available land, newer homes, shopping -centers with comparatively easy parking, and initial lower real -estate taxes. After these persons have lived in the suburbs or -surrounding territory for a while, various needs such as adequate -streets, police protection, schools, sewerage facilities, water and -building and zoning codes sometimes develop or become more apparent. -Often county governments are not equipped to provide for all of -these services; if county governments do establish such services, -the initial costs may be very high for the taxpayers. - -To counterbalance the move to suburbs and nearby rural areas, urban -local units of government seek to annex surrounding land from -counties or nearby cities. In Virginia, annexation is determined -by a panel of three judges, only one of whom is a resident of the -county involved. No referendum is held to ascertain the wishes of -the residents of the area under consideration because of the belief -that annexation should be based on the need of the majority of the -people concerned. While annexation may be an answer to the urban -government's need for extending its tax base, county units lose -their prime tax property. Over a period of time, the continued -growth of the metropolitan area causes persons to locate outside of -the revised boundaries and the process of annexation starts over -again. - -In addition to annexation, another method available whereby an urban -unit may extend its boundaries is consolidation of local units. -An example is the merger of a city government unit and a county -government unit into a revised city government unit. In Virginia, -consolidation statutes are relatively flexible: officials of both -units negotiate between themselves to reach an agreement on the -authority of the new local unit of government, in contrast to -annexation where the county government is often forced against its -will to give up valuable real estate. - -The growth of metropolitan areas has raised a serious challenge -to the ability of local units of government to provide adequate -government services to their residents at reasonable costs. Unless -further understanding is developed among the citizenry involved, -the impact of metropolitanism will continue to result in serious -inequities among individual local units of government. - - -S U M M A R Y - -By April 1861, the Commonwealth of Virginia had furnished one-third -of all the Presidents of the United States, had had numerous other -Virginian leaders in high federal positions, had been responsible -for the calling of a "Peace Conference" in the nation's capital -and had been most reluctant to vote for secession from the Union. -However, the inhabitants of Virginia believed in the doctrine of -"States' Rights," in non-interference of slavery by the federal -government and in not coercing neighboring seceded states back -into the Union via invasion. Consequently, Virginia joined the -Confederacy, and Richmond soon became the Confederate capital and -the State of Virginia a huge battlefield. - -The brilliant military tactics of General Robert E. Lee, Thomas -Jonathan Jackson and "J.E.B." Stuart will always be worthy of -military study. Virginia helped the Confederacy, economically -as well as militarily, especially with the food products of the -Saltville area and of the Shenandoah Valley and the manufactured -arms equipment of the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond. When West -Virginia became an independent state without the consent of -Virginia, it reduced the area and population of the Commonwealth -considerably. The ending of the War between the States, like that -of the American Revolutionary War, took place in Virginia. The -magnificent courage and fervor of the Virginians as members of -the Confederacy will always be cherished by posterity. When one -is well-informed of the deeds, hardships and activities which -occurred during the War between the States in Virginia and in other -southern states, one can easily understand the ever-present pride -which the Confederate Flag does, and always will, inspire. This era -of American history, although one of the darkest periods in our -national history when even brother sometimes fought brother on the -battlefield, will forever remain one of the most dynamic and heroic -periods in human civilization. - -After enduring a harsh Reconstruction Program enforced by a radical -United States Congress and by "Carpetbagger" and "Scalawag" -governments, Virginia officially returned to the Union on January -26, 1870. Then the Commonwealth began settling some of its local -problems: the extremely high state debt, the educational program, -the joint boundary line between Virginia and West Virginia and the -"Readjuster" Movement. The newest county in Virginia--Dickenson -County--was created in 1880. By 1900, Virginia ranked seventeenth -in United States state population and seemed prepared to meet the -challenging events of the Twentieth Century with renewed confidence. - -A new state constitution, still in effect today, was "proclaimed" -in 1902. It provided for a poll tax and an "understanding clause" -provision as a voting requirement; later, the latter was changed to -an intelligence test requirement. The unusual political status of a -city, completely independent of county jurisdiction, was originated -at this time also. Racial segregation in the public schools of -Virginia was provided for in the Constitution of 1902. - -Other events and activities concerning Virginia and Virginians -during the Twentieth Century include the payment to Virginia by West -Virginia of the state debt which West Virginia had accumulated while -she was part of Virginia, the operation of the first City-Manager -form of local government at Staunton, outstanding participation -in two World Wars and in the Korean conflict, the "Restoration -of Williamsburg" Project, a reorganization of state governmental -departments, the comparatively small economic dislocation during -the "Great Depression," the establishment of the Shenandoah -National Park, the opportunity afforded service men and women on -active duty to vote without payment of a poll tax, the constant -increase in the growth of industry, the victory for the Virginia -delegates at the 1952 Democratic National Nominating Convention, -Republican Presidential victories in Virginia in 1928, 1952, 1956 -and 1960, developments in education including the problems of -school integration and the expansion of school facilities and the -continuing growth of metropolitanism. - -As our nation's history unfolds, issues of state, national and -international scope will continue to face the Commonwealth. The -history of Virginia has furnished Virginians with a proud heritage, -an appreciation for the noble deeds of the past and an understanding -of the courage and wisdom required to solve successfully current and -future problems. Virginia--a vital area of the United States--will -undoubtedly play a major role in the fulfillment of the destiny of -the United States. - - - - -5 - -Economic Life - -_The Work Force_ - - -A variety of geographical resources and of human resources results -in diversity in the economic life of the state. The proportion of -the population engaged in gainful occupation at the present time is -significant. Approximately 38% of the total population in Virginia -is included in the work force. The group outside the work force -includes individuals who are thirteen years of age or younger, -homemakers, students age fourteen and over, the physically and -mentally handicapped who are unable to work, and persons who are -retired. - -Census enumerations since 1890 indicate that total employment in -Virginia has expanded continuously. During the seventy year period -1890-1960, the work force increased from approximately 552,000 to -approximately 1,473,000. This represents an increase of 176%, or an -average annual increase of 13,137 workers. - -Three phases in the trend of employment are observable: from 1890 -to 1910, 1910 to 1940 and 1940 to 1960. The first phase coincides -with the Industrial Revolution in the United States; the increase -in employment in Virginia during this time was 44%. In the second -phase, from 1910 to 1940, the rate of increase slackened although -the total number in the work force grew; the increase amounted to -14% during this period. The third phase of employment began in 1940 -as needs of World War II became clear; unprecedented peacetime -demands started in 1945 and have continued to the decade of the -1960's; in this phase, for the first time, Virginia outpaced the -United States as a whole in growth of employment, with an increase -of 63%. - - -_Types of Employment_ - -Government Employment--Government employees make up the largest -number of workers in any particular type of occupation in the state. -The term "government employees" includes all civilians working -directly for federal, state and local governments plus military -personnel stationed in Virginia. Nearly one-fourth of the total -Virginia employment is found in this group. Government employment is -the greatest single source of personal income in the state. - -Approximately 65% of the government employment in Virginia, as -defined above, is engaged in activities of the federal government. -The number of military personnel in the state is slightly more than -twice the number of federal civilian employees. Although federal -employment is scattered throughout the state--every community has -postal employees, for example--there is a concentration of federal -employees in two areas of the state, namely, Northern Virginia -(Arlington and Fairfax Counties and the cities of Alexandria and -Falls Church) and the Hampton Roads area. Within the federal -civilian group, approximately 70% are employed by the Department -of Defense. Following the Department of Defense, the next largest -numbers of federal civilian employees work for the Post Office -Department and for the Veterans Administration. In addition to the -federal employees working in the state, a substantial number of -persons who live in Northern Virginia commute daily to the District -of Columbia and nearby Maryland for federal employment. - -Approximately 35% of the government employees in Virginia work -for the state (11%) and for local (24%) governments. Since more -than half of the government employment in the United States is -found in state and local governments, the number of such employees -in Virginia is relatively smaller. The state and local group in -Virginia is nearly equally divided between school and non-school -personnel. Although the number of state and local employees in -Virginia has grown during the past decade, the percentage of -increase has not been as great as that for the United States as a -whole. - -Employment in Manufacturing--Excluding military personnel from -the total government group, employees engaged in manufacturing -rank first in number. However, when civilian government and -military personnel are combined, government employment surpasses -manufacturing employment. Approximately 20% of the total work -force is engaged in manufacturing. During the decade of the 1940's -manufacturing in Virginia surpassed agriculture for the first time, -and the growth of manufacturing continued progressively through the -decade of the 1950's. Manufacturing as a whole is diversified. - -Expenditure for new manufacturing plant and equipment exceeded -one billion dollars in one recent seven-year period. Additional -millions of dollars have been spent recently for expanding existing -facilities. Fabricated metals (example, swimming-pool type atomic -reactors) and machinery and electrical equipment (examples, motors, -calculators) groups of industries have grown substantially within -the past few years. The four manufacturing industries having the -largest number of employees are textile, chemical and chemical -products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood products. -The employees in these four industries constitute nearly 50% of all -workers engaged in manufacturing. - -Textile employment leads all other manufacturing employment. The -textile industry in Virginia includes the spinning and processing -of yarn and the weaving and finishing of material. Cotton and -rayon broad-woven fabrics are the major ones. Approximately 60% of -Virginia's textile employment is found in this category. The cities -of Danville, Fieldale and Roanoke are especially noted for their -textiles. Knitting mills constitute the second type of textile -activity, and approximately two-thirds of employment in the knitting -mills is engaged in making full-fashioned and seamless hosiery. -Lynchburg is a key center of knitting mills for men's and ladies' -hosiery. - -The second largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing -in Virginia is the chemical industry. Approximately two-thirds of -such chemical employees are found in the synthetic fiber field. In -1917, the first large rayon plant was established. This industry -has developed rapidly, and Virginia now plays an important part -nationally in this production. Virginia now has approximately 30% -of the total employees in the United States engaged in synthetic -fibers. There are at present large synthetic fiber plants in -Richmond, Martinsville, Roanoke, Waynesboro, Narrows and Front -Royal. Virginia has been regarded as the geographical center of this -industry in the United States. Another type of chemical production -involves industrial inorganic chemicals including alkalies--soda -ash, bicarbonate of soda, caustic soda--and chlorine (Saltville -and Hopewell), sulfuric acid (Norfolk and Richmond) and ammonia -(Hopewell). The manufacturing of fertilizer is also important in -the state because of the agricultural need for it in the South and -because Virginia is conveniently located with respect to the raw -materials necessary for making fertilizer (namely, potash, nitrogen -and phosphate rock). Hopewell and Norfolk are two cities which have -large plants for the manufacture of fertilizers. Both Fredericksburg -and Richmond have a large cellophane company and certain medicinal -drugs such as streptomycin and thiamine hydrochloride are -manufactured at Elkton. In addition, dyes, wood turpentine, dry ice -and various insecticides are produced in Virginia. - -The third largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing -is the food and kindred products industry. This industry may be -conveniently divided into two groups based upon the factors which -determine their location: - -1) those food industries whose products originate and are marketed -in a population center--for example, bakery products (Richmond, -Norfolk and Roanoke), beverages (Norfolk and Richmond), meat -products (Richmond and Smithfield), dairy products (Richmond, -Roanoke, Alexandria and Fredericksburg) and manufactured ice -(Richmond and Alexandria); - -2) those food industries which find it desirable to locate close -to the source of supply--usually a perishable commodity--for -example, seafood canneries (Norfolk, Hampton and Reedville), -vegetable canneries (Walkerton and Urbanna), poultry dressing -plants (Broadway, Harrisonburg and Winchester), fruit processing -plants (Berryville, Mount Jackson, Winchester and Front Royal), -confectionery plants (Suffolk and Norfolk), meatpacking companies -(Suffolk and Smithfield) and frozen foods (seafood--Norfolk; -poultry--Broadway; fruits and vegetables--Exmore). - - * * * * * - -The fourth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing -is the lumber and lumber products industry. In the latter part -of the Nineteenth Century and the early Twentieth Century, this -industry had the greatest number of employees in the manufacturing -field. Gradually its importance declined until the 1930's when it -increased rapidly as the demand for lumber production increased -until, at present, it has reached fourth place. Approximately -77% of Virginia's total lumber industry employees is found in -the sawmills and planing mills, especially in mills located in -Franklin, Petersburg, Norfolk and Richmond. Whereas the synthetic -fibers mentioned previously are manufactured primarily in seven -large plants with numerous employees per plant, the lumber industry -in Virginia consists of approximately 1700 establishments--only -approximately 200 of which employ at least twenty employees. Veneer -mills, excelsior mills, mill-work plants, plywood plants and -companies which make fruit and vegetable baskets, boxes and crates -also furnish diverse types of wood products for the Virginia lumber -industry. - -The fifth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is -the apparel industry. Approximately one-half of all such employees -are engaged in making men's and boys' clothing: suits, coats and -overcoats are made in large quantities in Richmond, Staunton and -Norfolk; shirts, pajamas and underwear at Danville, Radford, -Lynchburg and Marion; trousers, overalls and sports jackets at -Martinsville, Richmond and Staunton. Women's and misses' dresses -are manufactured at Roanoke, maids' and nurses' uniforms and sports -jackets at Lynchburg, lingerie at Staunton and Roanoke, gloves at -Lynchburg, children's and infants' dresses and play clothes at -Newport News and Shenandoah. Supplementary textile products include -sheets and pillow cases (Danville), towels (Fieldale), hassocks, -canvas awnings and automobile seat covers (Richmond). - -The sixth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is -the transportation equipment industry. Most of this employment -is found in shipbuilding at the Hampton Roads area where -aircraft carriers, atomic submarines, ocean liners--such as the -"Constitution" and the "United States"--and numerous smaller vessels -are constructed. Other employees of this industry work in numerous -truck and bus body companies scattered throughout the state, in -railroad equipment companies--for example, brake shoes (Roanoke); -railroad bearings (Petersburg) and in a wagon company (Lynchburg). - -Furniture-making ranks seventh in number of employees engaged in -manufacturing. Most of Virginia's furniture workers are engaged -in the manufacture of unupholstered wooden house furniture. Such -furniture includes bedroom, living room and dining room suites -(Bassett, Martinsville, Staunton, Marion, Stanleytown, Roanoke -and Pulaski), cedar chests (Alta Vista) and radio and television -cabinets (Bristol). Living room upholstered furniture including -chairs, sofa beds, studio couches and furniture frames are -manufactured at Salem, Christiansburg, Norfolk, Roanoke and Galax. -Chrome dinettes and plastic furniture are manufactured in plants -located at Marion. Office equipment including floor cabinets and -metal filing cabinets is made at Crozet. There is also an extensive -fixture industry--bank, office and store fixtures--plus such -items as literary bookstacks, metal partitions, doors and movable -partitions primarily at Orange, Norfolk and Richmond. - -The eighth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is -the tobacco industry. Although the national consumption of tobacco -has increased considerably, the rapid mechanization added to the -manufacturing process has resulted in a decline in the total number -of employees. Although only approximately six workers per 1,000 -engaged in manufacturing in the United States are in the tobacco -industry, in Virginia approximately 56 workers per 1,000 are so -engaged. The chief locations for the tobacco industry are Richmond, -Petersburg, Danville and South Boston. These workers are engaged -primarily in the manufacture of cigarettes and in tobacco stemming -and redrying. Richmond is the largest cigarette manufacturing center -in the world. Petersburg has an exceptionally large cigarette -manufacturing plant. Cigars, chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff -are also manufactured in Richmond. Danville has the largest number -of tobacco stemming and redrying workers. Approximately half of the -tobacco industry workers are women. - -The ninth largest employer of workers engaged in manufacturing is -the paper and allied industries. The greatest number of such workers -is engaged in the manufacturing of pulp. The largest pulp mills are -located at Covington and Franklin. Approximately one-half of the -nation's supply of wood pulp is furnished by the South and Virginia -ranks fifth among the southern states in its production. The newly -developed methods of utilizing southern pine for producing kraft -paper and newsprint have caused considerable increase in this type -of production. Kraft paper is usually dark brown in color and is a -most durable type of wrapping paper. Such paper is manufactured at -Covington, Franklin, West Point, Hopewell and Richmond. Other paper -products such as gummed and waxed paper (Richmond), varied types of -commercial envelopes and church collection envelopes (Richmond), -multi-wall paper bags (Richmond, Franklin and Newport News) and -paperboard containers--corrugated shipping cases, cartons, boxes of -varied sizes and shapes (Richmond, Lynchburg) are likewise produced -in abundance. - -Over 9,000 employees are engaged in the printing and publishing -industry. Approximately one-half of these employees work in the -printing and publishing of newspapers. These newspaper companies -are scattered throughout the state. In addition, there are other -companies which publish books, engage in commercial printing in -general, in lithographing, bookbinding, plate printing, engraving -and in photo engraving. These companies also are located in several -areas with Richmond, Norfolk and Newport News having the greatest -number of employees. - -Another industry important to Virginia's economic expansion is the -stone, clay and glass production industry. Half of the employees -in this industry are engaged in the manufacture of concrete and -plaster products. An increase in local construction has resulted in -an increase in the production of cinder blocks and other building -materials. The following products are included: purchased glass -products (example, mirrors)--Galax, Bassett, Richmond, Martinsville; -hydraulic cement--Fordwick and Riverton; structural clay (brick and -hollow tile)--Roanoke; pottery and china (lusterware)--Abingdon; -flower pots and pans--Richmond; asbestos (automatic brake -linings)--Winchester; stone products (marble and granite monumental -stones)--Burkeville, Richmond, Roanoke and Danville; concrete -products--Roanoke and Richmond; gypsum products--Plasterco and -Norfolk; lime--Austinville and Kimballton; mineral wool--Riverton; -soapstone and stone products--Schuyler; abrasives--Petersburg; and -mica--Newport News. - -Other manufacturing industries in Virginia include (1) leather and -leather products--with tanneries at Luray, Bristol, Pearisburg, -Buena Vista and Salem; luggage-making at Petersburg and -footwear-making at Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Farmville and Halifax; -(2) primary metals industry--with gray-iron foundries at Newport -News, Lynchburg and Radford; (3) fabricated metals industry--with -the manufacture of structural metal and structural and ornamental -products at Richmond, Norfolk, Bristol and Alexandria; pressure -vessels at Newport News; locks at Salem; swimming-pool type atomic -reactors at Campbell County (near Lynchburg), and (4) non-electrical -machinery industry--with hydraulic turbines, textile wool cards, -pulp and papermaking machinery at Newport News, Crozet, Bristol and -Richmond. - -Employment in Agriculture--A persistent trend in Virginia's economic -picture is the continuous decline in agricultural employment, a -condition characteristic of agriculture in the United States in -general. Approximately 10% of the total employment is presently -found in agricultural pursuits. Although the demand for agricultural -commodities has increased, the output per worker in agriculture has -increased more rapidly. The greater output has occurred as a result -of improved methods of farming, technological advances and larger -agricultural investments. This situation has resulted also in a -greater variety of crops, improved breeds of livestock, and better -control of insects and pests. - -In the past twenty years there has been a gradual shift in -Virginia's agriculture from the production of crops to the -production of livestock and livestock products. As a matter of -fact, Virginia is a leader in the South in the relative importance -of livestock and livestock products. Poultry and poultry products -lead the distribution list, followed by meat animals (cattle and -calves, hogs, sheep and lambs) and dairy products. Virginia ranks -third in the production of turkeys in the United States and sixth in -production of broiler chicks in the United States. Rockingham County -is famous for its turkeys and chickens. "Cut-up chicken" meat, as -well as broilers and eggs, constitutes important poultry products. -Culpeper and Loudoun Counties have the greatest number of milk cows -per square mile. Large manufacturing plants in the southwestern part -of Virginia produce evaporated and condensed milk. Beef cattle are -raised in almost every county in Virginia but the Southwest, the -Shenandoah Valley and Northern Virginia are the three chief regions. -In addition to the meat itself, by-products such as soap and fodder -are manufactured and hides and skins are utilized in the making of -miscellaneous articles. Hogs and pigs are found in great numbers -in Southampton, Nansemond and Isle of Wight Counties and sheep and -lambs in large numbers in Augusta, Russell, Rockingham and Highland -Counties. - -In field crops, tobacco leads the list. One of the nation's -largest tobacco producers, Virginia has four types of tobacco: (1) -flue-cured--the most extensive one--grown largely in Pittsylvania, -Halifax and Mecklenburg Counties with Danville and South Boston the -chief markets; (2) burley tobacco grown mostly in the southwest -area--Washington, Scott and Lee Counties--with Abingdon the leading -market; (3) fire-cured tobacco grown in Appomattox, Charlotte and -Campbell with Lynchburg and Farmville important markets and (4) -sun-cured tobacco grown in central Virginia--Louisa, Caroline and -Hanover Counties--with Richmond the largest market in this area. - -Virginia ranks first in the amount of peanut yield per acre and -third in peanut production in the United States. The peanut acreage -is located in southeast Virginia--Southampton, Isle of Wight, -Nansemond and Sussex Counties; Suffolk is often referred to as the -"Peanut Capital of the World." Corn is grown in practically every -county with most acreage in Southampton, Loudoun and Pittsylvania -Counties. The growing of wheat, particularly winter wheat, is -widespread also, with Augusta, Rockingham and Loudoun Counties -having the greatest harvest. Irish potatoes are grown extensively -on the Eastern Shore (Accomack and Northampton Counties) and in the -Norfolk area. Virginia ranks third in sweet potato production in the -United States and Accomack, Northampton and Princess Anne Counties -are the chief growers of these potatoes. Soy beans are cultivated -in Norfolk, Princess Anne, Accomack, Northumberland and Hanover -Counties. Hay is grown in various parts of Virginia and consists -of six types: clover and timothy hay, lespedeza hay, alfalfa hay, -peanut hay, soybean hay and cowpea hay. Cotton is grown in the -southeast, particularly in Southampton, Greensville, Brunswick -and Mecklenburg Counties. Virginia leads all the states in the -production of orchard grass seed. Some oats, barley and buckwheat -are grown but only in small quantities. - -Truck farming is extremely important. Lima beans, snap beans, beets, -broccoli, cabbage, cucumbers, sweet corn, kale, onions, green peas, -green peppers, spinach, strawberries, tomatoes and watermelons are -grown extensively. The truck farming region is located primarily in -Accomack, Northampton, King and Queen, Nansemond, Princess Anne and -Norfolk Counties. Much of the truck farming crop is sent to New York -City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, Washington and Atlanta. - -In fruit production, apples are first; in total production, apples -follow two field crops, tobacco and peanuts. Virginia ranks fourth -in apple production in the United States. The chief apple producing -counties are Frederick, Clarke, Augusta and Nelson and the types -of apples produced are York Imperial, Winesap, Stayman, Delicious, -Grimes Golden, Albemarle Pippin or Yellow Newton, Ben Davis and -Gano, Black Twig, Golden Delicious, Rome Beauty and Jonathan. -Peaches are grown in abundance in Nelson, Albemarle, Frederick, -Roanoke, Rockingham and Botetourt Counties, making Virginia tenth in -peach production in the United States. Pears and grapes are grown on -a small scale. In addition to the full-time agricultural employment, -there is much seasonal agricultural employment, particularly for -fruit and truck farming. - -Thus, although agricultural employment has been surpassed by -employment in government, in manufacturing occupations and in -wholesale and retail trade, the products grown and the livestock -raised are numerous and excellent in quality. Thus, Virginia with -approximately 135,000 farms, contributes significantly to the -agricultural economy of the United States. - -In addition to employers engaged in government employment, -manufacturing and agriculture, additional groups of employees in -Virginia are engaged in a series of diversified economic activities. -Among such occupations are those concerned with trade, services, -public utilities, construction, finance, mining and forestry and -fishing. - -Employment in Wholesale and Retail Trade--Employment in wholesale -and retail trade has increased in Virginia to such an extent that -it ranks third, following government employment and manufacturing -employment, in non-agricultural employment. Approximately 22% of -the civilian non-agricultural employees are engaged in trade. The -shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy has resulted in -a greater demand for wholesale and retail goods. During the decade -of the 1950's wholesale and retail trade employment increased its -relative share of total state employment by approximately one-third. -The greatest number of persons in retail trade work in the food -trades and in general merchandising. - -Employment in Services--Services industries are located throughout -the state; approximately 11% of the civilian non-agricultural -employees are engaged in such activity. This category includes -domestic help and other forms of personalized aid. - -Employment in Public Utilities--Employment in public utilities -constitutes approximately 9% of the total civilian non-agricultural -employment. This occupational group is extremely important because -of the key role of transportation, communication and local utilities -in the state. About one-half of these workers are employed in -taxicab service, local transit service, telephone and telegraph -service, radio broadcasting and television service, electric, gas, -water and sanitary service utilities. Half of the workers included -in this category consist of railroad and water transportation -workers. - -Employment in Construction Activities--Approximately 7% of the total -civilian non-agricultural employment is concerned with construction. -More than three-fourths of all construction during the past decade -has been for private use, approximately half of this construction -involving private residences. The tremendous increase in the -population of Virginia during the past twenty years has caused the -rate of private residential building to be higher than that for the -entire nation. Privately-owned public utility buildings, public -highways and private non-residential buildings rank high in kinds of -construction projects undertaken. - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_A Modern Manufacturing Plant_] - -Employment in Finance--Finance, including bank, insurance and real -estate activity, affects all geographical areas of the state but, in -terms of numbers, these activities are primarily located in or near -urban centers. Approximately 7% of the civilian non-agricultural -employees are so engaged. - -Employment in Mining Operations--Approximately 2% of the total -civilian non-agricultural employees in Virginia are engaged in -mining. More than 80% of Virginia's mining employment is in -bituminous coal which is the chief mining product of the nation -as a whole. Virginia furnishes approximately 3% of the total -annual output of this product in the United States. Such mining is -extremely important in Buchanan and Dickenson Counties where more -than half of all the civilian employees are miners. Pocahontas, Big -Stone Gap, Dante and Tazewell have huge bituminous coal mines. Stone -quarrying rates second in mining employment. Crushed stone granite -quarries are found in Roanoke, Richmond, Fredericksburg, Red Hill -and Leesburg and crushed limestone quarries are found in Kimballton, -Riverton, Leesburg, Stephens City and Buchanan. Employment in crude -petroleum, natural gas and in metal mining, which accounts for -one-third of the nation's total mining employment, is less than 3% -of Virginia's total mining employment. - -Employment in Forestry and Fisheries--Current employment in -forestry and fisheries constitutes slightly less than 1% of the -total civilian non-agricultural work force. Commercial fishermen -far outnumber the foresters. However, as described previously, -the lumber and lumber products industry, the paper and allied -products industry and the furniture industry which are based upon -the forestry industry have experienced great increases in their -employment. Employees engaged in forest products industries now -constitute one-fourth of the total employment in manufacturing. -Although fishermen outnumber foresters at the present time, the -number of fishermen has been decreasing. Nevertheless, the fisheries -supply additional employment to processing and wholesale employees. -A few localities such as Mathews, Northumberland, Lancaster, -Gloucester, York and Middlesex Counties have a comparatively high -percentage of their workers engaged in fisheries. - -Employment in Travel Trade--The number of employees engaged in -travel trade employment is unknown. Two characteristics of this -type of employment should be noted: (1) in addition to full-time -employees, there is an indeterminate number of part-time employees; -and (2) employees engaged in travel trade are, for the most part, -seasonal workers. The greatest number of such workers are found in -hotels, motels and other tourist lodgings, in restaurants and cafes, -in gasoline service stations and in recreational and entertainment -activities. Approximately 94% of Virginia's travel trade comes -to Virginia via the automobile; out-of-state tourists constitute -about 70% of the travel trade in Virginia. It has been estimated -that about half of these travelers are on vacations and the other -half are mainly on business trips. About half of the vacationers -are usually passing through Virginia on the way to or from specific -destinations outside the state. The other half usually have selected -Virginia as their particular destination to visit relatives or -friends, to tour historical and scenic places and to enjoy the -recreational attractions found here. The travel trade has increased -considerably during the past few years. As a direct result of the -increase, the number of hotels, motels and other lodging places in -Virginia has likewise rapidly increased. Williamsburg and Virginia -Beach illustrate the singular importance of travel trade in causing -widespread growth in total employment in a community. - - -_Importance of Transportation_ - -The economic activity of any region depends greatly upon its -transportation facilities. Without an efficient transportation -system, goods--either raw materials or finished products or farm -produce--cannot be moved from one point to another, workers cannot -reach their jobs and consumers cannot reach their markets. Virginia -is particularly fortunate in having a network of key railroads, -excellent highways, deep harbors and modern airports. Trains, buses, -trucks, passenger cars, boats, ocean vessels and aircraft--all play -a basic role in the economic life of the state. - -Numerous railroads provide interstate as well as intrastate -service: the Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad connects -Washington with Richmond; running over the R.F.&P. tracks and -continuing in a north-south direction between Richmond and the North -Carolina border are the Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard Air Line -railroads; the Southern Railway runs diagonally from Washington -across Virginia to the North Carolina border near Danville, with -another route from West Point through Richmond and Danville; the -Atlantic and Danville Railroad operates between Danville and -Norfolk; the Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad runs diagonally from -Washington to Gordonsville where it connects either in a westerly -direction with West Virginia near Covington or in an easterly -direction with Newport News; the Norfolk and Western Railroad -operates in an east-west direction from Norfolk through Lynchburg -and Roanoke to West Virginia; and the Virginian Railway (now a -branch of the N. & W.) connects Suffolk with Roanoke and West -Virginia. The Pennsylvania Railroad has a branch line crossing the -Eastern Shore from Maryland to Cape Charles while the Baltimore & -Ohio has a branch through the Shenandoah Valley. - -Virginia has a very modern system of primary and secondary roads -which permit quick and comfortable motor transportation between -urban, suburban and rural points. In addition, Virginia has within -its borders several vital links in the national system of interstate -and defense highways scheduled for final completion throughout the -United States by 1972. In Virginia, the national system involves one -link cutting across the western part of the state in a southwesterly -direction (Interstate Number 81); a second link cutting across the -eastern part of the state in a north-south direction (Number 85 and -Number 95) to supercede U. S. Routes 1 and 301; a third link running -east-west between Norfolk, Richmond, Staunton and the West Virginia -border (Number 64); a fourth link running east-west between northern -Virginia near Washington and West Virginia via Strasburg (Number -66) and a fifth link crossing the southwestern part of the state in -a north-south direction (Number 77). In terms of total designated -mileage of the whole interstate system, Virginia is one of 16 states -to have over 1000 miles within its borders. Although most of the -interstate system in Virginia will not be completed for a few more -years, some portions of the five Virginia links are already open for -traffic. - -A series of bridges, many toll-free, help the growth of -transportation. Construction plans for one of the most difficult -water crossings are underway in connection with a $200,000,000 -bridge-tunnel to run 171/2 miles across the mouth of the Chesapeake -Bay in the Hampton Roads area. This crossing will run from -Chesapeake Beach near Norfolk to Cape Charles on the Eastern Shore. -When completed in 1964, the bridge-tunnel crossing will replace -ferryboats, the only type of public transportation heretofore -available between these points. - -Five major commercial air lines serve Virginia: American, Capital, -Eastern, National and Piedmont Lines. In addition to the Washington -National Airport near Alexandria and the Dulles International -Airport at Chantilly, which serve the northern Virginia area, -airports contributing to the economic progress of the state are -located at Richmond, Bristol, Danville, Lynchburg, Newport News, -Norfolk-Portsmouth and Roanoke. - - -S U M M A R Y - -An unusually large number of individuals in the -Commonwealth--civilian and military--work in either federal, -state or local government employment. In proportion to the total -population of a state, the greatest concentration of federal -government employment within a single state is found in Virginia. - -If one considers civilian employees solely, the largest number of -employees in the state is engaged in manufacturing. The number of -employees in manufacturing first surpassed the number of employees -in agriculture in the 1940's. The manufacturing industries which -have the largest number of employees are textile, chemical and -chemical products, food and kindred products, and lumber and wood -products; these employees constitute nearly 50% of all workers -engaged in manufacturing. - -Other important manufacturing industries include apparel, -transportation equipment, furniture, tobacco, paper and paper -products, printing and publishing, stone, clay and glass production, -leather and leather products, primary metals, fabricated metals, -and non-electrical machinery. As Virginia has changed from a -predominantly agricultural state to a predominantly manufacturing -state, wholesale and retail trade has increased proportionately. - -Although agriculture is no longer the leading occupation, Virginia -has a variety of important crops and livestock. Poultry and poultry -products, meat animals, dairy products, tobacco, peanuts, corn, -winter wheat, sweet potatoes, hay, cotton, orchard grass seed, truck -farming crops and fruit (especially apples, peaches, strawberries -and watermelons) are leading farm products. - -Significant numbers of workers in Virginia are engaged in wholesale -and retail trade, services, public utilities, construction -(especially construction of private houses, buildings and public -highways), finance, mining (especially bituminous coal and quarry -stone), forestry and fisheries, and travel trade. - -An efficient transportation system, consisting of a network of key -railroads, excellent highways, deep harbors and modern airports -plays a basic role in the economic life of the state. - -A survey of the major occupations reveals a diversified economic -life which provides the citizens of Virginia with broad -opportunities for employment. - - - - -6 - -Cultural Life - - -Culture has been defined as the "training, improvement and -refinement of the mind." Since literature, art, sculpture, -architecture, music, drama and education are factors which -influence, as well as reflect, the culture of a group, a survey of -some of the outstanding contributors to these fields will reveal the -broad, cultural heritage of the residents of the Commonwealth. - - -_Literature_ - -Even with the hardships and difficulties facing early settlers in -Virginia, writings in the form of diaries and journals appeared -during the colonial period. George Percy describes his explorations -in the New World in "Observations gathered out of a Discourse of the -Southern Colonie in Virginia by the English." Captain John Smith, -the leader of the early colony, is believed to have used both fact -and fiction in his writings. "A True Relation of Virginia," which -he wrote in Virginia and sent to England in an attempt to attract -more settlers to the colony, describes his explorations up the James -River. His "Map of Virginia" was based primarily upon observations -which he made while exploring the Chesapeake Bay region. In 1624, -he wrote "The General History of Virginia," which is considered his -literary masterpiece. Under modern literary standards, he would -probably be classed generally as a Romanticist. - -William Strachey, who left England as the first secretary of the -Virginia Colony at Jamestown and who experienced in his journey -separation of his ship from the rest of the small fleet, was -shipwrecked on the Islands of Bermuda and eventually arrived at -Jamestown. Strachey, who had written some poetry before coming -to America, used his shipwrecked experiences described earlier -as background for a most descriptive letter concerning a tempest -at sea. The original title of Strachey's manuscript was "A True -Repertory of the Wrecke, and Redemption of Sir Thomas Gates" (Gates, -Governor of the colony, was also a passenger on the same ship with -Strachey). It is believed by some literary critics that William -Shakespeare who read this letter selected much of its contents as -background material for his play, "The Tempest." Another writer who -left a vivid description of his voyage from England to Virginia is -Henry Norwood: his work entitled "A Voyage to Virginia" is regarded -as one of the best realistic, detailed accounts of early voyages to -America. - -Only two poets are remembered for their writings in Virginia -during the early period: Richard Rich and George Sandys. Rich -utilized his journey from England to the New World as the basis -for his poem, "A Ballad of Virginia," sometimes entitled "Newes -from Virginia." George Sandys, an Oxford gentleman, did not write -concerning Virginia but while he was in Jamestown as the treasurer -of the colony, he completed a most unusual translation of Ovid's -"Metamorphoses." An anonymous elegy found in the "Burwell Papers" is -considered one of the finest literary attempts during the colonial -period: entitled "Bacon's Epitaph, Made by His Man," it eulogizes -the courage and steadfastness of purpose of Nathaniel Bacon who -dared to revolt against the autocratic rule of Governor Berkeley and -to lead Bacon's Rebellion. Bacon's untimely death from fever caused -many Virginia settlers to feel, as the author of this elegy felt, -that the loss of the champion of their cause was a severe one. - -A different type of writing was furnished by Reverend James -Blair, founder of the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg -and president of the second oldest educational institution in -the United States for over fifty years. Reverend Blair wrote a -scholarly article on the organization of churches in Virginia in -an account called "Concerning the Church and Religion." Another -minister, Reverend Hugh Jones, who held the position of professor of -mathematics at the College of William and Mary and who had a strong -personal interest in history, wrote "The Present State of Virginia" -in 1724. His writing was characterized by seriousness of purpose, -accuracy and keen observations. He later authored the first English -grammar book written in America. - -When Robert Beverley, a native-born Virginian of Middlesex County, -was visiting in London, he was asked by a London bookdealer to -review a manuscript which had been submitted concerning the American -colonies. Beverley disagreed with much of the information included -in the manuscript and decided to write a book himself on Virginia. -Consequently, he wrote "The History of Virginia." This book was -considered such enjoyable reading that it was later published in -French. Robert Beverley is considered the first Virginia formal -history author. - -The man whose writings are usually classified as the best writings -in Virginia before the Revolutionary Period was William Byrd II. -He was born on a plantation along the James River and was sent -to England for his education at the age of ten. He traveled in -Holland, studied law and was admitted to the bar at the age of -twenty-one. After returning to Virginia, he was elected to the -Virginia Assembly. He built a beautiful home, Westover, became a -leading figure in politics and in Virginia society and instituted -a personal library in his home which exceeded 3,000 volumes, the -largest library in the colonies. He returned to England as the -legal representative of the Virginia Assembly where he enjoyed -the companionship of the socially elite in England. When his -father died, he returned to Virginia and inherited 25,000 acres, -political supremacy and a high place in social circles. Byrd's -writings did not appear publicly until more than two hundred years -after his death. Three papers are believed to be his best literary -achievements: "The History of the Dividing Line" (concerning the -boundary line established between Virginia and North Carolina), "A -Progress to the Mines" (concerning a journey to some iron mines) and -"A Journey to the Land of Eden" (concerning a journey to the Dismal -Swamp area). These chronicles were combined and included in the -"Westover Manuscripts." Notes from Byrd's personal diary, which was -kept in code and later translated by Mrs. Marion Tingling, have been -published and reveal many human-interest incidents in his eventful -life. - -Another colonial Virginia historian is Reverend William Stith. -He used colonial records, personal papers of his uncle, Sir John -Randolph, London Company official records and material available in -the Byrd Library to write a most comprehensive history of Virginia -entitled "The History of Virginia from the First Settlement to -the Dissolution of the London Company." Although it has been -criticized for its extreme length and detailedness, this history -is a scholarly, authoritative source still used by researchers for -knowledge of this period of history. - -As the colonists in America were beginning to rebel against the -mother country, were gradually learning the feeling of freedom -and democracy and were becoming more settled in their mode of -living, their interests changed from problems of existence to -serious thoughts concerning government, rights of individuals and -political theories. The changing thoughts of the colonists were -reflected in the type of writings which began to appear prior to the -Revolutionary War. - -George Washington, who is usually remembered foremost as the first -President of the United States and as the great military leader of -the Revolutionary War, must not be overlooked in the literary field. -Washington left numerous addresses, official documents, orders and -letters of various types. However, one of his finest literary works -is a personal diary kept by him, at the age of sixteen, while on a -surveying trip in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. It has become -famous for its human quality and is simply named, "Journey over the -Mountains, 1748." Washington's acceptance as Commander-in-chief of -the United States Army, his "Farewell Speech" to the soldiers at the -end of the war, his acceptance of the Presidency and his "Farewell -Address"--all reveal the literary qualities which he possessed. - -Patrick Henry of Hanover County spoke in dramatic fashion about -ideas and ideals which abounded in the minds of many other -Americans. Henry's arguments in the "Parsons' Case," his authorship -of the Virginia Resolutions prefaced by his famous "Caesar-Brutus" -Speech, his pleading address at the Continental Congress for the -arming of Virginia and his famous "Give me Liberty or Death" -Speech--all these words, written or spoken, are recorded for -posterity in the literature of the times. - -Thomas Jefferson, the "Monticello Wizard" of multi-talents, made -considerable contributions to the historical, social and educational -fields. His "A Summary View of the Rights of British America," -although considered radical in part, was a pamphlet which brought -widespread attention to the important issues of allegiance and -natural rights. Jefferson's language predominates in the Declaration -of Independence, and, as some authors of history and of literature -have asserted, Jefferson's fame would have been international from -this one document alone even if he had died at the conclusion -of this task. Jefferson rated his "Act for Religious Freedom in -Virginia" as one of the three greatest personal achievements of his -lifetime. After Jefferson retired to his home at Monticello upon -the completion of his Governorship, he wrote his famous "Notes on -Virginia." - -George Mason, a native of Fairfax County, used a literary style -that is described as frank often to the point of bluntness, clear, -democratic and unassuming yet distinguished. An illustration of -this type of writing is a group of resolutions called the "Fairfax -Resolves"--so-called because they were presented at a meeting in -Fairfax County. George Mason was selected later at the Virginia -State Constitutional Convention at Williamsburg to pen a declaration -of aims for a State constitution. The Virginia Bill of Rights which -he proceeded to describe consists of the fundamental rights of man -which he believed must be guaranteed if happiness and peace are to -be attained. These ideas were considered so necessary to mankind -that eventually they were drawn upon for the Bill of Rights in the -United States Constitution and Bills of Rights in various other -State constitutions. Thus, the influence of George Mason of Gunston -Hall will be forever enshrined in the literary field as well as in -the political field. - -Richard Henry Lee of Westmoreland County is included in a survey -of literary contributors because of his carefully worded public -addresses, his well-written "Leedstown Resolutions" and his -introduction of the famous resolution "that these united Colonies -are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ..." at -the Philadelphia convention. - -Excellent information about life on a Southern plantation is found -in "The Journal of Philip Vickers Fithian." This manuscript was -written in the form of a one-year diary and includes a description -of the life of Philip Fithian as a tutor to the children of Robert -Carter at Nomini Hall, Westmoreland County. His various letters and -a second diary describing a mission tour in Virginia taken after he -had become a Presbyterian minister also make enjoyable reading. His -untimely death at the age of twenty-eight while he was working as a -chaplain in a Revolutionary Army camp ended a literary career which -had begun most successfully. - -Besides his political career, James Madison developed persuasive -writing techniques as illustrated in his contributions to "The -Federalist" papers. He wrote twenty articles in an effort to -encourage ratification of the United States Constitution. "The -Federalist" remains the greatest single written influence which -persuaded Americans who were doubtful about the Constitution to -decide finally in favor of it. Another example of his written powers -of persuasion is "A Memorial and Remonstrance to the Virginia -General Assembly" wherein he successfully defeated a proposal to -provide state support for the teaching of religion in Virginia. -He was an ardent believer in the separation of church and state. -The voluminous, lucid notes which Madison recorded during the -Philadelphia Constitutional Convention are still the sole source of -detailed, accurate information about this historical meeting. - -St. George Tucker, a student and later a law professor at William -and Mary College and a Virginia judge, wrote two lyrical poems, -"Resignation" and "Days of My Youth," in addition to an annotated -edition of Blackstone's "Commentaries" consisting of five volumes. -Principles of government and of the Federal Constitution included -in the appendix of these works are regarded as legally significant. -Tucker showed his versatility by writing drama and political satires -as well as poetry. He is probably remembered best in literary -circles for "A Dissertation on Slavery: With a Proposal For the -Gradual Abolition of It in the State of Virginia." - -John Taylor, a statesman, who served in the House of Delegates and -in the United States Senate, wrote many economic and political -treatises. His most widely-read work was "An Inquiry into the -Principles and Policy of the Government of the United States." His -strong advocacy of Jefferson's agrarian program gained him a reading -audience of farmers as well as statesmen. - -John Marshall, a famous Virginian in the federal judiciary, -published in 1804-1807 a five-volume scholarly biography of George -Washington: "The Life of George Washington." - -Mason Locke Weems, often called "Parson" Weems, was a native of -Maryland who married a Virginian and spent much of his life in -Virginia. In 1800, he published "A History of the Life and Death, -Virtues and Exploits of General George Washington, With Curious -Anecdotes Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young -Countrymen." He combined fact and fiction at his own discretion and -had a highly imaginative mind. He is believed to have introduced the -method of anecdote writing; the cherry tree episode and the throwing -of the Spanish dollar across the Rappahannock were included in his -biography of Washington. He later wrote biographies of Francis -Marion, Benjamin Franklin and William Penn. Weem's biographies are -enjoyable reading rather than accurate accounts of the lives of -these individuals. - -Henry Lee, father of Robert E. Lee and widely known as "Light -Horse Harry" Lee, was selected as the individual to deliver the -funeral oration of George Washington. His "Tribute to Washington" -is a literary masterpiece which included the oft-quoted lines, in -referring to Washington, as "first in war, first in peace and first -in the hearts of his countrymen." Later, during his imprisonment -for an unpaid debt, he wrote "Memoirs of the War in the Southern -Department." - -James McClurg, a delegate from Virginia to the Philadelphia -Constitutional Convention, enjoyed writing light verse. "The Belles -of Williamsburg" illustrates his type of poetry. - -Although William Wirt is usually associated with law, his name is -also associated with literature. His best known work is "The Letters -of a British Spy" in which he included the oratorical ability of the -blind Presbyterian evangelist, James Waddell. Wirt published two -series of essays, called "The Rainbow" and "The Old Bachelor." He -also wrote a biography, titled "Sketches of the Life and Character -of Patrick Henry," which has been both favorably and unfavorably -criticized. - -An individual whose original remarks, both written and oral, have -been classified as literarily significant is the famous political -leader, John Randolph of Roanoke. He is believed to have symbolized -the turning-point of the minds of Virginians from democratic and -international viewpoints to aristocratic and states rights' beliefs. -His stepfather was St. George Tucker who influenced him in his youth -to become intellectually acquainted through reading with some of -the great writers of the world: Shakespeare, Voltaire, Pope and -Goldsmith. In the literary field, he became noted for his clever, -though often sarcastic, epigrams, particularly those referring to -political leaders of the times. Although he himself did not publish -any material, his remarks have been recorded and were later printed -in a two-volume biography, entitled "John Randolph of Roanoke -1773-1833" by William Cabell Bruce. - -Nathaniel Beverly Tucker was the half-brother of John Randolph of -Roanoke and the son of St. George Tucker. Born in Chesterfield -County, he became a lawyer, a judge and a professor of law at -William and Mary College. Although he was never able to attain -economically and socially this high planter type of social status, -he taught the necessity of an aristocracy. He expounded the doctrine -of secession, defended slavery in spite of his father's energetic -campaign against slavery and disliked practically everything outside -of Virginia. In 1836, he wrote "The Partisan Leader" under the -assumed name of Edward William Sidney. Since he strongly disliked -Martin Van Buren, he wrote this book in direct opposition to Van -Buren. He placed the time of the story as 1856 and then proceeded -to describe the happenings of a "dictatorship" which had been -established by Van Buren and the eventual secession of the Southern -states from the Union with a civil war as the result. Peculiarly -enough, this book was reprinted in 1861 as a propaganda technique by -both the North and the South: the North used it as an illustration -that the theory of secession had been planned and discussed for -years in the South and the South used it as an illustration that the -theory of secession had been justified and accepted for years. Two -major literary works of Tucker are "A Discourse on the Importance of -the Study of Political Science" and "The Principles of Pleading." - -Francis Walker Gilmer, a native of Albemarle County and a brilliant -student at William and Mary where he prepared himself for a law -career, wrote an anonymous volume entitled "Sketches of American -Orators." His "Sketches, Essays and Translations" were published -posthumously. - -William Alexander Caruthers was a medical doctor who enjoyed -writing. His most well-known book is "The Knights of the Horse-Shoe; -a Traditional Tale of the Cocked Hat Gentry in the Old Dominion." -He also wrote "The Kentuckian in New-York, or the Adventures of -Three Southerners," "The Cavaliers of Virginia, or the Recluse of -Jamestown" and "An Historical Romance of the Old Dominion." - -The greatest literary genius of Virginia is generally considered to -be Edgar Allan Poe. Although born in Boston, Poe was adopted just -prior to his third birthday by the John Allan family of Richmond. -He is said to have once remarked to a friend: "I am a Virginian. At -least I call myself one." His early years were spent in Richmond, -and his early education was acquired in Richmond. Upon the death -of his stepmother, his stepfather arranged to get him appointed -to West Point. He had published two sets of poems before he was -twenty: "Tamerlane and Other Poems" and "Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and -Minor Poems." After he had been dismissed from West Point one year -later, he decided to dedicate his life to writing. His third volume -of poetry entitled "Poems" was published by the age of twenty-two. -Poe spent the rest of his life combatting mental sickness, poverty -and loneliness. At the age of twenty-four, he began writing prose -work. He created the modern short story, the detective story and -wrote critical essays for the Southern Literary Messenger which -thrived through his writings. He became editor of this publication -in 1835. Other works written by Poe include "The Narrative of Arthur -Gordon Pym," "Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque," "The Murders in -the Rue Morgue and The Man That Was Used Up," "Tales," "The Raven -and Other Poems" and "Eureka: A Prose Poem." He died at the age of -forty, the greatest literary purist the country had yet produced. - -Another writer who contributed much to the Southern Literary -Messenger was Philip Pendleton Cooke of Martinsburg, Virginia (now -West Virginia). Although a lawyer by career, he spent much of his -time writing. His best-liked poem is "Florence Vane," a memorial -lyric. He wrote several poems and prose during his comparatively -short life of thirty-three years. - -A survey of outstanding Virginia authors of the Mid-Nineteenth -Century Period would not be complete without mentioning the name -of Matthew Fontaine Maury who is not only recognized for his broad -knowledge of science and his unique ability of mapping winds and -ocean currents but also for his numerous articles on scientific -information. His "Physical Geography of the Sea" (1855) is the first -textbook written on modern oceanography and two other books, a -"Manual of Geography" and "Physical Geography," were well received -by the public. - -Robert E. Lee became famous in a literary sense for his sincere, -humble, cleverly worded letters, particularly those concerning his -declining the command of the Federal army, his acceptance of the -command of the Virginia forces, his farewell to his Confederate -colleagues at the end of the War between the States and his -acceptance of the Presidency of Washington College after that war. - -More books have been written about the period of the War between the -States than about any other similar period in United States history. -One writer who kept a detailed daily account of personal happenings -from May 1861 to May 1865 was Judith W. McGuire of Richmond. Her -"Diary of a Southern Refugee, During the War, by a Lady of Virginia" -was written originally for the benefit of younger members of the -family who at that time were not old enough to understand what -was happening but would presumably appreciate a first-hand report -when they were older. Mrs. McGuire's husband was a chaplain in -the Officers' Hospital in Richmond, and she served as a nurse in -Richmond after fleeing from their home in Alexandria. She later -authored a brief biography of Lee, entitled "General Robert E. Lee, -the Christian Soldier." - -Individuals today are still writing biographies about military -leaders who participated in the War between the States. The first -important biography of "Stonewall" Jackson, however, was written -by an army chaplain, Robert Lewis Dabney. Although he had written -several articles on theology and religion, his most remembered work -is "Life and Campaigns of Lieutenant-General Thomas J. Jackson." -Since Dabney served as a Major on Jackson's staff, he had access -to first-hand information and personal observations of Jackson and -proceeded to utilize such information advantageously. - -John Reuben Thompson, who was editor of the Southern Literary -Messenger from 1847 until 1860, was an author and a poet. He wrote a -description of his travels in Europe entitled "Across the Atlantic," -but his literary reputation was based upon his pro-Confederate -articles and his war poems. - -George William Bagby was an essayist and humorist of Buckingham -County. He succeeded Thompson as editor of the Southern Literary -Messenger. Although educated as a doctor, he preferred writing for -a career; six years after his graduation, he pursued his literary -interest. He contributed several articles to leading magazines of -the times: Harper's, Appleton's, Lippincott's, and Putnam's. His -sketches of everyday living are characterized by his human interest -touch and his unique technique of realism at that time. His lofty -idealism was supplemented by the ability to admit weaknesses as -well as strength of whatever or whomever he was discussing. The -work which is usually associated with his name is "The Old Virginia -Gentleman," a series of talks which he delivered to raise money for -historical societies of the state. He was an ardent devotee of the -Commonwealth and his writings exemplify this affectionate feeling. - -James Barron Hope, a native of Norfolk, is another poet who also -contributed newspaper articles. He published "Leoni de Monote and -Other Poems," "A Collection of Poems" and "An Elegaic Ode," but his -most famous poem was created in 1882 when he wrote "Arms and the -Man: A Metrical Address" upon the invitation of Congress in honor of -the 100th anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. -He also wrote a novel, "Under the Empire," and numerous stories for -children. - -An author who was as strongly a romanticist as George Bagby was a -realist was John Esten Cooke. He was a native of Winchester and -a brother of Philip P. Cooke. He exemplifies the many Virginians -who--even after the Confederacy had ended, the plantation system -had been transplanted by the merchant class system and the States' -Rights theory had dissolved into a type of nationalism--still -clung to the idea of rebuilding or establishing another similar -social system in the late 1880's. Cooke used his literary talents -to glorify the plantation type of living and the heroic, military -deeds of the war itself. He is sometimes regarded as an author who -looked "backward" rather than at the present or toward the future. -By the age of twenty-four, Cooke had completed and had published a -two-volume novel, "The Virginia Comedians," a historical romance, -"Leather Stocking and Silk" and another historical, romantic novel, -"The Youth of Jefferson." He also contributed several newspaper and -periodical articles. His biography, "Life of Stonewall Jackson," -was later increased in scope and published under the new title, -"Surry of Eagle's-Nest." He wrote novels with extreme rapidity -and, consequently, he did not take time for literary refinement -as many authors do. His other written works include "Virginia: A -History of the People," "Stories of the Old Dominion," "Mohun" -and "The Virginia Bohemians." However, he is usually considered -the outstanding historical novelist and biographer of the period -directly following the War between the States. - -Moncure Daniel Conway, a native of Stafford County, may be -classified as a writer for the minority. He used forceful language -to arouse interest in reforms in which only a minority of the -Virginians believed at the time. He wrote a pamphlet in 1850 -entitled "Free Schools in Virginia" in which he voiced a strong -appeal for public education. He became a minister and used the -pulpit as a place to advocate anti-slavery movements to such an -extent that he was dismissed from his position as pastor of the -Unitarian Church in Washington. He wrote many short articles in -pamphlet form about anti-slaveryism. In 1861, he published a volume -of similar information entitled, "The Rejected Stone, by a Native of -Virginia." He spent the rest of his life writing more than seventy -books and traveling in Europe where he made his home in England. -Among his best-known books are "Life of Thomas Paine," "Omitted -Chapters of History: Disclosed in the Life and Papers of Edmund -Randolph," "George Washington and Mount Vernon" and "Barons of the -Potomac and the Rappahannock." - -Father Abram Joseph Ryan of Norfolk is considered the greatest -Virginia poet of the period immediately following the War between -the States. He is often referred to as the "Laureate of the South." -Using his pen name, "Moina," he specialized in war lyrics which were -soon memorized by Southerners in general. His two most popular poems -were "The Conquered Banner" and "Sword of Robert E. Lee." - -Virginius Dabney, a native of Gloucester County, was an ex-lawyer -who taught and wrote. His most famous novel was "The Story of Don -Miff" which described the life of the plantation owners prior to -the War between the States. His last novel before his death was -"Gold That Did Not Glitter." - -Father John Banister Tabb was a native of Amelia County who became a -personal friend of the poet, Sidney Lanier. His "Poems," "Lyrics," -"Child Verse" and "Later Lyrics" are still popular reading for -poetry-lovers. - -Christopher P. Cranch should be mentioned for his translation of -Virgil's "Aeneid" into English in 1875. Like George Sandys who -translated Ovid's "Metamorphoses," Cranch's translation promoted -better understanding of the "Aeneid" on the part of Americans. - -Thomas Nelson Page, a native of Hanover County, became famous from -a literary viewpoint when he published in 1887 six stories in a -book called "In Ole Virginia." The first story is called "Marse -Chan," and is written in Negro dialect. Page, like John Cooke, -wrote pleasingly, though not entirely accurately, about conditions -in the South after the War between the States. His writings served -as a tonic to the depressed and hard-struggling Virginians who -were striving to rebuild their state to its former prosperous -status. Page also wrote "Two Little Confederates" for juvenile -reading and non-fiction articles as well as fiction ones. Some of -the non-fiction ones include "The Old Dominion: Her Making and Her -Manners," "The Old South" and "Robert E. Lee: Man and Soldier." - -Mary Johnston, born at Buchanan, is sometimes classified as a -transitional writer as she wrote at the end of the Nineteenth -Century and also at the beginning of the Twentieth Century. She -is considered a writer of historical realism although originally -she began writing as a romanticist. Her writings included "To Have -and To Hold," "Prisoner of Hope," "Cease Firing," "The Long Roll," -"The Slave Ship," "The Great Valley," "Hagar," "Silver Cross," -"Croatan," "Michael Forth" and "The Exile." She lived near Warm -Springs when she wrote the last six books, and she utilized the -style of mysticism in these works. Her style was a great contrast to -the earlier hero-worshiping and glorification of ante-bellum days in -Virginia. - -John Fox, Jr. of Big Stone Gap used the Cumberland Mountain -residents for the characters of his novel, "The Trail of the -Lonesome Pine." A visitor to Bound Gap may view the countryside -described in this book and still see the spot where the evergreen -tree, reputed to be the original Lonesome Pine, stood. The -activities of the mountain folk themselves and his own mining -experiences in West Virginia mines furnished John Fox, Jr., with -most of his plot sequences. His other two most well-known novels are -"The Kentuckians" and "The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come." - -Virginia Hawes Terhune, a native of Dennisville, Amelia County, and -mother of Albert Payson Terhune, used the nom-de-plume of "Marian -Harland." She wrote newspaper articles about household activities -and travel books, fiction books and a famous cookbook. Her last book -was "The Carringtons of High Hill." - -William Cabell Bruce, a native of Charlotte County, was a -distinguished author who was editor of the "University of Virginia -Magazine" and who won the Pulitzer Prize for biography in 1918. His -prize-winning biography was "Benjamin Franklin, Self-Revealed." - -Ellen Glasgow, a native of Richmond, was one of the most -distinguished modern American novelists. She wrote her first novel -at the age of eighteen and chose this type of work for her career. -In an era of sentimental and romantic writing, she dared to inject -severe realism. She has sometimes been characterized as a romantic -realist having no hesitation in frankly portraying weaknesses as -well as the strength of her beloved Virginia. Her novels depicted -scenes of the South and featured a broad background, rather than a -comparatively small segment of people or a few isolated places. In -her novels, Miss Glasgow presents a social history of Virginia from -about 1851 to 1945. Her writings include "The Voice of the People," -"The Battle-Ground," "The Deliverance," "The Romance of a Plain -Man," "The Miller of Old Church," "Virginia," "Life of Gabriella," -"Barren Ground," "The Romantic Comedians," "They Stooped to Folly," -"The Sheltered Life," "Vein of Iron" and "In This Our Life." She -published her first two volumes anonymously: "The Descendant" and -"Phases of an Inferior Planet." Her last novel, "In This Our Life," -won the Pulitzer Prize in 1942. - -Another native of Richmond, James Branch Cabell, was the author of -thirty books classified as satirical fiction and essays. He had -a tremendous imagination which, coupled with his constant use of -symbolism and ridicule, resulted in a most unusual style of writing: -literature of disillusionment. In eighteen volumes he created -an imaginary land of Poictesme and traced the "Biography of Don -Manuel." After Cabell finished this lengthy biography, he omitted -the name, James, from his name and simply used the name, Branch -Cabell. An autobiography, "These Restless Heads," was signed in this -manner. Later he wrote autobiographical essays entitled "Quiet, -Please" and once more began to use his full name, James Branch -Cabell. - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_White House of the Confederacy_] - -Douglas Southall Freeman, a native of Lynchburg, is considered -the greatest Virginian biographer. He was editor of the Richmond -"News-Leader" from 1915 to 1949. In 1935, Dr. Freeman won the -Pulitzer Prize for his four-volume biography, "R. E. Lee." He also -wrote a supplement of three volumes, entitled "Lee's Lieutenants," -which was exceptionally well received. He wrote "The South to -Posterity" and was in the process of completing the sixth volume of -his biography of "George Washington" at the time of his death in -1953. In this same year another Virginian, David J. Mays, won the -Pulitzer Prize for the biography, "Edmund Pendleton, 1721-1803." - -[Illustration: RICHMOND CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Virginia State Library Building_ - -(_Including Supreme Court of Appeals_)] - -Emily Clark, a native of Richmond, founded and edited a literary, -monthly magazine entitled "Reviewer." Her most well-known work is -"Innocence Abroad," written in 1931. Craddock Edmunds, a native of -Halifax, specialized in poetry with such titles as "Ulysses and -Other Poems," "Mass," "Geese Are Swan," "Poems," "The Renaissance" -and "Five Men." - -Virginius Dabney, grandson of the earlier author, Virginius Dabney, -was born at Lexington. He is known for outstanding editorial writing -for the Richmond "Times-Dispatch" and was awarded the 1948 Pulitzer -Prize for this field of literature. In addition to his editorials, -he also wrote "Liberalism in the South" and "Below the Potomac." - -Julian R. Meade, a native of Danville, became a literary figure -through publication of his book entitled, "I Live in Virginia." -Since his style was characterized by romanticism combined with -realism, this book caused much controversy among its local readers. -Having horticulture as an avocation, Meade wrote a witty yet -sarcastic book on gardening called "Adam's Profession and Its -Conquest by Eve" and a novel on gardening called "Bouquets and -Bitters." - -Clifford Dowdey, a native of Richmond, started his literary career -as an editorial writer in New York City. One of his first best -sellers was "Bugles Blow No More" which resulted in his being -awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship. As he traveled throughout the -United States, he wrote "Gamble's Hundred," "Sing for a Penny," -"Tidewater," "Where My Love Sleeps," "Experiment in Rebellion" and -"Weep for My Brother." He also wrote a book, "The Land They Fought -For: The Story of the South as the Confederacy, 1831-1865." - -It is difficult to select the outstanding writers of a contemporary -period because of the effect of the passage of time, the varied -reaction of the reading public, and the detailed factors included in -a keen analysis of types of literature. Numerous current Virginians -have been accepted by the reading public with some of the best -known being Dr. Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, Dr. Robert Douthat -Meade, Agnes Rothery, Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr., John Wayland, Thomas -T. Waterman, Mary Thurman Pyle, Murrell Edmunds, John H. Gwathmey, -Leigh Hanes, M. Clifford Harrison, Helen Jones Campbell, Robert -Selph Henry, Colonel William A. Couper and Dr. Charles Turner. - -The "Commonwealth" Magazine, published monthly by the Virginia -State Chamber of Commerce, the "Virginia and the Virginia County" -Magazine, published monthly by the League of Virginia Counties -and the "Virginia Cavalcade" Magazine, published quarterly by the -Virginia State Library furnish excellent articles on domestic -problems and progress in the Commonwealth. - -The Virginia State Library located in Richmond was founded for -the free use of the residents of Virginia as a general library -with primary emphasis upon reference service. The library houses -an extensive collection of books, maps, public documents, private -papers and manuscripts in a variety of subject matter areas. The -State Library also provides an interlibrary loan plan and includes -Administration, Publication, General Library, Archives, Extension -and Historical Divisions. The present library structure was -dedicated in 1941 and cost one and one-half million dollars. It -includes a photographic laboratory, a work facility for restoring -rare books and worn manuscripts, a facility for cleaning and -fumigating reading materials, individual study nooks and rooms, an -attractive entrance hall with a mural and several display cases as -well as the typical reading rooms, offices, and book stacks. The -Virginia State Library is well-equipped staff-wise and facility-wise -for rendering unusual cultural services for the Commonwealth. - - -_Art and Sculpture_ - -Art--The early colonists found little time for engaging in the -arts. Nevertheless, a beginning in art was made. For example, John -White (sometimes referred to as Johannes Wyth), the grandfather of -Virginia Dare, made water color sketches portraying the life of the -native Indians in the area. - -Various handicrafts were pursued from time to time. When Sir -Christopher Newport came to Virginia, he included in his group -some Polish and Dutch glassmakers. When the terrible winter of -1610 caused the death of a majority of the colonists at Jamestown, -glassmaking came temporarily to an end. Another early attempt was -the making of glass beads as a bartering item for the Indians, -but the massacre of 1622 ended these ventures. Other handicrafts -generally introduced in the colony included weaving, potterymaking, -wigmaking, tanning, pewter making and cobbling. Williamsburg -eventually became the center of such handicrafts. - -In the Eighteenth Century, numerous European artists visited -America. As they toured from one colony to another, they often -made prolonged visits in communities where their artistic talents -were appreciated. Not only did they sometimes sell their personal -paintings, but they were often hired to paint important personages -in such communities and members of individual families. In 1734, -Charles Bridges, an English artist, arrived in Williamsburg: his -reputation for portrait painting spread rapidly after he had -painted portraits of the children of William Byrd II. He also -painted a picture of Reverend James Blair, the first President of -the College of William and Mary. - -John Wollaston, Jr., another British artist, came to Williamsburg -and earned the title, "The Almond-Eyed Artist," because he painted -the eyes of his subjects with a peculiar slant toward the nose. -Portraits of Betty Washington Lewis, sister of George Washington, -and her husband, Colonel Fielding Lewis, and of Lawrence Washington, -half-brother of George Washington were drawn by Wollaston. - -In 1785, Jean Antoine Houdon, a distinguished French sculptor, -arrived at Mount Vernon to fulfill a commission of the Virginia -State Legislature to make a statue of George Washington. After a -year of personal observation of Washington at Mount Vernon and an -analysis of Washington's facial characteristics, he created a life -mask of Washington's face and made specific measurements of his -body. Washington was 53 years old at this time and was six feet, two -inches in height. Houdon then returned to France and proceeded to -carve a Carrara marble statue of his subject. In 1796, the "Figure -of George Washington" was placed beneath the dome of the rotunda -of the State Capitol. This statue portrays Washington dressed in -military uniform with small battle weapons and a plowshare located -at his feet and with his left arm on a fasces (a bundle of rods -enclosing an ax to symbolize power or authority). This particular -pose is believed to have been selected by Houdon after he had -observed Washington in a bargaining bout for a yoke of oxen. When -Washington heard what he considered an outrageous price requested -for the oxen, he exclaimed loudly his opinion of this proposal -with his arm outstretched on a fence post. Houdon is said to have -witnessed this incident and to have tried immediately to capture -this pose of Washington's facial characteristics for his statue. A -statue of LaFayette sculptured by Houdon is also included in one of -the niches in the encircling wall of the rotunda section and a bust -of Washington by Houdon is also located at Mount Vernon. - -After Washington had become a member of the Masonic Lodge in -Alexandria, the lodge members asked William Williams, a New Yorker, -to paint Washington "as he is." The pastel portrait which he -painted caused much controversy: some individuals considered it -cruel and unartistic, others considered it realistic and the only -true likeness of Washington. Williams had even included the scars -on Washington's face which were remnants of a scarlet fever siege -which Washington had endured. This portrait is in the Masonic Museum -in the Masonic Temple Lodge in Alexandria. Williams also made a -portrait of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, but this one did not cause -controversy as did the one of Washington. - -After the Revolutionary War had ended in America, the artists of -Virginia and the other ex-colonies of England were influenced by -classicism in art in Europe. Many of America's foremost artists of -this time traveled to Europe to study this new art movement and -were taught by Benjamin West who had set up a school in London. One -of his best known students was Charles Willson Peale, who painted -a full-length portrait of William Pitt. Peale came to Virginia and -soon became well known for his individual and group portraits, -silhouettes and miniatures of outstanding Virginians. His portraits -of William Henry Harrison and of Lafayette are considered artistic -gems. Peale's most famous portrait is his painting of George -Washington, clothed in the military garb of a colonel. - -Gilbert Stuart is usually considered the finest American painter of -the post-Colonial period. Important Virginians whom he painted were -George Washington, Colonel John Tayloe, John Randolph of Roanoke -and James and Dolly Madison. Most of his paintings were done at -Washington soon after it became the national capital city. - -In 1807, a Frenchman, Julien F. de Saint-Memin, visited Richmond for -approximately one year. He used a machine called a physionotrace -which enabled him to make profile drawing in white chalk and -in crayon. He acquired the technique of getting these drawings -etched on copper plates which allowed him to make fine miniature -engravings. One of his most famous art works is an etched view of -the waterfront at Richmond. - -Benjamin West Clinedinst, a native of Woodstock, is particularly -remembered by Virginians for his great panorama painting of the -Battle of New Market. Since he had received his education at the -Virginia Military Institute, he had a very strong esprit de corps -for this battle in which 257 cadets from V. M. I, helped General -John Breckinridge at the cost of ten students killed and forty-seven -wounded. Over the rostrum of the Stonewall Jackson Memorial Hall -at the Virginia Military Institute is a huge canvas painting -by Clinedinst portraying a panorama of the charge of the cadet -corps at this historic Battle of New Market. In addition to his -portrait painting, Clinedinst furnished numerous book and magazine -illustrations. - -Sculpture--Sculpture did not really develop fully in Virginia until -the Nineteenth Century. Alexander Galt of Norfolk was one of the -earliest sculptors in this region. Although he died before his -artistic ability had been fully developed, his memorable life-size -white marble figure of Thomas Jefferson is located inside the -Rotunda at the University of Virginia. - -In 1865, Edward Virginius Valentine, a native of Richmond who had -traveled and studied throughout Europe, came back to his home town. -He created not only great sculptures but many unusual sculptures: -the bronze figure of General Hugh Mercer in Fredericksburg, a -bronze bust of Commodore Matthew Fontaine Maury located in the -Virginia State Library at Richmond, a bust of John Jasper, a Negro -preacher, located in the Sixth Mt. Zion Baptist Church in Richmond, -a marble statue of Thomas Jefferson in the lobby of a Richmond -hotel, an ornate bronze statue of Jefferson Davis in a speaking -position on Monument Avenue in Richmond and a bronze statue of -"Stonewall" Jackson at the grave of "Stonewall" Jackson in the -Lexington Presbyterian Cemetery. At Washington and Lee University -located in Lexington is the Lee Memorial Chapel. Behind the altar -in this chapel is an internationally famous white marble, recumbent -"Figure of Lee" which Valentine created. Because of its recumbent -position, symbolic of General Lee resting on a battlefield cot, -this statue is considered most unique. For thirty years, Valentine -used the original carriage house of the Mann S. Valentine House in -Richmond as an art studio. When the Valentine House was acquired -by the City of Richmond and was finally opened to the public for -visitation, many of Valentine's original sculptures were grouped in -the collection, including the plaster cast of his famous recumbent -statue of Robert E. Lee. - -Sir Moses Ezekiel, a sculptor and a soldier, was a native Virginian, -but he studied and maintained his residence abroad for most of his -life. However, there are many examples of his fine artistic talent -in his native state. In the center of the Rotunda at the University -of Virginia is a bronze figure of Thomas Jefferson placed upon -a pedestal which is in the shape of the Liberty Bell; thus, the -work of Sir Ezekiel is called the Liberty Bell Statue of Thomas -Jefferson. Ezekiel has another bronze statue on the same campus -known as the Statue of Homer which portrays a boy with a lyre -sitting against the knee of Homer. Major John Warwick Daniel was -a United States Senator from Virginia who was noted for his great -oratorical ability. After he was severely wounded in the Battle of -the Wilderness, he became a cripple and was nicknamed "The Lame Lion -of Lynchburg." Ezekiel designed a statue located at Lynchburg in -honor of Major Daniel which shows him seated and holding a crutch. -Ezekiel, like Clinedinst, was a cadet at the Virginia Military -Institute during the War between the States and was present at the -Battle of New Market in which the V. M. I. Cadets participated. -In front of the Nichols Engineering Hall at the Virginia Military -Institute is a bronze seated figure of "Virginia Mourning Her Dead," -known also as the "New Market Monument." Ezekiel is buried in -Arlington National Cemetery, not far from the "Confederate Memorial" -monument of bronze which he created. - -William Ludwell Sheppard, a sculptor, created numerous well-known -statues, including a bronze one of Governor William Smith located on -the north side of Capitol Square in Richmond, "The Color-Bearer," -a bronze haut-relief, the "Soldiers' and Sailors'" Monument and the -Statue of General A. P. Hill--all located in Richmond. - -Augustus Lukeman, a Richmonder who later moved to New York City, -made the portrait bust of Jefferson Davis in the United States -Capitol. A Norfolk native, William Couper, molded a bronze statue of -Captain John Smith at Jamestown and a bronze statue of Dr. Hunter H. -McGuire, a brilliant Winchester doctor, on the north side of Capitol -Square in Richmond. He also designed a Norfolk Confederate Soldier -Monument. - -Many sculptors who were born outside of Virginia have used events -and personalities of Virginia as their subjects. Charles Keck -executed a bronze group of statues of Meriwether Lewis and William -Clark, the two explorers of the Northwest, which may be seen at -Charlottesville. Lewis and Clark are shown gazing at the horizon, -with their famous woman guide, Sacajawea, not far behind them. At -Monument Terrace in Lynchburg is another bronze statue designed by -Keck, "Statue of a Doughboy," representing the forty-seven soldiers -from Lynchburg killed in World War I. Keck also created the statue -of John Tyler located in the Capitol Rotunda at Richmond. - -There is a George Rogers Clark Memorial in Charlottesville designed -by Robert Aitken. It consists of a bronze equestrian statue of -George Rogers Clark surrounded by a group of Indians and scouts. - -Six statues depicting the Virginia-born Presidents of the United -States found in the Capitol Rotunda are "William Henry Harrison" -carved by Charles Beach, "Woodrow Wilson" by Harriet Frishmuth, -"James Monroe" and "Thomas Jefferson" by Attilio Piccirilli and -"James Madison" and "Zachary Taylor" by F. William Sievers. - -Piccirilli also created a 16-foot marble "Statue of Monroe" located -at the entrance of Ash Lawn, the home of James Monroe, near -Charlottesville. An interesting fact about this statue is that, -after the government of Venezuela had commissioned Piccirilli to -create this statue of Monroe, a revolution occurred in Venezuela -which caused a new slate of officials to succeed in office. Since -some of these officials were not pro-Monroe in their regard for the -Monroe Doctrine, the statue remained in a studio in New York City -from the latter part of the 1800's until 1931. Sievers also designed -the bronze figure of "Stonewall" Jackson astride his horse, Little -Sorrel, for the "Stonewall" Jackson Monument on Monument Avenue in -Richmond. - -Sculptural contributions of Thomas Crawford and Randolph Rogers, -both New Yorkers, may be found in Capitol Square, Richmond. The -Washington Monument here is considered an outstanding sculptural -group. Robert Mills designed the base and pedestal. The monument -depicts a bronze equestrian statue of George Washington on a stone -base surrounded by huge figures of Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, -General Andrew Lewis, John Marshall, George Mason and Thomas Nelson. -Female figures are seated on trophies of victory around the base of -the monument. All the figures were created by Crawford except Lewis -and Nelson which were created by Rogers after Crawford had died. - -Virginians were encouraged to appreciate the Fine Arts even as -early as 1786 when a Frenchman, Chevalier de Beaurepaire, founded -in Richmond the Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts of the United -States of America. This organization marked the formal beginning of -Richmond as a cultural center in Virginia. In 1936, the Virginia -Museum of Fine Arts in Richmond became the first state-supported -art museum in the United States. At present, the Museum Building, -its equipment and the salaries of the staff are provided by the -Commonwealth; other sources of revenue come from endowments, gifts, -membership, rental and admission fees. There are numerous traveling -exhibitions, slide sets, films and filmstrips, permanent famous art -collections, temporary loan exhibits and an Art-mobile equipped with -a comprehensive art display which travels to specific areas on a -scheduled basis. There is also a Museum Theater where a variety of -performances in the Fine Arts including the dance, music, drama and -motion pictures is presented. - -In 1913, the Battle Abbey was constructed in Richmond. It is noted -for its large wall murals painted by the French artist, Charles -Hoffbauer and portraying the key battles of the War between the -States. Battle Abbey also includes valuable collections of paintings -of Confederate leaders, of battle flags and of military weapons used -during the War between the States. - -The White House of the Confederacy in Richmond, known also as the -Confederate Museum, is the beautiful old Brockenbrough Mansion -leased for the home of Jefferson Davis and his family during the -War between the States. In 1893, the Confederate Memorial Literary -Society established the house as a Confederate historical museum. -Such historical treasures as the sword of Robert E. Lee, military -equipment of "J. E. B." Stuart, T. J. Jackson and Joseph E. Johnston -and individual sections housing battle mementoes of each Confederate -State are located in this structure. - -The Valentine house in Richmond, bequeathed to the city by Mann S. -Valentine in 1892, was opened to the public as a museum in 1930. -In addition to its specialized exhibits on Richmond historical -treasures, this museum has some of the original casts of Edward V. -Valentine (the sculptor), several rare books concerning Virginia -and exhibits on world history and civilizations. Another famous -museum which was constructed in 1930 is the Mariners' Museum at -Newport News. A personal comprehensive collection of over 45,000 -nautical articles (including ship models, figureheads and pictorial -material) owned by Archer M. Huntington is housed in this museum. - -The skills and techniques of painting are currently taught in the -schools, colleges and art clubs, as well as by private tutors, -throughout Virginia. Thus, the Commonwealth offers excellent -opportunities for the encouragement of, and appreciation for, -meaningful art and sculpture. - - -_Architecture_ - -Architecture is often defined as the science and art of designing -and constructing buildings or structures. Historically, architecture -in Virginia is considered to have begun in 1611-1615 with the -building of the first frame row houses at Jamestown and at Henrico. -Previous to this period, only crude dwellings had been constructed. -The typical early row house, however, was a timber structure usually -two stories high with an upper garret often included. Some of the -early colonists were bricklayers, brickmakers and carpenters. Often, -the Virginia colonists built a typical English timber cottage as -similar as possible to those in their homeland insofar as the -availability of materials in Virginia would allow. A gabled shingled -roof was commonly used; wherever they could be afforded, dormer -windows were added. Such a frame house usually measured one room -deep and two rooms wide or two rooms deep and a passage-way wide. In -the latter type, huge chimneys were usually constructed at each end. - -One of the first types of Seventeenth Century brick houses is -exemplified by the "Adam Thoroughgood" House built between 1636 -and 1640 in Princess Anne County near Cape Henry. It has one -complete story topped by a steep gabled roof with dormers and with -two T-shaped chimneys. Like many of the early houses in Virginia, -its interior is finished in pine paneling. Winona, in Northampton -County, is another illustration of the early architectural house in -Virginia. It consists of a story and a half structure with brick -walls. One of the unique features of the house has been hidden from -public view by a frame addition: a buttressed chimney surpassed by -three extremely tall stacks. - -The houses in Virginia whose construction is believed to have been -directly affected by the English Renaissance or Georgian Period of -architecture were built after 1720. Since the College of William -and Mary had been established at Williamsburg and the colonial -capital had been changed from Jamestown to Williamsburg, this area -had become the greatest cultural center as well as the seat of -government of Virginia. It is commonly believed that the important -buildings in Williamsburg in 1720--namely, the Wren Building at -the College of William and Mary, the Governor's Palace and the -Capitol--actually set the pattern for architectural designs for -private homes and public buildings throughout the colony. - -The Wren Building is the only structure in America designed by -the great Sir Christopher Wren and is the oldest academic hall in -the United States. The original design of Wren had to be altered -slightly because of the terrain of the country-side. The building, -consisting of the commonly used sandy pink brick foundation -material, is a two-and-one-half storied rectangular building with a -steep roof which includes twelve dormer windows. The roof is topped -by a plain cupola in the center with two huge chimneys on either -side. Although the Wren Building was burned and rebuilt on three -different occasions, in 1928 some of the original walls were used -as the basis for the restoration and repair of the Wren Building as -part of the Williamsburg Restoration Project. - -The Governor's Palace illustrates another Georgian architectural -design in Williamsburg. It consists of two stories rising to a -cornice topped by a steep, many-dormered roof. Atop the roof is -a platform with a lantern-cupola. There are narrow sash windows -on the facade and a plain square-transomed doorway with a center -wrought-iron balcony overhead. There are separate buildings for -the smokehouse, dairy, kitchen and laundry. Above the doorway of -the Governor's Palace is the carved coat of arms of George II and -Britain's Royal Lion and Unicorn. The fine paneled woodwork in the -interior of the palace and the antique tooled leather walls of the -library are also noteworthy. - -The Capitol at Williamsburg, originally completed in 1704 and -later reconstructed on the original foundations, is a two-storied -H-shaped brick structure with semicircular bays on either end and -a connecting gallery in the center over an arched porch. The roof -of the gallery is topped with a cupola which has the arms of Queen -Anne, a clock and the Union Jack, one above the other. The Capitol -was restored in 1920. - -The George Wythe House in Williamsburg is considered one of the -purest Georgian Colonial architectural structures in America. -George Wythe was the first law professor at the College of -William and Mary. The house was a gift from his father-in-law. -Although this structure was a town house, it had numerous separate -buildings--kitchen, smokehouse, laundry, stable--similar to a -plantation. The house is rectangular in shape, constructed of brick -and has two built-in chimneys. Under the restoration project, the -original paint colors in many of the rooms have been matched, and -it is now furnished with appropriate furniture of that period. - -Other houses built about this time reveal the similarity of designs -of private estates to the Governor's Palace. Westover (1733), home -of Colonel William Byrd II on the James River, is considered by many -historians and architects as the finest example of colonial grandeur -and Georgian stateliness in Virginia. English wrought-iron gates are -fastened to posts at the top of which are two leaden eagles with -half-spread wings. The mansion house is constructed of red brick -with a center section two stories high. On either side of the center -section is a wing a story and a half high connected by passageways. -At both ends of the house are pairs of tall chimneys. Elaborate -entrances, paneled walls, an open-string staircase and black and -white marble mantels imported from Italy are some of the elegant -features still found in the mansion at the present time. - -Christ Church in Lancaster County was erected about the same time as -Westover. This structure is an example of a Greek-cruciform colonial -church. The church is constructed of brick, has three wide brick -doors, oval windows and has the unusual history of having been built -solely with funds furnished by one individual, the wealthy "King" -Carter. - -Stratford Hall (1725-1730) in Westmoreland County, the home of -Thomas Lee and the birthplace of Robert E. Lee, exemplifies another -H-shaped house of beauty and grandeur. Constructed of brick and -dominated by two groups of four chimneys, Stratford consists of the -H-plan with four large attached buildings at the corners. A unique -feature of this house is its exceptionally long flight of stairs -which one must ascend before reaching the main floor. The main floor -consists of five large rooms with a huge hall which forms the bar of -the "H." Each wing also has a pair of rooms connected by passages. - -Carter's Grove (1751) in James City County is another Georgian -type house, planned and partially constructed by Carter Burwell in -1751. The main unit of the mansion was constructed by the English -builder, Richard Bayliss, and another Britisher, David Minitree. The -mansion consists of two-and-a-half stories with wings on each side -of one story. It is particularly noteworthy for its almost perfect -symmetry. The main unit has a very high roof with a pair of large -square chimneys. There are several dormer windows and the entire -structure is 200 feet long. The interior as well as the exterior -is beautiful with extensive pine paneling, a graceful arch across -the middle of the main hall and exquisitely carved walnut railings -along the stairway. Some officers of Lt. Col. Banaster Tarleton's -troops used this place as headquarters in 1781. When Tarleton -suddenly needed his troops, he rode horseback up the beautiful -carved stairway. The horse's hoofprints are still observable on the -stairway steps. - -Mount Airy in Richmond County was constructed by Colonel John Tayloe -in 1758. This house is unusual because it was built entirely of -stone, a rarity because the Tidewater area did not have an extensive -amount of stone. Mount Airy is built of brown stone and trimmed with -light stone furnishing a colorful contrast. - -The architecture of churches in Virginia is likewise varied. St. -Luke's Church, originally known as the Brick Church in Isle of Wight -County, is believed to be the oldest church still in existence in -the original thirteen colonies. It is easily recognizable from its -square tower and gabled nave. The brick Jamestown Church Tower -(1639) is a Gothic structure also. The famous Bruton Parish Church -in Williamsburg (1715) is an example of the change in architecture -due to Governor Spottswood's planned improvement program for -Williamsburg. This is the oldest Episcopal Church continuously -in use in Virginia. Its cruciform construction of red brick is -unusual with its numerous high, white shuttered windows. The square -tower was built at a later date and seems to add dignity to the -structure. Christ Church in Alexandria, constructed in 1767-1772, -has characteristics of the late Georgian Colonial Period: red brick, -a square tower with an octagonal-shaped belfry having a dome cupola, -a trimming of white stone and a crown of Wrennish pepperpots. - -Thomas Jefferson contributed much to original Virginia architecture. -Jefferson was devoted to the classical style, yet followed new -trends of his own. For example, the Capitol at Richmond was planned -by Jefferson. Jefferson used the famous Roman temple at Nimes in -southern France, the Maison Carree, as the basic design and modified -it according to his wishes. He had a plaster model of it made in -Paris and sent to Virginia to be used as the pattern for the new -Capitol. The original building is the central building which was -constructed from 1785 to 1788. Later, the brick was covered with -stucco and the wings and the long flight of steps were added in -1904-1906. The revival of classicism in architecture is traced to -the individual efforts of Thomas Jefferson. His contacts with many -of the outstanding architects of the time, including Robert Mills, -helped spread the classic ideas throughout the nation. Thus, the -dignity of the great plantation houses constructed during this -period is attributed to the style advocated by Jefferson. He not -only favored this style but proceeded to utilize the style which -he advocated. Monticello, Jefferson's home at Charlottesville, was -built of red brick. Its dome, its Doric columns, its symmetrical -arrangement, its circular windows, its octagonal bay and stately -porticos, its wedgewood mantelpiece--all characterize the Early -Republican type of architecture in Virginia. - -Jefferson carried out a similar classical style when he founded the -University of Virginia. The Serpentine Walls of red brick which -surround most of the gardens were designed and built by Jefferson, -following a type he had seen in France. The walls are approximately -six feet high and one brick thick and constructed on a wavelike -plan for added strength. Jefferson also designed the five two-story -temple-like pavilions including porticos and had them constructed of -red brick walls with white trim and white classic columns. Bremo, -near Fork Union, and Poplar Forest, near Lynchburg (where Jefferson -used to spend quiet weekends in retreat) are two other houses -designed and built by Jefferson. - -Robert Mills, who received architectural instruction from Jefferson -and whose name is associated with the colonnade of the Treasury -Building in Washington and with the Washington Monuments in -Washington and in Baltimore, also contributed to the development of -architecture in Virginia. Mills designed the Monumental Episcopal -Church in Richmond with its structure of stuccoed brick and brown -sandstone, its octagonal domes and its columns. Mills' stuccoed -houses in Richmond are considered most unique. The front of this -type of house which faced the street is comparatively plain and -simple, but the back of the house which faced the river usually -had a graceful, tall, columned portico with a hanging balcony. -Thus, Mills' houses had the appearance of a regular city house -in the front and a country house in the back. The Valentine -Museum, formerly the John Wickham House, and the White House of -the Confederacy, formerly the Jefferson Davis Mansion, located in -Richmond were both designed by Robert Mills. - -Sherwood Forest, located on the James River, was the home of John -Tyler, tenth President of the United States, after he retired from -the Presidency. He enlarged the originally-built dwelling twofold -and also had a closed-in colonnade constructed to connect the main -house with the kitchen and the laundry. After a ballroom and an -office had also been added, the entire structure was 300 feet long, -one of the longest houses in the country. The original house was -built in 1780 with additions made in 1845. - -When Jefferson with his great fervor for originality died, Virginia -architecture seemed to lose its original character. For many years -afterwards, Virginia tended to follow the architecture fashion -of the nation rather than to create any particular architectural -characteristics of its own. Following the War between the States and -its resulting poverty, many of the skills of the earlier craftsmen -seemed to disappear. There was a lack of artistic brickwork and -handcarved woodwork; imitation and copying of designs throughout the -nation seemed to dominate the architectural scene. The influence of -much of the foreign architecture of this period seemed to crowd the -American scene and to stifle American originality. Experimentation, -not often beautiful in appearance or graceful in lines, resulted -in an era of architecture with mediocre dwellings and a lack of -symmetry and of balanced proportions in design. - -Near the close of the Nineteenth Century, an event occurred which -influenced American architecture to a great extent. When the Chicago -World's Fair was held in 1893, visitors suddenly became reminiscent -about the numerous reconstructed American architectural designs -of colonial buildings: the rich-looking red brick buildings with -graceful, tall white columns and with porticos and pediments. -Architects in the United States as well as the American public in -general found a new interest in the construction designs, techniques -and materials of the Colonial Era. Several visits were made to -Virginia and other southern states in an attempt to rediscover the -true Colonial style which still has so much to offer in the way of -beauty, simplicity and grandeur. - -As in the other states, Virginia architects have been busy recently -drawing up plans to meet the ever-increasing demand for private -dwellings as well as for public buildings. Some of the structures -in Virginia which have received nationwide attention are the -five-sided, five-floored Pentagon Building in Arlington with 171/2 -miles of corridors, the Iwo Jima Memorials--one at Quantico and -one in Arlington County--and numerous houses, apartment buildings, -schools, churches and business establishments. - -The greatest architectural restoration project in the United States -is the Restoration of Colonial Williamsburg in Virginia. Intense, -careful research has made this restoration authentic and appealing -to the American public. John D. Rockefeller, Jr. made the project -possible through financial backing and, to date, over 400 colonial -public buildings, homes, shops and taverns have been restored or -reconstructed on a 216 acre section of land. Many of the restored -buildings--the Capitol, the Governor's Palace, the George Wythe -House, the Raleigh Tavern, the Public Gaol, the Ludwell-Paradise -House, the Brush-Everard House and the Magazine and Guardhouse--are -now furnished properly according to the Eighteenth Century style. -Additional atmosphere is created by the colorful, colonial costumes -worn by the guides themselves. The restoration continues, and -visitors from various parts of the world, as well as from all of the -fifty states, delight in viewing authentic colonial architecture. -The Williamsburg Project has had, and will continue to have, a -definite influence upon American architecture. - -In retrospect, Virginia is usually accredited professionally with -two distinct types of individual architecture: the Colonial type -brought directly from England and adapted to American surroundings -(with a slight variation in Early Colonial and Late Colonial due to -the results of the European Renaissance) and the Jeffersonian type -distinguished by the creativeness and superb artistic traits of -Thomas Jefferson. - - -_Music and Drama_ - -Music--The early Jamestown settlers left no record of their music. -They apparently sang the same songs current in England at the -time of their departure and probably made up verses pertaining to -their environment as time passed. There is evidence that unusual -instruments were occasionally used. Even though organs were very -expensive in colonial days, by 1700 the Episcopal Church at Port -Royal owned the first pipe organ brought to America from Europe. By -1755, the Bruton Parish Church at Williamsburg had also received one. - -The wealthy inhabitants usually paid instrumentalists, often foreign -musicians, to play at various social functions. String players -were particularly popular, not only for chamber music concerts but -also for private balls. In 1788, Francis Hopkinson, considered by -many historians as the first American composer, dedicated his most -ambitious published work, "Seven Songs," for the harpsichord or -forte piano to George Washington, his personal friend. Although -Washington himself did not play an instrument he was an active -patron of the arts including music. The harpsichord which he bought -for Nellie Custis is still at Mount Vernon. Hopkinson also had -written in 1778 a musical manuscript called "Toast" commemorating -Washington's position as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental -Army. After Hopkinson had made improvements on the harpsichord, he -contacted Thomas Jefferson, beseeching him to acquaint craftsmen -with his new, musical instrumental idea. Jefferson was a great -devotee to music and was considered by many as an accomplished -violin player as was Patrick Henry before him. - -The musical talents of the Negroes are usually associated with -Southern music. From time to time, collections of slave songs, -plantation and cabin songs and religious spirituals have been -published by William F. Allen, Lucy M. Garrison, Charles P. Ware, -Natalie Burlin and Thomas Fenner. The Hampton Singers from Hampton -Institute still preserve the musical beauty of such Negro Spirituals -as "Swing Low, Sweet Chariot," "Go Down Moses," "Deep River," "Steal -Away to Jesus" and "O'er the Crossing." Reverend James P. Carrell -of Harrisonburg and Lebanon published two spiritual song books: -"Songs of Zion" and "Virginia Harmony." James A. Bland, a Negro -originally from South Carolina but educated in Washington, wrote -the song: "Carry Me Back to Ole Virginny." This song was adopted -by the legislature as the official state song in 1940. Two other -famous songs written by Bland were "Dem Golden Slippers" and "In the -Evening by the Moonlight." - -Musical publishers and choral groups also encouraged active -participation in the musical field. Joseph Funk, a German immigrant, -came to Singer's Glen near Harrisonburg near the beginning of -the Nineteenth Century. He established a singing school where he -taught vocal music and published "Choral Music," a collection of -German songs. Aldine Kieffer, a grandson of Funk, created a monthly -musical publication, "Musical Millions," consisting of rural music -and musical hints for singing schools. Kieffer wrote the words and -B. C. Unseld the music to a song which became very popular in the -rural areas of the South: "Twilight Is Falling." In 1883, Theodore -Presser of Lynchburg founded the well-known music publication for -music teachers and pianists called "The Etude." Scholars and music -lovers in various parts of the world have enjoyed the contents of -this publication. F. Flaxington Harker was a Scotsman who came to -America and served as an outstanding choral director in Richmond. -He composed organ compositions, choruses, sacred and secular songs, -anthems and cantatas. A collection of Virginia Folklore Songs, -called "The Traditional Ballads of Virginia," has been compiled by -Arthur Kyle Davis, Jr. and C. Alphonso Smith. - -Jenny Lind, "The Swedish Nightingale," afforded Richmonders a thrill -when she appeared in person at the Marshall Theater in 1850. She was -considered an outstanding singer by Virginia music lovers. In 1876, -Thomas Paine Westendorf of Bowling Green wrote the song, "I'll Take -You Home Again, Kathleen," presumably for his wife while she was -mourning the death of her son: she had traveled away from home with -her husband and had become very homesick, prompting him to write the -song as words of encouragement to her. - -The composer who is professionally considered as the greatest -native Virginian contributor to the music field is John Powell -of Richmond and Charlottesville. He was an accomplished pianist -and studied in Vienna as well as in the United States. He wrote -"Sonata Virginianesque" for violin and piano (a sonata consisting -of the happy aspects of plantation life before the War between the -States), several overtures and folk-songs. He became nationally -famous for his "Rhapsodie Negre" for piano and orchestra. His -varied talents included the writing of fugues and concertos as well -as the creation of the Virginia State Choral Festival. Powell was -also an enthusiastic participant in the annual White Top Folk Music -Festival. No description of musical contributions of Virginians -would be complete without reference to Joe Sweeney, a native of -Appomattox who invented the five-stringed banjo. - -Richard Bales, a native of Alexandria, is a composer-conductor -who arranged a cantata, "The Confederacy," consisting of music -and literary compositions of the Confederate States during the -War between the States. This cantata was so well received that -it inspired him to compose a second one called "The Union" which -consists of music and literary comments concerning the Union forces -during the War between the States. He also composed "The Republic" -which consists of prominent European and American musical trends of -the Eighteenth Century. - -Regional festivals and a State Festival for public school bands and -choral groups are held each year. Symphony orchestras furnish superb -musical entertainment regularly in Richmond, Norfolk and Roanoke. -Numerous Virginians have been, and are, active in the music field as -singers of classical, semi-classical and popular tunes of the day. -Thus, contributions to vocal music, instrumental music and musical -forms have been made by natives and residents of Virginia. - -Drama--Unlike residents of many of the thirteen original colonies, -Virginia residents delighted in the drama. An Accomack County record -states that a group of non-professionals performed in a play, "Ye -Beare and Ye Cub," as early as 1655. This record is believed to -be the earliest available evidence of an English-speaking play -presented in the American colonies. - -Virginia is also proud of the fact that the very first theater -called a playhouse was constructed by William Levingston at -Williamsburg in 1716. Its purpose was to present "Comedies, Drolls, -and other kind of stage plays ... as shall be thought fitt to -be acted there." In spite of its lofty origin, it soon became a -financial loss and, in 1745, the original structure was allotted to -Williamsburg to be used as a town hall. - -Six years later, however, a second theater was constructed behind -the Capitol at Williamsburg. The opening play was "Richard III" and -its performers subsequently enacted this play also at Petersburg and -at Fredericksburg. It was at the Williamsburg Playhouse that the -famous Hallams (London Company, later known as the American Company) -first performed in America. The Hallam family--father, mother and -two children--and their supporting cast landed at Yorktown where -they were welcomed by Governor Dinwiddie and a group of his personal -friends. They later traveled to Williamsburg where the playhouse had -received appropriate improvements and alterations in keeping with -the occasion. Their performance was a success as evidenced by the -fact that their play, "The Merchant of Venice," played for eleven -months in Williamsburg. - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Virginia Museum of Fine Arts_] - -Other plays including tragedies and comedies, famous and not so -famous, were acted at the Williamsburg Playhouse. Most of the plays -during this period were European plays or American imitation of -European plays. The playhouses themselves were usually wooden -structures with crude benches for the average customers and a few -"less uncomfortable" boxes for the aristocrats. In the winter, the -heat was usually furnished by one stove in the center of the end of -the barn-like structure where the spectators congregated between -the acts. Often, spectators carried their individual footwarmers -with them to assure themselves of comfort during the play. Candles -at first were the sole means of illumination. A custom which was -practiced for many years consisted of the Negro servants arriving -at the playhouse hours before the six o'clock curtain time and -reserving seats for their masters by sitting in the most desirable -areas until the arrival of the masters. - -The early drama companies were often organized and managed as a -regular stock company with the importance of the dramatic role -determining the number of shares received by an actor. Another -common method of paying outstanding actors was the holding of a -"benefit" night near the end of the season whereby the receipts of -that night would be given to the individual actor. - -The playhouse provided one of the most popular types of amusement -and it soon became a colorful place for gay, social gatherings. -Since Williamsburg was the capital of the colony of Virginia, -during legislative sessions the playhouse was particularly crowded -with important personages of the government and their friends. -George Washington enjoyed dramatic presentations very much and -on numerous occasions visited the Williamsburg Playhouse. Just -before the American Revolution, however, as political, economic and -social relationships between the Americans and the British were -being severely strained, most forms of entertainment including the -playhouse were prohibited. Consequently, the Virginia playhouses -eventually closed and most of the actors and actresses traveled to -foreign shores. - -After Governor Thomas Jefferson and numerous other Virginians -believed that Williamsburg was no longer a safe or central location, -the capital of Virginia was moved to the Town of Richmond in 1779. -Seven years later, a new theater in Richmond was opened on Shockoe -Hill. For twenty-five years, this theater was a social gathering -place and a stage background for numerous plays during this period. -On December 26, 1811, tragedy struck this theater when it was -crowded with holiday festive guests at a benefit performance for -the actor, Placide, and his daughter. The entertainment in the -theater usually consisted of a prologue, a feature play, a short -afterpiece and, sometimes, singing or dancing. On this fateful date, -the feature had been completed and the afterpiece was being enacted. -Suddenly, a lamp which was used for creating overhead light was -mistakenly jerked by a pulley, causing it to swing fully lit into -the oil-painted scenery back-drop. Soon the entire theater was a -flaming mass. Seventy-three persons were killed in this tragedy -including Governor George William Smith. This incident caused many -theater-goers to refrain from attending theater performances for -several years because of fear for their personal safety. - -Drama in Virginia, consequently, received a serious setback -from this tragedy, but in 1818, a new theater was built through -subscription at Seventh and Broad Streets in Richmond. It was called -the Marshall Theater and was named in honor of Chief Justice John -Marshall who was one of the theater's greatest patrons. Although -this new structure was larger, more conveniently situated and more -safely constructed, fear still kept the large crowds of the earlier -theater from attending. The theater for a time had to depend upon a -famous performer to assure patronage by large numbers. In July 1821, -one of these celebrated performers was Junius Brutus Booth--father -of the American actor, Edwin Booth--who made his American debut at -the Marshall Theater in "Richard III." - -By the middle of the Nineteenth Century, Virginia began to -experience the "Golden Age" of its theater. Richmond still was the -center of the drama in Virginia and one of the outstanding dramatic -centers in the United States. The opinion and reaction of Richmond -audiences and critics became respected and noticed throughout -the country. Such well-known actors as Edwin Forrest, William C. -Macready and James W. Wallack played here. On January 2, 1862, the -Marshall Theater burned, but its owner immediately had a new one -called the Richmond Playhouse built on the same site. Its opening -premiere was "As You Like It" starring Ida Vernon and D'Orsay Ogden. -Even though the War between the States was being fought, contrary -to the Revolutionary War period, the theater furnished amusement -and relaxation. Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederacy, and -many of his cabinet members attended this theater and viewed many of -its tragedies which strangely enough seemed to be the type of play -preferred over comedies at this time. One of the favorite actresses -of the soldier audiences was Sally Partington. - -As the years passed, additional theaters were built in Virginia -including the Theater of Varieties in Richmond where vaudeville was -first introduced. By the end of the Nineteenth Century, two native -Virginians had become dramatic character actors of national fame: -Wilton Lackaye of Loudoun County and George Fawcett of Fairfax -County. At the turn of the century, Bill Robinson, a native of -Richmond, began his ascent to national and international fame for -his superb dance style and routines, not only in vaudeville but also -in New York plays and, later, in moving pictures. - -Early in the Twentieth Century, Francis Xavier Bushman of Norfolk -was one of the early moving picture lead actors. As the movies -improved and increased in their scope, Virginians such as Jack -Hall of Winchester, James H. Bell of Suffolk, Margaret Sullavan -of Norfolk, Randolph Scott of Orange County, Richard Arlen of -Charlottesville, Lynn Bari of Roanoke, Joseph Cotten of Petersburg, -Henry King of Christiansburg, John Payne of Roanoke, Charles Gilpin -of Richmond and Freeman F. Gosden of Richmond became nationally -known for their acting. - -Although strong competition of vaudeville, moving pictures, radio -and television undoubtedly has affected the legitimate theater, the -strong desire for legitimate acting still remains and has resulted -in the formation of summer stock companies and numerous Little -Theater groups throughout Virginia. Such groups have become very -active and are found in many cities including Alexandria, Danville, -Lynchburg, Norfolk, Petersburg, Richmond and Staunton. Virginia -colleges and universities also keep the theater alive by sponsoring -dramatics classes, workshops and plays. - -Two recent developments of the theater in Virginia are the formation -of the Barter Theater Group and the presentation of historical -plays. The Barter Theater is part of the Barter Colony located at -Abingdon, and this colony consists of the theater, a workshop, -an inn and a dormitory. The colony was established by Robert and -Helen F. Porterfield in 1932 as an attempt to create renewed -interest in legitimate play-acting. An original, unique feature of -the theater and the activity which was directly responsible for -its name was the original ticket purchase price which could be -obtained in exchange for produce or edible commodities--similar to -the old-fashioned barter system of exchange; at present, however, -theater patrons pay money rather than produce for their tickets. -During the winter months, the cast travels in other nearby states as -well as in Virginia. An annual Barter Theater award was established -by Robert Porterfield in 1939 for the "finest performance by an -actor or actress on the current Broadway stage." Such well-known -individuals as Laurette Taylor, Dorothy Stickney, Mildred Natwick, -Ethel Barrymore, Tallulah Bankhead, Louis Calhern, Helen Hayes, -Henry Fonda, Frederic March, Shirley Booth, Cornelia Otis Skinner, -David Wayne, Rosalind Russell, Mary Martin, Ethel Merman and Ralph -Bellamy have received this award. The Barter Theater Award consists -of an acre of land located near Abingdon, a world-famed Virginia ham -and a silver octagonal platter "to eat it off." In addition, the -recipient is given the opportunity to nominate two young dramatic -actors at New York City auditions for acting positions at the Barter -Theater. The Barter Theater, now recognized as the State Theater of -Virginia, is believed to be the only professional theater in the -United States which receives financial aid from a state budget. - -Since 1947, an outstanding play, "The Common Glory," written by -Pulitzer Prize Winner Paul Green, has been presented in the summer -at the Lake Matoaka Amphitheater in Williamsburg. The theme of "The -Common Glory" is based upon important historical events from 1774 -through 1783 with the famous comments of such American statesmen as -Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert Livingston and Patrick -Henry. The realistic performance of this theme in the historical -outdoor, natural setting in Williamsburg near historical Jamestown -and Yorktown is an experience the audience long remembers. Paul -Green also wrote "The Founders," another historical drama in honor -of the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of -Jamestown. - -Music and drama--from both the creative sense and the participation -sense--still remain an active phase of culture in Virginia. - - -_Education_ - -In colonial days in Virginia, education was considered a personal -family matter. A public school, as the term is understood now, -was non-existent. Since England had no national public system of -education until 1833, the Virginia colonists, of whom a majority -were of English descent, did not have any heritage for schools for -the general public. Later, the geographical distances between the -plantations and the gradual development of social classes tended to -discourage public education. The typical child who received formal -education was taught by the family members, privately tutored, -apprenticed for farming, attended a "Pay School" or "Old Field -School" (a community school taught by a teacher paid either by -the individual parents or by a particular patron and located on -relatively poor agricultural land), enrolled in a Latin Grammar -School or attended a fashionable school in London. Only the boys -received the formal education and the girls learned the proper -techniques of performing household tasks and of being a gracious -hostess. Many poor children had no formal education of any kind. - -In 1634, the Syms Free School in Elizabeth City County was organized -as a local, free school as a direct result of provisions of a will -whereby two hundred acres of land were provided and free milk and -income from eight cows were included for the support of the school. -Twenty-five years later, Dr. Thomas Eaton of the same county also -endowed a free school and left a five hundred acre estate with -buildings and livestock as the endowment. The endowment also -provided for the maintenance of an "able schoolmaster to educate and -teach the children born within the County of Elizabeth." Later, the -two schools were combined and, by the beginning of the Twentieth -Century, they had been incorporated into the public school system as -the Syms-Eaton Academy. - -A few church schools were organized, but they reached a very small -number of children with their enrollment. Orphans and poor children -often received the benefits of apprenticeship training in trade -or industrial schools and eventually had an opportunity to learn -to read and write. By 1775, there were nine free schools endowed -by private philanthropists for the poor and needy. Public schools -at this time in Virginia were considered as schools for paupers, -orphans and needy financial cases rather than schools for the -benefit of the general public. Community tax-supported schools for -the children of the general public were practically unknown. - -Until the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, the slaves--both -Negro and Indian--were usually taught religious training and -some primary learning, the amount and type of training depending -upon the individual master. After certain sensational articles -tended to cause discontent and confusion in the minds of some -of these individuals which resulted in sporadic raids and open -dissatisfaction with living conditions, the legislature of Virginia -passed a law making it illegal to teach any slave how to read, write -or do arithmetic. - -By the middle of the Nineteenth Century, private academies and -seminaries (for girls) began to replace the early Latin-Grammar -schools. The subjects of English, Latin, science, mathematics, -public speaking, spelling and penmanship were taught. The fine arts -subjects such as painting and music were stressed in the seminaries. -Some of the early academies included Prince Edward Academy (later -became Hampden-Sydney Academy and, eventually, Hampden-Sydney -College), Liberty Hall Academy (later, Washington College and, -eventually, Washington and Lee University), Fredericksburg Academy -(later, Fredericksburg College), Alexandria Academy, Shepherdstown -Academy (later, Shepherdstown College and, eventually, State Normal -School in West Virginia), Central Academy (later, Central College -and, eventually, the University of Virginia), Richmond Seminary -(later, Richmond College), Salem Academy (later, Roanoke College), -Monongahela Academy (later, West Virginia University) and Marshall -Academy (later, Marshall College and, eventually, a State Normal -School in Huntington, West Virginia). These academies are considered -forerunners of public high schools in Virginia because, even as late -as the period immediately prior to the War between the States, there -were very few public schools of any type in Virginia. - -Henrico University was the first attempt in Virginia at an -institution for higher learning. The Indian Massacre of 1622 ruined -these conscientious efforts. The first two colleges actually -founded in Virginia were William and Mary College at Williamsburg -founded in 1693--the second oldest college in the thirteen original -colonies--and Washington and Lee University at Lexington founded -in 1749. William and Mary College was founded for the purpose of -providing an opportunity for higher education within the colony -itself; Washington and Lee University--originally known as Augusta -Academy, then Liberty Hall, and, eventually, Washington College -before being renamed Washington and Lee University--was founded to -educate young men in Virginia in a similar fashion to the academies -in England at that time. In 1819, the General Assembly passed a law -allotting $15,000 annually from the Literary Fund to be used for -a state university, the University of Virginia, to be located in -Charlottesville. - -As in most states, the early private colleges were usually founded -by religious groups. By the end of the Nineteenth Century, -colleges had been established in Virginia by Presbyterians, -Episcopalians, Catholics, Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans and -the Brethren Sect. The following institutions were in existence -at this time: the Protestant Episcopal Theological Seminary in -Alexandria, the University of Richmond (Baptist), Hampden-Sydney -College at Hampden-Sydney (Presbyterian), St. Vincent's Seminary -and College at Richmond (Catholic), Emory and Henry College at -Emory (Methodist), Roanoke College at Salem (Lutheran), St. John's -Catholic Academy and Seminary at Norfolk, Mary Baldwin College -at Staunton (for women--Presbyterian), Randolph-Macon College at -Ashland (for men--Methodist), Bridgewater College at Bridgewater -(Brethren), St. Paul's Polytechnic Institute at Lawrenceville -(Episcopalian), the Virginia Theological Seminary and College -at Lynchburg (for Negroes), Randolph-Macon College at Lynchburg -(for women--Methodist), Union Theological Seminary in Virginia at -Richmond (Interdenominational) and Virginia Union University at -Richmond (for Negroes--Baptist). - -Other colleges founded in the Nineteenth Century include the Hampton -Institute at Hampton (private--Negro), Medical College of Virginia -at Richmond (state), Hollins College at Hollins (private), Longwood -College at Farmville (state--women), Virginia Military Institute -at Lexington (state), Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg -(private) and Virginia State College at Petersburg (Negro). Madison -College was founded in 1908 at Harrisonburg as a private institution -of higher learning and, nine years later, Eastern Mennonite College -was also chartered in Harrisonburg. - -The increase of women in colleges became apparent by the Twentieth -Century with the organization of Sweet Briar College at Sweet Briar -(private), Mary Washington College at Fredericksburg (women's -division of the University of Virginia--state), Randolph-Macon -Woman's College at Lynchburg, Lynchburg College at Lynchburg -(coed--Disciples of Christ) and Radford College at Radford (women's -division of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute--state). In -addition, there are seven junior colleges: Stratford at Danville, -Averett at Danville, Southern Seminary and Junior College at Buena -Vista, Sullins at Bristol, Marion at Marion, Virginia Intermont -at Bristol--all colleges for women only. These additional junior -colleges--Shenandoah at Dayton, Bluefield at Bluefield and Ferrum at -Ferrum--are coed institutions. - -Public schools were initially supported by a Literary Fund and by -one-half the capitation tax. Gradually, all the capitation or poll -tax money was transferred to the Literary Fund. After the middle of -the Nineteenth Century, some cities and counties in Virginia began -to adopt a system of free schools for the general public. For the -first time, a favorable attitude toward public education on the part -of a majority of the Virginians became apparent. The long-assumed -idea that public schools were charity schools tinged with a social -stigma faded into the background and public education for all the -children began to be widely encouraged. Before much actual progress -along this line was achieved, however, the War between the States -took place. As a result, most of the academies were forced to close -and education for a time became a comparatively minor issue. - -After the War between the States, the Underwood Constitution -included a provision requiring public education through the -establishment of a uniform system of free public schools in all -counties of the state. The deadline date for organizing and -establishing such a system was 1876. A State Superintendent of -Public Instruction was elected by the General Assembly, a State -Board of Education was formed, and public education itself was -financed by interest on the Literary Fund, capitation tax revenue, -revenue from state and local property taxes and a state tax on each -male twenty-one years old or over. Reverend William H. Ruffner of -Lexington was the first State Superintendent of Public Instruction -in Virginia. - -Racial segregation in the public schools of Virginia was -constitutionally established in the Underwood Constitution of -1902. Section 149 stated that white and colored children were not -to be taught in the same schools. This idea had been in existence -in statute law since 1869-1870, and the Constitution of 1902 also -specifically stated that public funds were to be restricted, with a -few exceptions, to public school use. - -Gradually, teacher training courses were offered and improved and -teacher scholarships were created in the attempt to organize a large -number of new schools with qualified teacher personnel. Eventually, -specialized courses were offered in the elementary and secondary -schools: vocational courses including agricultural and industrial -arts courses and household arts courses, Bible Study, Music, -Drawing, Art and commercial subjects such as bookkeeping, shorthand -and typing were introduced. These courses coupled with the original -fundamental courses provided a rich curriculum for the public -school children of Virginia. By 1920, health examinations, health -instructions and physical training were required of each student. -Early State Superintendents of Instruction faced tremendous problems -in their attempts to organize and develop a whole new school system. - -The importance of education in Virginia by 1918 is ascertained by -the fact that the state legislature at that time passed an act -ordering the State Board of Education to appropriate a fund of not -more than $10,000 to be used for a scientific evaluation study of -the Virginia schools by a special Survey Commission. Both the Inglis -Survey of 1919 (named after Dr. Alexander Inglis, Director of the -survey) and the O'Shea Survey of 1927 (named after Dr. M. V. O'Shea, -Director of the survey) resulted in considerable improvements in -the organization and administration of the educational system and -in curricular offerings. Some of the recommendations included -the appointment of the State Board of Education by the Governor -with confirmation by the State Senate, the appointment of the -State Superintendent of Public Instruction by the State Board of -Education, the selection of a variety of basic textbooks by the -State Board of Education, an increase in vocational education -courses of study, a minimum nine month academic year, compulsory -school attendance, improvement in teacher certification standards, -the county unit plan (rather than the district plan) of school -organization and a substantial increase in the salaries of teachers. - -When the depression occurred in the late 1920's and early 1930's, -Virginia was affected but to a lesser degree than most of the -other states. One of the first items drastically reduced in the -local and state budgets was school expenditures. Regardless of -its financial hardship, however, the educational system continued -to improve. A new Division of Instruction headed by a Director of -Instruction was created in the State Department of Education to -assume the responsibility of improving the instruction program in -the Virginia public schools. Later, a Supervisor of Elementary -Education and a Supervisor of Music was added to the State structure -and a Supervisor of Secondary Education, a Supervisor of Negro -Education and a Supervisor of Physical and Health Education were -selected. Course content has been revised and new subjects added -as needs warranted. Recent progress includes the development of -audio-visual aids, rehabilitation education courses for disabled -veterans, special education for the "exceptional" child and for the -mentally retarded child, distributive education and adult education -courses. Most of the public schools in the Commonwealth now have a -twelve-year basic plan with the seven-five system predominating: -seven years in grade school (elementary) and five years in high -school (secondary). - -Some of the outstanding public educators in Virginia have been -James Blair, Reverend William H. Ruffner, R. R. Farr, Dr. F. V. -N. Painter, John L. Buchanan, John E. Massey, Joseph W. Southall, -Joseph D. Eggleston, Dr. R. C. Stearnes, Harris Hart, Sidney B. -Hall, Dabney S. Lancaster, G. Tyler Miller, Dowell J. Howard, Dr. -Davis Y. Paschall, Dr. Woodrow W. Wilkerson--State Superintendents -of Public Instruction--George Wythe, Edwin Alderman, Edward -Armstrong, Samuel C. Armstrong, George Denny, Thomas R. Dew, William -H. McGuffey, Benjamin S. Ewell, John Langston, John T. Lomax, Booker -T. Washington, William Morton, William Pendleton, Thomas R. Price, -Francis Henry Smith, William Waugh Smith, Charles E. Vauter, William -Wilson, Milton Humphreys, Ed Joynes, Lyon Tyler and J. L. Blair -Buck. Countless individual teachers, state and local administrators, -and parent-teacher organizations have also contributed ideas which -have influenced and improved the educational facilities throughout -the state. - -Education has become one of the greatest problems in the -Commonwealth and a field of paramount interest to the citizens as -well as to state and local officials, the students, the parents, -and the professional educational staff directly involved. As the -enrollments have rapidly increased, the governors, state legislators -and local officials have increased their concern and support, -causing the educational facilities to improve and expand. Such -actions provide opportunities for the residents of Virginia to -obtain a well-rounded education. - - -SUMMARY - -Literature reveals the everyday experiences of people as well -as their dreams and aspirations. Personal diaries, journals and -letters were frequently used during colonial days to describe ideas -and events. Poetry was scarce but many scholarly articles, often -historically inclined, were written. Political thinking soon became -a favorite topic for written expression and biographies and essays -became numerous. Edgar Allan Poe, a resident of Virginia from his -adoption at the age of three, is considered the most original author -for his creation of the modern short story and the detective story. -Virginians also have contributed several historical and romantic -novels. The distinguished history and picturesque setting of -Virginia has furnished innumerable topics of interest for written or -oral expression. - -Art has flourished in Virginia from the handicraft of the early days -to the plastic sculpturing of the present. In the colonial period, -European artists often visited Virginia and used Virginia and her -residents as their subjects. Later, Virginia artists began to study -abroad and, upon their return home, engaged primarily in portrait -and panorama painting. Edward Valentine created unusual, as well as -fine, sculptures. Foreign artists as well as native artists have -often used Virginia personalities and scenes as sources for their -inspiration. - -Although Virginia can claim only two separate types of original -architecture--the Colonial type influenced by England and altered to -fit the environment of Virginia and the Jeffersonian type originated -through the artistic efforts of Thomas Jefferson himself--Americans -and foreigners still visit and study these architectural types -in an effort to imitate or perpetuate such desirable styles. The -Commonwealth has a variety of standard forms of architecture. - -Organs, harpsichords and violins were popular musical instruments -in colonial days in Virginia. Gradually, American folk music, -Negro spirituals, the founding of the "Etude" music magazine and -the invention of the five-stringed banjo tended to increase and -popularize music in Virginia. John Powell of Richmond is considered -Virginia's greatest single contributor to the musical composition -field. - -From the Williamsburg Theater of 1716 to the Barter Theater of the -present, Virginians have shared the spotlight, the hardships and the -fame of plays, vaudeville, moving pictures, radio and television. -The annual production of "The Common Glory," an historical drama, at -Lake Matoaka Theater in Williamsburg attracts thousands of patrons. - -Education, the "backbone" of cultural activities, is one of the -most challenging current problems facing Virginia. Personal -training in the home, apprenticeship training outside the home, -the church and church school education, private tutoring and -private and public institutions of education of the elementary, -secondary and higher education level--all are significant milestones -along the educational paths of Virginia. With the educational -facilities expanding on all levels to meet the rapidly increasing -enrollment, with teacher training becoming more specialized, -with the improvement in standard courses and the addition of new -courses of study and with larger legislative appropriations for -education, education in Virginia provides more students with better -opportunities for effective learning. - -The changing pattern of everyday living can be recognized by -observation and analysis of the literature, art, architecture, -music, drama and education of a people. The inhabitants of the -Commonwealth, consequently, have woven a particular pattern of their -own from their contributions to these various phases of Cultural -Life. - - - - -7 - -Political Life - - -_Background of Present State Constitution_ - -The original Constitution for the State of Virginia was written -at a special convention held in Williamsburg from May 7, 1776 to -July 5, 1776. The Constitution itself was officially adopted on -June 29, 1776, making this date the birth date of the State. The -individual who was primarily responsible for most of the content -in the original Constitution was George Mason. The creation of the -first Constitution was unusual in two respects: at the time it was -written, the convention members decided upon specific powers which -the newly-formed government should not have before it determined -those powers which it should have; furthermore, the Constitution -was adopted officially by the convention members without the usual -procedure of submitting it to the voters for final ratification. - -As years pass and conditions vary, it becomes necessary to make -changes in the framework of a government to meet such needs. -Consequently, on four specific occasions, the Constitution of -Virginia has been rewritten: namely, in 1829-1830, 1850, 1867 and -1901. - -In 1816, the residents west of the Blue Ridge Mountains demanded -more representation in their state government and fewer suffrage -restrictions. After many years of discontent, these individuals -finally encouraged enough residents throughout the state to vote -for a constitutional convention to be held in Richmond in 1829. -At the convention, suffrage was extended slightly although all -non-real estate owners still could not vote. The term of the -Governor was extended to a three-year term with an increase in -his powers, and representation was reapportioned to benefit the -inhabitants living west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. However, -in the redistribution of seats in the House of Delegates, the -residents in the Trans-Allegheny section lost some seats. When the -proposed Constitution was submitted to the people of Virginia for -ratification, 26,055 voted for it and 15,166 voted against it. In -this vote, for the first time, the Valley people of the western part -of the state joined the residents of the east rather than their -Trans-Allegheny neighbors who had strongly opposed it. The new -Constitution was officially adopted in 1830. - -After the national census of 1840 had been taken, it revealed an -unfair numerical representation of the white people west of the -Blue Ridge Mountains in comparison with the representation of the -number of white people living east of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Such -unfair representation existed in both houses of the General Assembly -to the extent that some residents even suggested that the people -of the western part of Virginia create a separate state and call -it Appalachia. Special local meetings were held and a referendum -was finally suggested to determine the need of a constitutional -convention as an attempt to correct this unfair condition. -Finally, a state-wide vote in 1850 recommended such a convention -be held in Richmond in the same year. After numerous arguments -among the delegates had been voiced over a four months' period, a -compromise was eventually adopted. The national census of 1850 was -to be used as the official white population count and legislative -representation was to be based upon this count: the effect of the -compromise was to give the counties west of the Blue Ridge Mountains -a majority in the House of Delegates and the counties east of the -Blue Ridge Mountains a majority in the State Senate. Additional -reforms were adopted which resulted in this 1850 convention -sometimes being referred to as "the reform convention": suffrage was -extended considerably to white male citizens; oral balloting was to -be maintained; the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the Attorney -General, certain judges, county clerks and sheriffs were to be -elected directly by the qualified voters; the tenure of the Governor -was extended to a four-year term; and the General Assembly was to -meet once every two years instead of annually. A capitation or poll -tax was to be levied upon each voter and half of the revenue from -this tax was to be used for school purposes. The General Assembly -was given additional power to control slavery by the passage of -certain restrictions which were to be imposed upon slaveowners. This -third Constitution for Virginia was officially adopted in 1851 after -it had been ratified by the voters of the state. - -After the War between the States had ended and the Reconstruction -Period had begun, Virginia became Military District Number One in -March 1867 with General John M. Schofield as its chief executive. -The United States Congress demanded that Virginia and the other -nine former seceded states rewrite their state constitutions. When -the delegates of the constitutional convention met on December -3, 1867, they consisted of 32 Conservative Party members, 25 -Radical Republican Negroes, 14 native Virginia Radical Republicans -and 31 Carpetbaggers, Scalawags and aliens. The constitution -which resulted from this convention is known as the Underwood -Constitution because the chairman of the convention was Judge John -C. Underwood, a Radical Republican. Some of the provisions of this -constitution included the division of each county into townships, -the establishment of a county court with a single judge in each -county, the appointment of a Board of Supervisors in each county -to carry out the executive powers, the levying of a high tax rate -on landed property, the compulsory creation of a public school -system, the denial of suffrage to many former Confederate leaders -and a restriction of allowing only former non-supporters of the -Confederacy to hold office or act as a juror. In 1869, upon the -recommendation of President Ulysses S. Grant, the United States -Congress allowed Virginia voters to vote at a popular referendum on -the Underwood Constitution itself and then to vote separately on -the sections which denied suffrage rights and office-holding rights -to former Confederates. On July 6, 1869, the qualified voters of -Virginia ratified the Underwood Constitution and rejected the other -two sections. - -In 1897, an attempt to hold a constitutional convention was defeated -but three years later, the people of the Commonwealth voted in -favor of a constitutional convention. This fifth constitutional -convention began in June 1901 and continued for approximately one -year. As a result of this convention (described in Chapter Four), -numerous changes were made which were considered so important by -the delegates at the convention that they decided to "proclaim" -this Constitution of 1902 as the fundamental law of Virginia rather -than to submit it to the voters for ratification. Consequently, on -May 29, 1902, the Constitution of 1902 was voted by the convention -delegates for adoption and this is the present Constitution of the -Commonwealth, with certain subsequent revisions. - -Like the Constitution of the United States, the Virginia -Constitution is divided into major areas called articles and into -subdivisions called sections. There are seventeen articles and -two hundred and one sections. The following topics found in the -articles indicate the broad range of subjects included: the Bill of -Rights, Elective Franchise and Qualifications for Office, Division -of Powers, Legislative Department, Executive Department, Judiciary -Department, Organization and Government of Counties, Organization -and Government of Cities and Towns, Education and Public -Instruction, Agriculture and Immigration, Public Welfare and Penal -Institutions, Corporations, Taxation and Finance, Miscellaneous -Provisions--Homestead and Other Exemptions, Future Changes in the -Constitution, Rules of Construction, and Voting Qualification of -Armed Forces. - - -_The Virginia Bill of Rights_ - -Article I is the Bill of Rights. Such rights are prefaced by an -introductory paragraph in the article which states that this -series of rights form the backbone of the governmental structure -in Virginia: "A declaration of rights made by the good people of -Virginia in the exercise of their sovereign powers, which rights -do pertain to them and to their posterity, as the basis and -foundation of government." The famous Declaration of Rights which -follows the introductory paragraph was written by George Mason and -introduced at the Williamsburg Convention by Archibald Cary. It was -unanimously adopted by the convention members on June 12, 1776, and -its principles were considered so significant that they were later -used as the basis for the Bill of Rights in the Constitution of the -United States as well as for many other state bills of rights. The -importance attached to these provisions has resulted in the Virginia -Bill of Rights often being called the "Magna Charta of Virginia." - -In seventeen different sections, the Virginia Bill of Rights -guarantees various underlying principles of government: - - (1) "That all men are by nature equally free and independent and - have certain inherent rights, of which, when they enter into a - state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest - their posterity, namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with - the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing - and obtaining happiness and safety"--Thus, freedom and equality - of every individual is recognized, and one's rights of life, - of liberty, of owning property and of achieving happiness and - safety are guaranteed. - - (2) "That all power is vested in, and consequently derived - from, the people; that magistrates are their trustees and - servants, and at all times amenable to them"--Thus, a principle - of democracy is expressed that the right to rule comes from the - people themselves and that office-holders are representatives of - the people and are responsible to the people. - - (3) "That the government is, or ought to be, instituted for the - common benefit, protection and security of the people, nation - or community; of all the various modes and forms of government, - that is best which is capable of producing the greatest degree - of happiness and safety, and is most effectually secured against - the danger of maladministration; and, whenever any government - shall be found inadequate or contrary to these purposes, a - majority of the community hath an indubitable, inalienable - and indefeasible right to reform, alter or abolish it, in - such manner as shall be judged most conducive to the public - weal"--Thus, the objective of a government is to benefit, - protect and preserve security for the people. The best type of - government is that which results in the greatest happiness and - safety of all those whom it governs. Whenever a majority of - those being governed consider such government as not attaining - such an objective, they have a right to change it, reform it, - or, if deemed wise, to abolish it as long as it is done in a - legal manner considered for the good of all involved. - - (4) "That no man, or set of men, is entitled to exclusive or - separate emoluments or privileges from the community, but in - consideration of public services; which not being descendible, - neither ought the offices of magistrate, legislator or judge to - be hereditary"--Thus, the amount of financial profit or gain - received by an office-holder in any community is to be based - solely upon his rendering public service to the community. - Consideration of birth, influence or wealth is to be ignored, - and office-holding itself cannot be automatically inherited or - handed down from father to son. - - (5) "That the legislative, executive and judicial departments - of the State should be separate and distinct; and that the - members thereof may be restrained from oppression, by feeling - and participating the burthens of the people, they should, at - fixed periods, be reduced to a private station, return into that - body from which they were originally taken, and the vacancies - be supplied by regular elections, in which all or any part of - the former members shall be again eligible, or ineligible, as - the laws may direct"--Thus, the principle of the separation - of powers is set forth, that is, the legislative, executive - and judicial departments are organized as three separate, - independent departments. Officials should have specific terms of - office and should be elected for designated periods of time at - the end of which time they should return to their former private - status and be eligible for re-election if the law provides for - such an opportunity. - - (6) "That all elections ought to be free; and that all men - having sufficient evidence of permanent common interest with, - and attachment to, the community, have the right of suffrage, - and cannot be taxed, or deprived of, or damaged in, their - property for public uses, without their own consent, or that - of their representatives duly elected, or bound by any law to - which they have not, in like manner, assented for the public - good"--Thus, all elections should be free and open, and all - men who have become regular residents of a community should - be allowed to vote. Property cannot be taxed, disposed of - or damaged for public use without the consent of the people - involved or that of their representatives. Neither can the - people be forced to abide by any law unless it has been voted - upon by them or by their elected representatives. - - (7) "That all power of suspending laws, or the execution of - laws, by any authority, without consent of the representatives - of the people, is injurious to their rights and ought not to be - exercised"--Thus, no office-holder should have the authority to - suspend a law or to carry out a law, independent of the legal - representatives of the citizenry. - - (8) "That in criminal prosecutions a man hath a right to demand - the cause and nature of his accusation, to be confronted with - the accusers and witnesses, to call for evidence in his favor, - and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of his vicinage, - without whose unanimous consent he cannot be found guilty. He - shall not be deprived of life or liberty, except by the law of - the land or the judgment of his peers; nor be compelled in any - criminal proceeding to give evidence against himself, nor be - put twice in jeopardy for the same offense...."--Thus, any man - accused of a crime is entitled to certain rights: to be informed - of the charges placed against him, to meet face to face with the - witnesses and accusers, to defend himself in a fair and speedy - trial with an impartial or unprejudiced jury. He cannot be - deprived of life or liberty except by legal judicial action; he - cannot be made to testify against himself; and he is ineligible - to be tried twice for the same crime. - - (9) "That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor - excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments - inflicted"--Thus, bails, fines and punishments must be - reasonable. - - (10) "That general warrants, whereby an officer or messenger - may be commanded to search suspected places without evidence of - a fact committed, or to seize any person or persons not named, - or whose offense is not particularly described and supported - by evidence, are grievous and oppressive, and ought not to be - granted"--Thus, a search warrant should state specifically the - exact place to be searched or the exact individual to be seized - and the offense should be specified. - - (11) "That no person shall be deprived of his property without - due process of law; and in controversies respecting property, - and in suits between man and man, trial by jury is preferable - to any other, and ought to be held sacred. The General Assembly - may limit the number of jurors for civil cases in courts of - record to not less than five in cases cognizable by justices - of the peace, or to not less than seven in cases not so - cognizable"--Thus, since man has a right to own property, he - cannot be deprived of it without due course of law. In certain - types of lawsuits, trial by jury is believed the best legal - procedure. - - (12) "That the freedom of the press is one of the great bulwarks - of liberty, and can never be restrained but by despotic - governments; and any citizen may freely speak, write and - publish his sentiments on all subjects, being responsible for - the abuse of that right"--Thus, the right of the freedom of - press and of the freedom of speech is advocated as long as an - individual assumes the responsibility for same. - - (13) "That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the - people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural and safe defense - of a free State; that standing armies, in time of peace, should - be avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the - military should be under strict subordination to, and governed - by, the civil power"--Thus, a militia promotes the safety of the - people. There are dangers of a standing army of professional men - in peacetime, and, even in wartime, the military group should be - subject to civilian authority. - - (14) "That the people have a right to uniform government; and, - therefore, that no government separate from, or independent of, - the government of Virginia, ought to be erected or established - within the limits thereof"--Thus, the people in the State should - be governed by the same rules and regulations. No other separate - or independent government within Virginia other than the one - established by the State Constitution can be organized. - - (15) "That no free government, or the blessings of liberty can - be preserved to any people, but by a firm adherence to justice, - moderation, temperance, frugality and virtue, and by frequent - recurrence to fundamental principles"--Thus, government, like - men, must be guided by moral principles: namely, justice, - moderation, temperance, frugality and virtue. Without repeated - adherence to these moral precepts, free government cannot - survive. - - (16) "That religion or the duty which we owe to our Creator, and - the manner of discharging it, can be directed only by reason and - conviction, not by force or violence; and, therefore, all men - are equally entitled to the free exercise of religion, according - to the dictates of conscience; and that it is the mutual duty of - all to practice Christian forbearance, love and charity toward - each other"--Thus, the right of the freedom of religion is - advocated and guaranteed. - - (17) "The rights enumerated in this bill of rights shall not - be construed to limit other rights of the people not therein - expressed"--Thus, since there are other rights not included in - this Bill of Rights, this last section reminds the people that - there are additional rights not specifically included in this - article. - -An understanding of the natural fundamental rights of a people as -individuals, as guaranteed by the Virginia Bill of Rights, causes -one to appreciate deeply the guarantees of liberty and freedom -provided for the people of the State. - - -_Election Requirements, Offices and Procedures_ - -The extreme importance which the early Virginians attached -to suffrage is recognizable by the location of the voting -qualifications in the Virginia Constitution. Such qualifications -directly follow the Bill of Rights as Article II and include the -following requirements: - -(1) a citizen of the United States - -(2) at least twenty-one years of age - -(3) a resident of Virginia at least one year - -(4) a resident of the county, city or town at least six months - -(5) a resident of the voting precinct at least thirty days prior to -the election - -(6) the payment of an annual state capitation or poll tax of one -dollar and fifty cents to the county or city treasurer at least -six months prior to the election; the receipt of such payment is -necessary for registration before voting. A resident who, although -eligible to vote at the age of twenty-one, has refrained from doing -so must pay a poll tax assessable against him for a maximum three -years before being able to vote. A new resident must pay only for -each year or part of a year spent in Virginia. - -(7) the passing of a literacy test to prove one's ability to read -and write in English and to understand the functions of government - -(8) proper registration at least 30 days before the election at -the office of the local Registrar of Elections which includes the -presentation of one's poll tax receipt, the filling in of certain -required forms pertaining to personal history and the swearing under -oath of the truth of one's statements. Registration in Virginia -is now permanent so that after a resident citizen has properly -registered, he does not have to repeat this process unless he moves. -A noteworthy provision of the Constitution allows any person who is -an active member of the United States Armed Forces to be exempt from -paying a poll tax and from registering as a prerequisite to voting. -Likewise, his poll taxes are cancelled and annulled for the three -years next preceding if he has an honorable discharge. - -Certain persons are excluded by Article II from registering and -voting: idiots, insane persons, paupers, persons disqualified by -crime or specific disabilities which have not been removed, persons -convicted of treason, felony, bribery, petit larceny, obtaining -money or property under false pretenses, embezzlement, forgery or -perjury. The General Assembly has the power, by a two-thirds vote, -to remove such disabilities. - -Qualified citizens of Virginia have the opportunity to elect three -types of officials: - - (1) national officials--the President and the Vice-President - of the United States (every four years), two United States - Senators (normally, every six years) and ten United States - Representatives (normally, every two years). - - (2) state officials--the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, - Attorney-General (every four years), forty State Senators (every - four years) and one hundred House of Delegates members (every - two years). - - (3) local officials--County: Treasurer, Sheriff, Commonwealth - Attorney, Commissioner of the Revenue (every four years), - County Clerk (every eight years) and Assembly members or - members of the Board of Supervisors; City: Treasurer, Sergeant, - Mayor, Councilmen, City Attorney for the Commonwealth, City - Commissioner of the Revenue (every four years) and Clerk of the - City Courts (every eight years). - -All elections by the people are by secret ballot. Generally, -election officials are sworn in office the day of the election; -one of the judges opens the ballot box publicly, turns it upside -down to prove its emptiness, locks it and keeps it locked until -the voting polls are closed. At the beginning of the election day, -the election judges receive the registration books and the list of -those citizens whose past three years poll tax has been paid. The -election clerk receives a poll book, a blank book to be used for -the official listing of the voters who come to the polls. After all -election officials have received their necessary clerical supplies -and their instructions, the polls are opened for voting. Thus, a -citizen is immediately checked for his proper registration and poll -tax payments when he comes to vote. He then receives a ballot which -he alone marks secretly in a voting booth. Voting must be performed -carefully because a defaced, improperly marked ballot may be -challenged and thrown out. He folds his ballot to maintain secrecy -and hands it to an election judge who places it immediately in the -ballot box. It is illegal for a voter to be approached concerning a -possible candidate any nearer than 100 feet from the polling place. -Fifteen minutes before closing time for the polling place, one of -the election judges will loudly proclaim this fact in front of the -polling place. Exactly fifteen minutes later, the voting officially -ends and only ballot holders at this time are allowed to cast their -vote. - -After the polls are closed, all the unused ballots are placed in a -special envelope marked accordingly. The used ballots are tipped out -of the ballot box onto the table. All the election officials present -check the complete emptiness of the box. Representatives of each of -the political parties are allowed to watch the correct counting of -the votes. The election clerks make two sets of tally sheets which -include the names of all the candidates which appeared on the ballot -and each clerk keeps personal tally as the ballots are counted and -the names of the candidates voted for are called off by the election -judges. The usual tally method is used, and the word "tally" is -spoken by each clerk as the diagonal fifth line is drawn so that any -mistakes in the count made by either clerk can be caught quickly. -Any time there is disagreement between the tally scores of the two -clerks, a complete recounting of the ballots for the candidate -whose score disagrees must take place. In case of a tie vote for a -Congressman, Assemblyman, or county or city official, the outcome -is determined by the Election Board, often by the flip of a coin. -When all the votes have been tallied, an official written report is -prepared on the back of each poll book: it includes the number of -votes cast individually and totally for each candidate. This report -is signed by the election judges and the election clerks. These poll -books plus the used ballots and the unused ballots are submitted -to the county or city clerk and later reviewed by the Board of -Elections. The successful candidates then receive a certificate of -election which makes them officially elected to their respective -offices. - -Every person qualified to vote is eligible to any office of the -State, county, city or other subdivision of the State wherein he -resides except as stated otherwise in the State Constitution. -Persons eighteen years of age are eligible to the office of notary -public. The terms of all officers elected begin on the first day of -February after their election unless otherwise stated. The members -of the General Assembly and all officers, executive and judicial, -elected or appointed, take the following oath or affirmation: "I do -solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support the Constitution of -the United States, and the Constitution of the State of Virginia, -and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge and perform -all the duties incumbent on me as ----, according to the best of my -ability, so help me God." - -Any person who is registered and qualified to vote at the next -succeeding regular election is eligible to vote at any legalized -primary election held for the nomination of any candidate for office. - - -_Legislative, Executive and Judicial Departments_ - -The separation of powers theory in government is considered so -important that Article III of the Virginia State Constitution -concerns solely this underlying principle: namely, that the -legislative, executive and judicial departments are to be separate -and distinct. To emphasize this idea, the Constitution further -states that neither department shall "exercise the powers properly -belonging to either of the others nor may any person exercise the -power of more than one of them at the same time." - -The Legislative Department--Since one of the chief functions of a -government is to make laws, it is logical for Article IV of the -Constitution to consist of a detailed description of the Legislative -Department: its composition, membership, qualifications, powers and -limitations. - -The State legislature or legislative branch is called the General -Assembly. It is a bicameral legislature composed of an upper -house, the Senate, and a lower house, the House of Delegates. This -legislative body has been in continuous existence since 1619 and -is believed to be the oldest one in the Anglo-Saxon world and the -second oldest Parliament in the entire world. - -The Constitution requires that the Senate consist of not more than -forty and not less than thirty-three members, elected quadrennially -(once every four years). There are forty members in the present -State Senate, and their term of office is four years. They are -elected to office by the qualified voters of the State Senatorial -Districts on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in -November of every other odd-numbered year in which the Governor is -not elected. Therefore, they are elected during the mid-term of -the Governor. The State Constitution requires that the House of -Delegates consist of not more than one hundred and not less than -ninety members. In the present House of Delegates, there are one -hundred members, and their term of office is two years. Members -of the House are elected to office by the qualified voters of the -State House districts on the Tuesday following the first Monday -in November of every odd-numbered year. Both the Senatorial and -House of Delegates Districts are set up by the General Assembly in -that a special commission is appointed by the governor to do the -districting: this commission membership must be approved by the -General Assembly. The Constitution requires that reapportionment -or redistricting take place every ten years to offset population -changes. The last reapportionment was made in 1952; therefore, the -next reapportionment or redistricting is due in 1962. There are now -thirty-six State Senatorial Districts, thirty-three of which are -entitled to one Senator each and seventy-six House of Delegates' -districts, sixty-two of which are entitled to one Delegate each. - -Any qualified voter living in a Senatorial or in a House district is -eligible for election from that district to the General Assembly. -However, no General Assembly member can hold any other public -office at the same time or be elected by this assembly to any -civil office of profit in the state during his term of office. -Likewise, an individual who holds a federal government or state -government salaried office or employment or the position of court -judge, Commonwealth attorney, sheriff, sergeant, treasurer, assessor -of taxes, commissioner of revenue, collector of taxes, or court -clerk cannot be a member of either house of the General Assembly -during his continuance in office. If such an individual is elected -to either house of the General Assembly, his former office must -be vacated. Two Constitutional requirements are necessary: the -individual must be a qualified voter and must live in the district -he represents. - -The salaries of the members of the General Assembly are fixed by law -and are paid from the public treasury. Any act passed which provides -for an increase of legislative salary cannot take effect until the -end of the term for which the members voting thereon were elected. -The present salary is $1080 per regular sixty-day biennial session -(plus $720 for expenses) for the House of Delegates members and -for the State Senators and $1,260 for the Speaker of the House of -Delegates and the President of the Senate. - -The General Assembly meets at Richmond in regular session once -every two years on the second Wednesday in January in even-numbered -years, directly following the election of the members of the House -of Delegates. The maximum number of days in the regular session is -sixty, but a session may be extended not longer than thirty days if -three-fifths of the members of each house concur. The usual session, -however, is sixty days in length. A special session may be called at -any time by proclamation of the Governor on his own initiative or -by him at the request of two-thirds of the members of both houses. -Neither house can, without the consent of the other, adjourn to -another place nor for more than three days while a session is still -in progress. A quorum is necessary to do business and a majority -of the members of each house is considered as a quorum. However, a -small number may adjourn from day to day and they have the power to -compel the attendance of members according to the rules established -by each house individually. The House must organize itself at the -outset of each session because its members have been elected the -preceding November. The Clerk of the previous House serves until a -new chairman has been chosen. Therefore, the Clerk calls the House -to order, calls the roll, and officially swears in the members. - -The chairman of the House of Delegates is called the Speaker: he is -chosen by the House of Delegates members after a party caucus. The -chairman of the Senate is called the President of the Senate and -the Lieutenant-Governor automatically serves as chairman. In the -absence of the Lieutenant-Governor or whenever he finds it necessary -to carry out the office of Governor, the Senate chooses a president -pro tempore (president for-the-time-being) from its own membership. -Each house of the General Assembly selects its own officers (Clerk, -Sergeant-at-Arms, two Door Keepers), settles its rules of procedures -and directs writs of election for filling vacancies which may occur -during the General Assembly's session. If vacancies occur during -the recess period when the General Assembly is not in session, the -Governor may issue writs of election as prescribed by law. Each -house is responsible for determining its own rules and for judging -the election, qualifications, and returns of its own members; each -house may punish its members for disorderly conduct and may expel a -member whenever two-thirds of its members so concur. - -The members of the General Assembly are entitled to certain -privileges. They are free from arrest during the session of their -particular house except in cases of treason, felony (a serious -crime) or breach of the peace. They cannot be questioned in any -other place for any speech or debate in which they participate in -either house. Furthermore, they are free from arrest under any civil -process during the regular sessions of the General Assembly and -during the fifteen days directly preceding or directly following the -session. - -Each house of the General Assembly must keep a journal of its -proceedings and must publish it from time to time. Whenever -one-fifth of the members present express a desire to have the "yeas" -and "nays" of their members on a specific question recorded, such -information must be entered in the journal. The Clerk of each house -has this important duty of journal-keeping. In addition, the Clerk -also prepares the payroll, keeps the docket and supervises the -printing of the legislative acts--hence, he is often called the -"Keeper of the Rolls" of the Commonwealth. - -As mentioned earlier, the chief purpose of any legislative body is -to make laws. In Virginia, every law must be introduced in the form -of a bill. There are six major steps in the process whereby a bill -becomes a law: - - (1) A bill may originate in either house. The legislator who - sponsors it is called the "Patron." It is customary for all - appropriation bills to be introduced in the House of Delegates; - the Clerk of the house in which it originated assigns a number - to it. No regular bill can be introduced after the beginning of - the last three weeks of a session. - - (2) The bill is then referred to the proper committee of each - house. There are twenty-one standing committees in the Senate - and thirty-four standing committees in the House of Delegates. - In addition, there are a few joint standing committees--Senators - and Delegates serving together on a committee--including an - auditing committee, nominations and confirmations committee, - printing committee and a library committee. The bill is - considered carefully by the proper committee and then reported - back to the Clerk of the House. - - (3) The bill is then printed by the house in which it - originated. The original bill is sent directly to the printer, - and the copies are usually then printed and distributed to - the members the next day. When the Clerk, having received the - committee report, places the bill an the calendar, it is called - the first reading and only the title of the bill is read at this - time. - - (4) The bill is read in its entirety when its turn comes - on the calendar and the "Patron" explains carefully its - contents. Detailed discussion may take place and amendment, - rejection, referral to another committee for further study or - approval occurs. If the bill is approved, it is then sent to - be engrossed--the contents of the bill is pasted on a large - sheet of paper with the amendments or suggestions included in - the proper place for final examining. This entire procedure is - called the second reading. - - (5) The third reading takes place when the bill is being - considered for final passage. The bill must be passed in both - houses in a recorded vote of "aye" or "nay" on a roll call with - a majority of "ayes" from those voting: at least two-fifths of - the members elected to each house must be participants in the - voting. This is performed in Virginia by an electric voting - machine. The names of the members voting for and against must - be entered on the official journal of each house. Thus, a - bill may be approved or rejected by either house. Frequently, - a conference committee has to be appointed to smooth out - differences between the two houses in regards to the details of - a bill. - - (6) After the bill has been passed by both houses, it is - enrolled--that is, printed in final form--and signed by - the presiding officer of each house in the presence of the - house members. The bill is then sent to the Governor for - his consideration. (See Article V concerning the Executive - Department.) - -Either house may amend a bill by an approved "aye" vote of a -majority of those voting (at least two-fifths of the total -membership in each house is a required minimum for voting). - -In case of an emergency measure, a recorded "aye" vote in the -official journals of four-fifths of the members voting in each -house may result in the omission of the usual required printing and -reading of the bill on three different calendar days. - -[Illustration: VA. DEPT. OF CONSERVATION AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT - -_State Capitol at Richmond_] - -A recorded affirmative vote by a majority of all the members elected -to each house is necessary for the passing of any bills which create -or establish a new office, which create, continue or revive a -debt or charge, or which concern public monies or taxes. All tax -bills must specifically state the tax requirements clearly. - -Each law can include only one subject or object, and such subject -or object must be expressed in its title. In order to revive or -amend a law, the title reference alone cannot be used; the act -revived or the section amended must be re-enacted and published at -length. After a bill has been successfully passed, it generally -cannot take effect until at least ninety days after the adjournment -of the General Assembly session during which it was enacted. Two -exceptions to this restriction exist: a general appropriation law -and an emergency law. In these two instances, the General Assembly -by an official "aye" recorded vote, by a vote of four-fifths of the -members voting in each house, has the power to state the time such -laws are to take effect. - -The House of Delegates has the right to bring impeachment charges -against the executive or judicial officers of the state. Impeachment -charges may be brought for malfeasance (unlawful or wrongful action) -in office, corruption, neglect of duty, or other high crimes or -misdemeanors. Such charges are prosecuted before the Senate which -has the sole power to try impeachments. A two-thirds affirmative -vote of the senators present is necessary for conviction. If an -individual is convicted of impeachment charges, he is subject to the -following penalties: removal from office and disqualification from -further office-holding under the State. In addition, the individual -is subject to indictment (a formal charge of crime presented by a -grand jury), trial, judgment and punishment according to law. It is -possible in Virginia for the Senate to try impeachments during the -recess of the General Assembly if the charges are preferred before -adjournment. - -In addition to passing state laws, the General Assembly also has -the responsibility of electing (1) the judges of the Supreme Court -of the State where terms have expired and (2) the judges of all -circuit, corporate and chancery courts. Although the Governor -appoints all the executive department heads, appointments generally -must be approved by the General Assembly and likewise, all -commission member appointments must be confirmed or rejected by the -General Assembly. - -According to the Federal Constitution, each state is represented in -the United States Senate by two senators usually elected directly -by the qualified voters of the state. The number of representatives -from each state in the United States House of Representatives -is based upon the proportional population of each state to the -others. According to the last national census, the state of -Virginia is entitled to ten members in the United States House of -Representatives, based upon its population in proportion to the -other states. In order to determine the sections of the state each -member will represent, the state legislatures usually are given the -power to divide their states into Congressional election districts -as well as state election districts. Therefore, the Virginia General -Assembly has the power to apportion the State into Congressional -districts. Virginia has, at the present time, ten Congressional -election districts. The state Constitution provides that these -districts must "be composed of contiguous (adjacent) and compact -territory containing as nearly as practicable, an equal number of -inhabitants." - -Section 58 of Article IV of the Virginia Constitution is considered -so significant that it is required by the General Assembly to be -included in the subject matter of all schools in the state. Its -significance lies in the provisions included in this section which -guarantee added protection to individual liberties by a series of -prohibitions on the General Assembly itself. These prohibitions -include the following: - -(1) The General Assembly cannot suspend the writ of habeas corpus -unless when, in case of invasion or rebellion, such action is -required for public safety. Habeas corpus, literally, is a Latin -expression meaning "You have the body"; a writ is a written legal -command or order. Therefore, a writ of habeas corpus is an official -order commanding a person who has another person in custody to -produce the body of such person who is being detained before -a court; thus, any person arrested or otherwise detained upon -suspicion of crime has the right to demand an immediate hearing in -court with a view to determine officially whether or not there is -adequate ground for his detention. If the prisoner is then believed -to have been detained on insufficient grounds, he will be given -his freedom; otherwise, he will be held for trial, with or without -release on bail. Consequently, the writ of habeas corpus acts as a -protection for each individual against possible illegal or unlawful -imprisonment. - -(2) The General Assembly cannot pass a bill of attainder. In English -law, a bill of attainder was an act of Parliament which pronounced -the sentence of death against an accused person with consequent -complete destruction of his civil rights without even a trial being -conducted. In the Seventeenth Century these bills were commonly used -in England. The writers of the Virginia Constitution did not believe -in having an individual punished or convicted of a crime without a -trial by jury in a court with proper jurisdiction. This prohibition -guarantees a fair trial and means that an individual is "not guilty" -until proven "guilty" of violating some law or constitutional -provision. - -(3) The General Assembly cannot pass an ex post facto law. "Ex -post facto" literally means "after the fact." An ex post facto -law is defined by the United States Supreme Court as one which -"makes an action done before the passing of the law, and which was -innocent when done, criminal, and punishes such action." Therefore, -the legislature cannot pass criminal legislation after an alleged -crime has been committed that, if brought to bear against an -accused person, would be to his disadvantage. Retroactive criminal -legislation which is not detrimental to an accused person is -permissible (for example, a law reducing a penalty). Therefore, only -those individuals who violated a law after a law has been passed are -subject to punishment. - -(4) The General Assembly cannot pass a law impairing the obligation -of contracts. A contract is a formal agreement between two or more -persons binding them to a particular action. Such contracts play -a most important role in society today and must be regarded with -utmost sincerity. The United States Constitution specifically -prohibits the states from passing any law which would impair the -obligation of contracts, would weaken their effect or would make -them more difficult to enforce. - -(5) The General Assembly cannot pass a law abridging the freedom -of speech or of the press. Individuals are granted the right to -participate in political discussion and criticism and in the -interchanging of ideas and opinions in general. This, however, -does not guarantee absolute freedom: one cannot utter or publish -untruths, incite insurrections, encourage the disobedience of laws, -defame the government, or give aid and comfort to foreign countries -involved in war against the United States. One can easily understand -the necessity for such limitations to freedom. - -(6) The General Assembly cannot enact a law whereby private property -would be taken or damaged for public uses without just compensation. -The General Assembly has the authority to define the term "Public -Uses." Originally in Virginia, the courts decided this definition, -but an amendment later transferred this power from the courts to the -General Assembly, making it a legislative rather than a judicial -decision. The sovereign power of a state to take private property -for public purposes with proper compensation is called the "right of -eminent domain." The General Assembly must abide by such a right. -Therefore, a resident in Virginia is guaranteed protection from -having his private property seized from him for unfair or unjust -compensation. In case of a dispute over the fair value of such -property, the court decides the fair amount. - -(7) The General Assembly cannot compel an individual to frequent or -support a particular religious place of worship and cannot force an -individual to suffer because of his religious beliefs or opinions. -All individuals are to be guaranteed their religious freedom and the -General Assembly cannot require religious tests, bestow certain -privileges or advantages to a particular sect or denomination and -cannot pass any law requiring or authorizing any official church -within the state. Likewise, the General Assembly cannot levy taxes -on the people forcing them to support the activities of a particular -church or the building program of any house of worship. The General -Assembly, therefore, is forbidden to interfere with the religious -belief and worship of the inhabitants within the state. Another -section of the Constitution forbids the General Assembly from -incorporating churches or granting charters of incorporation to any -religious denomination. - -These religious safeguards for a person's individual beliefs are -primarily repetitions of the provisions of Thomas Jefferson's -"Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom." Since it is more -difficult to change a provision of a constitution than a statute or -a law, these provisions were included in the Virginia Constitution -for emphasis and for a more enduring effect. - -The General Assembly is also forbidden to authorize lotteries (the -distribution of prizes determined by chance or by lot) or to allow -the residents of the state to buy, sell, or transfer lottery tickets -or chances. - -An extremely important power of every state legislature is the -creation of political subdivisions within the state itself: namely, -the counties. The Virginia Constitution specifically provides for -the formation, division and consolidation of counties. A new county -must have a minimum area of 600 square miles and the county or -counties from which it is formed cannot be less than 600 square -miles after the new county has been formed. No county can be reduced -in population below 8,000 people. Whenever any county has a length -three times its breadth, or has a length exceeding fifty miles, it -may be divided at the discretion of the General Assembly. Such added -length can occur as a result of boundary changes or the annexation -of territory. The General Assembly may consolidate existing -counties upon the approval of a majority of the qualified voters -of each of these counties voting as a result of an election held -for this specific purpose. If the majority do not vote approval of -consolidation, such consolidation cannot take place. - -Virginia had eight counties originally, dating from 1634: Accawmack -(now known as Accomack and Northampton), Charles City (now known -as Prince George County), Charles River (now known as York -County), Elizabeth City (ceased as a county in 1952), Henrico, -James City (now known as Surry County), Wamosquyoake (no longer in -existence--existed only from 1634-1637) and Warwick River (known as -Warwick but ceased as a county in 1952). In 1648, an Indian district -called Chickacoan was formed into the County of Northumberland. From -these nine counties eventually 172 counties were created, with the -largest number, 116, created from Northumberland. The last change -in the number of counties occurred in 1952 when both Elizabeth City -County and Warwick County became first class independent cities, -thus relinquishing county status. At the present time, there are 98 -counties in Virginia. Furthermore, since 1788, nine counties became -part of the present state of Kentucky, fifty counties became part of -the present state of West Virginia and fifteen counties (including -the two mentioned previously) went out of existence through -consolidation or other methods. The General Assembly has exercised -and will continue to exercise its power of county-making in Virginia. - -In the Virginia Supreme Court case of Moss versus County of -Tazewell, the decision stated that "the power of the legislature -of the State is supreme, except so far as it is restrained by -State or Federal Constitution." Therefore, a State constitution is -usually considered as a restraining agreement whereby the Federal -Constitution is considered as a granting agreement. Thus, the -legislative body of a State has all the powers not prohibited to it -by the State or Federal Constitution. A State constitution is often, -therefore, a summary of what the state legislative body may not do. -The Virginia Constitution specifically states that "the authority of -the General Assembly shall extend to all subjects of legislation, -not herein forbidden or unrestricted; and a specific grant of -authority in this Constitution upon a subject shall not work a -restriction of its authority upon the same or any other subject." -The principles described are further emphasized in this quotation -from the Virginia Constitution which follows: "The omission in this -Constitution of specific grants of authority heretofore conferred -shall not be construed to deprive the General Assembly of such -authority, or to indicate a change of policy in reference thereto, -unless such purpose plainly appear." - -There are several limitations placed upon the General Assembly by -the Constitution: the General Assembly cannot enact any local, -special or private law in the following instances (but can enact -general laws in the same instances): - -(1) for the punishment of crime, - -(2) for providing a change of venue (the place where a trial is -held) in civil or criminal cases, - -(3) for regulating the jurisdiction of, or changing the rules of, -evidence in any judicial proceeding, - -(4) for changing county seats, - -(5) for assessing and collecting taxes and for extending the time -for assessment or collection of taxes, - -(6) for exempting property from taxation, - -(7) for postponing or diminishing any obligation or liability of any -person, corporation or association to the State or to any local unit -of government, - -(8) for refunding money lawfully paid into the treasury of the State -or the treasury of any local unit of government, - -(9) for granting from the treasury of the State any extra -compensation to any public officer, servant, agent or contractor, - -(10) for conducting elections or designating places of voting, - -(11) for regulating labor, trade, mining or manufacturing, or the -rate of interest on money, - -(12) for granting any pension, - -(13) for creating, increasing or decreasing fees, salaries, -percentages, or allowances of public officers during the term for -which they are elected or appointed, - -(14) for declaring streams navigable or authorizing the -constructions of booms or dams or the removal of obstructions from -such streams, - -(15) for regulating fencing or the boundaries of land, or the -running at large of stock, - -(16) for creating private corporations, or amending, renewing, or -extending their charters, - -(17) for granting to any private corporation, association or -individual any special or exclusive right, privilege or immunity, - -(18) for naming or changing the name of any private corporation or -association, - -(19) for forfeiting the charter of a private corporation. - - * * * * * - -General laws pertaining to the above subjects may be amended or -repealed as long as they do not have the effect of enactment of a -special, private, or local law. - -The General Assembly also has the power, by means of general law, -to confer upon boards of supervisors of counties and the councils -of cities and towns powers of local and special legislation insofar -as the delegation of power is not inconsistent with constitutional -limitations. - -Each time the regular session of the legislature is held, the -General Assembly appoints a standing committee, called the auditing -committee which consists of two members of the Senate and three -members of the House of Delegates. The chief function of this -committee is to examine, at least once a year, the books of the -State Treasurer and other government executive officers whose -duties concern auditing or accounting for the State revenue and of -the public institutions. This committee reports the results of its -investigations to the Governor and must arrange for publication -of results in two newspapers of general circulation. The Governor -himself submits such reports to the General Assembly at the -beginning of each session. The members of this committee have the -right to employ accountants to assist them in carrying out their -investigations. - -The Executive Department--Article V of the Virginia Constitution -concerns the Executive Department. The chief function of the -Executive Department is to enforce or carry out the laws. The -highest executive officer in the State is the Governor. He receives -his position by direct election of the qualified voters on the -Tuesday following the first Monday in November of every other -odd-numbered year--at the same time and place as the election of -the General Assembly members. The term of office for a Governor is, -therefore, four years. He is not eligible for re-election to the -same office during the succeeding term; in other words, a Governor -cannot succeed himself. - -The Governor's term begins on the third Wednesday in January on the -first year after his election and ends on the Tuesday following the -second Wednesday in January of his fourth year. This timing allows a -new Governor to come into office one week after the General Assembly -has convened for its regular session and has had the opportunity to -organize. The interval also affords an opportunity for the outgoing -Governor to present his opinions and experiences to the state -legislature before his departure. - -After the votes have been cast for the State gubernatorial -(Governor) candidates, the returns of the election are usually sent, -under seal, to the Secretary of the Commonwealth. He delivers the -returns to the Speaker of the House of Delegates on the first day -of the next session of the General Assembly. Within three days, -the Speaker of the House of Delegates must open the returns in the -presence of a majority of the Senate and of the House of Delegates. -Then the votes are counted. The person who receives the highest -number of votes is declared elected. If there is a tie, however, the -two houses of the General Assembly jointly vote for the Governor. - -In order to be eligible for the governorship, a candidate must have -three qualifications: (1) he must be a United States citizen (if not -a native-born citizen, he must have been naturalized for at least -ten years preceding his election), (2) he must be at least thirty -years of age and (3) he must have been a resident in the State of -Virginia for at least five years directly preceding his election. - -The Governor must live in the city of Richmond, the capital of -Virginia, during his term of office. He resides at the Executive -Mansion and receives at the present time a salary of $20,000 per -year. Such compensation cannot be increased or diminished during his -term of office. He cannot receive any other emolument (money) while -in office from the state government or from any other government and -he cannot hold any other position while he is Governor of the State. - -The chief duty or power of the Governor is to faithfully administer -or execute the laws. Other powers include: - -(1) reporting to each session of the General Assembly the condition -of the State in a message known as the "Governor's Message" - -(2) recommending to the General Assembly for consideration measures -which he believes are beneficial to the State - -(3) convening the General Assembly whenever two-thirds of the -members of both houses request it - -(4) convening the General Assembly into special session whenever, in -his opinion, the interest of the State requires it - -(5) acting as the commander-in-chief of the State land and naval -forces - -(6) calling out the State militia or State Police whenever necessary -to repel invasion, suppress insurrection and enforce the execution -of the laws - -(7) conducting all relations with other states - -(8) during the recess of the General Assembly, suspending from -office for misbehavior, incapacity, neglect of official duty, or -acts performed illegally, any executive officer in Richmond except -the Lieutenant-Governor (whenever he exercises this power, however, -he must report to the General Assembly, at the beginning of the -next session, the fact that he suspended an officer or officers and -the cause for such suspension: then the General Assembly itself -determines whether or not such individuals are to be restored or -finally removed from office). - -(9) during the recess of the General Assembly, appointing pro -tempore (temporary) successors to all individuals suspended (as -described previously) - -(10) likewise, during the recess of the General Assembly, filling -pro tempore vacancies in all offices of the State if such filling -is not otherwise provided for by the Constitution or by laws. (Such -appointments must be by commissions which automatically expire at -the end of thirty days after the beginning of the next session of -the General Assembly). - -(11) remitting fines and penalties under rules and regulations as -prescribed by law - -(12) granting reprieves and pardons after conviction except those in -which the House of Delegates carried on the prosecution - -(13) removing political disabilities resulting from conviction for -offenses committed prior to or subsequent to the adoption of the -State Constitution - -[Illustration: VIRGINIA STATE CHAMBER OF COMMERCE - -_Executive Mansion_] - -(14) commuting sentences of capital punishment - -(15) informing the General Assembly, at each session, of the details -of each case of fine or penalty remitted, of each reprieve or pardon -granted, and of punishment commuted, plus his reason for doing so. - -(16) requiring information in writing, under oath, from the -officers of the executive department and superintendents of State -institutions upon any subject relating to the duties of their -respective offices and institutions (Likewise, he may inspect at any -time their official books, accounts and vouchers, and ascertain the -conditions of the public funds in their charge and he may employ -accountants for this purpose) - -(17) requiring the opinion in writing of the State Attorney-General -concerning any question of law affecting his official duties as -Governor or relating to the affairs of the Commonwealth - -(18) legally certifying all commissions and grants in the name of -the Commonwealth of Virginia and affixing each with the official -seal of the Commonwealth - -(19) supervising the activities of all State Executive Departments, -Divisions, Boards and Commissions and appointing all the chief -officers and members of such groups with the consent or confirmation -of the General Assembly - -(20) appointing certain officials, subject to confirmation by the -General Assembly (for example, the Secretary of the Commonwealth, -the State Treasurer) - -(21) considering all bills passed by the General Assembly - - * * * * * - -The Governor's responsibility in the law-making process is -significant. After a bill has passed both houses of the General -Assembly, it is sent to the Governor who has four choices of action: - -(1) He may approve the bill by signing it; it becomes a law. - -(2) He may disapprove the bill by vetoing it; he then returns it -with his objections to the house in which it originated. This house -enters such objections on its journal and reconsiders the bill in -view of such objections. If, after careful consideration, two-thirds -of the members present (at least a majority of the membership of -that house is required as a minimum present for voting) still -approve the bill, it is sent with the Governor's objections to the -other house. After careful consideration here, if it is approved by -two-thirds of all the members present (at least a majority of the -membership of this house is also required as the minimum present for -voting), it will become a law over the Governor's disapproval. This -process is called "Over-riding the Veto." The Governor also has -the power to veto any particular item or items of an appropriation -bill without vetoing the entire bill. Such veto affects only the -particular item or designated items. In such a case, the item or -items must be considered by the same methods described previously. -If the Governor favors the general purpose of any bill but opposes -a part or certain parts, he may return it with recommendations -for amending it to the house in which is originated with the same -procedures described previously being used. One exception, however, -exists: a vote of only a majority of the members present in each -house is required to amend a bill. - -(3) He may do nothing about the bill; after five days have passed, -Sundays excepted, and if the General Assembly is still in session, -the bill automatically becomes a law. - -(4) He may do nothing about the bill; after ten days have passed, -if the General Assembly has adjourned in the meantime, making it -impossible to return the bill, the bill does not become a law. Such -procedure is called a "pocket veto." - - * * * * * - -With such a wide range of power, the tremendous responsibility -and authority which the Governor of Virginia possesses is readily -apparent. - -The second highest ranking state executive is the -Lieutenant-Governor. He is elected to office by the qualified -voters at the same time as the Governor for the same four-year -term of office. His qualifications and election procedure are -identical to those of the Governor. In case the Governor of the -state dies, fails to qualify, resigns, is removed from the State -or is unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office, -the Lieutenant-Governor then assumes the Governorship with its -duties, powers and compensation. Normally, the chief duty of the -Lieutenant-Governor is to act as permanent chairman of the State -Senate. While presiding over same, he is called the President of -the Senate. In such capacity, he has no vote except in case of a -tie. His salary consists of $1260 for each biennial session of the -legislature plus $3,000 per year for traveling expenses. Hence, he -receives the same salary as the Speaker of the House of Delegates. - -Two major administrative officials appointed by the Governor and -subject to the approval of the General Assembly are the Secretary -of the Commonwealth and the State Treasurer. Their terms of office -are coincident with the Governor who appoints them. The Secretary -of the Commonwealth acts as the official secretary to the Governor -and is the head of the Division of Records where all records of -the official acts of the Governor are kept. The Secretary of the -Commonwealth is also the custodian of the official State Seal and -is responsible for affixing same to all the official documents -signed by the Governor. The State Treasurer has custody of the funds -of the state in the payment of bills. He makes deposits of all -revenue belonging to the Commonwealth in certain specified banks -and withdraws such money by check only upon the State Comptroller's -warrant. - -Another important state official is the Auditor of Public Accounts. -He is elected by the joint vote of both houses of the General -Assembly for a four-year term. His powers and duties include the -auditing of all accounts of each state department, institution and -agency, and he acts as chief auditor and accountant of the Auditing -Committee of the General Assembly. In addition, he is responsible -for exposing unauthorized, illegal or unwise handling of state funds -to the Governor, the Auditing Committee of the General Assembly and -the Comptroller. He is also required by law to audit all city and -county officials' accounts unless such accounts are audited annually -by a certified public accountant according to the State Auditor's -instructions. - -All state officials who collect, keep in custody, handle or disburse -public funds must give bond for the faithful performance of these -duties. The amount of the bond varies with the amount of revenue -involved in carrying out such duties. - -Any individual who is appointed to any office by the Governor -which requires confirmation by the General Assembly and who does -not receive such necessary confirmation cannot start or continue -in office and is ineligible for reappointment during the recess -of the General Assembly to fill a vacancy caused by such refused -confirmation. - -To assist the Governor in carrying out his executive duties, -numerous departments and agencies have been established by the -Constitution or by legislative act. Most of the department names -suggest the particular type of work for which each is responsible: -the Department of Military Affairs, the Department of Law including -the Division of Motion Picture Censorship and the Division of War -Veterans' Claims, the Department of Accounts, the Department of -Purchases and Supply, the Department of the Treasury, the Department -of Taxation, the Department of State Police, the Division of -Motor Vehicles, the Department of Corporations, the Department of -Alcoholic Beverage Control, the Department of Labor and Industry, -the Department of Agriculture and Immigration, the Department of -Workmen's Compensation, the Department of Conservation and Economic -Development, the Department of Education, the Department of -Highways, the Department of Health, the Department of Welfare and -Institutions, the Department of Mental Hygiene and the Department -of Professional and Occupational Registration. The Division of -Personnel, the Division of the Budget, the Division of Records and -the Office of Civilian Defense are all located in the Governor's -Office. Additional specialized commissions such as the Advisory -Council on Virginia Economy, the Art Commission, the Safety Codes -Commission, the State Library Board, the State Water Control -Board, the Commission on Constitutional Government, the Potomac -River Basin Commission and the Commission on Interstate Cooperation -also participate actively in the carrying out of the financial, -law enforcing, service rendering, conservation, preservation, and -regulation functions of the executive department of the Commonwealth. - -The Judicial Department--Article VI concerns the Judiciary -Department whose chief purpose is to interpret the laws properly. -The State Constitution in Virginia provides for a Supreme Court of -Appeals, Circuit Courts, City Courts and other inferior courts. The -jurisdiction of these courts is regulated by law with the exception -of jurisdiction granted specifically by the State Constitution -itself. The General Assembly authorizes by law the appointment of -judges pro tempore by the Governor. - -The highest State Court is the Supreme Court of Appeals, located in -Richmond. It consists of seven members: one Chief Justice and six -associate justices. The Chief Justice is always the Senior Justice -in years of continuous service; in case the total years of service -are equaled by two or more justices, seniority is then determined by -age. The term of office of the justice is twelve years, and they are -elected by a joint vote of the Senate and the House of Delegates. -Their sole constitutional qualification is that they must have held -a "judicial station" in the United States or have practiced law in -Virginia or some other state for five years previously. The annual -salary of a justice of the Court of Appeals is $15,500 with the -Chief Justice receiving an additional $4,500 or a salary of $20,000. - -When meeting in court session, the members of the Supreme Court -of Appeals may sit as an entire group or may sit in two divisions -consisting of not less than three justices each. By sitting in two -such divisions, it is possible to hear more cases at a rapid pace. -Whenever convening in this manner, each division has the full power -and authority on the determination of causes, in the issuing of -writs, and in the exercise of all powers authorized by the State -Constitution for the Supreme Court of Appeals or provided by law. -Each division is subject, however, to the general control of the -Supreme Court of Appeals and is subject to any rules and regulations -which this court may make. Likewise, the decision of either division -does not become the judgment of the Supreme Court of Appeals unless -concurred in by at least three judges. Any case which involves a -construction of the State Constitution or of the Constitution of the -United States must be decided upon by the Supreme Court of Appeals -in toto and, furthermore, the assent of at least four of the judges -is necessary for the court to determine that any law is or is not -contrary to the State Constitution or the Constitution of the United -States. If, in such a case, it is impossible for more than three of -the judges to agree on the constitutional questions involved and -if the case cannot be determined without passing on such questions, -the case must be reheard by a full court. Whenever the judges within -either division differ as to the judgment to be rendered in any -cause, or whenever any judge of either division within a time and in -a manner fixed by the court rules certifies that in his opinion any -decision of any division of the court is in conflict with a prior -decision of the court, the cause must be considered and adjudged -(decreed) by the full court or at least a quorum of the full court. - -There are two types of court jurisdiction: original and appellate. -Original jurisdiction exists whenever a court has the legal right -to hear a case for the first time. Appellate jurisdiction exists -whenever a court is hearing a case which is being appealed or -brought to it from a lower court. The Virginia Supreme Court of -Appeals has original jurisdiction in cases of habeas corpus, -mandamus and prohibition. Habeas corpus is a court order which -commands a person having another individual in custody to bring -before the court the individual detained for the purpose of -determining the legality of detention. A mandamus is a court -order directed to subordinate courts, corporations, or the like, -commanding them to do something therein specified. A prohibition is -a writ or court order which legally restrains someone from doing -some particular action. In all other cases in which the Supreme -Court of Appeals has jurisdiction, it has appellate jurisdiction -only. The General Assembly has the power to provide, from time to -time, for a Special Court of Appeals whose chief purpose is to -assist the Supreme Court of Appeals. - -Whenever a judgment or decree is reversed, modified or affirmed -by the Supreme Court of Appeals, the court must state in writing -the reasons for same and must keep such record on file with the -case. In criminal matters, the court may direct a new trial. If -the court believes that the accused should be discharged from -further prosecution, in such instance, it has the right to order -the case ended, thereby discharging such an individual from further -prosecution. This court has no power, however, to increase or -decrease the punishment of an accused person. In civil cases, the -court may enter a final judgment. - -The courts which rank second highest in the Virginia judiciary are -the Circuit Courts. The General Assembly has the power to arrange -and re-arrange the judicial circuits of the state and to increase -or diminish their number. However, no new circuit can be created -containing less than forty thousand inhabitants according to the -most recent census nor if such creation would result in reducing the -number of inhabitants in any existing judicial circuit below forty -thousand. There are thirty-seven judicial circuits in Virginia. -The geographical composition of the circuit ranges from one county -or city to five counties and one city. Each circuit has one judge -chosen by the joint vote of both houses of the General Assembly -for a term of eight years. He must possess the same qualifications -when chosen as judges of the Supreme Court of Appeals and must live -in the circuit area where the circuit court is located while he -is in office. The number of sessions of the circuit courts to be -held for each county and city is prescribed by law and the judge of -one circuit may be required or authorized to hold court in another -circuit or city. Circuit courts usually have original and appellate -jurisdiction in (1) all civil cases involving twenty dollars or more -and (2) certain criminal cases. - -Below the circuit courts in the court structure in Virginia are -the city Hustings or Corporation Courts. They are courts of record -also and have original jurisdiction except in cases of appeals from -justices. These courts have the sole power to appoint electoral -boards in cities where they are located. They have much concurrent -jurisdiction with the circuit courts. They are criminal courts -and can try cases of felonies committed within one mile of the -corporation limits. There are sixteen such courts: Corporation -Courts located in Alexandria, Bristol, Charlottesville, Danville, -Lynchburg, Newport News, Norfolk (2), South Norfolk, Staunton, and -Winchester; Hustings Courts located in Petersburg, Portsmouth, -Richmond (2) and Roanoke. These city court judges must live in the -city where the court is located. - -The Virginia Constitution divides the cities of Virginia into two -classes as far as the judicial system is concerned: (1) cities -having a population of at least ten thousand according to the last -official census are called cities of the first class; (2) cities -having a population of less than ten thousand according to the last -official census are called cities of the second class. In each first -class city there may be a corporation court in addition to a circuit -court. In any city containing at least thirty thousand inhabitants, -the General Assembly may provide additional courts with the number -of judges it deems necessary for the public interest. - -In a second class city, there may be a corporation or hustings -court. The circuit court of the county in which the city is situated -and the corporation or hustings court have concurrent jurisdiction -in actions at law and suits in equity unless otherwise provided -by law. Therefore, the General Assembly has the power to confer -exclusive original jurisdiction upon a corporation or hustings -court in all cases involving residents of any such city; this setup -is much more convenient to the residents who live a considerable -distance from the county seat. This type of court may be abolished -by a vote of a majority of the qualified voters of the particular -city in which the court is located at a special election held for -this purpose. Another method by which a court may cease to exist is -by having the office of judge of such a court whose annual salary -is less than eight hundred dollars become vacant and remain vacant -for ninety days consecutively. Automatic abolishment of such court -results. In each case in which such court is abolished, the city -immediately comes within the jurisdiction of the circuit court of -the county wherein it is geographically situated unless otherwise -provided for by law. The records of the abolished corporation or -city court immediately become records of the aforementioned circuit -court and are transferred accordingly. - -For each city court of record there is a judge chosen for an -eight-year term by a joint vote of both houses of the General -Assembly. He must have the same qualifications as Supreme Court of -Appeals judges and must live within the jurisdiction of the court -over which he presides while he is in office. However, the judge of -a corporation court of any corporation having a city charter and -having less than ten thousand inhabitants may live outside the city -limits. Such an individual may be judge of such corporation court -and also judge of a corporation court of some other city having -less than ten thousand inhabitants. The judges of city courts may -be required or authorized to hold the circuit or city courts of any -county or city. - -The General Assembly has the power also to establish courts of land -registration for the administration of any law it may adopt for the -purpose of the settlement, registration, transfer, or assurance of -titles to land in the State. - -Judges are commissioned by the Governor of the State. Their salaries -and allowances are prescribed by law and cannot be diminished during -their term of office. Their term of office begins on the first day -of February succeeding their election by the General Assembly. -Whenever there is a judgeship vacancy, the successor is elected for -the unexpired term. The General Assembly also has the authority -to retire judges and to provide their compensation. The General -Assembly has the power to pass laws giving duties to retired judges -such as substitute judge work. The salaries of judges are paid out -of the State treasury but the State is reimbursed for one-half of -the salaries of each of the circuit judges by the counties and -cities composing the circuit, based upon their population and of -each of the judges of a city of the first class by the city in which -each judge presides. The one exception is the judge of the Circuit -Court of the city of Richmond whose entire salary is paid by the -State. A city may increase the salary of its circuit or city judges -if the city assumes the entire increase and guarantees that such -salary will not be diminished during the entire term of office. A -city which has less than ten thousand inhabitants pays the salary of -its city judge. - -Judges may be removed from office in Virginia for cause by a -concurrent vote of both houses of the General Assembly. A majority -of all the members elected to each house must concur in such vote, -and the cause of removal must be entered on the journal of each -house. The judge against whom the General Assembly is about to -proceed for removal must have notice of same accompanied by a copy -of the alleged causes at least twenty days before the actual voting -takes place. Typically, no judge can practice law within or without -the State of Virginia nor hold any other office of public trust -while he is in office. - -Writs (court orders) must be issued in the name of the "Commonwealth -of Virginia" and must be certified by the clerks of the various -courts. The Constitution requires that indictments (a formal charge -of crime presented by a grand jury) conclude "against the peace and -dignity of the Commonwealth." - -The General Assembly provides for the appointment or the election of -justices of the peace and establishes their jurisdiction. Authority -of justices of the peace includes civil suits which involve limited -amounts. In addition, Virginia also has police justices, trial -justices, civil justices, civil and police justices, juvenile and -domestic relations courts and mayor's courts. Their jurisdiction is -usually limited, however, and appeals from them are heard by city -and circuit courts. - -All cities and counties and many towns have local courts called -Magistrate Courts or Justice of the Peace Courts. Their jurisdiction -includes misdemeanors and civil cases involving small amounts of -money. - -The Commonwealth also has two Law and Chancery Courts, one located -in Roanoke and one in Norfolk. Their jurisdiction includes the -probating of wills and the settling of estates. There is a special -Chancery Court located in Richmond which has complete charge of -wills to be probated and the settling of estates in that part of -"Richmond north of the south bank of the James River." There is also -a special Law and Equity Court located in Richmond. - -The Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court, located in Norfolk, is -a special state court which has jurisdiction over cases involving -dependent, neglected and delinquent children and in cases involving -crimes--except manslaughter--against a family member. - -[Illustration: _Virginia_] - -The State Attorney-General is elected by the qualified voters of the -State at the same time and for the same term as the Governor and -Lieutenant-Governor of the State (a four-year term of office). He -must have the same qualifications as the Governor but he is eligible -for re-election. His chief duty is to serve as the attorney-at-law -for the State; he renders opinions concerning the interpretation and -application of laws upon the request of the Governor or of various -Department heads, he presents cases to the Supreme Court of Appeals -if the State's interest is involved and he represents the State of -Virginia before the Supreme Court of the United States. The numerous -problems arising in the carrying out of these responsibilities make -it desirable and necessary for him to have legal assistants who -may aid him in furnishing aid to local Commonwealth attorneys. The -State Attorney-General is subject to removal from office in the same -manner as judges. His present salary is $17,000 annually. - - -_Local Governmental Units_ - -The State Constitution not only establishes state government -organization, but it also includes rules concerning local -governmental units which are found in Article VII. Local charters -are granted by the General Assembly. The political level immediately -below the state government level is the county. Virginia is divided -into ninety-eight counties at the present time. The last original -county to be created is Dickenson County, formed in 1880. The -largest county in the state in area is Pittsylvania with 1,022 -square miles and the smallest county in area is Arlington with 24 -square miles. Fairfax County is currently the most populated county -in Virginia, surpassed in population only by the city of Norfolk. - -Legally, a county is a corporation. Its main functions, in general, -are the preservation of order, the protection of life and property, -the establishment of public schools, the administration of justice, -the registration of legal documents, the maintenance of highways and -bridges outside the cities and the care of the poor and the criminal. - -Counties of Virginia are divided into magisterial districts, -the number of districts varying from three to ten. Provision is -made in the state constitution that additional districts may be -made by law only if the new district contains at least 30 square -miles. Each district has one supervisor elected by the qualified -voters. Thus, the Board of Supervisors of the county consists of -one representative elected from each magisterial district in the -county with the exception of Arlington County where the Board of -Supervisors is elected at-large from the county. Therefore, the -number of members of each Board of Supervisors varies among the -counties. A chairman for this group is selected by the members -themselves. Their meetings are usually held once a month at the -Court House located at the County Seat. The Board of Supervisors -carries out various duties such as: (1) supervises county affairs, -(2) establishes and levies county taxes, (3) prepares the county -budget, (4) audits claims against the county, (5) erects and -maintains county buildings, (6) acts as a legislative and executive -body by issuing and carrying out ordinances on such subjects as -sanitation, health and police, (7) approves saluary scales for -county workers, (8) controls county property, (9) furnishes care for -the mentally and physically handicapped, and (10) borrows money. - -There are five county officials of importance who are elected to -office by the qualified voters on the first Tuesday after the first -Monday in November and take office on January 1 following their -election. These officials are: - -(1) Attorney for the Commonwealth--a lawyer who acts as a legal -adviser to the Board of Supervisors and to the county officials and -who acts as legal representative of the people of the county; he -also acts as prosecutor for all civil and criminal cases in which -the county is interested; he is elected by the qualified voters for -a four-year term. - -(2) County Clerk--an officer who serves as a clerk to the County -Board of Supervisors and to the County Circuit Court; as the main -county recording official, he records all types of county documents -(such as deeds, wills, judgments, mortgages, births, divorces, -deaths, elections, court trials and marriages); attends meetings of -the Board of Supervisors and has custody of property records; he is -elected by the qualified voters for an eight-year term. - -(3) Commissioner of the Revenue--an official who assesses property -values for taxation purposes, assesses State personal income taxes, -prepares personal property tax books and land books and assesses and -collects all professional and business licenses; he is elected by -the qualified voters for a four-year term. - -(4) County Treasurer--an officer who collects the county taxes -assessed by the Commissioner of Revenue, collects the state taxes, -keeps the county funds and disburses money upon order of the Board -of Supervisors; he is elected by the qualified voters for a term of -four years. - -(5) Sheriff--an officer who is the chief executive officer of the -county; he and his assistants, called deputies, form the county -police force; the Sheriff serves warrants of arrests, summons -witnesses and jurors whenever necessary, preserves peace in the -county, has charge of prisoners, cooperates with the State Police -and acts as a Bailiff at meetings of the Board of Supervisors and -at Trial Justice and Circuit Court sessions; he is elected for a -four-year term. - -Other significant county positions include County School Board -members, County Superintendent of Schools, County Health Board -members, County Surveyor, Welfare Board members, Planning Commission -and Highway Commission members, Game Wardens and Election Board -members. A state official who exerts strong influence upon the -county is the State Circuit Judge. Since he tries cases in various -counties within his own circuit, he comes in contact with many -county officials and has the authority to appoint certain county -officials within his own circuit such as (1) a Trial Justice who -tries the less important civil and criminal cases in the county and -holds hearings of cases to be tried by the circuit judge and (2) -the Coroner who makes investigations and reports concerning sudden, -violent or suspicious deaths in the county. The Circuit Judge also -appoints the School Trustee Electoral Board which in turn appoints -the County School Board. - -There are three types or forms of County Government in existence in -Virginia: the County Executive Form, the County Manager Form and the -County Board (often called the "Traditional") Form. Two counties, -Albemarle and Fairfax, have adopted the County Executive Form and -two counties, Arlington and Henrico, have adopted the County Manager -Form. Arlington County was the first county in the United States to -adopt the County Manager form of government by popular vote (1932). -The major difference between the County Executive and the County -Manager Forms of government is found in the fact that, in the former -type, the Board of Supervisors makes all key appointments upon the -recommendations of a county executive who is employed to act as the -administrative head of the county whereas, in the latter form, the -Board of Supervisors employs a manager for the county and gives -him authority to name and appoint his own department heads. The -remaining 94 counties are operated under a County Board: under this -form, the Board of Supervisors exercises not only legislative but -full executive authority as well. - -The county form of government, therefore, acts not only as a local -government unit but also as an administrative agent of the state. - -Cities and towns make up the next political level of government -organization in Virginia as described in Article VIII of the -constitution. A city is defined in the constitution as an -incorporated community which has within defined boundaries a -population of five thousand or more; a town is an incorporated -community which has within defined boundaries a population of -less than five thousand. In determining such population, the last -census of the United States or an enumeration made by authority of -the General Assembly must be used as the basis. Any incorporated -community which had a city charter when this section of the State -Constitution was adopted in 1902, regardless of its numerical -population at the time, was allowed to keep its city charter. -The General Assembly has the authority to enact general laws for -the organization and government of cities and towns in Virginia. -In special instances, the Circuit Court may issue such charters. -Whenever an area has a population of at least five thousand, it may -apply, but is not required to apply, for city status. Unlike many of -the other states in the United States, Virginia does not have any -village type of government. - -Cities having at least ten thousand persons are eligible to be -classified as cities of the first class; cities having less than -ten thousand persons are eligible to be classified as the second -class. Cities in Virginia have generally followed a three-fold plan -or pattern of development: first, an area is established, then -incorporated as a town and finally elevated to city status as an -independent municipality. During the colonial period, there were -only two towns actually incorporated: Williamsburg and Norfolk. -By 1800, only six additional towns were incorporated: Alexandria, -Winchester, Fredericksburg, Richmond, Petersburg and York -(Yorktown). Yorktown is the only town incorporated before 1800 which -has not become a city. - -A unique characteristic about cities in Virginia is the fact that -an incorporated city is politically separate from the county in -which it is geographically located. There are thirty-two independent -cities: Alexandria, Bristol, Buena Vista, Charlottesville, Clifton -Forge, Colonial Heights, Covington, Danville, Falls Church, -Fredericksburg, Galax, Hampton (formerly, a second class city; now -combined with the town of Phoebus and Elizabeth City County into a -first class city since 1952), Harrisonburg, Hopewell, Lynchburg, -Martinsville, Newport News, Norfolk, Norton, Petersburg, Portsmouth, -Radford, Richmond, Roanoke, South Boston, South Norfolk, Staunton, -Suffolk, Virginia Beach, Waynesboro, Williamsburg and Winchester. -When Newport News and Warwick became the city of Newport News on -July 1, 1958, this was the first city to be consolidated in the -Commonwealth since Richmond and Manchester combined in 1910. - -There are three types or forms of City Government in existence in -Virginia: Mayor-Council form, Commission form and City Manager form. -The city charter bears a similar relation to the city that the -Virginia Constitution bears to the state. The citizens within the -city area may decide for themselves the type of city government they -prefer when they apply for their city charter. - - * * * * * - -Although there are three forms of local government available, there -are certain characteristics common to all three types: - -(1) A bicameral City Council (unless authorized by the General -Assembly to have only one branch) is elected by the qualified voters -of the city on the second Tuesday in June. The term of office of the -councilmen begins on the following September 1. The council acts -as the legislative body by passing city or municipal laws called -ordinances. Cities are usually divided into various sections called -wards. Since representation from each ward is primarily based upon -population of the ward, the city council has the power to change -ward boundaries. Since 1933, after every ten-year period, the city -council is required by the Virginia Constitution to re-apportion -such representation accordingly. Usually, there is one councilman -from each ward. - -(2) The following officials are required by the Constitution to -be elected to office by the qualified voters: City Court Clerk, -City Commonwealth's Attorney, City Commissioner of Revenue, City -Treasurer and City Sergeant (Sheriff). All these officials (with the -exception of the City Court Clerk whose eight-year term of office -begins at the same time as the city judges' term) are elected on -the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November and their term -of office begins on the following January 1. Under a constitutional -amendment proposed in November 1960, certain elected officials of a -city (or county) could serve as such officials in two or more cities -(or counties, or city and counties) if a majority of the voters of -the local units affected so decided; however, the amendment was -defeated. - -(3) Every city has a mayor who is the chief executive and who is -elected by the people for a four-year term. Depending upon the -form of city government adopted, the mayor may be essentially a -figurehead or a key official. The chief duties of a mayor usually -include the following: - - a. enforcing ordinances, by-laws and orders, - - b. ascertaining that duties of various city officials are - carried out properly, - - c. suspending city officials upon the authorization of the - General Assembly for misconduct in office or for neglect of duty, - - d. considering ordinances, resolutions, and other measures and - approving or disapproving them, - - e. presiding at city council meetings (unless a special - provision already has provided for a council president) and - voting only in case of a tie - - f. appointing key officials with the approval of the city - council (for example, the Chief of Police, the Fire Chief, the - City Attorney) and members of certain boards (Planning, Health, - Zoning Boards). - -Every resolution or ordinance must be presented to the Mayor of a -city after it has been passed by the City Council. The Mayor has -three choices: - -(1) He may approve the ordinance by signing it; it then becomes -operative. - -(2) He may disapprove the ordinance by vetoing it; he then returns -the ordinance to the clerk of the council with his written -objections. The council then enters the detailed objections in its -journal and reconsiders the original resolution or ordinance in view -of such objections. If, after due consideration, two-thirds of the -membership of the council still wishes the original ordinance to -pass, it is passed over the Mayor's veto. - -(3) He may do nothing about the ordinance; after five days have -passed, Sundays excepted, if the Mayor is still in office and the -term of office of the members of the city council has not expired, -it automatically is passed. If, however, during these five days, -either the term of office of the Mayor or the term of office of the -members of the city council ends, the ordinance is not passed but is -considered "killed." - -Like the Governor of the state, the Mayor can veto a particular item -or more than one item in an appropriation ordinance or resolution -without affecting the rest of the resolution or ordinance. Any -ordinance or resolution which concerns the appropriation of money -for an amount over one hundred dollars, the levying of taxes or -the authorizing of the borrowing of money can be passed only by a -recorded affirmative vote of a majority of all council members. - -The oldest form of city government in Virginia is the Mayor-Council -Form. Under this form, the Council and the Mayor are elected by -the qualified voters. The Mayor, therefore, is the chief executive -officer of the city and he either appoints solely, or with the -consent of the city council in some instances, the city officers -not constitutionally required to be elected. He also has the -authority to supervise all city departments and to suspend any -officer or employee for cause. Under this system, the council is the -legislative body only. - -Another form is the Commission form of local government. Of the -three different types mentioned previously, this form is used in -Virginia the least. According to this plan, the city council itself, -elected at large, assumes the legislative and administrative or -executive powers. A mayor is elected from council membership but he -has very limited powers. He is chairman at the council meetings and -may suggest recommendations as possible legislative measures as he -sees fit. The city itself is divided into various administrative -departments by the council and each department is assigned to -a different council member who becomes the head executive or -administrative official of that department. Thus, each council -member acts as an administrator individually and as a legislator -collectively. The city council according to this plan carries out -the usual functions of the legislative body and of the executive -department, including such functions as determining the powers of -each department and the rules and regulations of each office holder -and employee. - -The City Manager form of government was first adopted in the United -States by the city of Staunton in 1908. This is the most widely-used -plan found in Virginia cities at the present time and in many other -large cities throughout the United States. Under this plan, the -Council members are elected at large by the voters. The Council is -the legislative body which makes the local laws. The City Council -selects the City Manager who may or may not be an inhabitant of the -town, city or state involved. He not only acts as the chief adviser -to the City Council but also becomes the chief executive in this -plan. His term of office is at the discretion of the City Council -members and he is responsible directly to them. Charles E. Ashburner -was the first City Manager in the United States. - -The City Council usually elects its own chairman from among its own -membership; this chairman automatically becomes the Mayor of the -city. He is the official titular head of the city and represents -the city upon various public occasions. He presides at Council -meetings, has regular Council powers and can vote but cannot veto a -proposed law. In contrast, the City Manager has the power to appoint -the chief officials of the various city government departments, -the responsibility for enforcing city ordinances and resolutions, -the obligation of attending City Council meetings and of making -suggestions and recommendations to the Council, the duty of keeping -the City Council informed of general and specific activities of -the city including its financial status, the task of preparing and -submitting a proposed budget to the City Council and the duty of -carrying out miscellaneous functions assigned to him by the City -Council. - -These three forms--Mayor-Council, Commission and City -Manager--exemplify the variety of local government organization -available to cities and towns located in Virginia. - -Towns in Virginia in order to be incorporated must have at least 300 -inhabitants and must receive approval of the local circuit judge. -Towns still remain part of the county after their incorporation. -At present, there are approximately two hundred incorporated towns -whose functions are carried out and services furnished by the County -and the Town governments. Every town has a Council and a Mayor -and in the large towns, usually a Town Manager. Three other town -officials are a Treasurer, a Clerk (called a Secretary or Recorder) -and a Town Attorney. - -Residents of Virginia, consequently, are governed daily by either -Town, City or County levels of government in addition to State and -National levels. - - -_Education and Public Instruction_ - -Article IX concerns education. The Constitution specifically states -that "The General Assembly shall establish and maintain an efficient -system of public free schools throughout the State." Therefore, as -in all states in United States, the management of the schools is -basically the responsibility of the state. There is a State Board -of Education consisting of seven members appointed for four-year -terms by the Governor with the approval of the General Assembly. The -Governor with the approval of the General Assembly also appoints an -experienced educator to the chief educational position known as the -Superintendent of Public Instruction. His term of office parallels -that of the Governor who appoints him. The duties and powers of the -State Board of Education are constitutionally described as follows: - - (1) to divide the State into school divisions or districts; - to certify to the local school boards within each division - a list of persons who have reasonable academic and business - qualifications for division superintendent of schools (the local - school board has the authority to select from this list the - individual whom they wish to hold the position of superintendent - of their division for a four-year term), - - (2) to manage and invest the school fund, according to legal - regulations, - - (3) to make rules and regulations for the management and conduct - of the schools, upon the authority of the General Assembly, - - (4) to select textbooks and educational appliances for school - use with the General Assembly itself prescribing the time when - textbooks are to be changed by the State Board of Education. - -According to the Constitution, each magisterial district is a -separate school district, and the magisterial district furnishes -the basis of representation on the county or city school board. In -cities which have a population of at least one hundred and fifty -thousand, school boards have the authority to decide for themselves, -with the approval of the local legislative body, the number and -the boundaries of their school districts. The General Assembly has -the right to consolidate into one school division, if it deems it -advisable, one or more counties or cities with one or more counties -or cities. Each division school board is empowered to select the -superintendent of schools for its own division or district. In -case a local school board fails to make such an appointment within -a prescribed time, the State Board of Education then appoints the -superintendent in that district. - -In 1810 a Literary Fund was created as a permanent fund to be used -to defray educational expenses in Virginia. This money originally -came from the proceeds of public lands donated by Congress for -public free school purposes, from unclaimed property, from property -which the state received through forfeiture, from fines collected -for offenses against the state and from other funds appropriated -by the General Assembly. The only money in the fund which must, by -constitutional requirement, be apportioned on a basis of school -population for the benefit of the primary and grammar school levels -is the annual interest on the Literary Fund, one dollar of the -State capitation tax (total State capitation tax, $1.50) and an -amount equal to an annual tax on property of not less than one nor -more than five mills on the dollar. The school population in this -instance refers to the number of children in each school district -between the ages of seven and twenty years. - -Each school district has the authority to raise additional sums of -money for educational purposes by levying a school tax on property, -a maximum amount being established by the law. The Board of -Supervisors in the county area and the Council in the town or city -areas have the authority to levy and collect local school taxes. - -The General Assembly has the right to establish agricultural, -normal, manual training and technical schools as well as other -schools deemed desirable for the public welfare. Virginia colleges -under State control at present are the College of William and Mary -at Williamsburg, Longwood College at Farmville, Madison College -at Harrisonburg, Mary Washington College (women's division of the -University of Virginia) at Fredericksburg, Medical College of -Virginia at Richmond, Radford College, (Women's division of Virginia -Polytechnic Institute) at Radford, the University of Virginia at -Charlottesville, Virginia Military Institute at Lexington, Virginia -Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg and Virginia State College -at Petersburg. The State also controls the Richmond Professional -Institute of the College of William and Mary in Richmond, the -Norfolk Division of the College of William and Mary in Norfolk and -the Norfolk Division of Virginia State College in Norfolk. The -Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind at Staunton and the -Virginia State School for Colored Deaf and Blind Children at Newport -News are State operated. - -The General Assembly also establishes compulsory education. At the -present time, school attendance is not compulsory on a state basis -but many communities have passed local compulsory attendance laws. -Whenever a parent or guardian is financially unable to furnish -public school children with necessary textbooks, the local school -system provides free textbooks to such individuals. The Virginia -Constitution has required that there be segregation of white and -colored children in the schools of Virginia. However, as a result of -a U. S. Supreme Court ruling in 1954, the segregation of colored and -white children became illegal and unconstitutional. Consequently, -local and state officials throughout Virginia have been compelled to -reconsider the state constitutional provision concerning segregation -in the public schools and to integrate the school population in some -areas. - -Members of the Board of Visitors and Trustees of educational -institutions are appointed by the Governor with the approval -of the Senate for four-year terms. They regulate the policy of -state-operated institutions of higher learning. - - -_Miscellaneous Provisions_ - -Article X concerns the Department of Agriculture and Immigration -which is headed by a State Board of Agriculture consisting of one -practical farmer from each Congressional district. The president -of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute is also automatically an -ex-officio member of this board. The chairman of this board is -the Commissioner of Agriculture appointed by the Governor. The -Department of Agriculture and Immigration has three chief functions: -to encourage the production and sale of Virginia farm products, -to protect the Virginia farmers and consumers by carrying out -various state laws concerning food products, and the improvement -of such products. The major divisions of this department include -the Division of Chemistry, of Statistics, Dairy and Food, Markets, -Animal Industry and of Plant Industry. The immigration function -is now non-existent. This function was added when a severe labor -shortage existed in the latter part of the 1800's: at that time the -Commissioner traveled to Ireland, Holland, Belgium and Denmark in an -attempt to get agricultural workers. The department still retains -the name of Agriculture and Immigration but no longer has authority -over immigrants. - -Article XI relates to Public Welfare and Penal Institutions. -The General Assembly has the authority to establish and operate -public welfare, charitable, sanitary, benevolent, reformatory or -penal institutions. As mentioned in the Executive section of the -Constitution, there is a Department of Welfare and Institutions -which includes a six-member Board of Welfare and Institutions -appointed for a four-year term by the Governor with the approval -of the General Assembly. The Director of this department is the -Commissioner of Public Welfare. The Department of Welfare and -Institutions consists of four divisions: the Division of Corrections -which controls the State Penitentiary, the State Farm, the State -Industrial Farm for Women, the Southampton Farm, the State Convict -Road Force and the Bland Correctional Farm; the Division of General -Welfare which helps needy children, elderly individuals, persons -who are permanently disabled physically or mentally, and other -miscellaneous cases; the Virginia Parole Board which has charge of -granting parole, revoking parole, releasing qualified persons on -parole and actually discharging individuals considered no longer -necessary on parole; and the Division of Youth Services which -supervises children placed in boarding homes and which operates and -controls training schools for minors who have committed crimes and -have been sent to these schools by court order: the Beaumont School -for Boys (white), the Hanover School for Boys (Negro), the Bon Air -School for Girls (white) and the Janie Porter Barrett School for -Girls (Negro). - -Article XII provides that the creation of corporations, as well -as amendment to their charters, be provided by general laws which -may be amended or repealed by the General Assembly. The General -Assembly is not permitted to regulate the affairs of any corporation -or to give it any rights, powers or privileges by special act. The -State Corporation Commission is the unit of the state government -through which all charters and amendments are issued. Therefore, -the State Corporation Commission carries out all the provisions -of the Constitution and of the laws for the creation, visitation, -supervision, regulation and control of corporations chartered by, -or doing business in, the state. The State Corporation Commission -consists of three members elected by members of the General Assembly -for a six-year term. Among other duties, the commission prescribes -rates of railroads and telephone companies. Because of the numerous -incorporated businesses operating in Virginia, this commission -exercises broad, economic authority on behalf of the welfare of the -state. - -Article XIII concerns Taxation and Finance. The General Assembly -has the authority for levying taxes, for appropriating revenue, -and, in most instances, is empowered to specify and determine which -goods and services shall be taxed by state and/or local government. -All state, local or municipal taxes must be uniform and must be -levied and collected according to general laws. State income taxes -are levied on incomes over six hundred dollars per year. License -taxes and state franchise taxes are levied upon businesses. A state -capitation or poll tax of one dollar and a half is levied on every -resident of the state at least twenty-one years of age; one dollar -of which is to be used exclusively for public free schools and the -remainder returned to the county or city treasurer to be used for -local purposes. Local taxes are also levied on real estate and -personal property. Property exempt from taxation by Article XIII -includes property owned directly or indirectly by the Commonwealth -or any local unit of government, buildings, land and furnishings -owned and used exclusively for religious organizations or for -benevolent or charitable organizations and private or public burying -grounds or cemetries. Before any money can be paid from the State -Treasury, appropriations must be made by law. No such appropriation -can be made which is payable more than two and a half years after -the end of the session of the General Assembly at which the law is -enacted. - -Article XIV primarily pertains to Homestead Exemptions. Certain -homestead exemptions are authorized. Furthermore, this Article -prohibits the General Assembly from passing a law staying the -collection of debts. The General Assembly is authorized to provide -the conditions on which a householder may set apart for himself and -family a homestead on certain property. - - -_The Amendment Process_ - -Article XV describes the Amendment Process. An amendment may be -proposed in either house of the General Assembly: the Senate or -the House of Delegates. It is then voted upon for approval or -disapproval. If a majority of the members of each house vote in -favor of the proposed amendment, the amendment is then referred -to the General Assembly at its first regular session held after -the next general election of members of the House of Delegates. -The amendment must then be published for three months previous to -election time. Whenever a majority of all the members in each house -vote in favor of the amendment either in a regular session or in an -extra session, the amendment must then be submitted for approval -by the people. If a majority of the qualified voters approve the -amendment at this time, the amendment becomes effective. - -Article XV also includes the procedure necessary for calling a -constitutional convention in Virginia. Whenever a majority of the -members of each house of the General Assembly vote for a convention -to revise or amend the Constitution, the question of calling such -a constitutional convention must be submitted to the qualified -voters. If a majority of the voters favor such a convention for the -specific purpose included in the original question submitted to -the voters, the General Assembly at its next session must provide -for the election of delegates to the special convention. The -qualified voters elect the specific delegates to such constitutional -convention. - -Article XVI concerns rules of construction within the constitution -itself pertaining to word usage. Article XVII, already described in -this chapter under Article II, provides for poll tax exemption for -members of the armed forces on active duty. - -The original Virginia Constitution of 1776 consisted of 3,000 words. -In 1830, the number of words was doubled with numerous revisions. In -1870, the number of words was increased six times the number in the -original constitution. The present Constitution which was written in -1902 contains approximately 35,000 words. Consequently, as living -becomes more complex, the constitution has become more lengthy. - - -_State Symbolism_ - -Certain symbols and emblems are approved by various state -legislatures which indicate a particular idea or belief which is -soon recognized or identified with a specific state. The official -symbols of the Commonwealth are the State Seals, the State Motto, -the State Flag, the State Flower, the State Song and the State Bird. - -There are two state seals: the Great Seal and the Lesser Seal. -The official seals now used in the Commonwealth were adopted and -approved by a legislative act on March 24, 1930. The Great Seal -consists of two discs, metallic in nature and two and one-fourth -inches in diameter; there is an ornamental border one-fourth of an -inch in width. On the front or obverse side of the Great Seal is -engraved the figure of Virtus, goddess of courage, garbed as an -Amazon representing the "genius of the Commonwealth." In her right -hand, Virtus holds a spear which points downward toward the earth -and upon which she appears to be resting; in her left hand, she -holds a parazonium or sheathed sword which points upward. The head -of Virtus is erect and her face upturned. The left foot of Virtus -is placed on a prostrate figure of a man who represents Tyranny. -The head of this symbol of Tyranny is to the left of Virtus with -his distorted tyrannical symbols close by: a fallen crown, a broken -chain and a scourge. At the top of this obverse side is the word, -"Virginia," and at the bottom of the seal in a curved line is -engraved the state motto: "Sic Semper Tyrannis" which translated -means "Thus ever to tyrants," implying that such will be the fate of -all tyrants. - -On the reverse or opposite side of the Great Seal is engraved a -group of three figures: Libertas, goddess of liberty and freedom, -in the center with a wand and pileus in her right hand, Aeternitas, -goddess of eternity, on her right with a globe and phoenix (a sacred -bird) in her right hand and Ceres, goddess of grain and the harvest, -on her left with a sheaf of wheat in her right hand and a cornucopia -(horn of plenty symbolizing peace and prosperity) in her left one. -At the top of the reverse side of the seal in curved line appears -the word, "Perseverando." Originally, the reverse side of the Great -Seal had engraved the motto: "Deus Nobis Pace Olim Fecit" meaning -"God gave us this freedom" (Virgil's "Eclogues") but the motto was -changed to the brief word, "Perseverando" in October 1779. George -Wythe proposed the original design of the seal and George Mason -originally recommended the motto for the seal at the Williamsburg -Convention in 1776. - -The Lesser Seal is one and nine-sixteenths inches in diameter and it -consists of the figures and inscriptions found on the obverse side -of the Great Seal. - -On March 24, 1930, the present Flag of the Commonwealth was -officially adopted. It consists of a deep blue field with a circular -white center--all of bunting or merino material. Within this white -circle is embroidered or painted, in such a manner as to appear -alike on both sides, the official coat-of-arms of the Commonwealth: -namely, the identical design of figures and inscriptions which -appears on the observe side of the Great Seal of Virginia. The outer -edge of the flag, the one farthest from the flag-staff, is bounded -by a white silk fringe. - -On March 6, 1918, the General Assembly declared the American -Dogwood, known technically as the Cornus Florida or Flowering -Dogwood, as the official state flower in Virginia. - -It was not until 1940 that the state legislature officially adopted -its state song. At this time, "Carry Me Back to Ole Virginny," -written by James A. Bland, a South Carolina Negro, was declared the -state song although it had been widely recognized and sung by many -generations of Virginians. The Cardinal, known technically as the -Cardinalis Virginianus, is considered the official State Bird. - - -SUMMARY - -Fundamental state laws for Virginia are found in a written -constitution, originally adopted in 1776. The United States -Constitution provides not only the framework for our national -government but also the relationships between the national -government and the individual states. With the exception of these -restrictions, the state constitution determines the political -structure or organization within the state area and the various -powers and functions granted to each governmental agency. Like all -governments established by state constitutions, the state government -of Virginia consists of three departments: the legislative, -executive and judiciary departments. - -The Virginia Bill of Rights, written by George Mason, furnished a -pattern for the Bill of Rights in the United States Constitution -as well as for numerous state bills of rights. The significance -attached to voting even in the early post-Revolutionary period is -obvious by the location of the voting qualifications in the Virginia -Constitution directly following the Bill of Rights. - -Some unique features about government in Virginia include Section 58 -of Article IV which lists a series of prohibitions on the General -Assembly as a protection for individual liberties, the fact that -the Governor cannot succeed himself (only sixteen states have this -restriction), the existence of three types of county government -(the County Executive, the County Manager and the County Board), -the lack of a village form of local government, the existence of -thirty-two independent cities and the existence of three forms of -city government (Mayor-Council, Commission and City Manager). - -Other articles in the Constitution concern suffrage, education, -public welfare and penal institutions, taxation and finance, -corporations and local government. Since constitution writers -realize that living conditions change from time to time, the method -of making changes in a constitution whenever necessary is included -in the amendment process. Thus, a recent constitutional change was -a revision of Section 141 making it legally permissible to permit -the use of public funds for tuition grants for pupils in private -non-sectarian schools. Virginians, like the residents of other -states, will undoubtedly continue to make necessary revisions when -conditions so warrant in order to keep the state governmental -structure a practical, adjustable foundation for a progressively -changing society. - -When one understands the meaning of the various symbols used by -a state in order to create a specific identity or a particular -recognition of its inhabitants and their ideas, the state seal, -motto and flag become more significant to the citizen. Thus, it -is with pride that Virginians show reverence and respect to their -HALLOWED HERITAGE. - - - - -INDEX - - - Academies and Seminaries, 195 - - Adam Thoroughgood House, 182 - - Agriculture, 156-158 - - Agriculture and Immigration, 240 - - Agriculture and Mechanical College, 131 - - Alexandria, 49, 50, 57, 103, 111, 112, 127 - - Amendment process, 242 - - Annapolis Convention, 82 - - Antietam (Sharpsburg), Battle of, 116, 117 - - Appalachian Plateau, 14 - - Appalachian Ridge and Valleys, 14 - - Apparel, 153 - - Appomattox Court House, 123 - - Aquia Creek, 37 - - Architects and Architecture, 182-188 - - Area, 11 - - Armstrong, Samuel C., 130-131 - - Arnold, Benedict, 77 - - Articles of Confederation, 76, 81 - - Artists, 176-178 - - Assumption of State Debts, 88 - - Attorney (Commonwealth), 232 - - Attorney General, 230, 231 - - Auditor of Public Accounts, 225 - - Augusta Academy, 47 - - Austin, Stephen Fuller, 97 - - Authors and Poets, 163-176 - - - Bacon, Nathaniel, 40-42 - - Bales, Richard, 190 - - Barter Theater, 193-194 - - Battle Abbey, 181 - - Battle, John, 144-145 - - Batts, Thomas, 40 - - Bean, William, 58 - - Beauregard, Pierre G. T., 112-113 - - Berkeley, Sir William, 35, 36, 39, 40-42 - - Blair, James, 43 - - Blair, John, 69, 82, 83 - - Bland, James A., 188-189 - - Bland, Richard Henry, 54-55, 57 - - Blue Ridge and Valleys, 13-14 - - Boone, Daniel, 58 - - Booth, John Wilkes, 127 - - Botetourt, Lord, 55 - - Boundaries, 11 - - Braddock, Edward, 50-51 - - Brandy Station, Battle of, 117, 118 - - Braxton, Carter, 71 - - Breckinridge, John C., 101-102, 120 - - Brent Family, 37 - - Bruton Parish Church, 185 - - Brown, John, 104-105 - - Buckner, John, 42 - - Bull Run; _see_ Manassas - - Burgesses, House of, 32, 33, 41, 57 - - Burke, Edmund, 61 - - Burnside, Ambrose, 117 - - Burr, Aaron, 92-93 - - Byrd, Harry F., 140, 142 - - Byrd, Richard Evelyn, 139 - - Byrd, William II, 46 - - - Cahokia, 73 - - Campbell, William, 75 - - Cape Charles, 26 - - Cape Henry, 26 - - Capitol, Colonial (Williamsburg), 44, 183; - (Richmond), 185 - - Carillon Tower, 138 - - Carter, Robert ("King"), 46 - - Carter's Grove, 184-185 - - Cary, Archibald, 69 - - "Cavalier State," 37 - - Caverns, 15 - - Cedar Creek, 122 - - Cedar Mountain, Battle of, 116 - - Cession for Federal District, 88 - - Cession of Northwest Territory, 76 - - Chancellorsville, Battle of, 117 - - Chancery Court, 230 - - Chanco, 34 - - Charters of Virginia: - 1606, 25; - 1609, 29; - 1612, 30; - 1618, 31-32 - - Chemical Products, 152 - - Christ Church (Alexandria), 185 - - Circuit Courts, 227, 228, 232 - - Cities, 228, 233-234 - - City Council, 234, 237 - - City Manager Plan of Government, 137, 234, 237 - - City Officials, 234-235 - - Clark, George Rogers, 72-73, 76 - - Clark, William, 92 - - Clay, 20-21 - - Clay, Henry, 97, 100, 103 - - Climate, 17 - - Coal, 18-19 - - Cold Harbor, Battle of, 120 - - College of Henrico, 34 - - Colleges, 131, 196, 239 - - Commission form, 234, 237 - - Commissioner of Revenue (County), 232 - - Committee of Correspondence, 55-56, 59 - - Committee of Nine, 128, 129 - - Committee of Safety, 66, 67 - - Commonwealth, 37, 69 - - Confederate States of America, 110 - - Congressional election districts, 215, 216 - - Constitution, United States: Ratification, 83-85 - - Constitutions (State): - 1621, 33, 34; - 1776, 68-70, 201; - 1830, 99-100, 201-202; - 1850, 104, 202; - 1869 (Underwood), 202, 203; - 1902, 135, 203 - - Continental Congress: - First, 57, 59-60; - Second, 63-65, 69, 70 - - Conventions, State: - First (1774), 57-58; - Second (1775), 63; - Third (1775), 66; - Fourth (1775-1776), 66-67; - Fifth (1776), 68-70; - 1788, 84-85; - 1829, 99-100; - 1861, 109-110; - 1867 (Underwood), 128, 203; - 1901, 134-135, 203; - 1956, 146 - - Constitutional Convention Requirements, 242 - - Corn, 157 - - Cornstalk (Chief), 59 - - Cornwallis, Lord, 75, 76-77, 79, 80 - - Corporation Commission, 241 - - Corporation Courts, 228 - - Cotton, 157 - - Counties, in general: 35, 218, 219, 231; - origin of name and year created: - Accawmack (Accomack), 35; - Albemarle, 48; - Alleghany, 102; - Amelia, 48; - Amherst, 62; - Appomattox, 102; - Arlington, 103; - Augusta, 48; - Bath, 89; - Bedford, 61; - Bland, 105; - Botetourt, 62; - Brunswick, 48; - Buchanan, 105; - Buckingham, 61; - Campbell, 85; - Carroll, 102; - Charles City, 35; - Charles River (York), 35; - Charlotte, 61; - Chesterfield, 48; - Clark (Clarke), 102; - Craig, 105; - Culpeper, 48; - Cumberland, 48; - Dickenson, 133; - Dinwiddie, 61; - Elizabeth City (Kiccowtan), 32, 35; - Essex, 42; - Fairfax, 48; - Fauquier, 61; - Floyd, 102; - Fluvanna, 72; - Franklin, 85; - Frederick, 48; - Giles, 95; - Gloucester, 38; - Goochland, 48; - Grayson, 89; - Greene, 102; - Greensville, 85; - Halifax, 61; - Hanover, 47; - Henrico, 35; - Henry, 72; - Highland, 102; - Isle of Wight (Warrosquyoake), 35; - James City, 35; - Kentucky, 72; - King and Queen, 42; - King George, 48; - King William, 42; - Lancaster, 38; - Lee, 89; - Loudoun, 61; - Louisa, 48; - Lunenburg, 48; - Madison, 89; - Mathews, 89; - Mecklenburg, 61; - Middlesex, 38; - Montgomery, 72; - Nansemond, 38; - Nelson, 95; - New Kent, 38; - Norfolk, 42; - Northampton (Accawmack), 35; - Northumberland, 38; - Nottoway, 85; - Orange, 48; - Page, 102; - Patrick, 85; - Pittsylvania, 61-62; - Powhatan, 72; - Prince Edward, 61; - Prince George, 43; - Prince William, 48; - Princess Anne, 42; - Pulaski, 102; - Rappahannock, 102; - Richmond, 42; - Roanoke, 102; - Rockbridge, 72; - Rockingham, 72; - Russell, 85; - Scott, 95; - Shenandoah, 72; - Smyth, 102; - Southampton, 48; - Spotsylvania, 47; - Stafford, 38; - Surry, 38; - Sussex, 61; - Tazewell, 95; - Warren, 102; - Warwick River (Warwick), 35; - Washington, 72; - Westmoreland, 38; - Wise, 105; - Wythe, 89; - York; _see_ Charles River. - - County forms of government, 233 - - County Officials, 231-232 - - - Dale, Sir Thomas ("Marshall"), 30 - - Danville, 124 - - Dare, Virginia, 24 - - Davis, Jefferson, 108, 122, 124 - - Debt Problem (ante-bellum), 129-130, 132-134 - - Declaration of Independence, 70-71 - - Declaration of Rights (Bill of Rights), 204-207 - - Delaware (de la Warr), Lord, 29-30 - - Democratic National Nominating Convention of 1952, 144, 145 - - Depression Years, 140-141 - - Dinwiddie, Robert, 49, 50 - - Drama, 46, 190-194 - - Dunmore, Lord, 57-59; 64, 65, 67-68, 71 - - - Early, Jubal, 121-122 - - Eastern Shore, 12 - - Eaton, Thomas, 194 - - Education: - Academic, 195; - Colonial, 43, 194-195; - Current Educational Problems, 145-147, 197-199; - Improvements in 1900's, 135, 136, 197-199; - Institutions of Higher Learning, 43, 47, 98, 195, 196-197, 239; - Public Schools, 35, 74, 130, 135, 197-199, 237-240; - School District, 238; - School Property Tax, 239; - State Department of Education, 238 - - Eggleston, Joseph D., 136 - - Elections, 209-210 - - Employment, 150-160: - Agriculture, 156-158; - Construction Activities, 158; - Finance, 159; - Forestry and Fisheries, 159; - Government, 150-151; - Manufacturing, 151-156; - Mining Operations, 159; - Public Utilities, 158; - Services Industries, 158; - Travel Trade, 159, 160; - Wholesale and Retail Trade, 158 - - Evans, Robley D., 134 - - Ewell, Richard S., 118-119, 122 - - Executive Department, 221-226 - - Executive Department Agencies, 225-226 - - - Fairfax Proprietary, 39, 40 - - Fairfax Resolutions, 60 - - Fall Line, 11-12 - - Fallen, Robert, 40 - - "The Federalist," 84 - - Field Crops, 156-158 - - Fincastle Resolutions, 60 - - Fish, 18 - - Floyd, John, 100 - - Food and kindred products, 152 - - Foreign settlements, 46, 47 - - Forests, 18 - - Fort Duquesne; _see_ Fort Necessity - - Fort Kaskaskia, 73 - - Fort Le Boeuf, 47, 49 - - Fort Monroe, 124 - - Fort Necessity, 50-51 - - Fort Pitt; _see_ Fort Necessity - - Fort Vincennes, 73 - - Fredericksburg, Battle of, 117 - - Freedmen's Bureau, 127 - - French and Indian War, 49-52 - - Fruit, 157 - - Funk Joseph, 189 - - Furniture, 154 - - - Garrison, William Lloyd, 100 - - Gates, Sir Thomas, 29 - - General Assembly, 32-33, 104, 211-220 - - General Court, 30-31 - - Germanna, 45, 47 - - Gettysburg, Battle of, 119 - - Gibbs, James Ethan Allen, 104 - - Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 24 - - Gist, Christopher, 49 - - Glass, Carter, 134-135, 137 - - "Golden Age" of Colonial Virginia, 49 - - Gooch, Sir William, 46 - - Governor, 29, 33-34, 221-224 - - Governor's Palace, 45, 183 - - Grant, Ulysses S., 119-124 - - Grasse, Comte de, 80 - - Great Charter, 32 - - Great Dismal Swamp, 16 - - Great Massacre, 34 - - Great Meadows, Battle of, 50 - - Green, Paul, 194 - - - Hampton, 30 - - Hampton Institute and Singers, 130-131, 188 - - Hampton, Wade, 120 - - Harrison, Benjamin, 57, 71 - - Harrison, William Henry, 102 - - "Head-Right" system, 31, 44 - - Henrico University, 195 - - Henricopolis (City of Henricus), 30, 34 - - Henry, Patrick: - "Caesar-Brutus" Speech, 53-54; - Committee of Correspondence, 55; - First Continental Congress, 59-60; - First Governor of the Commonwealth, 70, 72; - "Liberty or Death" Speech, 63-64; - "Parsons' Cause," 52-54; - Williamsburg Convention of 1774, 57 - - Hill, Ambrose P., 116, 119 - - Hooker, Joseph E., 117 - - Hopewell, 30, 47, 138 - - Hopkinson, Francis, 188 - - Houdon, Jean Antoine, 80 - - Houston, Samuel, 101 - - Hunt, Robert, 26-27 - - Hustings Courts; _see_ Corporation Courts - - - Impeachment, 215 - - Indentured servants, 33 - - Indians: - Attacks, 27; - Cherokee, 51; - Chickahominy, 22; - College of Henrico, 34; - Illinois area, 72-73; - Lord Dunmore's War, 58-59; - Massacre, 36; - Mattaponi 22; - Northwest Territory, 73; - Pamunkey, 22; - Susequehannock, 40, 45; - William and Mary College, 45-46 - - "Intolerable Acts," 56 - - - Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, 103, 112-117 - - James River Canal, 88 - - Jamestown, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 41-42 - - Jamestown Church, 185 - - Jefferson, Thomas: - Architecture, 185; - "A Summary View of the Rights of British America," 57-58; - Declaration of Independence, 70-71; - Education, 74, 98-99; - Governor of the Commonwealth, 74-79; - Jeffersonian Democracy, 91; - Presidential Administrations, 91-92; - "Statute of Virginia for Religious Freedom," 74; - U. S. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 87-88; - Vice-President of the United States, 90 - - Johnson, Joseph E., 103, 112-115 - - Jones, John Paul, 64, 74 - - Jouett, Jack, 78-79 - - Judges, 229-230 - - Judicial Department, 226-231 - - Juvenile and Domestic Relations Court, 230 - - - Kemper, James L., 132 - - Kentucky (Independent State), 88 - - Kentucky Resolutions, 90 - - King's Mountain, Battle of, 75 - - - Lafayette, Marquis de, 77, 79-80 - - Lake Matoaka Amphitheater, 194 - - Lakes, 17 - - Law and Chancery Courts, 230 - - Law and Equity Court, 230 - - Law-making process, 213-214 - - Leather products, 155 - - Lee, Fitzhugh, 120, 134 - - Lee, Henry ("Light Horse Harry"), 57, 73, 84, 90 - - Lee, Francis Lightfoot, 71 - - Lee, Richard Henry: - Committee of Correspondence, 55-56; - Leedstown Resolutions, 54-55; - Resolution for United States Independence, 70-71; - Williamsburg Convention of 1774 - - Lee, Robert E.: - Commander-in-Chief of Virginia forces, 111; - Harper's Ferry Mission, 105; - Mexican War, 103; - Military Campaigns of War between the States, 116, 117, 120-123; - President of Washington College, 126; - Resignation from the Union Army, 110-111; - Surrender at Appomattox, 123 - - Lee, Thomas, 47 - - Lee, Thomas Ludwell, 54 - - Leedstown (Westmoreland) Resolves, 54 - - Legislative Department, 211-221 - - "Leopard-Chesapeake" Affair, 93 - - Letcher, John, 108, 110, 111 - - Levingston, William, 46, 190 - - Lewis, Andrew, 58-59, 71 - - Lewis, Charles, 59 - - Lewis, Meriwether, 92 - - Lieutenant-Governor, 224 - - Lincoln, Abraham, 108, 109, 113, 127 - - Literary Fund, 95, 238-239 - - Livestock and livestock products, 156 - - Location of state, 11 - - London Company, 25-26, 33 - - Longstreet, James, 116, 120 - - "Lost Colony," 24 - - Lumber and lumber products, 153 - - Lynchburg, Battle of, 121 - - - McCormick, Cyrus Hall, 100-101 - - Madison, Dolly, 94 - - Madison, James: - "The Federalist," 84; - Philadelphia Convention, 82-83; - Presidential Administration, 93-94; - Religious clause, 69; - Richmond Constitutional Convention of 1829, 99; - Signer of U. S. Constitution, 83; - U. S. Bill of Rights, 85; - Virginia Constitutional Convention, 68-69; - Virginia Resolution, 90 - - Maffitt, William, 94 - - Magisterial Districts, 231, 238 - - Magistrate Courts (Justice of the Peace Courts), 230 - - Mahone, William, 122, 133 - - Makemie, Francis, 44 - - Malvern Hill, Battle of, 116 - - Manassas, Battle of, 112-113 (First battle); 116 (Second battle) - - "Map of the Chesapeake," 28 - - Mariner's Museum, 182 - - Marr, John Quincy, 112 - - Marshall, John, 84, 91, 93, 98 - - Marshall Theater, 192 - - Mason, George: - Committee of Correspondence, 55-56; - Declaration of Rights, 69; - Fairfax Resolutions, 60; - Motto of Official State Seal, 69; - Philadelphia Convention, 82; - Second Continental Congress, 69; - Third Virginia Convention, 66; - Virginia Constitution of 1776, 69, 201; - Virginia State Convention of 1788, 84 - - Maury, Matthew Fontaine, 126 - - Mayor, 235-236 - - Mayor-Council form, 234, 237 - - McClurg, James, 69, 82, 84 - - Mercantilism, 38 - - "Monitor" and the "Merrimac" ("Virginia"), Battle of, 113-114 - - Metals, 21, 155-156 - - Metropolitanism, 147-148 - - Middle Plantation; _see_ Williamsburg, 43-44, 143 - - Military District No. 1, 128, 202 - - Military Poll Tax Exemption, 143 - - Mills, Robert, 96, 186 - - Minerals, 18-21 - - Monroe Doctrine, 97 - - Monroe, James: - Louisiana Purchase, 92; - Monroe Doctrine, 97-98; - Monrovia, 98; - Presidential Administration, 96-97; - Virginia State Convention of 1788, 84 - - Moore House, 80 - - Morgan, Daniel, 65-66 - - Mosby, John S., 117 - - "Mother of Presidents," 98 - - "Mother of States," 76 - - Mount Airy, 185 - - Mount Alexander, 45 - - Mount George, 45 - - Mount Rogers, 13 - - Mount Vernon Meeting, 81 - - Muhlenberg, John P. G., 68 - - Music, 188-190 - - Museum of Fine Arts, 181 - - - Nat Turner's Rebellion, 100 - - Natural Bridge, 15 - - Natural Chimneys, 16 - - Natural Resources, 17-21 - - Natural Tunnel, 15 - - Navigation Acts, 38-39 - - Negroes, 33, 44, 48, 130, 132, 134, 135 - - Nelson, Thomas, 71, 80 - - Nelson, William, 76 - - New Market, Battle of, 120 - - Newport, Christopher, 26-27 - - Non-electrical machinery products, 156 - - Non-Importation Association, 55 - - Norfolk, 67, 104, 113 - - Northern Neck Proprietary, 39-40 - - Northwest Territory, Cession of, 76 - - Nuthead, William, 42 - - - Occupational Employment, 150-160 - - Ohio Company, 47 - - "Old Dominion," 36 - - Opechancanough, 34, 36 - - Optional Forms Act, 141 - - Owen, Robert, 137 - - - Paper Products, 154 - - Parishes (incorporations), 32, 36 - - Parks, William, 46 - - "Parsons' Cause," 52-53 - - Paterson, William, 83 - - Peanuts, 157 - - Penal institutions, 240-241 - - Pendleton, Edmund, 57, 66, 67, 84 - - Pennsylvania-Virginia Boundary Dispute, 85-86 - - Petersburg, Battle of and Fall of ("Crater"), 121-122 - - Pharaoh, 91-92 - - Philadelphia Convention of 1787, 82 - - Philippi, Battle of, 112 - - Pickett, George E., 119 - - Piedmont Plateau, 13, 58 - - Pierpont, Francis H., 118, 127, 128 - - Pitt, William, 51, 61 - - Plantations, 31, 46 - - Plymouth Company, 25-26 - - Pocahontas (Lady Rebecca), 28-30 - - Point Pleasant (Great Kanawha), Battle of, 59 - - Poll Tax, 132, 133, 135, 139, 144 - - Pollard, John G., 141-142 - - Population: - Density, 22; - Trends, 22-23; - 1700, 44; - 1750, 48; - 1800, 90; - 1860, 105; - 1900, 134; - 1960, 21-22 - - Portsmouth (Gosport), 74 - - Pory, John, 32 - - Powell, John, 189 - - Powhatan, 29 - - Presidential elections: - 1928, 140; - 1932, 141; - 1952, 145; - 1956, 145; - 1960, 145 - - Presser, Theodore, 189 - - Printing and publishing industry, 155 - - Private Academies and Seminaries, 195 - - Prohibition Law (State), 137 - - Public Utilities Employment, 158 - - - Raleigh, Sir Walter, 24-25 - - Raleigh Tavern, 55, 57 - - Randolph, Edmund, 68, 69, 82-83, 84, 87 - - Randolph, John, 100 - - Randolph, Peyton, 57, 59, 63, 64, 66 - - Ratcliffe, John, 26-27, 29 - - Ratification of U. S. Constitution, 85 - - Readmission to the Union, 129 - - Reed, Dr. Walter, 134 - - Religion, 35 - - Reorganization Act of 1927, 140 - - Repeal of Eighteenth Amendment, 142 - - Restoration of Colonial Williamsburg, 187 - - Revolutionary War, 74-82 - - Richmond: - Burr Trial, 93; - Confederate Capital, 110-111; - Fall of Richmond, 122; - "Flu" epidemic, 138; - Old Hall of House of Delegates Disaster, 131; - Richmond Theater Tragedy, 95-96; - Slave Insurrection, 91-92; - State Capital, 75; - State Conventions-- - Second Virginia Convention, 63; - Third Convention, 66; - Fourth Convention, 66-67; - 1788, 84-85; - 1829, 99-100; - 1861, 109-110; - 1867, 128; - 1901 Constitutional Convention, 134-135 - - Rivers, 16-17 - - Roads, 140, 161 - - Rolfe, John, 28, 30-31 - - Royal (Crown) Colony Status, 34 - - Ruffner, William H., 130, 197 - - Rumsey, James, 86 - - - Sailors' Creek, 123 - - Salt Works at Saltville, 122 - - Sand and gravel, 20-21 - - Sandys, Sir Edwin, 31-32, 35 - - Schofield, John M., 128 - - Scott, Winfield, 103 - - Sculptors, 178 - - Secession, 109-110 - - Separation of Powers Theory, 210-211 - - Seven Days' Battle, 116 - - Seven Pines, Battle of, 115 - - Sevier, John, 75 - - Shelby, Isaac, 75 - - Shenandoah National Park, 16, 142 - - Sheridan, Philip, 120-121 - - Shires, 35 - - Simcoe, John G., 77-78 - - Smith, John, 27-28, 29 - - Smith, William, 127 - - Soil, 18 - - South Atlantic Coastal Plain, 11-12 - - Spanish-American War, 134 - - Spotswood, Alexander, 44-46 - - Stamp Act and Stamp Act Congress, 53-54, 55 - - Stanley, Thomas B., 146 - - State bird, 244 - - State Constitutions: - 1776, 69, 70, 201; - 1830, 99-100, 201-202; - 1850, 104, 202; - 1869, 202, 203; - 1902, 135, 203 - - State flag, 244 - - State flower, 244 - - State parks, 16 - - State seals and motto, 69, 243 - - State song, 244 - - Staunton, 79, 96, 137 - - Stone resources, 19-20, 155 - - Stuart, James Ewell Brown ("J.E.B."): - Battle of Brandy Station, 117-118; - Battle of Yellow Tavern, 120; - Death of Stuart, 120; - First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), 113; - Harper's Ferry Mission, 105; - Reconnaissance Journey, 115 - - Suffrage, 35, 99, 104, 128, 132, 133, 135, 208 - - Syms, Benjamin, 35 - - - Tarleton, Banastre, 78-79 - - Taxation and Finance, 241 - - Taylor, David Watson, 138 - - Taylor, Zachary: - Mexican War, 103; - Presidential Administration, 103 - - Tea Act, 56 - - Textile products, 152 - - Thorpe, George, 34 - - Tidewater area, 11-13 - - Tobacco, 30-31, 34, 37, 39, 42, 52, 154, 156-157 - - Tompkins, Sally, 125 - - Topography, 11-14 - - Towns, 237 - - Townshend Acts, 55 - - Transportation and Transportation Equipment, 154, 161 - - Treasurer, 224 - - "Treasury Right" System, 44 - - Treaty of Jamestown, 37 - - Tredegar Iron Works, 124, 138, 143 - - Trevillians Station, Battle of, 120 - - Trial Justice, 232-233 - - Truck farming products, 157 - - Tyler, John, 102-103 - - Tyres, Molly, 119 - - - Underwood Constitution, 128-129 - - University of Virginia, 98-99 - - - Valentine House, 181 - - Valley Campaign, 114-115 (Front Royal, Kernstown, McDowell, Port - Republic, Winchester) - - Vanbraam, Jacob, 49 - - Vestries, 36 - - "Virginia," Origin of name, 24 - - Virginia Charter, 25 - - Virginia Company, 30, 34 - - "Virginia Gazette," 46 - - Virginia Military Institute, 101-102, 121 - - Virginia-North Carolina border, 46 - - Virginia-Pennsylvania boundary dispute, 85-86 - - Virginia Plan of representation, 83 - - Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 131 - - Virginia Resolutions, 90 - - Virginia War Memorial ("Shrine of Memory"), 143-144 - - Von Steuben, Baron, 78 - - - Walker, Gilbert, 129 - - Walker, William, 79 - - War between the States, 111-124 - - War, Lord Dunmore's, 58-59 - - War of 1812, 94 - - Washington, George: - Annapolis Convention, 82; - at Fort Le Boeuf, 49-50; - at Yorktown, 80-81; - Commander-in-Chief of the American Continental Army, 65; - Death, 90; - First Inauguration, 87; - French and Indian War, 50-52; - Lieutenant Colonel of the Virginia Regiment, 50; - Notification of the Presidency, 86; - President of the Philadelphia Convention, 82; - Presidential Administration, 87-89; - Second Continental Congress, 69; - Signer of the United States Constitution; Williamsburg - Constitution of 1774, 57 - - Washington and Lee University, 47, 126 - - Washington "Peace Conference," 108 - - Waterpower, 18 - - Wayne, Anthony, 77 - - West, Thomas (Lord de la Warr), 29-30 - - Westendorf, Thomas P., 189 - - West Virginia ("Kanawha"): - Debt owed to Virginia, 131, 136-137; - Separation from Virginia, 118-119; - West Virginia-Virginia boundary line, 131 - - Wheat, 157 - - Wheeling Conventions, 118 - - White House of the Confederacy, 181 - - Wholesale and Retail Trade Employment, 158 - - Wilderness, Battle of, 119 - - William and Mary College, 43, 139, 196 - - Williamsburg: - Colonial Capital, 46; - Colonial Capitol, 44-46; - Conventions-- - First, 57-58; - Fourth, 66-67; - Fifth, 68-70; - Constitutional, 201; - 1774, 57-58; - Governor Dunmore and the Powder Magazine Episode, 64; - Governor's Palace, 45; - Origin of Name, 44; - Raleigh Tavern, 55, 57; - Restoration, 139-140; - Theater, 46; - Washington's visit, 50 - - Williamsburg Playhouse, 190-191 - - Wilson, T. Woodrow, 137 - - Winchester: - Battle of (first), 115; - Battle of (second), 118; - Frontier campaign, 51 - - Wingfield, Edward Maria, 26-27 - - Woodford, William, 67 - - Women: - Arrival, 33; - Education, 139, 196-197; - heroic role during War between the States, 125 - - World War I, 137-138 - - World War II, 142-144 - - Wren, Sir Christopher, 43 - - Wren Building, 43, 183 - - Wythe, George, 64, 69, 71, 74-75, 82, 84 - - - Yeardley, Sir George, 32 - - Yellow Tavern, 120 - - Yorktown: - Battle of, 114; - Cornwallis at Yorktown, 79-81; - "Tea Party," 60-61 - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's note: - -Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. -Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as -printed. - -Mismatched quotes are not altered if it's not sufficiently clear -where the missing quote should be placed. - -The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - -Research has indicated the copyright on this book was not renewed. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Hallowed Heritage: The Life of Virginia, by -Dorothy M. 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