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diff --git a/43841.txt b/43841.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 3eef047..0000000 --- a/43841.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2693 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific Studies, by Henry Dircks - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license - - -Title: Scientific Studies - or Practical, in Contrast with Chimerical Pursuits; etc, etc, etc - -Author: Henry Dircks - -Release Date: September 28, 2013 [EBook #43841] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC STUDIES *** - - - - -Produced by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's Notes - -Changes to the text (corrections to typographical errors) are listed at -the end of the book. - -On page 45, in the reference "Beccheri's Physica Subterranea, Lipsi[ae], -1738 (with supplement), 8vo., 1681-80;", no satisfactory explanation of -"1681-80" has been found. Note that the publication date of Physica -Subterranea is 1669. - -In Figure 2 on page 82, the following denote the conventional symbols -for planetary bodies: [Sun], [Moon], [Mercury], [Venus], [Mars], -[Jupiter], [Saturn], [Uranus]. - -On pages 83 & 84 in the explanation of Plate III, a single quote is used -to denote the decimal point: this convention has been retained. - -In this Plain Text version of the e-book, the ASCII character set -only is used. Other characters have been substituted as follows: - - [ae] for ae-ligature - ['e] for acute accent - [E'], [e'] for grave accent - [^e] for circumflex accent - [:e] for dieresis - [L] for pound sterling symbol - [Asterism] denotes three stars (asterisks). - [oe] represents the oe-ligature. - -Italic typeface is denoted by surrounding _underscores_; small caps -typeface is denoted by ALL CAPS; superscript symbols are preceded by -caret (^). - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: - - EDWARD SOMERSET, - SIXTH EARL AND SECOND - MARQUIS OF WORCESTER. - -From a Bust by Mr. James Loft, Sculptor, exhibited at the Royal Academy, -1867; and now in the Sculpture Gallery of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. - -] - - - - - SCIENTIFIC STUDIES: - - OR - - PRACTICAL, IN CONTRAST WITH CHIMERICAL PURSUITS; - - EXEMPLIFIED IN - TWO POPULAR LECTURES. - - - I. - - THE LIFE OF EDWARD SOMERSET, - SECOND - MARQUIS OF WORCESTER, - INVENTOR OF THE STEAM ENGINE. - - - II. - - CHIMERAS OF SCIENCE: - ASTROLOGY, ALCHEMY, SQUARING THE CIRCLE, - PERPETUUM MOBILE, ETC. - - With Illustrative Diagrams. - - BY - - HENRY DIRCKS, C. E., LL.D., - F.C.S., M.R.S.L., F.R.S.R., &c. &c. - - AUTHOR OF "THE LIFE OF THE MARQUIS OF WORCESTER;" - "WORCESTERIANA;" &c. - - - LONDON: - E. & F. N. SPON, 48, CHARING CROSS, S.W. - 1879. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -It forms a necessary part of popular lectures that they should possess -breadth with brevity, and interest without too great profundity. It is -possible to see a large extent of country from a lofty tower without -being cognizant of every blade of grass, the perfume of blossoms, or the -notes of the sweetest songsters of the groves. In like manner the -popular lecturer has to present only so much to the eye of the mind as -will give the prominent features of his theme, omitting those details -over which the scholar, or the true lover of his subject, dwells with -the affection of a fond parent over a darling child. - -We must look with astonishment at a man of noble birth, who in a period -of civil commotion, with a monarch for his friend, and a court at his -command, secluded himself during his youth in a stately ancient tower, -engaged in abstruse studies and wonderful mechanical operations; and -who, late in life, amidst the terrors of civil war was found turning his -inventive faculties, like another Archimedes, to the construction of -means of defence, and terrible weapons of offence. But it is only those -who become immersed in studies, whether of theology, philosophy, or -kindred mental pursuits, who can appreciate the growing appetite for -what appears to unlettered men as the driest of all dry occupations. The -mere pleasure-seeker knows not how much is lost, and how little is -gained by sharing the most brilliant gaieties of fashionable life. - -Look at the ancient astrologers, whose pursuits were once as pure and -noble as those of modern astronomers. Amidst wild theories, -superstitious beliefs, empirical systems, and pagan divination, a -rupture became inevitable: one side adopted stellary divination or -Astrology, the other Astronomy, or the simple and true study of the -stars. - -Whatever a man's intellectual pursuits may be, he has the advantage over -the mere man of fashion of being engaged in employments which the -longest life cannot exhaust. - -But intellectual pursuits partake either of the negative or the -positive; they are useful or useless, and when useless they fritter away -and render nugatory the talent that might have been better employed. - -The Marquis of Worcester affords an eminent example of genius of a high -order, grandly and effectively directed towards the advancement of man's -political and social position. His contemporary, Dr. John Dee, the -Astrologer, together with his friend Kelly, the Alchemist, may be -appropriately distinguished as representing a class chimerically -inclined, and hurtful to the well-being of society; while a less eminent -and less blameable section of chimerical labourers are those of whom -the worst we can say is, that they waste much valuable time, energy, and -fortune, through attaching themselves to mathematics, mechanics, and -other learned pursuits, only in search of marvellous, instead of useful -applications. - -All chimeras are built on assumptions, and so far are "castles in the -air;" in many forms they are simply ridiculous; but when they pretend to -the supernatural they are pernicious and often wicked. - -In the two lectures now presented for his perusal, the reader will find -both these topics illustrated by suitable lives and authentic evidence. - - H. D. - -_London, February, 1869._ - - - - - I. - - Lecture - ON - THE LIFE OF EDWARD SOMERSET, - SECOND - MARQUIS OF WORCESTER. - - "He was a man, take him for all in all, - We shall not look upon his like again." - - DELIVERED AT - THE LITERARY INSTITUTION, GREENWICH, - 16TH FEBRUARY, 1864. - - - - -LECTURE I. - - -The Biographer of Edward, second MARQUIS OF WORCESTER, naturally finds -some difficulty in rendering prominent the political position that -nobleman enjoyed in the 17th century; or of impressing the minds of his -hearers or readers with a just sense of the wonderful genius of the -author of the "Century of Inventions," even although the fact be -established of that remarkable man being also the true and first -inventor of a veritable steam engine. - -When we consider the eventful period in which he lived, (from 1601 to -1667,) and his personal character, together with the social, political, -and romantic incidents of his life, the career of the Marquis of -Worcester cannot fail to interest and instruct us. He was at once the -most fortunate and unfortunate of men, living in times of mingled -enlightenment, superstition, and civil discord, and finally finding -himself cast on the tender mercies of a corrupt Court; the possessor of -a high order of mechanical genius, yet proscribed politically and -theologically; most loyal, yet falling the victim of puritanism; and -closing his life neglected by a Sovereign whose father had been the -chief ruin of his patrimony. - -Descended from the Plantagenets, Edward Somerset, second MARQUIS OF -WORCESTER, is supposed to have been born about, or soon after 1601, the -records to establish his natal year being wanting. His father, Henry -Somerset, created first Marquis of Worcester by Charles I., was married -on the 16th June, 1600, at Blackfriars; Queen Elizabeth, attending in -great state, graciously danced at the wedding ball; and the festivities -of the occasion were continued for three days. - -We obtain little information respecting the Marquis of Worcester until -about the twenty-seventh year of his age, when he married Elizabeth, -daughter of Sir William Dormer, eldest son of Lord Dormer of Weng, and -sister of Robert, Earl of Carnarvon. It is not known where he was -educated, but it was certainly neither at Oxford nor Cambridge. Mention -is made of his preceptor, Mr. Adams, at Raglan Castle, the baronial seat -of the lords of Raglan, in Monmouthshire. There is every probability, -however, that he finished his education at some foreign university. His -son and heir, Henry, born in 1629, was created by Charles II. the first -Duke of Beaufort, and from him the present Duke of Beaufort is the -eighth of that rank in lineal descent. - -It was during the first or second year of his married life that he -engaged the services of Caspar Kaltoff, whom he employed as a practical -assistant, to work out his numerous mechanical experiments, and whom he -extols as an "unparalleled workman, both for trust and skill."[1] There -are still to be seen on one side of the Keep--or citadel of Raglan -Castle, the remains of grooves in the wall, probably for the insertion -of large metal pipes, in some way or other connected with the waterworks -which are known to have been erected there, and which were most likely -carried out by Kaltoff, under his master's directions. - -[1] Dedication to "The Century of Inventions." - -Becoming a widower in 1635, his lordship married in 1639, his second -wife, Margaret, second daughter and co-heir of Henry O'Brien, Earl of -Thomond. - -It must have been about this period of his life that the Marquis of -Worcester made one of his most singular and perplexing mechanical -experiments, which he exhibited at the Tower before Charles I., several -of his Court, some foreign ambassadors, and the lieutenant of that -fortress. As he names Sir William Balfour (who held the latter -appointment from 1630 to 1641) we can arrive at an approximate date. The -mechanical surprise which he states he thus presented to gratify his -royal master, was no other than a gigantic wheel, 14 feet in diameter, -weighted with 40 weights of 50 lbs. each, equal to 2000 lbs., by means -of which we are left to infer that the wheel maintained a rotatory -motion, without assistance from any external aid whatever; that it was -in fact, a realization of that long sought for curiosity--perpetual -motion. As he wrote deliberately a statement of this circumstance -fifteen years later, or more, which he afterwards printed, we are left -without any grounds to suppose otherwise than that he deceived himself, -or was deceived, from interested motives, by persons in his employment. -The circumstance is scarcely worth notice except as a singular proof -that such a hallucination could exist in the mind of the same genius -that perfected the first practical steam-engine. We can only say that if -the mystery could be cleared up, although it would be of little or no -value to mathematics or mechanics, it would go far to elevate the -scientific character of the Marquis, though he was not the only -celebrity of his time infatuated with a thorough belief in the -possibility of solving the paradox. - -The Marquis of Worcester, born at the close of Queen Elizabeth's reign, -is not mentioned as appearing at the Court of James I; his courtier life -most likely commenced later, in the reign of Charles I, who was about -his own age, and with whose career, the fortunes of both the Marquis of -Worcester, and his father, family, and friends, were unhappily but too -intimately interwoven. - -It requires a visit to Raglan Castle fully to realise the grandeur, -nobleness, and strength of that romantically situated, and almost regal -stronghold. It wears all the solemnity that antiquity can bestow, it is -so gothic, so solid, and embowered, as it were, in a constant dubious -shade. Then it is so extensive in its bounds, its apartments are so -capacious, and its massy walls so lofty and so finely chiseled and -proportioned, that when we consider there is no quarry within any -reasonable distance, nor any river or stream for conveyance, the whole -structure assumes the mystery of absolute romance. Its historic -associations also rivet the attention of every beholder who is -acquainted with the part it played in determining the fate of that great -struggle between the Crown and the Parliament, which commenced in 1640, -and ended with the establishment of a Commonwealth. - -The county of Monmouth is eminently distinguished for its scenery, its -green hills and dales presenting a beautifully wooded and highly -picturesque landscape from every point of view. The village of Raglan is -a small unpretending hamlet, principally remarkable for its parish -church, which contains the chapel of the Beauforts, the resting place of -several members of the Somerset family. Peering above lofty neighbouring -trees, the Donjon, Keep, or Citadel of Raglan Castle is a conspicuous -object; itself very lofty and standing on a considerable eminence, it -commands a most delightful and extensive panoramic view of the -surrounding country in that fertile district. - -The Castle may be described as consisting of two portions, distinguished -by two courts and two fortified arched entrances. The grand entrance, -between two hexagonal towers, leads to the paved court, with the closet -tower or library to the right, a withdrawing or ball-room overhead, and -a banqueting or stately hall to the left, which last apartment attracts -much notice from its great size and remarkable state of preservation. -Externally situated is the Citadel or Tower of Gwent, surrounded with a -broad moat over which there appears to have been a drawbridge on one -side, and on the other, adjoining the castle a permanent stone bridge. - -During his youth, the Marquis of Worcester, as Lord Herbert, resided at -the Castle, and may have had his laboratory, workshop, and study -conveniently situated in the Citadel; at all events, in connection with -his early career, the ruined remains of the family mansion cannot be -visited without intense interest. His father was a noble minded, hearty, -generous man, living in princely state; an extensive and wealthy landed -proprietor, and in case of need capable of defending his Citadel against -any foe whatever. This last necessity made itself conspicuous between -the years 1640 and 1641, when the civil war broke out. After the fatal -battle of Naseby, 14th June, 1645, Charles I. three times rested at the -Castle, staying there in all twenty-seven days. The strength of that -fortress enabled it to resist the Parliamentary arms longer than any -other stronghold--its surrender following very shortly after that of -Pendennis Castle. - -When civil war was raging in this country, when King and Parliament were -in opposition, when Puritan, Protestant, and Papist sought for mastery, -when cavaliers met roundheads in mortal conflict, and every man stood in -fear of his neighbour, the Marquis of Worcester could no longer remain a -mere student of mechanism and of mathematical problems: if like -Archimedes in one sense, he was now seen, unlike him, buckling on his -armour, raising troops, and doffing the student's gown to become the -soldier. Alas! his military career forms no brilliant page in the annals -of his country's history. He was essentially neither a statesman, nor a -military man. He was bold, courageous, and energetic, but he could -neither be fierce nor ferocious on occasion. He tampered with opponents, -lost means of surprise, and was ever being tricked by the cunning and -chicanery of adversaries not over-scrupulous in their promises or -proceedings. His very goodness of heart, urbanity and uprightness were -the sources of his utter ruin. Himself incapable of deceit, he was -perpetually being made the victim of it: those who appeared his assured -friends, and had every reason to be so, proving in any emergency -shallow, empty, and worthless. Flattered by Charles I. he became -instrumental in assisting that Prince from his parent's private -fortune; and when that was exhausted, the King sapped the property of -the son, repaying both with titles, promises, and valueless bonds. He -created the Marquis of Worcester Earl of Glamorgan, during his father's -life-time; and, inducing him to raise Irish troops to fight against -English subjects, he completed the Earl's ruin; for, that untoward -enterprise failing, and being followed by the fall of Raglan Castle, and -the victories of the Cromwellian army, the Marquis of Worcester had to -quit his native land to seek refuge, with many other political refugees, -at the Court of France. His wife, who had been residing at Raglan -Castle, obtained leave from the Parliament in 1646 to flee to Paris, -where the Marquis also arrived in 1648. - -The Marquis was proscribed both as a Papist and a rebel. Throughout his -political career the religion of his father and himself had made many -weak-minded men their enemies; but that his loyalty should be considered -rebellion was nothing more than might be expected from the dominant -party of those troubled times: although undoubtedly the result of that -great moral earthquake benefited our nation. - -His only son, Henry, sat in the Cromwellian Parliament, and this fact -may, in part, explain the circumstance that most probably induced the -Marquis of Worcester to visit London in 1652; for he must have been -well-advised before committing such an apparently rash act. He was -immediately incarcerated in the Tower, from which he was released in two -years and a quarter, no doubt on his parole, as in 1655 a warrant was -signed by Cromwell to pay the Marquis of Worcester the sum of _three -pounds per week_ for his maintenance. - -He was utterly beggared; what was he to do? It seems to have occurred to -him to turn his mechanical ingenuity to account, the Pretender's -monetary consideration being insufficient for the purpose intended. This -high-minded nobleman in the same year wrote his remarkable "Century of -Inventions," although it was not printed until eight years afterwards. -The title-page declared its production to have been "at the instance of -a powerful friend," who was, as we have reason to think, no other than -Colonel Christopher Coppley, or Copley, who had served in the -Parliamentary army of the North, under the command of General Fairfax; -for agreements were drawn up between them to secure a participation in -any benefits arising from introducing the steam engine, or -water-commanding engine, as it was then called. - -It is not to the historic page, but to the calm unobtrusive volumes of -scientific record, that we must turn to be enlightened with respect to -the mental and mechanical achievements of the Marquis of Worcester; and -we must at the same time not overlook the fact, that many branches of -science were, in his day, but just emerging from that thraldom of -empiricism, which had for centuries clouded every department of -philosophical research. - -The Marquis of Worcester was so essentially a scientific, and not a -literary man, that Horace Walpole acted most inconsistently in classing -him among his _Royal and Noble Authors_. That brilliant cynic, however, -had a purpose to serve, and although he found in the Marquis a vein of -pursuit of which he was totally ignorant, he presumed to criticise the -"Century," and to question its author's veracity; a charge which, if -established, even in a minor degree, would serve a political purpose, by -proving the Marquis to be unreliable in other respects, and thus -weakening his authority in religion and politics. But the dilettante -Walpole, a connoisseur in paintings and works of _vertu_, was, in -matters of science, more ignorant of the Marquis of Worcester's worth, -than was the equally satirical Voltaire of Shakspeare's genius. Hume, -the historian, attracted by the sparkling wit of Walpole, adopted -without examination, his plausible criticism, unconscious of its -superficiality and absolute untruthfulness in every respect. - -We would here notice the probable cause of the Marquis's indefatigable -study of, and attention to, practical mechanics. As in the time of -Charles II., so also during the reign of his father, there is reason to -believe that some distinguished public officer was appointed to -superintend Government works connected with the army and navy, and that -they were situated at Vauxhall. It was probably a department similar to -that held in 1661, by Sir Samuel Morland, designated Master of -Mechanics. Otherwise how are we to account for the Marquis of -Worcester's devoting his time, his energies, and his very fortune to -inventions affecting mechanical appliances generally, and particularly -to those connected with naval and military affairs, and hydraulic -engines? - -One of his inventions (No. 56) he exhibited to Charles I. at the Tower, -and of another (No. 64) being an improvement in fire-arms, he observes -it was "tried and approved before the King (Charles I.), and an hundred -Lords and Commons." Then his great invention, the "Water-commanding -Engine," was set up at Vauxhall in 1663, where it was certainly at work -in 1667, or probably three years later. All these circumstances wear the -aspect of royal patronage, of public employment, and of the possession -of influence suitable to the holder of a dignified position. - -This view of the high and honourable public official position held by -the Marquis is also borne out by the petition of William Lambert, about -1664, to be found in the State Paper Office. It was addressed to -Charles II. and sets forth:--"That your petitioner was founder to his -late Majesty of blessed memory, in Vauxhall, under the Marquis of -Worcester, for gun and water-work, or any other thing founded in brass." -Nothing surely can be more certain than that the Marquis's was a public -situation, and his "Century" affords ample evidence of his aptitude in -_that_ respect for the post which he filled; nor can we better account -for his numerous improvements in fire-arms, cannon, sailing vessels, -fortifications, and embankments. - -His "Century of Inventions" is the mere syllabus or outline of a -proposed larger work, for he concludes with the statement of -his--"meaning to leave to posterity a book, wherein under each of these -heads the means to put in execution and visible trial all and every of -these inventions, with the shape and form of all things belonging to -them, shall be printed by brassplates,"--the usual substitute at that -time for copperplates. It is most unfortunate that he did not live to -complete his projected publication. But in common candour let it not be -forgotten that, the promise thus placed before us was published in 1663, -not long before the devastating plague, which almost depopulated the -metropolis in 1665, and the terrible conflagration of 1666, which laid -waste the city of London; and that it was in the midst of the -accumulated calamities thus inflicted on society, that his health -appears to have suddenly given way; aged, harassed, disappointed, and -dismayed, he was prematurely called to his long rest on the 3rd of -April, 1667; but whether he died at Vauxhall, at the family town -mansion, Worcester House, in the Strand, or at some other place is -unknown; so little was he understood or esteemed for his intellectual -capacity at the period of the Restoration. As though it were not a -sufficient infliction to be ruined, dishonoured, oppressed, and -neglected while living, it would almost appear that events conspired to -lessen, if possible, the lustre of his memory by the dark shades of -apocryphal history; which ascribed the invention of the steam-engine to -the pretended fact of the Marquis while in imprisonment, having seen a -pot lid blown off by the expanding steam; made out against him a false -case of political forgery; and, worse than all, scandalously forged a -letter in Paris to make it appear that in 1641 the Marquis borrowed his -idea of the steam engine from Salomon De Caus, during a visit to the -Bic[^e]tre, at Paris. The fact that this same De Caus died at Paris, and -was buried in the Church of La Trinit['e], in February, 1626;[2] shows -how requisite it is for rogues to remember historical dates. - -[2] See _Worcesteriana_, 8vo. 1866, page 257. - -On the 3rd of June, in 1663, the Parliament passed an Act securing to -the Marquis of Worcester the full benefit and profit of his -"Water-commanding Engine," for the term of ninety-nine years. And in the -same year he printed his memorable "Century," in the Dedication of which -he alludes to the above Act, as one by which he feels "sufficiently -rewarded." - -The "Century" is little more than a Catalogue Raisonn['e], although each -matter of invention is as fully and intelligibly stated as was required -in the Patent office specifications of the period. To give some idea of -its contents, we shall enumerate only the first twenty-five. 1. Seals -abundantly significant; 2. private and particular to each owner; 3. a -one line cipher; 4. reduced to a point; 5. varied significantly to all -the 24 letters; 6. a mute and perfect discourse by colours; 7. to hold -the same by night; 8. to level cannon by night; 9. a ship-destroying -engine; 10. how to be fastened from aloof and under water; 11. how to -prevent both; 12. an unsinkable ship; 13. false destroying decks; 14. -multiplied strength in little room; 15. a boat driving against wind and -tide; 16. a sea-sailing fort; 17. a pleasant floating garden; 18. an -hour-glass fountain; 19. a coach-saving engine; 20. a balance waterwork; -21. a bucket fountain; 22. an ebbing and flowing river; 23. an ebbing -and flowing castle clock; 24. a strength increasing spring; and 25. a -double drawing engine for weight. - -We find in the "Century" that three of the articles refer to improved -seals and watches; two to games; two to arithmetic and perspective; six -to automata, or self-acting mechanical contrivances; no less than -twenty-three to ciphers, correspondence, and signals: in short, secret -writing and telegraphs; ten to useful appliances in domestic affairs; -nine are wholly mechanical; upwards of thirty-two were intended for use -in naval and military affairs; and thirteen, including his -Water-commanding Engine, were connected with hydraulics. It is singular -that he professes "to have _tried and perfected_ all these," words of -great import in all matters of novel invention. - -That age was fond of patronizing what we should now-a-days be disposed -to call "nic-nacs." Ingenious automata, curious toys and works of art, -small fountains, singing birds, and similar curiosities attracted the -serious attention of the virtuosi of the 17th century; so that we need -not feel surprised that the Marquis set up a speaking Brazen Head; or -that it should be of gigantic proportions, for he was always regardless -of cost in such matters, and was never small where he could be great in -developing his resources of ingenious contrivance. Wherever it was -possible, he was magnificent--fortifications, embankments, ships rowing -against wind and tide, great floating baths, and gardens, large cannon, -in short, he was princely in his expenditure of his private fortune on -whatever he undertook to perform, whether in war or in peace. It was -thus he spent, lent, and lost for his King and country [L]918,000. He -particularly notices that he laid out on buildings and experiments at -Vauxhall, the sum of [L]59,000. But these items are far from -representing his actual expenditure, although they indicate the scale of -his operations; and taken at their value two centuries back such sums -manifest marvellous munificence. - -We have no certain key to any of his inventions, if we except two -specimens of his cipher writing. One exists in the British Museum,[3] -and there is a deciphered letter in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.[4] - -[3] See engraving and account of it in _The Life, Times, and Scientific -Labours of the Marquis of Worcester_, 8vo. p. 398. 1865. - -[4] Ibid, page 180. - -His noblest invention, that which must for ever embalm his memory in the -breasts not alone of Englishmen, but of all classes throughout the -civilized world, was in operation at Vauxhall from 1663 to 1667, during -his life time, and appears to have been working as late as 1670. It was -ordered by the Act granted him, "that a model thereof be delivered to -the Lord Treasurer or Commissioners for the Treasury for the time being, -at or before the 29th of September, 1663; and to be put into the -Exchequer, and kept there." And in the 98th article of the "Century," -alluding to this same engine he says--"I call this a _semi_-omnipotent -engine, and do intend that a model thereof be buried with me." Yet, -strange to say, neither the one model nor the other, although zealously -searched for, has come to light: and so little attention did this -invention, notwithstanding its surprising utility, excite in the 17th -century, that all the account we have of it, besides that by the -inventor himself, is the briefest possible notice given by two foreign -travellers, Sorbi[e']re in 1663-4, and Cosmo the third, Grand Duke of -Tuscany, in 1669. It is satisfactorily ascertained, however, that -upwards of seventeen persons, all living in 1663, were more or less -acquainted with the Marquis's mechanical operations at Vauxhall, and -must have seen the great water-engine at work, if only as a novelty, and -a matter of curiosity. - -Returning to the "Century of Inventions," we find it to be a journal of -the fruits of its noble author's study of mechanical philosophy for -nearly forty years, so that in it we may almost trace the youth and age -of his mental capacity. Viewed through a modern medium we might feel -disposed to discredit the genius of a man who could contrive so many -curious alphabets for secret writing as those he mentions, but such -systems were extensively practised in political and private -correspondence during the Civil war period to baffle the curiosity of -political opponents. What may be called mechanical tricks were also much -in vogue, such as singing and flying birds, artificial figures and -horses, and curiously contrived watches, cabinets, locks, and keys. -Unless we bear in mind the taste of the age, we shall read with surprise -such an announcement as the following, in the 88th article in the -"Century":-- - -"How to make a brazen or stone head, in the midst of a great field or -garden, so artificial and natural, that though a man speak never so -softly and even whispers into the ear thereof, it will presently open -its mouth, and resolve the question in French, Latin, Welsh, Irish, or -English, in good terms uttering it out of his mouth, and then shut it -until the next question be asked." - -No doubt the Marquis had in mind the history of the renowned Brazen Head -attributed to Friar Bacon. The authors of the works on mechanical -subjects published down to the 17th century, did not disdain to describe -the way to manufacture automatic men, animals, and birds, with suitable -joints, springs, weights, and bellows; and therefore, the Marquis did -really no more than express the character of the times, without lowering -his own superior intelligence. He was seeking the patronage of royalty, -parliament, and the public, and if he offered occasionally such trifles -as commanded the attention of the multitude, he never in the whole -course of his chequered life lost sight of his more important -occupations, the conceptions of a mind far in advance of that dismal and -dark period. At the same time, that his age neglected to uphold applied -science, and pertinaciously opposed whatever appeared to savour of -innovation on time-honoured manufactures and trades, we cannot overlook -the anomalous fact that it gave birth to Shakspeare, Bacon, and Milton; -Sir Thomas Brown, Wallis, Hook, Newton, and Boyle, together with a -brilliant constellation of luminaries who adorned every department of -our general literature. Science alone stagnated, and the construction of -public works was chiefly conducted by foreign aid. The establishment of -the Royal Society in 1660, however, gave promise of that improvement -which has steadily gone on year by year to the present day. - -We have thus before us a broad outline of the Marquis of Worcester's -birth, education, studies, and scientific pursuits. His tastes and -employments were not suited to a successful political or military -career, at a time when the rupture between the Crown and the Parliament -rendered it necessary for every man to take the side either of the -Cavaliers or the Roundheads. Both father and son displayed unbounded -loyalty, although professing the Roman Catholic faith. Had they, like -many other noble families, adopted the policy of taking opposite -courses, the family might eventually have retained estates which were -forfeited when the King was deposed, and were principally enjoyed by -Cromwell. Raglan Castle was demolished, all that could be carried away -was sold, the strong tower or citadel was partially blown up, its ditch -left dry, and all that could be most readily spoiled was mutilated, even -to the marble and alabaster monuments in Raglan Church, raised to the -memory of ancestors of the family. Such ruthless destruction and pillage -has failed, however, to obliterate the towers, walls, arches, chambers, -and numerous vaults of that once princely residence. - -From the year 1601 to 1641, (forty years of his life) was a period to -which he refers as his "Golden Age" in the dedication of his "Century." -While that from 1641 to 1647-8, (when he fled from Ireland to France,) -was the most exciting, exhausting, and disastrous of his whole -existence, and closed with utter ruin to himself and his family. He had -then living his second wife, Henry, his son and heir, and two daughters. -The family town mansion, Worcester House in the Strand, partly used as a -State Paper Office, was eventually granted to the Marchioness of -Worcester for her residence. The wearisomeness and distress attendant -on his residence as a refugee in France during four years, was -embittered by above two years imprisonment in the Tower, the result of -his venturing to revisit London while proscribed by the Parliament as -"an enemy and traitor to the Commonwealth," all such being threatened -that they shall "die without mercy, whenever they shall be found within -the limits of this nation." Burton, in his interesting Diary of Oliver -Cromwell's Parliament, says in reference to the case of the Marquis on -this occasion:--"It was urged he was an old man, had lain long in -prison, and the small-pox then raging under the same roof where he lay; -and he had not, as was said, done any actions of hostility, but only as -a soldier; and in that capacity had always shown civilities to the -English prisoners and Protestants. It was therefore ordered that he -should be bailed out of prison." He was probably then about fifty-three -years of age, but so harassed and so worn down by fatigue that he might -well appear to be a prematurely "old man." He was not, however, too old -to write his "Century" in 1655, and to re-write and publish it in 1663; -to apply for and obtain an Act of Parliament for his great invention of -a steam water-raising engine; and to get a working engine set up at -Vauxhall, and project a public company for obtaining funds sufficient to -extend its utility to the supply of towns, and canals, and for draining -mines and marsh lands. - -The Marquis of Worcester was sincerely impressed with the capabilities -and great value of his invention; and it affords a striking proof of his -high estimation and correct knowledge of the magnitude of his discovery, -that he should have bowed himself before his Maker in humble adoration, -acknowledging in a solemnly sublime strain his sense of obligation to -the Supreme Source of all intelligence, for permitting him to become -instrumental in the development of so great a mystery of nature. It is -so short and significant that no apology can be required for quoting it -entire: - - "_The Lord Marquis of Worcester's ejaculatory and extemporary - thanksgiving prayer when first with his corporal eyes, he did see - finished a perfect trial of his Water-commanding Engine, delightful - and useful to whomsoever hath in recommendation either knowledge, - profit, or pleasure._ - - "Oh! infinitely omnipotent God whose mercies are fathomless, and - whose knowledge is immense and inexhaustible, next to my creation - and redemption I render Thee most humble thanks even from the very - bottom of my heart and bowels, for thy vouchsafing me (the meanest - in understanding), an insight in so great a secret of nature - beneficial to all mankind, as this my Water-commanding Engine. - Suffer me not to be puffed up, O Lord, by the knowing of it, and - many more rare and unheard of, yea unparalleled inventions, - trials, and experiments, but humble my haughty heart, by the true - knowledge of my own ignorant, weak, and unworthy nature, prone to - all evil. O most merciful Father, my Creator, most compassionating - Son, my Redeemer, and Holiest of Spirits, the Sanctifier, three - Divine persons and one God! grant me a further concurring grace - with fortitude to take hold of thy goodness, to the end that - whatever I do, unanimously and courageously to serve my king and - country, to disabuse, rectify, and convert my undeserved, yet - wilfully incredulous enemies, to reimburse thankfully my creditors, - to remunerate my benefactors, to re-enhearten my distressed family, - and with complacence to gratify my suffering and confiding friends - may, void of vanity or self-ends, only be directed to thy honour - and glory everlastingly. Amen." - -Judging of the Marquis of Worcester's personal appearance from two -family portraits, one when he was probably about twenty-five years of -age, by Vandyck; the other when between forty and fifty years old, by -Hanneman; he must have been rather of a delicate frame, and in stature -somewhat under the average height; his face oval, with sharp bright -eyes, and wearing a cheerful benignant aspect. His dress was, of course, -the costume of the period of Charles the Second's reign, but its -character has not been observed in either of the portraits just named, -one of which represented him in armour, and the other, as was not then -unusual with artists, attired as a Roman general. We infer that he -laboured under a defect in his speech, from his remarking in a memorial -addressed to the King that he penned it--"To ease your Majesty of a -trouble incident to the prolixity of speech, and a _natural defect of -utterance_ which I accuse myself of." It might be interesting to -speculate how his sense of deficiency in physical strength, in eloquence -of speech, and volubility of language might have contributed to the -fostering of that disposition for intense application to scientific -studies which became to him like a second nature. - -During the first two years of the Restoration, the Marquis was in pretty -regular attendance on his Parliamentary duties. In 1661, he was obliged -to seek protection so that proceedings might not be taken against him by -his creditors; and about the same time his forfeited estates were -restored to him, but so encumbered and impoverished as to yield him a -very insufficient income, if any. It was in the midst of such -distractions as these that this talented inventor and noble benefactor -to his species had to maintain his social position; and, at the same -time, endeavour to convince the bigoted age in which he may be said -rather to have existed than to have flourished, that he was master of a -power of such magnitude for the abridging of human labour, as the mind -of man had never before conceived. - -It may be freely conceded that, _stupendous_ as he himself pronounced -the parent engine to be, it was but as the acorn compared to the -time-honoured monarch of the forest. Just as the existence of the plant -is dependent on that of the seed, so if the Water-commanding Engine, the -great Fire Water-work he constructed had never existed, we might have -been unacquainted, to this day, with the mechanical application of -steam, and should have been deprived in consequence of the manifold -blessings it bountifully bestows on mankind. - - -ADDENDUM. - -Evidence of the Marquis of Worcester's claim to the Invention of the -Steam Engine. - -1. His personal claim to have written a statement respecting it in 1655; -his MS. being afterwards lost. - -2. The Act of Parliament[5] which was granted him for the term of -ninety-nine years, and which received the royal assent on the 3rd June, -1663. - -[5] For lists of the names of members on the several Committees -appointed on the occasion of this Act being applied for, see--"The Life, -Times, &c.," 8vo. 1866, pages 254-5. - -3. His "Century of Inventions," printed from a re-written copy of his -lost notes of 1655; and which names in the Dedication, the granting of -the above Act. - -The following list[6] comprises upwards of seventeen persons all living -in 1663:-- - -[6] From "Worcesteriana," 8vo. 1866, page viii. - -4. CASPAR KALTOFF, a confidential workman, engaged by the Marquis as his -engineer in 1628, who died about 1664, and is honourably mentioned in -the "Century." - -5. MARTHA KALTOFF, wife of Caspar Kaltoff, who is named in letters -patent dated 1672, _as lately deceased_. Her family was-- - - CATHARINE, married to Claude Denis. - CASPAR KALTOFF, and his unmarried sister-- - ISABEL KALTOFF. - -6. PETER JACOBSON, a sugar refiner, who married one of Kaltoff's -daughters, had a portion of the buildings at Vauxhall, where the -Water-commanding Engine was erected, and in operation from 1663, till at -least to the year 1669, if not some years later. - -7. WILLIAM LAMBERT, another workman, a founder at Vauxhall, in the reign -of Charles I., "under the Marquis of Worcester, for gun and waterwork, -or any other thing founded in brass," in 1647, and who was living in -1664-5. - -8. CHRISTOPHER COPLEY, who had been a Colonel in the Parliamentary -service, and was probably an iron master, having been the proprietor of -four Iron Works. He assisted the Marquis at an early period and held a -pecuniary interest in his invention of a Water-commanding Engine. Indeed -it is highly probable that he was the "powerful friend" at whose -instigation the "Century" was written in 1665. - -9. The EARL OF LOTHERDALE, written to in January, 1660, had a copy of -the "Definition" of the Engine sent to him, and is promised an -ingeniously contrived box or cabinet. He was appointed as late as March, -1665, to be one of a Commission to report on the affairs of the Marquis, -and must, therefore, have been familiar with all matters relating to the -noble inventor. - -10. DR. ROBERT HOOK, the eminent mathematician, was acquainted with -Caspar Kaltoff, and early in 1667, went purposely to see the engine -working at Vauxhall, having read the "Definition." - -11. THE HONOURABLE ROBERT BOYLE received from Dr. Hook a copy of the -"Definition," sent to him with a letter on the subject. - -12. LORD BRERETON is specially mentioned by Dr. Hook, as being so -confirmed in his doubts of the excellence of the Marquis's engine, that -he had laid a wager on the subject. - -13. HENRY SOMERSET, Lord Herbert, afterwards created first Duke of -Beaufort, by Charles II., must have frequently seen the engine in -operation. He died in 1699. - -14. JAMES ROLLOCK, who wrote a poetic eulogy on the Engine about 1663, -speaks of himself as "an ancient servant," having known his lordship -forty years, dating back to 1623.[7] - -[7] He was the author of a pamphlet now very rare, and which is absurdly -enough attributed by Horace Walpole to the Marquis of Worcester. A -reprint will be found in "The Life, Times, and Scientific Labours of the -Marquis of Worcester," 8vo. 1866, page 559. It contains the following -intimation to the reader:-- - -"I think it not amiss to give further notice in his Lordship's behalf, -that he intends within a month or two, to erect an Office, and to -entrust some very responsible and honourable persons with power to treat -and conclude with such as desire at a reasonable rate, to reap the -benefit of the same Water-commanding Engine." - -So that it is manifest a public company was intended to be established -in 1663-4, to extend operations with the engine then actually raising -water at Vauxhall. - -15. SAMUEL SORBI[E']RE visited the works at Vauxhall, and published -particulars of the engine he saw there in 1663. - -16. LORD JOHN SOMERSET, the Marquis's eldest brother, appears latterly -to have lived at Vauxhall, according to a warrant dated September, 1664; -and would certainly be admitted into his brother's confidence. - -17. COSMO THE THIRD, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in his Diary exactly -describes the engine he saw at Vauxhall in 1669, "considered to be of -_greater service to the public_ than the other machine near Somerset -House." - -18. WALTER TRAVERS, a Roman Catholic priest, names the engine in a -letter which he wrote to the Dowager Marchioness of Worcester, in 1670. - -19. DR. THOMAS SPRAT, F.R.S., published in 1665, a critical work on "M. -Sorbi[e']re's Voyage into England," and could not therefore be ignorant -of the Marquis's engine, as it was named by the French traveller, -although Sprat omitted to notice it specially in his own "Observations." - -20. Among his other contemporaries were Sir Samuel Morland, Dr. Wallis, -Sir Christopher Wren, Sir Isaac Newton, and many more, who, however, (so -far as is at present known,) are silent in regard to all matters -relating to the Marquis. - - - - - II. - - LECTURE - DELIVERED ON THE 5TH NOVEMBER, 1868: - BEING THE FIRST OR INAUGURAL LECTURE - OF THE - FREE LECTURES, - AT THE CRYSTAL PALACE, SYDENHAM, - ON - CHIMERAS OF SCIENCE: - ASTROLOGY, ALCHEMY, - SQUARING THE CIRCLE, - PERPETUUM MOBILE, - ETC. - - With Illustrative Diagrams. - - AND RE-DELIVERED AT THE - BIRKBECK LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTION, - 17TH FEBRUARY, 1869. - - "A little knowledge is a dangerous thing, - Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring; - There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, - But drinking largely sobers us again."--POPE. - - -PREFACE. - -The present Lecture, embodying a variety of subjects, under the general -title of CHIMERAS OF SCIENCE, not only reviews them in succession, but -expresses sentiments with regard to each which result from a long -acquaintance with ancient and modern scientific authors; supported by an -experimental, and, not unfrequently, by a practical acquaintance with -several branches of natural philosophy. The consequence of this intimacy -with various scientific studies, has been a thorough conviction of the -necessity of possessing a knowledge of elementary principles, before -professing a belief in new doctrines, whose only recommendation is their -novelty, extravagance, and inutility. Without absolutely pretending to -any golden road, or short path to learning, superficial but ambitious -scholars are the first to seize on first impressions, build up some -grand theory, lay down certain postulates, seek proselytes, and display -a wonderful amount of enthusiasm in creating systems which, however -beautiful in appearance, can boast of no solid foundation. Imperfectly -educated, and shallow, but not unfrequently highly imaginative, men, if -not themselves absolute charlatans, are the easily led dupes, who become -the admirers and abettors of every "new wind of doctrine." - -Every age has been sensational. Man delights in mystery, and mysticism -is a certain sign of imperfect knowledge. A classic age was not proof -against the tricks and deceitful practices of the oracles, soothsayers -and jugglers. The dark ages only served to keep alive the human desire -for sensation; and less than a century ago, poor, simple, half idiotic -women, were burnt at the stake as witches. The Mahometans had their -prophet, and so have the Mormons. Mesmer had his disciples, and so have -many modern Spiritualists. The Astrologer of the 17th century, is -presented to us in a modern dress by the seer Zadkiel. Jacob Behmen and -Emanuel Swedenborg, but represent a class that is continually dying out, -yet is as continually reproduced; the authors of pious romances, -theological enigmas, scientific spiritualisms, and spiritualized -transcendental philosophisms. Swedenborg introduces us to the -inhabitants of the moon; they are short, the size of a youth of seven -years of age; and they speak with a thunderous voice for want of an -atmosphere, and not from the mouth, but from the abdomen! But many -persons admire such wanderings of a pretended inward and prophetic -light. - -There are still living a few faithful believers in _Alchemy_, who -earnestly look forward to the coming of the day when the grand, the -glorious secret, shall be fully revealed; not, however, to the vulgar -crowd, but to the noble, true, and virtuous adept,--to him, and him -only. - -A class of _Mathematicians_ still continues to publish papers and -pamphlets on squaring, cubing, and trisecting. On this subject, the -reader might find some amusement in the critiques of Professor De -Morgan, who wrote several papers in the _Athen[ae]um_, 1865, under the -title of _A Budget of Paradoxes_. - -_Mechanics_ are still living who firmly believe in the possibility of -realizing a mechanical perpetual motion,--to spin, pump, or drive -carriages or machinery, by means of a constantly descending weight. And, -year by year, many such schemes, find their final resting place in the -archives of the Patent Office. - -It is melancholy to reflect on the waste of mental energy, inflicted on -society by such vanities as Astrology, Alchemy, and their kindred -empirical employments. Look at the centuries wasted, and worse than -wasted, in studying such intellectual abortions, and in writing -thousands of volumes of inanity to uphold falsehood and delude the -unwary. What the sword has done physically, the pen and the wand of the -sorcerer have done mentally, in prostrating the intellectuality of -mankind. - -It would tend to promote the progress of society at large, if education -were so far general that the acquirements of the middle and lower -classes should act on the upper classes as a stimulant to the pursuit of -those higher branches of study, which mostly fall to the lot of the -nobility and men of fortune: whose birth and ample means otherwise -relieve them from all incitements other than such as are fostered by the -necessities of public office. With title and fortune, and no ambition -to hold public employment, any education is thought to be sufficient -that serves to obtain the usual dignities, and to give that polish which -completes the accomplished gentleman. To the spread of education alone, -can we look with any reliance for the downfall, or at least the -diminishing of the hold on the human mind which Chimeras of every order -usurp in our own, in common with every other country. - -Among other works that might be consulted by the curious in such -matters, in the Libraries of the British Museum, the Patent Office, -Chetham College Manchester, &c.; may be named, on ASTROLOGY,--B. Porta's -Works, folio, 1616;--The Compost of Ptolomeus, Prince of Astronomie, -1645;--W. Ramsey's Vox Stellarum, 8vo., 1652;--The Geomancie of Maister -Christopher Cattan, 4to., 1608;--Dr. John Dee's Work on Spirits, folio, -1659;--J. Goad's Astro-Meteorologica, folio, 1686;--Godfridus's Work on -the Effects of the Planets, &c., 1649;--M. Manilius's System of the -Ancient Astronomy and Astrology, &c., 8vo., 1697;--John Merrifield's -Catastasis Mundi, 4to., 1684;--Jo. Holwells's Catastrophe Mundi, 4to., -1682;--with many others of modern date. - -On ALCHEMY,--Ashmole's Theatrum Chemicum Britannicum, 4to., 1652;--Dr. -John French's Art of Distillation;--Four Books of J. S. Weidenfeld, -4to., 1685;--A Philosophicall Epitaph, in Hierogliphicall Figures, -1673;--George Ridley's Compound of Alchemy, 1591;--Roger Bacon's Art -and Nature, (in French,) 1557; his Mirror of Alchemy, 1597; his -Philosopher's Stone, or Grand Elixir, 8vo., 1739; Theatrum Chemicum, 6 -vols., 8vo., 1659-61;--Sandivogius's New Light of Alchymie, 4to., -1650;--Opuscula qu[ae]dam Chemica, 8vo., 1514;--The Works of Geber, -1678;--Hermes Trismegistus's Works, collected in Theatrum Chemicum, 4 -vols.;--Raimond Lully's De Secretis Natur[ae], 1541;--Crollius's -Philosophy Reformed and Improved, in four profound Tractates, -1657;--Beguinus (J.) Trocinium Chymicum, or Chymical Essays, 8vo., -1669;--Artis Auriferae, Quam Chemiam Vocant (a collection of treatises), -woodcuts, 2 vols. 8vo. 1593;--Balduinus's Aurum Superius et Inferius -Hermeticum, plates, 1675; Beccheri's Physica Subterranea, Lipsi[ae], -1738 (with supplement), 8vo., 1681-80; with many others, ancient and -modern. Interesting compendious treatises will be found in Dr. Thomas -Thomson's History of Chemistry, ("The National Library,") 2 vols., -12mo., 1830; Justus von Liebig's Familiar Letters on Chemistry, edited -by Dr. Blyth, 8vo., 1859. And-- - -On MATHEMATICAL and MECHANICAL Chimeras, many popular notices may be -found in Encyclop[ae]dias; and particularly in Dr. Hutton's Mathematical -Dictionary, 2 vols., 4to.; and the Author's "Perpetuum Mobile; or, -History of the Search for Self-Motive Power; with an Introductory -Essay," post 8vo., 1861; to which work, a second series will shortly be -added. - - -CHIMERAS OF SCIENCE. - - -INTRODUCTION. - -Although the present lecture seems to require some introductory remarks, -they must necessarily be brief--our time being limited and this -discourse rather discursive; yet it is sufficiently condensed to suit -the present occasion, and illustrates fully the truthfulness of the -axiom that--_A little learning is a dangerous thing_: from its tendency -to inspire its possessors with vanity rather than with the humility -which always accompanies profound knowledge. - -You are no doubt all, or most of you, well acquainted with the use made -of Astrology and Alchemy in the dramas of Shakspeare--"The Antiquary" of -the "Wizard of the North"--the "Strange Story" of Lord Lytton--the -"Faust" of Go[:e]the; and are probably familiar with the more instructive -works of Scott on Demonology, and of Brewster on Natural Magic. Now we -always find that fiction is more suitable than truth for romantic -writings; truth is circumscribed, but the fictions whether of Astrology, -Alchemy, or any other pseudo-philosophy are erratic, the delight of -poets and romance writers, being the comets and _ignes fatui_ of many -popular compositions in our light literature. - -There is no end of fabulous writings of the class we call novels and -romances, and no end of deceptions which we patronize as tricks of -legerdemain; the one gratifies our imagination and fancy, the other -takes our common sense by surprise; but all these are harmless because -only presented to us for our amusement. - -Delusion, however, assumes a startling character when romance in the -form of mystic writings, and jugglery in the form of pretended -communication with the spirit-world demand our respect and serious -attention, by claiming to have a divine origin. But hallucination of the -human intellect, as we shall see, is not confined to such remote -visionary speculations, and it is not unimportant to remark that in -mathematics, as in physics, and in other branches of investigation, -there is a singular persistency in upholding errors. - -A contemporary astrologer, assuming the pseudonym of Zadkiel, tauntingly -observes in his preface to a recent publication: "_This is the age of -inquiry_; and yet prejudice continues to press down her leaden foot upon -the neck of examination in this matter"--that is, Astrology. Now with -this reproof before us we hope to discuss the subject with becoming -propriety. - - -ASTROLOGY. - -The splendour of the sun by day, the glories of the firmament by night, -together with the sublimity of all celestial phenomena, attract alike -the attention of the most simple and the most intellectual among -mankind. The distance, the magnitude, and the grandeur of the entire -planetary system while exciting emotions of awe, reverence, and devotion -among the mass of the human race, have at the same time been studied -from the earliest period of man's history to the present time -superstitiously by one class of observers, and scientifically by -another. - -As the telescope was not invented before the 17th century, it is evident -that the study of Astronomy without that instrument must previously have -been pursued under amazing difficulties; and we might have expected that -when first used by Galileo at Venice in 1609, its introduction would -have been hailed without a dissentient voice. Such, however, was not the -fact, according to Sir David Brewster,[8] who says:-- - -"The principal Professor of Philosophy at Padua resisted Galileo's -repeated and urgent entreaties to look at the moon and planets through -his telescope; and he even laboured to convince Cosmo de Medici, the -Grand Duke of Tuscany, that the satellites of Jupiter could not possibly -exist. Sizzi, an astronomer of Florence, maintained that as there were -only _seven_ apertures in the head--_two_ eyes, _two_ ears, _two_ -nostrils, and _one_ mouth--and as there were only _seven_ metals, and -_seven_ days in the week, so there could only be _seven_ planets. He -seems (eventually), however, to have admitted the visibility of the four -satellites through the telescope; but he argues, that as they are -invisible to the naked eye, they can exercise no influence on the earth; -and being useless they do not exist." - -[8] See his "_Martyrs of Science_." - -Such being the crude state of astronomical science in the 17th century, -it must have been comparatively imperfect throughout all preceding -centuries; and open to mystical appropriation and abuse by Egyptians, -Chaldeans, Hindus, Chinese, and European and other ancient astrologers. -Among that motley group the most learned were found strangely associated -with ignorant impostors, and their activity in writing and travelling -served to spread their different systems over the entire civilized -world. It was not until late in the 17th century that Astrology could be -absolutely declared to be in its decline. In England, William Lilly, -the Sidrophel of Hudibras, and the most famous astrologer of his time, -died in 1681, leaving behind him his _Introduction to Astrology_, -together with many other works of the same character. - -Astrology is merely a philosophism, being empirical, wholly visionary, a -mere fanciful system compounded of incongruous mixtures of astronomical -with human events, of mythology with theology, and of facts with pure -fiction. It has been variously designated Judicial, Hororary, -Atmospherical, and Mundane, Astrology. It has also many off-shoots -subservient to Magic or the black art, Sorcery, Witchcraft, and other -pretended mysticisms ostentatiously styled occult philosophy. - -We may first observe that Astrology lays no claim to inspiration, but -affects a very ancient unknown origin, tracing back to a dark, -heathenish, and superstitious age, in the very infancy of traditional -knowledge, when the boldest assertions of the seer were received as the -authority of an oracle, no one daring to question their validity. -Whatever is remotely possible the Astrologer accepts as a fact; while -ignorant of much around him, he assumes with the utmost complacency an -intimate acquaintance with the sun and planets thousands upon thousands -of miles off; yea with the sun 969,272 miles in diameter, while he -himself inhabits a globe only 7,916 miles in diameter; from which the -moon is 237,000 miles distant, and the sun 400 times that distance.[9] -And these immense bodies revolving millions on millions of miles away in -immeasurable space are described by him as fashioning an infant's nose, -directing the fortunes or misfortunes of lovers, ordering the property -of traders, meting out diseases, and improving or deranging man's mental -faculties. And as if such puerile influences were not sufficiently -preposterous we are informed by the modern seer, Zadkiel, that the 12 -signs of the Zodiac not only rule the several parts of the human frame, -but also those of a ship, as _Aries_, the bows; _Taurus_, the cutwater; -_Gemini_, the rudder; _Cancer_, the bottom; _Leo_, the upper works; -_Virgo_, the hold; _Libra_, parts above the water's edge; _Scorpio_, the -seamen's berths; _Sagittarius_, the seamen; _Capricorn_, the ends of the -vessel; _Aquarius_, the Captain; _Pisces_, the oars in galleys, the -wheels in steam vessels, and the sails in others; but these latter being -above water, we are left in doubt about the ruler of the submerged screw -propeller. - -[9] This portion of the subject was illustrated by means of a Diagram -exhibiting the Diameters and Magnitudes of Planets, thus:-- - -[Illustration: - - _Miles._ -The Sun 882,000 -Jupiter 91,522 -Saturn 76,018 -Uranus 35,100 -Neptune 33,600 -Earth 7,916 -Venus 7,702 -Mars 4,398 -Mercury 3,123 - -The Moon's diameter is 2,160 miles; and its distance from the Earth is -237,000 miles.] - -To show what a modicum of learning, and how trifling an acquaintance -with matters of natural philosophy will serve the Astrologer, we will -turn to a modern treatise published in the year 1801, by Francis -Barrett, (styling himself a student of Natural and Occult Philosophy) a -quarto volume of upwards of 370 pages, entitled, "The Magus, or -Celestial Intelligencer," which affords a pretty clear insight into the -nature of the superstitions which from an ancient period even to that -date obtained credence and were popular with the multitude. - -Treating of the wonders of Natural Magic previous to entering on the -main topic of his treatise, he adduces a few of what he conceives to be -ordinary matters of fact, assuring us that:-- - -If any one shall, with an entire new knife, cut asunder a lemon, using -words expressive of hatred, contumely, or dislike, against any -individual, the absent party, though at an unlimited distance, feels a -certain inexpressible and cutting anguish of the heart, together with a -cold chilliness, and failure throughout the body;--likewise of living -animals, if a live pigeon be cut through the heart, it causes the heart -of the party intended, to be affected with a sudden failure;--likewise -fear is induced by suspending the magical image of a man by a single -thread;--also death and destruction by means similar to these; and all -these from a fatal and magical sympathy. - -The loadstone, (he observes), possesses an eminent medical faculty -against many violent and implacable disorders;--the back of the -loadstone, as it repulses iron, so also it removes gout, swellings, -rheum, &c. that is of the nature or quality of iron. Likewise the -wearing the loadstone eases and prevents the cramp, and such like -disorders and pains. - -The influences of the stars appear to be as intimately known to -Astrologers as though they had walked among, and carefully examined and -fully realized their occult properties, for example:-- - -In every work observe Mercury, for he is a messenger between the higher -gods and the infernal gods; when he goes to the good, he increases -their goodness--when to the bad, he hath influence on their wickedness. -It is an unfortunate sign or planet, when it is by the aspect of Saturn -or Mars especially, apposite or quadrant, for these are the aspects of -enmity; but a conjunction, a trine, and a sextile aspect, are of -friendship; but yet if you do already behold it through a trine, and the -planet be received, it is accounted as already conjoined. Now all -planets are afraid of the conjunction of the sun, rejoicing in the -trine, and sextile aspect thereof. - -They say of the Sun and Moon:-- - -The Sun is the lord of all elementary virtues;--it disposes even the -very spirit and mind of men. - -The Moon (says Barrett) measures the whole space of the Zodiac in the -time of 28 days, hence it is that the wise men of the Indians, and most -of the ancient astrologers have granted 28 mansions to the Moon, which, -being fixed in the eighth sphere, do enjoy divers names and properties, -from the various signs and stars which are contained in them; through -which, while the Moon wanders, it obtains many other powers and virtues; -but every one of these mansions, according to the opinion of Abraham, -contained twelve degrees, and fifty-one minutes, and almost twenty-six -seconds. In the first quarter of these mansions the 1st conduces to -discords and journies; the second to the finding of treasures, and to -the retaining of captives; the 3rd to benefit sailors, huntsmen, and -alchymists; the 4th the destruction and hindrances of buildings, -fountains, mills, gold mines, the flight of creeping things, and begets -discord; the 5th to help the return from a journey, the instruction of -scholars, and confirms edifices, gives good health and good will; the -6th to hunting and besieging towns, and revenge of princes, destroying -harvests and fruits, and hinders the operation of the physician; the 7th -to confirm gain and friendship; is profitable to lovers, and destroys -magistracies. - -In a similar manner the remaining three quarters have the characters of -their several mansions allotted to them with equal exactness, and of -course indisputable veracity also. - -We have here a fair example of the arrogant assumptions of ancient and -indeed of all astrologers, magicians, and sorcerers, men who are -incompetent to elucidate the ordinary phenomena of nature in the animal -or vegetable creation, and yet with unbounded effrontery affect to build -up an empirical system, delivered in a language of their own invention, -a pompous parade of jargon made up of the most incomprehensible -materials--which if wholly due to antiquity partakes of ancient -simplicity, credulity, deceit, and superstition; and if somewhat -polished and refined to suit the advances of literature and science, has -never been able to prove the correctness of its groundwork, or afford a -solitary instance of its possessing any meritorious quality beneficial -to mankind; while on the other hand its evil consequences have been -many, by destroying the peace and happiness of thousands, encouraging -deceit, and misapplying in its ignoble pursuit the time and labour and -property of its ardent but deluded admirers. - -In Judicial Astrology it is not thought requisite to consider more than -a certain number of the planets, after a method simplified by antient -astrologers or astronomers, which is found to be so compact and so -complete in governing the destinies of the human race that modern -intelligence has failed to enlarge the field of heavenly influences. -Varley notes that:--the antients discovered that the circle of the -Zodiac, about 16 degrees in width, and through the middle of which runs -the Ecliptic, or sun's path through the 12 signs, contains the heavenly -bodies, named planets, and the principal fixed stars, and nearly the -whole of the materials or significators, from which predictions are -obtained. - -He remarks that:--In forming a horoscope, this circle is divided into 12 -equal parts, corresponding with the spaces containing the 12 hours. -These 12 divisions are called houses; and they always remain fixed, -while the Zodiac with the 12 signs, and all the heavenly bodies -belonging to it, are considered to be moving through them all, every 24 -hours. The _lord_ of the ascendant is the planet which rules the signs -rising at birth. In drawing horoscopes it is usual to make the figure -square instead of round. (_See_ Plate 1, Fig. 1.) - -The various significations arising from the aspects of the starry -heavens at the time of birth are so exceedingly numerous, that we must -refer the curious in such matters to the works themselves, in which all -these pretended revelations are minutely recorded. - -Mankind rank astrologically as being of four temperaments. - -1. One class is said to answer to the fiery trigon, also called diurnal, -masculine, and choleric, consisting of Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius, -which contains the spirited, generous, magnanimous, and princely -natures. - -2. We have next the earthy trigon, being nocturnal, feminine, and -melancholic, consisting of Taurus, Virgo, and Capricorn, containing the -careful, sordid, and penurious qualities. - -3. Thirdly, the a[:e]rial trigon, which is diurnal, masculine, and -sanguine, consisting of Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius, contains the humane -harmonies, and courteous principles. And-- - -4. Fourthly, the watery trigon, which is nocturnal, feminine, and -phlegmatic; namely, Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces, including the cold, -prolific, cautious and severe qualities. - -Take as a brief illustration of the manner in which Astrologers -presumptuously assign to the planets their several offices relating to -human nature the following:-- - -Those born when Aries ascends are born under the sign Aries and planet -Mars. This is the diurnal, fair, and masculine house of Mars, and -partakes also largely of the nature of the magnanimous Sun, and the -benevolent and moral Jupiter, who rule the fiery trigon, of which Aries -is the first sign. - -As affecting physiognomy we are assured that: - -The Scorpio noses are more aquiline than those of Aries, and are more -frequently conspicuous for a sort of bracket shape beneath, which -prevents the under part of the nose from forming a right angle with the -upper lip; while the under lip, both being usually small, recedes in a -greater degree, as if drawn tightly against the teeth; so that the -mouth appears in the act of pronouncing the word SEVERE. - -When we meet in volume after volume with page after page of such -composition as this, when we reflect on the sublimity of the heavens and -the paltriness of such combinations as are here given of the planets -with mundane affairs, we ask the reasons for arriving at such judgments. -To be told that it is so because it is so; or because it was an ancient -belief, and is to be found in the writings of Ptolemy, Nostradamus, Dr. -John Dee, William Lilly, or Zadkiel; or because it has often proved as -true in its predictions as the telling fortunes by means of a pack of -cards, is no evidence whatever; yet the Astrologer boasts of his very -paralogisms. - -Zadkiel, in prefacing a work by Lilly, says:--If a proposition of _any -nature_ be made to any individual, about the result of which he is -anxious, and, therefore, uncertain whether to accede to it or not, let -him but note the hour and minute when it was _first_ made, and erect a -figure of the heavens, (_See_ Plate 1, Fig. 1,)--and his doubts will be -instantly resolved. He may thus, in five minutes, learn infallibly -whether the affair will succeed or not; and, consequently, whether it is -prudent to adopt the offer made or not. - -Such is the belief of this sound, intelligent man, as we fully believe -him to be in other respects. But we say it is not given to man to assign -special influences to the stars, to select one portion and discard all -the rest, or to be more intimately acquainted with the starry heavens -above him, than with the stony earth he inhabits, and with his fellow -creatures around him. - -The works claiming to expound this pretended Occult Philosophy prescribe -such childish processes that one naturally wonders how in the midst of -so much impudent imposture Astrology and its kindred pursuits ever found -or retained any honest partizans. - -Take, for example, the use of fumigations, such as of frankincense, &c. -to Saturn; of cloves, &c. to Jupiter; of odoriferous woods to Mars; of -all gums to the Sun; of roses, violets, &c. to Venus; of cinnamon, &c. -to Mercury; of the leaves of vegetables to the Moon; of all or any of -which there must be a good perfume, odoriferous, and precious, in good -matters; but in evil ones quite the contrary. - -The Zodiac is also favourably affected by proper suffumigations. - -Astrologers in their Demonology profess to be able to ascertain the -characters and seals of spirits,[10] and according to the Cabalists, -tables are given of many of these in their books, in the so-called -Theban Alphabet; in characters of Celestial Writing; in that called -Mallachim; or in the writing called Passing the River. - -[10] See the Table, Plate I. Fig. 2, for distinguished names of their -angels, spirits, or demons. - -They affect to have suitable bonds by which spirits can be bound, -invoked, or cast out. - -Of Necromancy they pretend to two kinds, one of which is raising the -body of a deceased person, which it is said cannot be done without -blood;--the other sciomancy, which is the production of a mere shade or -shadow. - -The exorcisms and conjurations of Magicians are so audaciously profane -and blasphemous as to be unworthy of even a passing notice. - - -ALCHEMY. - -We shall now proceed to consider Alchemy, another but very different -chimerical pursuit, which was early cultivated in the East, and is -generally ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, although its more -enthusiastic admirers pretend to trace a knowledge of it to Adam. From -the earliest periods of history man was acquainted with gold, silver, -and other metals, with bitumen, sulphur, sea salt, sal-ammoniac, gums, -and resins, together with other varieties of substances and liquids -common to modern chemistry. For the compounding and heating of certain -of these materials a multiplicity of means were adopted requiring -furnaces, crucibles, and distillatory apparatus. The first workers in -these experimental operations formed a body of investigators into the -nature and properties of all manner of substances, whether animal, -vegetable or mineral, the members of which were distinguished as adepts, -alchemists, and later in their career as common chemists. The most -esteemed branch of the art however was Alchemy, a pseudo-science which -ultimately took three forms. First, the Hermetic Art for the discovery -of the Philosopher's stone; and the Alkahest, or universal -solvent;--Second, a Medical Alchemy;--and Third, a Theological Alchemy -pretending to conceal divine mysteries under an allegorical form, -treating of the spiritual while apparently describing alchemical -discoveries. - -Our principal business, however, is with the so-called Hermetic -Philosophy, treating of vaunted methods of transmuting the base metals -into gold. It is doubtful whether this particular delusion of the -adepts can be referred to a date earlier than the 8th century, but even -then we cannot refrain from surprise at the fallibility of the human -intellect, which could be swayed by a belief in the pretended _lapis -philosophorum_ for upwards of ten centuries. It was believed to be so -secret and rare that its possession was never ascribed at any time to -more than two or three favourite adepts, who transmitted it to some -single favoured individual after his taking the sacrament, and going -through certain prescribed religious ceremonies, preparatory to being -entrusted with a verbal recipe for the composition of a peculiar -smelling red powder, of which it was affirmed that when projected on -heated mercury or any solid metal, it would at once change it into pure -gold. Ashmole gravely assures us that Dr. John Dee and his associate -Kelly, having in some way procured this precious substance, Kelly--to -use Ashmole's own words--"made projection with one small grain thereof, -in proportion no bigger than the least grain of sand, upon one ounce and -a quarter of common mercury, and it produced almost an ounce of pure -gold." With equal simplicity and earnestness, Ashmole asserts that this -same Kelly was often seen to make these extraordinary transmutations,-- -"and in particular (he adds) upon a piece of metal cut out of a -warming-pan, and without touching or handling it, or melting the metal, -only warming it in the fire, the elixir being put thereon, it was -transmuted into pure silver. The warming-pan and this piece of it, was -sent to Queen Elizabeth by her Ambassador who then lay at Prague, that -by fitting the piece into the place whence it was cut, it might exactly -appear to be once part of the warming-pan." - -Among the adepts there were no doubt a select few who employed -themselves in their prolonged labours in all sincerity, and who were not -unfrequently repaid with remarkable, and unexpected results. Brass, -being the result of copper combined with zinc, would appear a singular -transformation. Many stones, or more properly, ores, would yield sulphur -and metals; sulphur would be found apparently to dissolve iron; and -certain salts, when distilled, would yield corrosive acids. Alchemy thus -presented to the ancient adepts many of the ordinary wonders of modern -chemistry; in short, the latest adept of the present century is no other -than an unlettered chemist. It was peculiar to the Alchemists to treat -all their operations as secrets; which, when recorded, were described -partly by symbols and partly in a novel nomenclature, invented to -conceal their mysteries from vulgar gaze or imitation. Thus, to prepare -the philosopher's stone, we have merely to--"Take of moisture, an ounce -and a half; of meridional redness, that is the soul of the sun, a fourth -part, that is, half an ounce; of yellow seyr, likewise half an ounce; -and of auripigmentum, a half ounce; making in all three ounces. Know -that the vine of wise men is extracted in threes, and its wine at last -is completed in thirty." To the incredulous in these matters, Ashmole -offers the admonition that, he knows "_Incredulity is given to the world -as a punishment!_" However, when the Alkahest, or pretended Universal -Solvent, was alluded to by the modern chemist Kunckel, he could not -refrain from incredulously enquiring--"If it dissolves all substances, -in what vessel can it be contained?" - -Alchemical writings are very numerous, it might be impossible to procure -a complete bibliographical list of them, but they may be estimated at -from 3000 to 4000 works, and an astonishing number of manuscripts. Their -authors indulge in such terms as the Ph[oe]nix, to indicate the -quintessence of Fire; Realgar, for the fume of minerals; Guma, also Luna -Compacta, for quicksilver; Hadid, for iron; Aurum potabile, for liquor -of gold; Anathron, for saltpetre; Malek, for salt; Terra fidelis, for -silver; Tinkar, for borax; and in a similar strain for all matters and -operations; so that Dr. Johnson was justified in deriving the word -Gibberish from the mysterious jargon employed by Geber, a celebrated -Alchemist; who has, nevertheless, been appropriately styled the Pliny of -the 8th century. - -Weidenfeld, in an Alchemical Treatise, published in 1685, addressing -students, says:-- - -"Under heaven is not such an art, more promoting the honour of God, more -conducing to mankind, and more narrowly searching into the most profound -secrets of nature, than is our true and more than laudable Chymy." - -And at the conclusion of his address he observes: - -"Nothing remains but upon our bended knees to return most humble thanks -to the Father of Lights, in vouchsafing us this art by the writings of -his servants, and the high priests of Nature; without which, it would be -beyond the power of man to arrive at so great a degree of knowledge." - -Some notion of the extravagance of the language employed may be obtained -from his description of a Philosophical Wine, literally, rectified -spirits of wine, or alcohol. He assures us that, on opening a vessel of -it, "a wonderful scent" should arise: "so as that no fragrancy of the -world can be compared to it; inasmuch as putting the vessel to a corner -of the house, it can by an invisible miracle draw all that pass in to -it; or, the vessel being put upon a tower, draws all birds within the -reach of its scent, so as to cause them to stand about it. Then will you -have, my son, our quintessence, which is otherwise called Vegetable -Mercury, at your will, to apply in Magistery of the transmutation of -metals." - -How ardent an adept this Alchemist was may be gathered from his -exclamation:--"May the God of Heaven put prudence in the heart of -evangelical men, for whom I compose this book, not to communicate this -venerable secret of God to the reprobates." - -Among the remarkable discoveries made by Alchemists, due to the -carefully noted and carefully examined failures and accidents, as well -as successes, of their endless combinations of matter, under the -treatment of fire and water, the most distinguished is that of -gunpowder, noted in a recipe left on record by Roger Bacon, who died in -the year 1284. He clearly names the mixture of Saltpetre with Sulphur, -but the third ingredient, Carbon, is concealed in the form of an -anagram. - -Lord Bacon, Luther, Spinoza, Leibnitz, and many eminent moderns, were -impressed with a belief in the possibility of transmuting lead, tin, -copper, or other metals, into gold; in short, as it was supposed there -were only four elements, fire, water, earth, and air, it was probably -assumed that a fifth might be found in the Philosopher's stone. - -But if ever any pursuit was more open to fraudulent practices than -another, surely the pretended possession of a transmuting powder or -elixir afforded a grand arena for their exercise. In this enlightened -age, although we cannot fail to look with charity on the arduous labours -of those adepts who honestly mixed devotional exercises with laborious -experimental operations, selecting times and seasons for their -alchemical work, and noting with accuracy the hours and days of fusions, -sublimations, distillations, lixiviations, and so forth; still, it is -scarcely possible to refrain from smiling at the docile simplicity of -Ashmole in denouncing a certain class of Alchemists, as pretended -masters and adepts, seeing "they are mere practisers of legerdemain," -while he himself gave credence to the story of the warming-pan, already -named as being shown to Queen Elizabeth, which was clearly a flagrant -piece of fraud practised by Kelly, a common adventurer, and from his -youth remarkable only for his indifferent character. - -An easily performed trick was effected by means of nails, or other -light articles, made half of gold and half iron, but disguised, so as to -appear to be of one metal and colour. Sometimes these knaves employed -crucibles, having an interior false bottom, below which a small quantity -of gold was placed, which, being reproduced, as was pretended from base -materials, was offered as an example of success. Or, by having the gold -in a hollow rod, stopped at one end with wax, used to stir up the -materials, the gold would naturally enough appear in the crucible. Or, -their materials being conveyed into charcoal, a similar result would be -obtained on heating the crucible in a furnace. At other times, by the -employment of amalgams, or solutions in acids, they could perform a -species of electro-plating on common metals. The extent to which these -nefarious practices were carried might appear incredible, considering -the evident inconsistency of the owner of the pretended golden key to -countless wealth, being in such comparative poverty as to be indebted to -any one of moderate means for pecuniary assistance. But, it is some -apology for such credulity when we call to mind the state of public -morals, of education, of political institutions, and the prevalent -superstition, not only among common people, but also the higher classes -of all countries and creeds, down to the seventeenth century: -representing a phase of the human mind, liable to be overawed by -impostors, who boldly claimed supernatural aid in abetting their -impositions. And the trickery of the designing was further aided by the -close secrecy adopted by the adepts in their processes, their -conversations, and their writings. Ashmole freely admits that--"Their -chief study was to wrap up their secrets in fables, and spin out their -fancies in 'vailes' and shadows, whose radii seem to extend every way, -yet so that all meet in a common centre, and point only to one thing." -It was this very secrecy, this continual mystery from beginning to end, -that favoured deceptions of the grossest and most bungling character, as -viewed by the light of modern chemistry. - -Alchemy no doubt tended to improve Medical science, by the introduction -of many new mineral and vegetable preparations, but the healing art -treated after the manner of the Hermetic Art, was laid open to every -description of quackery. It is not our intention, however, to enlarge on -this department, which has steadily advanced at every stage of -improvement in chemical science. - - -SQUARING THE CIRCLE. - -Of Mathematical Problems, the most perplexing to ancient and modern -mathematicians, although of late years said to be satisfactorily -demonstrated, and no longer desiderata of Geometry, are-- - -1. The Quadrature or Squaring of the Circle;--2. The Duplication, or -doubling of the Cube;--and 3. The Trisection of the Angle. - -In his "Popular Astronomy,"[11] Professor Arago, treating on the surface -of a circle, observes that,-- - -It is mathematically equal to the product of the length of the -circumference, multiplied by half the radius. To square a circle of a -given diameter in m[e']tres, is the same as giving the number of -squares, of a m[e']tre in each side, of which the surface is the -equivalent. If, the diameter being given, the exact circumference were -known by a sort of inspiration, the superficial extent of the circular -space would be deducible from the two numbers, by the mere -multiplication of the numerical length of the circumference by the -fourth of the diameter, or half the radius. But, the circumference -being deducible from the diameter only by approximation, the surface -alluded to cannot be computed with mathematical rigour; yet the result -can be obtained with all desirable precision by the aid of the ratios -usually given for such purpose; for instance, the area of the space -included within a circle of thirty-eight millions of leagues radius, may -be determined within such a degree of precision that the probable error -shall not exceed the space of a mite. - -[11] See Translation, by Admiral W. H. Smith, and Robert Grant, M.A., in -2 vols. 8vo. 1855, Vol. I., page 10. - -"The sect of squarers then," Arago adds,--"are searching after a -solution which is proved to be impossible, and which, moreover, would be -of no practical use, even if their foolish hopes were crowned with -success." - -In the "Birds" of Aristophanes, the character is introduced of a -geometer, who is going to make a square circle, showing how early this -chimerical performance became an object of ridicule. - -Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Plato, Apollonius, Ptolemy, -with other ancient mathematicians, have given methods for approximating -to the area of the circle; and many also among the moderns. In 1775, the -Paris Academy of Science determined to discourage papers devoted to this -subject, and their course in this respect was soon after adopted also -by The Royal Society, it being found that there was among certain -geometers a complete mania for settling this and similar problems, the -solution of which was either unattainable, or if attained of very -questionable value. - - -DUPLICATION OF THE CUBE. - -The Duplication of the Cube it is asserted can readily be demonstrated. -It is usually called the Delian Problem, from its having been suggested -by the oracle of Apollo at Delphos, requiring that Apollo's cubical -altar should be doubled. - -It is something in its favour to say that the enquiry has had the -attention of Newton and of Huygens. - - -TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE. - -Lastly, we shall notice among problems of this class--the Trisection of -an Angle, which it is asserted can only be accomplished by means of the -conic sections and some other curves. - -A rule for the cubic equation by which the problem of trisection is -solved has been given by Cardan. - -The difficulty only arises when we attempt the trisection of any other -than a right angle, its trisection being easily effected with a pair of -compasses. - -On this subject it has been observed that, "there is no more trouble in -trisecting an angle, not a right angle, than in finding a cube root." - - * * * * * - -These three celebrated problems have received the attention of -mathematicians in every age and country, and led to many learned -discussions, and controversial writings. But in point of litigiousness -the Squarers of the Circle most decidedly carry off the palm, having -frequently laid and lost heavy wagers, and even appeared in a Court of -Justice to settle their monetary disputes. They are renowned for their -pamphlets, in which philosophers of every class are charged with -prejudice, conceit, and ignorance, and denounced for their want of -candour and consistency in not giving audience to the projector of the -last best demonstration. - - -PERPETUUM MOBILE. - -To conclude this Lecture we shall offer a few remarks on Perpetuum -Mobile, or the search for a means of obtaining a mechanical perpetual -motion. As a mathematical problem it dates back some 2000 years or -more, but we know nothing of any actual attempt earlier than the 14th -century to construct a machine intended to be self motive, by containing -within itself the means of continually overbalancing. External motive -agency such as the tides, magnetism, and the like are not included; the -only admitted agent being gravity. - -If we considered wear and tear the question would be settled at once, -but this is allowed as the single exception, and therefore any machine -constantly renewing the means that first moved it might be deservedly -called a perpetual motion. - -Until a history of the schemes invented by numerous ingenious mechanics -was published in 1861, inventors of this class were continually though -unconsciously reproducing obsolete contrivances, from taking up the -ordinary idea that a wheel may be kept constantly over-weighted on one -side, so as to raise the next weight which is to perform the same -miracle of art. It is singular to observe this particular coincidence of -the inventive faculty of man, and it shows next to a demonstration, that -if all mechanical inventions were swept from the face of the earth they -would be reproduced in some remote age. - -A common error with those who toil at perpetual motion machinery is -their aiming to produce a bottled-up power; or to apply the principles -of the ordinary scale or balance to a wheel, overlooking the simple -facts of friction on one side acting against their most ingenious -contrivances, and of non-production on the other. Sooner or later, -however, they discover the inertia of matter, that a pound will not -raise a pound, and that they cannot invent mechanism to move -independently of the laws of action and reaction. - -A ball descending a semicircular path, as suggested by Dr. Henderson, -will only rise to the same height as that from which it fell; and will -afterwards gradually diminish in velocity until it rests at the centre. -If it would ascend to a height greater than that from which it -descended, then indeed an inclined path might return the ball to repeat -such evolutions until quite worn out. - -And as regards the weighted wheels, it is always overlooked that they -come to rest from the same fact, that the vertical line of descent and -that of ascent are equal, however much the weights may on one side -recede from the centre, while on the other side the weights are -approaching the centre. (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 1.) - -The most famous perpetual motive schemes were those of the Marquis of -Worcester made 1630-41; (_See_ Plate 6, Fig. 2,) and of Bessler, better -known as Orfyreus, between 1712-19. - -The Marquis gives a brief notice of his plan, in his "Century of -Inventions," a curious catalogue of his several ingenious schemes. - -But of Orfyreus's wheel we know nothing more than was communicated by -the eminent mathematician, 'S Gravesande, to Sir Isaac Newton, after an -external view of it, while it was rotating in a chamber of the residence -of the Prince of Hesse Cassel. - -The most singular part of this strange delusion is the fact of its -strong hold on the minds of its infatuated votaries. Once bewitched with -the idea of at last succeeding in the attainment of his grand design, -fortune, health, and reputation, are resolutely set at nought, in the -delirium of delight that follows; and more unreasonable creatures can -scarcely be found than such self-deluded individuals, for they cannot, -or will not, be convinced that their utmost efforts can at best but -produce an amazingly curious toy; and nothing can be more futile than to -expect any higher application, assuming such a discovery were possible. - -The best proof of the sincerity and earnestness of those who seek the -attainment of a mechanical perpetual motion, is afforded by the variety -and number of their patented schemes; the patentees having among them -divines, doctors, lawyers, civil engineers, carpenters, draughtsmen, -jewellers, watchmakers, shoemakers, confectioners, and all classes of -professions and trades. It is not, as is generally supposed, only the -wholly ignorant and designing who can be cajoled by these chimeras; -there is in them a spice of mystery, of wonder, of singularity, and of -simplicity combined with much subtle difficulty, which, being once fully -imbibed, acts like an opiate draught. - -We have thus reviewed summarily, chimeras which are mainly associated -with Astronomy, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Mechanics, and which have -swayed the human mind more or less from a period anterior to the -Christian era. The list of this species of deceitful systems of -pseudo-philosophy, and of profitless problems, might have been enlarged; -but what has been advanced may suffice as a warning to the uninitiated -to beware of blind guides and of visionary pursuits. Science has lost -nothing by its professors exercising that degree of caution, which all -classes of superficially learned men, affecting to possess original and -valuable views on certain matters, call _prejudice_: which, in such -cases, generally means no more than the natural aversion which the -learned have for all attempts to place specious dogmas on a level with -sound science. Such enthusiasts are generally men of no research or -depth of thought, who obtain an imperfect acquaintance with subjects -with which they are incompetent to grapple; and with whom it is, -therefore, hopeless to contend. Delusion will have its day, and will as -certainly decay, if not die out. Chimeras constantly spring up, and find -ardent professors and crowds of easily led proselytes, even up to this -very present time; so that although, undoubtedly with many--_Knowledge -is power_: yet it is to be feared that far too large a proportion of -mankind favour the delusion that--_Ignorance is bliss_. - - -EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES. - - -PLATE I.--FIGURE 1. - -_Of the Twelve Houses._--The 1st, 4th, 7th, and 10th -houses--_angular_.--These are of more durable signification than the -others, denoting the wife or husband--a situation under Government, &c. -&c. - -The twelve houses have signification of all the various concerns of -human life, and of nature at large. - -_For Example._--When the cusp of the first house is well aspected by, or -has the presence of Jupiter or Venus, and these are not afflicted by the -aspects of evil planets, they preserve life in infancy, and give health, -and often an agreeable person. - -But if their rays or presence (says Varley) should be thrown on the cusp -of the second house, then the native will have success in concerns of -property. The Sun in this house helps to disperse property; and if he be -peregrine, that is, in the sign of a contrary nature to his own, where -he has no dignities, and is without reception, then the native's -property is dispersed in vainglorious expenses; but if the Sun be in -Leo, his property in general will be ample enough to admit of instant -acts of bounty and benevolence. - -In a similar strain, Astronomers particularize the remaining eleven -houses. It would be impossible, in any reasonable space, to describe -further the operations of the planets in the several houses thus -assigned to them. - -_As to when the Planets are most powerful._--Barrett says:--The planets -are powerful when they are ruling in a house, or in exaltation, or -triplicity, or term, or face, without combustion of what is direct in -the figure of the heavens; but we must take care that they are not in -the bounds or under the dominion of Saturn or Mars. The angles of the -ascendant, and 10th and 7th are fortunate; as also the lord of the -ascendant, and place of the Sun and Moon. - -The Moon is powerful if she be in her house, in exaltation, in -triplicity, in face, or in degree convenient for the desired work, &c. -&c. - -FIGURE 2. - -VARLEY'S TABLE OF SIGNS, HOUSES, EXALTATION, AND TRIPLICITY. - -The falls of the Planets are opposite to their Exaltations, and their -Detriments opposite to their Houses. - - Aries and Scorpio are the house of Mars [Mars] - - Taurus and Libra are the house of Venus [Venus] - - Gemini and Virgo are under the dominion of Mercury [Mercury] - - Cancer is the house of the Moon [Moon] - - Leo is the house of the Sun [Sun] - - Sagittarius and Pisces are the houses of Jupiter [Jupiter] - - Capricorn is the house of Saturn [Saturn] - - And Aquarius is governed by the Herschel Planet [Uranus] - - -PLATE II. - -This table gives the usual symbols employed for indicating the several -planets, and which are still retained in Astronomy for simplicity of -expression, but which Astrologers venerate as possessing a cabalistic -character. - -Associated with these symbols are the names of certain principal angels, -spirits, or demons, forming, however, but a small proportion of such -airy nothings. - -The Astrological Symbols were also employed by the Alchemists to -indicate the seven metals then known. - - -PLATE III.--SQUARING THE CIRCLE. - -Mr. James Smith, of Liverpool, the most laborious among recent workers -in this field of enquiry, claiming to have propounded several simple and -exact methods, offers the following as sufficiently demonstrative:-- - -I construct my diagrams in the following way:--I draw two straight lines -at right angles, making O the right angle. From the point O, in the -direction OA, I mark off four equal parts together equal to OA, and from -O, in the direction of OB, I mark off three of such equal parts -together, equal to OB, and join AB. It is obvious, or rather -self-evident, that AOB is a right-angled triangle, of which the sides -that contain the right angle are in the ratio of 4 to 3, by -construction. With A as centre and AB as interval, I describe the circle -X, produce AO and BO to meet and terminate in the circumference of the -circle at the points G and C, and join AC, CG, and BG, producing the -quadrilateral ACGB. I bisect AG at F, and with O as centre, and OF as -interval, describe the circle Z. The line OF is the line that joins the -middle points of the diagonals in the quadrilateral ACGB; and it follows -that, {AG^2 + CB^2 + 4(OF^2)} = {AC^2 + CG^2 + BG^2 + AB^2.} - -When AO = 4, we get the following equation:-- - -{5^2 + 6^2 + (4 x 1'5^2)} = {5^2 + sqrt(10^2) + sqrt(10^2) + 5^2,} or, -{25 + 36 + 9} = {25 + 10 + 10 + 25} = 70. From the points B and C, I -draw straight lines at right angles to AB and AC, and therefore -tangential to the circle X, to meet AG produced at D, and join BD and -CD, producing the quadrilateral ACDB. I bisect AD at E, and with O as -centre, and EO as interval describe the circle XY, and with E as centre, -and EA or ED as interval describe the circle Y. - -Now, to square the circle, or, in other words, to get exactly equal in -superficial area to the circle X, I will show how to find it. From the -point G draw a straight line--say G _m_--perpendicular to ED, making G -_m_ equal GD. Produce GA to a point _n_, making G _n_ equal to 2AG - GD, -and join _n m_. The square on _n m_ will be the required square. (I have -indicated this square by dotted lines.) For example:--If AO = 4, then AG -= 5, and GD = 1'25; therefore {2 AG - GD} = {10 - 1'25} = 8'75 = Gn: and -Gm = 1'25; therefore, Gn^2 + Gm^2 = 3-1/8 (AB^2); that is, {8'75^2 + -1'25^2} = 3-1/8 (5^2), or, {76'5625 + 1'5625} = {3'125 x 25}; and this -equation=Area of the Circle X; and area of the square on _n m_ :: and it -follows, that the area of every circle, is equal to the area of a square -on the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which the sides that -contain the right angle are in the ratio of 7 to 1, and the sum of these -two sides equal to the diameter of the circle. In many ways I have -proved this fact, by practical or constructive geometry. - - -PLATE IV. - -_Duplication of the Cube._--In his "Young Geometrician; or, Practical -Geometry without Compasses," 1865, Mr. Oliver Byrne's 40th Problem is as -follows:-- - -Let AB be the side of a given cube BD. It is required to find AC, the -side of another cube CE, so that the solid contents of the cube CE are -double the solid contents of the cube BD. - -Ancient and modern mathematicians (says Mr. Byrne) have in vain -attempted to solve this problem geometrically, that is, by the ruler and -compasses only. - -Let AB = BG = GR = RQ = QP = QO = OR = VZ. The length of the shortest -side of the lesser set square; a line of any other given length may be -applied. Draw OP and VR parallel to it; then apply the set squares in -close contact, the edge OV of OVT passing through the point O, while the -points of V and Z of ZSV fall exactly on the lines RV, RZ. Then draw the -line ZBC, cutting FA produced in C; then the cube on AC is double the -cube on AB. - - -PLATE V. - -_Trisection of an Angle._--In his work entitled _Young Geometrician_, -1865, Mr. Oliver Byrne gives as the 39th Problem: To divide a given -angle BAC into three equal angles:-- - -The line A _m_ is made = _p q_, the least side of the lesser triangular -ruler; by (II) _p m_ is drawn parallel, and _m n_ perpendicular to AB. -Then both rulers are kept in motion, and at the same time in close -contact, as represented in the figure, until _p_ falls on the line _p -m_, and _n_ on the line _m n_; _r n_A passing through the angular point -A. - -Then the angle DAB is one-third of the angle CAB. Mr. Byrne asserts that -this problem is not capable of solution by the straight line and circle. -Mathematicians have in vain attempted to solve it geometrically, that -is, by the ruler and compasses only. - - -PLATE VI.--FIGURE 1. - -_Perpetuum Mobile._ Desaguliers demonstrated the absurdity of attempting -to raise weights enclosed in a cellular wheel, simply by providing for -their approach in succession nearer to the centre on the ascending side, -while they should be projected further from the centre on the descending -side. He remarks:-- - -Those who think the velocity of the weight is the line it describes, -expect that that weight shall be overpoised, which describes the -shortest line, and therefore contrive machines to cause the ascending -weight to describe a shorter line than the descending weight. - -For example, in the circle A B D _a_, the weights A and B being supposed -equal, it is imagined that, if by any contrivance whatever, whilst the -weight A describes the arc A _a_, the weight B is carried in any arc, as -B _b_, so as to come nearer the centre in its rising, than if it went up -the arc B D; the said weight shall be overpoised, and consequently, by a -number of such weights, a perpetual motion produced. - -Now the velocity of any weight is _not_ the line which it describes in -general, but the height that it rises up to, or falls from, with respect -to its distance from the centre of the earth. So that when the weight -describes the arc A _a_, its velocity is the line A C, which shows the -perpendicular descent, and likewise the line B C denotes the velocity of -the weight B, or the height that it rises to, when it ascends in any of -the arcs B _b_, instead of the arc B D: so that, in this case, whether -the weight B, in its ascent be brought nearer the centre or not, it -loses no velocity, which it ought to do, in order to be raised up by the -weight A. - -Indeed, if the weight at B, could by any means spring as it were, or be -lifted up to _x_, and move in the arc _x b_, the end would be answered, -because then the velocity would be diminished, and become _x_C. - - -FIGURE 2. - -In "The Life, Times, and Scientific Labours of the Marquis of -Worcester," 1865, page 454, will be found a full account of the present -diagram, which is intended to illustrate as far as possible, an approach -to the probable construction of the wheel by the Marquis in the 56th -article of his memorable "Century of Inventions." - -If any likely-looking method, could, more than another, render -hopelessness more hopeless, surely this mechanical demonstration must -prove most efficient for that purpose. For here, we actually produce a -wheel agreeing to the terms with which Desaguliers closes his -demonstration, when he suggests the only likely method to effect the end -proposed, namely, perpetual motion. We find the fallen weight is -absolutely "lifted up" as he desires, and "moves in the arc" he -describes, and yet although he declares that then "the end would be -answered"--it absolutely is _not_ answered in this instance. - -It is not requisite to calculate throughout the effect of the Marquis's -entire number of 40 weights; four will suffice, taking the vertical and -horizontal spokes _a a a a_, showing two rings _a_ and _b_; one, _b_, 12 -inches within the other, so that the wheel being, as the Marquis says, -14 feet diameter, the inner ring will be 12 feet diameter. Now let each -weight D be attached in the centre of a cord or chain _a_', D, b', 2 -feet long, and then secure one end, as _a_', so the extreme end of each -spoke _a_', and the other end of the cord, as b', to place on one lesser -ring, as at _b_, or 12 inches from each spoke. - -We shall then find by admeasurement that the upper weight on the -vertical spoke is 7 feet from the centre, and the lower weight 6 feet; -while at the same time there appears to be a preponderance due to the -superior length of the horizontal arm A'; but against this latter we -have the rising weight _b_'D, 1 foot from the centre, which, added to -the 6 feet on the horizontal spoke, neutralizes the hoped-for effect, -and the wheel remains in _statu quo_. - - -THE END. - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 1. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 2. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 3. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 4. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 5. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - -[Illustration: Plate 6. - -LONDON. E. & F. N. SPON. 48, CHARING CROSS.] - - * * * * * - - -OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. - -One Volume 8vo., of 650 pages, illustrated with Steel Engravings of two - unpublished Portraits and 45 Wood Engravings, price 24_s_, - - THE LIFE, TIMES, AND SCIENTIFIC LABOURS OF - EDWARD SOMERSET, - SIXTH EARL AND SECOND - MARQUIS OF WORCESTER, - - To which is added, - - A REPRINT OF HIS CENTURY OF INVENTIONS (1663), - WITH A COMMENTARY THEREON. - -[Asterism] Thirty copies are printed on Large Paper, 1 vol. 4to. with -INDIA PROOFS before the Letters of the Portraits, price [L]3. 3_s_. - -"A monument raised late, it is true, but not too late, to a great and -modest genius. A national biography which illustrates and elevates our -ideas of the past, and a contribution which the world will recognize to -the European history of Science." - - _Dublin University Magazine_, September, 1865. - -"A work which displays a high order of literary ability, careful -antiquarian research, much ingenuity, and withal thorough honesty of -purpose. - -"[Lord Worcester], his life, told as Mr. Dircks has told it, is one of -much interest. - -"Here we have an elaborate--although of course not a completely -exhaustive--account of his life; at any rate the most complete account -of him ever likely to be written--a work filled with abundant evidence -of the most painstaking research, a work written in a generous and -sympathising spirit, and with every attribute of conscientiousness." - - _Engineering_, 5th January, 1866. - -"The production of this volume is no common achievement; Mr. Dircks has -undertaken to write the life of a man about whom the public know very -little. - -"He has, we think, collected some curious information, and established -the claim of the Marquis to be the first constructor of a steam-engine. -The reprint of the celebrated _Century of Inventions_ adds greatly to -the interest of the volume."--_The Spectator_, 14th September, 1867. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, 8vo., price 21_s_, only 100 copies printed, - - WORCESTERIANA; - - A COLLECTION OF - - BIOGRAPHICAL AND OTHER NOTICES, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, - RELATING TO EDWARD SOMERSET, SECOND - - MARQUIS OF WORCESTER, - - AND HIS IMMEDIATE FAMILY CONNECTIONS; WITH OCCASIONAL NOTES. - -"The present volume is, as it were, a supplement. [To. Mr. Dircks's -_Life of the Marquis of Worcester_.] It contains what the French call -'pi[e']ces justificatives,' on which that biography was founded; and -such other materials connected with the history of Lord Worcester's -family and his invention of the steam-engine as will prevent, as far as -possible, a repetition of the gross errors hitherto promulgated on these -subjects." - - _Notes and Queries_, February 3, 1866. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, post 8vo., with 130 wood engravings, price 10_s_ 6_d_, - - PERPETUUM MOBILE; - - OR, - - HISTORY OF THE SEARCH FOR SELF-MOTIVE POWER - DURING THE 17TH, 18TH, AND 19TH CENTURIES, - - WITH AN INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. - -"The literature of this subject [Perpetual Motion] is very extensive, -but scattered mainly through Patent Records and ephemeral pamphlets. We -would especially refer the curious reader to a recent work by Mr. -Dircks, entitled _Perpetuum Mobile_, to which we have been indebted for -historical notices. It is extremely complete and interesting as a -history." - - _Chambers's Encyclop[ae]dia_, Part 15, 1865. - -"A very useful collection on the history of the attempts at perpetual -motion, that is, of obtaining the consequences of power without any -power to produce them."--_Professor De Morgan's_ Budget of Paradoxes, -No. 28.--_Athen[ae]um_, July 15, 1865. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, post 8vo., with portrait, price 3_s_ 6_d_, - - CONTRIBUTION TOWARDS A HISTORY OF - ELECTRO-METALLURGY, - ESTABLISHING THE ORIGIN OF THE ART. - -"In his Introduction, Mr. Dircks has clearly stated the claims of -invention, and fairly discussed the only just grounds that can give -claim to priority of invention."--_The Mining Journal_, February 7, -1863. - -"In the collection of chronological and other data for the history of -various branches and application of science, Mr. Dircks appears to be -indefatigable."--_The Electrician_, February 27. - -"It is a useful and clear digest of evidence, and apparently impartially -put together."--_The Practical Mechanics' Journal_ (_Glasgow_), July. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, post 8vo., with two portraits, price 4_s_, - - INVENTORS AND INVENTIONS, - - IN THREE PARTS. - - I. THE PHILOSOPHY OF INVENTION, considered strictly in relation to - Ingenious Contrivances tending to facilitate Scientific Operations, - to extend Manufacturing Skill, or to originate New Sources of - Industry.--II. THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INVENTORS, Legally and - Politically Examined.--III. EARLY INVENTORS' INVENTORIES OF SECRET - INVENTIONS, employed from the 13th to the 17th Century, in - substitution of Letters Patent. - -"The author enters fully and effectually into the claims and grievances -of the inventor. He discusses the arguments for and against the concession -of patent right, and examines very ably leaders in the _Times_ on patent -monopoly; very clearly dissipating the sophism of the opponents of patent -right; also Sir William Armstrong's evidence regarding 'patent monopoly,' -&c., affording an interesting and useful publication from its many -excellences."--_The Scientific Review_, September 2, 1867. - -"The second part of the volume discusses the right of inventors to a -property in their inventions, and thus raises the question of the patent -laws, and the twofold issue, whether it will be better to retain them -and reform them, or to sweep them away altogether. We are bound to admit -that he treats this topic in a fair spirit, and without any taint of -bigotry. Mr. Dircks is a man whose opinions are entitled to a hearing." - - _The London Review_, September 21. - -"Mr. Dircks treats the real problem and discusses the comparative merits -of the existing system, and the advantages which he, together with many -others, hopes would follow on the establishment of some judicial council -of inventions. The difficulties of the question are enormous, and no one -will think the less of them after having gone through this volume. - -"The third part, or the lists of their inventions left by many great and -some ingenious persons, is interesting and curious." - - _The Westminster Review_, October. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, post 8vo., price 3_s_ 6_d_, - - A BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF - SAMUEL HARTLIB, - MILTON'S FAMILIAR FRIEND, - - With Bibliographical Notices of Works published by him; and a reprint - of his Pamphlet entitled - - "AN INVENTION OF ENGINES OF MOTION." - -"Mr. Dircks's is the first careful attempt to make posterity his -(Hartlib's) friend."--_The Examiner_, 18th February, 1865. - -"A scholar-like little monograph, giving all the information that can be -given about a man whose name occurs in the correspondence of almost -every eminent literary or scientific person of the time of the -Commonwealth."--_The Spectator_, 20th May. - - * * * * * - - One Volume, post 8vo., with engravings, price 2_s_, - - THE GHOST! - - AS PRODUCED IN THE SPECTRE DRAMA, - - POPULARLY ILLUSTRATING THE MARVELLOUS OPTICAL ILLUSIONS - OBTAINED BY THE APPARATUS CALLED THE DIRCKSIAN - PHANTASMAGORIA. - -"Mr. Dircks gives us the benefit of all his progressive discoveries in -the matter, from the paper first read at the British Association Meeting -at Leeds, in 1858, to the more recent improvements, with full -explanations of the machinery, apparatus, and processes adopted in these -ghost dramas, and further favours the public with a number of new -adaptations. As a curious description of these spectral illustrations, -the book is most interesting."--_The Technologist_, January, 1864. - -"A volume explanatory of the uncommonly clever and scientific "spectral -illusion" which has of late fairly turned the public head." - - _The Dublin Builder_, January 1. - -"A few months ago all London was rushing off to see Professor Pepper's -Ghost, as it was called, but which it now appears was the property of -Mr. Dircks, and from which his good name was filched in a very -unhandsome manner. Here then he tells us all about it, how the spectre -was raised, and how we may ourselves at pleasure call spirits from the -vasty deep."--_The Bookseller_, February 29. - - * * * * * - - -Transcriber's Notes - -Page 36: changed "Sorbiere" to "Sorbi[e']re" (15. Samuel Sorbi[e']re -visited the works at Vauxhall) - -Page 61: changed "Jupiper" to "Jupiter" (of cloves, &c. to Jupiter;) - -Page 83: changed "BD^2" to "BG^2" ({AG^2 + CB^2 + 4(OF^2)} = {AC^2 + -CG^2 + BG^2 + AB^2.}) - -Page 83: changed "sqrt(10^2 5^2)" to "sqrt(10^2) + 5^2" ( ... = {5^2 + -sqrt(10^2) + sqrt(10^2) + 5^2,}) - -Page 84: changed closing parenthesis to closing braces ( ... 9} = {25 + -10 + 10 + 25} = 70) - -Page 84: changed "tangental" to "tangential" (tangential to the circle -X) - -Page 84: changed "Q" to "2" (making G _n_ equal to 2AG - GD) - -Page 84: added missing opening parenthesis in "(I have indicated this -square by dotted lines.)" - -Page 84: changed "+ 1'25}" to "x 25" ({76'5625 + 1'5625} = {3'125 x 25}) - -Page 84: changed "hypothenuse" to "hypotenuse" (the area of a square on -the hypotenuse) - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific Studies, by Henry Dircks - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC STUDIES *** - -***** This file should be named 43841.txt or 43841.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/8/4/43841/ - -Produced by Simon Gardner, Chris Curnow and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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