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diff --git a/43826-h/43826-h.htm b/43826-h/43826-h.htm index c51661a..a4b7a01 100644 --- a/43826-h/43826-h.htm +++ b/43826-h/43826-h.htm @@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> <html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=UTF-8" /> <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg's eBook of The Story of the Hills, by H. N. Hutchinson. @@ -242,46 +242,7 @@ hr.c30 </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Story of the Hills, by H. N. Hutchinson - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Story of the Hills - A Book About Mountains for General Readers. - -Author: H. N. Hutchinson - -Release Date: September 27, 2013 [EBook #43826] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STORY OF THE HILLS *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43826 ***</div> <div class="transnote"> <p>Transcriber's note:<br /> @@ -439,7 +400,7 @@ to the writings of Sir A. Geikie; Professor Bonney, Professor Green, and Professor Shaler, of Harvard University; the volumes of the "Alpine Journal;" "The Earth," by Reclus; -the "Encyclopædia Britannica." Canon Isaac +the "Encyclopædia Britannica." Canon Isaac Taylor's "Words and Places," have also been made use of; and if in every case the reference is not given, the writer hopes the omission will @@ -1011,7 +972,7 @@ so much light on the ages before history was written, tell us that the Picts were so called from their fighting qualities, and that the word "Pict" is derived from the Gaelic "peicta," a -fighting man. And Julius Cæsar says the chief +fighting man. And Julius Cæsar says the chief god of the Britons was the god of war.</p> <p>In some countries—as, for instance, Greece, @@ -1097,7 +1058,7 @@ by night the occasional visits of his friends, and sometimes by day, when the soldiers had begun to slacken the vigour of their pursuit. Upwards of one thousand persons were privy to his concealment, and a -reward of £1,000 was offered to any one who should +reward of £1,000 was offered to any one who should give information against him.... But although the soldiers were animated by the hope of reward, and their officers by promise of promotion for the apprehension @@ -1240,7 +1201,7 @@ Normandy itself is, to all intents and purposes, a hill country.... We have thus one branch of the Northern religious imagination rising among the Scandinavian fiords, tempered in France by various -encounters with elements of Arabian, Italian, Provençal, +encounters with elements of Arabian, Italian, Provençal, or other Southern poetry, and then reacting upon Southern England; while other forms of the same rude religious imagination, resting like clouds @@ -1259,14 +1220,14 @@ the following, as related by Professor Bonney.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_ The wild huntsman's yell is still heard in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span> many places by the shuddering peasants as -his phantom train sweeps by the châlet. +his phantom train sweeps by the châlet. There is also the wild goat-herd, a wicked lad, who crucified an old he-goat and drove his flock to worship it; lightning consumed him; and now he wanders forever over the Alps, miserably wailing.</p> -<p>When the glacier of Gétroz burst, the Archfiend +<p>When the glacier of Gétroz burst, the Archfiend himself was seen swimming down the Rhone, with a drawn sword in one hand and a golden ball in the other; when opposite to @@ -1300,7 +1261,7 @@ the same time he grew proud and haughty, and spurned both the laws of Nature and the commandments of God. He was so foolishly fond of his mistress that he paved the way from the -châlet to the byre with cheeses, lest she should +châlet to the byre with cheeses, lest she should soil her feet, and cared so little for his mother that when she lay at his door fainting with hunger, he offered her only milk to drink in @@ -2136,7 +2097,7 @@ extremely valuable, and help to make an industrious race rich; but the land is the main thing, after all, and by land we mean soil. The two words are almost synonymous. But since the -soil is formed chiefly of débris brought from the +soil is formed chiefly of débris brought from the mountains, it would be more true to say that these are the real sources of wealth. Soils contain besides a large amount of valuable organic @@ -2527,7 +2488,7 @@ roads and railways, but they cannot thus aid their powers of locomotion; hence mountains put limits to their migrations. Still, climate and food supplies have a greater influence in determining -the boundaries of zoölogical provinces +the boundaries of zoölogical provinces (see chapter <a href="#Page_103">iv.</a>).</p> <p><em>Mountains are the backbones of continents.</em> A @@ -2924,7 +2885,7 @@ memorable bursting of the Holmfirth reservoir. Hardly a year passes without considerable damage being done: bridges are swept away; roads are buried under torrents of mud, and fields -overwhelmed with débris. In August of the +overwhelmed with débris. In August of the year 1860 a severe storm was witnessed by visitors staying at Zermatt. It began with a thunder-storm; and rain fell for about thirty-six @@ -2959,7 +2920,7 @@ streets and almost buried them under mud and gravel. Such a sight as this gives one a powerful impression of the geological work of streams when greatly swollen; for all this -débris must have been brought down from +débris must have been brought down from <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span> the surrounding mountains. Many lives were lost by this calamity, and a great deal of property @@ -2998,7 +2959,7 @@ speaking of such a gale which he experienced in seemed to blow not round, but through me, freezing my very marrow, and making my teeth chatter like castanets; and if I stopped for a moment, I shook -as if in an ague-fit. It whisked up the small spiculæ of +as if in an ague-fit. It whisked up the small spiculæ of frozen snow, and dashed them against my face with such violence that it was hardly possible to look to windward. Thin sheets of ice as large as my hand @@ -3017,7 +2978,7 @@ a few hundred feet lower down there is comparative calm.</p> <p>The chief of the prevailing winds in the Alps -is the Föhn. This is a hot blast from the +is the Föhn. This is a hot blast from the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span> south which probably comes from the African deserts. On its approach the air becomes @@ -3030,7 +2991,7 @@ In some villages, it is said, all the fires are extinguished when this wind begins to blow, for fear lest some chance spark should fall on the dry wooden roofs and set the whole place -in a blaze. Still the Föhn is not altogether +in a blaze. Still the Föhn is not altogether an "ill wind that blows nobody any good," for under its warm touch the winter snows melt away with marvellous rapidity. In the @@ -3039,7 +3000,7 @@ two feet thick to disappear in about a couple of hours, and produces in twenty-four hours a greater effect than the sun does in fifteen days. There is a Swiss proverb which rather profanely -says: "If the Föhn does not blow, the +says: "If the Föhn does not blow, the golden sun and the good God can do nothing with the snow."</p> @@ -3232,7 +3193,7 @@ hundred soldiers over a cliff, and they all escaped without serious injury.</p> <p>The army of General Macdonald, in his -celebrated passage of the Splügen in December, +celebrated passage of the Splügen in December, 1800, suffered severely from these dust-avalanches. A troupe of horse was completely cut through while on the march; and thirty @@ -3284,7 +3245,7 @@ scourge the avalanche can be in villages which in summer-time appear such calm and happy <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span> scenes of pastoral life. M. Joanne, in the introduction -to his valuable "Itinéraire de la +to his valuable "Itinéraire de la Suisse"<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> gives a list of twelve of the most destructive avalanches that have fallen in Switzerland. In old days they seem to have @@ -3374,7 +3335,7 @@ where pastures once grew, or the peasant ploughed his acres in peace. The stream flowing down the valley is obstructed in its course, and changed into a muddy lake; the rampart of -rocks from which some débris still comes crumbling +rocks from which some débris still comes crumbling down has lost its old form; the sharpened edges point out the denuded cliff from which a large part of the mountain has broken away. In @@ -3398,7 +3359,7 @@ had no time to escape.</p> is said, on the banks of Lake Geneva, at the base of one of the spurs of the Dent d'Oche, was completely crushed in <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 563 by a downfall -of rocks. The sloping heap of débris thus +of rocks. The sloping heap of débris thus formed may still be seen advancing like a headland into the waters of the lake. A terrible flood-wave, produced by the deluge of stones, @@ -3452,24 +3413,24 @@ some imprisoned spirit were struggling to release himself, like Typhœus from under Etna; then a vast fragment of the upper part of the mountain broke suddenly away and thundered down the precipices into -the valley beneath. In a few minutes fifty-five châlets, +the valley beneath. In a few minutes fifty-five châlets, with sixteen men and many head of cattle, were buried for ever under the ruins. One remarkable escape has indeed been recorded, perhaps the most marvellous ever known. A solitary herdsman from the village of -Avent occupied one of the châlets which were buried +Avent occupied one of the châlets which were buried <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span> under the fallen mass. Not a trace of it remained; his friends in the valley below returned from their unsuccessful search, and mourned him as dead. He was, however, still among the living; a huge rock had fallen in such a manner as to protect the roof of his -châlet, which, as is often the case, rested against a +châlet, which, as is often the case, rested against a cliff. Above this, stones and earth had accumulated, and the man was buried alive. Death would soon have released him from his imprisonment, had not a little -rill of water forced its way through the débris and -trickled into the châlet. Supported by this and by his +rill of water forced its way through the débris and +trickled into the châlet. Supported by this and by his store of cheese, he lived three months, labouring all the while incessantly to escape. Shortly before Christmas he succeeded, after almost incredible toil, @@ -3502,7 +3463,7 @@ long and 350 yards wide and 33 yards thick. In five minutes one of the most fertile valleys in Switzerland was changed to a stony desert. Three whole villages, six churches, 120 houses, -200 stables or châlets, 225 head of cattle, and +200 stables or châlets, 225 head of cattle, and much land were buried under the ruins of the Rossberg; 484 persons lost their lives. Some remarkable escapes are recorded.</p> @@ -3700,14 +3661,14 @@ of the same lake, but in positions exposed to the cold winds from the Alps, plants of the Alpine region grow freely, and no delicate perennials can survive the winter. The olive has been -known to resist a temperature of about 16° F. -(or 16° below the freezing point of water), but is +known to resist a temperature of about 16° F. +(or 16° below the freezing point of water), but is generally destroyed by a less degree of cold. It can only be successfully cultivated where the winter frosts are neither long nor severe, where <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span> the mean temperature of winter does not fall -below 42° F., and a heat of 75° F. during the +below 42° F., and a heat of 75° F. during the day is continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn.</p> @@ -3847,7 +3808,7 @@ during the winter (as they are in the Scotch Highlands, where the cowsheds are called <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span> "byres"), are led up to the lower pastures. The -lower châlets, occupied in May and part of June, +lower châlets, occupied in May and part of June, generally stand at about the upper limit of the mountain region. Towards the middle or end of June the cattle are moved up to the chief pastures, @@ -3874,7 +3835,7 @@ feet higher on the south slopes of the Alps, which get more sunshine. It is used to some extent for pasture; and in Piedmont it is not <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span> -uncommon to find châlets at the height of +uncommon to find châlets at the height of 8,500 feet, and vegetation often extends freely up to 9,500 feet. Here and there, at levels below this zone, many Alpine species may be @@ -4111,7 +4072,7 @@ Grampian Mountains are the chief centre of the Scottish arctic-Alpine flora. The two principal localities for such flowers in that range are the Breadalbane Mountains in Perthshire, -and the Cænlochan and Clova Mountains of +and the Cænlochan and Clova Mountains of Forfarshire. There are also a goodly number on the mountains of the Braemar district.</p> @@ -4217,7 +4178,7 @@ beings. The brown bear is much more formidable, prowling by night about the sheepfolds, and causing the sheep by their fright to fall down precipices. Goats, when alarmed, leap on -the roofs of the châlets, and bleat, in order to +the roofs of the châlets, and bleat, in order to arouse the shepherds; so that when Bruin rears himself up against the wall he often meets his death. There are many stories on record of @@ -4252,7 +4213,7 @@ the wolf, the mountain fox eats whatever he can catch, even beetles, flies, and bees. Those in the valleys live more luxuriously than their relations on the mountains,—plundering bee-hives -and robbing orchards. As it was in Judæa in +and robbing orchards. As it was in Judæa in the days of Solomon, so it is now in Switzerland <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span> among the vineyards; and a peasant might well @@ -4434,7 +4395,7 @@ true Alpine quadruped.</p> <p>Passing on to the birds which frequent the Alps, we must first notice the bearded vulture, -the lämmergeier of the Germans, which once +the lämmergeier of the Germans, which once was common, but now only holds its own here and there in some lonely mountain fastness. Although preferring living prey to carrion, @@ -4470,7 +4431,7 @@ Oberland, as follows: Two peasants, making hay upon the pastures, had taken with them their daughter Anna, a child about three years old. She quickly fell asleep on the turf near -the hay châlet; so the father put his broad-brimmed +the hay châlet; so the father put his broad-brimmed hat over her face, and went to work some little way off. On his return with a load of hay the child was gone; and a brief search @@ -4478,7 +4439,7 @@ showed that she was nowhere near. Just at this time a peasant walking along a rough path in the glen was startled by the cry of a child, and going towards the place whence it came, saw a -lämmergeier rise from a neighbouring summit and +lämmergeier rise from a neighbouring summit and hover for some time over a precipice. On climbing thither in all haste, he found the child lying on the very brink. She was but little injured; @@ -4895,7 +4856,7 @@ of Wight, and then it may be traced running up the country in a long band through the counties of Oxford, Cambridge, Lincoln, until it reaches the coast at Flamborough Head in -Yorkshire. Then we have the Bath Oölites +Yorkshire. Then we have the Bath Oölites so much used in building, for they form an admirable "freestone" that can be easily carved and cut in any direction (hence the @@ -4930,7 +4891,7 @@ the surface of the land and swept into the ocean (or in some cases into inland seas and lakes) by streams and rivers, which are the great transporting agents of the world. Hence -such deposits of débris, supplied by the constant +such deposits of débris, supplied by the constant wear and tear of all rocks exposed to the atmosphere, are truly sedimentary and have a purely mechanical origin. But it is @@ -5214,7 +5175,7 @@ there is no possible doubt whatever. So for the time being we may call ourselves Neptunists.</p> <p>Streams and rivers are the great transporting -agents whereby the never-failing supply of débris +agents whereby the never-failing supply of débris from the waste of the land is unceasingly brought down from the mountains and hills, through the broad valleys and along the great @@ -5291,7 +5252,7 @@ large pieces of stone go in at one end, and only fine sand and mud come out at the other.</p> -<p>The amount of land débris thus transported +<p>The amount of land débris thus transported depends partly on the carrying power of rivers, which varies with the seasons and the annual rainfall; partly on the size of the area drained @@ -5489,7 +5450,7 @@ they existed in great abundance, and so played an important part as rock-formers,—for their stems, branches, and all are made of little plates of carbonate of lime, beautifully fitting together -like the separate bones, or vertebræ, composing +like the separate bones, or vertebræ, composing the backbone of a fish; and when the creatures died, these little plates no longer held together, but were scattered on the floor of the sea-bed. @@ -5761,7 +5722,7 @@ Celsius, after comparing all the evidence he had collected, announced that the Baltic had sunk three feet, four inches, every hundred years. In the course of the following year, in company -with Linnæus, the naturalist, he made a mark at +with Linnæus, the naturalist, he made a mark at the base of a rock in the island of Leoffgrund, not far from Jelfe, and thirteen years afterwards was able to prove, as he thought, that @@ -5894,7 +5855,7 @@ the quays of which are still visible, is now situated at some distance from the sea, and the ground on which it stands has risen at least twenty-four feet. In other places the scattered -débris shows that the coast has risen twenty-six +débris shows that the coast has risen twenty-six feet. And by a remarkable coincidence, the ancient wall of Antoninus, which in the time of the Romans stretched from sea to sea, @@ -6270,7 +6231,7 @@ quarter of a mile.</p> <p>Earthquakes bring about many changes on the surface of the earth. For example, on mountain-slopes forests are shattered, and -large masses of soil and débris are shaken +large masses of soil and débris are shaken loose from the rock on which they rested, and hurled into the valleys; streams are thus choked up, and sometimes lakes formed, either @@ -6570,7 +6531,7 @@ and contracting. Now she splits them with her ice-wedges; now she furrows their sides with the dashing torrents and running streams; and yet again she wears them gently down with -her glaciers, and carries away their débris—the +her glaciers, and carries away their débris—the token of her triumph—on those icy streams, as conquering armies carry the spoils in procession.</p> @@ -6812,7 +6773,7 @@ the little torrents at work as they run down the mountain-side, here and there dashing over the rocks in little cascades, and bringing down to the base of the hill much of the -débris that forms higher up. In this way +débris that forms higher up. In this way <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span> Nature gives us an "object lesson," and seems to say: "Watch me at work here, and learn @@ -6847,7 +6808,7 @@ on each side; and we may often find the road furrowed by little miniature rivers, that carve out for themselves tiny valleys as they run off into the gutter, bringing with them -much débris in the form of mud and sand.</p> +much débris in the form of mud and sand.</p> <p>Sometimes a stream encounters in its course a layer of rock that is harder than the rock underlying @@ -6948,7 +6909,7 @@ resisting denudation.</p> <p>Very effective illustrations of the power of rain by itself are afforded by the "earth -pillars" of the Tyrol, and "cañons" of Colorado. +pillars" of the Tyrol, and "cañons" of Colorado. The material of which they consist is called conglomerate, because it is composed of stones and large blocks of rock with @@ -6981,17 +6942,17 @@ composed.</p> <p>The river Colorado of the West, which runs from the Rocky Mountains to the Gulf of California, flows for nearly three hundred miles -at the bottom of a profound chasm, or cañon, +at the bottom of a profound chasm, or cañon, being hemmed in by vertical walls which in some places are more than a mile in depth. The tributary streams flowing into the river <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span> run through smaller ravines forming side -cañons; and there is no doubt that these wonderful +cañons; and there is no doubt that these wonderful chasms have been, in the course of ages, slowly carved out by the river Colorado and its numerous tributary streams. Sometimes -the walls of the cañon are not more +the walls of the cañon are not more than fifty yards apart, and in height they vary from three thousand to six thousand feet.</p> @@ -6999,7 +6960,7 @@ from three thousand to six thousand feet.</p> patches of gravel are found here and there on the sides, which must have been left there by the river when it had not cut its way so -far down. These cañons afford striking testimony +far down. These cañons afford striking testimony to the erosive power of running water, of which they are the most wonderful illustration in the world.</p> @@ -7040,7 +7001,7 @@ channels.</p> <p>Let us see how they do this twofold work of transportation and erosion. In the first place, a -large amount of débris falls onto the sides of a +large amount of débris falls onto the sides of a glacier from the peaks, precipices, and mountain-side along which it flows. Some stones, however, fall down crevasses, and so reach the bottom, @@ -7111,14 +7072,14 @@ and angles of projecting pieces of rock have been worn away until the once rugged outline has become wavy and round, so much so as to produce more or less resemblance to the backs of -sheep lying down. Hence the name <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i>, +sheep lying down. Hence the name <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i>, by which rocks of this shape are known. They frequently retain on their surface peculiar markings, such as long scratches and grooves which must have been made as the old glacier, with its embedded angular fragments of rock, slowly ground over their surfaces. Such markings -are called "striæ." But besides these glacial +are called "striæ." But besides these glacial records graven on the rocks, we have other evidence, in the form of great moraines in some of the valleys of Switzerland, and especially at @@ -7171,7 +7132,7 @@ far and wide over the plains. Now, the evidence for the former existence of these glaciers is of the same kind as that which we have just described. In Wales and Scotland we may soon -learn to recognise the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i>, the old +learn to recognise the <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i>, the old moraine heaps, and the erratic boulders brought down by these old glaciers. Besides these proofs, there is also the evidence of the arctic plants now @@ -7229,7 +7190,7 @@ past.</p> amount of solid matter brought down to the sea every year by rivers (see chap. v., pp. <a href="#Page_166">166</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>), and we pointed out that all this represents -so much débris swept off the land through +so much débris swept off the land through which the rivers flow; also that it comes down in three ways, one part being suspended in the water as fine mud, another part being @@ -7297,7 +7258,7 @@ is brought down dissolved in the water, which may be neglected in order to prevent any exaggeration.</p> -<p>Now, it is quite clear that all this débris must +<p>Now, it is quite clear that all this débris must have come from the immense area that is drained by the Mississippi. It could not have been supplied by any rivers except those that are its tributaries. @@ -7517,7 +7478,7 @@ their shadow."<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class=" <div class="line">Trinacia echoes to the sound</div> <div class="line">Through all its length, while clouds of smoke</div> <div class="line">The living soul of ether choke.</div> -<div class="line i14"><span class="smcap">Virgil</span>: <cite>Æneid iii.</cite></div> +<div class="line i14"><span class="smcap">Virgil</span>: <cite>Æneid iii.</cite></div> </div></div></div> <p>In some parts of the world we meet with mountains @@ -7896,7 +7857,7 @@ many miles over the surrounding country. Hence lava-streams are important geological agents. Let us look at some famous instances. The most stupendous flow on record was that -which took place from Skaptar Jökull in +which took place from Skaptar Jökull in Iceland, in the year 1783. In this case a number of streams issued from the volcano, flooding the country far and wide, filling up @@ -8046,7 +8007,7 @@ of rock in falling down meet others that are being hurled into the air. Striking instances of this have occurred not far from Great Britain. Thus in the year 1783, during an -eruption of Skaptar Jökull, so great was the +eruption of Skaptar Jökull, so great was the amount of dust thus created that the atmosphere in Iceland was loaded with it for several months. Carried by winds, it even @@ -8245,7 +8206,7 @@ for a long time as Vesuvius. Its history illustrates the phases we have just mentioned. The first recorded eruption is that of <span class="smcap">A. D.</span> 79, a very severe one of the violent type, by which Herculaneum, -Pompeii, and Stabiæ were buried. +Pompeii, and Stabiæ were buried. We have an interesting account by the younger Pliny. Before this great eruption took place, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span> @@ -8399,7 +8360,7 @@ volcanic rock was derived. But more than this, in a few instances we have the site of the old volcano itself marked out by a kind of pipe, or "neck," now filled with some of its volcanic -débris in the shape of coarse, rounded fragments +débris in the shape of coarse, rounded fragments (see page <a href="#Page_277">277</a>).</p> <p>During a very ancient period, known to geologists @@ -8518,7 +8479,7 @@ minerals are plentiful.</p> close to Edinburgh, marks the site of an old volcano. The "neck," or central opening, may be seen at the top of the hill, but choked up -with volcanic rocks and débris. The crater has +with volcanic rocks and débris. The crater has long since disappeared, but Salisbury Craigs and St. Leonard's Craigs are formed of a great sheet of basalt that intruded itself among the @@ -8535,7 +8496,7 @@ covering hundreds of square miles. Of these the most important is that which occupies a large part of the northeast of Ireland, and extends in patches through the Inner Hebrides and -the Faröe Islands into Iceland. These eruptive +the Faröe Islands into Iceland. These eruptive rocks, unlike those above referred to, must have poured out at the surface, and have taken the form of successive sheets, such as we now see in @@ -9735,7 +9696,7 @@ that the modern city is built up on the remains of thirteen former cities of Jerusalem, all of which have been destroyed in one way or another. Here, again, it is quite clear that the -oldest layer of débris must be that which lies at +oldest layer of débris must be that which lies at the bottom, and the newest will be the one on the top.</p> @@ -9752,12 +9713,12 @@ prevailed at different periods, the works of art or industry embedded in any old layers of soil serve to fix the date of those layers.</p> -<p>These layers of soil and débris correspond to +<p>These layers of soil and débris correspond to the layers or strata of the sedimentary rocks, in which the different chapters of the world's history are recorded. Geology is only another kind of history; and the same principles which guide -the archæologist searching buried cities also +the archæologist searching buried cities also guide the geologist in reading the stony record. As the illustrious Hutton said, "The ruins of an older world are visible in the present state of @@ -9908,7 +9869,7 @@ in descending order:—</p> </tr> <tr> <td class="tdc"> - Palæozoic,<br /> + Palæozoic,<br /> or<br /> Primary.</td> <td class="cbrace3">{</td> @@ -9918,7 +9879,7 @@ in descending order:—</p> Old Red Sandstone.<br /> Silurian.<br /> Cambrian.<br /> - Archæan,<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a><br /> + Archæan,<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a><br /> or<br /> Pew-Cambrian.</td> <td>Fishes.<br /> @@ -9945,7 +9906,7 @@ Welsh tribe; the Cambrian rocks take theirs from Cambria, the old name for North Wales. The Cretaceous rocks are partly composed of chalk, for which the Latin word is <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">creta</i>; and -so on. The terms "Palæozoic," "Mesozoic," +so on. The terms "Palæozoic," "Mesozoic," and "Cainozoic" mean "ancient life," "middle life," and "recent or new life," thus indicating that as time went on the various types of life @@ -9957,13 +9918,13 @@ the terms were unfortunate, because the primary rocks, as then known, were not the first, or oldest. We have therefore included the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span> -Archæan rocks, since discovered, in this +Archæan rocks, since discovered, in this primary group. Only one fossil has been found in these rocks, and that is a doubtful one; hence they are sometimes called "Azoic," that is, "without life." The Mesozoic rocks are, as it were, the records of the "middle ages" in -the world's history; while the Palæozoic take +the world's history; while the Palæozoic take us back to a truly primeval time.</p> <p>We have now learned how the geological @@ -10080,13 +10041,13 @@ the centre of this great range we find a series of igneous and metamorphic rocks, such as granite, gneiss, and crystalline schists. Some of these may belong to the very oldest period,—namely, -the Archæan; others are probably Palæozoic and +the Archæan; others are probably Palæozoic and Cainozoic deposits greatly altered by heat and pressure.</p> <p>The ground from Savoy to Austria began to be an area of disturbance and upheaval towards -the close of the Palæozoic Era, if not before; so +the close of the Palæozoic Era, if not before; so that crystalline schists and Carboniferous strata were raised up to form elevated land around which Permian conglomerates and shingle-beds @@ -10097,7 +10058,7 @@ day.</p> local fractures and certain up and down movements occurred. After this there was a long period of subsidence, during which a series of -strata known as Oölites and Cretaceous were +strata known as Oölites and Cretaceous were deposited on the floor of an old sea.</p> <p>Towards the close of this long era, a fresh @@ -10199,7 +10160,7 @@ States was so slow and gradual that the Green River, which flowed across the site of the range, so far from being turned aside as they rose up, has actually been able to deepen its -cañon as fast as the mountains were upheaved. +cañon as fast as the mountains were upheaved. So that the two processes, as it were, kept pace with each other, and the river went on cutting out its gorges at the same time that the ground @@ -10719,7 +10680,7 @@ years are as one day.</p> <li>Aqueous rocks, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li> -<li>Archæan Era, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> +<li>Archæan Era, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> <li>Arctic flora, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li> @@ -10795,7 +10756,7 @@ Bear, brown, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> <li>Canisp Mountain, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li> -<li>Cañons of Colorado, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> +<li>Cañons of Colorado, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li> <li>Carbonic acid in atmosphere, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> @@ -10904,7 +10865,7 @@ Equador and Peru, earthquake of, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> <li>Fissures, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> -<li>Föhn, the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> +<li>Föhn, the, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> <li>Foraminifera, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li> @@ -11121,7 +11082,7 @@ Mendip Hills, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li> <li> </li> <li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span> -Palæozoic Era, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> +Palæozoic Era, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> <li>Permian rocks, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> @@ -11159,7 +11120,7 @@ Palæozoic Era, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</li> <li>Rivers, transporting power of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>-<a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li> -<li>Roches Moutonnées, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> +<li>Roches Moutonnées, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> <li>"Rocking Stones," <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> @@ -11201,7 +11162,7 @@ Silurian Period, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> <li>Shearing of rocks in mountains, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> -<li>Skaptar Jökull, lava-flow from, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> +<li>Skaptar Jökull, lava-flow from, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> <li>Smith, William, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li> @@ -11225,7 +11186,7 @@ Silurian Period, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> <li>Stratified rocks, table of, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.<br /> how formed, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li> -<li>Striæ, glacial, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> +<li>Striæ, glacial, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li> <li>Submerged forests, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> @@ -11394,8 +11355,8 @@ Bible was written, by the sight of some crater in active eruption.</p> <p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> For a fuller account see the writer's "Autobiography of the Earth."</p> -<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The Archæan rocks are frequently placed in a separate group -below the Palæozoic.</p> +<p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The Archæan rocks are frequently placed in a separate group +below the Palæozoic.</p> </div></div> @@ -11411,382 +11372,6 @@ original "Illustrations" section. 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