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diff --git a/43799-0.txt b/43799-0.txt index 2f65ed1..209ca28 100644 --- a/43799-0.txt +++ b/43799-0.txt @@ -1,37 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Gunnery in 1858, by William Greener - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Gunnery in 1858 - Being a Treatise on Rifles, Cannon, and Sporting Arms - -Author: William Greener - -Release Date: September 23, 2013 [EBook #43799] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - -In this e-text, the following transcriptions are used: subscript x is -represented as _{x}, italics are represented _between underscores_, bold -face text is represented =between equals symbols=, and small capitals -have been changed to ALL CAPITALS. [***] represents an inverse asterism, -[oe] represents the oe-ligature. - -More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of the text. - - - - -[Illustration: _PLATE. 1._ - -ANGULARLY LAMINATED STEEL BARRELED GUN - -LAMINATED STEEL BARRELED GUN] - - - - - GUNNERY IN 1858: - BEING A TREATISE ON - RIFLES, CANNON, AND SPORTING ARMS; - EXPLAINING THE - PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY, - AND DESCRIBING THE - NEWEST IMPROVEMENTS IN FIRE-ARMS. - - BY WILLIAM GREENER, C.E., - INVENTOR OF THE EXPANSIVE PRINCIPLE AS APPLIED IN THE MINIE AND - ENFIELD RIFLES, AND AUTHOR OF "THE GUN," ETC. ETC. - - _WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - LONDON: - SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 56, CORNHILL. - 1858. - - (_The Right of Translation is reserved._) - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The urgent need for practical information on the important subject of -Gunnery is evinced by the numerous patents taken out during the last few -years, most of which have fallen still-born, through deficient practical -science on the part of the inventors. My aim in producing this book has -been to point out the errors into which many ingenious inventors have -fallen, and to show how similar failures may be avoided in future, by -indicating the only right road to improvement in Gunnery,--the strict -observance of scientific principles in every old process and in all new -inventions: for it is to the ignorance or neglect of the principles of -the science that failures in Gunnery are due. - -The necessity for progress in the science of Gunnery is now rendered -more than ever imperative on our Government by the prodigious energy and -activity of foreign Governments in providing armaments for land and sea -service, the efficiency of which is ensured by adopting all the newest -improvements in fire-arms. But the obstinate reluctance which all our -previous Governments have shown to enter upon the, to them unwelcome, -duty of investigating and experimenting on warlike inventions, -necessitates strong "pressure from without;" for it may be truly said -that all great improvements in Gunnery in England have been forced upon -the authorities by absolute necessity, and it is still a question -whether we shall profit by our recent experiences, or, as before, allow -war to find us unprepared. We have, doubtless, armaments of gigantic -proportions, and mammoth vessels of war, capable of discharging an -ordinary ship's cargo of shot and shell at a broadside; yet while -millions have been thus expended, the _improvement of the Gun_, without -which they would be mere masses of wood, and targets for more skilful -opponents, has been neglected. - -The GUN and its PROJECTILE will decide the victory in future fights. -Indeed, we are even now waging war with our neighbours,--not on the -battle-field or the ocean wave, but in the foundry; engineers being our -generals, and founders our admirals. The present able ruler of France is -actively at work, while we are but looking on: he is casting cannon the -like of which have never been seen, while we are spending thousands in -experimenting on cast-iron and foundries; and by the time our officials -have discovered the best cast-iron for heavy guns, the French batteries -on sea and land will be bristling with RIFLED STEEL CANNON of tremendous -range and endless endurance. - -Woe betide this country if at the commencement of a war we should find -ourselves just where we are. - -The Emperor Napoleon, as is well known, is well versed, theoretically -and practically, in everything relating to Gunnery. Keenly alive to the -minutest points of progress he receives, investigates, and immediately -adopts all inventions of value; having the ability to perceive, the -sagacity to appreciate, and the liberality to reward merit wherever it -is shown. - -Compare his system with ours, where men are placed in official -positions, and entrusted with power, not because of their ability to -fulfil the duties of their office, but for very inferior and often -unworthy reasons; where talent and fitness are not considered, and -consequently a long routine of forms is made to serve as "a buffer" to -resist the troublesome pertinacity of inventors, who are apt to disturb -the serenity of reluctant or indifferent officials. And when at last a -trial is granted, the invention is either rejected or approved by -incompetent or prejudiced judges. While this practice prevails, England -must ever be behindhand in Gunnery; for improvements in cannon and -projectiles cannot be carried out by private enterprise. - -In thus strongly expressing my opinion of the way in which progress is -balked, I am not merely echoing a cry, but speaking from my own -knowledge and experience. I am actuated by no feeling of disappointment, -for my invention of "the expansive bullet" has been at last adopted -here, after it had been copied in France. My object is to induce public -investigation and inquiry, and to ventilate this important subject; and -I trust that my antecedents, and the fulfilment of my predictions in -matters of Gunnery, will give weight to this deliberate and -disinterested expression of opinion. - -The great favour shown by lovers of shooting to my former efforts to -disseminate a better understanding of the principles of Gunnery, has -been an additional stimulus to the production of the present work; and I -have taken especial care that my observations should tend to the -improvement of sporting arms, and the increased safety of the sportsman. - -Nor has the ingenious mechanic been overlooked, for perfection of -gun-manufacture must ever go hand in hand with scientific principle; and -the desire to promote their combination has prompted my endeavours to -elucidate the subject. - -Leaving to the reader to determine how far I have succeeded in my -efforts, I merely wish to add that I make no pretension to literary -style, but have aimed to produce a practical work for practical men. I -have drawn upon my previous works for such portions of information as -were needful to give completeness to this view of the science of -Gunnery, its present state, and probable future. - - WILLIAM GREENER. - - _Aston New Town, - September 3rd, 1858._ - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - Plate 1.--Laminated Steel Barrels--_To face Title_. - " 2.--Damascus and Fancy Steel Barrels _To face Page 228_ - " 3.--Stub Twist and Stub Damascus Barrels " _234_ - " 4.--Charcoal Iron and "Threepenny" Iron Barrels " _241_ - " 5.--"Twopenny" Iron and "Sham Damn" Iron Barrels " _240_ - - -WOODCUTS. - - PAGE - Cannon of 1390 6 - Iron ship gun of 1540 10 - Paixhan gun and traversing bed 64 - Carronade 67 - New plan of casting a hollow axle 95 - Mallet's monster mortar 100 - Russian 56-pounder 114 - Eight-inch British gun 114 - Sixty-eight pound carronade 116 - Monck's 56-pounder 117 - Ten-inch or 86-pounder 117 - Thirteen-inch sea service mortar 119 - Thirteen-inch land service mortar 119 - Welding steel 155 - Wire twist and Damascus iron 160 - Steel and iron twist 173 - Spirals of Damascus, &c. 187 - Spirals of charcoal and skelp 188 - Spirals of Wednesbury and "sham damn" iron 189 - Barrel welding 191 - Method of plating barrels 195 - Boring barrels 198 - Sections of conical breeches, double barrel 209 - London and Birmingham proof marks 251 - Mode of proving guns 254 - Sections of nipples 283 - Expansive plug bullet 343 - Enfield barrel and bullet 377 - Whitworth barrel and bullet 377 - Swiss bullet 391 - Greener's model carbine 401 - Poly-groove rifle 403 - Tranter's double trigger revolver 421 - Tranter's double action revolver 424 - Webley's revolver 425 - Harpoon gun 432 - Shot tower 435 - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I.--ANCIENT ARMS. - - PAGE. - - The bow--The sling--Crossbow--Field artillery of the Normans-- - Artillery of the ancients--Range of the crossbow and longbow--The ram - of Vespasian--Guns first employed in 1327--Guns at the battle of - Cressy--Cannon of 1390--Skill of English archers--Defensive armour-- - Portable firearms invented in 1430--Primitive hand-gun--Iron cannon - recovered from the _Mary Rose_, wrecked in 1545--"Chambers"--Match- - lock and wheel-lock--Fire-lock--Damascus gun-barrels--Birmingham - guns--Spanish pistol with magazine--Percussion lock--The revolving - pistol not a new invention--Colt's revolver--Breech-loading guns 1 - - - CHAPTER II.--ON GUNPOWDER. - - Origin of its invention--Roger Bacon's recipe--Accidental discovery - by a German monk--Gunpowder introduced by the Saracens--Its explosive - and propellant properties--Composition of gunpowder--Nitre its - essence--Properties of sulphur as an ingredient--Proportions and - constituents of French gunpowder--Sulphur not always indispensable-- - Chemical principles of its composition--Component parts of different - gunpowders--Source of its explosive force--Explosion at Gateshead-- - Variations in strength and quickness of fire--Granulation of sporting - gunpowder and of artillery gunpowder--Importance of suitable - granulation for different firearms--Large grain powder the more - effectual expellant--Fine powder dangerous--Principle of granulation-- - Gun-cotton--Imperfect instrument for testing gunpowder--Charcoal-- - Operation of making gunpowder described--"Glazing" detrimental-- - Utility of granulation--Fine grain powder--Dr. Ure on the projectile - force of gunpowder--Dr. Hutton's calculations and experiments--Mode - of controlling the destructive force of gunpowder--Experiments to test - the velocity of explosive force of different granulations--The grain - should be proportioned to the length and bore of the gun--Chlorate of - potassa used by the French in making gunpowder--Similar powder - proposed by Mr. Parr, and condemned by Sir William Congreve--Velocity - in projectile force must be gradual--Curious experiment--Operation of - blasting stone, &c., with gunpowder--English sporting gunpowder-- - Military and naval gunpowder--Fame of English gunpowder makers 18 - - - CHAPTER III.--ARTILLERY. - - Definition of the term--Modern field gun--English artillery behind - the march of science--Official obstacles to improvement--Various kinds - of British artillery--Table of measurements, and range of iron - ordnance--Brass guns--Their peculiar property--Firing of brass and - iron guns compared--Range of brass ordnance--Paixhan guns--Traversing - beds for ship guns--Ranges of Paixhan guns and howitzers--Mortars-- - Their uses and varieties--Monster mortar at siege of Antwerp--Table of - English mortar practice--Carronades--Table of weights of guns and shot - --Causes of Recoil--Guns of our ancestors--Metal required in rear of - the breech--Results of Hutton's experiments--Weight in fore-part of - gun injurious--Firm base for a gun essential--Leaden bed for mortars - suggested--New materials desirable for projectiles--Mr. Monk's gun - unequalled--Principle of its construction--Wilkinson's opinion--Waste - of explosive force in ordnance--The propellant force should be - accelerative--This attainable by a proper granulation of powder-- - Government powder--Gunnery only in its infancy--Compound shot--Lead - better than iron for cannon shot--Expenditure of shot at sieges of - Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos--Hutton's experiments--The shrapnell - shell--Improvements in gunnery--The Greenerian rifle--Dangerous - inefficiency of English artillery--Best metal for cannon--Increased - range destroys guns--Cause of mortars bursting--The Lancaster gun-- - English cast-iron inferior--Mallet's monster mortar--Wrought-iron - unsuited to large guns--Reason why--Shaft of the _Leviathan_--New - method of welding iron shafts--Railway carriage axles--Nasmyth's - monster cannon--Light gun-barrels stronger than heavy ones--Brass guns - inferior to cast-iron--Defect of hoop and stave gun--Form and - dimensions of Mallet's monster mortar (with engraving)--Cause of - deterioration of English cast-iron--Russian cast-iron more durable, - and why--Krupp's steel gun--Laminated steel gun-barrels--Captain - Dalgren's improvements in American ordnance--Russian guns--Reinforce - rings and trunnions objectionable, and why--Rifled cannon essential-- - Range of steel rifled cannon--Best form of gun--Professor Barlow on - the strength of iron--Our artillery not constructed on scientific - principles--Russian 56-pounder, English 8-inch gun, English carronade, - Monck's 56-pounder, and 10-inch gun (with cuts)--Land and sea service - mortars (with cuts)--Joseph Manton's rifle cannon--Projectiles for - rifled cannon--Rifle rockets--Mr. Whitworth's improvements in rifled - guns--His polygonal projectile--Experiments with Mr. Armstrong's - field-piece--Increased range and accuracy of rifled cannon with - elongated projectiles--Table of comparative range of smooth-bored and - rifled cannon--Shells for rifled cannon--Spiral motion of projectiles - from smooth-bored guns--Breech-loading cannon useless and unsafe 58 - - - CHAPTER IV.--MANUFACTURE OF IRON FOR GUN-BARRELS. - - Improvement in gun barrels depends on the iron--Continental - manufacturers advance while English stand still--Cheap and inferior - guns of "Park-paling"--Scarcity of horse-nail stubs--Importance of - iron manufacture--Great value of steel in ancient times--Iron - originally made with wood charcoal--Coal coke unfit for making best - iron--British iron ore inferior--Mr. Mushet on steel-iron--English - workmen employed abroad--English gun-makers' names forged in Belgium-- - Indian Iron and Steel Company--Indian process of making steel--Hammer- - hardening recommended--Difference of "Silver steel" and "Twist steel" - --Method of making laminated steel--It is spoilt by over-twisting-- - Watering of Damascus barrels--Proportions of carbon in steel and iron - --Damascus barrels often plated--Modern method of making Damascus iron - (with cuts)--Objection to wire-twist iron--Figured barrels--Damascus - barrels made in Belgium--Damascus iron inferior in strength--Use of - old horse-shoe nails for gun-barrels--Stub iron alone insufficient-- - Prejudices of provincial gun-makers--Mixture of steel and stub iron-- - Importance of welding on an air furnace--Proportions of steel and stub - iron--Efficacy of hammer-hardening and reworking iron--Improvements in - superior iron owing to gun-makers--Explosions of steam-boilers owing - to neglect or bad construction--Boiler iron improveable--Steel- - Damascus barrel iron--Manufacture of "charcoal iron"--Imitation of - "smoke brown"--Gains from using inferior iron--Frauds in barrel making - --Advice of Edward Davies in 1619--"Threepenny skelp iron"-- - "Wednesbury skelp"--Test of a safe gun--"Sham damn skelp"--Base guns - made to sell--Their injurious effect on the gun-making trade--"Swaff- - iron forging." 146 - - - CHAPTER V.--GUN-MAKING. - - Barrel welding--Birmingham welders--Different twists of metal - (illustrated with cuts)--Process of welding--Hammer-hardening--Belgium - welders--Mode of plating barrels--Belgium method (with cut)--Profits - of fraud--Qualifications of a good gun-barrel maker--Processes of - boring and grinding--Proper inclination of double barrels--Elevation - of barrels should be proportionate to charge and distance--Brazing of - barrels detrimental--Mr. Wilkinson's opinion--Solid ribs requisite-- - Advantage of the patent breech--Best shape of breech (with cut)--Gun - locks--Their scientific construction--The Barside lock--Messrs. - Braziers' locks--The stock, fittings, &c.--Recipe for staining steel - barrels--Birmingham method of browning--Belgian method--Varieties of - iron for best barrels--Laminated steel barrels never known to burst-- - Base imitations of laminated steel--Cost of laminated steel barrels-- - Author's method of laminating--Stub Damascus passed off for steel-- - Birmingham guns--Practice of forging names of eminent makers--Author's - offer--Improved metal for axles--Author's imitation Damascus (with - plate)--Joseph Manton's merits--Prize medals awarded to author-- - Advantages of Birmingham for gun making--"London-made guns"--Foreign - imitations of English guns--Periodical exhibition of guns recommended - --Steel-twist and stub Damascus (with plate)--Barrels of charcoal - iron--Inferior guns--Cost of skelp-iron guns--Cost of "sham damn iron" - guns--Sham guns (with plate)--Cost of "park-paling" guns 185 - - - CHAPTER VI.--THE PROOF OF GUN BARRELS. - - Proof-house of Gun-maker's Company--Proof Acts of 1813 and 1815-- - Provisions of Gun Barrel Proof Act of 1855--Penal clauses--Schedule B - --Proof marks--Scale of charges for Proof--Mode of proving (with cut) - --Number of barrels proved in 1857 243 - - - CHAPTER VII.--THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY. - - New principle--Improved rifles--Useless inventions--Scientific - principles of gunnery: 1. The explosive power and its velocity. 2. The - retarding agents. 3. Construction of the tube. 4. Form of projectile-- - Robins's theory--Hutton's experiments--Suitable velocity the germ of - the science--Author's experiments and their results--Penetrating power - of bullets--Resistance of the atmosphere--Friction detrimental-- - Construction of the tube--The Cylindro-conoidal form best suited for - projectiles--Jacob's and Whitworth's bullets--Lengthened projectiles - tend to burst the barrel--Amount of heat needful to explode gunpowder - --Advantage of unglazed powder--Percussion powder--Best form of nipple - (with cuts)--Propellant velocity the grand desideratum--Why short guns - shoot better than long ones--True science of gunnery--Cause of guns - bursting--Mr. Blaine's difference of opinion with the author on - explosive force--Shooting powers of different gun barrels--Tables of - strength and pressure--Colonel Hawker's axiom--Mr. Daniel's remarks on - shot--Duck and swivel guns--The wire cartridge--Bell-muzzle guns--Mr. - Blaine on long barrels--The just medium--Belgium guns will not stand - English proof--Cause of their inferiority--French gun-makers behind - the age--Author's notes on the "Specimens by French Gun-makers at the - Paris Exhibition"--On recoil in shooting--Causes and experiments--Mode - of determining the size of shot suited to the bore of gun--Mr. - Prince's double gun 257 - - - CHAPTER VIII.--THE FRENCH "CRUTCH," OR BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN. - - Breech-loading fire-arms unsafe and inferior--Objections specified-- - Trial of breech-loading against muzzle-loading guns--Danger from using - breech-loaders--Excessive recoil 329 - - - CHAPTER IX.--THE RIFLE. - - Robins's prediction verified--Barrels first rifled at Vienna in 1498-- - Earliest elongated bullets--Captain Delvigne's bullet--The author's - expansive bullet--His memorial to the Board of Ordnance--Report of its - trial by the 60th Rifles in 1836--Decision of the Board of Ordnance-- - Progress of the author's invention--Captain Delvigne's patent of 1842 - --Captain Minié's bullet of 1847--Unsuccessful attempts of author to - have his claim to the invention of the expansive bullet recognised by - Government--Secret report of Select Committee on his invention--His - priority admitted by the Emperor Napoleon--The British Government - award the author 1,000_l._ for his invention--Principle of the - expansive rifle bullet--Projectiles may be lengthened with increase of - range--Action of the expansive bullet--Defects of the Minié bullet-- - Colonel Hay's improvement--Author's experiments, and their result-- - Spiral curve of the rifle barrel--Failure of the "Pritchett bullet"-- - Captain Tamissier's theory--Minié and Greenerian bullet contrasted - (with cuts)--Author's improvement of 1852 (with cut)--General Jacob's - bullet (with cuts)--Remarks of Lieutenant Symons--The Whitworth rifle - --Its defects--Report of trial of the Whitworth and Enfield rifles-- - Author's comments thereon (with cuts)--Importance of safety from - accident--The expansive bullet can be made superior to the Whitworth-- - Fallacy of experiments--Comparative cost of ammunition for the - Whitworth and Enfield rifles--Defective cartridges--Hints to obviate - defects--Vital principle of elongated projectiles--A hollow bullet - proposed, its defects--The Swiss bullet--Doubtful utility of the - deepening groove--Government rifle, with sword bayonet--Double rifles - --Hints on rifle shooting--Author's expanding screw bands--Mr. - Prince's breech-loading carbine--Revolving rifles--French school of - rifle practice--English school of rifle shooting at Hythe--Double - rifled carbines recommended--Revolvers costly and fragile--Lieutenant - Kerr's opinion of the Enfield or Greener's carbine--Government pistol - and carbine--Efficient arms of the Irregular Cavalry of India--First - use of greased cartridges in India--The three-grooved and poly-grooved - rifle (with cut)--Spherical bullets indispensable to smooth bored - muskets--Length and bore of military rifle--Elliptical bored rifle-- - Mr. Lancaster's bullet superseded by the Greenerian bullet--Report of - committee on Lancaster's rifle--The oval bore not a new invention-- - Inferiority of the two-grooved or Brunswick rifle--The Prussian needle - gun--Enfield rifles made for France, Russia, and other states of - Europe--Trials of Whitworth and Enfield rifles--Unsatisfactory results - of the Whitworth rifle 338 - - - CHAPTER X.--REVOLVING PISTOLS. - - Immense demand for them--Their value--Best manufacturers--Colonel - Colt's repeating pistol described--Its double action discussed-- - Machine-made pistols not equal to hand-made--Dean and Adams's revolver - described--Its improvements on Colt's--Tranter's double trigger - revolver--His lubricating bullet and other improvements--Webley's - revolver--Comparison of self-acting and cocking-lock pistols-- - Tendency of revolvers to foul--Lieut. Symons's opinion--Other defects - to be overcome--Author's preference for double-barrelled fire-arms in - warfare 413 - - - CHAPTER XI.--ENFIELD RIFLES. - - The name explained, and weapon described--Its origin--Author's share - in its construction--American machinery for gun-making--Extent and - products of the Enfield manufactory 429 - - - CHAPTER XII.--THE HARPOON-GUN FOR WHALE-SHOOTING. 432 - - - CHAPTER XIII.--SHOT, CAPS, AND WADDING. 435 - - - - - RIFLES, CANNON, - AND - SPORTING ARMS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ANCIENT ARMS. - - -From the earliest ages of the world, the jealousies and bickerings of -mankind have been fruitful causes of war. Sometimes, perhaps, justified -by political reasons; at others, it may be, arising solely from a -desire, on the part of ambitious chiefs, to extend their territories by -multiplying their conquests; while, in too many cases, the struggle for -religious ascendancy has led to the most sanguinary and cruel battles. - -War has been considered as a science from the most remote ages, and the -ingenuity of the talented has successively been taxed to render it as -perfect as possible. It is true-- - - "Man's earliest arms were fingers, teeth, and nails, - And stones and fragments from the branching woods;" - -but these soon gave place to others, more calculated to decide unequal, -and often protracted, conflicts. - -Arms, in a general sense, include all kinds of weapons, both offensive -and defensive; and amongst the earliest may be classed the bow and -arrow, as it gave facilities to man to capture the wild animals for -food, probably before their use was required for the purposes of war. -The bow and the sling were the first means invented, and next only to -the human arm for projecting bodies with an offensive aim: the great -principle which, to the present day, reigns unrivalled, developing the -ruling passion of man to injure, while remaining himself in comparative -safety,--"self-preservation" being "the first law of nature." - -To the bow and sling were soon added spears, swords, axes, and javelins, -all of which appear to have been used by the Jews. David destroyed -Goliath with a stone from the brook. The invention of the sling is -attributed, by ancient writers, to the Ph[oe]nicians, or the inhabitants -of the Balearic Islands. The great fame that these islanders obtained -arose from their assiduity in its use; their children were not allowed -to eat until they struck their food from the top of a pole with a stone -from a sling. From the accounts left us (probably fabulous), it appears -that the immense force with which a stone could be projected, can only -be exceeded by modern gunnery. Even at that early age, leaden balls were -in use as projectiles; though we cannot put much faith in Seneca's -account of the velocity being so great as frequently to melt the lead. -The use of the sling continued over a long period of time, even as late -as the Huguenot war in 1572. - -The bow is of equal, if not greater, antiquity. The first account we -find of it is in Genesis, 21st chapter and 20th verse, where the -Lawgiver, speaking of Ishmael, says, "And God was with the lad, and he -grew and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer." The arms of the -ancient Greeks and Persians were such as we have described, with the -addition of chariots armed with scythes, in which the chiefs sometimes -fought; though their main dependence was upon their heavy-armed -infantry. Elephants were afterwards used as adjuncts in their military -operations, but their use does not appear to have been very great or -very permanent. - -The Romans were armed much in the same manner as the Greeks, with a -slight difference in the form of their weapons; and the arms of the -early Saxons were similar; those of the Normans were only altered in -their construction, except that to them appears to be awarded the -invention of the _cross-bow_, an instrument which afterwards became of -great repute in England and elsewhere. It has also been asserted, that -the Normans were the first to introduce a species of field artillery, -from which stones and darts were thrown, and arrows, headed with -combustible matter, for firing towns and shipping. - -The artillery-proper of the ancients, as the engines for projecting -masses of stone and such like materials may be termed, reached to -wonderful perfection; and the velocity with which missiles of every -description could be thrown from them, attest the skill and ingenuity -exercised in their construction: indeed it is quite evident they are -only excelled by the _more portable_, and simply constructed, artillery -of our own day. - -The great artillerist of the Sicilians, Archimedes, seems to have made -some of the most powerful engines; but he, considering any attention to -mechanics as beneath the philosopher, has not left us an account of any -one of them. - -It is said of the cross-bow that a _quarrel_ could be projected from -them 200 yards, so that we may imagine the force with which one of these -lumps of iron would strike even the strongest armour,--as the velocity, -to range that distance, would not be far short of 900 or 1,000 feet per -second; nearly equal to the effect of a ball from one of our old -imperfectly constructed muskets. - -We are told incredible stories of the abilities of some of our bygone -archers. Should it be true, as stated, that an arrow could be shot -nearly 700 yards, we can easily conceive the immense velocity with which -it must have left the bow; this range being quite equal, if not -superior, to that of the late unimproved rifles. Though we must bear in -mind, that the peculiar shape of the arrow fits it to cut the atmosphere -with less resistance then the half sphere of a bullet; and hence one -reason of its obtaining an extensive range. There is a story told of the -famous Robin Hood, and Little John, "who could shoot an arrow a measured -mile." We suppose the mile was the reverse of an Irish one, or they had -the advantage of a precious stiff gale of wind. Historians sometimes -"draw the long-bow" as well as archers. Many statements have descended -to us of the power of the battering rams of old; but we have a much more -ready method of blowing open gates by a single bag of gunpowder; and a -68 lb. shot has all the force that could be given even to that famous -ram of Vespasian, "the length whereof was only fifty cubits, which came -not up to the size of many of the Grecian rams, had a head as thick as -ten men, and twenty-five horns, each of which was as thick as one man, -and placed a cubit distance from the rest; the weight, as was customary, -rested on the hinder part, and was no less than 1,500 talents; when it -was removed, without being taken to pieces, 150 yoke of oxen, or 300 -pairs of horses and mules, laboured in drawing it, and 1,500 men -employed their utmost strength in forcing it against the walls." - -With these remarks we shall proceed to introduce the invention of -Gunnery. - -Barbour, in his life of Bruce, informs us that guns were first employed -by the English at the battle of Werewater, which was fought in 1327, -about forty years after the death of Friar Bacon; and there is no doubt -that four guns were used at the battle of Cressy, fought in 1346, when -they were supposed to have been quite unknown to the French, and tended -to obtain for British arms the victory. Froissart gives an excellent -representation of a cannon and cannoneers, in 1390, a cut of which we -give in the following page. - -The use of guns in warfare is, therefore, comparatively of modern date, -and the early specimens which are still extant, of which we have -drawings and descriptions, must have been of very little service -compared with those of the present day. The English musqueteer was -formerly a most encumbered soldier. "He had, besides the unwieldy weapon -itself, his coarse powder for loading in a flask, his fine powder for -priming in a touch-box, his bullets in a leathern bag, with strings to -draw to get at them, whilst in his hand were his musket-rest and his -burning match; and when he had discharged his piece, he had to draw his -sword in order to defend himself. Hence it became a question, and was so -for a long time, whether the bow did not deserve a preference over the -musket."[1] - - [1] Grose's "Military Antiquities." - -[Illustration: Froisart's Gun. 1390.] - -The mention of the _long-bow_ is frequent in English history, and its -use contributed, in no mean degree, to many important victories. Perhaps -it might be that our forefathers were more skilful in the use of their -weapons than their adversaries. - -In our wars in France, in the reign of Edward III., thousands suffered -by the English archery; and the brilliant success which attended them -was, at that time, attributed to their "superior skill, combined with -the valour of the Black Prince." So highly was this practice esteemed, -that many statutes were enacted in successive reigns to encourage or -enforce it. - -Archery furnished matter for oratorical display, both in the senate and -the pulpit; the palace and the cottage alike bore testimony to the great -importance which was attached to the art; and it was at once the study -and pastime of the whole nation. Thus, long after the introduction of -fire-arms, the long-bow was held in great esteem; and it is no wonder -that this favourite instrument should have been reluctantly -relinquished, after obtaining such universal popularity, and becoming so -intimately connected with many national and important events. It is now -superseded by the gun, a more potent and destructive engine. The bow, so -much valued, has vanished from our ranks by slow gradations, to make way -for the musket; and the quivers of cloth-yard shafts have been -supplanted by bristling bayonets. These things are now practically -unknown as military weapons, though they contended for superiority with -fire-arms during two centuries. - -At this period, and for a long time previously, more attention was paid -to the fabrication of defensive armour, than to the invention of weapons -of an offensive character; hence the perfection that was attained in -the manufacture of mail, of every variety, during the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries. The splendid manner in which some of the chivalrous -knights of that age chose to have their armour constructed and -ornamented sometimes proved fatal to themselves. Froissart relates that -Raymond, nephew to Pope Clement, was taken prisoner, and put to death by -his captors, in order that they might become possessed of his -magnificent armour. Those gorgeous and costly fabrications were likewise -doomed to give place to the advancing knowledge and skill of succeeding -generations; being now only known as matters of history, and regarded as -valuable curiosities. So late, however, as the latter part of the -sixteenth century, armour formed part of the military equipment; and the -French cavalry, called _carabins_, are described as having the cuirass -sloped off the right shoulder, that they might the more readily couch -their cheeks to take aim, while their bridle arms were protected by an -elbow gauntlet. - -The invention of portable fire-arms is awarded to the Italians by Sir -Samuel Meyrick, and, in a memoir in the Archæologia of the Society of -Antiquarians, he has named the year 1430 as the precise period of their -introduction. - -We have already stated that cannon, or heavy ordnance, was in use in the -English army in 1327, more than a century before that time. It is not -improbable, however, that the Italians were the originators of small -fire-arms, for they had for many years been celebrated as skilful in -the art of making armour--Milanese armour being considered the most -valuable, and it is natural that their attention should be directed to -the construction of offensive weapons of a different description. - -The invention of the portable fire-arm, in its primitive state, was one -of extreme simplicity; the gun consisting merely of a tube fixed to a -straight stock of wood, about three feet in length, furnished with -trunnions, cascable, and touch-hole: the latter was, in the first -instance, at the top, like a large cannon, but was afterwards altered to -the side where a small pan was placed to hold the priming, and lessen -the liability of its being blown away by the wind. This contrivance was -the first step to the gun-lock. - -Before the adoption of the match-lock by the English, cannon, as I have -before shown, had been in use, though they were of a clumsy description. - -[Illustration] - -To the indefatigable exertions of Mr. Dean, we are indebted for the -recovery of several brass and iron guns, belonging to the "Mary -Rose,"--a vessel of war, wrecked in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, -and Francis I. of France, in 1545: "while standing along the coast, -during a distant firing from the French fleet, under Admiral Annebout, -she was overpowered by the weight of her ordnance, and sunk, together -with her commander and crew of 600 men." One of these iron guns is in an -excellent state of preservation, considering it to have been immersed -above 300 years. The cut on next page will convey, together with the -following description, a faint idea of its unwieldy and inefficient -construction. It is composed of a tube of iron, whose joint or overlap -is as its length; upon this is a succession of iron hoops, composed of -iron three inches square, being in fact immense rings; these appear to -have been driven on while red hot, and thus, by their contraction, -forming a much stronger gun, when combined with the interior tube, than -the generality of accounts given of ancient guns would lead us to -expect. It will be perceived, that to describe it as "composed of iron -bars hooped together," is not correct. We may also mention, that if -parties describing guns of this primitive manufacture will observe -accurately, they will find that this is the general method by which they -have been fabricated. They all appear to have been loaded by removing a -breech part, or chamber, inserting the charge, replacing the chamber, -and securing it by wedging it behind; as will be seen on a close -inspection. No means of raising or depressing the muzzle appear -available; the barrel or gun being sunk in a large block of timber, and -secured there by bolts, as a musket barrel is secured in its stock; -while a large piece of iron, or wood, was inserted perpendicularly into -the deck to prevent the recoil. The advantage of "chambers" was -perfectly understood even at this early period; they were apparently -slightly conical, with a spherical bottom. It is no mean evidence of -ancient skill, and knowledge of gunnery and mechanics combined, to -state, that only a few years ago, a gunmaker of some celebrity, -constructed a number of rifles and pistols to load at the breech, on the -very same principle adopted in this gun 312 years ago. Strange, evidence -from "the vasty deep" to show "there is nothing new under the sun." - -During the sixteenth century, fire-arms of every description then in use -underwent a variety of alterations and improvements; each change -bringing with it a change of name, which would neither be profitable or -interesting to enumerate here; our object being to trace out the -advances which have been made in the manufacture of fire-arms since -their general adoption as weapons of war, or auxiliaries to the sports -of the field. - -When first introduced into England, the hand-gun, as it was termed, had -already received a slight improvement, in having a covering for the pan -which contained the priming, and a sight on the breech, to assist in -giving greater certainty to the aim; it remained thus until the trigger -of the cross-bow suggested a contrivance to convey, with equal -certainty and greater rapidity, the burning match to the pan. - -The difficulty of using an instrument thus objectionably constructed, -was in some degree obviated by the Germans; who, together with the -Italians, were no doubt at this early period the principal -manufacturers; they effected this, to a certain degree, by giving the -stocks a crooked form, so that the breech could, with more ease, be -brought to the level of the eye; this was, however, only an alteration -of form, without involving any principle or leading feature of -mechanical invention. Succeeding the match-lock, in the progress of -improvement, came the "pyrites wheel-lock," an invention then looked -upon as exceedingly curious and ingenious; this also is ascribed to the -Italians, and one of the first occasions of its being used, is said to -have been when Pope Leo X. and the Emperor Charles V. confederated -against France. Whether the Italians are fairly entitled to the merit of -this invention is, however, a matter of doubt, as it is well known that -wheel-locks were for a long period manufactured in Germany. - -The "_snaphaunce_" or fire-lock, is distinctly stated by Grose to be of -Dutch origin,--hence the name. It was introduced into England in the -reign of Charles II., though its general adoption is stated not to have -taken place until the reign of William III., about 1692. Since that -period, until the present, their use has been general in all the armies -of Europe. How strange it seems that the Chinese and other Asiatics -should have only the match-lock to the present day, while there can be -no question that they used gunpowder some centuries before its -introduction into our portion of the habitable globe! - -The Syrians were formerly celebrated for their skill in the working of -iron. Damascus gun-barrels were not to be obtained, at certain periods, -at a price less than their weight in silver. The elaborate mixtures in -their barrels, swords, and other weapons, entitle them justly to the -honour of being the best of iron workers, as we shall hereafter have -occasion to show; and the splendour displayed in their inlaying attests -their taste and ability: but as mechanicians, formers of complex -machinery, they never reached mediocrity. Turkey and Greece, as well as -other countries which were renowned as having been, in days of yore, -nurseries of the arts, but which have, in later times, degenerated into -a condition little better than semi-barbarous, were remarkable for the -great labour and pains which they bestowed upon the exterior ornaments -of their firearms; but they never succeeded in improving the machinery -of the lock in the slightest degree. - -Although it was not until the latter part of the seventeenth, or the -beginning of the eighteenth century, that gun manufactories were -established in this kingdom, yet we have attained to a degree of -perfection and excellence unequalled by any other nation in the world. -Birmingham is the emporium of the world for guns, from the most -inferior--the "_park paling_," so called, of the slave-trade, with which -ships might yet be freighted at the cost of eight shillings and sixpence -each--up to the elaborately-finished gun of the peer. Most of the -alterations which have been made in gun-locks in England, have been with -a view to simplify the machinery, and obtain the greatest quickness in -firing: much complication has been discarded; a thorough conviction -having seated itself in the minds of Englishmen, that to attain -perfection, simplicity must be combined. - -Many splendid emanations of genius are left to us, consisting of complex -mechanism for gunnery. The most perfect we have ever seen, is a pistol -made in Spain about the end of the seventeenth century. By moving a -lever towards the butt-end, while the muzzle is depressed, the lock is -primed, half-cocked, and the hammer shut down; return the lever, the -powder is in the breech, and the ball before it. We have seen it fire -twenty-six shots without a failure, and with one supply of ammunition. -The magazine was in two tubes in the stock. The chance of blowing up was -thought remote; but it eventually blew up. In short, it would be -strictly advantageous to inventors in gunnery, to be sure that there has -been no previous invention combining their principle as well as their -arrangements. - -The mine of complex inventions was exhausted during the last century; -and the greatest benefactor to the science of gunnery will be he, who, -blowing away the cobwebs of mystery, renders its principles as clear as -the silvered glass. Nothing now remains of the beautiful machinery of -the flint lock; the fancy cock and hammers have given place to a -"simple" hammer, striking on a copper thimble, covering a steel pivot. -What would the old lock-filers say to this, if they could return and -see their handiwork consigned to the scrap-box as old iron? - -To those curious in the progress of invention as it relates to gunnery, -it would be highly interesting to visit the "Musée d'Artillerie" of -Paris, and there to study the classified selections in the possession of -the French Government. Among other specimens equally interesting, he -will find revolving pistols, revolving rifles, and swords and revolving -pistols combined in one; and these produced in the early part of the -seventeenth century. The revolving pistol did not therefore originate -with the present generation; and however universally we may use the -"Colt," "Adams," or "Tranter," neither can lay the slightest claim to -originality. In that museum will be found four, five, and six charge -chambers; and though in all there is certainly an absence of movement in -the chamber, produced by the cocking of the lock, yet several present -the appearance of having formerly had some mechanical adjunct for -revolving the chamber: this, though well adapted to the present -percussion system, must certainly have been troublesome to manage in the -old flint lock; for when the first barrel was discharged, the priming of -the other barrels would be lost during the revolution of the chamber. - -A great improvement was, however, soon introduced; a hammer and pan were -attached to each division of the chamber, and each being already primed, -presented itself in rotation in the face of the flint. The gun or pistol -was by these protuberances rendered clumsy and cumbersome, and thus -fell, no doubt, into disuse; but every real mechanic must see on -investigating the subject, that the principle was as perfect as that -which is now in use. Mr. Colt had considerable difficulty in securing a -patent for his revolver. The right of patent hinged on this simple -question: did he, or did he not, first introduce a crank or lever for -revolving the chambers during the cocking of the lock? After an -expensive trial it was decided that he _did_ introduce it; though doubts -are still entertained whether there is not now extant a pistol having -the same crank movement as that found in the "Colt" and other revolvers. -At all events the invention of revolving pistols originated with our -progenitors, more than 200 years ago, though their re-introduction is -unquestionably due to Mr. Colt; and the "old broth warmed up" has no -doubt proved more nutritious than the original concoction. In the Paris -museum, a number of breech-loading guns are to be seen; I think more -than sixty varieties. Many of them are highly ingenious, displaying -great mechanical knowledge and working skill, and the whole, kept in -splendid order, cannot fail to command attention. - -Well had it been if the many hundred inventors in England and elsewhere -had studied, and made themselves intimately acquainted with the -productions there to be seen in such abundance. Monuments they are of -mis-spent skill and labour; samples of the almost hopeless task of -fabricating complicated machinery which shall resist the action of -explosive gases at high pressure. An experiment extending over two -hundred years, but unattended with success, notwithstanding all the -skill and ingenuity brought to bear upon it, is, we think, sufficient -to prove that breech-loading guns cannot be made sufficiently durable to -yield any reasonable return for the extra expense and trouble attending -their fabrication. Nevertheless, our "would-be mechanics hope against -hope;" and to such we would, in conclusion, tender a word of advice. -Before spending your money, make acquaintance (and an intimate one is -necessary) with all that has been done before, and if in your own -production you find principles which have been untouched by any previous -invention, and untainted by any of the previous causes of failure, then -patent your invention, and make a fortune--if you can. - -Great mechanical skill, and even scientific principles, are to be found -in some of the earliest productions after the invention of fire-arms; -and thus is established the important fact, that want of experience was -the chief drawback under which they laboured: one elaborate machine -being unequal to their requirements was succeeded by another; and yet, -with all these examples patent to us, we still fruitlessly fall back on -exhausted principles. - -A more intimate knowledge of what our predecessors have accomplished -would be a great boon to our race. Foreign nations, but especially -France, have provided for this by their museums; and we want here a -museum of progression, an epitome of the mind of the present age, and -which, continued to future generations, would leave to no man the -fruitless toil of hauling in an endless rope. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON GUNPOWDER. - - -Gunpowder being the base on which the superstructure of this treatise is -to be raised, the history, the use, and the nature of this explosive -compound, are here placed in the foreground; as it is essential to the -correct conception of the various matters hereafter to be explained, -that the reader be first acquainted with the one grand principle in -fire-arms, the propellant power of explosion. - -Gunpowder, whether considered relatively to engines of war, or to those -arms used with so much success in the sporting field, has, since its -first _introduction_, been a source of much and frequent discussion. In -regard to its origin, we shall not much enlarge, nor repeat the many -suppositions and conjectures promulgated by the searchers after -antiquarian evidence. - -The inhabitants of India were unquestionably acquainted with its -composition at an early date. Alexander is supposed to have avoided -attacking the Oxydracea, a people dwelling between the Hyphasis and -Ganges, from a report of their being possessed of supernatural means of -defence: "For," it is said, "they come not out to fight those who attack -them, but those holy men, beloved by the gods, overthrow their enemies -with tempests and thunderbolts shot from their walls;" and, when the -Egyptian Hercules and Bacchus overran India, they attacked these people, -"but were repulsed with storms of thunderbolts and lightning hurled from -above." This is, no doubt, evidence of the use of gunpowder; but as it -is unprofitable to investigate this subject further, we shall merely -confine ourselves to the European authorities. - -Many ascribe the discovery of gunpowder to Roger Bacon, the monk, who -was born at Ilchester, in Somersetshire, in the year 1214, and is said -to have died in 1285. No doubt he was by far the most illustrious, the -best informed, and the most philosophical of all the alchemists. In the -6th chapter of his Epistles of the Secrets of Arts, the following -passage occurs--"For sounds like thunder, and flashes like lightning, -may be made in the air, and they may be rendered even more horrible than -those of nature herself. A small quantity of matter, properly -manufactured, and not larger than the human thumb, may be made to -produce a horrible noise; and this may be done many ways, by which a -_city_ or an _army_ may be destroyed, as was the case when Gideon and -his men broke their _pitchers_ and exhibited their lamps, fire issuing -out of them with great force and noise, destroying an infinite number of -the army of the _Midianites_." And in the 11th chapter of the same -epistle occurs the following passage:--"Mix together saltpetre with -_luru mone cap ubre_, and sulphur, and you will make thunder and -lightning, if you know the method of mixing them." Here all the -ingredients of gunpowder are mentioned, except charcoal; which is, -doubtless, concealed under the barbarous terms used; indeed, the -_anagram_ is easily converted into _carbonum pulvere_, with a little -attention. - -This discovery has also been attributed to Schwartz, a German monk, and -the date of 1320 annexed to it; a date posterior to that which may be -justly claimed for Friar Bacon; and as accident is stated to have been -the means by which he discovered it, we have taken that incident as the -subject of an illustration. - -[Illustration] - -Mr. Hallam, referring to the authority of an Arabic author, infers that -there is no question that the knowledge of gunpowder was introduced into -Europe through the means of the Saracens, before the middle of the 13th -century; and no doubt its use then was more for fireworks, than as an -artillerist projectile force. There is good evidence, too, that the use -of gunpowder was introduced into Spain by the Moors, at least as early -as the year 1343. Now, as Roger Bacon is known to have been an Arabic -scholar, it is not at all unlikely that he might have become acquainted -with the mode of making the composition, and also with its most -remarkable properties, by perusing some Arabian writer with whom we are -at present unacquainted. - -This invention, by which the personal barbarity of war has certainly -been diminished, is, when considered as a means of human destruction, by -far the most powerful that skill has ever devised, or accident -presented; acquiring, as experience shows us, a more sanguinary dominion -in every succeeding age, and subserving all the progressive resources of -science and civilization for the extermination of mankind: which, says -Mr. Hallam, "appals us at the future prospects of the species, and makes -us feel, perhaps, more than in any other instance, a difficulty in -reconciling the mysterious dispensation with the benevolent order of -Providence." - -The composition of gunpowder, as regards the proportions of the -ingredients, has not undergone any material alteration; the chemical -proportions of the ancients being nearly those of the present day. - -Gunpowder is an explosive propellant compound, consisting of saltpetre -or nitre, charcoal, and sulphur. The terms, _explosive_ and -_propellant_, are not here used as synonymous--they are not convertible; -for a chemical mixture may possess the _explosive_ power in a much -higher degree than the _propellant_: fulminating gold, silver, and -mercury, are dreadfully explosive; but they have not the same -projectile force, nor can they be used as a substitute for it. Several -experiments have been made with compounds of this nature, but the result -is the reverse of what might be expected. Nothing can resist the -exceeding intensity of the action of fulminating powder; a shot, when -fired in this way, is not projected as by gunpowder, but is split into -fragments by the velocity of its explosion, as we shall hereafter have -occasion to show. - -Nitre, or saltpetre, is strictly the essence of gunpowder. It is a -triple compound of oxygen, nitrogen, and potassium. The chemical action -of those elements on each other, and the play of affinities between them -at a high temperature, occasion the immense effect produced by gunpowder -on the application of fire or heat. By universal consent, sulphur is -included in the mixture, but it is not absolutely necessary for the -"propellant power;" for nitre and charcoal only will generate effects -similar to the compound with sulphur. Gunpowder made without sulphur -has, however, several bad qualities; it is not, on the whole, so -powerful, nor so regular in its action; it is also porous and friable, -possessing neither firmness nor solidity. It cannot bear the friction of -carriage, and in transport crumbles into dust. The use of sulphur, -therefore, appears to be not only to complete the mechanical combination -of the other ingredients, but being a perfectly combustible substance, -it increases the general effect, augments the propellant power, and is -thought to render the powder less susceptible of injury from atmospheric -influence. - -"There is one good reason," says the Edinburgh Encyclopædia, "for the -use of sulphur, although it does not contribute to the production of any -elastic fluid. The carbonic acid which is generated would doubtless -combine with the potash, if it were not for the presence of the sulphur, -and thus so much elastic fluid would be lost. That this is the case we -know to be true, from the fact that carbonate of potash is always formed -when nitre is decomposed by charcoal alone, which I shall almost -immediately show." This certainly would be the case, to a certain -extent, with gunpowder without sulphur--some carbonate of potash would -be formed. - -The sulphur, we have no doubt, from experiments we have made on this -subject, is, in part, engaged during the explosion of gunpowder in -expelling the sixth proportion of oxygen from the potash, so as to -combine with the potassium, to form a true sulphuret of that metal. This -fact is easily ascertained, from the circumstance that no sulphuretted -hydrogen can be detected, by the most delicate tests, coming from the -residuum left after firing gunpowder, until moisture has gained access -to it. The bad smell which arises sometime after the burning of -gunpowder, is occasioned by the decomposition of the moisture which the -sulphuret of potassium attracts from the atmosphere; giving rise, by -this decomposition and liberation, to the f[oe]tid foul gas, called -sulphuretted hydrogen, and the production of potassa, or the oxide of -potassium. - -A commission of French chemists and artillerists was appointed by the -Government, in the year 1794, to experiment upon the best proportions -and constituents of gunpowder for the use of the French service. The -following were the proportions of five different kinds prepared at the -Essonne works:-- - - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - No.|Nitre.|Charcoal.|Sulphur.| ---- - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - 1 |76·00 | 14·00 | 10·00 |Powder of Bâe. - 2 |76·00 | 12·00 | 12·00 | " Grenelle. - 3 |76·00 | 15·00 | 9·00 | " M. Morveau. - 4 |77·32 | 13·44 | 9·24 | " Ditto. - 5 |77·50 | 15·00 | 7·50 | " M. Keffault. - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - -The first and third, after 200 discharges with the proof mortar, were -declared the strongest, and the third proportions were adopted at the -recommendation of the commissioners. Some few years elapsed, and the -first, owing to its better keeping quality, was substituted, as it -contained less charcoal, and a little more sulphur. The French -Government having always been extremely impressed with the value of -durability in gunpowder, they have since returned to their ancient -proportions: 75 nitre, 12-1/2 charcoal, 12-1/2 sulphur. The charcoal, -the absorbent of moisture, being further reduced, and the sulphur, the -preserving ingredient, being increased in the same ratio. - -"Mr. Napier tried a small quantity made of nitre and charcoal only, and -was much surprised to find it project a shot as far as the best powder -made in the usual manner. It is found that, in small charges, sulphur is -advantageous; but, in charges of several ounces, the projecting force is -as great without as with it. Therefore, under certain circumstances, -sulphur may be dispensed with; but to make a good gunpowder, nitre and -charcoal are indispensable." - -Amongst the brilliant discoveries of modern chemistry may be classed the -development of the fact, that a chemical combination, to constitute the -same compound, always takes place in definite and unalterable ratios. To -select one example out of a multitude: one atom of carbon combining with -two atoms of oxygen produces the gas; because more would answer no -useful end. So, with reference to the sulphur, if it enter into -combination only with the potassium--the base of the nitre--the sulphur -should be in that proportion to form the sulphuret of that metal; and in -this case there would be no superfluity, for that would only add to the -weight of the charge of powder, and diminish its absolute and effective -energy. The view of the case which we have taken supposes only two -combinations, viz. carbon with oxygen, and sulphur with potassium. -Should there be a more diversified play of affinities, and the several -elements of the powder enter into more complicated action, accurate -analysis would conduct us through all difficulties, and point out what -the proportions of the ingredients ought to be in order to sustain that -action, and to produce a perfect ultimate result. - -We thus perceive how analysis bears upon the case. We can see by such -reasoning on the subject, that, theoretically, there can be but _one set -of proportions calculated to produce the best and strongest gunpowder_, -and that those proportions must depend upon the established and unerring -laws of nature. The proportions, then, for gunpowder, by these -considerations, will be those in which the carbon will just consume the -oxygen of the nitre, and combine with the sulphur as much as will -exactly saturate the potassium. This will be effected by an atom each of -nitre and sulphur, and three atoms of carbon; or nitre 75·5, charcoal -18·8, and of sulphur 11·8. - -In the present improved state of chemical science, when the nature of -the bodies comprising gunpowder is so well known, as well as the -compounds resulting from their action on each other, the proportions we -have named may be taken as the best for practice. - -The charcoal should, in particular, not be less than the nitre, as the -smallest portion less than the whole atom would be the same as to leave -out the whole atom, in which case there would be no carbonic oxide -formed. If, for example, instead of the proportions of nitre 75·5, -charcoal 16·2, sulphur 15, the carbon were 16, then there would be 4·2 -of carbon left in the residuum, and no carbonic oxide would be formed, -since bodies cannot unite but in definite proportions. - -From these considerations we can perceive the reason why a small -proportion of carbonic oxide is always formed during the decomposition -of nitre by charcoal; for it will be evident, that as the nitric acid -contains five atoms of oxygen, four of these must combine with two atoms -of carbon to form two atoms of carbonic acid, while the _odd atom of -oxygen_ is compelled to take another atom to form carbonic oxide. But -this is not the case in the combustion of gunpowder, as carbonic acid -and nitrogen are the principal gases generated. - -These proportions differ from any other formula yet prescribed; and, -though different in a great degree from the proportions laid down by -various writers on the subject, the reasons which are here given, as has -been seen, are such as carry with them a conviction of their truth: for -there cannot possibly be any benefit arising from a greater quantity of -any of these materials than is absolutely necessary to form the -composition in question; and if the smallest quantity be above what is -requisite to consume the whole, that, however small it may be, is highly -detrimental to the effective energy of the mass. What we may here call -clean gunpowder, such as may be used with confidence for repeated -discharges of fire-arms of any description, is of the greatest -importance; therefore, it does not appear to us, that any given -proportions are so likely to accomplish that object as those before -specified. - - -TABLE OF COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT GUNPOWDERS. - - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - Mills. |Nitre.|Charcoal.|Sulphur. - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - Royal Waltham Abbey |75·00 | 15·00 | 10·00 - France, National Mills |75·00 | 12·50 | 12·50 - French Sporting |78·00 | 12·00 | 10·00 - French Mining |65·00 | 15·00 | 20·00 - U. S. of America |75·00 | 12·50 | 12·50 - Prussia |75·00 | 13·50 | 11·50 - Russia |73·78 | 13·59 | 12·63 - Austria (Musket) |72·00 | 17·00 | 16·00 - Spain |76·47 | 10·78 | 12·75 - Sweden |76·00 | 15·00 | 9·00 - Switzerland (Round Powder) |76·00 | 14·00 | 10·00 - Chinese |75·00 | 14·40 | 9·90 - Theoretical proportions as above |75·00 | 13·23 | 11·77 - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - -Gunpowder consists of a very intricate mixture of sulphur, carbon -(charcoal), and nitrate of potash (nitre). - -The proportions in which they exist are one equivalent of nitre, one of -sulphur, and three of carbon. The great explosive power of gunpowder is -due to the sudden development from its solid constituents of a large -quantity of gases; these gases are nitrogen and carbonic acid. - -At the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere these gases would occupy a -space three hundred times greater than the bulk of the gunpowder used; -but owing to the intense heat developed at the moment of explosion, the -gases occupy at least 1,500 times the bulk of the original gunpowder. -The mixture, consisting of one equivalent of nitre, one of sulphur, and -three of carbon, would yield three equivalents of carbonic acid, one of -nitrogen, and one of sulphuret of potassium. The change may be -represented thus,-- - - S + C_{3} + KONO_{5} = 3 CO_{2} + N + KS. - -The only solid residue, therefore, is the sulphuret of potassium, and -this is the compound which produces the sulphurous odour on washing out -a gun barrel; water is decomposed, sulphuretted hydrogen and potash -being the result of the decomposition. - -Now supposing the elements of gunpowder to exist in these proportions, -it is essential, in order to secure their perfect combination, and thus -to produce the largest possible volume of gas, that the elements should -be in the most minute state of subdivision. Chemical action is a force -exerted at insensible distances only, and chemical substances having the -greatest affinity for each other will not combine, unless their elements -are brought into immediate contact: thus oxygen and hydrogen may be -mixed together in the exact proportions to form water; but no chemical -combination will occur, simply because the ultimate particles of the two -gases are not sufficiently near to each other for their chemical -affinities to be brought into play; if, however, these gases are -subjected to very strong pressure, so as to bring their particles into -immediate contact, combination occurs, and the production of water is -the result. - -In order to insure the perfect combination of the elements of gunpowder -the same conditions are necessary; that is to say, the ultimate -particles of the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, must be brought into the -most direct contact, or the explosive power of the gunpowder will be -comparatively trifling. If, for instance, the nitre, charcoal, and -sulphur be pounded in a mortar, no explosion but a slow combustion will -occur when the mixture is ignited; so that unless this intimate mixture -of the elements is carefully attended to in the manufacture of -gunpowder, it is easy to see that the article produced will be of -comparatively little value. - -It is evident then that if tons of the elements of gunpowder were stored -in a warehouse which accidentally caught fire, no explosion would occur -from the formation of gunpowder; though its ingredients would greatly -increase the rapidity of combustion. - -This remark is elicited by the recollection of a fearful explosion which -took place at Gateshead in 1854. - -It may be remembered that a warehouse caught fire from an adjoining -mill, and the explosion was supposed to have been produced by the -ignition of the elements of gunpowder stored in the warehouse in a crude -state. The upper story of the building contained a large quantity of -crude sulphur, and the basement story about the same quantity of nitre, -whilst chemicals of various kinds were stored in other parts of the -building; but according to the accounts published there was no large -quantity of carbon in the warehouse; nevertheless, a terrific explosion -took place, and after a lengthened investigation, the conclusion arrived -at was this: the sulphur melting, mixed with the nitre, gunpowder was -thus formed, and igniting, exploded, producing the terrible effects. - -But gunpowder may be made without sulphur, whereas gunpowder without -carbon is an impossibility; and though the elements of gunpowder had all -been present, no explosion could have occurred, unless they had become -mixed in the intimate manner already described. - -It is true some of the chemical substances in the warehouse might have -produced a fearful explosion: but a more plausible explanation is to be -found in the fact, that gunpowder was at that time much more valuable -abroad than at home; and it is quite possible that some kegs of -gunpowder might have been stored away in this warehouse, until a -convenient opportunity presented itself for their removal. - -The foregoing remarks will serve to explain how it is that powder varies -so much in strength and quickness of fire. If the elements are -imperfectly incorporated, the powder can never be equal to that which is -properly made; and the manufacturer, having ascertained the best -proportions in which to mix the elements, had better improve his -machinery for incorporating them, rather than his knowledge of the -chemistry of gunpowder. These observations will also serve to explain -the apparent anomaly, that the French, and some of our other continental -brethren, are held to produce a much inferior sporting gunpowder to that -which is manufactured in old England. - -Gunpowder is now made by all the sporting gunpowder manufacturers from -No. 1 to No. 5 grain; and it appears certain that a further increase in -the size of the grain would be advantageous; for many years of patient -and laborious experiment clearly show, that the old notion of gunpowder -being blown out of an ordinary sized gun in an unburnt state, is one of -the "purest of vulgar errors:" such a thing indeed cannot possibly -happen unless the powder be bad, or the gun _imperfectly made_, or -injudiciously charged. - -I am satisfied that I am under rather than over estimate, when I assert -that six drams of ordinary sporting gunpowder may be beneficially and -completely exploded in a barrel of 14 bore, 2 feet 6 inches long, with a -resisting projectile one ounce in weight above it. This, however, being -more than a double charge for such a gun, cannot be pleasantly -practised; and it is only asserted by way of argument. - -Assuming, then, for argument's sake, that six drams of gunpowder are -exactly consumed in passing from the breech to the muzzle of a gun 2 -feet 6 inches long, and that the shot, therefore, acquires its greatest -velocity as it leaves the muzzle, it follows that the ordinary charge of -2-1/2 drams will be wholly consumed before it has traversed half the -length of the barrel, and consequently the charge of shot must here -acquire its greatest velocity. It is certain, then, that the shot must -travel the latter half of the barrel at a diminished velocity, and its -velocity must continue to diminish as it passes up the barrel; for two -obvious reasons--1st, The column of air in front of the charge is more -condensed, and thus offers a greater resistance to the exit of the -charge; 2nd, The velocity is continually diminished by the increased -friction of the charge against the barrel. - -The perfection of projectile science is to make the projectile acquire -its greatest velocity at the instant of leaving the muzzle; and if, by -increasing the size of the grain of gunpowder, we can diminish the -rapidity of its explosion--thus causing it to burn and generate fresh -gas up to the muzzle of the gun--the projectile will then acquire its -greatest velocity, and leave the gun to the best advantage: this is the -important point which has hitherto been overlooked, not only in -fowling-pieces, but in the expansive principle of rifles. - -For artillery practice of every kind, whatever the weight of the -projectile, gunpowder of a granulation suited to the weight of that -projectile is essential, if we would produce the greatest possible -effect by the least expenditure of means. - -In artillery, at this most important time in war's history, no attention -whatever is paid to this essential principle. A long 10-inch gun, a -68-pounder, and a short 6-pounder are all charged with powder of the -same granulation; whilst by a more judicious use of gunpowder of -suitable granulation, the range might be extended, just as it is in -sporting arms, to nearly 20 per cent. - -Artillerists seek to effect great range by doubling the weight of the -gun, and projectile monsters meet us at all points, to become in every -case "monster failures." - -I fear that the most important points have been entirely lost sight of. -Instead of ascertaining whether we have suited the projectile power to -the 8-inch or 56-pounder, so as to get work from it which is now done by -the 10-inch, we have, in our anxiety to get range, looked only to the -form or material of the gun; vital principles being totally excluded. -The construction of the gun being perfect, the question is, can the -expellant force be brought to an equal state of perfection? - -In order to obtain the best results from a gun, the gun itself must be -perfect in construction, and the expellant force must be brought to bear -in the best possible manner upon the projectile; and this is to be done -by attending to the granulation of the powder, which must be suited to -the length of the gun, to its bore, and to the weight of the projectile. - -Common-sense, engineering skill, will demonstrate, that according to the -weight of matter to be projected must be the nature of the expellant; -_accumulative_--until it has overcome the inertia of that matter, -_accelerative_--until it has communicated to it the highest state of -velocity its power is capable of effecting. If, on the other hand, it is -inferior to this, science has not extracted from it the full -_horse-power_ it contains; and we are uselessly expending force and -destroying our engines by undue pressure being exerted on one part, and -inferior pressure on another; whilst by a proper distribution of that -force, durability of the cannon is insured, and from twenty-five to -thirty per cent. more work may be obtained from an equal quantity of -powder, provided its granulation be judiciously selected according to -the area of the gun. - -There is abundant proof that on this engineering question we have -hitherto worked by the "rule of thumb;" prejudice having been a -stumbling-block, which nothing but stern necessity will remove. The -authorities have but just discovered this, although their attention was -directed to it several years ago. In the year 1852, I produced before -the Small Arms Committee, at Enfield, a portion of gunpowder suited to -the expansive rifle; it was tried to a limited extent, and dismissed -with the remark, "We don't think there is much in it." Experience, -however, has demonstrated the truth of my observations, for, in all -extreme range shooting with the expansive or "Greenerian"-principled -rifles, not only is considerably greater _accuracy_ obtained with it, -but an _increase_ of range equivalent to fifteen or twenty per cent. - -Another advantage of using gunpowder of a suitable granulation is the -absence of sharp recoil; and thus greater accuracy of range is -obtained--accuracy of range and steadiness of weapon being inseparable. - -Large-grain gunpowder is not only a more effectual expellant than the -fine grain, but is much more safe to use, for by using it the risk of -bursting the barrel is much lessened; as a very simple illustration will -show. If we estimate the force generated by the usual charge of 2-1/2 -drachms (I confine the question to the 14-bore gun, for uniformity) to -be 5,000 lbs., whether the powder be fine or coarse grain, it follows -that the fine powder, igniting so rapidly, will exert all its force on -the breech end of the gun; whereas the coarse powder, igniting less -rapidly, distributes this force over the whole length of the barrel: -hence the greater risk of a gun bursting with fine powder than with -coarse. If we suppose the fine powder to be entirely ignited when it -reaches half way up the barrel, then the force of 5,000 lbs. is exerted -on the lower half of the barrel; but if the coarser grain is not -entirely ignited until it reaches the muzzle, then the force of 5,000 -lbs. will be distributed over the whole length of the gun. - -But this is not all. The fine powder, igniting almost instantaneously, -exerts its force in all directions at once, and the barrel may burst at -the side before the charge has time to move; whereas the coarse powder, -igniting as it does more slowly, first lifts the charge, and then the -volume of gas behind it increasing as the powder becomes more thoroughly -ignited, sweeps the charge out of the barrel with a velocity increasing -towards the muzzle. - -If time is not given for the charge to receive the full advantage of the -expansive force of the generated air, the force is exerted, not upon the -charge, but upon the barrel of the gun itself; and that time is -necessary for the full development of this force, is proved by the fact -that miners mix their gunpowder with sawdust, in order to diminish the -rapidity of its explosion and thus get the advantage of its force in the -distance: from the miners, then, let us learn how to obtain the greatest -benefit from this force, and waste it not. - -There can be no doubt of the importance of this principle; little -progress has, however, been effected from want of scientific -illustration; let it be defined like that of steam power, and its -adoption will follow as a natural consequence. - -For several years I have had gunpowder manufactured of various sizes, at -the sight of which most sportsmen would express their astonishment. - -One objection held by sportsmen to the large grained gunpowder is that -it does not come up the nipple of the gun; now although I do not -consider this at all important, still if the specific gravity of the -gunpowder were increased by compressing 1-1/2, 2, or 3 grains of -gunpowder into the space of 1 grain, by means of hydraulic pressure, -this objection would at once be obviated; whilst at the same time, the -powder would be less liable to absorb moisture, or to become friable -with age: either of which conditions is incompatible with good shooting. - -The granulating of gunpowder, to be of the greatest benefit, should be -on a uniform principle; the manipulation should be alike in all -particulars, but especially in that part of the process which determines -the specific gravity. The hydraulic pressure on the cake should be alike -in all cases: in fact, the various sizes of grain might be produced from -the same cake, and the desired object be thus obtained. But so long as -the practice is followed of producing large grain from less condensed -cake, the article produced will give unsatisfactory results; and the -advantages which might be attained, as my experience denotes, and which -would be of the greatest service, alike in sporting, rifle, and -artillery powder, will be nullified. - -Great improvements are yet to be made, especially in the powder used for -artillery; whilst range, accuracy, and lessened recoils are points which -may be determined with almost mathematical precision. - -Great fame is in prospect for any one who can grasp and handle well this -granulation principle; especially if he can define the sizes to be used -for different varieties of guns. Artillerists who contend that a medium -size grain, to suit all sizes of gun, is advantageous, might as well -contend that cannon of a medium size would be preferable to so many -different sizes, because, though we lose in range, accuracy, and recoil, -it would be more convenient to have but one sized gun. - -In making large grained gunpowder, the manufacturers defeat one of the -main objects to be gained by granulation, from not subjecting it to the -same amount of pressure which is necessary for the granulation of the -very fine grain. In granulating very fine powder, it is necessary to -subject the cake to such an amount of hydraulic pressure as shall give -the mass a marble-like structure, or during the process of granulation, -the whole of it crumbles into dust; but the coarser gunpowder may be -granulated without subjecting it to this high degree of pressure, hence -each grain is more porous and of lesser specific gravity: a difference -which it is most important to avoid. It is clear, therefore, that -according to the present mode of manufacturing gunpowder, the large and -the fine grain are of very different kinds; the main difference being in -their specific gravities. Gunpowder of less density burns with greater -rapidity, because it is more open and porous; and if uniform density was -observed, the diversity in the size of the grain need not be so great; -whilst, at the same time, this anomaly might be avoided--that the same -measure of fine and large-grained gunpowder contains a difference of the -expansive element amounting to fifteen or twenty per cent. As gunpowder -is now manufactured, it is highly necessary in all comparative trials to -_weigh_, and not to _measure_ the charge, or the results will be -deceptive and worthless. The granulation question struggles with -undeserved difficulty. Gunmakers, either not understanding the question, -or constructing the chambers of their guns improperly, and not using -suitable nipples, decry the adoption of large-grained gunpowder; but -they forget the increased range obtained in the killing from their guns, -and the _éclât_ a long shot produces. In trials of guns at thirty or -forty yards, the difference in the shooting with fine and large-grained -gunpowder is not so apparent, and the maker exclaims, "Oh! the fine -powder shoots stronger, and as close as the coarse." I admit this to be -the case, at short distances; but the great advantage of using the large -grain is sufficiently evident when shooting at forty-five, fifty, and -sixty yards, for then the fine grain entirely fails: simply from the -oft-repeated fact, that the fine powder is more of a propulsive, while -the large grain is an expellant force; so that according to the law of -resistance in aëriform fluids, the one is sooner reduced to medium -velocity than the other, which exerts its action more evenly. Powder of -larger grain is thus more suitable for the larger sizes of shot, and -would give an increased range in usual shooting, for the shot is kept -better together, and is projected to greater distances. A common way of -testing the quality of gunpowder is, to rub it between the hands, and -observe the darkness of the stain; the darker the stain the more -inferior the gunpowder is held to be. This test is, however, decidedly -fallacious, because the gunpowder may be of low specific gravity, or it -may have become friable from age and other causes. - -Whales are shot with gunpowder proportioned to the weight of the harpoon -required to kill them. Duck guns of the largest calibre are -comparatively useless unless the gunpowder used is granulated according -to the weight of the projectile; and the same law holds in regard to the -most "mammoth" engine yet to be devised by the mind of man. - -Gun-cotton has been before the world for some years, but, except as a -curiosity, it has attracted little public attention; neither has it -gained any reputation as a projectile force. It may be prepared by -steeping cotton wool for a few minutes in a mixture of nitric and -sulphuric acids, thoroughly washing, and then drying at a very gentle -heat. It consists chemically of the essential elements of gunpowder: -viz. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen; but, in addition, it contains another -highly elastic gas, hydrogen. The carbon in the fibres of the wool -presents to the action of flame a most extended surface in a small -space, and the result is an explosion approaching as nearly as possible -to the instantaneous: in consequence of its rapid ignition it produces a -violent kick; sufficient time is not given to put heavy bodies in -motion, hence it cannot be usefully employed as a projectile agent. No -one who values his limbs should trifle with it, for fearful accidents -have resulted from its exposure to the heat of the sun, and other very -simple causes. - -There is an instrument used by some sportsmen, and strongly recommended -by many gunmakers, for testing the strength of different kinds of -gunpowder. It consists of a chamber closed by a spring, and fired like -an ordinary pistol. When the powder explodes the spring is forced -forward, and moves an index round a graduated circle; the more quickly -the powder explodes the farther does it lift the spring; hence this is a -measure of quickness of fire, but not of expellant force; and from the -observations which have been made on gunpowder, it must be evident to -any one who has paid the least attention to the subject, that this -instrument is utterly useless. - -An instrument to test the comparative strength of different kinds of -gunpowder is yet a desideratum in projectile science; and we cannot -doubt that such an instrument will be produced, when the importance of -the granulation of gunpowder is more generally known and appreciated. - -The charcoal formerly used was made in the common way, by pits, which -must have been seen by almost every one. The method is now to _distil_ -the wood in cast-iron cylinders, extracting the pyroligneous acid, &c., -by heating them red hot, and allowing all other volatile matter to -evaporate, the charcoal only being retained in the cylinder or retorts; -hence arises the name _cylinder gunpowder_. The best charcoal for -sporting powders is the black dog wood; Government use willow and alder. -Any charcoal does for common powders. Charcoal is ground in the same way -as the nitre. Sulphur is purified simply by fusing, and when in that -state, skimming off the impurities: it is cooled and pulverised in the -same way as the other two ingredients. The three ingredients, after -being carefully weighed in their due proportions, are sifted into a -large trough, and well mixed together by the hands. They are then -conveyed to the powder mill. This is a large circular trough, having a -smooth iron bed, in which two millstones, secured to a horizontal axis, -revolve, traversing each other, and making nine or ten revolutions in a -minute. The powder is mixed with a small quantity of water put on the -bed of the mill, and there kept subject to the pressure of the stones; -and if we calculate the weight of the two millstones at six tons, it -follows that in four or five hours' incorporation on this bed, it -subjects the ingredients to the action of full 10,000 tons. It is this -long-continued grinding, compounding, and blending together of the -mixture, that alone renders it useful and good. After this intimate -mixing, it is conveyed away in the shape of mill-cake, and firmly -pressed between plates of copper. Bramah's press has been introduced of -late years--we should say with a good deal of improvement to the powder, -as will be shown hereafter--and by its means the mass is more compressed -and in thinner cakes. It is then broken into small pieces with wooden -mallets, and taken to the corning-house, where it is granulated, "by -putting it into sieves, the bottoms of which are made of bullocks' -hides, prepared like parchment, and perforated with holes about -two-tenths of an inch in diameter; from twenty to thirty of these -sieves are secured to a large frame, moving on an _eccentric_ axis, or -crank, of six inches throw; two pieces of lignum vitæ, six inches in -diameter, and two inches or more in thickness, are placed on the broken -_press-cakes_ in each sieve. The machinery being then put in rapid -motion, the discs of lignum vitæ (called balls) pressing upon the -powder, and striking against the sides of the sieves, force it through -the apertures, in grains of various sizes, on to the floor, from whence -it is removed, and again sifted through finer sieves of wire, to -separate the dust and classify the grain. One man works two sieves at a -time, by turning a handle and eccentric crank; the sieves being fixed to -a frame, which is suspended over a bin by four ropes from the ceiling." - -The grains afterwards undergo a process of _glazing_, by friction -against each other, in barrels containing nearly 200 lbs., making forty -revolutions in a minute, and lasting several hours, according to the -fancy of the purchaser. This part of the business we entirely disagree -with, as injurious to the quick and _certain ignition_. Gunpowder is -finally dried by an artificial temperature of 140° Fahrenheit, which is -suffered gradually to decline. The last process is sifting it clear of -dust, and then packing it in canisters or otherwise. - -The utility of the process of granulation results from the impossibility -of firing mealed powder sufficiently simultaneously to effect an -explosion; and also from the fact that gunpowder, in a mass, does not -explode. Fire a solid piece of mill-cake, and it does not flash off like -unto granulated powder, but burns gradually, though with an extreme -fury, until the whole is consumed. This arises from its density, the -compression in the press; it also teaches us one fact, that to be of the -greatest service, the time each grain should occupy in burning should be -proportioned to the size of the gun for which it is required; since it -is clear that the explosion of a heap of gunpowder is but the rapid -combustion of all its parts. This action, as is well known, is so rapid, -even in a large quantity of powder, that it appears to be a sudden and -simultaneous burst of flame; though philosophically and actually it is -not so. - -Fine grain, when unconfined, explodes quicker than large, or is sooner -burnt out, and consequently generates more force in the same period of -time; but when it comes to large quantities, its very quickness is -detrimental to its force, by condensing the air around the exterior of -the mass of fluid which thus constrains its bound. In small quantities, -the proportion of condensation is not so apparent, and hence the reason -why greater velocities can be obtained with small arms than with cannon. - -There exists a diversity of opinion in regard to the strength or -projectile force of gunpowder. Dr. Ure remarks--"If we inquire how the -maximum gaseous volume is to be produced from the chemical reaction of -the elements of nitre on charcoal and sulphur, we shall find it to be by -the generation of carbonic oxide and sulphurous acid, with the -disengagement of nitrogen. This will lead us to the following -proportions of these constituents: - - Hydrogen 1. Per Cent. - 1 prime equivalent of nitre 102 75·00 - 1 " " sulphur 16 11·77 - 3 " " charcoal 18 13·23 - --- ------ - 136 100·00 - -"The nitre contains five primes of oxygen, of which three combining with -the three of charcoal, will furnish three of carbonic oxide gas, while -the remaining two will convert the one prime of sulphur into sulphurous -acid gas. The single prime of nitrogen is therefore, in this view, -disengaged alone. - -"The gaseous volume, in this supposition, evolved from 136 grains of -gunpowder, equivalent in bulk to 75-1/2 grains of water, or to -three-tenths of a cubic inch, will be, at the atmospheric temperature, -as follows:-- - - Grains. Cubic Inches. - Carbonic oxide 42 141·6 - Sulphurous acid 32 47·2 - Nitrogen 14 47·4 - ----- - 236·2 - -being an expansion of one volume into 787·3. But as the temperature of -the gases, at the instant of their combustive formation, must be -incandescent, this volume may be safely estimated at three times the -above amount, or considerably upwards of 2,000 times the bulk of the -explosive solid. - -"It is obvious that the more sulphur, the more sulphurous acid will be -generated, and the less forcibly explosive will be the gunpowder. This -was confirmed by the experiments at Essonne, where the gunpowder that -contained twelve of sulphur, twelve of charcoal, in 100 parts, did not -throw the proof shell so far as that which contained only nine of -sulphur and fifteen of charcoal. The conservative property is, however, -of so much importance for humid climates and our remote colonies, that -it justifies a slight sacrifice of strength. - -"When in a state of explosion, the volume," Dr. Hutton calculates, "is -at least increased eight times, and hence its immense power. The -pressure exerted, if in a state of confinement, will depend on the -dimensions of the vessel containing it; so that it would be no difficult -undertaking to obtain any pressure above that of the atmosphere, up, we -may fearlessly say, to the enormous amount of 4,000 lbs. per square -inch." - -The same quantity of gunpowder subjected to a variety of experimental -tests, differs materially in its results; at the same time it is only by -such a method that we can arrive at the relative strength or power which -it possesses. Dr. Hutton, whose authority in all mathematical -calculations is very high, and whose opinions and judgment in matters of -this nature ought not to be unthinkingly controverted, states 2,000 feet -per second (with cannon) as the highest velocity which any projectile -had attained, at the time of his writing, which had gunpowder for its -propellant power. A much greater velocity is now given in all guns -fired at high elevations. "Monks'" gun attained a velocity of 2,400 feet -in the first second of its flight, and this is now exceeded by rifled -cannon. - -This advantage does not arise, in our opinion, so much from the superior -quality of the gunpowder, as from the improvements which have taken -place in the manner of applying it. For instance, where experiments are -conducted, as was the case with Dr. Hutton, with moving _eprouvettes_, a -certain loss is sustained, in the same degree as the instrument is made -to recoil from its original position; therefore, by restraining the -recoil, an increase of momentum is given to the projectile, to the same -extent as had been exerted upon the _eprouvette_, or cannon, in driving -it several feet backward; and instead of dividing the force thus -acquired between the shot and the gun, by having the latter firmly fixed -and the recoil destroyed, the whole power is exerted upon the former, -and its velocity accelerated in the same proportion. - -Gunpowder, though astonishing in its effect, and tremendous in power, -may nevertheless be controlled within a limited sphere, and bounds put -upon its destructive energy. The following curious experiment, first -tried at Woolwich on a small scale, has since been carried out to a -great extent. Screw into each end of the breech part of a gun-barrel a -well-fitted plug; drill a communication, and put in a nipple; having -filled the barrel with powder, screw in the breech, and fire a cap on -it, and the explosive fluid will escape by the small orifice like steam -from a pipe. If the barrel be good, it may safely be held in the hand, -merely using a towel to protect the hand from the heat the barrel -absorbs. We have done it repeatedly with no inconvenience, and even -carried this experiment much further; firing two ounces of the best -powder in a barrel of good quality (though not in the hand) yet the -barrel did not receive any violent motion by which it could be inferred -that it might not be done with safety. - -We have before observed, that, with very short guns, fine gunpowder -produces the greatest result, inasmuch as there is no greater column of -air in the barrel than the explosive fluid is equal to _displace_; or, -in other words, the charge leaving the muzzle of the gun at the very -moment when the explosive force is strongest, all the power is thus -obtained of which it is capable; but if used in a longer barrel, and the -fluid has obtained its greatest power when the charge has twelve inches -of the barrel still to travel, the column of compressed air yet -remaining in the muzzle of the barrel, exerts a resisting influence, in -proportion to its density, upon the charge, and creates a dangerous and -unpleasant recoil. - -If a cartridge be placed in the centre of an open barrel eight feet in -length, having a bullet abutting at each end large enough to fill the -barrel, and a touch-hole is drilled as near the centre of the cartridge -as possible, when it is fired, the balls will certainly be discharged -from the barrel, but with a very small degree of force: in fact, merely -driven out. With the same instrument, vary the experiment: place in it a -cartridge charged with one ball, three feet from the muzzle, leaving a -column of air five feet in length to act against the explosive force of -the gunpowder, and the ball will be driven one hundred yards with -considerable force. Again, let a third cartridge be introduced similar -to the last, two feet from the muzzle, increasing the column of air to -six feet; and the result, in distance and velocity, will nearly double -what has been obtained by the last experiment; tending to prove that air -thus forced back upon itself obtains a density, and consequent resisting -influence, nearly equal to a well-screwed breech. In order to test this -principle further, I put into the same tube a double charge of -gunpowder, merely backed by a wadding, two feet from the muzzle, and -then rammed down four balls as tight as possible into the short portion; -in discharging it, the tube was burst immediately in rear of the charge. - -In another experiment, I took a common musket barrel, having a plug of -iron firmly fixed into the muzzle; the breech being unscrewed, and a -ball introduced one-tenth of an inch less in diameter than the bore of -the barrel, together with one drachm of gunpowder, I then fired the -gunpowder, and the explosive matter escaped by the touch-hole. On -examination, it was found that the ball was flattened to the extent of -one-third of its sphere. The charge for the next experiment was -increased to two drachms; when the ball in the discharge struck the -muzzle very slightly, altering its shape in the least conceivable -degree. The charge was next increased to three drachms, and the ball -was extracted without any perceptible defect. In the fourth trial, -another drachm was added, with which the effect was greater than the -tube was able to resist; it was in consequence burst, about three inches -from the muzzle. - -From this I infer that, in the first trial, the velocity of the ball was -not so great, but that the air escaped past it, by what is technically -called the windage, allowing it to strike the plug at the end of the -barrel with sufficient force to alter the shape of the lead in the -manner described. The second trial gave an increased velocity; the -opposing forces being so nearly balanced that the ball scarcely reached -the end of the barrel, and was very little injured. In the third trial -the velocity became so great, and the air was condensed to such an -extent, that the ball struck upon a cushion-like surface so highly -elastic that it was extracted without the least injury to its shape. The -last charge was too powerful, inasmuch as the lateral pressure of -compressed air rent the tube asunder. - -The one great cause of this and other barrels bursting, arises from the -velocity becoming too great, and thus driving back the air upon itself, -until the mutual repulsion of the particles forms an almost impenetrable -barrier, exerting a lateral pressure on the barrel, and resisting the -passage of the elastic fluid. To make the explanation plain; supposing -that the charge had condensed the air for the distance of three or four -inches immediately preceding it, and then come to rest, the waves of -vibration, travelling at the rate of 1,300 feet per second, would -communicate to the remainder of the column the same pressure, and an -equilibrium would take place. But this not being the case, and the air -becoming still more highly compressed by the velocity not decreasing but -increasing, the lateral pressure becomes greater than the fibres of the -iron are able to withstand, and consequently the barrel is burst. Many -accidents arise from this cause solely, and without any blame being -attached to either the maker or user of the gun. While on this subject, -we may remark that this is the more likely, inasmuch as the powder with -which barrels are proved is not the strongest, and is also of a large -grain; so that it is quite within the range of probability that a barrel -may, and it does often, stand proof, and yet burst when it comes to be -used with extremely fine-grained strong powder; as it is quite clear -that a high velocity must create danger. - -To pursue the subject still further: in order to procure conclusive -evidence in support of this argument, I had a tube of iron manufactured, -sufficiently good in quality to bear an enormous pressure; it was three -feet in length, with a bore large enough to admit an ounce ball, and the -sides of the arch were full a quarter of an inch in thickness. A piece -of steel, one inch in length, was then turned of a size to fit the bore -well, but not so tight as to prevent its free action: this I called a -piston. From the centre of the tube to the muzzle, were drilled, on all -sides, a number of small holes, a quarter of an inch distant from each -other, in all amounting to sixty-eight; these were fitted with small -pieces of steel needles, hardened, projecting into the interior of the -tube a quarter of an inch, so that the piston, in its upward movement, -should strike these pins, and thus enable me to judge how far it was -driven by each experiment. Each end of the tube was then fitted with a -breech, firmly screwed in; the upper one having a flat internal surface, -the lower one, where ignition was to be communicated, being a conical or -patent breech. This machine I termed an explosion metre; and it answered -its purpose. With two drachms of the best canister gunpowder, the piston -was propelled nineteen inches along the tube; breaking eight pins. The -same quantity of the fine diamond grain reached only eighteen inches, or -four pins. No. 3 grain, of both Laurence's and Pigou and Wilks' -manufacture, reached twenty-four inches, or twenty-eight pins. A very -superior powder, containing in one grain five of diamond, four of -canister, and two of the above makers' No. 2, reached twenty-seven -inches, and broke forty pins. In each of these experiments the greatest -accuracy was observed, in preparing the metre as well as in weighing the -charge. - -These facts go far to prove that, in all uses of gunpowder, the grain -should be of a size proportioned to the length and bore of the gun; for -if we have not an accelerating force to overcome the increasing -resistance of the compressed column of air in the barrel, there is great -danger that the gun may be burst, and probably be productive of great -mischief; whilst a judicious application of the extraordinary power thus -placed at our disposal, may be alike conducive to our safety and our -pleasure. A musket ball can be driven through an half-inch boiler plate; -but this can only be accomplished by using as much powder as will -generate a gradually, though rapidly, increasing power, until the ball -has passed the limits of the tube. - -Nitre is not the only salt which has been employed in the manufacture of -gunpowder. Its quantity or proportion in the mixture has been lessened, -and the deficiency supplied by another elementary combination; namely, -by the chlorate of potassa. - -The French succeeded in making powder of which potassa forms one of the -component parts, and they say it ranges the projectile double the -distance; but this is doubtful. The proportions of the mixture are -nitrate of potash twenty-five parts, chlorate of potassa forty-five, -sulphur fifteen, charcoal seven and a half, and lycopodium seven and a -half parts. In the year 1809, a similar kind of powder was proposed to -the English Government, by a person of the name of Parr; but its -introduction was very properly opposed by Sir William Congreve, on -account of the danger attending its use, and also from the fact that -there was no piece of ordnance in the service able to withstand its -effects. The proportions were, chlorate of potassa six parts, fine -charcoal one part, sulphur one part. These ingredients to be _carefully_ -mixed together and granulated. The above mixture was laid aside, not -only from the want of power to restrain its effects, but because it was -useless, from the very extreme rapidity of its explosion: it forms the -atmospheric air into a wall of adamant, by the condensation confining it -to a comparatively small space; it becomes lightning--an electric fluid, -which, from its very intensity, cannot displace any great mass of air. - -Neither can any advantage arise from any greater velocity in projectile -force, except we can obtain that by a graduated scale; for masses -cannot, from a state of rest, be put in extreme motion instantaneously: -philosophy teaches us, and experience makes it evident, that a portion -of time must be occupied, however short that may be. All motion is -gradual, and cannot be obtained otherwise; and hence the fact, that -lightning conveyed into a tube filled with projectiles would not drive -them out: it would not project them, but the blow would break them in -pieces. So is it with this mixture; it is useless from its very rapidity -of ignition. We have shown that even fine grain gunpowder is too quick, -and that its quickness destroys its power; how much more so is the -other: and what would it avail us, with these disadvantages. - -A writer mentions what he conceives to be a curious fact: he says, "If a -train of gunpowder be crossed at right angles by a train of fulminating -mercury, laid on a sheet of paper on a table, and the gunpowder lighted -by a red hot wire, the flame will run on until it meets the cross train -of fulminating mercury, when the inflammation of the latter will be so -instantaneous as to cut off the connection with the continuous train of -gunpowder, leaving one half of the train unignited:" and again, "If the -fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on, and pass -through the train of gunpowder so rapidly as not to inflame it at all." -True; and the cause is quite apparent: the rapidity of combustion -condenses the air so quickly, as to remove the grains of gunpowder -liable to come in contact with the flame, and to form the condensed air -into a line of demarcation: for heat cannot be taken up by the air -quicker than the atmosphere will convey sound; and before the heat can -evaporate the explosion is over, and is consequently noiseless. - -In all mining operations: in the quarrying of stone, the destruction of -sunken rocks, or in any other operations where it is desirable to detach -large masses, the use of gunpowder is indispensable; not only because it -decreases manual exertion but also because it can be used under -circumstances and in situations unapproachable by other means. It -becomes, therefore, a consideration for the miner what kind is best -suited for the purpose; the finest grained powder is useless as is well -known: it is also more expensive; but its principal defect arises from -its quickness of combustion. Masses cannot be detached without first -putting the whole in motion; and as this cannot be done in a very short -time, it is necessary to prolong the explosion, so that the wave of -vibration may have time to travel throughout the whole of the mass acted -upon; and a repetition of these waves is necessary before any mass can -move. Now, to obtain this, it is necessary that matter be so -incorporated with the powder as to prolong that explosion; bituminous -substances might be applied with effect, for their slow burning would -keep the heat necessary to hold the permanent gases at their utmost -stretch of expansion. - -It is obvious, from the extremely high character English sporting -gunpowder has obtained all over the world, that considerable improvement -must have been effected by the private manufacturers, either in the -purification or manipulation of ingredients; indeed the unwearied care -bestowed on this point by several of our best makers is beyond all -praise. To explain the various methods, or otherwise enlarge upon this -point, would be injurious to individual skill and enterprise, and be the -means of imparting knowledge to those who have not ability to invent, -but who gather from the brains of others. The French set great value on -the "Poudre de Chasse" of England. It is rather singular that we should -excel those who pride themselves so much on their chemical knowledge; -but, as before remarked, it is certain that the intimate incorporation -of the ingredients is of more importance than the chemical proportions. - -All military and naval gunpowder is not manufactured of the greatest -strength that can be acquired "_at the Government mills_;" a sample is -furnished to each contractor with each contract, and to this strength he -is limited. - -The fame of our English gunpowder makers is patent to all the world, -and, where skill is equal, to name one rather than another would be -invidious; though we must not lose sight of the facts herein -established. "Granulation," properly understood, is an equivalent point -to either chemical or mechanical knowledge and manipulation in gunpowder -manufacture. Great anxiety to meet the wishes of the sporting world on -this point, and to advance with the age, has been aroused; and specimens -have been kindly furnished to me, not by one, but by all the following -celebrated makers: Messrs. Pigou and Wilks, Curtis and Harvey, Lawrence -and Son, John Hall and Son; and I have received also a very excellent -specimen from the Scotch mills. - -Gunpowder of five sizes of granulation, on the basis before alluded to: -namely, No. 2, containing two quantities of No. 1, and No. 3, three, and -so on in progression; but it is imperative that all the various sizes be -produced from the same mill cake, or be otherwise of the same -condensation or specific gravity, and in all experiments of comparison, -equal weights are a "sine quâ non," otherwise the comparison will be -futile; as measure is, for these very obvious reasons, inapplicable in -comparative tests. When these points are carefully attained, increased -power of killing, "decreased recoil," and much greater safety, will be -the important benefits which the gunpowder manufacturers will confer on -every one using a gun. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ARTILLERY. - - -Arcualia, from "arcus, a bow," appears to have been the original name, -and included all sorts of "missiles," as well as the engines by which -they were propelled. The sling, still in common use by the Arabs on the -banks of the upper Euphrates, being most probably the first kind of -artillery, and the bow and arrow a succeeding stage of improvement. - -Artillery, now in the general acceptance of the term, includes all and -every description of gun, of greater power and dimensions than muskets -and other shoulder guns. - -Modern civilization, with its giant strides of improvement, has rejected -the cumbrous and unsightly complication of springs, levers and wheels; -and given to us, in their stead, the light and handsome six-pounder -cannon; which is so easy of transit that it can accomplish the most -complex and difficult movements, while the horses are at their fullest -gallop. A single minute now suffices to stop when at the greatest speed, -unlimber, load, fire a couple of rounds, and remount; the gun is -speedily at a distance--while the eye can scarcely follow, or the mind -imagine, the destruction that must follow when the "deep-tongued gun" -is fired in attack. - -I shall now proceed to notice the comparative effects of guns of various -calibre and power, and attempt to convey to the reader a distinct idea -of their respective defects and advantages. The artillery of England -comprises an immense variety of weapons of war, suited for various -purposes and situations, as experience has dictated, or necessity -required. The present state of our artillery requires _an advance to the -front_, to be in a line with the march of science, as regards the -knowledge of gunpowder and projectiles; I may, therefore, be permitted -to animadvert on what appears to me to need improvement. - -The profession may think it presumptuous in me to offer a suggestion or -give an opinion; for it too frequently happens that individuals, who -have employed their whole time and study on one especial subject, think -they alone can understand it, and consider any opposition to their -opinions, or any doubt of the soundness of their conclusions, little -short of a positive offence. - -Having given considerable attention to the subject, I would now beg to -offer some remarks on the Government arrangements of gunnery, which are -not yet so perfect as they might be. - -The authorities of the Ordnance Department are, I am sorry to state, too -remiss in considering, and too unwilling to avail themselves of valuable -improvements and discoveries; clinging too much to prejudice in favour -of whatever has been heretofore in use. To such an extent is this habit -carried, that many improvements become familiar to half the kingdom, -aye, and are adopted by other countries, before our guides take -advantage of them: for truly talent and ingenuity are but scantily -patronized by them. My wish is to aid in sweeping away the cobwebs which -still hang on the science of great gunnery; and to push the spur of -conviction deep, that instead of Britain following, she may, in a time -of peace, lead the way in improvements; so that whenever war returns, -she may not be unprepared to wage it on equal terms. - -I have in this chapter endeavoured to divest the subject of all -extraneous matter, and impart as much information as will enable the -reader to form an opinion for himself, and understand something of a -science hitherto considered abstract, and which is, no doubt, abstruse. -This I have sought to effect in plain language, avoiding, wherever it -was possible, all technicalities. - -The guns of the British nation may be divided into four classes--Park, -or Field artillery, Siege guns, or battering train, garrison guns, and -marine artillery. The numbers of different descriptions of rates, or -weight of guns, vary in all the different classes of the service. There -are light, medium, and heavy six-pounders; long and short twenty-four -pounders; and two or more weights in all the varieties, even up to the -ten-inch gun and thirteen-inch mortar. We have iron ordnance and brass, -for long and short ranges, for small or great velocity. The rate, -weight, length, charges, point blank, extreme range, &c., of iron guns, -will be found in the annexed table, by which will be seen, at a glance, -the various matters referred to. - -IRON ORDNANCE. - - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - Nature | | | Charge |Point |Extreme| - of |Weight.|Length.| of |Blank |at | Windage - Gun. | | | Powder. |Range.|5 deg. |decreased. - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - Pounders.| cwts. |ft. in.|lbs. ozs. |yards.| yards.| - 32 | 63 | 9 7 | 10 10-1/2| 380 | 1950 | -- - 32 | 56 | 9 6 | 10 10-1/2| 380 | 1950 | -- - 32 | 48 | 8 0 | 8 0 | 330 | 1740 | -- - 32 | 40 | 7 6 | 6 0 | 340 | 1700 | ·06 - 32 | 32 | 6 6 | 5 0 | 330 | 1640 | ·11 - 32 | 25 | 6 0 | 4 0 | 225 | 1500 | ·11 - 32 | 25 | 5 4 | 4 0 | 225 | 1500 | ·11 - 24 | 50 | 9 6 | 8 0 | 360 | 1850 | -- - 24 | 48 | 9 0 | 8 0 | 360 | 1850 | -- - 24 | 40 | 7 6 | 8 0 | 340 | 1800 | -- - 24 | 33 | 6 6 | 6 0 | 260 | 1560 | -- - 18 | 42 | 9 0 | 6 0 | 360 | 1780 | -- - 18 | 38 | 8 0 | 6 0 | 340 | 1730 | -- - 12 | 34 | 9 0 | 4 0 | 360 | 1700 | -- - 12 | 29 | 7 6 | 4 0 | 340 | 1650 | -- - 9 | 26 | 7 6 | 3 0 | 330 | 1600 | -- - 6 | 17 | 6 0 | 2 0 | 320 | 1520 | -- - Carronades. | | | | | - 68 | 36 | 5 4 | 5 10-1/2| 270 | 1420 | -- - 42 | 22 | 4 6 | 3 8 | 240 | 1350 | -- - 32 | 17 | 4 0 | 2 10-1/2| 235 | 1260 | -- - 24 | 13 | 3 9 | 2 0 | 225 | 1150 | -- - 18 | 10 | 3 4 | 1 8 | 220 | 1100 | -- - 12 | 6 | 2 8 | 1 0 | 205 | 1000 | -- - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - -Brass guns are invariably lighter, and considered less likely to burst. -Gun metal, technically so called, is a compound of copper and tin, in -the proportion of five, eight, and ten pounds of the latter to 100 -pounds of the former. The peculiar property of the tin is to give -hardness and solidity to the mass. The greater proportions are used -principally for mortars, as they require a greater degree of hardness -than other guns. A peculiar property attaches to the using of brass -guns. If a considerable number of rounds be fired in rapid succession, -the bore of the gun becomes to a certain extent elliptical. This -peculiarity arises entirely from the extreme windage allowed by the -present established rules of British gunnery; and is produced by the -tendency of the shot, when propelled by the explosive force, to strike -upwards from the breech, and then rebound downwards, and so on till it -reaches the muzzle. Iron guns are not liable to this (although the same -cause exists) from the unductile nature of the cast iron. - -Brass guns are, after certain use, recast: this is done solid, with the -cascable of the gun downwards, to give a greater density to the metal at -the breech. The boring and turning are performed simultaneously by a -very simple arrangement. At the siege of Badajos, the firing continued -for 104 hours, and the number of rounds that each gun fired averaged -1,249; and at the siege of Sebastian, the quantity fired by each gun was -about 350 rounds, in 15-1/2 hours. These guns being of iron, none of -them were rendered unserviceable; though three times the number of brass -guns would not have been equal to such long and rapid firing. All brass -guns are bouched with a bolt of copper at the vent, on the same -principle as flint guns for sporting were formerly with gold or platina; -copper withstanding the rapid escape of the flame better than the -gun-metal. The charges, ranges, &c., are as follows:-- - -EXTREME AND POINT BLANK RANGE OF BRASS ORDNANCE, CHARGE, &C. - - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - |Charge.|Point |Extreme|Eleva-| - ---- | |Blank | Range.| tion.| ---- - | |Range.| | | - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - |lb. oz.|yards.| yards.| deg. | - Medium 12-pounder| 4 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |} - Light 12-pounder | 4 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - 9-pounder | 3 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |}With round solid - Long 6-pounder | 2 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |}Shot. - Light 6-pounder | 2 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - Heavy 3-pounder | 1 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - 24-pounder | | | | | } - howitzer | 2 8 | 250 | 950 | 3-1/2| } - 12-pounder | | | | | }With common Shells. - howitzer | 1 4 | 200 | 950 | 3-3/4| }When Shot is fired, - Heavy 5-1/2-inch | | | | | }they increase the - howitzer | 2 0 | 250 | 1,750 | 12 | }elevation 1/2 a deg. - Light 5-1/2-inch | | | | | } - howitzer | 2 0 | 100 | 1,350 | 2 | } - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - -The twelve, ten, and eight-inch guns, almost form a class of themselves, -known as the "Paixhan Gun." They are intended for throwing both hollow -and solid shot. The larger are the description of ordnance with which we -at present arm our steam frigates. - -These are unquestionably part of the many doubtful descriptions of -artillery which have been adopted of late years, with a view to -_fracture_ more than to secure a range of projectile. They are enormous -machines, as will be seen on reference to their weights, as given in the -following table; and their splintering powers are certainly very -extensive indeed. But their range is contemptibly small, if we take into -consideration their great weight. The effect of the explosion of the -charge of one of these guns must be sensibly felt even by the strongest -built steamer in the world. They are used with traversing beds. The gun -carriage, when recoiling, in a backward direction, being driven up an -inclined railway, with from 3° to 4° of elevation, from the cascable of -the gun. This greatly tends to lessen the distance which the gun would -be driven back, and facilitates the running out of the piece to the -point of discharge. The woodcut gives a representation of the traversing -beds; and the following table displays the ranges, &c., of this class of -heavy artillery. - -[Illustration] - -RANGE AND ELEVATION, &C., OF 12, 10, AND 8-INCH GUNS, AT POINT BLANK AND -EXTREME, AND 10 AND 8-INCH HOWITZERS. - - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - | | | Charge |Point |Extreme|Eleva- - Nature of Ordnance.| Length. | Weight.| Powder. |Blank | Range.|tion. - | | | |Range.| | - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - |ft. in. |cwt. qr.|lbs. ozs.|yards.|yards. |deg. - 12-inch gun, with }| | | | | | - hollow shot, }| 8 4 | 90 3 | 12 0 | 240 | 1,550 | 6 - weight 112 lbs. }| | | | | | - 10-inch, with } | | | | | | - ditto, weight 86 } | 7 6 | 57 3 | 7 0 | 210 | 1,500 | 6 - lbs. } | | | | | | - Ditto | 8 4 | 62 1 | 8 0 | 250 | 1,400 | 5 - Ditto | 9 4 | 84 0 | 12 0 | 325 | 1,700 | 5 - 8-inch gun, with }| | | | | | - hollow shot, 48 }| 6 8-1/2| 50 0 | 7 0 | 210 | 1,300 | 5 - lbs. }| | | | | | - 8-inch ditto, } | | | | | | - solid shot, 68 } | 8 6 | 60 0 | 9 7 | 340 | 1,500 | 5 - lbs. } | | | | | | - Ditto | 9 0 | 65 0 | 10 0 | 300 | 3,250 |15 - Ditto, hollow shot | 9 0 | 65 0 | 12 0 | 370 | 2,920 |15 - 10-inch iron | | | | | | - howitzers | 5 0 | 40 0 | 7 0 |2 deg.| 2,078 |12 - | | | | 600 | | - 8-inch ditto | 4 0 | 21 0 | 4 0 |3 deg.| 1,725 |12 - | | | | 730 | | - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - - [2] Length of time occupied in flight, 14 seconds, and 15-1/4 - seconds. - -Mortars are intended for three purposes; firstly, to bombard a town, or -injure the defenders' artillery; secondly, to fire or overthrow the -works, and to spread havoc and slaughter among the troops; thirdly, to -break through the vaulted roofs of barracks and magazines which are not -bomb-proof, or, in other terms, are not strong enough to resist the -fire. - -They consist, as will be seen, of five descriptions, but the 10-inch is -considered, on the score of economy, as equal to all useful purposes. -The French have, at various times, constructed mortars of enormously -large dimensions, but certainly with no useful result. The monster -mortar, used at the siege of Antwerp, fired only ten or twelve shots, -and with comparatively little effect. It burst some time after, while -under a course of experiment, with a considerably less charge than it -had formerly withstood; thus affording one very conclusive and -illustrative fact in the theory of vibrations in metals: for there can -be no question but that the shell, from the smallness of the charge, was -too long detained in the mortar; the waves of vibration caused by the -explosive force moving so rapidly through the mass that the metal at -last lost its cohesive nature from their very rapid succession. - -It will be perceived, on reference to the adjoining tables, that ranges -are obtained by the modifications of charges. - -ENGLISH MORTAR PRACTICE.[3] - - [3] Artillerist's Manual. - - --------------------------------++--------------------------------+ - 13-INCH IRON. || 10-INCH IRON. | - Weight, 16 cwts. || 16 cwts. 2 qrs. | - Shell filled, 200 lbs.[4] || 92 lbs. | - Bursting powder, 6 lbs. 2 ozs. || 2 lbs. 10 ozs. | - Blowing powder, 2 ozs. || 1-1/2 ozs. | - -------+-----------+-----+------++-------+-----------+-----+------+ - Ele- | Charge. |Fuse.|Range.|| Ele- | Charge. |Fuse.|Range.| - vation.| | | ||vation.| | | | - -------+-----------+-----+------+--------+-----------+-----+------+ - deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.|| deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.| - 45 | 2 1-1/2| 1·90| 450|| 45 | 1 0-1/2| 1·90| 450| - | 2 3 | 2·00| 500|| | 1 2 | 2·00| 500| - | 2 4-3/4| 2·10| 550|| | 1 3-1/4| 2·10| 550| - | 2 6 | 2·20| 600|| | 1 4-3/4| 2·20| 600| - | 2 7-3/4| 2·30| 650|| | 1 6 | 2·30| 650| - | 2 9-1/2| 2·40| 700|| | 1 7-1/2| 2·40| 700| - | 2 11-3/4| 2·45| 750|| | 1 9 | 2·45| 750| - | 2 14 | 2·50| 800|| | 1 10 | 2·50| 800| - | 3 0-1/2| 2·55| 850|| | 1 11 | 2·55| 850| - | 3 3 | 2·60| 900|| | 1 12 | 2·60| 900| - | 3 5-1/2| 2·65| 950|| | 1 13 | 2·65| 950| - | 3 8 | 2·70| 1,000|| | 1 14 | 2·70| 1,000| - | 3 10 | 2·75| 1,050|| | 1 15-1/4| 2·75| 1,050| - | 3 12 | 2·80| 1,100|| | 2 0-1/2| 2·80| 1,100| - | 3 14 | 2·85| 1,150|| | 2 1-3/4| 2·85| 1,150| - | 4 0 | 2·90| 1,200|| | 2 3 | 2·90| 1,200| - -------+-----------+-----+------++-------+-----------+-----+------+ - - +------------------------------------+ - | 8-INCH IRON. | - | 8 cwts. 1 qr. | - | 46 lbs. | - | 1 lb. 14 ozs. | - | 1 oz. | - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - |Elevation.| Charge. |Fuse.|Range.| - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - | deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.| - | 15 | 0 14 | 0·80| 500| - | | 1 0 | 1·00| 550| - | | 1 2 | 1·10| 600| - | 45 | 0 9-1/2| 1·90| 450| - | | 0 10-3/4| 2·00| 500| - | | 0 12-1/2| 2·10| 550| - | | 0 13-3/4| 2·20| 600| - | | 0 14-1/2| 2·30| 650| - | | 0 15-1/2| 2·40| 700| - | | 1 0 | 2·45| 750| - | | 1 0-1/2| 2·50| 800| - | | 1 1-1/4| 2·55| 850| - | | 1 2 | 2·60| 900| - | | 1 2-3/4| 2·65| 950| - | | 1 3-1/2| 2·70| 1,000| - | | 1 4 | 2·75| 1,050| - | | 1 4-3/4| 2·80| 1,100| - | | 1 5-1/4| 2·85| 1,150| - | | 1 6 | 2·90| 1,200| - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - - +--------------------------------++-------------------------------- - | 5-1/2-INCH BRASS. || 4 2-5th-INCH BRASS. - | Weight, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lbs. || 3 qrs. 19 lbs. - | Shell filled, 16 lbs.[5] || 8 lbs. - | Bursting powder, 10 ozs. || 5 ozs. - | Blowing powder, 1/2 oz. || 1/2 oz. - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - |Elevation.|Charge. |Fuse.|Range.||Elevation.| Charge.|Fuse.|Range. - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - | deg. |ozs. dr.|inch.|yards.|| deg. |ozs. dr.|inch.|yards. - | 15 | 6 0 | 0·73| 350 || 15 | 4 8 | 0·80| 450 - | | 7 0 | 0·75| 400 || | 4 12 | 0·85| 500 - | | 7 8 | 0·80| 450 || 25 | 4 0 | 1·10| 540 - | | 8 0 | 0·85| 500 || | | | - | 25 | 5 8 | 1·10| 480 || | | | - | 45 | 4 8 | | 300 || 45 | 2 6 | 1·65| 300 - | | 4 12 | | 350 || | 2 9 | 1·70| 350 - | | 5 0 | 1·75| 400 || | 2 12 | 1·75| 400 - | | 5 4 | 1·80| 450 || | 3 0 | 1·80| 450 - | | 5 8 | 1·85| 500 || | 3 4 | 1·85| 500 - | | 5 12 | 1·90| 550 || | 3 8 | 1·90| 550 - | | 6 0 | 1·95| 600 || | 3 12 | 1·95| 600 - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - - [4] Shells filled with sand, which will account for the weight. - - [5] Shells filled with sand, which will account for the weight. - - 13-INCH LAND SERVICE. 10-INCH DITTO. 8-INCH DITTO. - Greatest charge, 8 pounds powder. 4-1/2 pounds. 1 pound. - Greatest range, 2,706 yards. 2,536 yards. 1,720 yards. - -WEIGHT OF LAND AND SEA SERVICE MORTAR. - - Inches. cwts. qrs. lbs. Inches. - 13 Land service, Weight, 36 2 0 Length, 36·563 - 10 do. " 16 2 0 " 28·125 - 8 do. " 8 2 14 " 22·500 - 5-1/2 do. brass, " 1 1 15 " 15·104 - 4-2/3 do. do. " 0 3 20 " 12·713 - 13 Sea service, " 100 1 14 " 52·810 - 10 do. " 52 0 0 " 45·620 - -[Illustration] - -Carronades are a short description of ordnance without trunnions, but -fastened by a loop under the reinforce. Their construction is materially -different from that of guns. They have a chamber like a mortar, a part -scooped out inside the muzzle, forming a cup, and they have also a patch -on the reinforce. The name arises from the Carron Foundry in Scotland, -the first of them having been cast there in 1779. The construction is -considerably lighter than that of guns of similar calibre. Their -principal use is on board ship; but they are sometimes used in -casemates, or retired flanks of fortresses. - -The proportions of all guns to shot, will be found below; and in looking -at this table, it will scarce be conceivable how such light guns can -project such heavy shot. - -COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF GUNS AND SHOT. - - -------------------+-------+----------- - |Weight |Comparative - ---- | of | Weight. - | Guns. | - -------------------+-------+----------- - | cwts. | - 12-inch Gun | 90 | 1 to 112 - 10 do. | 84 | 1 " 82 - 8 do. | 65 | 1 " 107 - 8 do. | 60 | 1 " 96 - 8 do. | 50 | 1 " 82 - 32-pounder | 64 | 1 " 224 - Do. | 56 | 1 " 196 - Do. | 48 | 1 " 168 - Do. | 40 | 1 " 140 - Do. | 32 | 1 " 112 - Do. | 25 | 1 " 84 - 24-pounder | 50 | 1 " 233 - Do. | 48 | 1 " 219 - Do. | 42 | 1 " 186 - 18-pounder | 42 | 1 " 261 - Do. | 37-1/2| 1 " 233 - 12-pounder | 34 | 1 " 318 - Do. | 29 | 1 " 270 - Do. | 21 | 1 " 196 - 9-pounder | 31 | 1 " 285 - Do. | 26 | 1 " 323 - Do. | 17 | 1 " 211 - 6-pounder | 23 | 1 " 429 - Do. | 17 | 1 " 327 - 68-pound Carronades| 30 | 1 " 59 - 42 do. | 22-1/4| 1 " 58 - 32 do. | 17 | 1 " 62 - 32 do. | 25 | 1 " 96 - 24 do. | 13 | 1 " 55 - 18 do. | 10 | 1 " 56 - 12 do. | 6 | 1 " 56 - -------------------+-------+----------- - -The recoil, which in all the before-mentioned guns is very great, arises -from the blow communicated to the iron in immediate contact with the -explosive fluid. The granulatory system of the metal transmits to those -grains, or crystals, immediately behind them, the blow or concussion -they are subjected to, and these again to others, and so on, until the -vibration has passed through the metal, from the interior of the breech -to the exterior of the gun. - -I am satisfied that in all small guns, from their slight substance, -recoil is communicated a great deal quicker than in larger ones; hence -arises the well-known fact that in shooting you receive a knock nearly -simultaneous with the explosion. The greater and heavier the gun (even -carry it up to General Miller's gun of 84 cwt.) if the proportion which -the shot bears to it be not too great, the less will be the velocity of -recoil. But in carronades, as will be seen, the proportions are as high -as 1 to 55, while in long guns, it is 1 to 429; a very considerable -degree of difference. - -Our ancestors had but a limited knowledge of the laws of projecting -bodies by gunpowder. Their explosive power was not good; for there is -clear proof, even since the time of Robins, that the purification of the -ingredients has nearly doubled the explosive force. The mechanical -construction and outer mould of their guns, were calculated to resist -and limit the effects of recoil to a great extent. - -Accumulation of metal in the rear of the breech-end of a gun is true -science, and of so easy an attainment, that wonder arises in the mind -why it has not been effected. The extent to which this principle is -worked upon in our gunnery is very trifling; though recoil can by this -simple arrangement be nearly destroyed, or so lessened as to add -considerable percentage of range to the projectile. Add no considerable -weight to the gun, but add it judiciously, behind the end of the chamber -and vent, and immediately surrounding the breech. I have tried this to a -great extent, on a small scale, "with fowling-piece barrels," and find -that the greatest advantage arises from an additional inch of metal to -the extreme end of the barrel, as the recoil is thereby lessened; while, -on the contrary, by reducing the exterior end of the breech, until it -becomes of less thickness than the sides of the barrel, the recoil is -doubled. Guns will some day be constructed as mortars are, with the -axles, or trunnions, in rear of the tube and of the vent; for by this -arrangement recoil would act less on the mass of metal forming the gun, -and more on the base from which it is fired. We are quite aware that an -arrangement of this nature could only be applied to certain descriptions -of ordnance, and in certain situations; but on forts, or batteries -commanding rivers and bays, and even in the bows of steam vessels, they -may be placed with great advantage. But this objection may be started: -"You could not use guns fitted in this manner horizontally, or nearly -so." Why not? The muzzle could be as easily raised or depressed as the -breech, by mechanical means. I should much like to see the principle -tried, and I hope to do so. - -The following results of experiments prove, that if a true basis is not -laid down, all the fabric raised upon it is but one of sand, which will -crumble away from under us. Hutton says,--"Varying the weight of the -gun, produced no change in the velocity of the ball. The guns were -suspended in the same manner as the pendulous blocks, and additional -weights were attached to the pieces, so as to restrain the recoil; but -although the arcs of the recoil were thus shortened, yet the velocity of -the ball was not altered by it. The recoil was then entirely prevented, -but the initial velocity of the ball remained the same." No doubt this -was the result of his experiments by the pendulous suspension of the -gun: but here he erred; for had he suspended a thousand tons to it, -without incorporating it in the gun, the result would still have been -the same. All the improvements effected, or yet to be accomplished, will -be obtained by a concentration of metal. - -An excess of weight in the fore part of a gun is very injurious, by -inducing and lengthening the tremulous vibration created by the -explosion. The only necessity for strength forward in a cannon, arises -from the necessity of resisting the lateral pressure from the -condensation of the column of air in the tube. The pressure of the -explosive gases is, by the velocity obtained before reaching the fore -part, of very little amount, from the short period it is exerted on the -interior. Therefore weight, in the fore part of a gun, be it ever so -great, will not prevent recoil if there is not a proportionate quantity -behind. It will retard or lessen the distance to which the recoil will -drive the gun and carriage, but the evil is then over. - -If the slightest movement occurs in the gun, the shot is projected from -an unsound base or foundation. It is precisely similar to a man who, in -the act of throwing a stone, slips his foot backwards: the effect is at -once apparent on the stone. If the trunnion of a gun breaks in the -discharge, or a quoin flies out, the shot is materially affected; never -ranging, under such circumstances, the accustomed distance, nor with its -usual accuracy. Practice with mortars proves beyond dispute the -necessity of a firm base for the gun, for with a much less charge they -project a greater mass farther. A mortar discharged on land, exceeds in -range the same description of gun on board of ship, or on the -best-constructed platform. In truth, this is but another illustration of -a law of nature: if you have not a solid fulcrum, it matters little what -the power of your lever may be. Gunpowder is a powerful lever if -exploded on a solid base; if not, its effects become limited in -proportion. Unquestionably, much may yet be gained by an economical -arrangement of our projectile force. Great and rapid as have been the -acquisitions of knowledge in everything relating to gunnery in modern -times, there still remains, I have no doubt, an unexplored mine of -valuable treasure to be added to the science. - -It would effect a great improvement in the mortars used by the navy, -destroying the tremendous vibration and shake given to the ship, -increasing their efficiency and aiding the projecting power, to place -them on beds of the softest lead, not less than twelve inches in -thickness. Though this suggestion is only theoretical, experience would -soon determine the least degree of substance available. Advantage would -arise, in the first place, from the non-conducting tendency of the lead; -in the second, from its density, and, of course, incompressibility. The -one protecting the ship, the other being the most solid bed for the -mortar that can by possibility be obtained. - -The weight of a hollow 13-inch shell is 190 lbs.; the bursting powder 6 -lbs. 8 oz.; the weight, if cast solid, would be 290 lbs.: thus the -action of so large a body on the atmosphere must be immense of itself. -There seems to be much difficulty in projecting masses of great -diameter, from this cause; and this should lead us to seek, as indeed it -points to, another material for fabricating projectiles. As weight is -less in substance, and, of course, less in space, much less resistance, -in proportion, will exist in a bore of six inches than in one of twelve; -and a greater projectile force will be generated with fewer -countervailing disadvantages. - -The first step in the vast improvements about to be effected in gunnery, -has been successfully taken by Mr. Monk, of Woolwich arsenal, who has -induced the authorities to allow a gun to be made from drawings and -calculations of his own. The dimensions of the gun are as follows: -length from cascable to muzzle, 11 feet; weight, 97 cwt. 3 qrs.; bore, -7-7/10 inches; weight of solid shot, 55 lbs.; shell, 42 lbs.; windage, -0·175; charge, 16 lbs. of powder; giving a range, at 32° of elevation, -of 5,327 yards. _A compound shot_, (a shell filled with lead), was -projected 5,720 yards, or _three miles and a quarter_, at a velocity, -during the first second of time, of 2,400 feet per second, and occupying -during the whole flight only 29-1/2 seconds. The comparative weight of -gun and shot is 1 to 220. - -A course of experiments, extending over seventeen years, has firmly -established this gun as the best ever yet constructed. Many attempts -have been made to excel it, but all have failed. Guns have been made on -drawings varying not more than three-tenths of an inch in their -dimensions from those of his gun, and, with extreme _modesty_, the -individuals have claimed a right to compete with Mr. Monk; and have -even obtained competing trials, without any claim whatever to the -discovery of the principle of it; coming into competition by no just -claim or merit, but solely from the tendency to supersede any -improvement emanating from a _civilian_. Eighteen, twenty-four, and -thirty-two pounders are now, however, constructed on this model;--indeed -the improvement is so great and so apparent, as to overcome every -obstacle as yet thrown in its way. - -With no wish to detract from the merit of Mr. Monk's invention (upon -which I congratulate him and the country) but, in justice to myself, I -may remind some of my readers, that in "The Gun," published early in -1835, I clearly laid down the principle in _projectile force_, on which -this gun is constructed; and as he has since so successfully -accomplished this great improvement, he must permit me to say, that the -principle is the same which I have striven for, for many years. - -Wilkinson says, "Guns cast on this principle, although several -hundredweight lighter altogether, recoil less than those on the old -plan, with equal charges of powder and ball, in consequence of the -weight being _properly_ distributed." He adds, "One remarkable fact -attended these experiments, namely, that by increasing the windage a -little, the range was increased also, contrary to the received opinion; -but this may be explained by the circumstance, that with very great -velocities, and long guns, the column of air to be displaced before the -ball quits the gun is considerable, and is condensed so rapidly, that -it offers immense resistance to the passage of the bullet, if it fit the -bore closely; but, by reducing the size of the ball, and thus increasing -the windage, the air has more space to rush round it, and the ball -escapes with greater facility." - -If the condensed air prevented the velocity being greater, it argues -most clearly, that there was an insufficiency of explosive matter to -keep up the velocity until the ball of less windage left the muzzle; and -the result with the ball of greater windage establishes this assumption. -For if the condensed air was allowed to pass the ball by the windage -into the tube, it proves beyond doubt that there was a deficiency of -matter there, or that the pressure without was greater than that within. -How otherwise could such a result occur? It is a clearly established -fact, that with the generality of ordnance, a full waste of one-fourth -of explosive force, if not more, occurs by the _elastic fluid_ escaping -past the ball by the windage, instead of the reverse. Neither could the -condensed air rush into the gun by the windage if there are any -_permanent gases_ generated; which Mr. Wilkinson himself says there are, -to the extent of "250 times the bulk of the powder in grain." These -would offer a sufficient resistance to prevent the condensed air rushing -in. I have found, by an experiment before described, that a ball driven -against a column of air which has no escape, if the velocity be -trifling, say 800 feet per second, the air will escape by the windage; -but double this even, and it is so condensed as to form a cushion for -the ball to strike against. Then how much less will the chance be of its -escaping, if the velocity become two thousand four hundred feet per -second. No, the cause is remote from that of Mr. Wilkinson's -supposition. There is a want of force--an accelerative propellant -force--which should continue to the end of the tube, be that length ever -so great; and on this point, for one, turns the whole future improvement -of gunnery. - -The result wished for can be obtained by a systematical arrangement of -the granulation of powder. That a much greater velocity than is obtained -in this gun--at present the greatest in any piece of ordnance in use, -and possessing a longer range than has been obtained by any power in -Europe--may and will be attained, I fearlessly assert. I have obtained a -velocity with an ounce ball nearly doubling this; and though, as it will -be argued, this may be too limited an experiment, yet let us not forget -that great results most frequently spring from little causes. Large -rivers owe their origin to small springs, and if the same principle by -which we can penetrate a plate of iron half an inch thick with an ounce -of lead, be fearlessly and judiciously carried through, we may (and no -doubt we shall) live to see projectiles thrown 5-1/4 miles. That this -will be difficult to accomplish I deny: no difficulty attends it, -provided the principles before explained are duly carried out. - -The great principle in a propellant force is so to arrange it that you -do not obtain too great a velocity at the first move of the projectile; -as no mass can be forced from a state of rest to a rapid state of -motion, without communicating to the gun a corresponding motion, which -will create a recoil: and the greater the motion, the greater the -recoil. If the explosive matter merely expands for a brief period, and -is burnt out before the shot has reached midway the length of the gun, -the velocity there acquired will be reduced, by the condensed column of -air in the other half of the barrel, to the velocity it possessed when -only one fourth the length of the whole from the breech; consequently it -would be advantageous to cut the gun in two at the middle, as a greater -force would be then generated advantageously, than by the whole. But if -you so arrange the granulation of your powder that it shall proceed into -motion more gradually, a rapidly increasing force of elastic fluid will -continue to be generated, until it reaches its greatest maximum of -velocity (which it should do just as the ball leaves the muzzle) then -you obtain with your means the greatest result possible. - -We believe that the generality of gunpowder used by our Government is -vastly inferior in strength to some made by private makers; yet it is -not advisable to jump from one extreme to another. What is wanted is the -proper blending of the qualities; an addition of a quantity of Harvey's -quick powder to a charge, when it has driven the ball up three-fourths -of the tube of a gun, and probably had acquired a velocity of 2,000 feet -per second, might so aid it, that it would leave the muzzle with a -velocity of 3,000. - -You cannot put a locomotive train in motion at once: if it were -attempted, you would break all the carriages; but if you gradually add -your force, you gain in time the greatest possible velocity. I have -drawn a parallel case: it is the same with gunpowder; only the -velocities are widely different. Therefore, I may be pardoned, if I say -gunnery is like steam, but in its infancy. Let us but clearly see and -understand aright the principle--knowing that the greater momentum the -less the action of the atmosphere--and if 3-1/4 miles can be obtained -with a ball 60 lbs. weight, 5-1/4 may be easily accomplished by a ball -of 120 lbs. Powder is made, and can be had, that will do this. - -The use of compound-shot has of late years become quite common in -experiments: why lead, with its alloys, has not been more extensively -used as a projectile for large guns, has always appeared to me -extraordinary. Its weight and density peculiarly fit it for this -purpose, and its non-conducting principle is its greatest -recommendation. How is it? In no instance, except as compound-shot, do -we find any record of the use of leaden bullets on a large scale, save -in Sir Howard Douglas's "Naval Gunnery," where, in a note, he says, "A -very distinguished naval commander mentioned to me, that he knew a -person who had served in an American privateer, which, being out of -shot, and unable to procure a supply of iron balls, used leaden shot as -substitutes. This person always mentioned with great surprise the -superior effect of leaden balls." Well he might; for the reader need not -be told that its greater specific gravity would add to its momentum, and -a longer medium velocity be retained during its flight. But it -possesses another recommendation, superior to all these, in warfare: -that of communicating all its force, all its velocity, be they ever so -great, to the body struck. Iron does not possess this quality; except to -a certain extent, and that at low velocities. Hence the cause of its -being found in naval warfare, that balls at low velocities damage and -destroy ships' sides more than at higher velocities, even when passing -quite through. Lead, in the act of striking hard substances, iron or -stone for instance, is partially flattened, until the flat surface is -nearly equal to the diameter of the sphere of the ball; thus parting -with all the force it struck the object with, and in most instances -falling motionless at the base of the object struck; while in the stone, -the surrounding crystals or grains are, by their abrasion on each other, -pounded into dust, in proportion to the size and force of the body of -lead striking them: in many instances to many times the shot's bulk, and -only flattening the lead, less or more, in proportion to the capability -of the stone to resist. Iron striking stone retains its shape: the -grains are driven back upon each other, and each offering its proportion -of elasticity, the ball is enabled to rebound back; which it does in -many instances to a considerable percentage of the whole distance it had -been projected. The greater the velocity with which an iron ball is -projected the greater the rebound back from a hard substance such as -stone. Reversely, the greater the velocity of lead, the greater its -effect on the object struck. Walls or fortifications struck by leaden -balls at the same velocities (waiving the advantage to lead by its -greater specific gravity) would be pounded into sand by less than -two-thirds the same number of lead as of iron shot. Any unprejudiced -person may soon satisfy himself of this, by trying it with a musket or -fowling piece. A leaden ball will pound itself a hole many times its own -bulk, while an iron ball will not make a hole half its size. - -I have tried many experiments to ascertain the penetrating powers of -iron and lead relatively, by striking various objects, from a boiler -plate of half an inch thickness down to fir deals. The same size of lead -will, under certain circumstances, punch a perfect hole in a plate of -half-inch thickness, as I shall have occasion to show; while, under -precisely the same arrangement, the iron ball would rebound back with -very little diminution of force; and if the plate of iron be at a -perfect right angle, the iron ball would nearly return into the muzzle, -of the gun. In truth, I had a narrow escape seventeen years ago, from a -bullet actually cutting the rim of my hat: so that it will be well, when -experimenting in this way, to be sure that the person is well esconced, -for fear of unpleasant results. - -Lead, therefore, for destroying ships, as well as stone walls, is -unquestionably highly advantageous; even if projected with the same -velocities as at present adopted for iron. The additional weight would -not decrease the destructive effects; it would augment them. I perfectly -agree with the American _privateer_, that the wonderfully destructive -power of leaden cannon balls will create surprise, whenever they shall -come generally into use. Imagine the effect from a gun of the -dimensions of a 10-inch bore. It is dreadful to contemplate. - -The effect of lead will be easily understood when explained in the -following way. If a 36 lb. shot have a velocity of 2,000 feet per -second, the force is equal to the velocity multiplied by the weight, or -72,000 lbs. The whole of this force would strike a wall, and be left -there, if communicated by soft lead; if by iron, at the same velocity, -it would be minus the amount of force required to make it rebound to the -great distance to which iron invariably returns. Though created by the -elasticity of the iron itself, this must be deducted from the effect -produced, and hence arises the great advantage the lead possesses. We -are aware that iron driven with a slight velocity rebounds less; true, -and less is its real effect; for under the very same circumstances would -the great advantages of the lead predominate. It may be objected, that -lead is too easily misshaped; "pure it is, but with alloys not so." At -low velocities it might, but the greater velocities diminish that -chance, as it is a well known fact that all dense incompressible bodies -are least affected by an extremely sharp motion. All our arrangements in -warlike preparations, at present, involve great weight of projectile for -fracturing, not perforating. During the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, 2,159 -rounds, of twenty-four and eighteen pounders, were requisite to form the -small breach of thirty feet wide, and 6,478 rounds for the larger of 100 -feet. At Badajos there was expended, to form three breaches of 40, 90, -and 150 feet respectively, the enormous amount of 31,861 rounds of the -same sized iron shot. We may be pardoned if we presume to say, one-half -the number of lead shot would have done more, and done it better. - -If we bear in mind, that the whole round of experiments from which -Hutton drew his deductions, were conducted with iron projectiles, the -inconsistency of taking his data as the standard will be apparent. The -dissimilitude of specific gravities being great, namely, 7,425 and -11,327--or one-third difference--it clearly shows, without any effort of -the imagination, that the range must be in the same proportion, with the -addition of greater momentum. For it will scarcely be denied, that a -ball of gold or platina, from the same cause, will maintain a velocity -longer, and consequently range further, than even lead. Hutton's theory -only establishes the principle, that the lighter the body projected, the -sooner it is acted upon by atmospheric resistance, and a medium velocity -induced. We cannot attribute his preferring iron to arise from an -opinion of its penetrating to greater depths; for a man of his extensive -knowledge and research could scarcely be guilty of such an error. But -even in our enlightened times we are told that elephants cannot be -killed with any projectile but steel: leaden balls cannot do it. I -should like to try, and receive the _tusks_ in return. - -The shrapnell shell (invented by General Shrapnell), or spherical case -shot, introduced into the British service of late years, is probably the -most destructive of any missile in use. It was intended to -supersede--which it has done--canister and grape shot; effecting the -same results at treble the range. The construction and principle are -very simple, being merely a shell of an unusually light description; in -fact, little more than a light cast-iron hollow ball, with a fuse hole. -A certain quantity of leaden, or iron bullets is put into it, and the -interstices around the ball shaken full of powder; a fuse of the length -required is inserted, and explodes the shell during its flight: the -peculiarity being, that the body of small balls retain their medium -velocity and travel on, merely diverging, latterly, like an immense -charge of bird shot. They are usually fired from howitzers, carronades, -and other wide bored-guns, at or near horizontal ranges. A considerable -delay occurred before they were successfully perfected. It was found -that when the small balls did not pack perfectly tight, or were packed -overtight, the case frequently exploded in the gun: occasioned, no -doubt, by the friction creating a spark at the moment of the howitzer -being fired, and thus exploding the shell before its time; but we -believe such an occurrence rarely happens now, from other improvements -since adopted. - -The preceding pages appeared in my last work published in 1846. They are -still so much in keeping with the state of gunnery at the present day, -and so prophetic of what has, and is about to occur, that they will be -regarded, I trust, as bearing the stamp of authority. - -Progress, in its rapid advance, has made many English guns objects for -the furnace or the museum; and many guns, which formerly ranked high as -useful and important weapons, have become things of the past. - -Monsters are now all the rage, with a range of three miles, and -artillerists contemplate extending the range to double that distance; -whilst the projectiles used are not "pounders," but approximating to -tons. So much for improvement. In political economy we are told that -improvement to be good must be gradual; but only effect some slight -improvement in gunnery, make but one step in advance, and the desire for -further improvement then ranges at will, and impossibilities are craved -for and sought to be attained. - -Twelve years ago the success of Mr. Monck (certainly the first modern -improver of ordnance,) led to the unlimited production of undigested -plans for changes in gunnery; but, unfortunately for the science, no -progress was made on the one great improvement of Mr. Monck. - -War found us ill prepared in the field, and out-weighted "afloat," so -that almost as many men were killed by the bursting of mortars, and -other ill-constructed guns, as by the fire of the enemy: so critical was -our situation, indeed, that but for the general adoption in England's -army of my great invention, the rifle on the expansive or "Greenerian" -principle, and its skilful use by our brave soldiers, the war had gone -against us. Our rifles were equal in range to our artillery, and this -saved us; whilst the enemy, astonished at the effects produced by our -bullets, and conscious of their inferiority both in the construction -and use of small arms, abandoned the contest: but no doubt with a firm -determination to profit by their dear-bought experience. - -It is generally admitted that our artillery was never so effective as -that of the enemy, and that more is due to the patient and enduring -bravery of the British soldier than to our field-pieces and heavy -ordnance. That England's artillery was at this time most disgracefully -inefficient, it would be folly to deny. The larger guns were destroyed -in an inconceivably short space of time. After five, ten, or fifteen -rounds were fired the guns burst, killing the gunners in great numbers. - -The readers of my works are already familiar with my opinions on this -subject, and their value will now be enhanced by the fact that they have -been proved to be the opinions of a "practical man." Success in the -improvement of small arms is a sure encouragement to those anxious for -the advancement of projectile science, and it is a coat of mail in which -to fight against the prejudices and incompetency of official management. - -Who, on reading my work of 1841, believed the prediction I therein made, -that small arms would be produced which would render field guns useless? -The fact is, however, firmly established, that the best rifles on my -principle will out-range by several hundred yards the best "six-pounder" -in her Majesty's service; and that, too, with a repetition of fire -wonderfully quick and effective: as the Russians in the Crimea can -testify, on more than one occasion. - -To endeavour to point out that an improvement may be effected in -artillery equal to that which has been effected in small arms, is the -object of the following pages. - -The author asks a dispassionate perusal and careful study of his work, -in justice to himself and to the importance of the subject. Judging of -future probabilities by what has already been accomplished, the reader -will be prepared for what follows. That great and important changes must -take place in artillery cannot be doubted, and should England refuse to -avail herself of the improvements to be effected, other nations, and -amongst them our late opponent, will be the first to seize and adopt -them. In former works I have asked the indulgence of my military readers -on account of my scanty military knowledge; but professional men appear -to be equally in the dark with the uninitiated: indeed, the lamentable -shortcomings of the English artillerists have placed them in the rank of -mere "waiters upon providence" for the next step towards improvement. -The present time is decidedly propitious; let improvements now be made, -and we may surely hope that they will be appreciated by the public, if -not by the Government authorities. - -What is the best metal for cannon? is a question which has often been -asked, and the answers have been very conflicting. Some have advocated -mixtures of copper and tin; others have advocated cast iron, and more -recently wrought iron; still more recently steel, and, lastly, cast -steel, have had their advocates. Arguments as plentiful as summer -flowers have been advanced in favour of each, and the argument has been -carried on with a vast amount of prejudice and warmth, according to the -degree of acquaintance with or attachment to the favourite metal of each -individual. It is rare to meet with a mind free from bias, equally well -acquainted with the merits of the several metals, and their application -to the purposes intended. Still more rare is it to meet with a mind -possessing all this metallurgic knowledge, and combining with it an -intimate acquaintance with the principles of projectiles, as well as a -scientific knowledge of the construction of the engine (the perfection -of which consists in its having no points which are weak or -unnecessarily strong); and yet it is by such a combination of knowledge -and the application of these principles that we must be guided, if we -would be successful in the accumulation of projectile power. In the -present age we are really alive to the advantage of "playing at long -bowls;" and the question now to be determined is, what is the greatest -weight of shot and shell we can throw, and how many miles can we project -it. The Americans were undoubtedly the first to discover the great -advantage of this question with their lesser frigates; the late war has -developed it still more; and it now remains to be ascertained how much -further can we go. For on this important point the superior efficacy of -artillery depends. - -At St. Sebastian, in 1813, cast-iron guns threw tons of shot at a range -of 1,500 yards; some particular guns firing as many as 3,000 rounds, and -yet it is more than probable that had the same guns been used in the -Crimea, they would have burst with one-fourth the number of rounds. -Experience proves that it is not the great number of rounds fired which -strains and destroys the gun, but the high elevation at which these guns -are placed, in order to get range; this it is which shakes and -disintegrates the crystalline structure of the metal, and thus extreme -range is obtained at extreme cost. A gun which at 6° of elevation could -stand without a strain 200 rounds, would be likely at an elevation of -30° to burst before 50 rounds were fired. The explanation of this is -sufficiently simple. A gun fired at 6° recoils as the projectile is -projected forward, in proportion to its relative weight and friction; -but when brought up to an elevation above 30° the gun is entirely out of -the horizontal, and cannot recoil as it does at an elevation of 6°: the -force is now exerted downward, and the gun impinges on its support--_i. -e._, either upon its bed on the deck of the ship, or on the solid earth -of the battery, which is comparatively immovable; thus the force which -displaced the gun in the first instance is now exerted on the sides of -the gun, and the projectile receiving additional force is projected -further. But this increased range is obtained at the expense of the gun, -which is rapidly destroyed: 50 rounds being sufficient to render it -unfit for service. To obviate this rapid destruction of cannon, the -metal has been changed from the molecular to the fibrous; that is from -cast iron to wrought iron. One object of this chapter is to point out -the difficulties which arise in determining what the best metal for -cannon really is, and to show the advantages to be gained by attending -to the proper construction of projectile engines, without attaching -undue importance to the _material_ of which they are made. - -Before rejecting cast iron as useless for the construction of large -guns, it would be well to assure ourselves that no better quality of -metal can be produced than that which is at present manufactured. We -must also satisfy ourselves that we have clearly understood the proper -shape and form of cannon to resist concussions. These concussions, be it -remembered, were more violent in the late than in any previous war; and -it is an undoubted fact that we had many more fractures then than on any -previous occasion: first, on account of the strain produced by the great -elevation required to get increased range; and, secondly, on account of -the imperfect shape of the gun. The average number of rounds fired from -the 13-inch mortars which burst at the bombardment of Sweaborg was 120, -and the fracture in all was peculiarly alike; being at right angles to -the supports. Now, that this is due to the form of the gun cannot be -doubted; and it will be shown more fully in a subsequent page. - -But there is another cause to which I wish now to direct attention, -viz., the jamming of the Lancaster shell, which takes place in the -increasing spiral of the oval gun at the very point where the projectile -acquires a proportional increase of velocity. The effect of this may be -illustrated by running a locomotive at its maximum of speed over an -increasing curve in the railroad, with the certainty of landing it in an -adjoining ditch. The principle which determines the result is quite -immutable: viz., that matter in rapid motion cannot be materially -affected by any force inferior to the primary force: the tendency of the -body being to go straight forward; whereas a slow train goes round a -curve with the greatest ease. Two motions can easily be given to matter -in a lower velocity; but not so easily when the velocity is much -increased. Hence I fear that the inventor of the Lancaster gun must have -had a misconception of the true laws of motion; for by increasing the -degree of spiral at the muzzle, instead of at the breech of the gun, he -has rendered nearly useless what would otherwise have proved a most -formidable engine of war. - -From these observations it may, I think, fairly be doubted whether the -bursting of cannon is owing entirely to the inferior quality of the cast -iron used in their formation; though there can, I think, be no doubt -that English cast iron is not only much inferior to what it formerly -was, but that it is also inferior to that which is now manufactured in -Russia. Why it is so will be subsequently explained. - -These defects in cast iron have naturally led to many attempts to -substitute for it a more durable metal; and in most cases the metal -selected has been wrought iron. Wrought iron has been used, not only in -solid cannon, but in the original "hoop and stave:" "staves outside," -and "staves inside," as in Mr. Mallet's monster mortar. Forms of gun as -numerous as can be conceived have been constructed, only to prove -themselves in every case most complete failures. Our friends at the -Mersey Works, Liverpool, will, no doubt, demur to this assertion; as -"all creations of the mind appear most perfect to the father of the -thought." - -Great credit is, however, due to the enterprise and energy displayed by -the inventors, forgers, and finishers of this great gun; which has been -the wonder of many minds in this age of wonders: and it is a highly -important invention, as showing what we, as a people, are capable of -producing by our mechanical and engineering skill. But here, in my -estimation, the wonder ceases; for so sure as there is any truth in the -Scotch proverb, "A silk purse cannot be made out of a sow's lug," so -surely is it true that no man, however great his genius and working -powers, can make a good cannon of wrought iron. When the hardness and -ductility of silver can be imparted to and held by lead, then will it be -possible to make wrought iron accomplish all the purposes required of a -good cannon. - -In vain may Mr. Horsfall urge that his gun has never been burst. Why? -Simply because it has not yet been subjected to the same amount of -pressure on the square inch; neither has it been tested at the same -elevation as some other 10-inch guns, which, in proportion to their size -have stood a more severe test. It is a fact, which may be clearly -demonstrated, that if a 10-inch gun of 95 cwt. be fired at an elevation -of 40° with 17 lbs. of gunpowder, then a gun of more than six times that -weight would not be overloaded if its due proportion of powder were -about 100 lbs. Has this gun been fired with one half of this? Until it -has been satisfactorily proved to this extent, we feel sure that the -authorities are justified in not considering Mr. Horsfall's a successful -achievement. - -Whatever may be Mr. Horsfall's impression with regard to the advantages -of wrought iron for making cannon, I am satisfied, after a long and -careful study of the results of all its varieties, from the -most ordinary to the most perfect combination that has been -manufactured--either for tenacity, tenuity, or resistance of lateral -pressures--that it cannot answer in large guns. - -This I think any one will admit, after considering the two following -facts; which apply equally to all varieties and mixtures of wrought -iron. - -1. The strength of iron is at its maximum in the smallest mechanical -structures. - -2. The quality of the metal is improved as it is subjected to greater -pressure and condensation. - -The extent to which this improvement may be carried has never yet been -ascertained; every fresh manipulation improves its quality. The tenacity -of wrought iron is best displayed in a wire, drawn out until it is not -thicker than a human hair. Large masses of wrought iron are weak and -spongy in geometrical progression with the mass, and the crystalline or -molecular form increases with the mass. If large forgings are carefully -examined, crystals will be found whose facets would produce inches of -surface; as was clearly demonstrated by the bursting of a 10-inch gun at -Woolwich: made, if we mistake not, by Mr. Nasmyth. - -Another very important cause which renders large masses of wrought iron -unsound (and which was fatal in Mr. Nasmyth's gun) is the impossibility -of condensing tons of wrought iron equally all through the mass. No one -has yet been able to overcome this difficulty. - -When the force of a blow, however great, is exerted on the surface of a -mass of metal, its effect is neutralized within a few inches of the -surface; condensation takes place in inverse ratio from the point of -impact, and thus the effect is limited. The force which produces this -condensation tends also to elongate the fibres of the metal. This -elongation is greatest in the immediate vicinity of the force; the -fibres in the interior of the mass are less elongated therefore than on -the exterior; and the fibres in the interior of the mass being less -ductile (from the cause already explained) than those on the exterior, -the interior of the mass elongates, by disintegration of its fibres or -crystals, and a porous open mass is thus produced, surrounded by a -fibrous case. Instances of this are to be seen in broken engine-shafts -and anchors; and, indeed, in all large masses of wrought iron, whether -fractured by design or accident. - -Another cause of this defect in large masses of wrought iron, is the -long continued heat to which it is necessary to expose such large -forgings. The iron expands as it is heated, but it does not expand -equally all through the mass; and the result of this is that the -interior becomes porous and spongy: an appearance which must have been -observed by every one who has operated upon large masses. - -The shaft of the _Leviathan_ weighs 26 tons; but, instead of resisting -twenty-six times the pressure of a shaft one ton in weight, it will, -from the causes already mentioned, be found unequal to half that amount. - -We have watched with much interest the forging of these immense shafts; -and the difficulties attending the forging of this structure prove the -accuracy of our reasoning on the strength of large masses of wrought -iron. The weight of the shaft when finished is 26 tons, and the waste -during the process of welding amounts to 74 or 75 tons. - -The present shaft is the third which has been manufactured; the two -first having proved notorious failures: thus 200 tons of iron have been -wasted; which we think is sufficient proof either of the unfitness of -the material, or of imperfection in the method of construction. -Moreover, I fear that when the vessel encounters a rolling sea, the -sudden check and strain produced by the total immersion of one -paddle-wheel and the freedom of the other, will subject the present -shaft to a strain which will affect its duration; and a vessel costing -nearly a million of money may thus be left to reach her port with -crippled powers of propulsion. - -Where, it may be asked, is the skill in devising engines more powerful -than the ingenuity of man can beneficially work out? This has indeed -been done in the case of the _Leviathan_; a monster vessel has been -built, but all the engineering skill expended upon it has as yet been -insufficient to bring it to perfection. - -The skill hitherto displayed in welding large forgings of wrought iron -into shafts, or other large masses, has been of a very low order; much -more may be done than has yet been accomplished, if men will only set -about it in a scientific manner. The present mode of proceeding is to -build a structure of iron much as a builder would raise a structure of -bricks; large and small pieces being mixed together until the requisite -mass is obtained. - -Now, a much simpler method, and one which we have tried on several -occasions, is first to construct several segments of iron of the -requisite length, and of dimensions equivalent to the intended object; -each segment being fitted to fill its place amongst a given number of -other segments (whether twenty, forty, or fifty segments be required,) -so as to form a complete cylinder; as the wood-cut will fully -explain:-- - -[Illustration] - -In welding this structure, the heat is equally diffused all through the -mass; and thus the great evil of unequal expansion and contraction is -avoided. When the steam hammer is brought into play, its face is a -"swage" of circular form, calculated to clasp a large portion of the -upper part, whilst a corresponding space is formed in the anvil; and by -gradually turning the shaft, the whole is forged into a perfect round. -The peculiar advantage gained by this mode of proceeding, is not only -the facility with which heat is diffused through the mass, but that each -segment is made to act like a wedge on its neighbour; thus producing the -most solid forging that has yet been attained. This is rendered still -more perfect, both as regards strength and durability, from the fact -that a hollow axle has been produced; the great advantages of which it -would be out of place to dilate upon in this work. - -We trust that these anticipated misfortunes may be avoided by the -construction of a more perfect shaft; and that, not only for the sake of -the shareholders, but for the credit of the engineer who devised this -great vessel--deservedly one of the wonders of the world. A spare shaft -would be profitable ballast, if of no more value to the _Leviathan_. - -Rolled railway-carriage axles were constructed for me with perfect -success on this principle nearly twenty years ago, at the Walker Iron -Works, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. The idea has, however, been in a measure -"shelved;" but necessity will bring it into use again. - -The only engineer who has, by practical experience, satisfied himself -that large masses of wrought iron are totally useless for making heavy -ordnance is Mr. Nasmyth; whose monster cannon, which was to astonish the -whole world, proved, when heated, to have so little cohesion that it -would scarcely hold together whilst being lifted from the furnace to the -anvil. And, to his credit be it said, Mr. Nasmyth, seeing that wrought -iron would not answer the purpose, manfully gave up his hopeless task. -Similar experience would probably make some of our present engineers -wiser men. - -My experience in manufacturing the largest wrought iron guns which it is -prudent to construct, sufficiently proves the truth of these assertions. - -Harpoon gun-barrels, one inch and a half in the bore, having the metal -at the breech end an inch and a quarter thick, will stand a proof which -invariably bursts a thicker barrel; in fact, all experience tends to -show that light wrought iron or steel barrels are stronger than -unusually heavy ones. As all depends on the principle of condensing the -fibres of the iron, _ceteris paribus_, the greater the condensation the -greater the strength, and the less the condensation the greater the -weakness. - -That this argument applies principally to solid forged guns I am ready -to admit; and that guns forged of hoops, rings, and bars, in smaller -sections, are free from this objection, I am also ready to admit. These -guns are, however, liable to objections equally fatal, both as regards -their enduring and projective powers, as I shall presently show. -Experience proves that brass guns are inferior, both in sharpness of -shooting and in range, to cast-iron guns: this is undoubtedly -attributable to the greater softness of brass than of cast iron; and for -the same reason a wrought-iron gun, though made as sound as one of cast -iron, would be inferior in these two important points. But when a -wrought-iron gun is composed of many particles imperfectly secured (and -no mechanical force is sufficient to secure perfect cohesion in large -masses), the wrought becomes doubly inferior to the cast gun: a shot -projected from such a gun starts from an unsound base; a large portion -of the explosive force is absorbed by the variety of sections composing -the gun, to the injury both of the accuracy and length of range of the -projectile. The softer metals cannot be beneficially used in the -construction of large guns, because they destroy the force of the -expellant without making any equivalent return; and the softer the metal -and the greater its substance, the more clearly is this important fact -demonstrated. Thus, in experiments made with large cannon for increasing -the weight of the gun beyond a certain proportion to that of the -projectile, a gun of ten tons weight and ten inch bore would not exceed -in range a gun of five tons, if the charge of powder were the same; on -account of the indisputable fact that much more force of the expellant -is destroyed, whilst more than double the force is absorbed for the -recoil of the ten ton than of the five ton gun; and the loss from these -two causes must materially affect the flight of the projectile, though -fired at exactly the same elevation. - -The great defect which experiment shows to exist in the hoop-and-stave -wrought iron gun, and which renders the gun self-destroying, is -separation at points between the trunnions and cascable of the gun. The -force acting first upon the breech, it yields, and the force is then -brought to bear upon the longitudinal portion of the gun behind the -trunnions; the staves have thus to bear the first strain, and, after a -few shots, become elongated. An opening of the hoops at their junction -with each other (most frequently between the breech and trunnions) -begins, after a very few shots, to be distinctly visible, and increases -at every discharge, until further proceeding amounts to madness, or -recklessness of human life. - -That enormous engine, Mallet's monster mortar, of which I give an -engraving on page 100, clearly proves this to be the case. It will be -observed to be constructed with a solid cast iron breech end, the -dimensions of which will be seen by referring to the engraving. Abutting -upon this are a succession of wrought iron hoops, ingeniously inserted -into each other, and more firmly secured by six outside staves of great -dimensions, which, at the muzzle ring, pass through openings in the -muzzle ring, with heads like enormous rivets. The binding power is given -by "quoin-like" wedges, driven through the opposite end of the stave, -beneath the projection of the cast breech, giving power to tighten the -longitudinal binders by a blow when required. - -[Illustration: Mallet's Mortar.] - -DIMENSIONS. - - Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. - Cast iron base with wrought iron breech shrunk - into bore 21 19 0 2 - Wood carriage complete, with wrought iron screw - and spanner for elevating mortar 8 8 0 14 - Bottom part of mortar to fit on top of the breech 7 5 3 23 - Part of mortar (a ring) to fit on the top of the - above 5 8 3 23 - Do. do. do. 3 0 2 13 - Muzzle ring 1 2 3 12 - Wood ring 0 0 1 0 - Wrought iron ring 0 4 3 4 - Wrought iron conical ring to fix on top of muzzle - ring 0 3 3 25 - T-headed bolts, with gibs and keys for fixing - mortar to base: may be called outer staves 1 16 2 0 - Wood-wedges, &c., for elevating 0 13 3 22 - Outer pin, with cross for turning mortar round 0 8 3 14 - ------------------ - Total weight 50 13 2 21 - - Weight of shell unfilled, 26 cwt. 2 qrs.; diameter, 36 inches. - -This is notorious as a monster failure, even with a charge of powder -amounting to only one half what the projector fondly hoped would be -perfectly harmless in its effects. This Brobdignagian toy has proved to -be fearfully expensive, the cost having been estimated at eight thousand -pounds. It has, I believe, been the largest and most expensive -experiment indulged in by the noble "projector,"[6] and I sincerely hope -it will be the last. - - [6] Lord Palmerston. - -The preceding pages will have done much to remove from an unbiassed mind -any favourable impression of the advantages expected to result from the -use of wrought-iron cannon. The knowledge of this subject, even among -talented and scientific men, appears to be at a very low ebb, as is -evinced by the multitude of failures that have taken place; not one -success of any moment has as yet been attained, and not a discovery has -been made worthy of being chronicled. - - * * * * * - -Having enlarged thus much on the qualities of a metal which it is -certain can never supersede the use of cast-iron, even though it be -freed from the defects found practically to exist in our present -constructed iron artillery; and having also alluded to the fact that the -_form_ has much influence on the durability of cast-iron guns, I now -proceed to the more important point of the qualities of cast-iron -itself. - -Little doubt exists that guns cast a hundred years ago were more durable -than those of more recent formation; it is evident, therefore, that -apart from mere form, some material depreciation must have taken place -in the quality of the metal. The use of hot blast-furnaces, better -fluxes, and improved chemical knowledge in the reduction of metallic -ores, though highly profitable in a commercial point of view, doubling -the products of our mines, and enriching their proprietors, has, -unfortunately rendered English cast-iron perfectly unfit for the -formation of cannon, if increased range and greater strain by high -elevation are to be the order of the day. - -The durability of Russian cast-iron is unquestionably greater than that -manufactured in England. Some cause must exist for this; and the -question arises, is the ore superior to ours, or does the superiority of -Russian iron depend on their method of smelting? The latter is, we -believe, the cause of the superiority of Russian iron; for experiments -show that Russian ore, smelted in an English furnace, yields the same -kind of cast-iron as is produced from the ore found in England. The -inference, therefore, is plain, that the difference in the process of -smelting makes all the difference in the quality of the iron. - -Two thousand years ago the Romans, or their dependents, smelted iron in -the county of Durham: vast accumulations of slag exist there at the -present time; and thousands of tons have been beneficially re-smelted by -two adjoining iron-works, and a percentage of iron obtained sufficient -to prove that the Romans were little indebted to fluxes or hot blasts -for the quality of iron they obtained. The Russians cannot boast of -these adjuncts any more than the Romans: the old agents, wood and -energy, are alone employed in the smelting of their ores; and in the -absence of scientific aids, though they obtain a much smaller aggregate -quantity of metal, yet it is undoubtedly of a much superior quality. -With the Romans, also, the yield was meagre, but the quality was good; -now, however, circumstances are reversed, quantity, not quality, being -the order of the day. - -The use of coals instead of wood in the process of smelting has -introduced a mixture which is very prejudicial. Most of the coal, even -from our very best mines, contains a large quantity of pyrites, or -bisulphuret of iron, which, combining with the cast-iron, injures it to -an incalculable extent. - -These facts fully explain why our cast-iron guns are not so good now as -formerly. Select the most suitable mine in the kingdom, erect a furnace -on the most improved principles, employ wood fuel only, avoid fluxes and -hot and cold blasts, and be content with the small amount of metal -produced, and beyond all doubt the quality will be all that the most -sanguine founder or artillerist could wish. - -Thus the inferiority of our cast-iron guns has been accounted for, and a -method suggested, which, if efficiently carried out, would effect the -desired improvement. - - * * * * * - -We are indebted to Krupp for the first suggestion of, as well as the -first attempt to introduce, a cast steel gun of greater durability and -power than the best cast-iron gun which has yet been manufactured. -Steel, possessing, as it does, hardness to any desired extent, ductility -in an equal degree, tenacity unrivalled, and all the other requisites, -is destined to take the place of all other metals in the construction of -artillery. This metal waits only to be tested; and the greater the -extent to which the trial is carried, the more confident we are that it -will answer every purpose. - -Krupp, like many other men with valuable ideas, has been peculiarly -unfortunate in his attempts to carry them out. With a vast amount of -knowledge of the science of metallurgy, he wants more knowledge in the -not inferior science of projectiles; the most important point being to -ascertain the form of gun calculated to be suitable for new metal, of -the use of which, for cannon, the world possesses no antecedent -knowledge. - -The only failures Mr. Krupp has made (if they can, strictly speaking, -be so called), have arisen from mal-construction, imperfect form, and -unscientific combinations; defects which might be expected from a mere -novice, though not from experienced artillerists or founders of -artillery. The trial of the only steel gun sent by Mr. Krupp to this -country, was conducted in the most absurd manner, and on wholly -unscientific principles. I will endeavour to convey some idea of this -most extraordinary of experiments. Whether Mr. Krupp was unacquainted -with the durability of his metal, or was persuaded, against his will, to -conduct the experiment as he did, I know not, but the following is what -took place:-- - -In 1851 Mr. Krupp brought to Woolwich a specimen steel gun of ten-inch -bore, weighing about four tons. He was induced (but why, I am at a loss -to conceive,) to construct a cast-iron jacket, or outer gun, into which -his steel gun was inserted up to the trunnions. The steel gun was -separated from its cast-iron jacket by a space of half an inch in its -whole length, except at each end, where the jacket was fitted to the gun -with a moderate degree of tightness; thus the gun and jacket consisted -of two tubes, one within the other, fastened only at their extremities, -and that by a very slight force. The result, as might have been -expected, was the bursting both of the gun and its case; but that the -steel gun or its jacket would have stood the test, if subjected to it -singly, cannot be doubted. The difference of expansion between the steel -gun and its jacket would be quite enough to account for its bursting. -Had the contact of the two been perfect throughout the whole length, -but allowing half an inch all around for the expansion of the steel gun -in that part which was subjected to the greatest pressure, the very act -of restraining it in other parts so as to prevent equal expansion, would -be perfectly certain to produce a fracture. Mr. Krupp's friends have -complained loudly of unfair treatment, whether justly or not, no opinion -need now be given; but it is much to be regretted that his experiment -was not carried out on scientific principles. The introduction of cast -steel guns will be the most essential improvement in artillery: and an -extensive series of experiments, extending over many years, during which -time I have manufactured gun-barrels of steel alone, ought to give my -opinion some weight on this subject. - -Laminated steel gun-barrels were well known in 1851; but the English -bugbear, prejudice, raised a clamour against them, which was echoed by -interest and ignorance, and thus their general adoption was for a long -time prevented. However, in the short space of seven years, they have -become universally adopted, with the most beneficial results; better -shooting, less annoyance from recoil, less weight to carry, and greater -safety to the sportsman, being the principal. And so it will be with -steel cannon; as a short time will suffice to enable scientific -investigation to remove all prejudices against them. - -The external form of cannon is a question of vital importance, but one -which is little understood by artillerists of the present day. Whilst it -is a demonstrable fact that all excessive bulk of cast-iron causes -weakness in proportion to the excess, no effectual steps have as yet -been taken by the Government to ascertain what is the due proportion of -metal which ought to exist in different parts of the gun. The American -authority on naval gunnery, Captain Dhalgren, has paid considerable -attention to this subject; and if the reports on the durability of -American heavy ordnance can be relied on (and there is no reason why -they should not) his investigations have been attended with much -success. - -Captain Dhalgren has extended the principle acted upon many years ago by -Mr. Monck; his great improvement consisting in lessening the weight of -iron in front of the trunnions, and adding to that of the breech. In -cannon, as in fowling-pieces, weight in the fore part is useless; -conducing neither to the safety of the gun, nor to the smartness of its -shooting. For endurance, it is necessary that the expansion should be -equal in every part of the gun; rigidity in one part increasing the -strain on the immediately adjacent parts, which, if much reduced, are -thus rendered liable to fracture. The breech has to endure the -lengthened explosion produced by the burning of the gunpowder; and, as -this continues until it has overcome the inertia of the projectile, it -is necessary in all cases that the maximum of strength should be in the -breech of the gun. When the projectile is once in motion the strength of -the tube may be rapidly decreased; the only strain it has to bear is -exerted whilst the projectile is passing over it; and this strain, in -properly constructed guns, becomes of shorter and shorter duration as -the projectile attains its highest velocity at the muzzle of the gun. -The greatest strain a gun has to bear near the muzzle is that produced -by the condensation of the column of air in front of the charge; and in -almost every form of English ordnance the weight of metal here is -greater than is necessary. - -The Russian guns which have been brought to this country present the -same superabundance of metal at the muzzle, whilst at the breech there -appears to be a deficiency; and when we take into consideration the -extraordinary reports of their endurance, we must ascribe it to some -other cause than the proper distribution of metal. Their endurance is no -doubt owing in part to the goodness of the metal, in part also to the -form of the breech, to the uniformity of thickness in the sides of the -arch, and, lastly, to the absence of those protuberances called -"reinforce rings." These rings might with propriety be termed "rings of -destruction;" for wherever irregularities exist in the substance of the -metal, there the waves of vibration are interrupted, and the weak point -then becomes fractured. The science of spring-making in all its -varieties demonstrates the truth of this statement. Leave on a -coach-spring an abutment of metal like a "reinforce ring," and a few -motions will be sufficient to break it, however well the spring may be -constructed in every other part. The rigidity of this protuberance, by -interrupting the waves of vibration, causes additional vibration in the -adjacent and more yielding part, and thus produces fracture. The same -thing occurs in all ill-constructed artillery: where the vibrations are -checked, there is always a danger of some weaker part giving way. But -the laws which regulate the distribution of vibrations in metal -substances are not yet understood by artillerists, or cannon would be -differently constructed. Those unscientific protuberances called -"trunnions," which are to be seen in almost every description of gun, -prove the accuracy of my assertions. These protuberances, if -scientifically considered, would soon be discarded, since they tend not -only to the rapid destruction of the cannon, but also exert a most -injurious influence on the direction of the projectile. The most -wonderful shooting ever heard of (and which has been before alluded to) -is partly to be attributed to the absence of trunnions. Trunnions act as -the fulcrum of a scale-beam; they allow the breech and muzzle of the gun -to oscillate, but in an opposite direction to a scale beam. Rifled -cannon can never be correctly constructed whilst any weight impinges on -the gun in front of the first starting point of the projectile; they -must have the fulcrum behind the point of discharge, and the more nearly -in a direct line the better. - -Rifled cannon will in some few years be perfectly constructed of cast -steel; the projectile being made of gun metal, _i. e._, ninety-five -parts of copper to five parts of tin, or of lead and its alloys, and at -a probable cost of ten times that of a cast-iron projectile of equal -weight. - -Rifled cannon must be elevated by raising the muzzle; no depression of -the breech must occur as by the usual elevating screw; and the recoil -must be received and borne by fastenings and axle in rear of the breech -only. Trunnions and all impinging influences are incompatible with -correctness of fire. The muzzle must be raised in a similar manner to -the raising of a hand rifle, the recoil being thrown backwards, in as -direct a line as possible with that of the shot. - -It is only on account of the difficulty of experimenting with rifled -cannon that they are at all behind rifled muskets in point of -perfection. The ardent lover of science is appalled when an experiment -costs hundreds of pounds. We have not a General Jacob everywhere who can -afford to spend a thousand or two in experiments; but, nevertheless, the -lover of science, could he experiment, might attain such extraordinary -accuracy of range, as to blow up a smaller magazine than that of -Kurrachee at four times the distance; and that, too, with a more certain -effect, though with a projectile heavier than several of Jacob's rifles -tied together. Correct direction is certain in proportion to the -increase of weight; deflection being in the minimum with the heavier -weight, from the well known law of momentum. That astute and energetic -sovereign, the Emperor Napoleon, is pursuing experiments with rifled -cannon; with what result there can be little doubt. - -It must be by the use of rifled cannon that our artillery will regain -the place it has lost. A short time will suffice to make the disparity -between our artillery and small arms as great as when we were content -with the six-pounder field gun and old "Brown Bess." Ranges will only be -ruled by sight, and objects will be hit eventually with as much ease at -5,000 yards as they now are at 1,000. Steel, rifled cannon, and -projectiles of gun-metal will assuredly bring about as complete a -revolution in artillery as the Greenerian rifle and bullet have effected -in small arms. - -The form of gun best suited for all purposes has yet to be determined; -and we have pointed out these defects in our artillery with the hope -that some of the great practical philosophers of the present age may -devote themselves to the study of this question. It is nearly allied to -the science of bell-making, and a few more fractures of Big Ben will -extend our knowledge of the subject, and produce a remedy which lies not -very deep below the surface. The laws which should guide us in the -construction of cast steel guns, so as to insure their durability, are -very analogous to those which determine the durability of bells; for the -laws which regulate disintegration of crystalline structures are very -similar. Hitherto the rule of thumb has, unfortunately, been the only -rule observed in measuring out the quantity of metal which shall -surround that portion of a cannon which has to sustain the most violent -concussion. - -Professor Barlow many years ago proved, to the satisfaction of the -Institution of Civil Engineers, that the metal in any cylinder decreases -in utility in proportion to the square of its distance from the centre: -that the outside of a gun of the form now used, in fact, is only -one-ninth as useful as the inside; being three times as far from the -centre. If we double the thickness, the outside, being five times as far -from the centre as the inside, will be but one-twenty-fifth as useful; -or in plain English, nearly useless. The reason of this is simple, and I -will endeavour to explain it. - -"A bar of cast iron one inch thick each way and 40 inches long will -stretch about one-twentieth of an inch, if a weight of about four tons -be suspended by it. When the weight is removed, the cast iron nearly -recovers its previous form, and is uninjured; but if it be stretched -more, by a greater weight, it is permanently injured. - -"A bar of the same thickness, but three times as long--120 inches--will -stretch three times as much, or three-twentieths of an inch, with the -same weight; or if only one-third the weight--one ton and a third--be -suspended, it will stretch one-twentieth of an inch, the same as the -shorter bar. - -"If we suspend 16 tons by four bars, one inch thick and 40 inches long, -they will each stretch one-twentieth of an inch only, and remain -uninjured; but if we attempt to do so with two bars 40 inches long and -two 120 inches long, then, when the whole have lengthened one-twentieth -of an inch, the short ones are exerting a force of eight tons, but the -long ones that of only two and two-thirds tons. The weight, therefore, -will still further lengthen the bars, and permanently injure the short -ones; perhaps break them first, and then the long ones. - -"This is the way a gun is burst. The inside is a series of bars of iron, -say 40 inches long, in the form of a ring; the outside a series of -rings, representing the bars three times as long." - -Warfare, since the first introduction of gunnery into Europe, has been -like one continued series of experiments for testing the efficacy of our -guns. No description of gun we now possess can lay any claim to -existence fifty years ago: the great majority of our guns now in use are -of a much more recent date. - -With one or two exceptions, no artillery has been constructed on any -scientific theory; some alteration has been made, and if a gun of a -certain form and dimensions gave a certain result, then an extension or -emulation of that gun was tried; and if it succeeded a loud cry of -exultation was raised, and the discovery was announced to the world as a -great improvement. - -[Illustration: Russian 56-pounder gun.] - -[Illustration: 8-inch British gun.] - -Colonel Prejudice has invented a vastly improved description of gun; -another guess is made, and so different forms of guns are multiplied. -Can there be a more striking illustration of this than the one which -took place during the late Crimean war? It was boasted that the whole -human race might be exterminated by the new invention; but the -"Lancaster gun" turned out to be most unscientific in its construction, -and most eccentric in its action. Had such a thing as scientific -knowledge in gunnery existed among the artillerists of the day, such a -monstrosity would have been buried soon after its birth; instead of -being allowed to squander large sums of money at every discharge, and -then at last to become a "Whistling Jemmy" for our bluejackets to laugh -at. - -The form of cannon no doubt exercises a vital influence over their -durability; bad form and imperfection of material combined, tended to -produce the rapid destruction of our guns during the late important -struggle. - -The gun which has been experimented with to the greatest extent, and -which has withstood all trials successfully, is a Russian -fifty-six-pounder; taken, I believe, at Bomarsund. In this gun there are -two great peculiarities; the shape, as will be seen in the diagram, -differs from all our own guns: it is a "chambered gun," and the metal is -taken away from the outside precisely as the contraction increases on -the inside thus giving an equal thickness of metal in every part, of the -arc (see page 114). - -In contrast with this, we give a cut of our 8-inch gun, which most -nearly resembles it as a chambered gun (see page 114). - -The reader's attention is especially directed to the dissimilarity in -the distribution of the metal in the two guns. The want of uniform -thickness of metal in our 8-inch gun must be sufficient to convince any -one that, if the Russian gun be properly constructed, the principle of -ours must be radically wrong. That such is the case, indeed, I cannot -doubt, the Russian gun having undergone such a test as would have -destroyed six of ours. The gun has since been made two inches larger in -the bore, and even oval-bored, for firing shells, which should alone be -enough to destroy it; and yet with all this the gun remains perfect. - -The gun which most nearly resembles this is our English carronade; and -that these guns have some important principle in their shape is proved -by their great durability under all trials; and I believe that the tests -to which the carronade has been subjected have been more severe than -that of any other piece in the British service. - -There have been many shrewd conjectures as to the cause of this -durability; one of these was very pungent, viz., "the invention was not -by one of the cloth." An examination of the drawing of the 68-pounder -carronade will enable the reader to perceive the great similarity -between this and the Russian gun before spoken of (see page 114). - -[Illustration: 68-pound carronade.] - -The manufacture of these guns was originally in the hands of the -inventors, and it is quite evident that they must have taken great pains -with the form of the gun, and also have taken special care that the -material of which it was constructed was of the very best quality. - -There is too much reason to doubt the proficiency of military men in -the science of metallurgy; and the British system of depending solely on -their knowledge for the last half century, has no doubt proved an -obstacle to advancement in the science of gunnery. - -[Illustration: Monck's 56-pounder gun.] - -The gun which ranks next is Monck's 56-pounder. Although not a chambered -gun, it will be seen, from the diagram (see p. 117), to be an attempt -(if not a perfectly successful one) to obtain uniformity of thickness in -every part of the arc. The durability of these guns ranks as we have -placed them. - -The next in rotation is the 8-inch or 68-pounder (see p. 114); which, -although not the original sized gun that was rifled for the Lancaster -shell, yet it was the one eventually used for that projectile up to the -end of its very brief career. - -[Illustration: 10-inch or 86-pounder gun.] - -The 10-inch gun of 95 cwt., delineated at page 117, will be seen to be -defective in its outlines when tested by the principles before laid -down, and the fact of more 10-inch guns bursting at Sebastopol than any -others (mortars only excepted), may be taken as exclusive evidence of -its imperfection. - -The bursting of mortars is quite notorious, especially the 13-inch -mortars used for sea-service in the attack on Sweaborg. A slight -examination of the engraving of one will be sufficient to convince any -person that, if what has already been advanced on the form of guns can -lay claim to being scientific, then this is of all guns the most -unscientific that was ever manufactured. Its durability, too, like its -shape, is of a very low order. - -[Illustration: 13-inch sea-service mortar.] - -The 13-inch land mortar depicted below is a much more serviceable -production, because it contains much less metal. - -[Illustration: 13-inch land-service mortar.] - -Mortars will retain their place in spite of all improvements. Rifling is -inapplicable to them. Their principal utility consists in obtaining a -vertical fire; the shell being pitched to a great height, so as to fall -into places that cannot be assailed by a horizontal fire. - -The late Joseph Manton has the merit of being the first modern inventor -of rifled cannon. His idea was, that if a motion on an axis parallel to -the horizon could be given to cannon balls, they would range farther and -with greater accuracy. As there exists great difficulty in causing the -rifling in a gun to act upon an iron ball, he constructed a cup of wood, -into which the ball was fitted, projections being made upon the wood to -fit into the groves of the rifle; the spinning motion thus being -communicated to the ball by its wooden adjunct. The result was twofold; -for the expansions of the wood during the explosion, filled the tube of -the gun tight, and effectually destroyed the windage. The government of -the day did offer him a premium of one farthing each; but "Joe" -over-reached himself, asking the sum of £30,000 down; this was refused, -and the patent was allowed to expire without the Government taking any -advantage of it, and experiments ceased to be made in this direction. - -Rifled cannon have now, however, become a certainty. Mechanically -speaking, they are as easily to be produced as hand rifles. The general -application has, however, vast difficulties, which must be overcome -before their use can become general. Small arm projectiles suitable for -rifles must of necessity be made of ductile metal, and all the attempts -previously made, whether with brass or iron guns, are alike useless. The -mass in motion, even when of equal hardness with the gun (as in the case -of cast iron guns and cast iron shot), invariably destroys that in a -comparative state of rest; and the rifling is obliterated after a very -few discharges. In a brass gun the destruction is certainly not so -rapid, on account of the different nature of the metal; yet the -destruction of the gun for all useful purposes is equally effectual. It -is evident, then, that success cannot be obtained by using the present -materials in rifled cannon; and the question inevitably arises, what -better material can we use? Wrought iron shells have already been -thoroughly tried in the Lancaster oval gun, with a well-known result. - -Great hopes were at one time entertained, that something suitable would -result from Mr. Bessemer's discovery of the combustion of carbon, and -that an iron of sufficient ductility, yet without the usual hardness, -would be produced; but this, it appears, is still a myth. - -Extent of range and accuracy of fire in gunnery will in future be of so -much importance in war, that it is not extravagant to assert, that in -contests between well-matched belligerents, the precious metals (if they -gave any advantage to the user) would be unhesitatingly used in -projectiles. But on the score of economy, science need not be impeded. -Gun-metal projectiles and cast steel cannon would work as effectually -together as lead and iron in small arms. - -Some other mixtures less expensive might be produced (lead and copper in -certain proportions are very ductile), and at the same time sufficiently -strong to resist all tendency to squash; as the softer metals would -inevitably do. The more ductile metals are limited in their utility, by -the same law which limits the use of pure lead: that is, to given -weight, height of column, or velocity. Great doubt exists whether a -bullet made of gun metal, and of the same proportionate dimensions and -form as an Enfield bullet, but fitted for a ten-inch gun, would not, if -fired with the proportionate charge of powder (namely, seventeen -pounds), be as completely squashed, or driven in upon itself, as the -Enfield bullet if fired with the old Brown Bess charge of four drachms -and a half. - -Considerable time and experience will be required to ascertain the -proportions of metallic mixture necessary to meet all contingencies; -this, however, is a matter of detail, and must extend over so large an -area, that it can be handled only by the government officials, with the -necessary "sinews" of experiment. Nevertheless it must be undertaken; -and the sooner it is done the better, for the prestige of that nation -which would lead the van of improvement in gunnery, and increase its -power of attack and defence beyond those of its rivals. - -Rifled cannon is a generic term of endless application, presenting to -the mind modifications of projectiles in endless variety, ranging from -the "_light firebrand_" to the twice deadly rocket: not rockets of that -eccentric and erratic character by which Congreve made an undying name; -but real _bonâ fide_ rifle rockets, which shall hit the dead-lights in -the quarter-gallery of a frigate, carry away the halyards of your -enemies' ensign (making him drop his colours at the first shot) or dash -the glass from the hand of the pilot. All such imaginary feats will yet -be accomplished; though the reader may smile at the idea. My experience -with rockets goes to justify me in asserting that rockets discharged -from a gun, under certain circumstances, can be as effectually -controlled, and kept to a direct course, as a bullet fired from a rifle. -The rocket, however, may be fired a much greater distance than we have -ever been able to project a bullet; because, in addition to the force -which projects it from the gun, its flight is maintained by the self -sustaining agency in the body of the rocket. Rockets require a much -smaller charge of powder to project them than that which is used for a -bullet; a rocket started by its own force, expends, in acquiring even an -approximation to its highest velocity, at least one-third of the force -with which it is charged; but when projected by a small charge of -gunpowder this force is saved, and the flight of the rocket is -afterwards sustained by the force with which it is charged. - -Firing rockets from cannon can only be practised under certain -circumstances. The observations already made on the granulation of -gunpowder will have prepared the reader for this announcement. When -fired from a cannon under the old régime, the rocket was projected at -high velocity, and the case of the rocket was destroyed by the very -force which set it in motion. A rocket suitable for artillery should be -cast of gun metal, with a frame of considerable strength. In form it -should nearly approximate to an expansive bullet; but, instead of the -limited length of one and three quarters diameter; it should approach to -four diameters; two of which, at least, should be appropriated to the -cylinder behind the head. - -The head is charged with composition more densely driven than is -customary in the ordinary rocket; the tubes in the cylinder are also -charged with a composition equally dense. The outer frame of the rocket -is cast with suitable projections to fit the grooves of the gun: the -spiral of these grooves is considerable, being one turn in every three -feet, in order to impart to the rocket an effectual spinning motion when -in a low state of velocity. The rocket properly constructed is then -placed in the rocket-gun, and fired in the usual way; but it is -essential that the gunpowder used should be of a suitable quality: its -combustion must be as slow as possible, a starting velocity of from 500 -to 800 feet per second being sufficient to ensure the flight of the -self-sustaining projectile to the end of its range. This principle may -be extended from a light firebrand, as already stated, to that of a -rocket charged in the head with the most deadly and destructive -fulminate. - -It may appear absurd to speak of fulminates being projected; since all -experiments show that fulminates, even when adulterated, will not stand -the concussion of a discharge, but invariably ignite in the gun, however -carefully placed or packed in the shell which contains them: for this -reason fulminates have never been successfully used. But if the -fulminate is placed in the head of a rocket, this objection may be -obviated. The gradual manner in which velocity is given to a rocket does -not subject it to violent displacement during its flight; neither need -the concussion in the gun be severe, owing to the nature of the -gunpowder used, which in its gradual expansion is analogous to steam: -thus the field for the application of fulminates is opened to an -unlimited extent. - -My own experience on this subject has been limited to its application -for the saving of life from shipwreck, where the application of a line -to the rocket limits its range and velocity; but sufficient is left in a -rocket of an inch and a half diameter effectually to carry out a line of -a quarter of an inch diameter to a distance of 600 or 800 yards: that -is, more than double the distance obtained by either Manby's apparatus -or the rockets now in use; which, lamentable to state, are quite -inadequate to the purposes for which they are intended. - -Though the improvements in rifled cannon are at present only in their -infancy, they have nevertheless attained to an extraordinary degree of -perfection, verifying all our predictions to the letter. - -A writer in the _Times_ makes the following statements in favour of Mr. -Whitworth's improvements:-- - -"While some men of really inventive talent, and a great many charlatans, -have been permitted to waste the public money in trying vainly to -improve our artillery, it seems passing strange that it should not long -ago have been discovered how impossible it was to hope for successful -results in the direction in which they were working. It was clear that -while increased range and precision of firing were wanted, it was nearly -as important to bring the charges of ammunition and the weight of metal -in guns into more manageable proportions to each other, and to the -facilities for transit on active service. No sensible man can have -witnessed the frightful damage done to the efficiency of our army in the -Crimea by the exigencies of the siege-train during the winter of 1854-5 -without being impressed with this conviction. The principle of the rifle -offered an obvious suggestion for the proper means of working out the -foregoing problem; but then for artillery, rifling by grooves would not -do without the use of a pliant metal in the projectile, and the cost of -lead rendered its application to that purpose impracticable. It was -necessary, therefore, to alter the existing mode of rifling, and to -modify the bore of the cannon, so that an iron projectile could be -discharged from it, rotating on its own axis in the line of flight. This -result once secured, it is obvious that a field-piece or gun of position -would become a rifle on a large scale, and that the same immense -increase of range and of penetration which had been realised by the -smaller weapon as compared with Brown Bess, would be placed at the -command of the artillery service. It is consolatory, after a series of -failures worthy even of Brunel in launching the _Leviathan_, that the -country has at last the well-grounded hope of an improvement by which -our ordnance may be placed on a proper footing. In pursuing those -careful experiments which he undertook for the Government, principally -to improve the rifle, Mr. Whitworth, the eminent machinist, adopted a -polygonal spiral bore of a uniform pitch, but more rapid than could be -attained by grooves. This bore has enabled him to surpass immensely the -range and penetration of the Enfield rifle; but even these advantages, -important as they are, scarcely surpass those which it places within the -reach of our artillery service. The strain of the projectile being -distributed evenly over every side of the polygon, iron can be -substituted for lead in the projectile, and this simple but beautiful -mechanical appliance at once becomes available for cannon." - -The powerful aid of the _Times_ is "almost success;" though in this -instance it has signally failed, the boasted accuracy there spoken of -not having been yet obtained. This has no doubt arisen in part from the -fact that Mr. Whitworth's great mechanical knowledge would not suffice -to make him _au fait_ at the compound science of gunnery. His "polygonal -spiral bore of uniform pitch, more rapid than could be obtained by -grooves," is after all only an experimental gun, not sufficiently -developed as yet for practical utility. Still, the writer already -alluded to has favoured us with the following remarks in the _Times_: - -"Moreover, Mr. Whitworth has discovered in the course of his -experiments, that according to the quickness of the turn in the polygon -is the length of the projectile that may be fired; so that 24 lb. and -48 lb. shot have been sent to extraordinary ranges with half the usual -charge of powder, from an ordinary 12-pounder howitzer. Here, then, is -at once the solution of the whole question which has troubled the brains -of so many inventors, real or pretended, for years. The artilleryman at -one stride resumes the relative position to the soldier of the line -which the Enfield rifle had so perilously deprived him of, and this -mechanical country, after finding herself on the level of France, -Russia, and other European States, is once more, as during the -Peninsular campaigns, enabled to assert her natural superiority in the -manufacture of cannon. We trust that no petty jealousies on the part of -narrow-minded officials will be allowed to interfere with the course of -Mr. Whitworth's experiments, and that the encouragement which he is now -receiving from the Minister at War and the Commander-in-Chief will -enable him, at no remote date, to realise for the benefit of the army -and the nation that revolution in gunnery which the results already -obtained by him promise." - -Report says that 25,000_l._ is the amount of encouragement Mr. Whitworth -has received from the Minister of War and the Commander-in-Chief; an -adequate sum with which to conduct such an experiment, but not -sufficient to insure success. - -Of the success of Mr. Whitworth's polygonal projectile, on a large -scale, none need speculate, for the principle is self-destructive. - -Lancaster's oval shell, oscillated in its flight, took a flight so -extraordinary, on account of the resistance of the atmosphere on the -protuberances of the oval, that the principle may be regarded as fully -established that enlarged projectiles must be smooth and free from -projections that "saw the air," otherwise range and accuracy of fire -will be sacrificed. The principle of Mr. Whitworth's polygonal bore is -fully discussed in its proper place, and will here receive only a -passing notice. - -To Mr. W. G. Armstrong, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, much more credit is due -than can be claimed for Mr. Whitworth. Long before the paid efforts of -Mr. Whitworth, Mr. Armstrong had made the subject of rifled cannon a -special study, and the success of his investigations has been such as to -couple his name with those of the earliest inventors of effectual rifled -cannon. Mr. Armstrong may also lay claim to being an originator of -wrought steel cannon; though here his name stands second as an inventor, -for to Mr. Krupp is due the honour of first introducing cast steel -cannon to the notice of our Government. - -Mr. Armstrong tells his own tale so well in the columns of the _Times_ -that we cannot do better than quote it:-- - -"In the latter part of 1854, I submitted to the Duke of Newcastle, then -Minister at War, a proposal for a gun which I anticipated would possess -great superiority over the common forms of light artillery, and I -undertook, with his Grace's authority, to construct a field-piece in -conformity with the plan I had suggested. The gun was accordingly soon -afterwards made, and has since, during a period of nearly two years, -been the subject of numerous experiments, partly upon the ordnance -firing-ground at Shoeburyness; but principally under my own direction in -this neighbourhood. - -"I have hitherto avoided publicity in reference to these experiments, -but, as matured results of much interest and importance have now been -arrived at, and as other names are already before the public in -connection with gun experiments made during the same period, I feel that -I may now, without impropriety, give some information on the subject. - -"With a view to strength and durability, the gun is composed internally -of steel and externally of wrought iron, applied in a twisted or spiral -form, as in a musket or fowling-piece. The bore is nearly two inches in -diameter, and is rifled. The projectile is a pointed cylinder 6-1/2 -inches long, and its weight is 5 lb. It is made of cast iron, coated -with lead, and is fired from the gun with a charge of 10 ounces of -powder; it contains a small cavity in the centre, and may be used either -as a shot or a shell. When applied as a shell, the cavity is filled with -powder, and a detonating fuse is inserted in front, so as to fire the -powder in the centre on striking an object. When used as a shot, the -powder is omitted, and an iron point, which favours penetration, is -substituted for the fuse. The gun is constructed to load at the breech, -the object being not only to obviate the disadvantages of sponging and -loading from the front, but also to allow the projectile to be larger in -diameter than would enter at the muzzle, and thus to insure its taking -the impress of the grooves and completely filling the bore. The piece -weighs 5 cwt., and is mounted upon a carriage which bears a general -resemblance to that of an ordinary 6-pounder field gun, but which -embraces a pivot frame and recoil slide. A screw is also applied, not -only for elevating and depressing the gun, but also for moving it -horizontally, by which means great delicacy of aim is effected. The -recoil slide has an upward inclination, which enables the gun, after -running back, to recover its position by gravity; and its use is to -relieve the pivot-frame and adjusting screws from injurious concussion. - -"I shall now give some particulars of the experiments recently made with -this gun on the coast of Northumberland, near the village of Whitley, -under the official inspection of Colonel Wilmot. - -"Fourteen shots were in the first instance fired from a distance of -1,500 yards at a timber butt, 5 ft. wide 7-1/2 ft. high. Six of these -were expended in finding the elevation proper for the distance, but -after that was determined every succeeding shot hit the object without -previous graze. The final elevation of the gun was 4 deg. 26 min., and -the mean lateral distance of the shot-marks from a vertical line through -the centre of the butt was only 11-1/2 in. - -"Persons who are conversant with artillery practice will be able to -appreciate the accuracy of this firing; but, for the information of -those who are unacquainted with the subject, I may state that the -ordinary 6-pounder field-piece, which in point of weight forms the -nearest approach to the present gun, is perfectly useless at a distance -of 1,500 yards, and is very uncertain even at 1,000 yards. It is only, -therefore, with heavy artillery that a comparison can be drawn; and it -will be sufficient to state that in tabulating the practice made with -such ordnance the deflections are invariably recorded in yards, whereas -with this rifled gun they can only be properly given in inches. - -"With respect to penetration, the following particulars will be regarded -as equally remarkable, considering the small weight of the shot and the -length of the range. The butt was 3 ft. thick, and was composed of six -layers of rock elm bolted together, so as to form a solid block. One -shot passed entirely through; another struck near the edge and glanced; -and the remaining six penetrated within a few inches of the opposite -side. - -"Shell firing was next tried at a distance of 1,500 yards; the gun being -fired at the same elevation and with the same charge as in the previous -practice at the butt. - -"In this case two targets were erected, one behind the other, so as to -appear as one object when viewed from the gun, and a space of 30 feet -was left between them. The front target was intended to exhibit the -perforations of the shell before bursting, and the back one to show the -effect of the fragments resulting from explosion. - -"After some preliminary experiments twenty-two shells were fired at the -front target, and of these only one missed the object of aim. The -following are the particulars:--Seventeen hit the first target direct, -and burst behind it, the fragments penetrating the second one; three -grazed and burst immediately in front of the first target, and -perforated both with the pieces; one hit the bottom of the first target -and exploded in the ground, and the remaining one missed entirely and -burst on some rocks nearly on line beyond. A strong side wind was -blowing at the time, and accounted for the deviation of this single -shell. - -"Four shells and three shots were then fired at an elevation of 6 -degrees, from a distance of 2,000, or, more accurately, 1,964 yards. All -these struck within the breadth of the target; but the elevation being -scarcely sufficient, they all fell a little short, except one shell, -which, ranging somewhat further than the others, hit the target and -burst as usual. - -"The results of this shell-firing were as follows:--The front target -contained 51 holes, and the back one 164, while the ground between and -adjacent to the targets exhibited about 70 perforations by fragments of -shells, the greater portion of which were afterwards recovered by -digging. - -"With respect to ranges exceeding 2,000 yards, I may state that on -previous occasions the gun had been tried up to 3,000 yards--a distance -which was reached with an elevation of 11 deg., and the usual charge of -10 ounces of powder, or 1-8th the weight of the projectile. By -augmenting the charge the range is increased, but the accuracy is -impaired; and I therefore adhere to the 10-ounce charge, which gives -ample penetration, as the experiments at the butt will testify. I may -also observe that the ranges obtained with this charge bear a favourable -comparison with those of the heaviest round-shot guns fired with a much -larger proportion of powder. - -"It is a curious fact, and one which greatly increases the efficiency of -the shells, that owing to the bursting charge requiring a minute space -of time to mature its ignition after the firing of the fuse by impact, -the shell is enabled to travel four or five feet after striking an -object before disruption takes place. Hence, therefore, it acts as a -shot before it bursts as a shell. When it perforates a target the -explosion may be seen to take place at a few feet beyond, and when it -grazes it has time to rise, and may be observed to burst after clearing -the ground. If, therefore, it were fired against a ship, it would first -penetrate the side in its entirety, and then, bursting, traverse the -deck in fragments; or if directed against troops, it would pierce the -front line as a bullet, and operate like grape-shot beyond. The shells -explode with equal certainty whether the first substance struck be hard -or soft; and, in fact, they even burst on the surface of water, provided -the elevation of the gun be not too great. The bursting charge is very -small, but it suffices to break the shell into about 30 pieces, which -pursue their forward course without too much dispersion. - -"It is impossible to contemplate the results obtained with this gun -without being impressed with the important part it is calculated to -perform in warfare. Opposed to any ordinary field-piece, it would be -like the Greener rifle against the old musket; and no gun could be -worked at an embrasure if a fire of shells were directed against it by -one of these rifled pieces placed within the distance of a mile. In -naval operations, also, guns of this description, but of larger size, -might apparently be applied with great effect--more especially as a -system of breech loading, combined with a self-recovering recoil action, -would be peculiarly advantageous in firing from portholes. Even light -5-pounders, sending their shells from great distances through the sides -of a ship and sweeping the decks with fragments of lead and iron, would -produce very destructive effects; and a small swift steamer carrying a -few such guns might prove a very troublesome opponent to a large ship of -war. But if the dimensions of the gun were increased so as to adapt it -for shells of 20 lb. or 30 lb., still more terrible injury could be -inflicted at greater distances; and the ponderous artillery now used at -sea would be of little service when opposed to the accurate and -long-range firing of such rifled shell-guns." - -Since the publication of these remarks, rifled artillery of Mr. -Armstrong's production has, we believe, been extensively tried. The -results of these trials have been most extraordinary; and the principle -is, we believe, identical with the expansive principle bearing my -cognomen: an extension of the principle of the Greener and Enfield -rifle, hereafter to be described. I have had the honour of being -consulted both by English and foreign authorities, and I have assisted -in constructing rifled artillery for several years; and the experience -thus obtained justifies me in making known to the world some of my -observations on this subject. - -Rifled cannon with elongated projectiles, similar in shape and principle -to the Greenerian bullet, give, with charges inferior to those of the -old régime and calibre, more than double the range, with ten times -greater accuracy. - -Now, either of these points, if gained, would be most important -improvements, and when combined would produce the most extraordinary -results. But this is not all: a great diminution in the weight of the -gun might also be effected; and these advantages may be still further -extended when we have had time to increase our knowledge of the valuable -materials with which we are only just now becoming acquainted. - -The following table will show the advantages to be gained both in length -and accuracy of range. - -Before reverting to the table, it may be necessary to remind the reader -that the great reduction in the weight of guns arises from the adoption -of the elongated projectile. For example: the diameter of the -_elongated_ projectile for an "18-pounder" is much less than the -diameter of the gun for the _spherical_ 18-pounder; thus allowing the -thickness of metal to be equal in both guns. The gun for the elongated -projectile may be greatly reduced in weight without at all diminishing -its strength, simply on account of the great diminution in the diameter -of the arc. - -There is another important fact, which Mr. Whitworth, with all his -boasting, has carefully concealed: viz., that a much greater pressure is -exerted upon the square inch in the lesser than in the larger diameter -of bore; and to conceal this fact, whilst claiming merit for a bullet of -50-gauge exceeding in range one of 25-gauge, the charge of gunpowder -being alike in both cases, appears very like deception. Any engineer -will tell us that the pressure in the lesser is twice as great as in the -larger bore; and this explains why greater velocity is given to the -projectile. - -With these explanations the reader will be better prepared to weigh -carefully my observations. My task would, doubtless, have been rendered -more easy, if a clear elucidation of the principles of the expansive -bullet could have been given thus early in the work; but it is thought -better to do this in its proper place. I will only add here, that -although two bullets, one elongated, the other spherical, and of equal -diameter, meet with the same amount of atmospheric resistance, yet the -one containing twice as much matter as the other retains its medium -velocity nearly double the distance. With these explanatory remarks I -give the following table:-- - - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - |Present Range|Present|Reduced Weight|Range when - |of Guns. |Weight.|when Rifled. |Rifled. - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - 6-pndr. | 1,500 yds. | 17 | 12 cwts. |3,000 yds. - 9-pndr. | 1,600 " | 26 | 18 " |4,000 " - 12-pndr. | 1,700 " | 34 | 22 " |4,500 " - 18-pndr. | 1,780 " | 42 | 29 " |5,000 " - 24-pndr. | 1,850 " | 50 | 34 " |5,500 " - 32-pndr. | 2,000 " | 63 | 42 " |6,000 " - 48-pndr. | 2,500 " | 70 | 45 " |6,500 " - 56-pndr. | 5,000 " | 85 | 60 " |8,000 " - 68-pndr. or 8-in. | 4,500 " | 85 | 60 " |8,000 " - 86-pndr. or 10-in.| 4,700 " | 95 | 65 " |9,000 " - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - -The reader must understand that all the guns given in this table were -not rifled, and that they have not all been subjected to trial. The 6, -12, 18, 24, and 48-pounders have been tried, with the results given -above; but the heavier guns have not as yet been tested: the ranges and -weights given in the table have, however, been derived from the results -yielded in the trial of the lesser guns, and may be safely relied on as -scientific data; being, in truth, rather under than over the mark. - -All experiments clearly establish one very important principle, long -known to those acquainted with the science of projectiles, viz., "That -the heavier the projectile, the less the deflection." Thus it is quite -possible that the longest ranges may ultimately be obtained without any -perceptible deflection. And when we observe that the deflection of an -ordinary 32-shot in a range of 2,000 yards, is 50 feet, and in 2,500 -yards, 80 feet, whilst the elongated shot, at a much greater distance, -is not deflected half as many inches, I think we may fairly say that our -knowledge of gunnery is yet in its infancy. Fulminating powder may be -used as an auxiliary in shells for various important purposes; such, for -instance, as destroying an entire fleet; and it is clearly within the -range of possibility that by its agency the largest ship may be -destroyed by a single shot. The accuracy of rifled cannon renders it an -easy task to strike a plank only one inch above the water line, and the -penetration of an elongated gun-metal or lead-alloyed shell would enable -us to reach the innermost parts of the magazine: for it is scarcely -possible to produce even an iron casing which shall resist the power of -such projectiles. It is possible, therefore, that we may see the noblest -fleet destroyed in a few minutes by the agency of such projectiles. - -I will endeavour to give an outline of the method by which this may be -effected. A long rifled cannon, constructed for an elongated gun-metal -shell; of from fifty-six to eighty-six pounds, and with an extreme range -of from 6,000 to 7,000 yards, may be considered to be a suitable -instrument. This shell should be charged in the head with a given -quantity of the fulminate, such as would be most calculated to prevent -the tendency to explode from the concussion produced by the discharge of -the gun. It will be necessary to place the fulminate in thin layers -between sheets of prepared caoutchouc, or some other preparation of -India-rubber; having thus arranged the fulminate in the head of the -shell and secured it there, the usual method of filling the remainder is -resorted to, and the aperture is securely screwed up: fuses not being -necessary in this arrangement. - -The difficulty in using this shell is to prevent its explosion when the -gun is discharged; and to obviate this all our engineering skill is -required. Time and experience will show that, by a modification of the -propelling agent, the shell may be started from a rifled cannon at a -very low velocity; the velocity being increased like that of the rocket. -This is to be done by modifying the arrangement of the gunpowder so as -to ensure the shell acquiring its greatest velocity as it leaves the -muzzle of the cannon. The result of this has been already shown. On the -shell striking any object, such as the ship's side, the metal of the -shell is driven in upon itself, and an explosion of the fulminate -follows as a natural consequence. Experiment has proved that shells -exploding as they strike the ship's sides, produce very little damage -beyond making a hole in the ship the size of the shell. This, no doubt, -arises from the short space of time occupied by the shell in passing -through the side of the ship; all its force being exerted in the -interior instead of on the sides of the vessel. All shells of the nature -alluded to would, at certain distances, take such a line of flight as to -ensure them dipping towards the centre of gravity, and thus exploding -the magazines, however deep below the water-line; and when we consider -the destructive effects of fulminates, we think it quite within the -range of probability that they might produce all the effects we have -spoken of. - -There are many agents equally powerful to be introduced into destructive -warfare; and with the advantages to be derived from improvements in -rifled shells, which the ingenuity of the present race will certainly -effect, he would be a rash man who would set any limits to the -advancement of projectile science. The great difficulty in the use of -fulminates will be surmounted if these suggestions can be carried out; -and experiment is all that will then be necessary to establish the line -of proceeding. To effect this is the province of the Government of the -country; to wait for it to be perfected by individual skill and -enterprise would be unjust to science, and injurious to the best -interests of the nation. The needful expenditure can only be borne by -the nation, and should be entered upon, in order to effect improvement -in projectiles, with the view of maintaining our land and marine -artillery at the highest point of efficiency. - -There is one question of great importance to inventors, and to which I -have paid much attention, namely, the obtaining a spiral motion in a -projectile which has been fired from a smooth bored gun. All we have -witnessed goes far to prove that the attainment of this is impossible, -in consequence of a principle not hitherto investigated by inventors. If -the course of a projectile is changed from the straight to the spiral, -it can only be done at the expense of range; and that for the following -reasons: first, the force which is necessary to induce this spiral -movement must be exerted at the expense of the force which propels it -forward; secondly, when this spiral movement is acquired, it is so much -in excess of the direct movement, that after advancing a certain -distance it falls to the ground. A very simple experiment will prove -this. Take an ordinary tin tube, cut a bullet of an elongated -form--cylindro-conical if wished--having grooves from the point -backwards, with the degree of spiral necessary to effect the object in -view. Let the bullet be made of cork or light wood, such as can be -projected by a blast from the mouth, and the result will be that the -projectile will go one-half the distance before the friction of the -atmosphere produces a motion on its axis parallel to its line of -flight; from this point it gradually loses its velocity in a forward -direction, it spins until its force is expended, and then falls -vertically to the ground. To find the sequel, try the same experiment -without grooving, and the range, with the same force, will be found to -be double. Some years ago I witnessed such a trial with a 32-pounder; -and, to the astonishment of all present, the bullet rose above the -horizontal line, and then fell to the ground, like the cork bullet of -which we have already spoken. - -The endeavour to produce breech-loading cannon is an effort to obtain -uncalled-for and superfluous facility in gunnery; and if a perfect -breech-loading cannon could possibly be produced, what would it avail? -What superior property could it possess over the solid gun? It could not -be safety; for when we consider the very limited number of explosions by -which the very best guns are destroyed, it can scarcely be possible for -a gun composed of many parts to endure the intense vibrations to which -large cannon are subjected. The regular distribution of vibrations in -the metal of the gun is the great point to be attended to in the -construction of artillery; so that vibrations may not be incorrectly -induced by malformation, or by an excess or deficiency of metal at any -particular point; for where the waves of vibration are checked by an -unequal distribution of metal, or other causes, there the weak point in -a gun is always found, as all fractured guns clearly demonstrate. An -intimate acquaintance with the metallurgy of cannon, enables me to give -an almost unerring opinion as to the causes leading to the fracture. -Most undoubtedly, vibration, if judiciously distributed, is the soul of -endurance; but if injudiciously distributed is certain to result in the -destruction of the cannon. In structures composed necessarily of many -joints, obstruction to the waves of vibration must occur; the different -parts do not expand and vibrate equally; a kind of revulsion is induced; -part repels part, and destruction ensues as a natural consequence. Under -no circumstances, therefore, can a breech-loader be as safe as a solid -gun. - -The facility with which breech-loaders can be charged is generally -trumpeted forth to the world as an advantage of vital importance; but -let us carefully examine this point and see if it has not been -exaggerated--whether, in fact, a solid gun cannot be charged and -discharged as rapidly as a breech-loader. - -In the first place, all guns recoil; this necessitates the relaying of -the gun after every discharge, in order to obtain accuracy of aim; and -if facility of loading is to be obtained at the expense of aim, it can -scarcely be called an advantage. Aim consumes more time than loading. A -six-pounder may be loaded and fired six times in the first minute; but -it would be impossible to do this and re-lay the gun after each shot. -Where then is the advantage of firing six shots per minute if you cannot -hit six objects? And if breech-loaders could be fired _sixty_ times per -minute, what would they avail if aim was wanting? The raising or -depressing of the breech of a gun by means of the elevating screw; -slewing to the right or left, spunging the gun, and ramming home the -powder and shot, all consume time; hence we think that quickness of -loading is worthless. - -Breech-loading cannon cannot be constructed for bullets of larger -diameter than that of the rifle bore, without a ductile bullet be used; -for, as is usual in breech-loading small-arms, the bullet rifles itself -as it is forced up the grooves. The projectiles for rifled cannon have -hitherto been cast with corresponding grooves and lands to fit the -internal form of the cannon. A compound shot, composed of iron, and -covered externally with ductile metal, has been tried in a few -instances; but, unfortunately, the difficulty of combining two metals so -dissimilar as iron and lead has been found so great as invariably to end -in a failure; therefore no prospect exists of bringing into play this, -the best point existing in breech-loading arms. - -Lastly, the tendency of all guns to absorb the heat, developed during -explosion, puts a limit to all extreme rapidity of fire; even if this -was not already limited by the more essential point of taking aim. At -Sweaborg it was found necessary to allow an interval of five minutes -between each discharge of a mortar, and yet the whole of them burst -after an average of 120 shots. Time and ingenuity spent in planning and -constructing breech-loading cannon will always end in disappointment and -failure. Many are the plans extant, evincing great skill, perseverance, -and everything needful in point of mechanical experience, but betraying -a total ignorance of the metallurgic science and of practical results -from the use of the engine. The study of these points will save money, -time, and what is of more value, brain-work, which might be better -employed. Striving to produce perfect breech-loading cannon is like -striving to square the circle. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON FOR GUN BARRELS. - - -A considerable progress in improvement has taken place in manufacturing -the higher quality of iron since my last publication. Not that I -arrogate to myself any credit on that score, but it is evident that good -frequently comes of flagellations, whether on the body or the mind. One -part of human nature will ever fear the exposure of bad qualities, while -another is emboldened to advance in improvement if the slightest chance -exist of success or encouragement. Thus we often see men striving to -produce one invention on the back of another, with wonderful -perseverance, finding many blanks and rarely a prize; for truly in this -competing age, the mind must be strong that can fight long. Bitter is -the disappointment of the truly ingenious mind, to see the produce of -his brains thrown as lumber into the _herring barrel_,--as the printer -terms the receptacle for what he sets no value upon; while the valueless -contrivances of the mean and sordid are preferred and rewarded, because -they enable the manufacturer to produce cheaper, by foisting on the -public a deceptive or a spurious article. All inventions for purposes -of deception, are readily, aye, eagerly, patronised; for they return -gold to the coffers sooner. - -The improvement in the manufacture of gun-barrels depends on the quality -of the iron entirely; for it would be a useless waste of time to -endeavour to make a good barrel of inferior metal. Science and -experience have worked a wonderful change in the mixture of the superior -qualities of iron: we have had announcements of silver-steel barrels at -_ten guineas a pair_ in the rough, of Brescian steel barrels, carbonised -iron, and I know not how many more descriptions or compounds of metals, -to form the best material for high-priced barrels. We have now metal -which, in the rod, cannot be sold for less than one shilling and -twopence per pound: the iron for a pair of barrels thus costing sixteen -shillings and fourpence. This is good; nay, more than good--'tis -excellent. But there is a dark side of the picture, over which I would -fain draw a veil: but I must not. Belgium, France, Holland, and Germany, -are improving, are marching onward, and we, alas! are standing still. -Competition and cheapness combined, are driving our gun trade into a -labyrinth, out of which it will be long ere it finds the clue of exit. -Our manufacture of inferior gunnery has certainly reached a depth of -inferiority which never any other manufacture in the world reached, and -I hope never will. - -During the existence of the slave-trade, many thousand guns per year -were made of what is, by the trade, technically termed "_park paling_," -a material only fit for such purposes; and the cost of it was only -_seven shillings and sixpence_ each _spike_; but now we can furnish -slave traders with ship-loads, if they choose, at only _six shillings -and sixpence_ each, and it is still supposed that one of these -_imitation_ guns is the blood-money for a fellow-creature. It would be a -just and equitable law, if our legislature would pass it, "That every -man should fire the guns he manufactures:" nothing would more surely -tend to improve the quality of guns of a low grade. - -A considerable increasing difficulty attends the obtaining of horse-nail -stubs from the continent. In various continental markets from whence we -draw our supply, the skill and ability of the gun-barrel makers have -increased; and the preference for superior fire-arms which is gaining -ground with many continental sportsmen, has taught foreigners the value -of their old horse-nails; and hence their increased scarcity. The -inferior iron of which we make horse-nails prevents entirely the use of -our own; consequently it requires no foresight to predict that our -manufacturers will soon resolve themselves into two descriptions--the -very best and the very worst. The latter are already actively employed, -and the others are advancing; as no doubt an increasing desire to obtain -the most perfect gun pervades the thinking and affluent portion of the -sporting world. - -The manufacture of iron is a science truly worth the consideration of -the philosopher, for it is fraught with the most important consequences, -considered either as a material of commerce, or the means to an end. In -advancing manufactures and the progress of improvement, it has had an -effect on civilization unequalled by any known product, gold not -excepted; for no substitute exists for iron, or ever did. No doubt the -ancients had their bronze, of which they could form edge tools, even -razors; but that was a very limited use of cutting tools: enough, -perhaps, for war or subsistence, but not for the progress of the arts. - -Of the first discovery and use of iron we have no record; though its -value may be presumed from the fact, that Quintus Curtius mentions that -"Alexander of Macedon, received a present from Porus, an Indian chief, -of about 30 lbs. weight of steel." If this were a present fit for the -conqueror of the world, its value, even at that early date, must have -been great indeed. - -For many centuries, up to the sixteenth, all iron was produced by the -aid of wood charcoal; and with such contracted and limited means, it was -found that not more than 50 per cent, of the metal contained in the ore -was extracted; consequently at this day all the ancient deposits of -_slag_ are sought for and re-smelted, yielding a handsome return to the -manufacturer. The adoption of coal coke was a matter of necessity, but -it has been productive of extensive benefit in all manufactures of iron -of medium quality. The opinions of many men of science lead to the -belief that it has benefited the higher quality also; but I am quite -satisfied of the reverse. The quantity formerly obtained in the yield -was, as shown, only 50 per cent. of the quantity existing in the ore; -but yet it was the purest metal: for it is unquestionable that the best -is soonest fused. - -The iron ore of Great Britain is, beyond a doubt, inferior to that of -many parts of the world; as all attempts to produce good steel from it -have been attended ultimately with disappointment. Mr. Mushet, in his -excellent work on iron, says, "The successful exertions of individuals -have increased the manufacture of cast and malleable iron beyond all -precedent in this country; nor have we been without some enlightened -individuals, who have laudably endeavoured to form a superior quality -along with the extension of their manufactures. Success has so far -crowned their praiseworthy exertions, aided by the operation of -knowledge, in removing the prejudices of the artisan, that bar iron of -our own manufacturing has been substituted, to a great extent, in place -of that formerly used of the Swedish and Russian marks; but hitherto all -attempts have failed to make bars of proper quality to form steel, in -any degree comparable to that we daily manufacture in great quantities -from foreign iron. - -"Here we remain at an immense distance behind; and while our manufacture -of iron goods exceeds the collective exertions of all Europe, we humbly -feel our dependence upon two foreign markets for the supply of that -steel-iron, without which the beauty, the utility, and extent of our -hardware manufactures would be essentially injured and abridged. - -"The policy of the foreign holders of this article communicates many -undue advantages to the favoured few to whom the steel-iron is consigned -in this country. The rapid progressive rise in value of this iron, for -many years past, has already nearly doubled the price of steel to the -workman, and given the trade in general a melancholy foretaste of the -evils of dependence and _monopoly_." - -So it is with the scrap, requisite to form good iron for gun-barrels. I -have had several pairs of barrels sent from Berlin and Vienna, to be -fitted up in the English style, with a certain knowledge that they were -wanted for patterns; and in justice let it be said, the material and -figure in the barrel were most beautiful: being a variety of Damascus, -or fancy pattern in the metal, _superior_ to anything seen of this -country's manufacture. True, this is not an essential requisite, being -more for appearance than utility; but the fact clearly shows the -industry and will of the artisan. The iron, too, in clearness and -density, we can scarcely surpass; therefore, if I regret that we are not -advancing with our competitors, it proceeds from a clear conviction of -the truth that we are slumbering upon our fancied superiority. A friend -who had lately visited Liege, informed me that in one gun-maker's shop -alone, were employed fourteen of our best workmen; in fact, he brought -with him a gun which attests the great improvement the Belgians have -made of late years. I have had possession of three guns, bearing on the -lock and barrels, "Joseph Manton, London;" "Joseph Egg, London;" and -"John Manton and Son, London;" all of which were manufactured in -Belgium; and so well is the imitation executed, that it would puzzle -most amateurs to discover the fraud. - -Recently a company, entitled "The Indian Iron and Steel Company," has -commenced importing and and manufacturing iron and steel from Hindostan -ore, and native-made bar iron.[7] If they succeed in competing with -Sweden and Russia, this iron will be a valuable acquisition to the -British empire. They have already issued a quantity 35 per cent. cheaper -then the latter, but quality is the end they should strive for. However, -the business is in able hands, and I have no doubt but that this object -will be kept prominently in view. - - [7] The fine quality of the Indian steel is generally acknowledged. - The iron is first obtained by smelting, in small quantities, the - wootz-ore, or the magnetic oxide of iron, which it found combined with - about 42 per cent. of quartz; the yield being, out of 100 parts of - ore, only 15 parts of metal: but this is of the finest character. - - The process by which the iron is converted into steel is as follows, - and fully accounts for that peculiar quality for which the Indian - steel is valued. - - The iron is cut into pieces and packed closely in a crucible of clay, - containing about 1 lb. only of the iron, mixed with a tenth part of - dried wood cut small, the whole covered over with green leaves. The - crucible is then stopped, by covering the mouth with tempered clay, so - as to effectually exclude the air. After a time that is, as soon as - the clay-plugs are sufficiently hard, from twenty to thirty of the - crucibles are built up in an arched form placed in a small blast - furnace, and kept covered with charcoal; thus being subjected to the - heat of the furnace for two or three hours. The process is then - complete. - - As soon as the crucibles are cool, they are broken open and the cakes - of steel are found rounded at the bottom. - - The top of the cakes should be found covered with striæ, radiating - from a centre, and be free from holes or rough projections. If the - cakes are honeycombed, the process has been imperfect and incomplete. - When re-melted and tilted into rods, a very superior article has been - the result. - - The natives prepare the cakes for being drawn into bars, by annealing - them for several hours in a small charcoal furnace, excited by - bellows; the current of air being made to play upon the cakes while - turned over before it, whereby a portion of the combined carbon is - dissipated and the steel probably softened: without which operation - the cakes would break in drawing them. They are drawn by a hammer of - only a very few pounds weight, but the repeated hammering greatly - tends to the production of a highly condensed and perfect article. - -Foreseeing the difficulty that would eventually beset us in obtaining a -sufficient supply of old horse nails from Germany and elsewhere, I -directed my experiments to steel entirely, having formerly perceived -that where the greatest quantity of steel existed in the mixture -necessary to form material for their best gun barrels, there also -existed the greatest tenuous strength. I had at that time a decided -objection to all steel, as the following quotation from "The Gun" will -show:-- - -"We recommend hammer-hardening in all mixtures containing iron. If you -throw the iron aside, and confine your manufacture wholly to steel, it -would be an evil, from this simple cause:--steel is of itself close -enough in the grain; hammering it, therefore, in a cold state, only -tends to make it more brittle. But the reverse is the case with iron: -the more it is beaten the greater becomes its tenacity; and when mixed -with steel in the way the stubs-composition is, it prevents the -particles of steel from becoming too hard." - -Mr. Adams, of Wednesbury, and the successors of Mr. Clive, of -Birmingham, manufacture a considerable quantity both of silver steel and -common twist steel for the trade; I make my own laminated steel: the -difference in silver steel and common twist steel merely consists in the -variety of tortuous twisting the former undergoes, while the latter is -rolled out into rods of 6-16ths broad, with the fibres running perfectly -longitudinal. The method of making or welding the pieces into a bloom, -is in the following way. Having collected a sufficiency of mild steel -scraps, such as cuttings of saws, waste from steel pen making, old coach -springs, and the immense variety of pieces arising from the various -manufactures of tools, they are cut into pieces of equal dimensions, -polished in a revolving drum by their friction on each other, until -quite bright, and then placed for fusion on the bed of an air furnace. -The parts first fused are gathered on the end of a similarly fabricated -rod, in a welding state, and these gather together by their adhesion, -the remainder as they become sufficiently heated, until the bloom is -complete. The steel is then removed from the furnace, and undergoes the -effect of a three-ton forge hammer and the tilt, until it forms a large -square bar; it is then re-heated, and thence conveyed to the rolling -mill, where eventually it is reduced to the size of rod required. I -generally have the metal required cut into short pieces of six inches -long. A certain number are bundled together and welded, and then drawn -down again in the rolling mill. This can be repeated any number of -times--elongating the fibres and multiplying their number to an -indefinite extent as may be required. - -[Illustration] - -The great advantage derived in this instance from air-furnace welding is -a chemical one; for while the small pieces of steel are fusing on the -bed of the air furnace, the oxygen is extracting the carbon, and leaves -the resulting metal mild steel, or iron of the densest description; -while the succeeding hammering and rolling and re-welding, produce the -mechanical arrangement of making the whole of an extremely fibrous -description. The polishing secures a clean metal; indeed, so free from -specks are the generality of barrels thus made, that it is scarcely -possible to imagine clearer metal. When contrasted with the best of -ordinary iron, by a powerful microscope, the closeness and density of -grain are strongly apparent. - -To such an extent has this been carried, that I can produce specimens of -a considerably increased specific gravity. The barrels made of this -metal, in general, beat all tried against them; with this great -advantage, that the finer the polish in the interior the better they -shoot, and continue longer free from lead. The only difficulty is in the -working; as the boring, filing, &c., are more difficult. Moreover, -greater care is required to see that they are not annealed,[8] when in -the hands of the borer or filer; for in such case they would be -considerably injured, though not to the same extent as barrels of a -softer nature. I tested a great variety of bars by drawing them asunder -longitudinally by the testing machine, and the average strength of a rod -of 6-16ths broad by 5-16ths thick and 12 inches long, containing 1·40625 -solid inches of iron, was equal to a tension of 11,200 lbs. This -furnished a barrel having a thickness of metal in all parts of the arch -equal, or 3-16ths of an inch thick, capable of bearing an internal -pressure of 6,022 lbs. to the inch of the tube. - - [8] Dr. Ure falls into an error in describing the process of barrel - boring: he says "the barrel is first properly annealed, and allowed to - cool gradually," &c. The barrel-maker that would take such a - proceeding with a barrel of ours should never do so to another. The - Doctor ought to have pointed out the evil tendency of this. We never - saw it done, and we doubt much whether he did, though we have heard of - the practice, which induces us to notice it, but the Doctor describes - it as a _necessary_ proceeding. - -The generality of barrel makers spoil this metal by an attempt to obtain -figure; for all extreme twistings in the rod depreciate the metal, by -separating the fibres: to borrow a simile, they obtain only an -over-twisted rope. This is not only disadvantageous but useless; for -the extreme density of the metal renders the figure difficult to be -shown distinctly, as acid acts upon it but slightly, and never so well -as on metal fabricated from two differently constructed carbonised -materials. - -Many conjectures have been advanced, and an endless discussion created, -to account for the watering or "_jowher_" in oriental sword-blades, and -genuine Damascus gun-barrels. Anything approaching the truth is seldom -met with; though I think the explanation is very simple. It must be well -known that there is an immense variety of different qualities in both -iron and steel: no uniformity of quality is found in two productions out -of a hundred. The very ore, the coal, the presence of oxygen, the excess -of it, all vary the quality of the material. An excess of carbon is more -detrimental than a scarcity; for where carbon has once been, it leaves -an indelible mark, and though extracted to as great an extent as -practicable, it leaves a residue that possesses an affinity to absorb -carbon again equal to the original quantity: thus, steel once made will -never, by any process yet known, be reconverted back to iron of the same -nature it was originally. - -Mr. Mushet has given us the proportions of carbon _held in solution_ by -the various qualities of steel and iron, and the reader will find them -in the note below.[9] It inevitably follows, as a principle, that the -quantity of carbon contained in the metal--avoiding cast iron--will -increase or decrease, and thus regulate the degree of hardness of the -metals in question. A quantity of metals dissimilar in this particular, -mixed together, and run into a vessel in a state of fusion, then, when -cold, filed and polished, will show a variety according to the place -they hold in the crystallised mass. Work and twist this material in all -the tortuous ways and shapes it is capable of, and you only twist the -fibres of the different bodies in the same way; and when they come to be -acted upon by acid or oxidisation, they still retain their relative -positions, forming the watering or figure, as was the intention of the -tortuous twisting. All the beautiful arrangements in Damascus figures -are obtained in this way. Metals containing more or less carbon will -always produce this watering. To obtain a satisfactory proof, any person -may case-harden a few pounds weight of stubs, and afterwards melt them -in a crucible, and run them into a receiver; when these are worked down -into the bar (or not, as he pleases), dress and apply a little sulphuric -acid, and the peculiar situation the various stubs had taken in the -fluid state, will be clearly discernible. - - [9] - Iron, semi-steelified, is made with charcoal 1-150th part. - Soft cast steel, capable of welding with ditto 1-120th do. - Cast steel, for common purposes, with ditto 1-120th do. - Cast steel, requiring more hardness, with charcoal 1-90th do. - Steel, capable of standing a few blows, but quite - unfit for drawing with ditto 1-150th do. - First approach to a steely granulated fracture is - from 1-50th to 1-40th do. - White cast iron, with charcoal 1-25th do. - Mottled cast iron, with ditto 1-20th do. - Carbonated cast iron 1-15th do. - And supercarbonated crude iron 1-12th do. - -The original barrel-welders, the real Damascus iron-workers, were, like -some of ours of the present day, not the most _conscientious_ -individuals, nor the most honourable. For, strange to say--but it is not -more strange than true--on examination of most real Damascus barrels to -be met with, we find the iron must have been so valuable as to induce -the workmen _to plate_ or _veneer_ the superior mixture over a body of -the commonest iron: all large barrels are thus made, rifles especially. -I presume the moderns _borrowed_ the invention; and it would be well if -they made no more extensive use of it than on rifle barrels. - -The modern method of making wire-twist and Damascus iron, being -gradations from the same material, are here described under one head:-- - -Alternate bars of iron and steel are placed on each other, in numbers of -six each; they are then forged into one body or bar; after which, if for -the making of wire-twist barrels, they are rolled down into rods of -3-8ths of an inch in breadth, varying in thickness according to the size -of the barrel for which they are wanted: if for Damascus, invariably -3-8ths of an inch square. When about to be twisted into spirals for -barrels, care must be taken that the edges of the steel and iron shall -be outermost; so that when the barrel is finished and browned it shall -have the appearance of being welded of pieces the size of wires, the -whole length of the barrel. A portion of the rod, pickled in sulphuric -acid, exhibits the following appearance, the bright parts being the -steel, the other the iron. - -[Illustration] - -When about to be converted into Damascus, the rod is heated the whole -length, and the two square ends put into the heads (one of which is a -fixture) of a kind of lathe, which is worked by a handle similar to a -winch. It is then twisted like a rope (or, as Colonel Hawker says, wrung -as wet clothes are) until it has from twelve to fourteen complete turns -in the inch, when it presents this appearance. - -[Illustration] - -By this severe twisting, the rod of six feet is shortened to three, -doubled in thickness, and made perfectly round. Three of these rods are -then placed together, with the inclinations of the twists running in -opposite directions; they are then welded into one, and rolled down into -a rod 11-16ths of an inch in breadth. Being pickled in acid, to eat away -the iron, it exhibits the following appearance:-- - -[Illustration] - -This iron has long been held in great esteem. It looks pretty; but -certainly does not possess either the strength or tenacity of wire-twist -iron. It is well known that the strength of a rope may be destroyed by -twisting it too much: so is it with this sort of iron. Iron is best when -not twisted at all: I speak of the bar. It resembles wood, inasmuch as -the strands or fibres run parallel, firmly adhere, and add strength to -each other; if you twist those fibres you tear them asunder, and they no -longer support each other. So it is with iron. - -The objection made to the wire-twist is, that owing to the iron and -steel being perfectly separate bodies running through the whole -thickness of the barrel, there is a difficulty in welding them -perfectly; and, of course there is danger of their breaking across, at -any trifling imperfection or mis-weld. This objection is certainly well -grounded, as many barrels break in the proving. I have seen a very -strong barrel indeed broken across the knee without the slightest -difficulty, while, to all appearance, it was perfectly sound. This is -the reason why the manufacturers have ceased to make them, except for -the American trade. - -It may be said that the fibres in the Damascus, after being torn -asunder, are welded anew. True; but could you ever glue the fibres of a -piece of wood (twisted in the same way) together again, to make them as -strong as before? No: cut several pieces of wood across the grain and -glue them together, you would not expect them, though equal in substance -with a piece in which the grains run lengthwise, to be of equal -strength. In short, I hold a Damascus barrel to be little superior to a -common barrel, in which the fibres run parallel to the bore. - -All the varieties of figured barrels are but modifications of Damascus. -The most endless variety possible may be attained; a figure with the -carbonised material, showing only the ends or edges of the various -laminæ, or portions of the face of that laminæ, may with equal facility -be obtained, if the patience of the artist be in proportion. It would be -a never-ending task, a subject for many volumes, to endeavour to -describe a tithe of the varieties that might be, and have been made. - -The Belgians are very expert at this sort of ornamental work. The very -minute Damascus figure they frequently produce, is admirable, if beauty -alone were the advantage sought in a gun barrel. They use thirty-two -alternate bars of steel and iron, and roll them into a sheet of 3-16ths -thick, and then slit them by a machine into square rods; these are -twisted in the way just described, but to such an extreme as to resemble -the threads of a very fine screw: six of them are welded into one, -instead of three as with us. The figure is so extremely fine as to -appear not to be larger than the finest needle. I have seen barrels made -in Liege, superior in minute figure to any real Damascus barrel, or -sword either. Our workmen here say the steel is better; which I am -inclined to think is true: it is a branch of the gun manufacture they -have long excelled in. The very best "Damascene" workers are to be found -at La Chafontaine, a few miles from Liege, where they dwell in as -beautiful a dell as fancy could wish, with a powerful hill-stream -working their boring and grinding-mills, thus enabling them to send -their barrels into Liege, ready for the filer. I have spent considerable -time, and taken great trouble, to produce in Birmingham iron equally -good; and I have succeeded: but, unfortunately, Englishmen are so -extravagant in their ideas of value, as to render the constant -manufacture of this iron here, a losing speculation. It can, however, be -obtained from Belgium now, under the amended tariff, at ten per cent. on -the value. It can be purchased there, ready for barrel making, at a -franc per pound; and cheap it is at that price: two and a half francs -would not purchase it here. - -That Damascus iron is incompatible with goodness, I can and shall -clearly prove. Experiment with the testing machine shows a rod of -wire-twist 3-8ths square, containing 1·6875 solid inches, as equal to a -tension of 11,200 lbs.; whereas a rod, when converted into Damascus of -11-16ths of an inch in breadth, by 4-16ths in thickness, containing -2·625 solid inches, was only equal to 8,960 lbs.; thus showing a clear -loss of full thirty-five per cent. And when welded into barrels of the -dimensions described, the relative internal strength of each is -5,019-1/2 lbs., and 3,292 lbs. _to the inch of tube_. This constitutes a -great difference. But unfortunately that is not all. - -In the preceding chapter I noted the fact, that all sorts of iron lose a -portion of their strength by being heated or softened; but I found that -Damascus suffered more than any other sort of iron, excepting the -common kinds. For instance, the bar of wire-twist would, in the state it -came from the rolling mill, bear 11,200 lbs., but, after softening, it -would only bear 10,180 lbs., being a diminution of 10 per cent. A bar of -Damascus suspending a weight of 8,940 lbs., the measure of its strength, -when annealed, was 7,840 lbs., being a falling off of 12-1/2 per cent. -Thus, I trust I have clearly shown, that whatever other quality Damascus -possesses, strength is not one of its properties. It must not, however, -be supposed that the above weight indicates its greatest strength; on -the contrary, its strength can be increased full 22-1/2 per cent. by -cold hammering. Still, however, it will only hold its relative position -to other kinds of iron with respect to strength, since they are all -capable of having their strength increased by the same process. - -Damascus barrels have fallen much into disuse, being rarely seen except -as pistol barrels,[10] which, together with a great quantity of -_counterfeits_, are made for the South and North American trades, in the -shape of double and single guns of a flashy appearance--all invariably -_veneered_ or _plated_ with ribbons of this ornamental iron. I shall now -dismiss this subject; after remarking, that certainly a very handsome -barrel may be made after this principle, if too much twisting be -avoided. It has been seen that the rods are twisted until there is -fourteen turns in the inch of length: an excess productive of the -detrimental effect mentioned; while, had there been but two turns, a -large proportion of strength, if not all, would have been retained. One -turn only, under the same circumstances, would very likely be highly -beneficial; indeed I have found it to be so: one twist binds the -interior strands, as the outer does the interior in a rope, and thus -adds strength. This shows that there is a medium in all things. - - [10] The London makers are again using them extensively; which is - certainly no proof of their judgment. - -The use of old horse-shoe nails is of a date nearly coeval with the use -of small fire-arms. These nails are made from rod iron of the best -description; and the hammering cold, or tempering the nail, so benefits -and condenses the iron as to improve it greatly. The method in use until -a late period, was to fill and force into an iron hoop, of six or seven -inches diameter, as many stubs as it would contain, to weld the whole, -and draw them down to a bar of such dimensions as might be required. -Modern improvement, however, has shown the advantage of cleansing the -stubs perfectly by a revolving drum, and then fusing and gathering them -into a _bloom_ on the bed of an air-furnace. Thus a body of from 40 to -50 lbs. of melting iron can be obtained at one heat; a matter of economy -and necessity, where large quantities are required, besides possessing -the superior advantage of having the whole mass equally heated: this -cannot be done by the old hoop method, as the surface must be frequently -burnt before the interior is at all in a welding state. - -Experience taught the late Mr. Adams and his brother George--who still -manufacture some of the best gun iron in the world--that the stub iron -alone was insufficient; for even then (forty years ago) the absurdity -of imagining that no barrels were or could be good without being soft, -was understood and acted upon by them. They introduced at first -one-fourth of steel to three of stubs; this having been found highly -advantageous, the prejudices of the gun-makers were gradually overcome, -or left in abeyance from ignorance of the introduction. It is a fact, -that as late as 1842, when I issued my former work, men who had been all -their lives _gun-makers_ (by courtesy) actually refused to believe that -any steel at all entered into the composition of the best barrels; and -several whom I know perfectly well, ordered the factors with whom they -dealt "to be sure to send them no barrels with steel in, as they did not -wish their customers' hands to be blown off." - -Charcoal iron has, up to this day, been the only stub twist barrels they -(and we believe two-thirds of the provincial makers also) have ever been -served with. Reason with these men, and they will snappishly tell you, -"We pay the best price, and we ought to have the best: we don't see that -our neighbours have any better." On one occasion of my calling upon one -of the first provincial gun-makers in the kingdom, the subject of -barrels was adverted to--"An excellent work that of yours, I dare say; -but, sir, you have done a deal of harm: it is wrong to let gentlemen -know too much; they give you far too much trouble: they get too -knowing." These, and such like observations, are the only thanks I ever -received from the generality of the gun trade. There are, however, some -enlightened men who, understanding the subject, have appreciated my -motives; but by far the greater proportion have done the reverse, -asserting "that I had told them nothing but what they knew before." - -The mixture of a portion of steel with the stubs having clearly shown an -improvement, an increased proportion has been adopted by various makers: -we have had as high as three-fourths of steel to one of iron. Where -proper attention is paid to the clipping of the steel to pieces, -corresponding with the stubs, and properly mixing the whole, welding and -forging by the heavy hammer, reducing by a tilt and rolling down to the -smallest description of rod, a most excellent, tenacious, and dense body -of iron is thus obtained; while, by cutting into lengths of six inches, -bundling a number together, and re-welding them into a bar, an increased -density and tenacity is gained, by an increase in quantity, and an -elongation of the fibrous system. Any description of barrel, of this -iron, if made with a moderate degree of care and attention, is -considerably stronger than any explosive fluid ever yet compounded could -burst, under any circumstances bordering on _fair experiment_. - -The great advantage derived from welding on the bed of an air-furnace, -arises from an absence of the minute portions of charcoal, of either -wood or coal, as the case may be. Millions of these very minute portions -are imbedded in the midst of the metal in every part. They are enclosed -in cells originally of their own dimensions, but are drawn out with the -fibres to an indefinite extent, forming a system of tubes that may be -compared to the capillary system in trees, and making the iron of a -spungy, compressible nature. It is the absence of these particles of -charcoal that gives part of the superiority to steel as now made for -gun-barrels; and the existence of a portion of them causes the -inferiority of all other kinds of iron. In a chemical analysis of iron, -a large portion of crude coal-charcoal or wood-charcoal is found, -according as either has been used during the manufacture. This is not of -course given as so much carbon in the result, though the injury is -equally detrimental as an excess of carbon is to the goodness of the -metal; for it renders the whole porous, and liable to attract moisture -and induce oxidation. It must be kept prominently in view, and clearly -comprehended, that the denser the body of metal, the less the liability -to oxidise, or in other words _rust_; and here is the one great -preservative principle in good iron: "it is the fibre of dense -cocoa-wood, compared with that of willow or saugh." In all situations -and for all purposes, where iron is liable to sudden changes of either -heat or cold, wet or dry, the very best of iron should be obtained; as -it will be less affected by the changes of temperature, and amply repay -by its durability the extra cost in the first instance. - -The very extensive round of experiments to which I have submitted -mixtures of this nature, clearly establishes all the conclusions I have -formed on these points. The strength of the mixture, three parts steel -to one of stubs, gives a resistance in the rod of 6-16ths broad by -5-16ths thick, and 12 inches long, containing 1·40625 solid inches, -equal to 10,295 lbs. before separating; thus being equal, in a barrel of -the dimensions before mentioned, to an internal pressure of 5,555 lbs. -to the inch of tube. The proportions mentioned in my previous work are -25 lbs. of stubs to 15 lbs. of steel; the strength of this mixture in -the rod is equal to a tension of 8,960 lbs., and the barrel is capable -of restraining a pressure internally of 4,818 lbs., making full 15 per -cent. dissimilarity in favour of the larger proportion of steel: indeed, -all experience points to the great advantage, that steel, properly -worked, possesses over iron alone. Great good can be effected by -condensing iron by hammer-hardening; greater than I have shown steel to -be capable of receiving additionally: as, already having it naturally, -there is no necessity for using artificial means to obtain it. Nor is -steel so liable to depreciation in the hands of an inexperienced -artisan; as the degree of expansion is not more, in the large proportion -of steel mixture, than a loss of strength equal to 4-1/2 per cent, by -heating and cooling gradually. The loss in the mixture containing less -steel is 7-1/2 per cent. The specific gravity of the two is in -proportion. - -The frequent welding and re-rolling of iron is of the most beneficial -tendency, the elongation of the fibres being highly advantageous; for, a -fibrous piece of iron may be compared to a wire rope, the more strands -the greater tenacity; and the smaller the strands, even up to a -proximity of fineness to the human hair, the greater the weight they -will bear in tension. One large wire which, when single, will suspend -500 lbs., will, when drawn down to six small ones, suspend 600 lbs.; and -so on to the greatest extreme. Another great advantage received by the -repeated reworking of iron, is obtaining an increased density; for when -this is secured to a certain extent, you have closed in proportion the -pores of the metal; and in this state it is not liable to that degree of -expansion or contraction, or that fluctuation in strength, which arises -from softening the iron. Nor can you gain, save to a limited extent, any -improvement by hammering,--hammer-hardening, for instance,--simply -because it is already improved to the utmost extent we are at present -acquainted with. - -How wonderfully beneficial to mankind is this beautiful arrangement of -the metallic fibrous system! Without it what could we do? our -manufactures would be confined to simple castings, or crystallizations, -possessed merely of strength in proportion to the cohesive nature of the -metal. Where would be all the wonderful springs whose fineness vies with -the silken fibre? Of what could they be constructed? All-powerful gold -would not suffice, nor silver; though each, in its place, possesses -wonderful properties. Gold and silver may both be spread in the thinnest -conceivable coat over space incredible; on the gilded cup, or, still -thinner by electric agency, on the plated epergne. But iron alone is to -the arts, the "_summum bonum_" for which there is no substitute: it is -the "_sine quâ non_" of practical mechanics. - -Improvements in the manufacture of a very superior iron may, we believe, -be placed to the credit of the gunmaking profession exclusively; no -other body or class of men having ever yet deemed it worth their trouble -to endeavour to obtain anything of a better description _than bar iron, -suitable to make steel from_. Mr. Mushet, from whose work I have already -quoted, has evidently been more intimately acquainted with the routine -of iron manufacturing than any other person I ever met with or read of: -he understands the question perfectly; yet he seems to care for nothing -further _than a suitable steel iron_. - -How many and how fearful have been the explosions by all-powerful steam -since the period of its introduction. How many weeping widows, and how -many fatherless children have had to mourn its effects! Yet what has -human ingenuity done, what have the wonderful energies of the present -race of scientific men accomplished to stay this annual slaughter? -Comparatively little beyond discovery of mysterious causes where none -exist. It reminds me of my first lesson in coursing--"If you want to -find a hare, young man," said the keeper, "look at your feet: you will -not find her at a distance." So it is with the state of knowledge on -steam boiler explosions; if you want to find the cause, look "at your -feet:" do not endeavour to envelope in mystery, what you may find in -simple and natural causes. - -I may here observe that I have been professionally engaged to inspect -the effects, with a hope of finding the cause, of thirty-four cases of -explosion, where the sacrifice of human life was above an average of -two each, or nearly one hundred, and I never yet have found one single -case which could not be clearly demonstrated to have been caused either -solely by neglect of the superintendent, or from sheer ignorance on the -part of the engineer constructing the arrangement of boilers. For every -accident may _sweepingly be said_ to be occasioned by a want of space -for the escape of the steam: a too small valve, in the first instance, -and in the second, a villanous construction of what is called iron -boiler plate--a concentration of the veriest rubbish, under the name of -wrought iron, ever gathered together. For this reason, I have drawn the -reader's attention aside for a few moments. - -The improvement of boiler-iron may detain us slightly, if by the delay -any good can be accomplished. For an inconsiderable increase of outlay, -a boiler might be rendered doubly safe to what it is at present, by -simply using moderate caution in the selection of scrap iron, a perfect -cleansing of that scrap, and by fusing the bloom on the bed of an air -furnace. The great advantage would be that you would get a stronger, a -much denser, and consequently a much better, metal: nor is this all the -advantage; you might use a very much thinner plate, which would yet be -equally strong; and science will tell you that steam would be more -easily generated, as heat is more rapidly conducted. - -There is a very handsome description of barrel-iron made, generally -termed "Stub-Damascus." The method of preparing it, is of late -considerably altered. A quantity of old files are hardened, by being; -heated red-hot and immersed in water, then broken in pieces with a -hammer, and afterwards pounded in a mortar until the pieces do not -exceed in size a corn of number five shot. A proportion of 15 lbs. of -these to 25 lbs. of stubs, is fused together on the bed of an -air-furnace, beaten down, and rolled into rods. The rod of 3-8ths of an -inch square, is twisted like a rope, precisely in the same way as the -Damascus. The effect of this winding, is to give a beautiful mottle to -the barrel; which will be found depicted in plate No. 3. - -Another mixture, represented in plate No. 2, was first made by Mr. -Wiswould, of Birmingham. It is a compound, so far as I have been able to -ascertain, of three parts of steel to two of iron, intimately blended -and intermixed, and twisted as just described. It is a most beautifully -clean and dense iron; but the extreme twisting is to it, as to all, -highly injurious and prejudicial. The twisting is similar to the -Damascus; only that two twisted rods are welded together instead of -three, and with the twist of the strands running in opposite angles, as -depicted in the wood-cut below. - -[Illustration] - -The degree of strength is similar to that of the stub, and other -Damascus; it being quite certain, that, be the composition what it may, -this rending of the cohesive attachment by twisting, will eventually -equalise the strength of the whole. - -The use and introduction of what is called "charcoal-iron," is one of -the shams reared and supported by the hotbed of competition and -deception combined: a wish to foist on the purchaser a counterfeit for -the real metal. I would not give shop-room to the best barrels ever made -from such a compound. I hate a scoundrel and a hypocrite; this iron -exemplifies the qualities of both. - -This worthless compound consists principally of cuttings of sheet iron; -of which there is an endless supply in the neighbourhood of Birmingham, -from punchings and from one inferior metal and another. After properly -cleaning, a quantity is put into a charcoal furnace and melted, cast -into a pig, then forged down to a bar, and rolled into rods -corresponding with the size of stub twist, which it is intended to -represent. The action of the charcoal communicates to it a portion of -carbon, which, when stained in a certain way, gives an appearance much -resembling that beautiful metal just mentioned (stub-Damascus); but if -every means imagined by the inventive faculty of man were employed upon -it, it could not be made into really good iron. An iron which is -technically termed "weak," can never be made a strong bodied iron, or an -"iron suitable to make steel," to repeat a former quotation. The -original iron from which these scraps generally come, is required to be -"weak" iron, for the facility with which it can be rolled into plates; -a strong fibrous iron is not necessary. - -Its greatest strength appears to be as follows: 7-16ths of an inch -broad, and 5-16ths thick, solid contents 1·40635 inches, will bear a -weight of 10,080 pounds; so that if my calculations are correct, it will -bear only a pressure of 4,526 pounds in the tube. The loss of strength -by heating or softening, being full 10 per cent. - -This converted iron, however, will not endure the test of browning by -smoke, or, more properly, flame; as the oxygen invariably destroys the -appearance of steel in twelve hours after its application. By the old -method of staining, it would be as impossible for any man, who was not a -judge, to point out the real from the counterfeit, as to discern a copy -executed by a clever artist from an original painting by one of the old -masters. - -But deception is ever fertile in expedients, and an ingenious invention -was soon found out to imitate the advantage possessed by the "_smoke -brown_," which they obtain by first browning or staining the barrels -very dark. A weak solution of muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is -applied very lightly with a sponge, and the colour is extracted from -those portions of the iron left more prominent, by the excessive -_pickling_ they are subjected to before staining; they are then -immediately dried, scalded with hot water, and the stain is complete; it -is a most ingenious imitation. - -I have already stated that this iron is very much used in consequence -of its cheapness; its cost being only fourpence per pound, while stub -twist costs fivepence. It is also easily worked, being considerably -softer than any of the above-described kinds of iron. - -It may be asked, why so much inferior iron is used, when the difference -in the price between the good and the bad is only a penny per pound? The -reason is this:--If a barrel filer receive an order for a pair of -barrels, he (having probably deceived his customer before, or, at any -rate, knowing that he can deceive him without running any risk of -detection) sends to the welder sufficient charcoal-iron to forge these -barrels. Should the quantity amount to ten pounds, he, of course, saves -tenpence. The welder receives two shillings less for welding this -description of iron, than for welding stub-twist; so that here is -already a saving of 2_s._ 10_d._ At the boring-mill, and the -grinding-mill, the charge is also proportionate: the wages of the -journeymen are less; so that by imposing on his customer one pair of -barrels manufactured of this sort of iron instead of the real -stub-twist, he pockets a clear gain of above 9_s._; and should he -manufacture one hundred pair of such barrels in the year, it would make -at the end no small item in the year's account of profit. - -Thus it is with all description of barrels. The charge for making, by -each workman, in the various stages of the manufacture, is according to -the quality of each pair of barrels. The saving, then, to the man who -makes one hundred pairs of barrels in the year, though it be but a -farthing in the pound of iron, amounts to a considerable sum. This -fraudulent gain of more than 5_s._ on a pair of pretended stub barrels, -is what is called in Birmingham, "doing the natives," and is a reward -for ingenious knavery. - -When orders are given by what are called general factors, who very -kindly supply their country friends at a moderate commission of 40 to 50 -per cent., these gentry take care to lap up the cream; for we know from -facts that the barrel filer has sometimes scarcely five per cent. for -his trouble of overlooking. One consequence naturally results from this, -that every species of deception will be resorted to, in order to -indemnify workpeople for their labour and trouble. At the present time, -I have no doubt that there are hundreds of guns made in Birmingham, the -barrels of which, in some instances, never enter the proof house: as -eightpence per barrel, the cost of proof, is a great temptation! -Besides, a great number of barrels declared "wasters"--such as -repeatedly bulged in the proof, are full of flaws, have holes in the -sides, or some other fault sufficient to condemn them in the eyes of a -moderately conscientious barrel-maker--are bought by men who live by -this species of fraud; and are repaired with great neatness, by putting -in pieces artfully, beating down swellings or bulges. Then the -proof-mark "of doubtful identity;" and, last of all,--mark!--they fit -them up, and send them to the engraver to have the name of some living -or defunct London gun-maker of respectability engraved upon them, and -palm them off upon some dealer as a good article. - -I commend to the reader the advice of "Edward Davies," a gentleman who -wrote in 1619; who says "He that loves the safetie of his own person, -and delighteth in the goodness and beautie of a piece, let him always -make choice of one that is double breeched; and if possible, a Mylan -piece, for they be of tough and perfect temper, light, square, and bigge -of breech, and very strong where the powder doth lie, and where the -violent force of the fire doth consist, and notwithstanding thinne at -the end. Our English pieces approach very neare unto them in beautie and -goodness, (their heaviness only excepted) so that they be made of -purpose, and not one of these common sale pieces, with round barrels, -whereunto a beaten souldier will have great respect, and choose rather -to pay double money for a good piece, than to spare his purse and -endanger himself." Truly, the fraternity have always, we find, been of -doubtful honesty: always making "sale pieces." - -"Threepenny skelp iron" is made from an inferior quality of scrap to -that from which "charcoal iron" is made; but unlike it, there is no -pretension of quality. Its inferiority is not denied; it is poor in -quality, and suits parties who cannot buy better. The method of -preparing is by an air-furnace, forge, tilt and rolling mill, as before -described. The greatest strength of a bar 11-16ths broad by 3-16ths -thick, containing 1·5468 solid inches, is 7,840 lbs.; or equal to an -internal pressure of 3,841 lbs. to the inch of tube. One particular -fact attaches to all kinds of inferior iron--the greater the mass acted -upon by the rollers the greater the variation of strength. This arises -entirely from the increased sponginess of the metal, and its greater -expansibility. For instance, a rod 1-16th thicker, is 15 per cent. -weaker in proportion; and so on to the greatest extent. But on the other -hand, it is capable of recovering a great increase of strength by cold -hammering; greater than better iron. A considerable quantity of this -iron is sold to engineers, and used in the construction of locomotive -and other engines; the price and uniformity of texture in grain fitting -it for that purpose. - -"Twopenny" or "Wednesbury skelp" is almost too bad to be used in making -an article which may endanger the limbs of our fellow creatures, and is -now little used, fortunately. It is made of an inferior scrap to the -former, in precisely the same manner; and in point of strength is still -lower. The bar is generally 1 and 1-16th inches in breadth, by 3-16ths -thick, the solid contents 2 inches and 25-64ths, and will bear a weight -of 7,840 pounds; consequently the strength will be 2,840 pounds to the -inch of tube. - -This is a great falling-off in strength; and I would ask any one who -values the safety of his hand, if he would like to risk it, by using a -gun made of iron possessing so low a degree of strength, as compared to -the force of the charge it has to bear? Let him recollect that the force -of the charge may be increased by a variety of circumstances. The -pressure of a certain quantity of powder, on which a certain weight of -shot is placed, is so many pounds to the inch; and if you double that -weight of shot, you nearly double the pressure. In estimating the force -of pressure, the opposing friction is also to be taken into account. If -the gun be allowed to get very foul, then friction is increased, and of -course a still greater pressure is thrown on the tube of the barrel. All -these circumstances being taken into consideration, I repeat, that _no -barrel is safe, whose power of resistance is not more than double the -strength of a charge of sufficient force for general shooting_. Every -bad gun should be thrown aside as unsafe, or used with the greatest -caution. Bad and inferior guns are made from the foregoing material; and -not many years have elapsed since it was thought good enough for -military arms. - -"Sham damn skelp" is made from the most inferior scrap. I should not -have mentioned this description of iron had I not seen hundreds of -barrels made of it, all which are utterly unfitted for the use of any -person who cares at all for his safety. I have met with them frequently -under the dignified name of twisted barrels. Guns that are fitted up at -from ten to twelve shillings each are not of course patent breeched, but -are made to appear so by staining them generally blue, and by having a -couple of bands to imitate platina, across the squares. A projecting -part is welded on to the side, into which the nipple is inserted, and -the lock joints neatly under it. Many of them are good imitations; but -only take the barrel out of the stock and the deception is instantly -apparent, as it is rarely carried further than the outside. The -beautiful way in which the barrels are painted to imitate fine twist, -catches the eye of the simple countryman, who is generally the dupe of -this artifice; and the persuasive eloquence of the itinerant -hardwareman, seldom fails to extract from the pocket of his unsuspecting -purchaser sometimes thirty or forty shillings of his earnings for what -the _modest trader_ rarely pays above fifteen shillings. Many are the -anathemas vented, when the deception is found out by some one more -knowing than the dupe, who not unfrequently purchases his experience at -the expense of a finger or a hand. It is astonishing what a quantity of -this rubbish is disposed of by hawkers who infest market towns and -villages with guns for sale. - -But the English peasant is not the only dupe of this species of knavery. -Thousands of these guns are sent monthly to the United States, to the -Brazils, and South America; where they are disposed of, among the poor -Indians, in exchange for skins and furs. - -They are all understood to be "proved." How many are so who can tell; -but that some of them are not, there can be no doubt. - -It is said that the manufacture of these guns is a great support to the -gun trade of Birmingham. In one respect it is, certainly; yet would not -the interest of the trade be advanced, if we were to manufacture none of -so inferior a quality? "But then," it will be urged, "we could not -compete with our rivals in Germany and the Netherlands." True, we should -not be their rivals in the production of rubbish; but the superiority of -our guns would then command a better market. By sending to the market an -article no better than theirs, we have made foreigners indifferent about -the purchase of ours: they say "The English guns are no better than the -Belgian or German; we may as well purchase one as the other." The force -of this remark is illustrated by the state of the African trade. The -base kind of articles we supplied them with some years ago, has produced -a distrust of our manufacture, which will not easily be removed; and a -similar distrust is engendered by the same cause in the minds of our -present customers. It is much to be deplored that the eagerness for -present gain, should render men blind to the consequences of their -conduct, and lead them to prefer the immediate gratification of their -avarice even to their own future prosperity; to say nothing of the -welfare of the trade of the country. - -The method I suggested of testing all iron in the bar would go far to -destroy this trade. I have not thought it worth while to test this iron. -But twist barrels are made of it. Should the reader meet with a double -gun so made, let him avoid it: it is unsafe, unless it be so heavy as to -be unmanageable. - -A great many long rifle barrels are made of this iron, principally for -the American trade; but from their immense weight, and the small charge -of powder required, there does not exist the same danger from their -use. - -Fowling-piece barrels made of it may be generally recognised by the -smallness of the bore and the thickness of metal. As the charge of -powder used in proving is very small when compared with the charges for -proving guns of a wider calibre, we need not be surprised that many of -those that are proved stand proof. - -"Swaff iron forging" is a profitable branch of forging carried on in -Birmingham under the above title. It is a metal which is composed of -iron and steel filings, chippings of breeches, pieces and cuttings of -the ends of the screws, lock-plates, cocks, the rough borings of -barrels, and all other small scraps found in gunmakers' and other -workshops. These are collected by the boys in each shop, and when they -have accumulated, are sold to the "swaff-forger," the proceeds being -considered as drinking money. They are forged into bars of iron by -attaching them together and immersing them in diluted sulphuric acid; -then, after draining it from them again, and placing a large iron pan -full in a hot situation, they become cemented together by the action of -the oxide. The compound is then taken from the pan, by turning it upside -down, and is put into an air-furnace heated to a welding heat, being -thence removed and beaten into a bar: three men with light hammers -beating it as quickly as they do in welding a gun-barrel. This iron is -sold to the gun-work forgers, for the forging of the patent breeches, -lock-plates, furniture, and other parts of the gun which they think -worthy of good iron; but since cheapness has become so much the order of -the day, the use of this iron is confined to the forging of best -gun-work, cast iron being thought quite good enough for common -gun-work. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -GUN-MAKING. - - -In this chapter I shall briefly describe the process of the manufacture -of guns of all qualities, commencing with barrel-welding; which, in -importance, is inferior only to the _quality of iron_ in the routine of -good gun-making. - -Birmingham, and the surrounding districts, are the only places in -England where barrel-welding is practised. The superior advantage -possessed in having coal nearly (if not entirely) free from the presence -of the sulphuret of iron, which has always been found a considerable -hindrance to the obtainment of clear and good barrels, is greatly in -their favour. For a considerable period individuals in London contended -with the Warwickshire welders; but being an unequal contest, it ended in -favour of the provincialists. This is to be regretted, as there can be -no doubt but that greater reliance could be placed on the material of -the London manufacture. But a considerable drawback existed with the -latter: they made only one sort of barrel, and that the best. Now it is -requisite to have a fire fitted for the purpose of welding best -barrels--tempered, as it were--and this can only be effected by some -hours' using, which is generally employed in the production of a number -of very inferior barrels. As the London people made no common guns, and -needed no inferior barrels, they welded their best barrels in a raw, -untempered fire; and hence arose the admitted inferiority of their work. -The late Mr. Fullard struggled long and hard in the competition; but -with his death, barrel-welding ceased in the metropolis. Indeed it would -have been highly imprudent and unprofitable for any one to have entered -upon such a speculation; there being no certainty of success, but rather -of the contrary. The Birmingham barrel-welders are wonderfully clever -smiths: they cannot be excelled. If _ridden with a curb_, they do well; -but no opportunity must be given them, or to a certainty they will -"bolt" from the true path. - -The metal rods are twisted by means of two iron bars, the one fixed the -other loose. In the latter there is a prong or notch to receive one end; -and when inserted, the bar is turned by a handle. The fixed bar -preventing the rod from going round, it is bent and twisted over the -moveable rod like the pieces of leather round the handle of a whip. The -loose bar is unshipped, the spiral knocked off, and the same process -recommenced with another rod. The length of all the spirals depends on -the breadth of the rod: for instance, the stub-twist has sixteen circles -in six inches long; a rod of five feet will make a spiral of only seven -inches; while iron, of an inch in breadth, will make a spiral of as many -inches long as there are twists: hence the reason why best barrels have -more joinings than common ones of equal length. - -The Damascus being rolled into rods of 11-16ths broad forms a spiral -with the appearance shown in the accompanying woodcut. - -[Illustration] - -The fancy steel barrels and others, where the rod is formed of more than -one piece, such as the stub Damascus, &c., is of rather greater breadth, -like the representation below. - -[Illustration] - -The iron made from stubs and steel, and plain fibrous steel, is -invariably rolled down into rods of 6-16ths broad, forming a spiral, as -below. - -[Illustration] - -A proper attention to the fineness of the spiral will always enable an -amateur to detect any attempt at imposition. - -The spiral formed from the rod of charcoal iron has a somewhat different -appearance; but in cases where it is intended to supply the place of the -real stub iron it is of corresponding dimensions, and in general very -difficult to detect without a very intimate knowledge indeed of the -nature of iron. When honestly intended, it forms a similar spiral to the -accompanying one. - -[Illustration] - -The wideness of the twist, or the angular direction of the fibres, will -enable the most uninitiated to recognise a barrel made from threepenny -skelp iron: the very few welds required, is one cause of the cheapness -of barrels made from it. Judgment may be formed of it from the following -representation. - -[Illustration] - -Twopenny, or Wednesbury skelp is coarser in the spiral still, and -running so angular as not to be very difficult to detect. - -[Illustration] - -All iron formed in spirals, as a matter of certainty, forms _twist -barrels_--the parties whose use they are intended for, seldom know or -care for anything further than having "a twist barrelled gun." The -advantage of _sham damn_ iron being twisted is all imaginary: if used at -all, it may be twisted; but those who value their safety would consult -it best by tying a large stone to such a gun and sinking it fathoms -deep. But to satisfy those who may fancy such things, I give a woodcut -of the spiral ready for welding. - -[Illustration] - -The spirals being thus formed, the welders commence their day's work. -The batch consists of a foreman, one on whose skill all depends, and two -subordinates, whose duty it is to blow the bellows, strike, &c. - -They proceed to weld probably a dozen long common barrels for the -American trade; which are generally composed of the inferior iron -mentioned before, rolled into two lengths of different thicknesses. -These skelps are heated, and beaten on a groove until they form a tube -half closed. They are then heated again, and closed with one edge -over-lapping the other; as a brazier would over-lap the edge of a tin -pipe, for boys to blows peas with. - -Having got the two lengths of the whole dozen turned into tubes, they -proceed to weld the longer length or forepart, by heating it -sufficiently for four or five inches, introducing a mandril of the -required size to suit the bore wanted, and then beating it into a -perfect tube, in a groove on the anvil, of corresponding diameter; -heating it again and again, until the joint is closed the whole length. -They then proceed with the other eleven foreparts, and advance the whole -to that stage before welding on the breech lengths; which are now -partially heated by laying on the outskirts of the fire, to be in -readiness: they are then closed the same as the foreparts. The end, when -about to be jointed, is opened a little on the peam of the anvil, to -admit a portion of the end of the forepart; which is introduced as soon -as both are in a welding state: the mandril is then introduced, and the -joint is perfected, in less time than we have occupied in the -description. The other part of the tube is closed, and the barrel is -then complete. If, however, the breech part is to be square or octagon -shaped, it is not welded in a groove, but on a plain surface. - -Competition has reduced this department of the trade to a low ebb; -thousands of these sort of barrels being now annually welded for about -eightpence each: if to this we add one penny farthing per pound for six -pounds of iron, we get a forged gun barrel for one shilling and -threepence halfpenny. This is certainly a poor remuneration for sweating -over a furnace containing from two to three hundredweight of intensely -heated coal. The introduction of welding by the rolling mill, will -eventually supersede this arrangement; a matter to be regretted only on -the score of its answering the purpose of preparing the fire for best -welding. Of late years rolling has nearly superseded this description of -welding. - -[Illustration] - -They now commence the welding of twist barrels. Spirals that are -intended for the breech end, are heated to a welding heat for about -three inches, removed from the fire, and jumped close by striking the -end against the anvil. Again they are heated, and again jumped, to -ensure the perfect welding. They are then beaten lightly in a groove, to -make them round. The neatest part of the process consists in the -joining of the points of the two rods, so as to make the barrel appear -as if it had been twisted out of one rod. The ends of the two rods are a -little detached, brought from the fire, and applied to each other; a -gentle tap is then given, and the union is perfect in an instant. The -rapidity and dexterity with which this is accomplished, ought to be seen -to be duly appreciated. This trouble is only taken with the best -barrels. In the manufacture of barrels of an inferior description, the -ends of the rods are cut in a sloping direction, and when welded -together, become quite square at the part where the pieces are joined. -In a finished barrel the points of junction are easily recognised. By -tracing the twist, a confusion will be found to exist for about an -eighth of an inch, every six or seven inches; and from this appearance -you may conclude that, for a barrel so joined, the welder had not the -best price. Having joined the whole of the spirals, three inches are -again heated to a welding heat, the mandril is introduced, and the tube -hammered, in a groove, to the size required. This operation is repeated -until the whole length is finished. - -Then follows hammer-hardening: that is, beating the barrel, in a -comparatively cold state, in a groove, with light hammers, for the space -of half an hour. This is a most important part of the process. It closes -the pores, condenses the texture of the metal, compresses a greater -substance into less bounds, increases greatly the strength of the -barrel, and renders it more elastic. Yet this is seldom done, unless -specially requested; and then a gratuity is, of course, expected either -in money or beer. A few pots of the juice of Sir John Barleycorn will -infuse more strength into your barrels than you could purchase for ten -times the amount in money; as they have the effect of making the hammers -descend with increased velocity. - -If all barrels were hardened in this manner, their shooting powers would -be increased, and they would not be so liable to burst in the hands of -the sportsman. This, however, cannot be done, unless the purchaser -either sees it done himself, or has it done under the superintendence of -some person on whom he can depend. The Birmingham workmen, if well paid -and well looked after (to counteract the bad habits they have acquired -from being employed in the manufacture of so large a quantity of goods -of an inferior quality), would produce an article superior to any that -could be produced, at the same cost, in any other part of the world. - -The Belgian welders do their work at considerably less cost in coal than -our English workmen. Coal, it is well known, is very dear in Liege, and -necessity may have taught them the extreme of economy both in the size -of their fire and the duration of it. They effect this by adding to -two-thirds of coal, beat into dust, one-third of clay; the latter is -mixed with the coal by being put into a wooden barrel, the two well -stirred up together, and the water drained from it. Even this mixture is -used sparingly: the fire being scarcely larger than might be held in the -two hands, while with us little short of two hundredweight suffices: -which is unquestionably a great and unnecessary waste. True the Belgian -does not get through the great quantity of work the Englishman does by -having "_a great many irons in the fire_" at once; but he certainly does -it well and clean: the quantity of earthy matter in the Belgian's fire -gives a great heat, which also is retained longer; and it is also free -from any excessive quantity of particles of charcoal. - -All twist barrels undergo a similar round; the time and care bestowed -upon them depending entirely on the price, which varies from one pound -per pair down to eighteenpence, and in some instances lower. - -In a former work I noticed the introduction of a villanous system of -covering or plating barrels with fine iron over a body of very inferior -iron. I here quote that description:-- - -The deceptions practised in this branch of manufacture are numerous, and -injurious to the trade. For instance, if you wish to have a heavy single -barrel made from Damascus, or any of the best irons, and you send to the -manufacturer the weight of iron required, the probability is, that -unless you superintend the manufacture yourself, iron of an inferior -quality will be introduced into the inside of the spirals. By this fraud -they obtain iron worth threepence a pound more than that which they -knavishly insert into the barrel. I had been repeatedly told of this -practice, but was incredulous. However, I gave an order for four very -heavy rifle barrels to be made of Damascus iron. They were made; but on -pickling these barrels for the purpose of showing the figure of the -Damascus, I discovered that the iron seemed to be much more easily eaten -away at the muzzle than on the surface. This led me to examine them, -when I found that the inside was entirely composed of iron, over which -the covering of Damascus had been twisted. But for the pickling, this -fraud never would have been detected; yet for these barrels I was -charged at the rate of two barrels for each. Since this occurred, I have -subjected many heavy barrels to examination, and have found the fraud to -be very common. The practice is not only dishonest, but spoils the gun, -by destroying the shooting power, in consequence of the metals, being of -different temperatures, not acting together at the moment of expansion. - -[Illustration] - -Veneering or plating barrels is more extensively practised in Belgium -than in any other nation we are acquainted with; they do not conceal it, -but they use equally good iron, though not ornamented iron: of this -there is much doubt. The method of accomplishing this is by having the -iron required rolled down into ribbons of a thin description; these are -twisted spirally round a tube of common iron having the fibres running -length-ways, or parallel with the bore. The accompanying cut will convey -an idea of this method. - -Many will ask what inducement have the welders to take this extra -trouble? Gain. The cost of Damascus is 7-1/2_d._ per pound, and the iron -they use for this purpose is only 1-1/4_d._ A pair of barrels take 14 -lbs. of iron; say 6 lbs. of this is Damascus plate, costing 3_s._ 9_d._; -8 lbs. is common, amounting to 10_d._ instead of 5_s._, or a saving of -4_s._ 2_d._ a pair. A splendid profit if you order one hundred. The -borer charges less, the iron is softer, the filer has less, and all -items clubbed amount to something. The facility with which welders can -do this is wonderful; it clearly establishes their ability, and proves -their claim to be considered the cleverest _blacksmiths_ on the face of -the earth. It is not only the best descriptions of iron they plate with: -twopenny skelp is more in use than any. It is now rare to meet with -_painted_ barrels: all are _genuine twist barrels_, _warranted_; for -they are mostly all plated, even down to the gun costing but fourteen -shillings, wholesale price. - -This is a subject of serious importance; one which the gun-makers, both -metropolitan and provincial, should resolutely condemn; for safety as -well as goodness of shooting cannot be secured in perfection with any -barrels so constructed. I have met with plated barrels in guns which -cost the purchaser thirty-five guineas, and I have detected them in some -of the first makers' guns; for the _perfection_ with which the fraud is -accomplished is wonderful, and few can detect it who are not strictly up -to "the dodge." The application of a portion of sulphuric acid into the -tube at the breech end of the barrel, is the best way of showing the -fraud; for, in most cases, it is all bored out at the thin portion of -the muzzle, and the application there would, under these circumstances, -be no test. - -I have frequently been applied to by many masters in the trade for -advice in the recommendation of a barrel-maker. It is at all times an -invidious task to act as a selector for individuals, and to give praise -to one man over another; more especially where the merits of workmen -approximate near to each other. But in barrel-making, a man, to be a -master of his trade, should not only be a good workman, breeching and -filing well, but should possess a good eye in putting barrels together -(for here everything depends upon the eye) and finishing them highly: -these are only a portion of the abilities a barrel-maker should possess. -Several of the London barrel-makers are exceedingly good workmen, for I -have tried them all; but only converse with them, and you find the -technicalities of the work is all they can discourse upon: the iron, the -vital principle, is Greek to them; they know nothing about it, and care -less. How can these men be guides in the right direction? They may have -seen barrels welded; but, if so, it is only a matter of chance: even in -Birmingham, where this can be seen daily, nineteen out of twenty know -nothing theoretically. You will frequently hear them heaping _anathemas_ -on a hard barrel, when floating it, and wishing the man who invented -steel barrels "_in the shades below_." Ask these men's opinions, and if -they expect to have the job of filing the barrels, they will surely -recommend you soft iron, stub-twist, or charcoal-iron. - -[Illustration] - -Boring and grinding gun-barrels generally take place under the same -roof; the borer occupying a very small shop, the grinder a large one. -Two men and two boys are generally found in a shop. There are four -benches, to each a spindle, in which there is an oblong hole to receive -the end of the boring bit. The barrel is secured on a sort of carriage, -which is at liberty to traverse the whole length of the bench. A boring -bit is then selected of suitable size; it is put into the spindle, and -the point introduced into the end of the barrel. A sort of lever is then -taken and hooked on to a kind of staple, or a piece of hooked iron (a -number of which are fixed in one side of the bench the whole length), -and passed behind the carriage to force it up to the bit; this is -removed and fixed again, until, by forcing up the carriage, the boring -bit has passed through the whole of the barrel. During this operation a -stream of water is kept playing on the barrel to keep it cool. A bit, of -larger dimensions, is next introduced and passed through; then others of -still larger dimensions, until the whole of the scales or blacks are -entirely bored out; or until the barrel has become so large in the bore, -as to preclude any further boring with safety. If the scales are of -great extent, the fault is the forger's, and the loss will consequently -be his. If the barrels be found perfect, they are sent back to the -filer, or he comes to inspect them, in order to ascertain whether they -be perfectly straight in the inside; if not, to make them so. - -The necessity of great care and attention to this point, must be very -obvious; for, if not perfectly correct at this stage, it will require -more skill and time to get it correct afterwards than the generality of -barrel-makers are inclined to bestow. - -When the inside has been found to be all right, the barrel is ready for -grinding. Many barrel-makers turn their barrels entirely by self-acting -lathes, and thus obtain a correct taper from breech end to muzzle. -Experience has clearly convinced us that this is not the best shape, but -slightly hollow towards the muzzle is preferable, as additional weight -there is decidedly injurious, and the shooting of barrels of lighter -construction is decidedly better. - -The generality of Birmingham barrels are ground to the size required on -large stones, which revolve at a terrific rate. The skill acquired by -many of the workmen is astonishing. Over and over again, have we seen -barrels coming from the mill put into the lathe, and found almost as -true as if they had been turned. They have a method of allowing the -barrel to revolve in their hands at half the rate of the stone, and by -this means they grind them so fine that many would be puzzled to -determine whether they had been turned or ground, were the barrel -smoothed lengthways merely to take out the marks of the stone. We have -seen the squares of a rifle barrel ground to as perfect an octagon as -the eye could assist in forming. Best barrels are generally turned after -they are ground. Inferior barrels are struck up with a large rubber, or -smooth, by boys; in some instances by women. - -There is one advantage derived from grinding barrels, namely, that the -friction of the stone being continuous, the temper of the barrel is not -so much affected as where the tool in the slide-rest is cutting a -considerable portion at once; for all barrels are best, and superior to -their compeers, which require least metal to be either ground or turned -off their surface, as there is a density on the outer which is not in -the interior portion. The harder the material, the less the extent of -this objection. - -To obtain the true form, it is important that they should be turned. The -way of fixing them in the lathe is by having a number of plugs or -mandrils, which are perfectly true, and of various sizes, to fit -different bores; these are centred and put in the lathe; a carrier is -then secured on a part of the plug that projects out of the breech-end -of the barrel, and then put into the face-plate of the lathe, which -carries it round. The leading screw that travels the slide-rest, is then -set in the angle to which the barrel is to be turned (though some lathes -have not the power of alteration, but turn all barrels in one angle); -the slide is next adjusted to the thickness of the muzzle wanted, and, -when all is ready, the lathe is set going; the leading screw is turned -at the same moment by the machinery connected, which keeps the tool -cutting sufficiently keen to turn a barrel in about twenty-five minutes. -This being done, nothing more is required than a fine smooth file to -remove the marks of the tool. - -There can be no doubt of the superiority of this mode of turning -barrels, if due care only be taken with the tool. If it get blunted by -any scales or impurities, it is apt to tear pieces out of the barrel, -similar to the rings that may be noticed in a slovenly bored barrel, -owing to dirt getting on the edges of the bit. In turning a barrel by a -common lathe, it is fixed in the same manner as before; about an inch of -the surface at the breech and the muzzle is turned to the diameter -wanted; the rest is then removed, and half an inch more is turned four -or five inches from either end; then another half inch, at another -distance of four or five inches, and so on, according to the length; -making an allowance each time in the depth of the turning, according to -the taper of the barrel. The iron between these cuttings is then filed -off by floats the lengthways of the barrel, or more frequently ground -off; this is a sure mode of getting the barrels perfectly straight on -the outside, and without any of those hollows and shades which may be -always discovered in an ill-made barrel. It is astonishing how -beautifully many barrels are struck by the float. The mode of turning by -the lathe is, however, cheaper, and is now confined to military barrels. - -There is a great diversity of opinion as to the proper inclination of a -pair of double barrels. It is needless to state the precise distance at -which the converging lines drawn from the centre of each barrel, and -indicating the inclination of the barrels to each other, should come to -a point. If we take the point of convergence of those lines at 2-1/2 -yards, it will follow that, at 40 yards, each barrel, were it fixed in a -vice, would throw the centre of its charge six inches on the opposite -side of the mark fired at; but if the gun be fired from the shoulder, -the recoil will invariably cause the gun to swerve outwards, so that at -that distance it will never fail to throw the shot in a good direction -for the mark or bull's-eye. - -The subject may be understood by the following observations. All -tapering substances, when laid together were the taper extended, would -come to a point at a certain distance. Gun-barrels are made to taper -towards each other, and some more than others. To make them uniform, it -requires that they should be reduced or flattened, so that the thick or -heavy end should join closer, to allow the point of convergence to be -extended to a greater distance. If, then, we take two barrels two feet -eight inches long, and having a solid substance of metal at the breech -of 3-16ths of an inch each and 1-16th at the muzzle; it requires the -difference 4-16ths to be multiplied 45 times (there being that number of -lengths in 40 yards) to ascertain what distance the points of the -different lines are from each other: which will be eleven 4-16ths of an -inch, or five 10-16th inches from the centre or line of sight. If you -wish to reduce it from the centre, you have to join the barrels so much -nearer at the breech; or should the inclination be too little, the -muzzle must be jointed closer. As, however, all guns are now made very -heavy at the breech, they very seldom require any closing at the muzzle: -though it is customary to do it, and to a great extent; but it is owing -to the ignorance of the nature of shooting. - -Different lengths require a difference in the height of the rib. A -greater height is also required for a person accustomed to use a crooked -stock, and less height for one accustomed to the use of a straighter -one; and so on. Few barrels are to be met with in which the elevation is -sufficient. This is a species of innovation much practised by gunmakers -of the present day; but whatever merit there may have been in the -original invention, there is none in "the improvement," as they term it. -Take any of the modern barrels, and calculate what is the real elevation -of them, and you will find it is not equal to the distance that charges -will droop at forty yards, when we consider the very large charges of -shot that many are accustomed to use, without a corresponding quantity -of powder. It remains then to be decided what elevation a gun should -have for that distance. - -I have tried the experiment some hundreds of times with guns of all -descriptions, both with a rest and from the shoulder, and standing as -firm as possible; by turning quickly round, and firing (as we might do -were a bird to spring in a situation where we could only get a snap -shot) against targets such as are used in military ball-practice, being -about six feet high, and by means of which one can perceive where the -body of the shot had struck. I have also fired against the steep sides -of sand-banks, on which, from their smoothness, you can tell every shot -that has struck them. My conviction is, that almost all guns charged (as -is the custom) with heavy charges of shot, droop full twelve inches in -forty yards; though by using small charges of shot you will find them to -be thrown much more correctly than the heavy charges; so that it is -possible to make a gun too high on the rib for a shooter who thinks more -powder and less lead preferable to much lead and little powder. - -The elevation I have given will be found to be as near what is requisite -as possible, if we continue to load as heretofore; if reduced charges of -shot be adopted, a less elevation will suffice. To ascertain what -elevation at the breech for the above scale is requisite, take the -thickness of the breech and muzzle, and multiply the difference by as -many times as there are lengths of your barrels in the forty yards, and -you will then ascertain what elevation they give of themselves; and to -make up the difference wanted, must be the elevation of the rib, which -may be calculated in the same way as the barrels; the length of the -barrels being the only way of obtaining a correct idea of the height -required. If making woodcock guns, less elevation is required, the -distance of shooting being shorter. In large guns a greater elevation is -necessary. We believe, however, Colonel Hawker has fallen into an error, -when he says that long guns require a greater elevation than short ones. -Does not a long gun keep the shot more together? Is not more force -generated? and is not the initial velocity greater than in a short gun? -If these be facts, why is more elevation required if the shot do not -droop? We apprehend the Colonel means, if the same height be required to -be given above the mark. Nothing can be plainer than this--that if one -pair of barrels be four inches longer than another, and the elevation -the same, there cannot be as many lengths in the forty yards of the -longer barrels as of the shorter, and hence the difference when -multiplied. I think, therefore, he cannot have taken into consideration -the superiority in their shooting; for there cannot be a doubt that, if -a gun keep the shot together longer, it cannot require that allowance -for drooping which a shorter gun does. - -As soon as the barrels are properly jointed; care must be taken to see -that they are perfectly level. If the barrels are not level, it will be -impossible to shoot correctly, as one barrel will throw the shot above, -the other below the mark. This being done, the barrels are bound -together and brazed with hard solder or brass, for about four or five -inches. Greater injury cannot be done to barrels than by this pernicious -practice; for they cannot be brazed without being heated to a white -heat; and by this heat all the advantages derived from hammering are -dissipated at once: the condensation is gone, and the strength is -reduced at least 12-1/2 per cent. And for what purpose? Under the -pretence that the barrels are firmer and not so liable to become loose. -This is a point trivial in importance compared to the excellence and -strength of the barrel; for even if they have received no more hammering -than is necessary in the forging, they are still injured to the extent -of 12-1/2 per cent.: for even beating them when hot improves them much, -provided they be not heated again; but if they have been cold hammered, -the injury is full 30 per cent. This circumstance shows how little the -principles of gun-making are understood by the first gun-makers, the -brazing of barrels being practised by all. - -Mr. Wilkinson admits this, for he says--"The practice of brazing the -barrels is decidedly injurious, by softening that part more than the -other; but if they were only soft soldered, the inconvenience would be -far greater, as the barrels would be liable to some accident by the -repeated expansion and contraction that takes place in firing, as well -as by the force required to turn out the breechings." I can only say -that I have had considerably more than five thousand pairs of barrels -made and put together with soft solder only, and not one pair has come -asunder from any of the causes mentioned; nor ever will, with fair play. -On the contrary, barrels brazed can never be sound; for at some distance -from the part heated for brazing, you cannot get the barrels re-tinned -effectually, and thus for a considerable space between the soft and hard -solder, there is no cohesion at all. Barrels brazed together only for -three or four inches at the breech-end, can never be sound: they almost -invariably become so rusted under the rib, in a few years, as both to -seriously injure the barrels, and force the rib upwards; therefore, if -you hard solder at all, do so from breech to muzzle, as that will be -preferable to partially doing it. I feel quite satisfied, and can prove -it to demonstration, that this is undoubtedly the most injurious process -to which iron can be subjected; and I believe the prejudice with which -the London barrel-makers stick to this practice is productive of -considerable injury to them: more especially when we recollect that they -are the advocates (in practice) of a very inferior quality of Damascus -barrels: an iron very susceptible of injury. The Belgian barrels, and -French also, are of good iron; and I fear not contradiction in asserting -their inferiority to English barrels mostly consists in the foolish -practice of brazing them together from end to end. Both chemically and -mechanically it is a practice for which no valid excuse can be offered. - -All barrels should have solid ribs for at least eight inches from the -breech: they tend to lessen the vibration of recoil, as well as to -render the barrels more sound and firm. No maker either understands -science or studies quality, who advocates brazing and hollow ribs. - -The invention of the patent breech was the emanation of a scientific -mind; for it has been productive of more real benefit to the progress of -gunnery than any other improvement of the last two centuries. Experience -and study in the theory of guns and gunpowder, give the mind a much more -enlarged view of the subject, if regulated by the established laws of -true and sound principles: a want of thorough knowledge induces the -individual to draw conclusions prematurely, and thus he is apt to fall, -and to lead others, into error. I confess, that, together with many -hundreds more, I once concluded that the great advantage of the patent -breech arose entirely from the loose state in which the powder was -preserved while in the breech, and its thus being more instantaneously -ignited. But I have already shown that the quickness of powder is, in a -great measure, the greatest drawback to its efficacy, and I am clearly -convinced that compression, in most instances, is beneficial, by -retarding the ignition to a certain extent. Here, then, is proof -positive, that we have been on the wrong scent, and running after a -"Will o' the Wisp." - -[Illustration] - -There is the clearest evidence, that the only advantage to be derived -from any conical form of breech, does not arise from any peculiarity -attached to the ignition of the gunpowder, but solely from the effect -of the angular shape; conical form being best suited, or presenting the -least direct surface, to the action of the exploded fluid: the angles -receive the blow and throw it off at the same opposite angle, and so on, -without receiving any amount of force from the element striking it, and -thus the elastic fluid is enabled to be resisted efficaciously. The cone -becomes and forms an artificial solid base, to a certain extent; and as -such, it is much more beneficial than the same quantity of powder -ignited on a flat surface--as a common plug breech, for instance; for -here the direct quantity of space on the face of the breech receives the -same impulse as the ball projected, and is acted upon in precisely the -same ratio in proportion to their different weights. In a musket of 11 -lbs., the comparative weight of gun and ball is as 1 to 176; and exactly -in that proportion will be the distribution of impulse from the -expellant fluid. It thus becomes a plain question between the patent -breech and the flat surface of the plug. The two halves of a parabola -inverted, or the shape of a parabolic spindle, will be the best shape, -according to the laws of science. The representation given on page 209 -is as near as I can get the engraver to represent my views of the best -shape of breech. - -A great variety of forms have been advocated and puffed; some of them of -the most unscientific description possible: but it matters not; for if a -zealous advocate could be found to puff well the advantages of the old -matchlock, he would find believers; so prone are mankind to be deluded -by the veriest quackery. The absurdity of exploding gunpowder in a -_shell_ at the breech of a gun, and persisting in the advantage of it, -is certainly tilting at a windmill. It will be asked how it is that -Government do not adopt the patent breech in the musket? I answer, -because of a want of science in the direction, and an imperfect system -of experiments. In fact, they say they do not find any advantage from -the patent breech in a musket: that the range is as great without it as -with it. - -Government never considers the personal comfort of the private soldier, -or it would have long ago used the patent breech for military arms; for, -setting aside the propellant advantage, the recoil is (as near as I have -been able to ascertain) under the same circumstances, as one to two in -favour of the angular breech. This is no exaggerated statement: I have -tested it, and will stake my reputation upon its accuracy. But the -superior knowledge of projectiles which artillerists have obtained since -the extensive introduction of chambers to nearly all descriptions of -ordnance, is the clearest proof, were any wanting. The use of the Gomer -form of chamber, is nearly universal in brass guns: the shape is the -frustum of a cone with a spherical bottom. The inutility of enlarging -on, or describing, the various shapes or plans of breeching, will be -apparent; my intention being to point out the science of the question, -not the folly of every invention. - -There have been many good gun-lock makers; but they have, I fear, -decreased much of late. From the great demand for second-rate goods, -they are rarely called upon to make a first-rate article; and thus, from -being so little accustomed to make any but inferior locks, they, of -course, are out of practice. Instead of the manufacture of the best -being encouraged, it is becoming every day more rare to meet with a good -one. There is a great degree of skill displayed in the making of locks, -though to the casual observer it is not apparent. On the simple hanging -of the swivel depends all the smoothness of the play of the main-spring; -and on the placing the hole for the scear-pin depends the sweetness of -the scear playing on the tumbler. Many who now pass for excellent -workmen would find this a difficult undertaking, simple as it may seem, -without a pattern by which to work. All locks for percussion should -have the greatest strength of mainspring at the moment they strike the -nipple, or as it is termed, when the lock is down. On the pitching the -scear depends the cutting of the bents, and on their formation, the -danger of the lock catching at half-cock, when the trigger is made to -pull easy; but these observations will be understood by a lock-maker -better than I can explain them. - -The quality of all locks depends on the price they cost filing, and -unless you pay the workman a proper remuneration, you may rely on having -them somewhat inferior, or in accordance with the price: but this -requires a workman to point out; so that any person who is not a -first-rate judge, is completely dependent on the honesty of the workman. - -There is more real science displayed in the construction of a gun-lock -than mechanics in general imagine. The placing or hanging of the swivel -on the arm of a tumbler, is an arrangement of leverage partaking of the -multiplicate; as the weight when at full cock, is lessened by the lever -bringing the moving force in the immediate vicinity of the axle, and -when down on the nipple, increasing or multiplying that force by the -divergence. The Barside lock possesses this advantage to a greater -degree than has yet been obtained by any backwork lock yet made; though -I perceive no hindrance, if properly understood and tried: it is only -needful to obtain a greater length of arm, and a proportionate length of -swivel. - -The family of the Braziers, of Wolverhampton, have long been celebrated -for the goodness of their locks; which arises solely from the fact that -they take more pains, and will not manufacture any but the best: for it -would be ridiculous to suppose that there are not plenty of men equally -as good, and probably better, workmen than themselves in the kingdom, -were they properly encouraged, and confined to making nothing but -first-rate articles. The Braziers have apprentices and journeymen, and -it is preposterous to imagine that they file the tenth part of the locks -they furnish to the trade; but yet they have always, and deservedly, -obtained a much better price than any other lock-filers out of London. -Several of Brazier's workmen have of late years commenced manufacturing -on their own account, and now most excellent locks can be had from W. -Evans, of Bath-street, Birmingham, who for many years held the first -place in Joseph Brazier and Sons' manufactory. - -The operations of false breeching, jointing locks, stocking, &c., are -merely mechanical; requiring, certainly, great skill and ability, but -yet involving no principle further than is contained in the proper -suiting of the shape to the make of the user. An endless variety of -opinions has always existed, and always will exist, as to the -description of bend or crook best fitted for rapid shooting, as flying -or running. I have instructed, and with success, too, many young -shooters, who by commencing with a long and straight stock, have -attained a perfection in shooting scarcely to be excelled; and they -never entertain afterwards any wish to change either length or bend. -Therefore I recommend to all beginners to use as long and as straight a -stock as they can _conveniently_ bring to the shoulder. All practised -shooters have generally so accustomed themselves to one shape, that it -would be prejudicial to change. The practice of throwing off a stock at -the butt, or bending from the hand to the heel-plate, in a direction to -the right, so that the eye may get more readily in a line with the -centre of the breech and the sight, is a practice not to be defended on -scientific principles. The body will suit itself best; and if the stock -be not too straight, the eye will always find the true line. - -The percussioning of a gun (as the fitting-in of nipple, boring -breeches, filing cocks, &c., is termed,) is also a mechanical operation, -requiring workmen of the very best abilities. The desideratum to be -obtained is nearly a direct communication into the barrel, and an -absence of unnecessary angles, antechambers, &c.; therefore it is -needful that, in a double gun, the nipples should be inserted as near -the centre of the breeches as they can be conveniently placed, with the -nipples standing, not upright, but at an angle of 45°; so that the blow -of the cock shall be in or as near a line with the imaginary upright of -the nipple as possible. - -The various plans of copper cap, copper tubes, and I know not how many -other devices, will be discussed under the head of guns and shooting. - -Finishing the stock, polishing, engraving, hardening, &c., strictly -speaking, involve no science of consequence, and as such it is scarcely -necessary to occupy the attention of the reader respecting them. The -best method of staining barrels is by the following recipe: but one -material fact must not be overlooked. A considerable difficulty exists -in staining barrels all steel; in such a case, therefore, the acid -should not be so much diluted. - - 1 oz. muriate tincture of steel. - 1 oz. spirits of wine. - 1/4 oz. muriate of mercury. - 1/4 oz. strong nitric acid. - 1/8 oz. blue stone. - 1 quart of water. - -These are to be well mixed, and allowed to stand a month, to amalgamate. -After the oil or grease has been removed from the barrels by lime, the -mixture is laid on lightly with a sponge every two hours. It should be -scratched off with a steel-wire brush night and morning, until the -barrels are dark enough; and then the acid is destroyed by pouring on -the barrels boiling water, and continuing to rub them till nearly cool. - -The Birmingham people brown their barrels of inferior quality in the -following way, to make them look equal to the best. They dissolve as -much muriate of mercury as can be taken up in a dram-glassful of spirits -of wine; this solution is mixed with one pint of water, or as much -diluted as the person requires. A small quantity of the mixture is -poured on a little whitening, and laid on the barrel with a sponge, -rather lightly; as soon as dry, it is brushed off, and a fresh coat is -laid on; and so on until the barrel is dark enough, which is generally -about two days. The effect that the mercury has on every one of the -joints of the fibres is wonderful: it never fails to make them, in two -or three days at most, a beautiful brown; while the other parts, being -harder, remain, comparatively speaking, quite light. The rust is killed -by hot water, but after that, the barrels are suddenly immersed in cold -water; which has the effect of heightening the brightness of both the -colours. The appearance is beautiful, and equally as fine to the eye as -stub-barrels browned in the same way; though this process is mostly used -for the charcoal iron and the threepenny iron barrels. The only method -in which there is no deception, is the smoke brown or stain; and, -plainly speaking, this and no other is the reason the gun-makers condemn -it. As the acid is decidedly weaker, and of course less liable to impart -injury to the iron, no barrel can be browned by it, to look well and -fine, but the best; or, in other words, none save those possessing steel -in their composition. - -The method of staining is this: the barrels are anointed with a little -vitriolic acid, to cause the iron to receive the effect of the gas more -readily; it is then washed off, and the barrels rubbed dry. The forge -fire must then be lighted, and blown up with coal possessing as much -hydrogen gas and as little sulphur as possible. When the coals are burnt -till they give out a clear white flame with no black smoke around it, -the barrels must be passed gradually through that flame backward and -forward, until the whole are covered with a black sooty covering. Place -them in as damp and cool a cellar as can be procured, and allow them to -stand for eighteen hours; at that time, if the place is sufficiently -damp, the iron parts will be found covered with a red rust, while the -particles of steel still retain the original sooty coat. Scratch these -off with a steel brush, the same as by any other method of staining; -then take a piece of linen cloth, and wash or polish the barrels with -water and a little washed emery; when the steel will be found of its -original bright colour, and the iron a shade darker, with the outlines -of both distinctly preserved. Rub the barrels dry, and again pass them -through the flame precisely as before; but above all things be careful -not to allow them to remain in the flame till they become hot enough to -melt the solder. When you have once passed them through, do not be in a -hurry to pass them again; but in both be guided by moderation: neither -allow them, after the first time, to stand to rust more than twelve -hours each time. Polish them as before, and you will find them a shade -darker at every smoking. Persevere, until they become as dark as you -wish to have them. The utmost you can obtain is a fine purple-black -colour on the iron; and on the steel, a shade inclined to a copper -colour: but if proper attention be paid to the polishing, it will not -change much from its original colour. - -The barrels are taken out of stain in the same way as in the other -recipes, by hot water; but you must continue to scratch or brush them -longer, for by that means you obtain a greater gloss. The principle of -this stain is simply thus: the hydrogen gas contained in the coal acting -on the iron (from being of a softer nature than the steel, which it does -not affect), and the flame also possessing a quantity of tar, it is -imperceptibly embodied by the iron during the action of the oxide; and, -when finished, by filling up the spaces created, it becomes decidedly -more impervious to damp or wet than the other stain, which is entirely -composed of the oxide of iron. - -The only objection to this brown has been found to arise from the -discharge of the black colour from the softer parts of the barrels; as -it being but coal tar, the sweat of the hand, hot water in washing, &c., -invariably extract it in a comparatively short time. - -The recipe, for the Birmingham imitations, is as follows:-- - - 1 oz. sweet nitre. - 1/2 oz. tincture of steel. - 1/4 oz. blue vitriol. - 6 drops nitric acid. - 14 grs. corrosive sublimate. - 1 pint of water. - -When the barrels are dark enough, drop a few drops of muriatic acid in a -basin of water, and wash the barrel slightly, to brighten the twists. - -This last process is borrowed from the Belgians. In the working of their -extremely fine Damascus barrels, they found a very great difficulty in -staining them so as to produce a clear and distinct figure. The way -they now proceed is either to eat away the particles of iron, leaving -the steel prominent and the barrels bright; or they polish them -extremely fine from end to end, and then blue them in a stove with -charcoal. The process is thus described in the notes to a German -translation, by Dr. Schmidt, of Weimar, of my last edition of the -"Science of Gunnery." - -"The method of browning the Damascus barrels, which are so much admired -in England for their distinctness in colour and beauty of figure, is -obtained very simply: namely, first burnish the barrels very fine; then -cover them with bone oil; pound, or drop, or strew wood-ashes all over; -then heat them in a cage of wire filled with charcoal, until you obtain -a dark first blue; after they are cold, mix a small quantity of -sulphuric acid in water (a quarter of a pint with so many drops); then -take a hard brush and apply it to the barrel, when the acid will extract -the colour from the steel, leaving the iron with its greater adhesion -covered with the blue colour. Great care must be used and skill -displayed to keep a good colour and not to extract too much." - -This we cannot do, because we solder with tin. - -The "Belgian Damascus" barrels are generally "eat up," as it is -technically termed. "Pickled" is the term also used to describe the -process, which is simply eating away the softer metals from around the -steel or harder material. The best preparation for this purpose is 1 lb. -of the sulphate of copper (known as blue vitriol) dissolved in a gallon -of soft water, at the boiling point, and continued boiling in an -earthenware vessel, until the quantity is reduced by evaporation 25 per -cent.; let it cool, and then pour it into a leaden trough or bath. The -barrels, when properly secured at the muzzle and breech-ends to prevent -the liquid getting into the interior, are immersed therein. The solution -will act sufficiently upon the metals in the space of from fifteen to -twenty minutes; care being taken to remove and carefully wash them with -cold water, and then, after observing the progress of the _pickling_, -re-immersing them as before, until the operation is complete. Then pour -boiling water over them, and scratch them well with a steel brush, which -will eventually give that beautiful bright "wavy" surface much admired -by many people. Laminated steel barrels also look very well, after being -subjected to this operation. - -Having now detailed as much of the "_modus operandi_," as the patience -of the reader will admit, I shall endeavour to give a peep into the -"_sanctum sanctorum_" of the gun-makers' workshop. I have shown in -detail what course ought to be pursued in the construction of guns of -the best quality only; and before proceeding further shall finish this -part of the subject. I am not, as some would say, "going to expose the -_whole_ secrets of the trade:" oh no, only a portion. - -There are six qualities or varieties of mixtures of iron for barrels of -best quality. The plate-facing contains two kinds finished, composed of -steel entirely, but of different degrees of carbonization; one is -composed entirely of a laminated series containing many scores of -distinct laminæ in the thickness of the sides of the barrels, twisted -and beat into tortuous shapes. The other, of larger laminæ, but showing -the edges of the laminæ at an angle with the length, and thus appearing -larger than, if presenting the side or end of the plates. - -Care must be taken that the great proportion of the fibres shall always -run round the tube, so that the greatest portion of strength may be -obtained, together with a beautiful figure. The cost of this arrangement -is considerable, as it involves a great waste of metal, and occupies a -considerable time to work and re-work--twisting, faggoting with the bars -placed in various forms, at acute angles to each other, at right angles, -plaiting three or four rods together, as a lady does her hair, cutting -these into pieces, faggoting and welding them into one, and, in short, -undergoing an endless routine of manipulations, which it would be -strictly unprofitable to detail, but are all productive of cost. An -ingenious man may work and improve metal of this nature until its cost -equals the price of silver; and, if judiciously done, improving it -still, even until he has wasted 90 per cent. of the original material. - -The ultimate characteristics and properties of iron have, as yet, never -been ascertained: it is capable of being condensed until it becomes -nearly, if not quite, equal to the specific gravity of silver or lead. -No pursuit, mechanical or philosophical, presents so great and so -beneficial a research, to the whole civilized and scientific world, as -iron. I could twist and retwist iron, until, from the beautiful and -interesting results, it would become with me a sort of monomania. I -wonder not at the variety of patterns in a Damascus sword-blade: the -mind conveys me to the scene, and a regret arises that I did not live in -those times; yet still it is but a mechanical arrangement directed by an -ingenious mind, and the ultimate benefit, apart from the beauty, is more -than imaginary. However, it proves that the Orientals were artists, and -that they were appreciated: were this the case now with us, we could do -all they ever did, and more. - -Laminated steel is now a great fact. It is a name stereotyped in -Belgium, Germany, France, and America, as well as in the place of its -birth--England; and orders come from all quarters of the globe for the -celebrated laminated steel. Every writer of eminence is loud in its -praise, and justly so too; for about its merits there is no mistake. No -combination of metals ever yet before tried since the birth of gunnery, -can equal it, either in density, ductility, or tenacity. A laminated -steel barrel has never been known to burst. "Reputed" laminated steel -barrels have been burst, but no real one ever. Nor is it probable, save -from malconstruction. Through inattention in the welding the best of -metal may be burnt; but the better the iron, the greater the difficulty. -Steel is more liable to melt than burn; so that, with care and skill on -the part of the workman, it will very seldom indeed occur. But that -chance is provided for, as far as human judgment can do, in entrusting -such barrels only to first-rate and steady workmen. Such men are no -doubt, to a certain extent, scarce; but they may yet be found: the -Birmingham welder of proved skill and ability is inferior to none in the -world. Laminated steel barrels are more scarce than welders. - -Although the various manufacturers of Europe have complimented me by -adopting the name of my invention, yet I am sorry to add it is but in -name: there are very few even tolerable imitations of them. The cost is -the "bugbear:" the name costs nothing, and can easily be assumed; but to -make laminated steel barrels is quite another matter: it touches the -pocket, and interferes with the profit; and it is only in very rare -cases indeed--although the order may be explicit as words can make -it--that the real article is supplied. There are very few makers in -Birmingham who in reality make "laminated steel." Steel barrels are more -plentiful: they care not so much for the price of the metal; it is the -after repeated manipulations that are evaded: the labour and loss of -material is too much, and is necessarily "shirked," and argument is -always met with the answer, "We see nothing in it." Yet the words -"laminated steel" are to be found engraved upon barrels of the lowest -quality of iron of which double barrels are made. Iron twist is -subjected to a similar process to that already described as employed in -producing Damascus iron, and which may be termed common iron Damascus. -Thousands of guns are made from this kind of metal, and yearly sent to -the United States of America; yet all are unblushingly represented as -"laminated steel barrels." The actual price charged for these sort of -guns in the United States I know not, but have no doubt for the whole -gun it is about equal to what would be the prime cost of a pair of real -laminated steel barrels alone. - -Purchasers should be fully acquainted with the fact that it is -impossible to produce laminated steel barrels at a low figure: labour, -high-priced, skilled labour, is always costly; and talent must be paid -for in all parts of the world. The attainment of high class barrels at a -low figure, as a rule, is an impossibility; and the maker who would -pretend, promise, or undertake to make a laminated steel barrelled gun -under 15_l._ to 20_l._ is an arrant deceiver: he could never profitably -carry out such an intention, even if he possessed the ability to produce -the article. For judgment, skill, and ability, as well as labour, are -required to produce laminated steel barrels. Steel alone is not -laminated; and that is another difficulty: fortunately there are not -many persons capable of effecting it. My method of laminating steel is -kept as much out of sight as possible, as a means of self-protection. - -Stub Damascus is by many makers called "steel:" both first and second -class stub; and any attempt to reason them out of the absurdity is a -hopeless task. Many of the highest class makers still doggedly stick to -stub Damascus, and insinuate underhandedly that the benefit of steel is -doubtful: few do it openly; but I feel sorry to record the fact that -prejudice on this point is still rampant. - -On the superior shooting properties of steel barrels I will enlarge in -another place. - -The Exhibitions have told very beneficially on the future of Birmingham; -the fact of standing highest in every competition will do (and has done) -more to remove the prejudice entertained against Birmingham manufacture -than aught beside. Sportsmen begin to understand the fact that it is -better to order their guns direct from the manufacturer than from the -mere salesman, who can only take his goods on trust, and warrants -without knowing that he can justly do so. Any system that would identify -the maker with his work would do all that is necessary to emancipate -Birmingham from the stigma which prejudice has entailed upon her name; -and from which I hope to see her rise rapidly yet. But I do not wish to -see her rise on the reputation of London: would that all Birmingham guns -were like those of London makers; or superior to them, if possible. - -In addition to the serious evil of producing guns of such great -inferiority in material, and dubbing such barrels "laminated steel," a -far more serious one is the practice of unscrupulously adding to such -guns the names of makers who have spent the majority of their lives in -obtaining a name for their manufacture; thus robbing them indirectly of -what is dear to all honest men--reputation. Few are judges sufficiently -qualified to detect a spurious gun of this description; and the name -thus forged reflects unmerited discredit on a maker who would scorn to -allow such an article to leave his manufactory: but as long as the -standard of moral honesty is so low, both among merchants and -manufacturers, such things will be. Men may excuse themselves for -affixing the names of men and firms to inferior or worthless guns by the -plea of having been ordered to do it by the exporters, but they are not -the less doing a moral wrong, in thus aiding in a deception which -profits them not. But such practices will continue, until the sense of -right and wrong becomes more conscientious, and trade morality rises to -a higher standard than at present. - -I have every reason to believe, and have not the least hesitation in -stating the fact, that not only is the epithet "laminated steel" added -to guns the barrels of which do not contain a particle of steel, but -that a far more serious misrepresentation and injury is perpetrated by -affixing the words "William Greener's Laminated Steel, indestructible by -Gunpowder," to many guns not even of middling fair quality, but the -veriest rubbish ever manufactured. That this is a species of forgery -there can be no doubt; yet the law of this country affords no remedy to -effectually prevent and punish the rascality of offering for sale an -article fraudulently professing to be what it is not, to the injury of -the purchaser as well as the manufacturer whose good name is thus -maligned. Forged "Greener's" are to be found principally in the American -markets; where batches of ten and twelve have been seen in various parts -of the States, principally in the hands of "itinerant merchants." They -are, I believe, pretty plentifully produced in "Liege," also; where, in -fact, forgeries on all our principal makers are produced. - -As the law provides no effectual remedy or punishment for such -rascality, I now, in order to lessen it as much as possible, mark every -gun leaving my manufactory with a "_private mark_" in addition to its -number; and on reference to me, giving a description of the gun -purchased "and its number," information will be returned of the private -mark, which will stamp the article as real or spurious. If the gun has -no number reference is useless, as I number every gun that I send out, -and the want is certain proof that it is a forgery. But with a view to -lessen the evil as much as can be, I may here say that the best double -gun, with case complete, that I can make will be freely given to any -individual who will produce evidence which will enable me to expose all -parties concerned in such nefarious dealing, and justify me in holding -them up to public reprobation: which will be done as certainly as proof -can be adduced. - -There are ample fields of commerce in gunnery yet to be developed, were -articles produced suitable for use, not for show or deception. -Inferiority of manufacture combined with deception is the worst course -ever adopted by any community. If Birmingham would repudiate such a -course, and refuse to make worthless articles, attending more to quality -than cheapness, the gun trade would be more prosperous than it ever has -been. - -Time is rapidly realising the recommendations I have put forth of the -great benefit to be obtained, not only in steam boilers, but various -other mechanical constructions, by the use of higher qualities of -metals. We have now even "steel ships" as well as steel guns, giving -double the strength, with half the weight; and if all manufacturers of -high class machines adopted the same principles, an immense saving would -be effected in the long run, from the absence of repairs alone, in -addition to the greater durability of the machine. - -There ought to be no accidents from the breaking of railway carriage -axles: such an occurrence as the breaking of an axle is an everlasting -disgrace; for axles could be constructed that no known "fair -application" of strain could possibly break. A simple combination of -steel and iron faggoted in segments, as before described, and rolled -hollow, would enable axles to last double the time of those at present -in use: 40,000 miles travelling is stated to be the maximum distance an -axle can be safely trusted; the destruction being mainly due to the -heating in the journals, or to galvanic action changing the fibrous iron -into crystalline in the immediate vicinity of the bearing. Axles -constructed of different metals, as steel and iron in conjunction, would -not be so affected; and might be rendered still less likely to be so by -a small hollow in the centre of the axle. But this is a digression; -though I may be pardoned for it, in consideration of the importance of -the subject. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. II._ - -DAMASCUS BARRELED GUN - -FANCY STEEL BARRELED GUN] - -The opposite plate (No. 2) represents my mixture in imitation of -Damascus; the process necessary to produce it, as well as its companion, -has already been described. These two also come under the head of -best barrels, as they are costly, and when honestly made (not plated) -constitute, with the defects before enumerated, good barrels. - -The cost of a really good first-rate gun must and will always vary, -according to the circumstances of manufacture or the peculiar -arrangements of the manufacturer. Joseph Manton is entitled to the -gratitude, not only of the present generation of gun-makers, but of all -succeeding ones, for this reason,--he not only gave a character to -English guns, but so linked his name with improvements, that it will -never be forgotten. His was the mind to know and appreciate the value of -good workmanship; he elevated the English artisan with himself, and -raised the gunmaker to the acme of mechanical skill: for, without -invidious comparison of the ability required in other professions, we -may say that a first-rate workman as a _gun-maker_[11] (_I mean only a -gun-maker_) is one of the very best mechanics England can boast of, or -in truth any part of the world. Gun-making is the profession of a man of -mind: any man or any workman cannot make a gun, working by square and -rule entirely, as other mechanics do: no, the true _gun-maker_ is an -artist, and Joe Manton made him so. - - [11] Barrel welders, borers, lock-filers, &c., are not technically - gun-makers: the latter are those workmen who, having barrels, locks, - wood for stock, &c., make them into a gun. It has been customary to - say gunsmiths; but this appellation can be applied to the worker in - iron only. - -It is true, we have not now that complex machine, the flint-lock gun, -in which Joe so peculiarly excelled; but we have a more simple and a -more efficacious one in the percussion gun. He was not so fortunate in -the latter as the former; but all men are at fault sometimes, and he -could not be expected to fondle the child of another: no, it was for the -first improvement of the _workmanship_ of the gun, that his memory must -be revered. The English gun, at the outset of his career, was as far -inferior to what he left it, as the tawdry manufacture of the continent -is to ours of the present day. The prices he obtained were enormous -certainly; but all men should be paid well, who can prove they possess -extra brains and ability: he remunerated his workmen on this scale, and -he unquestionably had the best set the world ever saw. We can, at this -period, far excel them, for the _pupil_ sometimes exceeds the _tutor_; -but this arises from laying firmly the foundation of a superior system. - -All my ambition has been to be able to make an article that cannot be -exceeded in goodness and neatness, combined with taste, by the -generation in which we live. In proof of this success I may mention that -the two First Class Prize Medals in the Great Exhibition of 1851; two -more in 1853 at New York; and, lastly, two at Paris in 1855, were -awarded to me. - -The best gun, or as good a one as ever was constructed, or ever will be, -should yield the maker a profit at 35_l._ Cheaper it cannot be made, if -it be _honestly the best_. I have studied and estimated the cost both -of town and country-made guns, and am aware that the London maker would -be barely remunerated at this rate, owing to the extra expenses he is -liable to. But I also know, without doubt, that as good guns can be, and -have been, made in Birmingham as ever were produced in London: the -facilities Birmingham possesses will always tell in that competition. -Westley Richards is an example; for not much better guns can be -manufactured than he produces daily, as most London gun-makers full well -know. Let but some individual, with the head and the _cash_, try the -experiment of making guns himself at Birmingham, and a fortune would be -the result; as better workmen, if well looked after, cannot be found in -the world. But their talents are now prostituted in the production of -inferior articles; and when wanted are, of course, _amiss_ for any great -effort. Birmingham is a workshop where if one tool does not suit you you -can get another: if a barrel be faulty, or locks inferior, you can have -a new one in the time a London house would take in ordering it. These -remarks are not dictated by any feeling of dislike to the metropolitan -makers, but from a conviction of their truth. Establishments like Joe -Manton's are not met with in London now-a-days--not one house in the -business can maintain them. - -I cannot possibly have any wish to depreciate. What benefit would be -gained by it? But I cannot praise the London manufacturer against -conviction; and I am unfortunately too much in the secret: I know too -well where and how the vast majority of London guns are made. Why keep -up a distinction that does not exist? Why call a gun London-made because -the seller rents a shop and calls himself a gun-maker? Why not at once -say, "Our manufactory is in Birmingham, as we find we can make both -better and cheaper there." This is truth, and ought to be told. It is -now the extreme of folly to say, "These are _Brummagem_ guns:" that term -only applies to the "_rubbish_," the low priced article, which no honest -man has hardihood enough to brand with his own name, but substitutes -that of some deceased member of the _fraternity_. But when sensible -London tradesmen so far forget themselves as to designate the produce of -a "_brother chip_" as "only Birmingham guns," without ever having seen -or examined that work, _I feel sensitive on the point_; for though the -term is strictly correct, yet the meaning is slanderous. - -I have always written and impressed upon sportsmen the imperative -necessity of obtaining the very best gun that hands could produce; I -urged this sincerely, and for doing so feel myself entitled to the -gratitude of all gunmakers who delight in good work. Yet instead of the -merit of my work being appreciated, I have unfortunately had to contend -with the secret revilings of those who possess not the heart or ability -to compete with me. "A fair field and no favour" has ever been my motto; -and, without egotism, I can safely offer to make a gun or guns against -any maker in the world. I do not claim this ability exclusively; for I -can name several in Birmingham, who, if they have the price, will not -be far behind. I may fearlessly point to the fact that throughout the -whole breadth of England every gunmaker is a copyist of my patterns. -Three months after the opening of the Paris Exhibition, imitations were -found in every gun-maker's shop in Paris, labelled, "Fusils de chasse a -l'Anglais." - -Both the Belgians and French are making vast strides in competition with -us. In Liege they have very recently purchased guns by most of our -celebrated makers as models; and every part of the gun is being imitated -to the greatest nicety. I have before alluded to twenty-six of Westley -Richards' guns, forgeries, having been sent to London; in truth they -have taken us as a model, and if we do not _keep going ahead_, depend -upon it we shall be hard run. In every respectable maker's shop abroad -you will find proof of this fact. I brought to England several specimens -of their productions, and amongst others a pair of imitation "Braziers' -locks;" these have been shown to many makers in Birmingham, and -pronounced unanimously a fair pair of locks: indeed no workman in the -kingdom but would have taken them to be of English manufacture. In Paris -they carry their imitation, _if possible_, farther still. I saw in Le -Page's establishment some very good work indeed, and said so; remarking -that they were very _little inferior_ to our best English guns. -"_Inferior_, indeed!" said he, "we consider them quite as good, I assure -you:" showing evidently a wish to _have them as good_. The French may -excel us in the laudable desire to improve. Their periodical Exposition -is a proof of this. We should have our "Exposition" also. Look at the -national importance it would give to our artists in all metals! how many -bright men would then spring into notice! what an impetus it gives to -competition. Artists and sculptors exhibit the effects of their genius: -why should not gunmakers also? The highest skill is required in -producing a gun: a first-rate gun is indeed a work of art. Why is it not -done? "Self" is the stumbling-block. The first makers "_par excellence_" -do not encourage it, being jealous of being beaten by some provincial. -There wants unanimity, a co-operative feeling, both in London and -Birmingham. A well-arranged "Mutual Improvement Society" would be the -means of driving the "_rubbish_" out of the market, and the sordid -manufacturer into a reformation of his ways; it would show him that -honesty in his manufactures is as essential as honesty in his outward -dealings. I lament that this untoward feeling should exist; more -especially in Birmingham, where they possess all the elements for future -prosperity: but these are blighted, from the want of an expansive, -liberal feeling to each other. I hope to see this state of things -attained soon: the seeds of improvement are taking root. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. III._ - -STUB TWIST BARRELED GUN - -STUB DAMASCUS BARRELED GUN] - -The plate (No. 3) opposite represents stub twist and stub Damascus; the -former, if properly attended to in manufacture, will long hold its -station in the construction of good guns. An excellent second-rate gun -can be made for about 20_l._, with case, &c. At this time there are a -great number made at this price: in fact, very few cost more; even -those of the best production of Birmingham. Superior articles to any yet -produced could be made there, if occasion demanded it, and if there were -a sufficiency of heads to direct and control. The generality of -gunmakers in Birmingham are merely mechanics, and when you say this, all -has been said that can be: a vast majority of excellent workmen have -never fired a gun, and know nothing, strictly speaking, of its use. A -gunmaker, in the true meaning of the word, is, or ought to be, an -enthusiast; delighting in, and living for, his art alone; without being -clogged with prejudice or with a stubborn mind that refuses to advance, -but animated by a spirit to conceive and realize the emanations of -genius. - -I have already sufficiently enlarged upon the inferiority of barrels -made from charcoal iron. A great quantity of these guns are made or got -up for the general factors, who take orders for everything, from "a -needle to an anchor;" but they manufacture nothing, and only employ -their money _for a moderate return_. The hardwareman is the principal -seller of this description of guns; he generally pays between eight and -ten pounds each for them, and retails them at from twelve to fourteen -pounds, if he can make his customers believe that they are as good as -they can get elsewhere for twenty pounds. I have known a tradesman of -this kind sell more guns in a season than three gun-makers in the same -town during the same time. A certain portion of the warranty was -correct, "that they were as good as could be got elsewhere for eighteen -pounds;" for the articles, as far as barrels and locks are concerned, -are identically the same. - -Unfortunately, the generality of gunmakers are content to live like the -snail, who cares not how the world goes, so long as his house remains -whole above his head; rather than try to improve their productions, or -to meet the exigencies of the times, they are content to allow the trade -to be injured by the influx of worthless articles, to their own loss and -the discredit of the business generally. The enormous prices which -gentlemen have been charged for provincial-made guns of the most -inferior quality, has driven them to obtain still worse at a less cost. -An honourable and tradesmanlike method of conducting business will -always be appreciated, and if a gun be required at a low figure, an -honestly-made article might be furnished at a price to suit the -customer, and of equal and mutual benefit to buyer and seller. But this -will not do: high prices or no orders is the rule. It would do very well -if nothing were manufactured but high-priced articles, as good in -quality as they pretend to be; but few provincial makers have the means -to do this: an establishment sufficiently large can only be supported in -certain districts. I must be excused for making these remarks, as I have -both the interest of the maker, combined with that of the sporting -world, in view, and have no other end to serve. I do not include all, -only a part of the profession in these strictures, for there are many -honourable exceptions. - -The ironmonger receives these inferior guns, and disposes of them as -stub-twist barrels: he knows no other, nor would he care if he did. A -flashy outside is very captivating to the novice; but one or two years' -use will soon show the quality of the article: the wood then shrinks, -the glue and wax wash out of the fittings, and an apparently crazy and -breaking-up constitution displays itself most clearly: for work put -together at a certain price will have only a certain duration. Were I -free of the gun-making profession entirely, and asked for my -conscientious advice in the purchasing of a gun, I should decidedly say, -buy a gun from no one who has not a character to lose; who is not only -answerable for the article he sells, but also capable of judging of the -quality, and appreciates the value of good materials. The trade is -over-run with swarms of Jew salesmen and others, who cannot, nor ever -will be, able to duly understand and appreciate the responsibility -attached to the profession of a gun-maker. - -There have been individuals in Birmingham who realised considerable sums -by manufacturing guns of this quality only for two or three sale shops -of puffing celebrity in London, and so extensive are their orders still, -that an engraver is kept in full employment by them, the excellence of -whose forged imitations of names, &c., is wonderful: so devoid of shame -and debased in intellect do men become from perseverance in evil. Joe -Manton's guns have become like pictures of celebrated masters; had he -produced one per hour during his existence, he could not have made -one-half of the number that bear his name. - -Guns made of threepenny skelp iron are plentifully to be met with in -sale-shops and pawnbroking establishments; they generally bear false -colours and hail from fictitious ports, and are bedecked with painted -stocks and tawdry imitation gold and silver ornaments; but as to the -mechanical arrangement, to use a Brummagism, they are as if they had -been pitched together. A decent gun could be made with barrels of this -quality, if constructed a little heavier than usual; and it would be -perfectly safe, and suited for the use of those who could not purchase -better: if firm and soundly fitted up, with decent locks, sound stock, -&c., it would be worth about eight guineas; but you can get them by the -hundred in Birmingham for 3_l._ 15_s._ each, and, if you particularly -wish it, at 2_l._ 15_s._, or less; and single guns, with plated barrels, -about half that sum. - -We have now reached the utmost limits of civilization, and are about to -pass the great desert, where science is never seen or heard of, except -it be in the pretences of an inventor of deceptions: things of wood and -iron, called guns. Pocket volcanoes would be a fitter title, or portable -exploders--for no one can possibly expect anything but destruction who -uses such compounds of dangerous contrivances. But for the edification -of those who use such, we give the prices of each part and cost of -manufacture of them: the statement is literally true; and, except that -by possibility the items may vary a penny or two, the whole is -substantially correct. - - -_Cost of Material and Workmen's Prices for making Double and Single -Guns, with "Twopenny" or "Wednesbury Skelp Iron" Twist Barrels._ - -DOUBLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Double barrels, twist, patent breeched 12 0 - Pair of locks 2 0 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Set of cast furniture 0 5 - Stocking 2 0 - Screwing together 3 0 - Percussioning 2 0 - Polishing and engraving 1 0 - Varnishing (including painting) 0 6 - Browning 0 6 - Finishing 3 0 - Ramrod, tip, and worm 0 6 - Small work, nails, escutcheons, wood, screws, &c. 1 0 - ---------- - £1 8 5 - ---------- - -SINGLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Single barrel, twist, &c. 5 9 - Lock 1 0 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Set of cast furniture 4 0 - Stocking 1 0 - Screwing together 2 0 - Percussioning 1 0 - Polishing and engraving 0 8 - Stock varnishing and painting 0 4 - Barrel browning 0 4 - Finishing 2 0 - Ramrod, tip, and worm 0 6 - Small work, &c. 0 8 - -------- - 16 1 - -------- - -Common iron barrels plated with this iron can be furnished by -barrel-makers, double for eight shillings per pair, single for four -shillings each; which deducted from each, gives double complete, 1_l._ -4_s._ 8_d._, and single 14_s._ 4_d._ each; and for these we have known -the factor charge the ironmonger, double: 3_l._ 10_s._ each, and 1_l._ -15_s._ single; so it is strictly an imposition on both sides, one -charging 5_l._, and the other 3_l._ - -Now for the next: bad as is the preceding, this is infinitely worse; the -former costs two-pence per pound, the present varies from one penny to -one penny farthing per pound. "Sham damn iron" is similar in nature to -brass; a metal with fibres certainly, but they are like the fibres of -willow compared to oak: it is an iron soft and spongy, capable of being -condensed to an immense degree. All slave gun-barrels are made of it. -Mungo Park detailed some of the lamentable atrocities committed by these -guns bursting. The many thousands of mutilated wretches who have lived -to curse the cupidity of their fellow-men, form not a bright side in the -picture of human nature; but were you to bawl into the ears of those -employed in the construction, all these and a thousand more such direful -effects of their handiwork, you would not abate one in the number of -these man-traps. - - -_Cost of Guns made of Sham Damn Iron._ - -DOUBLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Double barrels, plain iron, with side huts, per pair 7 0 - Locks 1 6 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Stocking 1 2 - Furniture 0 5 - Screwing together 2 0 - Percussioning 1 4 - Polishing and engraving 0 9 - Varnishing and painting stock 0 4 - Painting twist barrels 0 4 - Rod, tip, worm 0 4 - Small work 0 7 - -------- - Total 16 0 - -------- - -SINGLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Single barrel, ribbed and breeched 3 8 - Lock 0 9 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Stocking 0 8 - Furniture 0 4 - Screwing together 1 4 - Percussioning 0 9 - Polishing and engraving 0 6 - Varnishing and painting stock 0 4 - Painting twisted barrel 0 3 - Rod, tip, worm 0 4 - Small work 0 4 - -------- - Total 10 9 - -------- - -The above guns are sold to the factor, at 20_l._ and 12_l._ the score -respectively. The Jews sometimes get even them at that, or a lower -price, as money happens to be plentiful or scarce. There is a -description of tradesmen in this town of hardware, whose establishments -bear the euphonious titles of the "_slaughter shop_" and "_blood -house_;" and in these emporiums of the productions of the needy; may be -obtained gunnery of all kinds, as well as all other material, the -productions of Birmingham. If the article costs little manufacturing, it -costs these men still less. The slaughter-master is a cormorant, who -swallows the substance of the weak, and once past his awful jaws he -cannot be made to disgorge. Here itinerant hardwaremen find an abundant -supply: he has always a stock. The wants of the poor are always -pressing, and the gun-making portions of the inhabitants of Birmingham -are not _over provident_, seldom caring for what to-morrow may bring -forth. The painted pair of shams is faintly portrayed in the opposite -engraving (Plate 4); and the uninitiated may be able to detect what I -have endeavoured to acquaint them with. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. IV._ - -CHARCOAL IRON BARRELED GUN - -THREEPENNY IRON BARRELED GUN] - -[Illustration: _PLATE. V._ - -TWOPENNY IRON BARRELED GUN - -A SHAM DAMN BARRELED GUN] - -I shall just give the cost of the various items in the fitting-up of an -imitation gun for the African market, combined with an _imitation_ -musket for the same; the former is not so desperately bad as the latter, -the one being barely half an inch in the bore, the other full -three-quarters of an inch, and yet their weights are not dissimilar. - -You can have a shipload of these for 5_s._ 9_d._ each. It is -satisfactory to know that they send powder with them of _corresponding -quality_. - - -_Cost of "African guns" alias "Park Paling."_ - - _s._ _d._ - Common musket barrel, or birding barrel 2 0 - Lock 0 4 - Stock 0 4 - Stocking 0 5 - Brass furniture 0 3-1/2 - Screwing together, and finishing 0 9 - Polishing and hardening, hammer, &c. 0 4 - Steel rod 0 3 - Browning and painting barrel and stock 0 4 - Small items 0 3 - ------------ - Total 5 3-1/2 - ------------ - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE PROOF OF GUN BARRELS. - - -For a considerable period subsequently to the introduction of the -manufacture of gunnery into England, there existed no public proof, or -test, for the goodness and safety of barrels; further than that the -feeling of the maker induced him to protect the limbs of his customer. -Even so early as the seventeenth century, the bias of human nature to -evil began to be displayed in the production of materials for guns, the -use of which was attended with loss of both life and limb. In -consequence of the frequent bursting of inferior guns, the Company of -Gunmakers of the City of London instituted a proof-house, to which the -barrels of respectable makers were all sent to be proved. The East India -Company required all their muskets to undergo the same test; hence it -became a custom to have barrels proved there: many also underwent an -extra test on the premises of the manufacturer; so jealous were -sportsmen, and so necessary was it deemed to provide against any -possibility of accident. Thus it was shown clearly that laws are not -always required to carry out certain results, but that it is sometimes -preferable to allow matters of this kind to be arranged according to -the knowledge of the parties interested; for frequently when an -individual is aware that there is a law under which, in case of need, he -can shelter himself--as many do at this day in case of guns bursting--he -becomes careless: he has always a ready answer, "I can assure you the -barrel was proved; and there must have been some unfortunate cause for -her going: you could not have rammed the wadding home, or you must have -put in an extra charge," and such like excuses. It is never for a moment -supposed that there was any insufficiency in the proof. - -The great demand for rubbish of a villanous description during the -existence of the slave trade, induced some philanthropic gentlemen in -Birmingham to found a Company, with suitable premises, for the proof of -all gun barrels; and an Act of Parliament was obtained in the year 1813, -incorporating the body. The first Act proved insufficient, as the -Birmingham makers found easy means of evading it; so they had to obtain -a fresh Act in 1815, by which parties receiving any barrel to rib, -stock, &c., without its having previously been proved, became liable to -a penalty of twenty pounds, and not less than twenty shillings: it also -enacted that any person or persons making and selling any gun, the -barrels of which had not been proved at either this or the London -proof-house, became liable to the same penalty; and it further enacted, -that any person or persons forging the stamps or marks of either of the -two proof-houses, should be liable to the same penalties, and in -default of payment, to a certain term of imprisonment, &c. It also -ordered, that all barrels be proved with the quantity of powder in -proportion to the various bores enumerated in the table. - -The severe, but just, strictures cast upon the lax nature of this Act of -Parliament, and the equally lax way in which its provisions were carried -out (individual benefit being held to be the most important element in -the interpretation), imperatively called for an immediate improvement. -The heavy denunciations which I felt bound to visit on the defective -working of this "miscalled proof of gun barrels" in my former works, at -length opened the eyes, not only of the sportsman and the trade, but -also of the Government; and (I believe in 1854) it was intimated to the -proof companies of London and Birmingham that the time had arrived -"_when gun barrels should be proved in reality_;" and that if the -initiative was not taken by the trade, the Government were prepared to -introduce a public Act of Parliament for that purpose. The natural -consequence followed, and in 1855 an Act was passed entitled "The Gun -Barrel Proof Act 1855," by which most extensive powers are delegated to -the two companies. - -The clause of most vital importance enacts that all gun barrels shall be -proved twice; first in the rough, which is called provisional proof; and -secondly, when the barrels are soldered together, breeched, and -percussioned. Thus, in a comparatively finished state, when all the -necessary reductions and other operations have been effected, the -barrels become properly tested. Not only the metal of the barrels and -the soundness of the breeches, but the screwing in of the nipples is -proved--a most important check on a very important branch of -workmanship, and which if imperfectly done renders the gun dangerous. - -The first regulation enacts that "barrels are not to be made up unless -proved, and marked as proved." - -2nd. Small arms are not to be sold or exported unless proved, and marked -as proved. - -3rd. Barrels provisionally proved and reduced in strength are to be -deemed unproved. - -4th. Barrels reduced so that the mark does not represent the proof are -to be deemed unproved. - -5th. Barrels with marks defaced are to be deemed unproved. - -6th. Barrels with marks removed are to be deemed unproved. - -7th. Barrels are to be marked according to scale. - -Here follows a list of offences:-- - - XCIX. Every person committing any of the following offences shall for - every such offence be guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall at the - discretion of the court be sentenced to imprisonment, with or without - hard labour, for not more than three years, to wit: - - 1. Every person who forges or counterfeits any stamp or any part of - any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by either of the two - companies for the marking of any barrel: - - 2. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any such - forged or counterfeit stamp or part of a stamp, knowing the same to be - forged or counterfeit: - - 3. Every person who knowingly marks any barrel with any such forged or - counterfeit stamp or with any part of such forged or counterfeit - stamp: - - 4. Every person who makes up any barrel so marked, knowing the same to - be so marked: - - 5. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any barrel - so marked, knowing the same to be so marked: - - 6. Every person who forges or counterfeits or by any means whatever - produces an imitation upon any barrel of any mark or of any part of - any mark of any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by either - of the two companies for the marking of any barrel: - - 7. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any such - mark or part of a mark, knowing the same to be forged or counterfeit - or an imitation: - - 8. Every person who transposes or removes from any barrel to any other - barrel any mark or any part of any mark of any stamp already or - hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for making - any barrel: - - 9. Every person who shall have in his possession or who shall part - with the possession of any mark or any part of any mark so transposed - or removed, knowing the same to be transposed or removed: - - 10. Every person without lawful excuse, the proof whereof shall lie on - him, having in his possession any such forged or counterfeit stamp or - part of a stamp, or any such forged or counterfeit mark or imitation - of a mark, or any such transposed or removed mark, knowing the same - respectively to be forged, counterfeit, imitated, marked, transposed, - or removed: - - 11. Every person who cuts or severs from any barrel any mark or any - part of any mark of any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by - either of the two companies for the stamping of any barrel, with - intent that such mark or such part of a mark be placed upon or joined - or affixed to any other barrel: - - 12. Every person who places upon or joins or affixes to any barrel any - such mark or part of a mark so cut or severed: - - 13. Every person who, with intent to defraud, uses any genuine stamp - already or hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies - for the marking of any barrel: - - 14. Every person who forges or counterfeits, or by any means produces - an imitation upon any barrel of any mark, or of any part of any mark, - of any stamp of a foreign country registered by the two companies - pursuant to the provisions of this Act. - - C. Every person committing any of the following offences shall for - every such offence be subject to a penalty as follows, to wit: - - 1. Every person selling or exchanging, or exposing or keeping for - sale, or exporting or importing, or attempting to export or import - from or to England, or having in his possession without lawful excuse - (the proof whereof shall lie upon him), any barrel having thereupon - any mark of any forged or counterfeit stamp or part of a stamp already - or hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for - marking any barrel, or having thereupon any forged or counterfeit mark - or imitation of a mark of any stamp or part of a stamp so provided or - used, or having thereupon any mark of any stamp or part of a stamp so - provided or used, such mark having been transposed or removed thereto - from any other barrel, shall for every such barrel so sold or - exchanged, or exposed or kept for sale, or exported or imported, or - attempted to be exported or imported, or so in his possession, forfeit - not exceeding twenty pounds: - - 2. Every person selling or exchanging or exposing or keeping for sale, - or exporting or attempting to export from England, any small arm, the - barrel or barrels whereof are not under this Act duly proved and - marked as proved, shall for every such barrel forfeit not exceeding - twenty pounds: - - 3. Every person fraudulently erasing, obliterating, or defacing, or - fraudulently causing to be erased, obliterated, or defaced from any - barrel, any mark or any part of any mark of any stamp already or - hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for the - marking of barrels, shall for every such offence forfeit not exceeding - twenty pounds: - - 4. Every person delivering or sending or causing or procuring to be - delivered or sent for sale, or under pretence of sale, or removing, - consigning, or transmitting, or causing or procuring to be removed, - consigned, or transmitted for sale, or under pretence of sale, any - small arm, the barrel or barrels whereof are not duly proved at the - Proof-house of the Gunmakers' Company, or the Birmingham Proof-house, - or some other public proof-house established by law, and marked as - proved, shall, for every small arm so delivered or sent, or caused or - procured to be delivered or sent, or removed, consigned, or - transmitted, or caused or procured to be removed, consigned, or - transmitted, forfeit not exceeding twenty pounds. - -The preceding list of offences against the proper conducting of the gun -manufacture have been found, after nearly three years' experience, to -fulfil the intentions of the framers[12] of the bill. Undoubtedly a much -more healthy tone has been given to the constitution of the trade; and -it is to be fervently hoped that it will entirely eradicate the evil of -producing such a vast amount of worthless and dangerous guns. The -double-proof has been too much for many of the "sham damns." No doubt -much remains to be done even yet; but the trade is progressing towards -convalescence, after this severe purging. With these remarks I shall -introduce schedule B of the new Act. - - [12] I had the honour of being one of a committee to frame the - clauses. - -SCHEDULE (B.) - -RULES AND REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO THE PROOF OF SMALL ARMS. - - _Classification of Small Arms._ - - _First Class._--Comprising single-barrelled military arms of smooth - bore. - - _Second Class._--Comprising double-barrelled military arms of smooth - bore, and rifled arms of every description, whether of one or more - barrels, or constructed of plain or twisted iron. - - _Third Class._--Comprising every description of single-barrelled - birding and fowling-pieces for firing small shot; and also those known - by the names of Danish, Dutch, Carolina, and Spanish. - - _Fourth Class._--Comprising every description of double-barrelled - birding and fowling-pieces for firing small shot. - - _Fifth Class._--Comprising revolving and breech-loading small arms of - every description and system. - - _Rule of Proof._ - - The gunpowder used for proof shall be of equal quality and strength - with that which is now used by the Honourable Board of Ordnance. - - The balls used for the proof of barrels of all classes shall be of - lead, and spherical, and of the size and weight prescribed by the - scale for proof. - - Barrels for arms of the second class and of the fourth class, and for - breech-loading arms of the fifth class, shall be proved provisionally - and definitively, and barrels for all other arms shall be proved once - definitively. - - _Conditions precedent to Proof._ - - Barrels for arms of the first class shall not be qualified for proof - until they shall be in a fit and proper state for setting up. - - Barrels for arms of the third class shall not be qualified for proof - until they shall be in a fit and proper state for setting up, with the - proper breeches in; and all barrels lumped for percussioning shall be - proved through the nipple hole, with the proper pins or plugs in. - - Barrels for arms of the second and fourth classes: - - For provisional proof:--If of plain metal, shall be bored and ground, - having plugs attached, with touch-holes drilled in the plugs, of a - diameter not exceeding one-sixteenth of an inch. If any touch-hole - shall be enlarged, from any cause whatever, to a dimension exceeding - in diameter one-tenth of an inch, the barrel shall be disqualified for - proof. Notches in the plugs instead of drilled touch-holes shall - disqualify for proof. If of twisted metal, they shall be fine-bored, - and struck up, with proving plugs attached, and touch-holes drilled as - in the case of plain metal barrels. - - For definitive proof:--The barrels, whether of plain or twisted metal, - shall be in the finished state, ready for setting up, with the - breeches in the percussioned state, break-offs fitted and locks - jointed; the top and bottom ribs shall be rough struck up, pipes, - loops, and stoppers on. All rifle barrels must be rifled; the top and - bottom ribs of double barrels shall be struck up, pipes, loops, and - stoppers on, the proper breeches in, and the thread of the screws - shall be sufficiently sound and full for proof. - - Barrels for revolving arms of the fifth class shall have the cylinders - with the revolving action attached and complete. - - Barrels for breech-loading arms of the fifth class shall be subject to - provisional proof, according to the class to which they belong, and to - definitive proof when the breech-loading action is attached and - complete. - - _Marks of Proof._ - - The marks applicable to the definitive proof shall be the proof and - view marks now used by the two companies respectively. - - The marks applicable to the provisional proof for the Gunmakers - Company shall be the letters (G.P.) interlaced in a cypher surmounted - by a lion rampant, and for the Birmingham Company shall be the letters - (B.P.) interlaced in a cypher surmounted by a Crown. - -[Illustration: London marks.] - -[Illustration: Birmingham marks.] - - _Mode of affixing Proof Marks._ - - On arms of the first and third classes the definitive proof mark and - view mark shall be impressed at the breech end of the barrel, and if - the barrel be constructed with a patent breech, the view mark shall be - also impressed upon the breech. - - On arms of the second, fourth, and fifth classes, the provisional - proof mark shall be impressed at the breech end of the barrel; the - definitive proof mark and view mark shall be impressed upon the barrel - above the provisional proof mark; and if the barrel be constructed - with a patent breech, or with revolving cylinders or chambers, the - view mark shall be also impressed upon the breech, or upon each of the - cylinders or chambers with which the barrel is connected, as the case - may be. - - On all barrels the gauge size of the barrel shall be struck, both at - the provisional and at the definitive proof. - -_Scale for Proof._ - -The Scale following shows the Proportions of Gunpowder applicable under -the foregoing Rules and Regulations to the Proof of the various Classes -of Arms as distinguished by the Trade Numbers indicating the Calibre. - - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - | | | | ||Charges of Powder || - |Number| Diameter | Diameter |Weight of|| for Proof. || - | of | of Bore by |of Balls for|Balls for++------------------++ - |Gauge.|Calculation.| Proof. | Proof. || First Class. || - | | | | ++------------------++ - | | | | ||Definitive Proof. || - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - | | inches. | inches. | grains. ||grains. ozs. drs. || - | 1 | 1·669 | 1·649 | 6752 || 4812 11 ... || - | 2 | 1·325 | 1·305 | 3342 || 2324 5 5 || - | 3 | 1·157 | 1·107 | 2211 || 1531 3 8 || - | 4 | 1·052 | 1·032 | 1649 || 1176 2 11 || - | 5 | ·976 | ·956 | 1315 || 930 2 2 || - | 6 | ·819 | ·899 | 1090 || 766 1 12 || - | 7 | ·873 | ·853 | 931 || 656 1 8 || - | 8 | ·835 | ·815 | 812 || 602 1 6 || - | 9 | ·803 | ·783 | 720 || 492 1 2 || - | 10 | ·775 | ·755 | 646 || 465 1 1 || - | 11 | ·751 | ·731 | 586 || 437 ... 16 || - | 12 | ·729 | ·709 | 535 || 437 ... 16 || - | 13 | ·710 | ·690 | 493 || 410 ... 15 || - | 14 | ·693 | ·673 | 457 || 383 ... 14 || - | 15 | ·677 | ·657 | 425 || 383 ... 14 || - | 16 | ·662 | ·642 | 399 || 369 ... 13-1/2|| - | 17 | ·649 | ·629 | 374 || 369 ... 13-1/2|| - | 18 | ·637 | ·617 | 352 || 342 ... 12-1/2|| - | 19 | ·626 | ·606 | 334 || 301 ... 11 || - | 20 | ·615 | ·595 | 316 || 273 ... 10 || - | 21 | ·605 | ·585 | 300 || 273 ... 10 || - | 22 | ·596 | ·576 | 287 || 246 ... 9 || - | 23 | ·587 | ·567 | 274 || 246 ... 9 || - | 24 | ·579 | ·559 | 262 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 25 | ·571 | ·551 | 251 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 26 | ·563 | ·543 | 242 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 27 | ·556 | ·536 | 231 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 28 | ·550 | ·530 | 223 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 29 | ·543 | ·523 | 214 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 30 | ·537 | ·517 | 207 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 31 | ·531 | ·511 | --- || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 32 | ·526 | ·506 | 194 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 33 | ·520 | ·500 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 34 | ·515 | ·495 | 182 || 191 ... 7 || - | 35 | ·510 | ·490 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 36 | ·506 | ·486 | 172 || 191 ... 7 || - | 37 | ·501 | ·481 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 38 | ·497 | ·477 | 162 || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 39 | ·492 | ·472 | --- || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 40 | ·488 | ·468 | 154 || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 41 | ·484 | ·464 | --- || 164 ... 6 || - | 42 | ·480 | ·460 | 146 || 164 ... 6 || - | 43 | ·476 | ·456 | --- || 164 ... 6 || - | 44 | ·473 | ·453 | 139 || 164 ... 6 || - | 45 | ·469 | ·449 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 46 | ·466 | ·446 | 133 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 47 | ·463 | ·443 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 48 | ·459 | ·439 | 127 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 49 | ·456 | ·436 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 50 | ·453 | ·433 | 122 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - - +------+---------------------------------------------------------++ - | | Charges of Powder for Proof. || - |Number+-------------------------------------++------------------++ - | of | Second Class. || Third Class. || - |Gauge.+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - | |Provisional Proof.| Definitive Proof.|| Definitive Proof.|| - +------+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - | |grains. ozs. drs. |grains. ozs. drs. ||grains. ozs. drs. || - | 1 | 4812 11 ... | 2406 5 8 || 3850 8 12-3/4|| - | 2 | 2324 5 5 | 1162 2 10-1/2|| 1859 4 4 || - | 3 | 1531 3 8 | 766 1 12 || 1225 2 12-3/4|| - | 4 | 1176 2 11 | 588 1 5-1/2|| 941 2 2-1/2|| - | 5 | 930 2 2 | 465 1 1 || 744 1 11-1/4|| - | 6 | 766 1 12 | 383 ... 14 || 612 1 6-1/2|| - | 7 | 656 1 8 | 328 ... 12 || 525 1 3-1/4|| - | 8 | 602 1 6 | 301 ... 11 || 481 1 1-1/2|| - | 9 | 492 1 2 | 246 ... 9 || 394 ... 14-1/2|| - | 10 | 465 1 1 | 232 ... 8-1/2|| 372 ... 13-1/2|| - | 11 | 437 ... 16 | 219 ... 8 || 350 ... 12-3/4|| - | 12 | 437 ... 16 | 219 ... 8 || 350 ... 12-3/4|| - | 13 | 410 ... 15 | 205 ... 7-1/2|| 328 ... 12 || - | 14 | 383 ... 14 | 191 ... 7 || 306 ... 11-1/4|| - | 15 | 383 ... 14 | 191 ... 7 || 306 ... 11-1/4|| - | 16 | 369 ... 13-1/2| 185 ... 6-3/4|| 295 ... 10-3/4|| - | 17 | 369 ... 13-1/2| 185 ... 6-3/4|| 295 ... 10-3/4|| - | 18 | 342 ... 12-1/2| 171 ... 6-1/4|| 273 ... 10 || - | 19 | 301 ... 11 | 150 ... 5-1/2|| 241 ... 8-3/4|| - | 20 | 273 ... 10 | 137 ... 5 || 219 ... 8 || - | 21 | 273 ... 10 | 137 ... 5 || 219 ... 8 || - | 22 | 246 ... 9 | 123 ... 4-1/2|| 197 ... 7-1/4|| - | 23 | 246 ... 9 | 123 ... 4-1/2|| 197 ... 7-1/4|| - | 24 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 25 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 26 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 27 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 28 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 29 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 30 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 31 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 32 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 33 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 34 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 35 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 36 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 37 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 38 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 39 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 40 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 41 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 42 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 43 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 44 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 45 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 46 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 47 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 48 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 49 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 50 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - +------+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - - +------+-------------------------------------+ - | | Charges of Powder for Proof. | - |Number+-------------------------------------+ - | of | Fourth Class. | - |Gauge.+------------------+------------------+ - | |Provisional Proof.| Definitive Proof.| - +------+------------------+------------------+ - | |grains. ozs. drs. |grains. ozs. drs. | - | 1 | 3850 8 12-3/4| 2406 5 8 | - | 2 | 1859 4 4 | 1162 2 10-1/2| - | 3 | 1225 2 12-3/4| 766 1 12 | - | 4 | 941 2 2-1/2| 588 1 5-1/2| - | 5 | 744 1 11-1/4| 465 1 1 | - | 6 | 612 1 6-1/2| 383 ... 14 | - | 7 | 525 1 3-1/4| 328 ... 12 | - | 8 | 481 1 1-1/2| 301 ... 11 | - | 9 | 394 ... 14-1/2| 246 ... 9 | - | 10 | 372 ... 13-1/2| 232 ... 8-1/2| - | 11 | 350 ... 12-3/4| 219 ... 8 | - | 12 | 350 ... 12-3/4| 219 ... 8 | - | 13 | 328 ... 12 | 205 ... 7-1/2| - | 14 | 306 ... 11-1/4| 191 ... 7 | - | 15 | 306 ... 11-1/4| 191 ... 7 | - | 16 | 295 ... 10-3/4| 185 ... 6-3/4| - | 17 | 295 ... 10-3/4| 185 ... 6-3/4| - | 18 | 273 ... 10 | 171 ... 6-1/4| - | 19 | 241 ... 8-3/4| 150 ... 5-1/2| - | 20 | 219 ... 8 | 137 ... 5 | - | 21 | 219 ... 8 | 137 ... 5 | - | 22 | 197 ... 7-1/4| 123 ... 4-1/2| - | 23 | 197 ... 7-1/4| 123 ... 4-1/2| - | 24 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 25 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 26 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 27 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 28 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 29 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 30 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 31 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 32 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 33 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 34 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 35 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 36 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 37 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 38 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 39 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 40 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 41 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 42 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 43 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 44 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 45 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 46 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 47 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 48 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 49 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 50 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - +------+------------------+------------------+ - -N.B.--Revolving Arms of the Fifth Class shall be proved once only, and -such Proof shall be by the Scale laid down for definitive Proof of the -Fourth Class. - -[Illustration] - -As soon as a number of gun barrels are loaded according to the foregoing -scale, they are taken to a house or detached building, standing apart -from other offices. (The woodcut represents the interior accurately.) -The house is lined throughout with thick sheet iron, and the windows, -which resemble Venetian blinds, are constructed of the same metal. Iron -frames are laid the whole length of the room; on these the barrels of -various qualities, when about to be fired, are placed. In the front of -these frames lies a large mass of sand, to receive the balls. Behind the -frame, on which the twist barrels are fixed, lies another bed of sand; -in which, on the recoil, the barrels are buried. Behind the frame, on -which the common barrels or muskets are tried, a strong iron bar is -placed, having a number of holes large enough to receive the tang of the -breech, but not the barrel. The barrels being thus fixed, it is -impossible for them to fly back. A groove runs along the whole length of -each frame, in which the train of powder is strewed to ignite the -charges, upon which the barrels are laid, with the touch-holes -downwards. - -When everything is ready for the proof, the windows are let close down, -the door is shut and secured, and an iron rod heated red hot is -introduced through a hole in the wall. On igniting the train, a -tremendous explosion takes place. The windows are then drawn up, the -door opened, and the smoke dissipated. The twist barrels are found -buried in the sand, the common ones are thrown forwards; some are found -perfect, others burst to pieces. It is rarely that best barrels are -found burst; more frequently they are bulged, or swelled out, in places -which are faulty, or of a softer temper. Those that are found perfect, -are then marked with the provisional punch of different sizes (but -having the same impression), according to the quality of the barrel. In -London and Birmingham they have now an additional punch, containing the -number of the bore by which the barrel has been tried. This mark easily -enables the observer to discover whether the barrel has had any -considerable quantity bored out after proving. Those that are bulged are -sent to the maker, who beats down the swellings, and sends back the -barrels to be proved again. They generally stand the second proof, -though we have known a barrel undergo four proofs before it was marked. -The common barrels are required to stand twenty-four hours before they -are examined; when, if not burst, any holes or other material -imperfections are made quite apparent by the action of the saltpetre. -Such barrels are, of course, sent back unmarked. Those that are found -satisfactory are duly stamped and taken home. - -The importance of the gun trade to England may be estimated from the -number of barrels proved during the last year, 1857, of which the -following is a correct statement:-- - -_Provisional Proof._ - - Plain iron barrels 185,776 - Twisted barrels 136,804 - Saddle pistol barrels 33,480 - Best pistol barrels 962 - Common pistol barrels 2,066 - Revolving and double barrel pistols 57,106 - ------- - Total 416,194 - - Definitively proved, 70,100, being principally double barrels. - -This is in Birmingham alone; no doubt the London Company prove to the -extent of 200,000 yearly, which may also be debited to Birmingham, as -the barrels are all welded, bored, and ground before being sent to -London. In addition to these may be counted the Government contracts of -some hundred thousands yearly. - -The passing of this Act of Parliament levelled all distinctions between -London and Birmingham proved barrels; they are now treated precisely -alike, and one is equally good with the other. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY. - - "Science begins at the point where mind dominates matter, where the - attempt is made to subject the mass of experience to the scrutiny of - reason. Science is mind brought into connection with nature."--COSMOS. - - -A new era in the science of gunnery may be dated from the commencement -of the latter half of the nineteenth century; and long before its close -other improvements may be effected which shall eclipse even those of our -day. A new elementary principle has been infused into the science. -Rifles are now really weapons of the highest order; in truth we may be -said to have only recently become acquainted with the principles on -which they should be constructed. Little of science had hitherto been -applied to them; as military arms they were neglected for centuries, to -be ushered into notice at last by the unassisted efforts of private -individuals; Government, to whom arms were of the greatest importance, -having systematically neglected all improvement, by invariably refusing -pecuniary aid, the only grease at all calculated to overcome the -friction retarding the wheels of progress. It is an old proverb, that -"one extreme begets another," and when changes are once started, the -difficulty is to stop them; the tendency is to rush on from one -alteration to another, before we are really well acquainted with what we -have so hastily thrown aside. Improvement does not always follow a -change; the human race, and the English more especially, have an -inordinate desire for "the marvellous;" and multitudes of "wonderful -discoveries" and inventions of the utmost value are heralded daily by -the ever eager press, often to be as hastily forgotten, or discovered, -even by their promulgators, to be myths. - -Improvement, to be at all beneficial, must bring with it all the -elements of improvement; and to render it easy of attainment, none of -its essential points should be costly. In gunnery more especially, it is -essential to avoid all unnecessary friction, excess of recoil, and waste -of gunpowder; whilst, at the same time, transport of the gun must not be -cumbersome, and durability in all its points is essential. - -How few study the subject in all its bearings! How rapidly conclusions -are jumped at! Even in getting range, if it is to be purchased at the -cost of other essential principles, it is not economy to sacrifice -several even moderately valuable principles for the sake of range alone. -The experience of the present age has shown that all our important -discoveries have their limits: the locomotive cannot be used with -advantage beyond a certain limited speed; steam vessels attempted to be -propelled at an unusual velocity have but a very brief endurance, and -rapidly decay. All matter has power only to effect a certain amount of -work, and this is endured best at a medium application; showing most -clearly that "the race is not always to the swift or the battle to the -strong." - -Experience is required in the greatest of modern inventions. -Electricity, at a moderate immersion, subjected to a moderate -superincumbent weight, is an effectual messenger, swift as thought; but -when overweighted by immersion to depths where the superincumbent -pressure amounts to thousands of pounds upon the square inch, then the -messenger becomes paralysed, and refuses to obey man's will; showing -very clearly that until that pressure be artificially removed by -insulating the conducting wire in tubes equal to restrain or keep from -it that enormous load, the lasting success of an Atlantic telegraph is -very doubtful. Many similar instances might be cited to show the -necessity of considering well the established laws of nature, and their -bearing on the object pursued. In no science is this of more importance -than in gunnery; and the hundreds of useless inventions in gunnery are -to be ascribed to the non-observance of these rules. The two-grooved -rifle, the "steam gun," "the sciva," "Warner's long-range myth," and -many other inventions equally absurd, engage the attention for a time, -but soon vanish: in fact, all experience shows that improvement can only -be effected in accordance with certain established principles of nature -and practical science. - -Iron, in quantities sufficient for all reasonable requirements, is a -dutiful servant; but, when required of colossal proportions, it refuses -to obey: giving us a hint from nature, that we should be content with -moderation. - -All the principles appertaining to science are based on certain -established laws; the unsoundness of one renders the superstructure -unsound also; and any deductions drawn from unsound principles are -comparatively worthless. Gunnery, as a science, must be in uniformity -with truth in all its parts, or no science exists in its arrangements. -This will be best illustrated by dividing the subject into several -heads: 1st, the explosive power and its velocity; 2nd, the retarding -agents, air and friction; 3rd, the construction of the projectile tubes; -and 4th, the form of projectile best calculated to attain a perfect -result. - -1st. The explosive power. Gunpowder has been stated by different -authorities to liberate its gases with very different degrees of -rapidity. Hutton has given to it a much greater rapidity than Robins has -evidently even surmised; though, no doubt, as we have already shown, -high velocity in gunpowder depends on several circumstances--the degree -of purification of its ingredients, their intimate mechanical mixture -(that the elements may exert their affinities with the utmost facility), -and, lastly, the degree of granulation observed: and in addition, the -suitability of the tubes or vessels for carrying on correctly such -important experiments. Robins and Hutton unquestionably may be regarded -as the English, if not the European, authorities, and any work on the -science of gunnery would be very incomplete without their valuable -elucidations. - -Previously to the researches of Robins, the theory of atmospheric -resistance was but imperfectly surmised, and when he made his statements -of the immense resistance which the fluidity of the air offered to -projectiles in a high state of velocity, they were treated as the idle -chimeras of a speculative brain; and yet he only was enabled to estimate -the real effect of the explosive nature and force of gunpowder to a very -limited extent: indeed, so limited, that Hutton, only twenty years -subsequently, speaking of Robins' theory, says, "Mr. Robins and other -authors, it may be said, have only guessed at, rather than determined. -That ingenious philosopher, in a simple experiment, truly showed that, -by the firing of a parcel of gunpowder, a quantity of elastic air was -disengaged; which, when confined in the space only occupied by the -powder before it was fired, was found to be nearly 250 times stronger -than the weight or elasticity of the common air. He then heated the same -parcel of air to the degree of red hot iron, and found it in that -temperature to be about four times as strong as before; whence he -inferred, that the first strength of the inflamed fluid must be nearly -1,000 times the pressure of the atmosphere. But this was merely guessing -at the degree of heat in the inflamed fluid, and, consequently, of its -first strength; both which in fact are found to be much greater. It is -true that this assumed degree of strength accorded pretty well with that -author's experiments; but this seeming agreement, it might easily be -shown, could only be owing to the inaccuracy of his own further -experiments; and, in fact, with far better opportunities than fell to -the lot of Mr. Robins, we have shown that inflamed gunpowder is about -double the strength that he has assigned to it, and that it expands -itself with the velocity of about 5,000 feet per second." On the same -subject he further says:--"On this principle it was that Mr. Robins made -all his experiments and performed all his calculations in gunnery. But -it is manifest that this method of guessing at the degree of heat of the -flame must be very uncertain and unsatisfactory, being much below the -truth; since all our notions and experience of the heat of inflamed -powder convince us that it is higher than that of red hot iron, and, -indeed, it has clearly appeared from our experiments, that its heat is -at least double that of red hot iron, and that it increases the -elasticity of the elastic fluid more than eight times." - -Here is evidence, though not conclusive, of the immense force of -gunpowder, and also of the progress of knowledge on the subject; yet it -clearly shows the evil of coming to hasty conclusions, however well -supported by apparent facts, as it has had in this case a tendency to -check inquiry and retard the advancement of knowledge. For the extensive -experiments of Hutton were but limited in discovery, because they were -not carried to a sufficient extent, and thus, they are quite unsuited to -the present day. He was satisfied because he had gone further than any -of his predecessors; and though he established and clearly proved the -soundness of his own theory, yet he could not either view the subject to -its utmost bounds, nor yet go sufficiently far, but that others, taking -up the question where he left it, may pursue the subject to a much more -remote limit. The subject, indeed, was limited to him. He far excelled -Robins, no doubt, as he has shown; but that involves no detraction from -the merit due to Robins for his experiments and discoveries, no more -than any individual proving the subject to be a more extensive one than -Hutton did, would excel Hutton; for the value of improvement is more to -be attributed to him who lays the foundation, than to him who raises the -building. So is it in this case; Robins laid the foundation for an -extensive knowledge of the nature and power of the explosive fluids, and -Hutton built upon that foundation a certain extent of superstructure, -and there he left it, without roofing the building: he considered the -question as settled. Common consent has, as yet, received his conclusion -as unshaken and uncontroverted; and it is not my intention to make the -attempt to controvert it, but merely to show that his deductions fall -short of what the principles of gunpowder-making admit--carried out in -the more extensive way it has been within the last few years--owing to -the limited nature of his experiments. This is rather an extensive -position for me to occupy, or endeavour to hold: but I do not mean the -size of the _tools_ of _experiment_ so much as the diversity of them; -for exploding ten thousand tons of powder in the same machine and in -the same way, would but give the same or similar results; it is the -variety and the singularity of experiments that expand and increase the -fund of knowledge, and enable the mind to conceive and comprehend the -immensity of the power and velocity of this wonderful combination. We -have been principally indebted to the exertions of the chemist for means -of purifying and extracting from the ingredients which form this -astonishing compound force, the impurities and foreign substances which -exist, to a certain extent, in all the three, and thus tending to form a -more perfect combustion by increasing the affinities. - -Hutton shows that gunpowder is but so much condensed air; for he says -"We may hence, also, deduce the amazing degree of condensation of the -elastic air in the nitre and gunpowder, and the astonishing force -experienced by its explosion. It has been found by Mr. Robins, and other -philosophers, that 3-10ths of the mass of the powder consists of the -pure condensed air, or that the weight of the condensed air is equal to -3-10ths of the whole composition. But the whole composition of the -powder consists of eight parts by weight, of which six parts are nitre, -one part sulphur, one charcoal; of which the nitre or 3-4ths of the -composition furnishes the whole of the condensed air, while the sulphur -and charcoal only give the fire that produces the explosion. But 3-10ths -of the whole mass of eight parts is equal to 4-10ths of the six parts -of nitre, that is 4-10ths or 2-5ths of the nitre consists of condensed -air, or the weight of the gross matter in the nitre as four to six, or -as two to three; and these two parts, it is probable, are of equal -density or specific gravity. Yet the specific gravity of nitre is 1,900, -that of water being 1,000, and of air 1·2, which is contained in 1,900, -as much as 1,583 times; that is, the air in the nitre must be condensed -the amazing quantity of 1,583 times, if its specific gravity be equal to -the compound nitre itself." Also, "The air is condensed in the nitre -about 1,600 times, nearly double the density of water, which may well be -considered as probably the greatest degree of compression that air is -capable of. Hence it may be perceived that a prodigious force must be -exerted by nature in generating nitre; and as this great force actually -exists in nature, it is very probable that the air in the nitre is thus -compressed into the most dense state possible, and in this consists the -similitude among the different particles of nitre." - -This extract from Hutton enables us to divest the question of any -technicalities, and puts it in so plain a garb that the simplest mind -may comprehend it. Now, the great improvement of chemistry has been to -extract from the nitre the gross material which is contained in the -proportions--2-5ths impurities, and 2-5ths condensed air; thus, half the -quantity being useless, the extraction of these alloys gives a greater -quantity of condensed gases in the same quantity of matter; for if we -take away 2-5ths of the proportions of useless matter, and supply its -place with 2-5ths more condensed air, we thus get 4-5th explosive matter -in the same bulk of material, and thus simply obtain an immense increase -of power without an increase in bulk. We have here evidence of the -progress that has been made in the science of explosive force. - -Considering the difference between gunpowder in 1783 and gunpowder in -1858, I cannot say, with Hutton, that the force is doubled now to what -it was when he wrote; but I believe that this would not be far from the -truth; for it must be quite clear--if he is correct (which I believe he -is) in saying the force of gunpowder consists in the quantity of -explosive matter let loose and expanded by heat--that the greater the -quantity of condensed matter we may have in any given weight, the -greater the force, and the more rapid the explosion: purified saltpetre -thus forming nearly pure gaseous matter; as the diamond is pure carbon. -It seems singular, and is rather presumptuous to say, that Hutton was -not much of a chemist; but had he been more so, he must have perceived -that in the extraction of the foreign matter from the nitre, existed the -means of obtaining an increased quantity of explosive power, and a -proportionate increase of speed or velocity in that explosive material. - -To ascertain the velocity best suited to all projectiles, constitutes -the germ of the science; and that we are approaching a new era in even -that more intimate portion of the science, is daily apparent. Science -shows clearly that if a given force, a quantity to be correctly -ascertained, can produce a certain result, the use of more is waste, and -unworthy of the seeker after perfection; and thus we have to determine -upon, or define, what is the degree or size of gun for certain effects: -a mere calculation nearly allied to that portion of engineering which -would define what power of engine would work a thousand cotton spindles, -or raise a million gallons of water; and all this will eventually be -done. Science requires that there should be no excess, no waste, no -unnecessary recoil, and all that combined with the utmost range of -projectile; this will have to be defined accurately before we can -clearly or truly say we are masters of the science of gunpowder. True it -is that the granulation of gunpowder gives a clear road to its -attainment; but it will be a wearisome journey to reach the summit: yet -it must and will be effected, and the nation that first attempts and -carries out the attainment, will evince a real love for and mastery of -science. - -The following practical experiments illustrate the degree of velocity -and the effects of projectiles so clearly, that they alone will convey -some idea of the high velocity of the evolutions of the gases in -gunpowder. - -My experiments are, like Robins', on a small scale; nor would I, like -Hutton, try a brass gun of sixty calibres in length, carrying a -one-pound ball; for one is strictly more limited than the other, and -thus rendered the results laid down by him imperfect: for, as he says, -"If you fill the tube with powder you get no greater velocity, as there -is not a duration in the confinement to enable the powder to explode." -If he had assimilated the grain of his powder to the gun, he would have -obtained a different result; and a knowledge of this fact, I apprehend, -makes all the difference. The greatest velocity he obtained was with -powder 1-1/2 times the weight of the ball in a gun of sixty calibres in -length, and the velocity he then obtained was only 3,181 feet per -second. The inferences that probably induced him to recommend others not -to endeavour to obtain a greater velocity than 2,000 feet per second, -were, like these experiments, drawn from imperfect data. With a ball of -an ounce weight in a barrel of sixty calibres, and with 3-4ths the -weight of ball in powder, or 12 drachms, a velocity can be given to the -ball to equal it in force to 46,875 pounds. The velocity of this ball I -leave to the calculations of the mathematical world. But, however, I -will give the results of a round of experiments tried to ascertain this; -and if the data laid down be correct, that the velocity of a ball must -be multiplied by its weight to find the force, the result will be the -establishment of a system of velocity never yet dreamt of. I cannot but -imagine that there exists some error; though where it is I know not: -every deduction I have drawn is consequent upon the results hereafter -described. - -"The power required to force a punch 0·50 inch diameter through an iron -plate 0·08 inch thick is 6,025 pounds, through copper 3,938 pounds. A -simple rule for determining the force required for punching may thus be -deduced:-- - -"Taking one inch diameter and one inch in thickness as the units of -calculation it is shown that 150,000 is the constant number for -wrought-iron plates, and 96,000 for copper plates. - -"Multiply the constant number by the given diameter in inches, the -product is the pressure in pounds which will be required to punch a hole -of a given diameter through a plate of a given thickness." - -Now an idea struck me, that this would form a very good test of the -comparative force of gunpowder, and I consequently commenced an -extensive round of experiments. - -In the first attempt I found the results to vary with the weight of the -pendulum of iron plate, and that it was necessary to obtain uniformity -of size and surface; as it must be comprehended that the only resisting -medium to the pendulous plate was atmospheric resistance, and a -dissimilarity of size of surface would invariably give different -results. Having a number of plates of the different thicknesses -hereafter described, I continued increasing the charge from a definite -quantity, until the projectile was driven with sufficient velocity to -perforate the plate suspended. The gun selected for this purpose was of -heavy material, weighing nearly seventeen pounds, it was three feet -long, the metal of the barrel as thick at the muzzle as at the breech, -and carried a spherical ball of sixteen to the pound, or one ounce, and -which fitted tight with the thinnest patch procurable. The bore was -perfectly cylindrical, and plain inside, being polished longitudinally -to a high state of fineness. With a charge of twelve drachms of Curtis -and Harvey's diamond grain powder, the ball went through the half-inch -plate, but went only a few yards further; denoting that the effort -necessary had nearly exhausted its velocity and momentum. - -The recoil of the gun was of the most severe description, and the -shoulder had to be protected for many explosions previous to this high -charge. The larger sized grain was insufficient, ten drachms effecting -the greatest extent of power it seemed capable of, and it became quite -apparent that the tube would not explode more powder, as indications -convinced me: when any more was added, a portion came out unburnt. - -The force necessary to effect this, by the above calculation, is 46,795 -pounds. - -The next plate was 7-16ths thick, and a charge of ten drachms punched -the piece out clean; nine and a half drachms were equal to it, when the -centre of the pendulum could be hit fairly, because there was then an -equal resistance from the atmosphere, which cannot exist in cases where -the edge of the disc receives the blow. - -I got with ease a perforation in a 6-16ths plate, with a charge of -either fine or coarse powder, not exceeding eight drachms; a charge of -seven drachms of fine grain was unequal to the task; but seven drachms -of the coarse showed evidently greater effects produced, though the -perforation was not perfect. Six and a half drachms of No. 2 grain -penetrated a plate of 5-16ths thick easily, while it took full six and -three-quarters drachms of fine grain; five drachms of the larger -perforated a quarter-inch plate, but it took full five and a half -drachms of fine grain to effect the same; while a 3-16ths plate took -three and three-quarters drachms of fine, or three and a quarter of No. -2 grain; and 1-8th plate was easily punched by a charge of two and a -half drachms coarse or three drachms fine. I will place the relative -results in a table, with the force effected by each:-- - - Oz. Drachms. Punched a boiler plate Equal in force to - 1 ball 12 of powder Half-inch thick 46,875 lbs. - 1 " 10 " 7-16ths " 41,015 " - 1 " 8 " 6-16ths " 35,155 " - 1 " 6-1/2 " 5-16ths " 29,295 " - 1 " 5 " 4-16ths " 23,437 " - 1 " 3-1/4 " 3-16ths " 17,578 " - 1 " 2 " 2-16ths " 11,718 " - -Were I to adopt the established method of calculation, multiplying the -weight of ball by the velocity, I should get an answer that would point -to the utter impossibility of any such velocity being possible. And yet -the result is, according to the rule of figures, correct; but in truth -there are exceptions to many rules, for they are only correct when -applied to known products. - -That the velocity of these balls was much, very much, greater than 7,000 -feet per second of time, there cannot be any doubt; it was nearly three -times that. Yet I must not conceal the fact, that this punching is the -more perfect, the higher the velocity; and it shows how the fibres of -iron are separated from a want of vibration to equilibrise the cohesion. -Mr. Colthurst found that duration of pressure lessened the ultimate -force necessary to punch through metal, and thus it may be that -extremely quick pressure may produce the same. Therefore I suspect it is -not the most correct theory that calculates force to be accomplished at -all times by extreme velocity; there will be found discrepancies in the -rule, and one of them arises from no calculation ever having been made -with extreme velocities: medium velocities may generally give such -conclusions, but the very extreme in this case can never have been taken -into consideration at all; as I have very little doubt--in fact, I am -certain--that no person ever obtained such high velocity before. It -must, and is a vast deal greater, incomprehensibly greater, than any -velocity obtained by Hutton; and much more extensive than ever could be -obtained, or, in fact, ever will, by any ordnance whatever. I wish much -I could have experimented with a gun of greater length and bore, for -with one in every way fitted for the purpose, I have no doubt of being -able to perforate an inch thickness of plate. - -Should any person possessing the opportunity and means, wish to try the -experiment, I would advise them to get a barrel of 4-1/2 feet long, 8 -bore, to carry a 2 oz. ball, and of a weight to allow of extending the -explosion up to 30 drs. of powder; they would then obtain the extent of -force I have suggested. There is a certain point to be strictly -observed: see that the plate you use is perfectly sound; for if -laminated, or composed of various plates not firmly welded and attached, -the experiment would be imperfect, as there would be an uneven vibration -created, and acting as the hammer does when held against the point of -the nail while driving it in, clinches the point, so does the substance -in the portions of plate prevent a perforation. An ounce ball, suspended -against the back of the pendulum, by the jar or blow it receives and -communicates, completely prevents the effect, and the ball is flattened, -instead of perforating the object struck: so is it if you place a -1/4-inch plate against any support; it thus has the power of perfectly -resisting the force of the ball, though fired with considerably more -power than is requisite under other circumstances. The effect appears to -be chiefly mechanical; the outer fibres are driven in upon those behind -them with such quickness that they lose cohesion, or are condensed -quicker than the waves of vibration travel, thus giving them no means of -communicating the vibration. But when punched, the rapidity of their -motion produces in the metal a sound of the most intense vivacity, which -plays upon the ear for a considerable period, with rather a pleasant -effect. Lead alone is capable of being used in this experiment; except, -of course, the precious metals, which it would not be _convenient_ to -use. Even an adulteration of the slightest quantity of solder is -sufficient to prevent the result which lead, pure, will invariably give. -Lead projected against lead, if sufficiently thick, cannot perforate, -but the lesser portion becomes flattened; a cast-iron ball fired against -lead, with a certain velocity, is broken into pieces, affecting the lead -comparatively little: showing beautifully the peculiarity of dense -incompressible bodies to resist most effectually the greater the -velocity with which they are struck. Water will, if struck very sharply -with the flat of a sword, act against the blow in a way to splinter the -blade into pieces. The greater the velocity with which a ball is fired -into water, the less the depth of penetration; thus showing clearly the -many excellent properties of dense incompressible bodies as projectiles, -and proving the objection that lead is too soft for artillery to be -without a foundation, and only entertained from a want of knowledge of -its nature. - -A point of great importance was exemplified during these experiments; -and as the question has lately given rise to considerable discussion, it -will be well that the facts should be stated. - -At very short distances from the muzzle of the gun the penetration was -found to be less than at distances more extended. At five yards the iron -plate could not be perforated; at ten yards the effect was much greater, -but fifteen yards was the least distance at which it could be said to be -effectually perforated; at twenty yards the result was still more -satisfactory, clearly demonstrating that bullets gain both in velocity -and penetration for a considerable distance after leaving the muzzle of -the gun. The following experiments verify this remark:-- - -In the report of the experiments which were carried on at Cork in 1852, -it is stated that the power of penetration of an elongated rifle bullet -gradually increases as the range is increased, up to 190 yards. - -In order to prove this, experiments were carried on at Enfield for three -days with a variety of fire-arms, and different sorts of projectiles. -On the fourth day the experiments were repeated with the common musket -and Wilkinson's rifle. The former, at forty yards, gave a penetration of -2·25 inches; and the latter averaged 2·75, in a target of green elm. -Again: at ninety yards, the musket penetrated 2·25 inches, and the rifle -3·5 inches. At 120 yards, the musket gave 2·5 inches, and the rifle -3·25. Both being subsequently fired at every successive ten yards up to -220, the result was that the penetration of the musket ball gradually -decreased in power as the distance increased, while the elongated bullet -gained power of penetration up to 190 yards; after which it slightly -decreased. - -2nd. Consequent on the velocity of the explosive fluids is the -resistance of that aëriform fluid filling all space. It has been -calculated that in a vacuum, matter in motion would be a long time in -coming to rest; and very providentially it is that nature in her grand -arrangements has made one element to control another. In no other -portion of nature's work has anything more wonderful than atmospheric -air been produced; its action on the velocity of projectiles is of so -extensive a nature, that without clearly understanding that action, the -science of gunnery never can be thoroughly acquired. The resistance of -the atmosphere is in proportion to the velocity of the attempt to -displace it; the higher that velocity becomes, the greater is the -resistance. This is shown by the actions of all the fulminates. A -quantity of the fulminate of silver exploded on a copper plate will -perforate that plate, or, if fired upon a piece of wood, will bury -itself in that substance, splintering it in proportion to the quantity. -Now, ordinary gunpowder has no such effect as this, because, though it -may produce the same amount of expansive gas, it produces it at -one-fourth the velocity of the fulminates: the air is driven back upon -itself so gradually as to offer no very important resistance; but the -action of the fulminates is so rapid and so violent that the high -elasticity of the air has not time to yield, and the force is driven -into the apparently more solid material, the copper or the wood. - -The mode in which atmospheric resistance mostly interferes with -projectile force is owing to the columnar form it assumes in the tubes -of all descriptions of gunnery. If the velocity of gunpowder be as great -as we suppose it to be, the displacement of a column of air must be -effected by driving the whole column in a gun-barrel of many inches, -into a column probably less than half an inch in height; or, if the -length of the tube from the starting of the charge to the muzzle be 38 -inches, then will the displacement require a force capable of condensing -thirty-eight atmospheres into one, or something like 570 lbs.; without -estimating the lateral pressure of that column on the sides of the -gun-barrel, which may be safely estimated at one-half more. It may be -supposed that the column would be partially in motion for a greater -distance than half an inch in front of the projectile; but this is -disproved by the fact that time is essential to put aëriform matter in -motion, and naturally it never does so at a greater velocity than it is -familiarly known to do in the shape of winds: but the fact is better -illustrated by the frequent bursting of barrels near the muzzle, caused -by a piece of snow or clay, a piece of paper or wadding. Were a current -established around this projection it would pass on, but the air strikes -these light obstructions when in a high state of condensation, amounting -to many atmospheres in one: so many as to be nearly equal to a solid -which is more powerful than the barrel; the latter therefore succumbs to -it. - -The resistance of the air is so highly philosophical a question, that I -merely touch on its actual bearings on the passage of projectiles to -show how the quantity of force is absorbed or expended in relation to -the quantity of the gunpowder employed; which, it may be assumed, is a -proportion of nearly one-third of the whole, or a quantity independent -of that necessary to give velocity to the leaden projectile, to enable -it to overcome the still and uniform impeding agent up to the end of its -flight. The rapid exit of the bullet from the barrel, with a resisting -influence of this weight into the comparatively insignificant one of 15 -lbs. to the square inch, will fully explain how it is that a bullet -increases in velocity even up to a considerable distance after leaving -the muzzle of the gun; and further showing that in all arrangements of -truly scientific gunnery, the increasing resistance must be met by a -fresh production of explosive fluid over every atom of space in that -tube, where it is demonstrable that the resistance is increasing in a -geometrical progression as the point of exit is becoming nearer; so that -gunnery, unless all the contingencies are provided for, must necessarily -remain an imperfect science. - -Intimately allied to the displacement of the atmosphere is the amount of -friction. Gunnery is now rid of the anomaly of being assisted by -friction: the detention of the projectile in the tube by artificial -friction, to enable more force to be generated, is one of those -absurdities pardonable only in bygone days. Science is best consulted by -lessening friction; guns of steel, with interiors as fine as the polish -in a mirror, are found to shoot best: a rough road is but so much force -uselessly absorbed; the experience of the last few years having proved -that a range of 1,800 yards cannot be accomplished except with barrels -having surfaces as smooth as possible. - -Rifles, no doubt, are now in use in which, by increasing the degree of -spiral, friction is more than doubled, perhaps trebled; but such -unscientific constructions are but as one error to counteract another. -Unscientifically formed projectiles not having in themselves the -principles necessary for true flight, have to receive a counteracting -agency in the shape of additional spinning, on an axis coincident to the -line of flight, to enable them to range a given distance, with, as it -will be perceived, an additional amount of expellant agency; but these -cannot be included in the category of scientific gunnery. - -3rd. Next to absence of friction is the construction of the gun barrel. -Already have we shown that the inner surface of a gun barrel requires -to be like glass; next to this it is necessary that the metal should be -composed of the most unyielding structure. Metals absorb force in -proportion to their softness: a barrel constructed of lead gives the -worst result of any metal; in truth, as is the increase of tenacity and -density in the tube, so is the increase of range in projectiles. The -wonderful results displayed by the use of steel guns of all descriptions -bear out this assertion to the fullest extent. A yielding gun barrel may -be compared to the dragging of a heavily loaded waggon over boggy -ground, which rises in a wave before the wheels during its progress. - -4th. Next in importance to the inflexibility of the gun barrel is the -form of projectile best calculated to displace the atmosphere during its -extended flight. Under the head of Rifles this subject will be more -fully discussed; but, as thousands of years have stamped the arrow as -being in accordance with nature's laws, it should no doubt be the object -of science to approximate the leaden projectile to that form as much as -possible, and hence the cylindro-conoidal may be assumed to be the best -form of projectile. - -That both Jacob's and Whitworth's bullets partake of a certain amount of -"_wabbling_" motion after leading the muzzle of the gun is certain, from -their length, as well as from the fact that in both the centre of -gravity is in the hinder part of the bullet; thus they are both in -reality bad in a scientific point of view. - -If any merit can be claimed for either, it is on account of the -mechanical ingenuity displayed in neutralizing the effects of want of -scientific principle. The want of principle, however, is not the only -evil, were such guns to come into general use; their manufacture, in the -hands of that portion of the gun trade which never estimates -consequences, and never studies the theory of the science at all, but -manufactures all fire-arms by "rule of thumb," would prove dangerous in -the extreme. - -The bursting of barrels in any attempt to project lengthened projectiles -is of a very different description to that which ordinarily occurs, on -account of the different direction in which the force is applied. In -consequence of their greater length, and their increased friction -against the sides of the barrel, they are more reluctantly set in -motion--_i. e._, their inertia is with greater difficulty overcome. The -result of this is, that in overcoming their inertia the greatest strain -is exerted backward, on the breech of the gun; which, if not more firm -than usual, is blown out, entering the forehead of the shooter: an -accident which would prove fatal not only to the gun, but to the person -who used it. - -This accident may no doubt be effectually guarded against by -strengthening the breech end of the gun as well as the breech itself; -but without that precaution it is to be feared that such accidents would -be of frequent occurrence. - -A considerable error may easily be promulgated, as to the heat necessary -to be applied ere gunpowder will explode. A late writer says, it is -necessary to raise it to 600 degrees before it is explosive. This is a -splitting of hairs, and such a palpable mystification, that it is -scarcely worth noticing. But I will explain: if you place upon a plate a -few grains of powder, by heating the plate underneath (for instance, on -a smith's fire,) you will see the sulphur giving out a blue flame, it -being easily fused. As the plate becomes heated to nearly a red heat, -the whole explodes, in consequence of the charcoal and nitre not being -hot enough to allow the gases generating the heat to be liberated; but -as soon as this does take place the explosion ensues. Now, it is a well -known fact, that the smallest particle of matter possessing above 600° -of heat, will ignite any quantity of powder it comes in immediate -contact with; we will suppose with one portion of charcoal, one of -sulphur, and one of nitre (it matters not how small they are: a ten -hundredth part of the substance of one of the smallest grains of powder -would suffice), and if it has the means of communicating to these small -portions 600°, this is sufficient, as their explosion induces also that -of the very largest quantity: for it ought to be perfectly understood, -that a great explosion is but so many millions of small ones combined, -and by their united force effecting the great results we see. The -ingredients of powder are ground and intimately mixed together on the -bed of the mill to the great extent they are, to the end that, if -possible, there shall not be in the composition two grains or portions -of one ingredient in immediate contact with each other; but that, when -the ignition does take place, each may be present to add its peculiar -gas, in order that each affinity may be supplied. Thus becomes evident -the necessity of a most extensive incorporation, a blending and equal -division of mixture throughout the whole material. - -The advantage of unglazed gunpowder is here fully shown; for it presents -an inequality, a roughness of surface, over which the flame from the -percussion mixture cannot travel without igniting some of the prominent -parts, and thus the whole. You may glaze powder and make it so smooth -that it would be very difficult indeed to ignite; but except that it -enables the powder to resist moisture better, it is otherwise very -detrimental, as tending both to prevent ignition and lengthening the -period of effecting it. - -The flame from the percussion powder is of that intense and vivid -description, that if a charge of powder in the breech of a gun is loose, -the flame will form a mass of condensed air round itself, and driving -the grains of powder before it, prevent the immediate contact of the -heat and the particles of powder, until the heat is expended; and thus -arises a "miss fire." If the powder is up only to the nipple, there -being a quantity of air in the tube of that nipple, the explosion of the -fluid will drive down this air, and condense it between the powder and -top of the nipple to such an extent as to cause a certain "miss fire." -It becomes requisite to find a remedy for this, and it can only be done -by bringing the powder into the very vicinity of the explosion on the -nipple. This can be effected in several ways, but the most perfect is -to obtain as direct a communication as possible; a widening of the -perforations of the breech, and space to allow the powder free access up -the nipple. For this purpose we propose an improved form of nipple. The -centre one of the three (here shown in section) is considerably broader -and shorter than the others. A cap made broader and not so deep would be -an improvement, as bringing the point of ignition nearer the charge, and -thus effecting a saving of time; for great and wonderfully quick as is -the explosion, it is clear to the senses that it may be quickened. We -are not finding fault with the "lightning being too slow," as Colonel -Hawker says; but science means perfection, and the nearer we can come to -it the better. - -[Illustration: OLD PLAN OF NIPPLE. - -NEWEST PLAN OF NIPPLE. - -IMPROVED NIPPLE OF 1835.] - -The nipples now in general use have the smaller orifice at the bottom, -and, being lined with platina, never foul. Experience has shown that -admitting the gunpowder into the nipple "is not advantageous," -especially with large grained powder; by constructing the nipple with -the small orifice at the bottom, the largest grain can be used -beneficially. As the velocity of the fulminating gas is much greater -than "a train" of gunpowder ever can be, quickness is also gained by -their adoption. I have used them for many years with great success; -nothing but cost deters their general adoption. The passing of the flame -through the very small opening in the platina, by this very high -impingement, increases its heat to a great extent, ensuring explosion. - -The true science of gunnery consists in knowing that a certain force is -requisite to effect a certain purpose, or, in other words, to kill at a -certain distance; and also how to arrange that force so as to effect the -purpose without having any extra _force_, or any waste of powder, nor -yet too little, but with a corresponding result: a sufficiency; neither -more nor less. This we have shown is attainable by the mechanical -arrangement of granulation; for it is useless to use less, or to use an -iota more of fine grain powder, if the size larger will effect the -purpose without that iota. Propellant velocity is the grand desideratum -in all gunnery; the obtainment of this, to the greatest extent, is the -power of killing at the greatest distance: all ranges are dependent on -velocity; no extreme _range_ can be obtained without a corresponding -speed. - -The very finest powder, it will be perceived, is fitted--perfectly -fitted, preferable, indeed--to coarser grain for guns of a short length -of tube, where a perfect combustion of the whole charge can be obtained -without any waste or want; but as such is quite unsuited for longer -barrels: I cannot too often repeat it. The column of air is the ruling -power. Look what its effects are by Hutton's calculations, with the -very low velocities he obtained! So great as to bring all projectiles he -used to a medium velocity, before they were projected beyond a certain -distance. Then what must its resistance be where the velocities are -trebled? I say trebled, for my powder and the percussion combined have -more than trebled the velocities. You must then clearly have a powder of -such grain as suits the capacity of your gun. All barrels have a size of -grain that will suit them best, and manufacturers of gunpowder will -consult their own profit and the convenience of sportsmen, if they -assimilate the grain of powder to various sizes; as in shot, to No. 1, -No. 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on: eventually this system must be adopted. - -This will explain quite clearly how the fact (singular to many) occurs, -of short guns excelling their longer competitors, and how frequently a -particular maker obtains an immensity of credit for an excellent gun -only twenty-two inches: "Beat my Lord So-and-so's of thirty inches!" and -how, "When I cut four inches off my double, she shot better than ever -she did." All these occurrences are perfectly dependent on a knowledge -of the generating of the explosive force, and may be reversed at any -time by a person possessed of sufficient knowledge of these facts: put -in coarse grain into the short gun, and fine into the long, and the -facts will be changed considerably, as will be easily seen. A degree of -mystery has hitherto existed as to the cause of this discrepancy; but I -trust this explanation will clear it up. - -Experiment has shown the error of stating that only a certain quantity -of powder could be consumed: the proportion stated was considerably -below the actual quantity, as the experiments of punching the plates -show; for since twelve drachms can be burnt in a three-feet barrel, -therefore ten drachms may be consumed in one two feet eight inches, with -a given weight to lift. In addition to this, must be placed the fact of -improvement, both in the composition and granulation of the powder; -which we have no hesitation in stating has been considerable, within -only a very few years, all tending to the quickness of generating force. -The granulatory system, if acted upon, will give the sportsman or -soldier a completely new power in gunnery; for it must be evident, if we -have the means of projecting certain bodies with an extreme velocity, -say 5,000 feet per second, it becomes a simple calculation to ascertain -the quantity of force and length of tube to give to a certain weight. -Take, for instance, an ounce ball in a barrel two feet six inches long. -Extremely fine grain powder, from its rapidity of expansion, gives to -the ball this velocity at fifteen inches from the breech; the remaining -fifteen inches contain a column of air highly condensed, which will -inevitably reduce this velocity back nearly fifty per cent., or 2,500, -and with that velocity the ball leaves the muzzle. Therefore, as we have -already said, it must be evident you have here generated a high speed to -be as quickly reduced; and it shows clearly that if a different grain of -powder would expand from breech to muzzle, increasing the velocity on a -granulated scale until it obtained the highest, or 5,000 feet per -second, as the ball left the muzzle, you would save here clear 50 per -cent. in force, with less recoil, less internal strain on the barrel, -and with exactly the same weight of powder; thus showing that you have -just a definite quantity of force in a definite quantity of powder. - -The true science of gunnery is the knowledge how to best arrange the -collateral parts, so that you may obtain the greatest result with the -least means. I have also clearly shown that the resistance of the -atmosphere is one, and the principal obstruction in the attainment of -high velocities; its resistance being regulated entirely by the degree -of speed with which it is wanted to be displaced. Thus it is true, as -both Robins and Hutton have shown, that only a certain velocity can be -obtained beneficially; though the degree is considerably greater then -either conceived, as far greater impetus has been obtained, and -projected bodies have ranged much beyond their calculations, and that -beneficially too. One drawback on the theory of these gentlemen is their -calculating the velocities with iron projectiles; for the heavier the -material the more powerful the momentum, and consequently the longer -retention of their velocity, from not presenting the same space to the -resisting medium, the air. - -The development of the system of granulation must and does exercise -considerable control over the shooting of barrels of every description. -I have already explained what has been hitherto considered the curious -phenomena of short and long barrels shooting so dissimilarly, and this -illustration completely establishes the fact of the expulsive and -repulsive forces being controlled by each other: as either -preponderates, so is the result. The open-ended barrel projecting balls, -and eventually bursting, is a beautiful and interesting elucidation, -both of the force of gunpowder and the stubborn nature of the -atmospheric fluid. All these facts are valuable, inasmuch as they lay -bare circumstances which have never been satisfactorily accounted for, -and enable the mind of lowest capacity to understand the cause and -effect. - -The superiority of one barrel in throwing shot stronger and more evenly -distributed, arises, it will be easily seen, from the absence, or -existence of, internal friction, when contrasted with the different -degrees of expelling force, and the degree of resistance from the -atmosphere; it also accounts clearly for the fact of guns shooting -stronger on one day than on another, in fine and in rough weather: the -weight, the resistance of the air, is the only cause of the variation; -for gunpowder cannot drive back a dense atmosphere as quickly as a -lighter one. The cause of guns bursting is to be placed to the account -of both air and the generation of the explosive fluid so -instantaneously; the solid front which air offers to quick compression, -throws the force on the barrel, and the sides of the tube give way -because they are weaker: this cannot occur so easily with powder of a -more gradually expansive force, therefore safety is consulted in its -use, in addition to the numerous advantages it otherwise possesses. - -Mr. Blaine, in his Encyclopædia of Rural Sports, has the following: "The -increase of metal in the detonator, we think, with Colonel Hawker, to be -an essential requisite, first, to resist the quicker, and, consequently, -more forcible, expansive force applied by the ignition of the powder -through the agency of detonation, and tend to lessen the recoil so much -more forcibly felt in most detonators. This increased weight of -percussion Mr. Greener, however, objects to, and inquires, 'Whether some -of the best flint guns met with, have not been very light?' To this we -answer, that it was the principle on which the explosion of the flint -gun was effected that enabled it to be made lighter, and yet to remain -equally safe in using; but we also know, that where it was required to -add to the rapidity and force of the ignition, it then became necessary -to increase the substance of the barrel." - -Experience teaches the writer, and I dare say it would Mr. Blaine, if he -were to experiment to the extent I have done, that there is no rapidity -in the ignition further than the closing of that point of ignition by -the cock, and no "force" beyond what the comparative instantaneous -ignition of the gunpowder in the nipple creates. This is quite -sufficient to prevent the further penetration of the percussion flame; -and the only increase, to quote his own words, "to resist the quicker, -and, consequently, more expansive, force applied by the ignition of the -powder through the agency of detonation," arises from an improvement (as -it is termed) in the granulation of the powder, which alone creates the -increased expansive force. This will be clearly understood by any one -reading this work from the beginning; the only difference between the -flint and percussion systems is the stopping of the orifice of ignition -in one, and allowing it to escape in the other; for the flame has to -travel to _windward_ (to use a nautical expression) in the flint; the -other has its own accumulating power to force ignition through the body -of the powder. This alone constitutes the difference. The necessity for -an increase of metal at the breech of a barrel does not arise from any -peculiarity in the mode of communicating the fire, but in the increased -inflammability of the powder alone. The extreme smallness of grain has -effected this more than the use of fulminating flame; and the continuous -cry for fine powder, to get better up the nipples, has produced an -alteration which is placed wrongfully to the credit of the percussion. - -Again, he says, "Mr. Greener, however, would have us acquire this -increase of power of resistance, not by quantity of material, but by -increased tenacity and elasticity in the metal the gun is formed of, and -we agree that it would be a great improvement if it could be brought -about. But what is our prospect of it? Is it not the general complaint -that gun metal is not by any means what it was? We have shown that it is -not; and, therefore, we do not think, as Mr. Greener asserts, that any -recommendation of increased weight of metal to the percussion barrel -beyond that of the flint gun "is founded on ignorance;" but, on the -contrary, that the very reason Mr. Greener gives to prove it, is that -which we think affords evidence of its perfect rationality, _the -explosive force created_." The answer given above applies to this also: -save on the score of lessening recoil, superior quality is preferable, -to quantity. - -The shooting powers of gun barrels are dependent on two -circumstances--goodness of metal, and a proper shape of exterior: it -cannot be too often repeated, _that a gun barrel is a spring_, to all -intents and purposes; if you add metal, you add stubbornness, and -destroy that expansibility, without the existence of which the barrel -is, comparatively speaking, useless. Heavy, ponderous barrels do not -propel a charge of shot with either that smartness or degree of -closeness that a barrel more scientifically constructed does; you have -less recoil certainly, but the addition of half an inch of more metal -behind the butt of the breech would do this more effectually, and save -you carrying an additional weight. The gradual ignition of powder -obviates the necessity of a great thickness of metal in the sides of the -barrels; but if it is determined to persevere in the use of peculiarly -fine grained powder, you would certainly be justified, nay, required, to -have more and better metal than at present, for the electrical nature of -the explosion will throw upon the tube that force which would be more -judiciously employed in giving impetus to the charge of projectiles. - -I have found that expansion will increase the shooting powers of a -barrel; but then it must not be the expansion of an unelastic piece of -metal, but of metal whose elasticity rebounds with a force equal to that -with which it expands; for whatever else you may obtain by creating -friction, by boring the breech end of the barrel wider you obtain a -greater expansion, as it no doubt has that tendency. We find it an -invariable fact, that when barrels are very heavy, compared with their -size of bore (if a cylinder), they shoot weak. Also, when barrels are -made of irons of different temperatures, where one is placed to prevent -the expansion or springing nature of the other, they are never found to -shoot well. As a proof of this fact, let any one take the best barrel he -ever shot with, and encase it with lead very tight; fire it at a dozen -sheets of paper, and see if the effect be equal to what it was when the -barrel was unencumbered. On the contrary, it will be found to have shot -very weak, though close. Let him then examine the lead; and, if any -moderate substance, he will find that the explosion has enlarged it -considerably. This experiment I have tried repeatedly, and can vouch for -its truth. - -The proof of barrels is another fact corroborating the truth of our -assertion. What else can occasion the bulging, but the expansion? Where -the barrels are possessed of soft and hard portions (which is the result -of different tempers of different metals), one expands further than the -other, and then, of course, the soft part receives no assistance from -the hard, and it does not return to its original state. - -Put on a barrel, from the breech end to the muzzle, a number of rings of -lead; be sure you have them tight, and not further apart than three or -four inches; fire that barrel with a usual charge, and if it be a -correct taper for shooting, it will have expanded the whole of the rings -an equal distance. - -From the observations already made, the reader will perceive that the -shooting of all barrels depends on a certain degree of friction. The -degree of friction necessary, varies according to the nature and -substance of the metal. Those metals that require least shoot best. The -object of the friction is to create a greater force, by detaining the -charge longer in the barrel. If, then, there should not be an extra -quantity of powder to consume, the friction would be a decided evil. - -This may be understood by rifle practice, in which we find that a short -barrel of eighteen inches, with a certain charge, will throw a ball as -straight, and quite as strong, or stronger, than a barrel of three feet, -loaded with a similar charge. I account for this fact thus: the barrel -of eighteen inches will burn all the powder put into it; the long one -can do no more. As soon as the ball has left the short barrel, it meets -with no impediment but the air. By the time the ball in the longer one -has travelled eighteen inches the powder is all consumed; the volume of -air in the remaining eighteen inches acts as a destroyer of the force -given to it, and it naturally drops its ball short of the other. -Increase the charge of powder to as much as the long one can burn, and -then it will throw its shot to nearly twice the distance of the other. - -An addition of powder beyond the quantity the barrel can consume is -disadvantageous; the reverse will be found equally so. Thus it is with -fowling-pieces. The quantity of powder that a gun would burn in the -shape of a cylinder, would be too little, when, by altering that shape, -you increase the friction. The quantity must, therefore, be increased, -or this friction will diminish the force of the shot. It is on this that -the mistaken supposition is founded, that short barrels will shoot as -far as long ones. It is true that with a small charge, or very fine -powder, the short barrel will kill at the distance of thirty yards, as -well as the long one; but put in the long one as much powder as it can -consume, then try the two at twice the distance, and you will find out -the mistake under which you have been labouring. - -It is on the nature of the metal that the goodness of the shooting -principally depends. That barrel which is possessed of the greatest -degree of elasticity and tenacity, will throw its shot strongest and -closest with the least artificial friction. It is on the knowledge of -the qualities and temperatures of the various irons, and on practice in -the art of shooting, that a man's ability in making guns shoot with -precision must rest. All plans are merely methods by which an -unscientific maker has most frequently succeeded. It would be no -difficult task to produce a hundred barrels which will shoot nearly -alike; yet every barrel shall be different in its bore. - -The length of friction depends entirely on the length of the barrel. -Long barrels require more than short, though the latter require it in a -greater degree. A mode of creating friction, much practised by those who -are ignorant of the true method, is to bore the barrels as rough and as -full of rings as possible. These rings are often taken for flaws; though -that may be ascertained by noticing whether or not they have the same -inclination as the twist, and whether or not they are at the jointing of -a spiral. If they be not, the chance is that the barrel is ring-bored, -as it is termed. This roughness, however, answers the same as friction -by relief; but barrels thus roughened are very liable to lead, and -become foul. While the well-bored barrel will fire forty shots as well -as twenty, these cannot be fired more than twenty times with safety and -effect. - -Each of the barrels in the table below, if 3-16ths thick at the breech, -is equal to the pressure stated. The resistance of a charge of shot of -one ounce we find to be more than before stated; and the additional -increase of explosive force obtained at the moment of ignition, requires -the amount to be much greater in computation, therefore, we may safely -take a pressure of 1,700 pounds to the inch of tube. The reader will -perceive, on reference to the following table, that with the tube filled -with powder for an inch in length, which is a small charge, the -explosive force will be equal to 40,000 pounds, or nearly 1,700 pounds -to the inch. - - Pressure of Surplus - charge. strength. - Laminated and other steel barrels lbs. lbs. lbs. - are equal to a pressure of 6,022 1,700 4,329 - Wire twist 5,019-1/2 1,700 3,319-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 1,700 3,855 - Old stub twist 4,818 1,700 3,118 - Charcoal iron 4,526 1,700 2,826 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 1,700 2,141 - Damascus iron 3,292 1,700 1,592 - Fancy twisted steel 3,134 1,700 1,434 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 1,700 1,140 - -If the charge he increased to one ounce and a half, the length it -occupies, and the lateral pressure by the jamming, will create an -additional pressure in proportion, or near 2,550 pounds, as under:-- - - Pressure of Surplus - 1-1/2 oz. shot. strength. - Laminated and other steel barrels lbs. lbs. lbs. - are equal to a pressure of 6,022 2,550 3,472 - Wire twist barrel 5,019-1/2 2,550 2,469-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 2,550 3,005 - Old stub twist 4,818 2,550 2,268 - Charcoal iron 4,526 2,550 1,976 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 2,550 1,291 - Damascus iron 3,292 2,550 742 - Fancy twisted steel 3,134 2,550 584 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 2,550 290 - -A charge of shot two ounces weight will be greater in pressure than -barrels of these dimensions are equal to restrain, and, consequently, no -barrels should be charged to this extent at any time; but inferior -barrels, as a matter of certainty, are sure to give way if so loaded. - - Pressure of Surplus. - 2 oz. shot. - lbs. lbs. lbs. - Laminated barrels, &c. 6,022 3,400 2,622 - Wire twist barrels 5,029-1/2 3,400 1,619-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 3,400 2,155 - Old stub twist 4,818 3,400 1,418 - Charcoal iron 4,526 3,400 1,126 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 3,400 441 - Damascus iron 3,292 3,400 - Fancy steel barrels 3,134 3,400 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 3,400 - -The foregoing tables show clearly the danger of persevering in using -heavy charges of shot; for it must be borne in mind that accidental -circumstances will increase this pressure, and never can act so as to -lessen it: a foul gun, or a variety of other circumstances, being sure -to increase the danger. - -Having fully explained the nature of gunpowder, it remains to say -something about the other portion, namely, the shot. That a barrel -creating explosive force, until the charge is in the act of leaving the -muzzle, will shoot better than another which does not do this, there -cannot exist a doubt; for this is the germ of the science. Also that the -column of air in barrels, where the explosive fluid is sooner expended, -acts upon the wadding, and influences the lateral direction of the shot, -there can also be no doubt; therefore, more attention is requisite to -this point than is generally given. I am quite certain that all -well-constructed barrels, both as regards metal and exterior shape, -shoot best, shoot so longest, and foul or lead less, than barrels having -the aid of friction: soft barrels require it, no doubt, but why make -soft barrels? The others cost but little more, and the superiority -admits of no question. The quantity of shot is a matter of the first -consequence, and I think that I have clearly established the fact, that -the less the weight, in proportion to the force, the greater the speed -or velocity given to that weight; hence it follows that to be beneficial -a certain quantity is suited. - -All guns, according to their bore and length, will shoot a certain -weight and a certain size of shot best. A great deal of shot in a small -bore lies too far up the barrel, and creates an unnecessary friction; -and the shot, by the compression at the moment of explosion, becomes all -shapes: a circumstance which materially affects its flight. If of too -great a weight, the powder has not power to drive it with that speed and -force required to be efficacious, because the weight is too great in -proportion. - -Those who reason from mathematical calculation will object to this -doctrine. They will say, the greater the weight the greater the effect. -No doubt it is so, if thrown with a proportionate force; but that cannot -be obtained with a small gun. We must adapt the weight of projectile -force to the power we are in possession of; and from many experiments, I -am inclined to think, that a fourteen gauge, two feet eight inches -barrel, should never be loaded with above one ounce and a quarter of -shot (No. 6 will suit best), and the utmost powder she will burn. A -fifteen gauge will not require more than one ounce; and no doubt No. 7 -would be thrown by her quite as strong as No. 6 by the fourteen gauge -gun, and do as much execution at forty yards with less recoil. Setting -aside all other reasons, I should, on this account, prefer the fifteen -gauge-gun, if both be of a length; as I find as much execution can be -done at the same distance with one as with the other. To render a -fourteen gauge barrel superior, Colonel Hawker is right in stating, that -it should never be under thirty-four inches; which description of barrel -I very much approve. He also says, "You cannot have closeness and -strength in shooting combined, beyond a certain degree:" an observation, -in the truth of which I fully concur; it being found that where there is -a greater degree of either strength or closeness, the other requisite is -always wanting. Neither would it be advisable, as the sportsman will -find a medium decidedly the best: a medium that will give the shots -fairly spread over a space of thirty inches diameter, at forty yards; -and so regularly, that a space, which would allow a bird to escape, -shall not occur above twice out of five shots, and each shot to -penetrate through thirty sheets of paper. It will be found, that a gun -doing this regularly, is far superior to one throwing twice as close and -not one-half through the paper; as the latter will require four or five -pellets to kill a bird, when two of the other would be quite as -efficacious, on account of penetrating twice as far. - -In favour of small shot, Mr. Daniel's observations are so pertinent, -that I cannot do better than quote him. He says, "The velocity of a -charge of No. 7 being equal (we will say nearly) to one of No. 3 at -that distance (35 yards), and since small shot fly thicker than large in -proportion to its size; and as there are many parts about the body of a -bird, wherein a pellet of No. 7 will affect its vitality equal to a -pellet of No. 2, the chances by using the former are multiplied in the -workman's favour; for it is the number and not the magnitude of the -particles that kills on the spot. They who prefer large shot, and -accustom themselves to fire at great distances, leave nearly as many -languishing in the field as immediately die. Whereas, those that use -small shot, and shoot fair, fill their bag with little spoil or waste -beyond what they take with them from the field." To an old gamekeeper of -his (he tells us) he has often put the question, "Why he was so partial -to small shot," and his reply was, "Sir, they go between the feathers -like pins and needles; whilst the large shot you use, as often glance -off as penetrate them." No doubt, here Mr. Daniel is as correct as may -be. Mr. Blaine says, query? But he ought to be aware, as I suppose he -is, though allowing himself to lose sight of principles, that small shot -can be, and are, propelled from the barrel with an equal velocity with -the larger; it is only in the length of range that the greater triumphs; -but if we take thirty or thirty-five yards' distance as an average, the -latter will not "_lead_" in the race. Therefore, the advocates of small -shot have unquestionably the better of the argument at this distance; at -greater, I will not dispute it, though I have picked up No. 5 shot 300 -yards from the spot fired from; larger, No. 3, rarely reaches 400 yards. - -Hard shot is not so liable to be mis-shaped, nor does it lose its -velocity by contact, as easily as soft. - -Under the head mixed shot, Blaine observes, "We do not believe any law -in projectiles can be brought forward to prove its impropriety. The mass -of shot is propelled by the expansive power of the powder; it is ejected -in a mass; and when it separates, each shot carries with it its own -share of ejective force, with very little interference with any other, -it being evident that the projectile force acting on each shot is in the -proportion of its area of dimensions," &c. - -Here is a great mistake. The law of projectiles is not wanted to prove -its fallacy; the laws of motion will do that. If you take any number of -equal or dissimilar sizes of shot, and place it as a charge is placed in -a gun barrel, occupying 3/4 of an inch of tube, there is, of course, a -wadding between powder and shot; this wadding is, or ought to be, a -piston; velocity is communicated to this piston by the explosion; it -does so to the shot immediately above it, that to the layers above, and -so on until the whole mass is in motion. The velocity behind the piston -is increasing to a certain point, where it ceases; then it is that the -layer farthest from the piston, having received its maximum from the -layers below, travels quicker than its assistants; who, having parted -with their force, fall behind in proportion: so does each layer, even -until the last one which received it from the piston, having -communicated so much to his friends before him, is left without himself. -It is an undisputed law in motion that one body may convey to another, -by contact, nearly its own velocity, but in so doing, is sure to come to -rest immediately. Strike one billiard ball against another, if the blow -is centrical, the ball struck receives the motion, the other comes to -rest; and so is it with shot: it is only the layers next the muzzle -which strikes the target, the remainder fall without travelling the same -distance. I have fired three balls from a rifle, and having marked them -I found the uppermost projected farthest, and the others in proportion. -This is easily proved. - -Thus, it is quite clear that in all charges of mixed shot, the larger -will extract the velocity from the smaller, and consequently become -useless for the purpose intended: this fact is unquestionable. - -In speaking of the longest duck or swivel guns, I may instance Colonel -Hawker's account of the performance of such fowling artillery. It -appears evident that they do not effect anything like the execution -which might be expected from their immense size and capability. The -reason of this is obvious. From the great space of the interior, in -order to receive that equal pressure on the inch which a common -fowling-piece receives, they should be charged in proportion to the -increased size; but then, I scarcely need add, they would become -ungovernable. In addition to this objection, they could not be forged of -malleable iron, so as to be safe; on account of the impossibility of -forging a barrel of that weight by hand hammers, and the little -probability of hammers ever being invented to work by steam to do it -sufficiently quick. The greater the weight of the barrel its strength is -gradually decreased, owing to the impossibility of sufficiently beating -it throughout the whole body. - -It must be well known to any one versed in mechanics, that an -anchor-shank weighing some hundredweights is more easily broken than -iron one-twentieth part of the weight, which has had the advantage of -being forged by hammers where the blows were felt through the whole -mass. This cannot be the case in forging large barrels, as the workmen -cannot use hammers heavy enough; consequently the barrel is turned out -of hand with the pores more open than a piece of cast iron. They have -tried this with large guns for the artillery, and it has repeatedly -failed, entirely from the want of sufficient power to compress the iron. - -All guns, therefore, of an unusual size, are not of strength in -proportion to a small gun; hence the reason they cannot with safety be -charged up to the corresponding scale. Neither are they of the length -they should be, if the bore is to be the criterion. It must be -remembered that to be charged in proportion, the pressure on the inch -should be as many times the pressure on the inch of the small gun, as -the one is the number of times larger than the other. If we come exactly -to the real state of the case, we doubt much (when taking into -consideration the difference of surface) that the pressure on the inch -in the large gun is equal even to that on a small gun. The comparison -might be carried up to the largest artillery, and I doubt whether it -would come up to this scale; as it is well known that the heaviest guns -will not throw their projectile as far in proportion as the small gun, -because you dare not generate the force required to do it. The same -principle is applicable to artillery as to fowling-pieces. - -From the above data, I would say, never make duck-guns above -seven-eighths in the bore, if you wish them to kill at a great distance; -and not less than fifteen or sixteen pounds weight, and full four feet -long; because then you can generate strength sufficient. Therefore, -instead of the large stanchion-guns being one hundred pounds weight, -they should, strictly speaking, be two hundred, and so on. In proof of -this I may just mention that, upon repeated experiments, I have -ascertained that a double stanchion-gun, with each barrel of the same -bore, weight, and length, as a single gun, will kill further than the -latter; simply owing to the advantage of the greater weight of the -double gun. I have made observations, when trying moderate-sized and -shoulder duck-guns on that fine level piece of sand before spoken of, -and by tracing the grazing of the shots I have been enabled to pick them -up. The large shot from the duck-gun, mostly No. 2, I found scarcely 400 -yards from the spot where she was fired; the small shot, five and six, -from a fourteen bore, were repeatedly picked up at 350 yards: thus -showing that the large gun had not much advantage; but yet making -probable many assertions made of killing at seventy, eighty, and -sometimes a hundred yards, with a common-sized gun. By this it appears -possible; for shot that will fly that distance must kill, if it hit -during its flight through the first quarter of such a range; but then, -at a single bird, above fifty-five or sixty yards, it is always twenty -to one against hitting the object at all; as the pellets begin to -separate rapidly at that distance, though their force is still -sufficient, and in large flocks is apt to do execution. - -The invention of the patent wire cartridge is rather the production of a -scientific mind than the production of chance; though the invention of -General Shrapnell contains the principle, and the perfection attained is -but the extension of that principle: namely, the means of projecting a -number of bodies of a similarity in size without subjecting them to an -extreme jamming by the lateral expansion, and thus allowing each to -travel his allotted distance without any of his companions robbing him -of his speed by impact. The great peculiarity of the wire cartridge is, -that being less than the bore, and having no bottom wadding, the -explosive fluid acts all around, between the sides of the barrel and the -net, by what may not inaptly be termed the windage, and the shot are -thus expelled by a cushion-like force, which does not jam or compress -them in the way it is liable to by a wadding forcing it outwards. Here -the net is of use to keep the whole in a mass; but you must not suppose -the same would be obtained by a charge of shot, without a wadding -below. The net opens, after leaving the muzzle of the gun. The -introduction of bone-dust is intended for, and answers the purpose of -preventing the grains of shot being mis-shaped by the compression: -during their passage up the barrel they form with the bone-dust a -comparatively solid body, and keep the pellets from impact, thus -allowing them to go forth into the atmosphere beautifully round and -uninjured; and, as such, more likely to travel farther and stronger. The -latter arrangement possesses all the science, as the net can be -dispensed with; for it aids the combination but slightly, and in no case -more than a moderate quantity of good paper would do. - -The science of this mechanical construction of projectiles is perfectly -in keeping with all the established laws of motion, and more -particularly good in thus avoiding the necessity of lateral pressure on -the sides of the tube of the gun, the upper end having the means of -better resisting the column of air in their progress outwards; for there -can be no question but this controls and induces the divergence of the -shot in leaving the muzzle. One of the old arrangements, often laughed -at, I mean the bell muzzle in old guns, intimates that our ancestors -possessed some smattering of science; as the relief in the muzzle of a -gun has a tendency, by allowing a gradual expansion laterally, to keep -the charge of shot better together: for it is quite apparent that any -body severely compressed for a certain distance, expands in proportion -when free of that restraint; and the consequence is a tendency to fly -off at a tangent, as the friction of a crooked barrel induces a ball to -fly in a curve contrary to the bend of the barrel. - -The extreme relief we find in some old barrels is certainly not -required; but still it clearly shows that the principle was understood -and acted upon: the very extreme has been produced by ignorance, as -certainly as the suggestion was a proof of knowledge on the part of the -suggestor; for many think, if a small dose is good for a patient, a -large one must be equally so. Like ourselves of the present day, having -discovered that fine gunpowder was advantageous, we have carried the -principle so far as undoubtedly to overstep the line to which it was -beneficial we should advance; thus clearly establishing the truth of the -old adage, "One extreme begets another." - -Therefore, in advocating the adoption of gun-barrels of the very essence -of iron, I also say, let that part of the tube whose duty is the -generating of force be nearly cylindrical, and let there be a gradual -expansion of the bore for a few inches in approaching the muzzle, that -the restraint of the lateral pressure may not be too rapidly loosened. -But yet let that expansion be so graduated that there shall not be an -extreme either way--only a scarcely perceptible relief; yet such as will -influence and prevent the divergence of the projectiles to a -considerable extent. - -Blaine says--"A very long barrel is liable to have the force of its -discharge lessened by the increase of counter pressure in the greater -volume of internal air in a long than in a short barrel." The column of -air in the barrel is unquestionably calculated to lessen the force of -the discharge. But I have already shown that this is completely -controlled by the system of granulation. Further, he says--"Its force -must also suffer by the loss which the elasticity of the propelling gas -experiences in its lengthened transit through an extended range of -barrel." He is here supposing an instantaneous generation of force, -which cannot possibly happen; and if it did, would be comparatively -useless. But he is evidently on the right scent, if he could only follow -it up. Again,--"In such cases, it is probable, that the shot, which -should leave the mouth of the piece at the instant when the propelling -force has gained its maximum, in a long barrel are detained beyond that -particular limit of capacity we have pointed out as inherent in each -barrel; and which properties, and which quantities of charge, nothing -but repeated and varied trials can teach the owner of the gun." - -This is an excellent illustration of the "theory" of the resistance of -the column of air in long barrels with very fine quickly-burnt powder; -and could he have pointed out the cause, the explanation would have been -perfect; as it must be quite apparent to the reader that it is not the -length of barrel which is in fault, but a want of a continuous producing -force in the powder; for when all the charge is exploded, the maximum -has been obtained. This clearly proves that the charge was too small to -keep up that maximum, or that the grain of the powder was too fine, and -thus too quickly expended. There is no discrepancy between the fact of -long barrels being preferable half a century ago, and short ones now; -for it is in the improvement of gunpowder burning in half the time now -that it did then, and leaves the question of length of barrel precisely -where it has ever been. You may have any length you like in moderation, -if you suit the grain of powder to it. - -I am quite satisfied to steer between extremes; avoiding alike too small -a charge of projectiles and too wide a calibre with too heavy a charge -of the former, and preferring a size of bore that gives, under all -circumstances, the greatest range with the least amount of explosive -material; which neither requires that to be too fine a grain, nor too -coarse: namely, a bore of fifteen and two feet six inches long. Under -all the above circumstances combined, this size will long hold a -position in the front rank of sporting guns. - -The Belgians have long been, and still are, our principal competitors in -supplying those parts of the world which do not rank gun manufacturing -among their staple trade. The cost of labour being small, they have -great facilities for producing cheap material; and the extent to which -they tempt the eye of those inexperienced in gunnery is quite obvious to -the world; but excepting the cheapness of the lower grade of guns, the -Belgian products are not at all to be placed on an equality with the -well made English manufacture. - -In consequence of the relaxation of our custom laws, foreign gunnery is -now admitted at ten per cent. duty; and as soon as this change was -made, the Belgians sent large quantities of their guns and pistols to -London; whence they found their way through different parts of the -country. Regular establishments were opened for the sale of their very -highly ornamented barrels: ten different varieties were produced, even -to the imitation of laminated steel. - -These barrels were at first sent in the bored and ground state, in large -quantities; their apparent low price and great beauty quite captivated -some of the "Brums," so that for a period they were all the rage; and -the Belgians began to boast of the extensive trade they were doing. But -nothing in this world runs smooth. "The best laid schemes of mice and -men oft gang agee;" and so it was with the Belgian importations. Our -proof was not exactly to their liking, or perhaps the iron was not equal -to the proof; losses and discoveries began to accumulate: "Too soft, by -far," says one; "They are all plated," says another; "Filed it through, -by jingo!" exclaimed a third; "Common iron, by all that's wonderful!" -protested a fourth; "Oh, twisted iron, under such inimitable Damascus!" -growled a fifth: in short, steel over iron turned out to be the secret -of the whole business. - -It is very probable that such facts as these soon established the -inferiority of "the beautiful Damascus and arabesque" of the Belgian -manufacturers; and they have, I trust, disappeared for ever from the -English market: at least, they are not held in estimation by those -qualified to judge. - -Their advocates have for years adduced the fact, that the Belgian laws -required guns to be twice proved; and our old laws not requiring this, -they had certainly a tangible argument; but our improved proof laws have -now removed that anomaly, and certainly our proof is now much superior, -even to that of the Belgians: so much so, indeed, that I have now before -me a letter from a Belgian barrel maker, who, in reply to the inquiry -why he did not send any more barrels, says very truly, "your English -proof is too severe." - -A very carefully conducted experiment on at least twenty best Belgian -barrels, satisfied me of the indisputable fact, that at least nineteen -out of the twenty were plated, and principally on twisted iron of the -softest description; as was shown by eating it entirely away, by a -lengthened immersion in a solution of the sulphate of copper. This may -be done in the course of a few hours, leaving the Damascus, and the -arabesque plating comparatively untouched. The production of that -extremely beautiful figure has to be effected by using metals of -considerable dissimilarity in their state of carbonization; the iron -evidently being entirely decarbonized before mixing with the steel, and -the steel even appearing extremely soft; although, no doubt, much of -this would be effected during the heating of the barrels to solder with -brass: and it is well known this cannot be done, except by heating them -to nearly a white heat. - -As this is the universal practice with all barrels which the Belgians -finish, a good shooting gun is, by all fixed laws of science, a -scarcity with them. But a point of still greater importance arises from -this injurious proceeding. In the act of heating two tubes like gun -barrels, it is an impossibility to heat them equally, so that neither -shall be at a higher temperature than the other; and again in lifting -them from the furnace, and in cooling, all are subject to bend by -expansion and contraction alone; the result is that perfectly straight -Belgian hard soldered barrels are utterly unattainable. To an -unpractised eye the bending in and out appears trifling, but -professionally, it is a very serious defect indeed; and on that score -alone, the Belgian can never compete in quality with our own -manufacture. Time, however, will no doubt remedy this; already they are -great imitators, and they will, no doubt, become greater. They are -competitors whom respectable manufacturers need not fear; and though -they eschew the imitation of our higher quality, they imitate, even to -the name, the "marks" of our leading makers. I still would welcome and -fraternize with them, as highly skilled workers in elaborate mixtures of -metals suitable for ornamental gun-barrels. - -The French gunmakers have not yet realized the true value of the -shooting of their fowling-pieces. This arises, in a great measure, no -doubt, from the want of a proper field for improvement. Necessity has -always been an important improver, and wild game creating the necessity -for good guns in England, a different direction has been given to the -manufacturer, owing to the continual cry for long killing guns; and not -a doubt can exist that English guns are better constructed for that -purpose, than those of any other country. Attention to the shooting has -always been the first study of every English gunmaker, and great -progress has been made during the last twenty years; indeed, a -comparison between the largest "target" of to-day, and the best that -Colonel Hawker ever made with his crack Joe Manton, will show a -progressive improvement of nearly 100 per cent., not only in closeness -of shooting, but also in penetration. All this may not be due entirely -to the gun, but in part to the gunpowder; and to the sensible course we -now pursue of using less weight of shot, avoiding artificial friction in -the barrels, instead of increasing it to retard the shot with the view -of increasing its power: also by having the expellant agent accelerative -to the greatest extent, closeness and strength of shooting are obtained, -with the least amount of recoil possible. - -Our French competitors have paid much more attention to the artistic -decoration of their guns than to their usefulness; and the universal -result of this sort of proceeding, ever since the invention of gunnery, -has been a total neglect of their power of extreme projection. The -metal, like other portions of their work is, in all cases, manipulated -with a view to beauty only; as the fact of their veneering, or plating, -their barrels proves. - -If at all masters of the science, they must be aware that this weakens -the shooting of the barrels, and is an injurious practice. But the -greater fact remains, that they continue to fix all their barrels -together, by brasing them with brass from end to end, as they do in -Belgium; thus lessening the strength of the barrels in point of safety, -and nearly destroying any smart shooting power they might have -possessed. - -The French appear to me to have only reached that stage of progress -which we attained forty years ago, when every intelligent mechanic was -seeking after that "useless thing," even when attained, "a perfect -safety gun;" which, from its complex character, might have been -designated "the dangerous gun;" indeed, experience taught (though not -without great cost) that few would use it when attained, and the -consequence was that it fell into disuse. Our Continental neighbours, -however, are mining it with great energy. A little more of our -experience, and they, also, will see the folly of the attempt. All the -facts go clearly to establish the truth of the assertion, that for all -useful purposes they are half a century behind us in the essential part -of gun manufacturing. The anxiety shown by all leading Continental -sportsmen to obtain a first-class English gun, and more especially of -laminated steel, is very strong evidence in support of this assertion. -All the guns I exhibited in Paris in 1855 were eagerly bought up at high -figures; and I have since executed many orders for France, Austria, -Prussia, Sardinia, and Russia, as well as for other northern states. - -The display of artistically constructed guns by the French makers in -their Great Exposition of 1855, was very great, and by certain classes -of sportsmen would be considered superb. My notes, made at the time of -inspection, will show better than a description can do, in what state of -transition their manufacture is, and how they vacillate between their -old and our present style:-- - -Parisian gunmakers presented 36; Rheims, 1; St. Etienne, 14. - -Leopold Bernard, barrel-maker.--Very good work; barrels made of two -spirals, inner and outer, with the twist running the reverse way; fine -figure; mixture of steel and iron. - -Monsieur Gauvain.--Very good sound work; all highly artistic; the cock -formed so as to resemble a tree with a snake coiled round it, the head -of the snake striking on the nipple. Several other guns of the latest -English patterns. - -Monsieur Beringer.--Guns ornamented arabesque; a medium show of work; -principally breech-loaders. - -Monsieur Caron.--Showy, ornamental, very middling. - -Lepage and Moutier.--Work good, ornamented, principally arabesque. Game -and English scroll pattern, engraving, cocks, &c., but inferior to the -English patterns of Gauvain. - -Houllier Blanchard.--Good work; designs English; a very novel pattern of -figure in the barrels. - -Monsieur Le Perrin.--All his guns artistic; raised, embossed, artistic, -ornamental, heavy cocks to imitate my shape; one good English pattern -soft gun. - -Monsieur Lainê.--Good sound work; English pattern of twenty years ago. - -Monsieur Andrê.--Good work; ornaments embossed; "Devisme" inlaying; -carving and embossing unequalled; several English pattern guns, but of -the standard twenty years ago. - -"Thomas."--Guns well inlaid; work medium. - -Albert Benard, barrel-maker.--Iron very good, but all lined; bar -apparently reduced from a mass two inches square, which tenuates the -figure extremely, as the bars are only 1/4 inch thick. - -Gastienne Renette.--All highly artistically ornamented; work good, -carving very elaborate. A novel mode of breech-loading: a piece on hinge -turns out, a cartridge, slides in return to its place, and a quoin like -a wedge forces it up into a chamber; the wedge and head receiving all -the force of the recoil. - -Lenoir, barrel-maker.--Iron very good; thirty rods in a faggot 5 + 6, -and welded and drawn down into 3/8 of an inch square: an enormous -elongation of the fibres. - -Doye.--Good English pattern-work--nothing else. - -Fontereau.--Work, all English pattern; very good. - -M. Brunn, successor to Armand and Bourbon.--Highly embossed work: a -novel breech-loader; artistic design for cock; female figures with -fishes' tails in scroll on to the tumbler. - -Guerin.--A novel safety guard; locks while on the nipple at half cock, -and full cock; swivel double like a split ring. - -May.--A novel safety guard, very likely to break the finger: sure to do -it if on an English gun. Breech-loader: central fire, the same as now -made by Lancaster. - -Loger, barrel-maker.--Bars faggoted 6 + 2, and so formed to imitate -laminated steel. - -Dufour.--All breech-loading guns; but all work of the first class. - -Juelle Magana, barrel-maker, St. Etienne.--Barrels well fitted and -figure varying, but not possessing the regularity observed in the -Belgian barrels. - -Chapellon.--Coutereau.--Exhibit some barrels filled, with a charge of 12 -inches of powder, 6-1/2 inches of shot, and warrant them not to burst on -firing that charge. - -Delabourse, Paris.--Good work "à la Purdey." - -Lefaucheaux, Paris, prize medalist, 1851.--Good embossed work; -breech-loaders; also very good imitation of English work. - -Such is a fair sample of the whole. But the best work by far is that by -Gauvain, though not so highly estimated by the jury; but that is in many -cases no test of ability whatever--as much depends upon the influence -and standing of the individual. - -Great exhibitions are calculated to effect great good if properly -carried out. In that of the English exhibitors at Paris nothing could be -more reprehensible, for the jurors left them to the tender mercies of -their foreign competitors. In the case of the gun-makers, nothing could -be worse, for the two jurymen appointed by the English Government never, -I believe, saw a gun, home-made or foreign; and the fact of my obtaining -two first-class medals speaks much for the impartiality of our -Continental brethren. - - -RECOIL. - -Recoil varies according to the position of the gun; when fired on the -horizontal, the resistance to be overcome is the tendency of the -projectile to fall to the earth, and its friction as it moves in a line -parallel to the earth. When the muzzle is elevated this resistance is -increased, because the force generated by the explosion of the gunpowder -has to exert its action more directly in opposition to the direction of -the force of gravity; and when this force is exerted in a line directly -opposed to the centre of gravity, as it is when the gun is fired -vertically, then the recoil is doubled, and is made more painful, -because the body resting on the earth cannot yield. - -A gun fired in the direction of the earth, or in the line of the centre -of gravity, would recoil much less (perhaps fifty per cent. less) than -when fired vertically; from the very obvious fact, that if the bullet -was not kept in position by its friction on the sides of the barrel, it -would fall to the ground of itself. - -"The recoil of a gun is inseparable from a discharge of its contents--on -the broad principle that action begets reaction; it is, therefore, only -when the 'kick,' as it is called, becomes painful, that it is essential -to avoid or lessen it. Irregularity in the bore of the barrel is a very -common source of violent recoil; _contracted breeches_ also, but more -than all, the contraction of the barrel at its centre, occasion recoil, -and that of the most dangerous kind: the expanding flame, during its -ignition, presses violently to make its way through the contracted to -the wider part, thus also destroying the expelling force. 'Now, action -and reaction being equal, it follows, that the weight of the piece being -the same, the recoil will be in proportion to the quantity of the -powder, and the weight of the ball, or shot; and that with the same -charge the recoil will be in proportion to the weight of the piece, or -the lighter the piece the greater the recoil.'"--_Essay on Shooting._ - -Here is a true exposition of recoil, though not of contractions in the -breech; for there the action would not be directly back, but have an -inclination towards the muzzle; for the reaction would not have time to -tell on the breech, before the charge was out of the muzzle. An -extremely spiralled rifle barrel destroys the explosive force of -gunpowder, but the effects are not felt in the recoil, being most all -expended laterally. Blaine says, "Could we entirely obviate all recoil -from a gun, we should not only remove an unpleasant shock to our -persons, but there is reason to believe we should much assist the range -and force of the shot likewise; although there is an opinion prevalent, -that the degree of the recoil is in the proportion of the projectile -force." Of this, however, some doubts are entertained, which are -warranted by the following fact:--"Mortars with iron beds immoveably -fixed in the earth throw their shot to greater distances than guns which -are affixed to carriages can do, and which, therefore, can recoil. This -has been incontestibly proved, both in large and small artillery. -Having suspended a gun barrel, charged with a determinate quantity of -shot, from the ceiling by two cords, so as to allow of its recoil, fire -it point blank at a target, and mark the result accurately. Now, fix the -same barrel to a block, and charge it exactly with a similar charge; -then having moved the target fifteen yards further, fire the barrel; it -is probable that the last shot, though at this increased distance, will -exceed the former, both in range and force.' These and such like -experiments are laughed at by the giddy and inconsiderate; but it is by -these illustrations that the most important facts are brought to light. - -"Projectile force is, therefore, to be increased by resistance; and the -knowledge of this fact offers us a practical hint, that when we stand -immoveable to our shot, not only by holding the gun tightly to our -shoulder, but by also _leaning somewhat forward_ in our shooting -attitude, we considerably increase the resistance, and, consequently, we -not only lessen the shock of the recoil to ourselves, but we aid the -force of the shot and extend its range. That such is the case, may be -further exemplified by the following experiment:--Throw a hand-ball -against any moveable body, and it will displace that body; but the ball -will drop to the ground perpendicularly, however hard the body against -which it is thrown may be. Fix the same body securely, and then the -rebound of the ball will be nearly equal to the force with which it was -thrown." - -The weight or amount of force with which a gun recoils against the -shoulder, is due to, and regulated by, several circumstances. The first -and most important is the amount of explosive force generated before the -charge is moved and during the act of moving, and the amount of inertia -in the body of the projectile. When a quantity of gunpowder is exploded -without any resisting weight in front of it, then the column of air -gives comparatively a slight recoil; though there is, in fact, -considerable recoil, but such as is due to the resistance of the air -only, and, consequently, more like a push than a blow. The exact amount -of recoil is also due to the difference between, or proportionate -weights of, the charge of shot or bullet and the gun; action and -reaction being always equal until one or the other body moves; the -division then will be in favour of that moving fastest, and hence the -obtaining of accelerative velocity: it thus follows, as a truism, that -the smaller the quantity of exploded gases that can be employed to first -move the charge, the less the recoil. - -The advantage of the granulation system is here again most clearly -shown; and (alluding again to the law of putting matter in motion -gradually) if you would gain the greatest benefit, it is clear that, in -the same length of tube, you would, at the termination of the -accelerative power, have gained a much greater amount of velocity than -could be obtained under any other circumstances with the more violently -explosive gunpowder. - -Many theories have been advanced, and many conjectures made as to the -cause of the recoil of guns; and it must be evident that the causes vary -with the form of gun, with the nature of the gunpowder, and the weight; -or peculiar arrangement of the shot or bullet. For instance, an ounce of -shot, and an ounce of lead in the form of a round bullet, fired from the -same gun would give two very different amounts of recoil, when measured -by the spring cushion; the ounce bullet not giving much more than half -the recoil produced by the ounce of shot. This is owing to the simple -fact that the bullet being a compact body, offers only the resistance of -its weight, and the simple friction of sliding or rolling along the -barrel according as it is tight or loose; but the tendency of the -hundreds of shot corns is to "jam and wedge" in the most extreme manner, -offering, by their lateral pressure against the sides of the barrel, the -greatest amount of friction and reluctance to be driven out: hence the -reaction on the gun, and thence on the shoulder of the shooter; and the -smaller the size of shot the greater the jamming. Again, the same weight -of shot, fired from a 16-bore and a 12-bore will recoil much more in the -smaller than in the larger bore, even when all other points are equal; -because the charge reaches higher in the 16-bore, thus offering at first -a greater amount of inertia. Secondly, there is also more tendency to -jam; and, thirdly, the extension of the surface of lateral pressure on -the tubes of the barrel must also add to recoil. Dirty guns, it is well -known, kick violently, simply from the greater friction, or difficulty -of the matter of the charge being put in motion. - -The question as to what the actual amount of recoil really is has never -been settled satisfactorily; the most erroneous opinions have been -given, and assertions equally erroneous have been made, by those who -have attended to the subject. To clearly elucidate this question, it is -absolutely necessary that the circumstances be reduced to one standard: -but the difficulty is to obtain that; for it would vary according to -muscular development, the weight and height of the sportsman. Indeed any -principle laid down would be liable to be disputed, from the very -different way in which every sportsman lifts his gun to his shoulder: if -one presses it against his shoulder with a pressure equal to 5 lbs., he -will receive a certain amount of recoil; he that presses it with a force -equal to 10 lbs. will receive less; and with a pressure of 30 lbs. it -will be found to yield the least of all. I will illustrate it in this -way. Take a spring cushion (something like the spring machine found at -all fairs for testing the force of a man pressing against it), if you -allow a gun to recoil against this when the starting pressure is only 5 -lbs., it will drive it up to 70 lbs., or nearly so, from the velocity -with which you have put the 7 lbs. of matter which is contained in the -gun into a long sweeping blow. The next time you try, put the starting -point at 10 lbs., and you will find a much less result in the extreme -weight denoted; but carry on this experiment, placing the cushion with a -resisting force of 30 lbs., and you will find the extreme recoil -indicated at from 40 lbs. to 45 lbs., and even up to a higher starting -resistance. But to this extent it is not advisable to go, for the strain -becomes too great on the handle of the gun-stock, and there is too near -an apparent approach to a solid resistance, which it is well-known would -break the best stock that was ever made. - -Having shown how we may approximately obtain the exact amount of force, -and how it may, even with two persons, give different results, I will -now state what I have found to be the result of many hundreds of trials -made with the view of deciding this question. Before doing so, however, -I will further premise that hundreds of attempts have been made at -various times by different Governments, and by many talented men, to -obtain a correct recoil machine which shall efficiently measure the -recoil, and in such a perfect line with the intended direction of the -projectile as to obtain accurate results: but this is found to be -perfectly unattainable, though I believe the nearest approach to it has -been made by Mr. Whitworth during his experiments with the hexagonal -rifle. - -To prove that it is impossible to get all the circumstances alike, so as -accurately to ascertain the exact force of the recoil, one instance only -need be cited. Fire your gun at a fixed object, then fire at an object -in motion, and to your senses the recoil will appear double when fired -at the fixed object; but it is not really so: in the latter instance, -the body of the person firing the gun, and the gun itself being in -motion, a considerable amount of the force of the recoil is absorbed in -overcoming the motion of the gun, and then that of the shooters body, so -that the effect is not noticed. I have already alluded to the greater -force of recoil felt from the lighter pressure of the gun against the -shoulder; here the tendency of the gun and body moving in one direction -is to close them together, and the proportion will be as the velocity of -that movement. Therefore, to bring this to a conclusion, I find that -under ordinary circumstances a 12-bore gun of 7-1/2 lbs. weight, 30 -inches in length, with a charge of 2-1/2 drams of No. 5 grained -gunpowder, and 1-1/4 oz. shot, the barrels draw-bored cylindrically, -with the least possible easing at the breech ends, and metal of the best -laminated steel, will recoil with a force of from 40 lbs. to 48 lbs., or -on an average 44 lbs.: this is the most satisfactory conclusion I have -been able to draw from my experiments. This of course will vary, as I -have shown; and it is also liable to deviations, according to the state -of the atmosphere, and other collateral circumstances. Great variations -will of course arise from guns of fine or rough insides; guns new or -old, well kept or neglected; and in guns bored larger at the -breech-ends, in order to give artificial resistance to the escape of the -charge. These last are now, I trust, obsolete, except in that abortion -of science the "French breech-loading crutch gun;" and as an exception, -all ill-constructed guns. - -The science of the question may now be regarded as clearly established. -Gun-barrels of the utmost tenacity, with insides of a cylindrical form -as true as possible, polished as fine as a mirror, with a moderate -weight of shot calculated to suit the gun and a good charge of large -granulated gunpowder, will give the greatest killing power, with the -greatest amount of comfort, or absence of recoil, that is to be found in -the pursuit of shooting. - -A point of considerable importance in obtaining regular and good -shooting--one, however, which is frequently neglected--is that of -ascertaining what sized shot is particularly suited to the size of bore -used. - -The correct adaptation of No. 5 or No. 6 for your particular gun is -easily attained. Place in the muzzle an ordinary wadding, press it into -the barrel the depth of the diameter of the shot, which should be -exactly flush with the muzzle, place as many shot corns on this as you -can, without having more than one distinct layer, and observe the size -that best fills, in concentric rings, the whole circumference of the -bore, leaving no half-spaces unfilled; note whether it be No. 5 or No. 6 -shot, and keep to that size for your general shooting. Again, on other -occasions you may wish to use larger shot (Nos. 4, 3, or 2); then -ascertain by the same method which fills the concentric rings most -perfectly: the same should be done with the smaller sizes, Nos. 8 or 9. - -The rationale of this proceeding is that any half-spaces are filled by -shot from above pressed in upon the lower layer, disfiguring itself and -those it comes into contact with; this is multiplied up to the 13 or 14 -layers of which the charge is composed, and the inevitable result is -that four or five pellets are pressed together until they adhere; either -"balling" or leaving empty spaces in the distribution of the charge, to -the injury of the gun's shooting--a defect which may easily be obviated -by attending to the instructions given above. One other point may be -observed, viz., that if 1-1/4 give 15-1/2 layers of shot in concentric -rings, the charge should be reduced until the rings are complete, for -the half-layer will do much mischief by its unequal pressure on the -layers beneath it. And it is further necessary to observe that in -loading a gun, either with powder or with shot, the gun should be kept -as nearly in the upright position as possible: the more upright the gun -is held, the more perfectly will it be charged, and the more perfect -will be its shooting. - -A vast number of useless changes have of late years been introduced into -the construction of gunnery; they have died, however, a natural death, -as they ought to have done, and have thus afforded additional evidence -that sportsmen of the present day only adopt what are really -improvements. Great professional reputation in a gunmaker is not now, as -formerly, all that is required to command a trial of individual plans of -improvement: the improvement must be self-evident; nothing being taken -on trust: a _bonâ fide_ benefit to the sportsman is essential in the -present day to obtain patronage. - -There has lately been introduced a very novel improvement in the -construction of double gun barrels, in order to overcome that defect -long admitted to exist in firing the second shot. It has long been -known that in a 40 yards' flight, shot falls several inches; and it is -an established fact that few sportsmen can kill with the second shot so -well as with the first, although it is certainly within range of the -gun. This no doubt arises in almost every case, from the shot having -fallen below the object in traversing the greater distance; or, in other -words, the second barrel, in order to kill as well as the first, ought -be fired six inches higher; but this the best shots find it difficult to -do, and it has therefore been proposed to do it for them. - -Mr. F. W. Prince, of No. 138, Bond-street, has patented an improvement -to obviate this difficulty; this he does by elevating or pointing upward -the second barrel, so as to cover the calculated fall in the body of the -shot; and the result is, that the second bird is as well aimed at and as -efficiently killed as the first. The alteration is so exceedingly -simple, and the benefit resulting from it so apparent, that the only -wonder is that it should never have been done before; and it being the -improvement of a really practical sportsman of the very first class, as -Mr. Prince has long been known to be, is sufficient to stamp his -invention as worthy of every consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE FRENCH "CRUTCH," OR BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN. - - -Sporting in France has never been brought to the same state of -perfection as in this country. Grouse-shooting on our wild romantic -hills is a very different sport from quail, partridge, or rabbit -shooting in the vales and on the hills of the Continent. Wild game -requires great energy and perseverance on the part of the sportsman, -courage and strength on the part of the dog, and last, though not least, -great capacity on the part of the gun. For many years the superiority of -the English manufactured gun, as well as of the English gunpowder, and -the matchless skill of the English sportsman, have been acknowledged by -all the world. All things, however, have their limits--the longest lane -has a turning, and a very plausible and insidious innovation has been -made to detract from the acquired reputation of the English sportsman, -and render his shooting inferior to that of some of our friends on the -other side of the Channel. - -The French system of breech-loading fire-arms is a specious pretence, -the supposed advantages of which have been loudly boasted of; but none -of these advantages have as yet been established by its most strenuous -advocates. How it is that the British sportsman has become the dupe of -certain men who set themselves up for reputable gunmakers I know not. It -is certain, however, that by these acts they have forfeited all claim to -the confidence of their too confiding customers, and that they never -could have tested the shooting properties of their guns. With regard to -the safety of these guns, they display an utter want of the most -ordinary judgment; and this is abundant proof that they considered -neither their safety, nor (what is also of importance) the economy of -the whole arrangement, as regards their manufacture or their use. - -Guns are perfect only so long as they possess the power of shooting -strong and close, with the least available charges. The period has -passed when barrels were bored by rule of thumb, without any -well-defined intention; the workman being ignorant as to whether he -would have the bore of the barrel cylindrical, or (as was frequently the -case) in the form of two inverted cones, and thus he continued to bore -at the barrel until it was utterly useless, or until by chance he hit -upon a tidy shooting bore. Barrels are now constructed so nearly alike, -that it is no stretch of truth to assert that ninety-six or ninety-eight -barrels out of a hundred can be made so nearly alike in their shooting, -as to render it very difficult to discover the real difference between -them. Yet, in the face of this high state of perfection certain -English gunmakers introduce, and recommend to their patrons as an -improvement, a description of gun possessing the following negative -qualities:--First, there is no possibility of a breech-loader ever -shooting equal to a well-constructed muzzle loader; secondly, the gun is -unsafe, and becomes more and more unsafe from the first time it is used; -and, thirdly, it is a very costly affair, both as regards the gun and -ammunition. Nor are these negative qualities at all compensated for by -any of the advantages claimed for these guns by their advocates; this -assertion I now proceed to establish. - -In the first place recoil has been an important obstacle to contend -with, ever since the invention of fire-arms, and the methods of -lessening recoil have engaged the special attention of all inventors up -to the present day; on this important point, indeed, very much depends. -Gunnery is good only when recoil exists in a minimum degree. Force, -whether it be that of the gentle "zephyr," or of the mammoth -steam-boiler which is capable of moving thousands of tons, can always be -measured, and the friction of steam against the tube through which it -passes can be measured also. - -The time was, when guns were so imperfectly constructed, that the recoil -and friction of the charge against the barrel destroyed more than half -the force generated by the explosion of the gunpowder; and this loss of -force having been obviated, by finely polishing the interior of the -barrel, as well as by improving the metal of the gun, has rendered -English guns superior in their performance to those manufactured in any -other country. Breeches of a conical form offer the greatest resistance -to the action of aëriform bodies in a direct line; this is the principle -of what is best known as "the patent breech:" to speak of which would be -a waste of time, as nothing more is required to support its superiority -than the fact, that in well constructed artillery of every country, the -interior form of the breech or chamber is more or less conical. Thus we -see that by adopting the crutch gun, we have to give up one of the -oldest and most universally acknowledged principles in lessening -recoil--namely, the conical form of the breech--and to adopt the very -reverse of this: namely, the old right-angled, flat-faced breech, upon -which recoil can exert its utmost force with the certainty of its -reaching the shoulder of the unfortunate user. - -Secondly, to enable the gun to be loaded with a cartridge which shall -keep its place, a complicated arrangement is necessary. On inspection of -the barrel, it will be perceived that a cavity has been formed larger -than the bore of the barrel, and that this in some cases only tapers -toward the further end. This cavity exactly receives the cartridge, and -the gunpowder is inflamed in a space much larger than the barrel, which -it has afterwards to pass through. The charge of shot is also started in -a larger space than that which it afterwards has to traverse, and the -column must of necessity become contracted and elongated before it can -escape from the barrel. The first consideration is at what cost of force -is all this effected? Thirty per cent. would certainly be a shrewd -guess; and who is there conversant with the nature of gunpowder hardy -enough to gainsay the fact? - -I here present the reader with the measurement of a pair of -barrels--bore 12, diameter of the cavity 10, or two sizes -difference,--tried at the celebrated trial of Breech versus -Muzzle-loading fire-arms, which took place in April last, in the court -at Cremorne. The following are the results of the trial:-- - -Class 1 comprised twelve bore double guns, not exceeding 7-1/2 lbs. in -weight; the charge for the breech-loaders was three drachms of powder, -and one ounce and a quarter of shot; that for the muzzle-loaders, two -and three-quarter drachms of powder, and an ounce and a quarter of shot. -The question will be asked why were both not charged alike? and the -answer is, because the advocates for breech-loaders well knew the loss -of power caused by the enlarged breech end would require a larger -quantity of powder; yet, with this advantage, the result was a verdict -in favour of the muzzle-loaders of nearly two to one. I quote from the -_Field_. The aggregate number of pellets in the targets from -breech-loaders was 170, the penetration 19. The aggregate number of -pellets put in by the muzzle-loaders was 231, the penetration 48; and -this was effected with a quarter of a drachm of powder less. - -Few will doubt that this must be the inevitable result. Force cannot be -expended and retained: we "cannot eat our cake and have it." If force is -destroyed by friction, it is as useless as if it had never been -generated. So much, then, for the shooting qualities of the -breech-loader. - -And now comes the question, of much more importance than the shooting -qualities of these guns: namely, can all this force--30 per cent., in -fact, of the whole charge--be thrown away with no worse result than the -mere wasting of the powder? Is there no change taking place in the -barrel of the gun every time it is discharged? Iron and its combinations -are as certainly limited in their duration as is human life itself. -Every bar of iron is capable only of resisting a certain amount of -pressure; every successive strain on its fibres deteriorating it more -rapidly; and whether it be the mainspring of the lock, or a gun-barrel -itself, a certain number of strains will destroy it. This being the -case, how much more rapidly must a breech-loader be destroyed where 30 -per cent. of the charge is always "absorbed" on the sides of the barrel -in the cavity alone. This a lengthened experiment will prove; though the -fact is so self-evident, that no experiment is required to demonstrate -it. - -Caution in gunnery is absolutely necessary under the most favourable -circumstances, and disregard of perfection in the construction of a gun -is quite unpardonable; then what shall be said of that member of society -who, with all those facts before him, can say to his customers, "I -advise you to have a breech-loader: they are really good guns?" In what -estimation such a tradesman must be held I will not venture to say. Much -more might fairly be said against these guns, but I sum up the whole in -the following damnatory sentence: Breech-loaders do not shoot nearly so -well, and are not half so safe, as muzzle-loading guns. - -It is said, and truly, that a breech-loader can be charged more rapidly -than a muzzle-loader; but I hold this to be no advantage, for this -reason: all guns can be loaded more quickly than they are fired, and the -tendency of all barrels to absorb heat, puts a limit to rapidity of -firing; indeed, after ten rapid shots with each barrel, both guns would -be about on an equality. Another question is, can breech-loaders be used -longer than muzzle-loading guns, without cleaning? My opinion is, _they -cannot_. At the trial already spoken of, after twenty-two shots had been -fired from the breech-loaders, the cartridge-cases had to be extracted -from the barrels with a hook, and in several cases it was necessary to -cut them out with a knife; whilst a muzzle-loading gun without friction -would have gone on to a hundred shots without being wiped out. There are -few plans or presumed improvements which have not some redeeming points; -but in the case of breech-loading fire-arms it is quite a task to find -even a resemblance to one. All the advocates for breech-loaders whom I -have ever met with yield, with this acknowledgment: "I must admit that I -never liked them; but so many gentlemen are asking for them that I was -compelled to make them, to keep my customers." This is, no doubt, the -truth; but it is calculated to lead to serious calamities: for it was -apparent to hundreds, at the Cremorne trials, that even the best and -newest breech-loading guns permitted an escape of gas at the breech to -an extent that I never thought possible; and if this occurs in new guns, -what will happen after a single season's shooting, should any one be -found sufficiently reckless to use a breech-loader so long? - -No fear need be entertained that the use of breech-loaders will become -general; manufactures on false principles soon show themselves -worthless, however pertinaciously they may be puffed off. The number of -accidents arising from the use of breech-loading fire-arms has not been -very great as yet; though I have already heard of several very serious -cases, from the use of well-made guns: let us consider what would be -result if the workmanship was inferior? - -There is one other point to which I may briefly allude before dismissing -the breech-loader to the "tomb of all the Capulets." The majority of -guns on this principle merely abut against a false breech; and, from the -fact of there being no connection either by hook or by cohesion, the -explosion causes a separation between the barrel and the breech to an -extent which would scarcely be credited. This may, however, be -satisfactorily demonstrated by binding a small string of gutta percha -round the joint, when after explosion the string will be found to have -fallen in between the barrel and the breech; thus showing that the -muzzle droops in the act of being discharged, which must must materially -influence the correctness of fire. - -The recoil of an ordinary 12-bore gun, loaded at the muzzle, varies from -forty to forty-eight pounds, seldom exceeding the latter; that of a -breech-loader varies from sixty-eight to seventy-six! And this quite -independently of the enormous force which is exerted on the sides of -these enlarged breech guns. The shoulder left in the barrel, too, is a -formidable barrier for the charge to pass by; and, in doing this, the -circle of shot in immediate contact with the barrel becomes disfigured -and misshaped, so as to insure its flight only to a very short distance. -In the muzzle-loader an average of 180 shots strike a target of two feet -six inches diameter; but breech-loaders of the same calibre will rarely -put in 120 shots; showing a clear loss of 60 pellets. This is due to the -enormous jamming they have undergone in passing from the greater to the -lesser area of the barrel. It is said that the paper of the cartridge -fills up this enlargement; but any one who knows what the force of -gunpowder is, must also know that paper intervening between the charge -and the sides of the barrel would be condensed at the moment of -explosion to one-fourth its original thickness. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE RIFLE. - - -The Rifle has at length taken its place among scientifically improved -weapons. Mathematicians laboured long and earnestly to develope the -important principles involved in it, and which lay hidden like latent -heat, only waiting for the moment when they were to be extracted, as -they were at length by experiment, the result of necessity: indeed -necessity has done more for the improvement of gunnery than all the -mental toil and labour bestowed on the science itself. The philosopher -has sought in vain for that which mechanical skill unpatronised and -unheeded forced upon the world, and that, too, in spite of prejudice and -contempt; and the present generation see improvements brought out which -were predicted generations before--as the following quotation from -Robins clearly shows:--"Whatever state shall _thoroughly comprehend the -nature_ and advantages of rifle pieces, and having facilitated and -completed their construction, shall introduce into their armies their -general use, with a dexterity in the management of them, they will by -this means acquire a superiority which will almost equal anything that -has been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind -of arms, and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects -which histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first -inventors of fire-arms." - -That the result here predicted has now been obtained no one can doubt. -Greater extension of range is yet attainable; but accuracy of range -amounts already to almost mathematical precision. All that is now -required is, that the same principle should be applied to the heaviest -projectiles; and when these are projected under precisely the same laws, -experience will further establish this principle, that "the heavier the -body in equal velocities the less the deflection from atmospheric -resistance." When this is demonstrated the present order of things will -be reversed; heavy ordnance will exceed the shoulder rifle in extension -and accuracy of range, whilst the shoulder rifle will again fall back to -its former state of comparative inferiority. - -Barrels were first grooved or rifled at Vienna, about the year 1498. The -original object of grooving or rifling the barrels was to find space for -the reception of the foul residue produced by discharging the rifle, and -thus to diminish the friction of the bullet as it was forced down by the -ramrod. During the next twenty years a spiral turn was given to the -groove, and bullets were used with projections to fit the grooves, the -degree of twist or spiral varying as the skill of the gun-maker thought -best. - -The difficulty of loading rifles has at all times been a drawback to -their universal adoption as warlike weapons, and it has been reserved -for a humble individual to achieve that which all the talent devoted to -it for three centuries had hitherto failed to accomplish. - -A multitude of claimants have "put in their plea" for a share in some -part of the invention; and it may benefit not only the present but also -the future generation, if we give a succinct account of the approaches -made by different men towards the present established principle, and -show the bearing each had in bringing about the revolution that has -taken place in the science of gunnery. - -The earliest notice of an elongated bullet is Robins's "egg-shaped," -which gives to the hemispherical end the centre of gravity, thus -establishing the first essential principle; but theory and practice were -here sadly discordant, for its wild uncertain flight, caused by the -small end acting as a rudder, rendered his theory useless, and it soon -died of a natural death. - -The next innovation on the spherical principle of bullets was the -attempt made by the late Sir Home Popham to introduce elongated -sphero-cylindrical bullets into cannon, with grooves and projections on -the exterior to impart a spinning motion, which should be sustained by -the action of the atmosphere; but this, like Robins's idea, survived -only a very short time. The next in rotation is a description given by -Captain Beaufoy, in his work on the rifle called _Scloppetaria_, and -published, we believe, in 1808. Captain Beaufoy gives a drawing of an -elongated bullet one and a quarter diameters in length, having a -hemispherical cavity accurately corresponding in shape to its -counterpart at the opposite end. "This," he states, "he had heard was -beneficial from the fact of the rush of atmospheric air into the vacuum -created, thus inducing a forward motion by the kick _à posteriori_." -This apparently was but a surmise, an idea never carried out, for in the -same work a degree of spiral grooving is advocated with which the action -of this bullet, had it ever been intended to be expansive in principle, -would be quite incompatible. - -Next comes the celebrated Joseph Manton with his invention, intended to -give a spiral motion to the ball by the cup of wood already described -under the head of rifled cannon. This very idea has since been revived -by General Jacob; and in 1822 Captain Norton introduced to the notice of -the Government his "Rifled Shell" for the explosion of an enemy's -tumbrils. This was of necessity an elongated hollow bullet, containing a -small charge of gunpowder, which was ignited by the explosion of a cap -on a nipple, screwed into the fore-end of the leaden shell. - -Here, no doubt, was a partially expansive bullet; for the bullet would -be driven in upon itself, and thus expand from the weakness of the -hollow shell; this near approach, however, to the invention was not -intentional: the sole object in view was the action of the shell, and no -more importance was attached to its expansion, in Captain Norton's -estimation, than to the bullet described by Captain Beaufoy in his -_Scloppetaria_. It is only within the last few years that some friend, -with more acumen than the gallant officer, discovered his near approach -to the subsequent invention, and a claim has been made on his behalf -which he himself never dreamt of, during the many years we were -battering at the doors of prejudice; closed as they were against -military innovation. - -In 1826, Capt. Delvigne proposed to use an elongated bullet: "having -observed that when a bullet was forced in by the old system of the -mallet, its diameter was increased perpendicularly to the axis of the -barrel, he came to the conclusion that by giving a chamber to the breech -of the rifle, and loading with an elongated bullet having just -sufficient windage to enter freely, two or three taps from a steel -ramrod would flatten it sufficiently to make it take the form of the -grooves, into which it would certainly penetrate when fired." This -contrivance was, however, found to be useless for military purposes; for -after a trial, extending over two or three years, by the Garde Royal in -Algeria, it was given up in 1830. This, then, is clear proof of an -attempt to construct an expansive bullet, and conclusive evidence also -of its failure. - -From 1830 to 1839, no evidence can be found of any progress having been -made by these inventors. In 1836 I had the honour of producing the first -perfect expansive bullet. During the winter of 1835 and the spring of -1836, I made an extensive series of experiments in order to overcome the -effect of the very extensive windage existing in military muskets at -that time; better known in the present day by the name of "Old Brown -Bess." - -The mean diameter of the bore was ·760, the diameter of the bullet was -·701, or of the better understood gauge of 11 and 14 bore, thus leaving -more than three sizes for windage. To obviate this great discrepancy by -expanding a bullet from 14 to 11 bore, so as to destroy the windage, was -the first consideration; and, indeed, the first great step towards that -change of which we have as yet only seen the beginning. I here give a -representation of my first attempt, and the observations made upon it in -1841:-- - -Five years ago I perfected and laid before the Board of Ordnance a new -plan or system of constructing expansive balls, which is accomplished by -having two dissimilar portions. An oval ball with a flat end and a -perforation extending nearly through, is cast; a taper plug with a head -like a round topped button is also cast, of a composition of lead, tin, -and zinc, as below. - -[Illustration: EXPANSIVE BALL BEFORE USING.] - -[Illustration: EXPANSIVE BALL WITH PLUG DRIVEN HOME.] - -The end of the plug being slightly inserted into the perforation, the -ball is put into the rifle or musket with either end foremost. When the -explosion takes place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding -the outer surface, and thus either filling the grooves of the rifle, or -destroying the windage of the musket, as the case may be. The result of -this experiment was beyond calculation; and for musketry, where the -stupid regulations of the service require 3-1/2 sizes of bore difference -for windage, it is most excellent, as remedying this considerable -drawback upon the usefulness of the arm; the facility of loading being -as great, if not greater, than by the present practice. - -Inventions, however, are of no use whilst kept in obscurity, and my -first and natural course was to bring it under the notice of the parties -for whose benefit it was intended. Accordingly, in July, 1836, a -memorial was duly drawn up, and laid before the Master-General and Board -of Ordnance, soliciting a trial. After overcoming some difficulties, a -trial was ordered at the "cost of the inventor," and in August, 1836, it -took place at Tynemouth, in Northumberland, under the command of Major -Walcot, of the Royal Horse Artillery, a party of the 60th Rifles being -the firing party. The exact form of the memorial, and the points claimed -by the inventor, are as follows:-- - - "To the Right Honourable the Master-General and Officers of His - Majesty's Board of Ordnance. The humble Memorial of William Greener, - Gunmaker, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, humbly sheweth-- - - "That your memorialist has, after considerable trouble and expense, - discovered a method by which the facility of loading all rifles, - muskets, and other small fire-arms will be much increased, as well as - a considerable additional force or range of the projectile be - obtained, even with a less quantity of powder than at present used. - Your memorialist has frequently loaded one of his Majesty's rifles by - this method, as quickly as any soldier could load the plain musket, - and the balls when fired have received the same or greater effect from - the action of the grooves of the rifle. Your memorialist's plan simply - consists in the manufacture of a more ready kind of cartridge, which - will answer for all fire-arms as at present constructed, and will also - be a considerable saving to his Majesty. - - "Your memorialist being aware, from former communications with your - Honourable Board, that in no case is any sum of money allowed for - travelling expenses, &c., and your memorialist being very far from - rich, is unable to attend any committee, either at Woolwich or - elsewhere, your memorialist, therefore, suggests that if it meet the - approbation of your Honourable Board to issue an order to the officer - commanding the depot of his Majesty's 1st Brigade 60th Rifles, at - present stationed in this town, or to any other regiment or detachment - in the neighbourhood, to appoint a squad of men to fire 100 rounds of - memorialist's and 100 rounds of the cartridges now in use, and to - compare their respective merits, the whole to be provided at your - memorialist's expense. - - "And memorialist, as in duty bound, will ever pray. - - "WILLIAM GREENER." - -The success of the experiments far surpassed the expectations of the -military men present; and that they fully established all the points -claimed, will be evident from the following secret report made by Major -Walcott to the Board of Ordnance:-- - - "I then examined Mr. Greener's ammunition, and found he had not made - it up into complete cartridges, but that his ball was separate from - his powder. I then examined the ball, which being less than the barrel - of the rifle, went down very easily--indeed slided down, and is thus - formed. The ball is cast with a hollow in it, to which a plug of the - same metal is inserted, but not going home. The force of the charge is - said by Mr. Greener so to act on this hollow ball as to expand it, - filling up the whole barrel, preventing all windage, and so truly - keeping its flight that the head of the plug first striking the object - fired at, is then driven home; the ball becomes a solid, and as such - is equal to the present mode, as well as having more force and with a - less quantity of powder than at present used. - - "A detachment of the 60th was then ordered to load with Mr. Greener's, - and an equal number with his Majesty's practice ammunition. The first - certainly had the advantage in quickness of loading, but this may be - accounted for by Mr. Greener's ball being put in separate from the - cartridge; for I am by no means certain (it being necessary that his - plug should be exactly in the centre, either next the cartridge or - from it) whether, when made into a complete form, should the plug have - shifted from its position, it would not cost the soldier more time to - place it right; neither am I certain whether the plug might not be - liable to become jammed in the soldier's cartouch-box. - - "After firing several rounds, at 200 yards, at the target, we - succeeded in obtaining some of Mr. Greener's balls, one of which that - had struck the target and did not go through I send (marked) as the - most favourable specimen of the day's practice, the plug being driven - hard into the ball, the others having lost their plugs. Mr. Greener, - whose wishes I complied with in every way I could, then proposed - firing a number of rounds into a sandbank, to show that the plugs did - not quit the ball. A great many rounds were fired; in many the plugs - were out, in many loosely fixed and easily removed, and in a part - firm. Not having the advantage of the target I had desired him to - bring, a number of rounds were fired at the rifle's extreme range, 350 - yards, as the best means left of ascertaining the difference of range; - the only result of which was, that it appeared invariably to me and - others on the slightest resistance from the first the plug quitted the - ball, and therefore must have lessened its force from loss of weight. - The balls from both charges, Mr. Greener's and his Majesty's, went - home to the target, but only one of the latter went through. I had - then fired most of Mr. Greener's cartridges and balls, and fifty - rounds of the practice ammunition of the 60th. I beg to submit with - the greatest deference that in so great a change as this proposed, - even should it be considered worthy any other trial, that the - specimens I shall send up by the earliest opportunity may have - competent examination--for, although the balls of Mr. Greener bear the - impress of the grooves of the rifle, I am not able to state whether - such may not equally well be produced by the action of being forced - from the rifle as by the expansion Mr. Greener states to take - place--should the Master-General deem it necessary that any further - experiment be made by me and with cartridges properly made up." - -The immediate result was a very pithy epistle from the Secretary to the -Board, saying, that "in consequence of the bullet I had submitted being -'_a compound_,' it was totally unfit for his Majesty's service, and no -more trials could be allowed." - -This, in 1836, was the universal mode of proceeding, as subsequent -events clearly proved; whether from inability on the part of the -constituted military science controllers, or from a fixed determination -to reject all improvements from civilians, I knew not; but time -explained it all, as the sequel will show. - -The total destruction, in 1841, of the small arms department in the -Tower of London, together with all the arms it contained, opened a vista -to improvement both in the principle and mechanical construction of "Old -Brown Bess." This opportunity was not lost. A series of letters, Nos. 1 -to 6, appeared in the _Times_ in November and December, 1841, urging the -necessity of a radical change in the construction of military arms, if -the nation was still to hold its high military prestige. The sensation -created at this time was immense, and no doubt laid the foundation stone -for that change which has rendered English arms superior to any in the -world, instead of being, as they formerly were, inferior to any in -Europe. - -In one of those letters, which may still be found in the _Times_ of -December 25th, 1841, the following account is given of the progress I -had made in the invention since 1836; and when the form and proportions -of my expansive bullet of 1841 are contrasted with the present and the -original form adopted by our Government from the French of Captain Minié -in 1849, it must strike the reader as being so palpable a copy as to -leave no ground for argument. - -"One favourite suggestion of Hutton's has hitherto been strenuously -rejected, even by those to whom his recommendations have, in other -respects, been laws--viz., his plan of using 'oblong bullets.' Some -years ago I laid before the Board of Ordnance a very simple plan of -getting rid of all windage, yet of loading easily, and adding to the -weight of the projectile (a favourite theory with the artillerists). -This was effected by employing an oblong ball of lead '_a diameter and a -half in length_,' having a perforation extending through two-thirds of -it. An iron plug of a conical shape is slightly inserted into this -perforation, and the gun loaded with it. When the explosion takes place, -this plug is driven home into the lead, and, by expanding its outer -surface, the projectile comes out of the gun fitting as tight as -possible, and a line of flight is given to it of corresponding accuracy. -The advantages of this arrangement are numerous, but, in naval warfare, -of the most important nature, giving heavier metal with smaller rates, -and from the composition and shape of the projectile combined, producing -a corresponding destruction. - -"But the authorities laid the plan upon the shelf, where it will rest -until produced by some more important personage than myself. The poor -inventor obtains but poor encouragement, while his more wealthy -competitor is enabled to have every opportunity of trying schemes which, -in most cases, are not worth the consideration of any, save the friends -of the party." - -In 1842, powerful influence being brought to bear, it was hoped that a -trial of my invention would result; and in order to meet the strongly -expressed public opinion, the Board of Ordnance ordered me to construct -them model arms on my own principle. This was done, and the trial -promised by the Master-General was demanded, but as obstinately refused -by the Select Committee at Woolwich, whose power was superior to that of -the Master-General; though he was fully pledged to afford me a trial. - -Thus the progress of invention was delayed until 1848; sometimes -enlivened, however, by the bursting of a shell of intelligence in the -camp of military prejudice. Slashing letters appeared from time to time -on military incapacity. Meanwhile Captain Delvigne and Captain Thierry -continued their experiments, and on June 21st, 1842, a patent was -obtained in France, which is thus described:-- - -"For having hollowed the base of my cylindro-conical bullet, not only -for motives mentioned in the descriptive memoir given with my demand for -a patent, but besides to obtain its expansion (son èpanouissement) by -the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder. By -this means the effort of the powder itself, which formerly caused -spherical bullets to deviate from the grooves, now contributes to force -the bullets of my system more firmly into them." - -In a paper published by M. Delvigne in the _Spectateur Militaire_, of -August, 1843, we also find:-- - - "In order to avoid too great friction I grooved the cylindrical - surface of the bullet; but, whilst I thus increased the windage of - the body of the projectile, I reserved, at the two extremities of the - cylindrical part, two circular rings of a diameter almost equal to - that of the calibre. These two rings fixed accurately in the bore, - secured the perfect position of the axis of the bullet, which the blow - of the ramrod then forced tightly. In case of foulness, they easily - gave way to the blows of the ramrod, and the axis of the bullet - remained in the required position. The hollowing of the sides of the - bullet gives besides the means of fixing on the cartridge without - increasing the diameter of the calibre. But during these - investigations, _I made an important discovery, which was, that the - gas produced by the ignition of the powder, rushing into the vacuum - formed at the base of the bullet, expanded it and forced it into the - grooves_. I here give the idea, a new one, as I think, and recommend - its application to such as occupy themselves with the effect of - fire-arms and powder. The following, however, must be avoided: if the - hollow is too deep, the expansion is too great, and the consequent - friction enormous; sometimes even the gas will traverse the bullet, - and consequently the projectile is deprived of a proportionary amount - of velocity; if too small, the expansion does not take place." - -In 1847 and 1848 Captain Minié makes his first appearance on the boards; -and he proposed a hollow iron cup to fill up the cavity in Delvigne's -bullet, and from this circumstance we get the name of Minié rifle. - -The serious defects in our arms were now, however, becoming so glaring, -and the disgrace of getting worsted in skirmishes with contemptible foes -in the Cabul and Caffre wars, as well as nearer home in the -Mediterranean, raised public indignation against the military arms -department; and this indignation reached such a pitch that an immediate -change was called for. The so-called invention of Captain Minié offered -itself, and was immediately adopted, though the very same thing had -previously, on two occasions, been rejected at my hands. - -Thus the history of the rifle is brought up to the adoption by the -Government of my principle, under the name of the Minié rifle; and the -validity of the pleas on the part of the several claimants for a share -in the invention has been succinctly stated. - -During the succeeding years I several times made unsuccessful attempts -to obtain from the English Government a recognition of my claim to the -invention. True it is that insult was not added to injury, for they did -not tell me I had no claim as an inventor, but they sheltered themselves -under the political plea of "Oh, my dear sir, the injustice did not -occur under our Administration, or we should be so happy to remedy it!" - -Time went on, and war came at length, and brought with it proof that but -for my invention we should have been ill prepared. "The queen of weapons -saved the fight:" so said the Thunderer. "When war's wild din was done," -the poor inventor was listened to. - -The first step taken was through Mr. Scholefield, the member for -Birmingham, who moved in the House of Commons for copies of the -correspondence between myself and the Board of Ordnance in 1836, and the -papers therewith connected. Thus an act of glaring injustice was -exposed, and there was evidence of proceedings having been enacted over -which I would rather draw a veil. The authorities were no doubt shocked -at the injustice which the poor inventor had met with at the hands of -the then Board of Ordnance. - -Thus I obtained the Secret Report, which elevates so high the names of -those who could designate a plan as "useless and chimerical,"[13] which -was destined eventually to create greater changes in gunnery than it had -undergone from its earliest invention. - - [13] THE SECRET REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE. - - PRESENT:--Major-General Millar; Colonel Adye, C.B.; Colonel Tyer, - C.B.; Colonel Drummond, C.B.; Sir Alex. Dickson, K.C.B.; Major Dundas. - - "_Woolwich, 29th August, 1836._ - - "SIR,-- - - "I have the honour to report that, in obedience to your minute, dated - the 22nd inst., I assembled the Select Committee for the purpose of - considering a new invented cartridge for rifles, made by Mr. William - Greener, gunmaker, of Newcastle. Patterns of these cartridges, with a - report from Major Walcott, Royal Horse Artillery, of a day's practice - with them at Tynemouth. Several balls that have been discharged at and - collected after that practice were submitted to the Committee, who, - after an attentive consideration, is of opinion that the ends purposed - by Mr. Greener have not been accomplished; that his plan _is useless - and chimerical_. The Committee do not, therefore, recommend any - further trial in the terms solicited by Mr. Greener in his memorial of - the 6th inst. - - "I have, &c., - - "WILLIAM MILLAR, _Dep.-Adjut.-Gen._" - -I then disputed the fact of its being a French invention before the -juries of the French Exposition in 1855; there, however, my evidence was -inadmissible, from the fact of it not having been exhibited, and the -invention not being a recent one. In spite of all this, I still -persevered; and my next step was to submit the subject to royalty. I -first submitted it to the Emperor Napoleon, who carefully investigated -the facts of the case, and admitted the Englishman's priority. -Eventually the British Government, after much trouble, also admitted the -fact, (though not until after it had been submitted to the successors -of the original select committee) and awarded me the sum of 1,000_l._ in -the army estimates of 1857. - -It is a fact, which all will acknowledge, that the principles involved -in an invention should be best known to the inventor himself; and if he -is unable to explain the very principles of such invention, then it is -quite fair to presume that he was not the original inventor. - -Now there is no evidence that either Delvigne or Minié had any profound -knowledge of the science of gunnery, and their knowledge of the -principles of the expansive rifle was so meagre as to justify the -assumption, that their only connection with its production was that of -copying from the _Times_ newspaper, or from my works published in 1842 -and 1846. My observations certainly appeared before any of theirs; and I -believe that no straining of facts can in any way connect them with the -invention, which was as perfect in 1841 as when they reproduced it in -1848 and 1849. - -With these remarks, I pass on to what is of more importance, viz., the -principle of the expansive rifle. - -It had long been known that to give a spiral motion to a bullet in a -direction coincident to its line of flight, was the standard of -perfection in rifle projectiles; but this, until the invention of the -expansive bullet, could never be attained with safety. - -Spheres receiving this motion are not likely to retain it, because the -periphery of the spherical bullet is, in all cases, subjected to much -more friction than the rest of the sphere; a change would therefore -certainly be induced, the axis of the spinning motion being changed from -one coincident to the line of flight to that of one vertical to the -same. The two grooved rifle was an illustration of this; for in all -cases the projections on the bullet induced a change, the ring of the -bullet revolving parallel to the horizontal line, as I predicted in -1841. - -Enough has been said to point out the prejudicial action of any -projections on projectiles, both as regards their accuracy and length of -flight; perfect smoothness of surface being, in fact, absolutely -necessary. Lengthened study and a series of experiments with bullets of -a sphero-cylindrical shape having grooves and projections on their -exterior identical with the grooving of the interior of the barrel, led -me to consider the production of a bullet with a considerable cavity -(equal, in fact, to two-thirds of its length) at the same time adopting -as a standard one and a half diameters in the length of the bore of the -gun; thus the thickness of the metal between the apex of the bullet and -apex of the cavity was nearly one half of the diameter, as the following -diagram will show. - -[Illustration] - -This enabled me to insure two important principles, on which depended -the success of the whole invention. 1st. The centre of gravity was in -the head of the projectile. 2nd. "_The force was communicated directly -to the centre of gravity during the explosion._" This is a most -important principle, which all writers presuming to give their version -to the theory of the expansive system, have entirely overlooked. - -If the arrow could receive the propelling force in the head, its motion -would be even, and free from "hobbling," as Roger Ascham wishes it to -be; but if, on the contrary, it is received at the opposite extremity, -then there is a struggle between the head and the tail, as to which -shall be first, and a "wobbling" motion is induced, enduring until an -equilibrium of velocity is established. - -It is essential to all future progress in the science of projectiles, -that this point should be remembered, and its importance duly estimated; -and it is possible to apply this principle to projectiles of any weight. -If this point be attended to, where is the difficulty in extending the -length of our projectiles to that of arrows? thus increasing their range -indefinitely. There is, in fact, no law to limit the length of expansive -bullets: the only limit to their length now is the tendency of lead to -squash; but alloys of lead and other metals may yet be beneficially used -for projectiles, and that to an extent of which at present we can form -no conception. - -The range of vision of the human eye being inferior to the range of the -rifle will probably be the only limit to its use; and this range will -not be difficult to attain: reduction in the size of bore enables us to -elongate the bullet without diminishing its weight or the accuracy of -its range; but without the existence of a cavity to insure the force -being applied to the head of the bullet, this cannot possibly be done; -whilst all other shapes are limited in their application, and an -extension of range cannot be obtained with them. - -Next to these two important points in the invention comes the question -of expansion, whereby the grooves of the rifle are filled up with lead, -and windage is as far as possible obviated. The expander I first -employed consisted of a tapering piece of iron, similar in shape to the -frustum of a cone, and this, when inserted into the cavity of the -bullet, was flush with the bottom of the cylinder. The force generated -by the ignition of the charge was exerted equally on the plug and on the -leaden cylinder; the plug, however, moving more rapidly than the lead, -is driven quicker into the bullet, the bullet expands, and thus the -filling up of the grooves is accomplished. There can be no doubt that at -the same time an upward force is exerted by the plug on the leaden -bullet; and that, too, of a more elastic character than would be exerted -by the gases themselves, if they were allowed to act directly with all -their force upon the lead; for it is a fact beyond all dispute, that any -force tending to set matter in motion gradually is more effective than -that which is instantaneous in its action. - -Many writers condemn _in toto_ the Minié principle and its cup. Minié -did not understand it; and the introduction of the cup by him was, I -believe, an accident, or the best he could do by copying my mode of -using it: it was not the production of his own brain. - -It has been urged as an argument against the use of this cup, that -sometimes expansion does not occur. This, however, may easily be -accounted for by the fact that the cup is not tightly fitted into the -cavity of the bullet; a space is left through which the elastic fluid -penetrates the cavity, the cup then has as much pressure exerted upon it -behind as in front, and hence it remains undisturbed. - -Then the cup is sometimes driven in so violently that it becomes -flattened against the flat surface of the upper portion of the cavity, -cutting the lead so entirely as to leave the cylindrical portion of the -bullet in the breech of the gun; this is well known to have been a -frequent occurrence on the first introduction of this bullet. These -defects are instanced, as evidence to show that Minié and others have no -claim whatever to the production of the original idea--they cannot even -now grasp it, but condemn it, because it is beyond the limits of their -comprehension. True it is that, after blundering for several years, our -Government have come back to my original idea, as the following -quotation will show:-- - -"Colonel Hay," says Sir Howard Douglas, "has introduced an important -improvement in the shape of the cup, and in the figure of the cavity -into which it is forced on the firing of the charge. It will be -perceived that the cavity in the Minié shot has the form of the frustum -of a cone, while that of the cup is a hemisphere: now all who have -examined the shot picked up after having struck an iron target or -penetrated into the earth, find that the hemispherical cup is very -liable to be canted or turned instead of being forced directly into the -hollow space; the lead of the shot is not driven equally into the -grooves of the rifle. For this evil Colonel Hay has proposed a remedy, -in giving both to the cup and the cavity in the shot conoidal forms; by -which means the former must, by the force of the powder, proceed -directly forward in the hollow space, and thus uniformly expand the -lower part of the shot in the bore." - -If this is not conclusive evidence of the priority of my invention, then -I cannot understand the English language. - -The next object I sought to obtain in the invention was a reduction of -opposing surface, and an increased momentum. The law of atmospheric -resistance is as the area of displacement, and the velocity with which -that displacement is effected. Thus, a spherical bullet of one ounce -weight displaces a bulk of the atmosphere equal to the area of its -hemisphere; whereas an elongated bullet of the same weight would have to -displace so much less as is the difference between their diameters. -These two bullets, started at equal velocities, are acted upon very -differently by opposing forces; the velocity of the spherical is -diminished much sooner than that of the elongated bullet, on account of -its greater diameter: hence the increased range of the elongated bullet. -Let us suppose an extreme case. Take a bullet produced from a -description of hardened lead five diameters in length, and presenting to -the atmosphere one-fifth the surface of a spherical bullet of equal -weight; the reasonable assumption would be that this bullet would range -a greater distance if projected at the same velocity, and if the same -charge of gunpowder be used as with a spherical bullet. - -The first series of experiments clearly established the fact that -increased range could be obtained, and also with a vast reduction in the -charge of gunpowder: with a saving, in fact, of nearly 50 per cent. Two -drachms and a half were found equal to a range of fourteen hundred -yards, whilst four drachms and a half on the old system would rarely -reach half that distance. These important points were gradually -developed, though not without many disappointments and much mental -anxiety: the last discovery, to have rendered the task easy, should have -been the first. - -Extreme spiral curve in the rifle barrel is incompatible with the -correct action of the expansive bullet. The old-established turns of one -in four feet, one in three feet, and one in two feet nine inches, gave -results in the order I have placed them; and it was not until the -adoption of a spiral approximating to one turn in five and a half up to -six feet, that I found the success of my experiments uniform: and this -fact illustrates one great obstacle which my invention had to contend -with before it was generally adopted. - -The ordinary sporting rifles have invariably too much spiral; the amount -of friction generated by an expansive bullet in a rifle of this -construction is enormous, absorbing in many cases one half the power of -the expellant. The result of this is most unsatisfactory: the bullet -suddenly loosed from this immense friction, and freed from the column of -air in the tube, rushes so wildly forward as entirely to destroy -equilibrium in its flight; and hence the very loud complaints of -disappointed experimenters. - -The expansive principle now adopted combines such qualities that, -however long and loudly it may be condemned, it will again assert its -superiority, and hold undisputed the first place for generations to -come. It is based on that law of nature which will always tell in -mechanical productions; namely, minimum of friction, and hence maximum -of propulsion or velocity; the greatest possible range with the least -amount of expellant agency. The same law holds, even though the bullet -should be elongated and made into an arrow. That which has been -introduced to the world as an improvement on my invention, and modestly -termed the "Pritchett bullet," I rejected in 1841 as being inferior to -the expansive bullet: any one who is curious, and wishes to be convinced -of this fact, will find the following quotation in the _Naval and -Military Gazette_ for February, 1842:--"A great improvement may be -effected by using plugs of a cylindrical shape, having the upper end -round, and the part next the powder flat or concave; for rifles, to be -of use, must be constructed for high velocity, and this can be done by a -proportionate spiral and the use of a plug similar to that given above. -In this case we may load with the greatest facility, and the bullet -expanding, forces itself into the grooves of the rifle, and thus -receives the modicum of spiral motion required." A perusal of "Captain -Jervis on the Musket Rifle" would lead one to infer that this was a -great invention on the part of Mr. Pritchett, and that it would -supersede to a certainty the more perfect expansive bullet; but Mr. -Pritchett's so-called invention has sunk into oblivion, from whence it -will never emerge. - -From practice I found that the most material defect in this bullet was -its uncertainty of action: it was driven in upon itself, and thus its -diameter was increased. A slight difference in the hardness of the lead, -a bullet moulded when the metal was hot, and the reverse, would be such -insuperable difficulties as to render their adoption quite -impracticable; moreover, when rapid firing became necessary, the -enormous friction created by the heat and hardness of the previous -deposit from exploded powder, rendered the use of these bullets highly -dangerous; as was proved in the Crimean war. I trust they are now for -ever abandoned, for their adoption did not show great intelligence on -the part of their advocates. - -The expansive principle not being adopted in the armies of France and -other Continental nations, may be justly attributed to the experimenters -of the French school having been led astray; claiming, as they did, the -entire merit of the invention. It is but fair that whilst endeavouring -to establish my own claim to the invention, I should point out the -discrepancies existing in the theory of my opponents. - -That considerable imperfections exist in the expansive rifle used in -France, is evident from the results of their experiments, and the time -which has been wasted in discussing the principles necessary for -correcting the flight of the bullet by "annular rings" being applied to -its cylindrical part. - -Captain Tamissier's theory is "that an elongated bullet in passing -through the air, describing the curve of the trajectory, maintained its -axis parallel in its successive positions to the position it had at -starting, and that the angle formed by this axis with the element of the -trajectory--that is, the direction of the motion--changed every instant. -The action of atmospheric resistance would also be altered by the -surface presented by the projectile; as the point of application of this -force would not always pass through the centre of gravity, but would -establish a rotatory motion different from that with which the bullet -was originally animated: in different words, the bullet, by preserving -its original position, would after a time be pursuing its path with its -broadside foremost; that is, with the point of its axis above the line -of the trajectory and the near end below. - -"To remedy this, and increase the precision of fire with these bullets, -Captain Tamissier thought it was necessary to create resistances to the -atmosphere as far as possible behind their centre of gravity, in order -to bring the point of the bullet back to its original course. For this -purpose he formed a number of circular grooves on the cylindrical part -of the bullet, in imitation of the feathers of an arrow; which, he says, -are placed at the hinder part to engender resistances." - -The folly of such a theory must be very apparent to a practical man. The -engraving below of a bullet obtained direct from Captain Minié in -December, 1855, and with which the troops were then experimenting at -Vincennes, when compared with my bullet of 1843, renders any further -argument unnecessary. - -[Illustration: MINIE BULLET, 1855.] - -[Illustration: GREENERIAN BULLET, 1843.] - -With this I contrast my bullet of 1841, at page 354, and a very slight -inspection will be sufficient to satisfy any one of its superiority: -every practical rifle-shooter knows that the smoother all the surfaces -of the bullet, the more extensive and accurate is the range. That the -French experiments should have given unsatisfactory results I am not at -all surprised: the flat surface on the point of the bullet must offer a -large space for the resistance of the atmosphere, during 1,000 yards of -flight. Then to this must be added the effect produced by the rings -around the bullet; and when the resistance of the atmosphere and that -produced by the friction of the bullet are added together, we need not -be surprised that the results of the experiments turned out very -unsatisfactory. Surely, if the French school invented the bullet which -produced this wonderful revolution in gunnery, they would have rendered -it perfect, instead of producing it in a more rude state in 1848 than I -had produced it in 1840. - -Another point affording strong evidence that the whole was copied from -my work of 1842, is this. In my original plan the bottom of the cavity -of the bullet was flat, exactly as it now appears in Captain Minié's -annular ringed bullet. In 1843 this was changed into a hemispherical -bottom; and this exists in all English expansive bullets, as the -adjoining woodcut will show. - -In 1852 I produced a new form of cup, intended to obviate the use of the -heavier substance, or conical piece of iron. In addition to a cup of a -parabolic spindle shape, it had a rim like that on a man's hat, as the -woodcut will show. - -[Illustration] - -A great advantage is gained by this contrivance in effectually expanding -the bullet, and thus closing up stray appendages, which are found to -exert considerable influence on the ultimate direction of the bullet. A -slight tail of cartridge-paper, a string, or an appendage of any -description, exerts such an important influence on the bullet's flight, -as to cause it in some instances to describe a curve, the termination of -which is very eccentric, and commences from the very base of its -starting. It is evident, then, that great accuracy is necessary in order -to produce a perfect expansive bullet. English bullets are pressed into -shape by machinery, whilst in France they are formed in the ordinary -mould; this, however, is at all times an uncertain mode of making them: -a slight cavity in the head of the bullet would make it eccentric in -its flight; and this is very difficult to avoid: a slight puncture, or -an eruption on the surface, would, during a lengthened flight, be -materially acted upon by the atmosphere, so as to influence in a great -degree the direction of its flight. - -The scientific world is deeply indebted to General Jacob, of the Scinde -Horse, for the zeal and energy he has displayed in carrying out his -principle of projectiles. He experimented on a scale never before -attempted by any private individual; his explosive projectiles have -created universal interest, and the great ranges he obtained will hand -down the General's name in the history of gunnery to all future -generations. - -Whilst ascribing all credit to General Jacob for the benefit he has -bestowed on projectile science, it is not less my duty to point out how -unfortunate for science, and for the General's scientific reputation, -were the defects which exist in the system of which he is so strenuous -an advocate. - -General Jacob's principle differs from mine as widely as the poles are -separated from each other. In mine there exists the least amount of -friction, the minimum of spiral motion, and a most extensive range, with -the smallest expenditure of expellant force. - -In the General's invention these points are exactly reversed: friction -is at the highest point, the degree of spiral in the groove is more than -double, and the charge, as a matter of course, is much greater. The -range is greater, no doubt; as it ought to be, being obtained at treble -cost. Cost, in all cases, is the key to success or failure; not cost in -a monetary sense only, but cost of wear and tear. Destruction of the -barrel, and the amount of buffeting by recoil, are points of cost; and -the principle of General Jacob is so nearly allied to that of the -"hexagonal" rifle, that many will think, and perhaps not without good -reason, that the one has given rise to the production of the other. The -great length of column, 2-1/2 diameters in height, is so extreme, as to -be evidence in itself of the very unsound principles on which this rifle -is constructed. When bullets composed entirely of lead are used, the -result is that the bullet is so driven in upon itself, as to upset the -whole structure, "swaging" it whilst in the barrel into a long -cylindrical tube of lead, as the wood-cut, exhibiting the bullet before -and after firing, will sufficiently explain; whilst the friction and -lateral pressure on the tube of the barrel, which must be necessary to -effect the change in the bullet, require no further comment. - -[Illustration: POINT OF BULLET BEFORE FIRING.] - -[Illustration: WHOLE BULLET AFTER FIRING.] - -The experience gained by General Jacob induced him subsequently to -adopt an iron or zinc-pointed bullet, as is depicted in the wood -engraving. - -[Illustration: COMPLETE BULLET.] - -[Illustration: METAL POINT.] - -Thus departing from the true science of the question, instead of giving -the centre of gravity to the head of the bullet, he tries to overcome -the difficulties by which his system is beset, by increasing the spiral -motion. As other writers take a similar view of the question, I insert -the following quotation from a small work by Lieutenant Simons, Bengal -Artillery, entitled "A Treatise on Fire-arms," where we have the -following appropriate remarks, strongly bearing on the peculiarities of -this system:-- - -"Every point upon the surface of a projectile in motion, whether it be a -rocket, javelin, ship, bullet, arrow, or any other description of -projectile, is the end of a lever, the fulcrum of which is situated in -the projectile's centre of gravity. The effect of the air to upset, _i. -e._, to force the light or pointed end of such projectile to the rear, -or to unsteady, or cause to waver, the same, depends upon the lengths of -the levers at the ends of which it acts, and upon the angles at which -it presses against such levers, as determined by the positions of the -points and by the shape of the projectile; it likewise depends upon the -specific intensity of the pressure, which is doubtless greatest in the -neighbourhood of those parts of the projectile which least easily allow -the air to escape past them. - -"An illustration in part of the truth of the foregoing proposition will -present itself to the conceptions of those who have taken notice of the -manner of the flight of rockets, or who have witnessed shells projected -from mortars at night time. The light of the burning fuse, particularly -during the first part of the flight of the shell, is seldom obscured -from the sight of the beholders in the battery from which it is fired. -The end of the fuse protruding beyond the general surface of the shell -is the end of a lever whose fulcrum is the shell's centre of gravity. -The pressure of the air against this lever as the shell moves forward, -drives it to the rear, in which place it would remain steady, did the -shell in its course describe a straight line; a curve, however, being -the line actually described, it follows that the direction from which -the resistance created by the shell's own motion comes, is ever varying; -whereby the occurrence of an equilibrium is prevented, and the shell is -caused to oscillate laterally as it were. If the size of the fuze end of -it, however, be at all considerable, the shell will rarely topple over, -and, in consequence, the light of the fuze, during the ascending curve, -will generally be visible. - -"The more rapidly a ball is made to reach its goal, the nearer will the -line described by it approach to a straight one, and the less will it -roll. It is possible that the old musket-ball did not roll much during -the first fifty or hundred yards of its flight, and that the accuracy of -shooting with it will have been less on this account. A ball which does -not roll, may be said to be 'in position;' there is inherent in it a -fixed tendency to deviate from the line in which it is projected. Now a -shell which rolls much by reason of its comparatively slow motion, is -ever tending to stray in different directions, and, therefore, a -movement in the wrong direction, at one moment, being compensated for -the next by a corresponding movement in the opposite direction, it may -be by this means a recipient of an amount of accidental compensation to -which, perhaps, the musket-ball is a stranger. - -"Such being the manifest effect of projections upon the surface of a -shell, it is not difficult to imagine what must be the unseen effect of -projections on the surface of a rifle ball. One projection, placed -without regard to effect upon such surface, would make the ball jog and -oscillate much after the manner that has been described. Two or more of -proper form and construction will, on the contrary, if properly placed -upon a projectile, hold it steady, and so impart to it a fixed tendency -to digress, thereby preparing it to be usefully operated upon by spiral -motion. - -"So much as has been said will, I think, suffice to disprove that not -unfrequently entertained notion to the effect that the light end of a -bullet is kept forward by the operation of the spiral motion imparted to -it. I could cite more than one person and pamphlet (General Jacob), -apparently under the influence of this belief, but which certainly does -not accord with theory, and the practical incorrectness of which was -thus manifested to me." - -The Whitworth rifle, which was introduced to the world with a clarion -flourish from the _Times_, has not made any very rapid progress toward -perfection. It still drags out an existence, it is true, but its boasted -superiority is all a myth; as time and experience will show. - -Like the former, but more meritorious, invention of General Jacob, it is -based on an unsound principle, an untenable theory, good only in -seeming, which collapses when grasped by the hand of practical -experience. - -The peculiarity connected with this weapon is the extraordinary -circumstances under which it first saw the light:--It was produced by -the aid of Plutus, dragging in reputed science to fashion on the instant -a weapon superior to the tardy results of three centuries; though during -that period numbers of talented individuals had devoted their lives to -the study of gunnery. - -Wealth is generally believed to be able to remove all obstructions, and -even to purchase capacity, if need be; though it can scarcely enable one -individual to surpass the experience of ages, however talented that -individual may be. The attempt thus to obtain such assistance was a -slight by the Government of the day to the improvers of British -fire-arms; they were passed over as of no value, and the country's -wealth was thrown into the lap of a talented, but at the same time, not -a practical man. - -The Government of this country had on all previous occasions exacted -from inventors their brains and their money, as an offering in exchange -for patronage; on this occasion, however, they departed widely from -their usual custom, for the "mountain came to the mouse." It would have -been a grateful compliment if the Government had said to the inventor, -"You have done something for the good of your country with your limited -means, here are thousands of pounds at your command; do something -better, for we need it." But nothing of the kind was done: a selection -was made, justified by no antecedent qualifications. The first thing -necessary was the acquirement in a very short time of a practical -knowledge of gunnery, in order that a weapon should be produced superior -to any other; but whether success has attended these efforts or not is -still doubtful, and this is in itself a fit rebuff to the Minister, who -expected, like the citizen's wife, that "gold would purchase capacity." - -The great defect in the hexagonal-bored rifle is the extreme amount of -friction, and the consequent useless expenditure of means. - -The bullet is produced in the most accurate manner in a lathe, and is -composed of an alloy of lead, tin, and manganese, so as to render it -hard enough to resist the tendency to squash or swage; which is the case -in General Jacob's principle. The angles on the bullet are cut with the -greatest precision, in order to fit the groove of the barrel; -constituting, in fact, a female screw of two turns in every thirty-nine -inches of length. - -As fair play has always been my motto, I am actuated by no other desire -than that of enabling the reader to form a true conception of the -intricate nature of projectile science; and though the eulogium bestowed -on the inventor's own creation is rather egotistical, I give it entire, -dissecting it afterwards in the manner I think most conducive to a -correct knowledge of the real science of gunnery. - -"THE WHITWORTH AND ENFIELD RIFLES. - - "For the last few days a very interesting and important series of - experiments has been in progress at the Government School of Musketry, - Hythe, in order to test the comparative merits of these two rifles. - The trial, which was of the most searching and impartial character, - was conducted by Colonel Hay, the able head of the school, and has - terminated in establishing beyond all doubt the great and decided - superiority of Mr. Whitworth's invention. The Enfield rifle, which was - considered so much better than any other as to justify the formation - of a vast Government establishment for its special manufacture, has - been completely beaten. In accuracy of fire, in penetration, and in - range, its rival excels it to a degree which hardly leaves room for - comparison. - - "The following table gives the best results that have been obtained - from 10 shots of each arm respectively, in the course of the - experiments, which have extended over a week in time, and were brought - to a close yesterday in the presence of Lord Panmure and of a number - of military and scientific spectators:-- - - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - |Range in |Elevation.|Figure of - RIFLE. | yards. | | Merit. - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - | | Deg. | Feet. - Whitworth } | { | 1·15 | 0·37 - Enfield } | 500 { | 1·32 | 2·24 - Whitworth }| {| 2·20 | 1·00 - Enfield }| 800 {| 2·45 | 4·11 - Whitworth } | { | 3·45 | 2·41 - Enfield } |1,100 { | 4·12 | 8·04 - Whitworth }| {| 5·00 | 4·62 - Enfield }|1,400 {|6·20 to 7.| No hits - Whitworth } | { | 6·40 | 11·62 - Enfield } |1,800 { | -- | -- - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - - It would appear from these figures that at 500 yards in 10 shots the - Manchester rifle has a superior accuracy of 1·87 of a foot; at 800 - yards 3·11; at 1,100 yards 5·63; and that at 1,400 yards and upwards - the Enfield weapon ceases to afford any data for a comparison. In - penetration the results obtained have been equally decisive; the - Whitworth projectile, with the regulation charge of powder, going - through 33 half-inch planks of elm, and being brought up by a solid - oak bulk beyond, while the Enfield ball could not get past the 13th - plank. - - "The shooting on Tuesday was more to satisfy Lord Panmure and the - other strangers present upon the comparative merits of the two weapons - than to show the limit of what each could do under favourable - circumstances. Still, the targets of every 10 shots on either side - bore decisive evidence of the superiority of the new rifle, as a - glance at the following table will prove:-- - - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - |Range in|Elevation.|Figure of - RIFLE. | yards.| | Merit. - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - | | Deg. | Feet. - Whitworth } | {| 2·22 | 1·41 - Enfield } | 800 {| 2·45 | 5·67 - Whitworth }| | { | 1·27 - Enfield }| 500 | -- { | 3·30 - Whitworth } | | {| 1·33 - Enfield } | 500 | -- {| 4·01 - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - - "The last entry in the table records the mean radial distance from a - central point of 10 shots fired from a table-rest, by Colonel Hay and - Mr. Gunner, the manager of the Enfield factory. Both are first-rate - marksmen, yet at 500 yards the Manchester rifle in the hands of the - former gives three times as good shooting as the latter can get out of - the Government arm. All the other trials were made by firing from a - beautifully-constructed machine rest, which placed both weapons on a - footing of perfect equality as to the conditions under which they were - tested. In addition to the foregoing experiments, there was one for - showing that with cylindro-conoidal balls on the expansion principle - of those used for the Enfield rifle, very superior shooting could be - obtained from Whitworth's hexagonal bore. This was most satisfactorily - established, the mean deviation on the target from the centre of the - group of 10 hits being only ·85 of a foot at 500 yards' range. It will - be observed that at 500 yards' range, at which the practice commenced, - the shooting of Whitworth's rifle was so much better than the other - that no greater distance was attempted. A reference to the first table - of experiments will also demonstrate that the target made by the - former weapon at 1,100 yards is nearly as good as that made by the - latter at 500. These are great results to have achieved, and amply - justify the forethought of the late Lord Hardinge in securing the - services of so eminent a mechanic as Mr. Whitworth for the improvement - of the rifle. Until he took the subject in hand the proper principles - for guidance in the construction of the weapon had not been accurately - determined. The manufacture was still conducted by rule of thumb, and - in a very hap-hazard way on the most important points. The use of - grooves and an expansive projectile made it impossible to secure the - requisite amount of pitch in the rifling and the indispensable - hardness of metal in the bullet for penetration. Moreover, from the - small amount of bearing, the wear and tear both in the barrel and in - the projectile were enormous, and the length of the latter could not - be increased without causing it to capsize in its flight. By the - polygonal bore and rapid pitch to which the form of the bullet - accurately conforms, Mr. Whitworth has rendered stripping impossible, - and, his rifle when fired acting exactly like a male and female screw, - the projectile must rotate with perfect steadiness and precision on - its axis. He can increase its length so considerably as to secure - space for converting it into a shell if necessary; and, being able to - use metal of any degree of hardness, he can adapt its form and - strength exactly to the work which it has to perform. Thus with a - rifle 39 inches long and half-inch bore, having a turn in 20 inches, - or two turns in its length, he finds no difficulty in penetrating a - wrought-iron plate 6-10ths of an inch thick or cutting a core out of - a piece of solid timber half a foot thick; and some idea may be formed - of the extraordinary power of this arm when we mention that his - projectiles in their flight rotate at the rate of 15,000 revolutions - per minute. The question of driving holes in the 4-inch breast plates - of floating batteries is at once solved by the application of these - principles to artillery, the construction of which this new rifle - proves must be completely revolutionized. A weapon which in expert - hands will make good practice at 1,400 yards, and the range of which - can be very easily helped by a telescope if necessary, gives the _coup - de grace_ to our present system of field batteries. At the Alma it - would have silenced the Russian guns or driven them from their - position, rendering the rush of the Light Division, with the heavy - loss of life consequent thereon, unnecessary. Nor during the siege of - Sebastopol would the rope mantlets of the Redan and the Malakhoff - having given much protection to the men working behind the - embrasures," &c., &c., &c. - -So much for the praise bestowed by Mr. Whitworth on his own production. -A beautiful experiment it has been, and one for which the scientific -world is bound to be thankful; giving, as it does, perhaps a faint idea -only of what is yet to be effected. - -However, all is not gold that glitters: it is very well to do all this -by straining every principle that can be brought to bear,--extra charge, -bullets hardened and turned with mathematical precision, steel barrels, -with a fineness of polish in the interior like that of a -looking-glass--these are all great adjuncts in the trial against an -ordinary unprepared gun, taken from a number promiscuously, and which -perhaps might be the worst specimen in the possession of the party at -Hythe. But these are trifles when compared with the two following facts. -The diameter of the bore of Mr. Whitworth's is 500, or half-inch at the -largest diameter, and 450 at the smallest, or a mean, taking the two -extremes, of fifty bore; the Enfield is 577, or twenty-five bore, and -the bullets on leaving the guns were the same weight exactly. The length -of the Enfield bullet is 7/8 inch, that of the Whitworth is 1-3/8 inch. -But all this will be more fully seen from the woodcuts. - -[Illustration: ENFIELD BARREL AND PRITCHETT BULLETS.] - -[Illustration: WHITWORTH BARREL AND BULLETS.] - -Thus it will be seen that the amount of resistance or displacement of -atmospheric air by one bullet is nearly double that of the other, and -this is a most important point in Mr. Whitworth's favour; but the -quantity of gunpowder used in the one is precisely the same as that used -in the other, though Mr. Whitworth's rifle is little more than half the -size of bore, the pressure on the square inch being consequently nearly -double; hence the circumstances are not sufficiently equal for Mr. -Whitworth to claim for his rifle any great superiority: the gun may take -the attention of the unwary, but its principles will not bear -investigation. - -Let me change the circumstances of the case, by retaining the principle -of the Enfield, but changing the bore to the same as Mr. Whitworth's, -increasing at the same time the length of projectile, and I will engage -to beat it with a much reduced charge. The extreme degree of female -screw or spiral, one turn in twenty inches, or two turns in the whole -length of the barrel, creates, as must be familiar to the most obtuse -mind, an enormous amount of friction, and in consequence of this an -equal quantity of force is absorbed: in other words, there is a useless -waste of force. - -The Enfield barrel has but a proportion of turn, one in six feet six -inches, or exactly half a spiral in the three feet three, generating 300 -per cent. less friction than in the Whitworth rifle; so that on this -score alone the saving would be very great, and in this trial the -Whitworth would be inferior to the Enfield; the inventor, therefore, has -unjustly laid claim to superiority, as the trial has been conducted on -very unequal terms. - -Mr. Whitworth says his bullet rotates at the rate of 15,000 revolutions -in a minute; now the friction on the periphery of a bullet having this -extreme spinning on an axis, must very much lessen its range. If we -weigh force, and carefully calculate its expenditure in 2,000 yards, the -periphery has made 4,000 revolutions. Now look at the shape of the -hexagonal body depicted in the woodcut at page 377, and estimate the -friction it will undergo. The Enfield in the same distance would rotate -only 1,000 times, thus affording another gain of 300 per cent. The -question, therefore, which arises is this: If all this can be done -equally well with the Enfield, why not do it? And the answer is, because -there is nothing to be gained by it. Great doubts now exist whether the -bore 25 is not too great a reduction: in fact, you will find no military -advocates for it. The faculty will tell you that small wounds are not so -destructive as large ones: the human body is as much affected by the -shock as by the penetration of a bullet. Many other reasons might be -advanced in favour of increased size of bullet, and much more important -reasons must be given, before the whole military system has to be -re-changed, than a mere gain of 300 or 400 yards; whilst there can be -little doubt that the ranges we now possess in the Enfield are more than -equivalent to our wants. The human eye cannot define precisely at 900 or -1,000 yards, and yet greater accuracy is required to fire a ball at a -distance of 2,000 yards; again, it is a question which has frequently -arisen in my mind, in how many situations in England or on the Continent -can we get a clear view of 2,000 yards. The effort, indeed, to increase -range appears like seeking after a remedy for a disease which has never -yet been discovered. - -If ranges of 2,000 yards and upwards are required, rifled cannon will -again take their proper place; for on investigating the tables of -practice published by General Jacob, I find the average distance of -shot from the centre of butt to be, at 2,000 yards, nearly 9 feet, with -13·7 degrees elevation; whilst the Whitworth is said to be 11-1/2 feet, -with about 8 degrees of elevation. I saw, some time ago, some practice -at Shoeburyness with an 18-pounder rifle cannon, which gave a range of -3,650 yards, with an elevation of 0·10-3/4 degrees, and a breeze blowing -across, a mean deflection of only 30 inches from the centre. This throws -Jacob, Whitworth, and the Enfield all into the shade together; yet there -can be no doubt that this can be excelled, when heavier guns are brought -to the same state of perfection as this 18-pounder. The case therefore -stands thus: the Jacob rifle has a greater range than the Enfield, at a -cost of 100 per cent. more friction, and an expenditure of 50 per cent. -more of projectile force; the Whitworth has also a greater range, but at -a cost of 300 per cent. more friction, and 100 per cent. additional -projectile force. With these observations I leave this subject in the -hands of the public, being convinced that projectile power obtained at -such a cost will never come into general use; though the production of -the Whitworth rifle will always be looked upon as an experiment of very -great interest. - -There is but one other point relating to the use of guns on such a -principle, and that is their safety; which is always of the greatest -importance. It is a well-known fact that the first movement of -projectiles depends very much on the amount of inertia in that -projectile; and different forms of projectiles, though of the same -weight, will offer very different amounts of resistance to motion. No -one can doubt that two columns of lead, each of an ounce in weight, one -being as high again as the other, will offer different amounts of -resistance; first, from the law that the time occupied in overcoming -inertia is in proportion to the length of that body; secondly, if these -columns of metals are confined in tubes, then the friction on the one -which is half an inch long will be much less than on the other, which is -one inch in length: and this is, on the mildest terms, the relative -position of the two. There can be no doubt that a much greater pressure -is required to start the longer column of double the length; but when we -consider that there are the facets of six angles, with a spiral -inclination of one in nineteen, the difficulty of starting this bullet -becomes still more apparent. Now suppose the gun has been loaded a few -hours, and a certain amount of adhesion has been effected between the -bullet and sides of the barrel, by the unctuous deposit from previous -discharges, then the difficulty of starting the bullet instantaneously -will be still more increased: supposing the breech end of a barrel, with -the ordinary charge of the Enfield cartridge and bullet, has a force -exerted upon it of 2,000 pounds in the square inch, then in the -hexagonal not much less than double that strength will be requisite to -meet the contingencies of dirty guns: in fact I know that a serious -accident did occur very recently with a double rifle constructed on -Whitworth's principle, notwithstanding all the care bestowed upon it by -a first-rate maker; and I believe that this gun, if it is to be used -with safety, must have a barrel double the strength of other rifles. - -The doubtful nature of Mr. Whitworth's experiments must be apparent from -the fact that they were made in a shed, from which strong currents of -air were excluded: any bullet would range accurately in vacuo, or in -atmosphere equally quiescent; deductions, therefore, drawn from such -experiments must be worthless. Battles occur not under such favourable -circumstances; protuberances on bullets tell most in high currents, and -least in a quiet atmosphere; so that had the experiments been instituted -in the open air, they would doubtless have yielded a different result. -The hexagonal bullet of large size has been proved to be very eccentric -indeed in its flight; hence a bullet of the smallest dimensions was -used, for had it been larger, its great enemy, the atmosphere, would -have rendered the chance of even partial success perfectly hopeless. - -Now, observe what would be the effect of extension of length and -decrease of diameter in the Greenerean expansive bullet. Harden it by -alloys, as adopted in the Whitworth; use the same charge, and the -probability is great, that, from the absence of extreme friction, it -will excel in range, accuracy, and penetration the Whitworth, as much as -that does now the Enfield. - -If the Government can see any important advantage to be gained by -extending the range we now possess; if anything is to be gained by -reduction from 25 to 50 bore; if, indeed, there is any point which is -advantageous in the Whitworth, I will pledge my reputation that this -may be obtained in the expansive principle: and that, too, with a much -less expenditure of expellant force. - -The "hoodwinking" of the public by not disclosing the fact that the -pressure of the gunpowder in the Whitworth was double, the bore being -but one-half, is at best an attempt at concealment not creditable to the -parties concerned. Knowledge of the principles which regulate projectile -science is not so scanty as to allow the palm to be carried away from -the profession, and worn by a gentleman who, on his own admission, is -unpractised in the science of gunnery. The science to be effectually -improved must be carried on at the cost of the nation, as Mr. -Whitworth's experiments were. This fact certainly bears the appearance -of a good precedent, and I hope it may be extended. - -Mr. Whitworth, like General Jacob, has had to sacrifice scientific -economy in order to obtain the points he required. I have already -dilated upon the truism that all projectiles range with the greatest -economy which have the centre of gravity in the head or fore part of the -bullet. I have also pointed out the fact that the elongated projectiles -which have not the centre of gravity in the head, turn over during their -flight after leaving the muzzle of the gun; and this is also found to be -the case in rifles having a greater degree of spiral than the Enfield, -one turn in six feet 6 inches. To meet this difficulty, therefore, -General Jacob adopts one turn of spiral in every three feet: thus his -bullet in passing out has double the friction of the Enfield; and when -we look at the fact that he is further compelled to increase the length -of his bullet to 2-1/2 diameters, a little reflection will point out the -entire want of economy in his whole arrangement. - -On turning to the Whitworth, we find that, in order to ensure his bullet -keeping point foremost in its flight, he has to double the very great -spiral adopted by Jacob: thus we have all its concomitant disadvantages, -friction, expenditure of matter, and danger of bursting the gun. When we -contemplate such arrangements as exist in these two guns, it must be -evident that they are both self-destructive. No system of projectiles -can be durable which is effected by straining all the acknowledged -principles of mechanics; and this has been done in each of these cases. - -The scientific world knows well that a much higher rate of speed can be -attained in railway travelling than is daily practised; but they also -know that it can only be obtained in the same way as Jacob and Whitworth -obtained their range in gunnery: namely, by an excessive expenditure of -fuel, and a wear of engine amounting to comparative destruction; whilst, -at the same time, the danger is so much increased that it would be folly -and recklessness to persist in such a course. The question, therefore, -resolves itself into this; that in locomotion and in projectile science, -if we would have them perfect, we must study the mode of obtaining the -greatest results with the least expenditure of means. - -Facility of loading must at all times be of great importance: the -soldier cannot have the means of cleaning his rifle when in action, and -yet if the hexagonal principle were to be adopted, it must be repeatedly -cleaned, or it would be almost impossible to load it, and when -discharged it would either burst or its fire would not be effective. -During such a war as that in India, going on day and night, a soldier -could not be expected to wash out his rifle after every half-dozen -shots. - -The field in which experiments are carried on is very different from -that of a battle. Experiments, as detailed, sometimes turn out most -fallacious when put to the use for which they are intended; and in no -case is this more apparent than in breech-loading arms: thousands of -rounds may be fired in a few days with great success; but extend that -over twelve months, a certain number being fired every day, and the gun -being cleaned after each day's practice, and long before thousands are -fired, the gun displays weak points--points which could not be -discovered in the lesser experiment. So it is in practice: a gun left -dirty for hours is undergoing rapid destruction; the unctuous deposit -from gunpowder has such an affinity for iron that minute galvanic cells -are formed on its surface in a very short time: half an hour after a gun -has been discharged in a damp atmosphere these operations may be seen to -be going on with rapidity, and an old gun on the hexagonal principle (if -one should last long enough to grow old) would not be a very desirable -weapon, in point of safety. - -The comparative cost of ammunition for the hexagonal rifle and the -Enfield, is a point of no little importance. Calculation gives the -former at something equivalent to 4-1/2_d._ or 5_d._ at each discharge, -while the latter cannot exceed 1-1/4_d._, or at most 1-1/2_d._--a -serious question for the Chancellor of the Exchequer. - -That this sum may be lessened by the employment of machinery is not -unlikely; but this can only be done to a limited extent, it being -essential that mathematical nicety, as well as the right degree of -hardness, should be strictly observed, otherwise the power of -penetration will be sacrificed: and of this property a great deal has -been made. There are few who do not know that a pound hammer will soon -drive to the head a fine-pointed slender nail; whilst a short, thick, -stumpy nail requires three times the force: again, if fine steel -polished nails were constructed, a still smaller amount of force would -suffice. If such effects are carefully studied, much may be done with -very little means. - -Very recently a statement appeared in the press that, owing to some -ill-made cartridges being served out to the troops in India, the men -found it almost impossible to load their Enfield rifles at all; having -to call in the aid of trees and stones against which to butt the ramrod, -in order to force the bullet home. The same account attributed this -defect to the careless construction of these cartridges by the -contractors. This, however, is unjust; all cartridges for the Enfield -rifles being alone produced in the laboratory at Woolwich; and hence the -defect is the more unpardonable. It is easy to conceive that in India, -where the heat is intense, the grease on the cartridge might have -disappeared; the unctuous deposit of gunpowder on the interior of the -barrel is also rendered more adhesive, and necessarily offers greater -obstruction to the ramming down of the bullet. The very slight -difference between the diameter of the bullet and that of the bore, or -windage, must necessarily add to the difficulty under such -circumstances; but if half a size, or a few decimals of diameter, were -taken from the sides of the bullet and added to its length, the -difficulty would be effectually removed: with increased length, and -increasing means of expansion, if necessary, such an occurrence could -never take place. - -The original expanding bullet was intended to fill up the difference of -three sizes of gauge; surely, then, there can be no difficulty in -expanding a much less diameter of bullet one half, or even full one size -of gauge. Where would be the difficulty in having the bullet 26-bore, or -even smaller, and expanding it to 25. The occurrence, indeed, of -such a fact as that alluded to is to an intelligent mind quite -incomprehensible; it could only arise from gross incompetency--some -cobbling with the bullet's cup in the pressing, or perhaps enlargement -by wear, or more likely still from the pulp-made cartridge paper. That -this difficulty has been experienced is obvious; and the inference is -strong, that the official managers of these affairs are still in the -midst of a long experiment: it is clear that they are not perfectly -masters of the practice of gunnery, and it is almost time the people of -this country had their work better done. It is more than probable that, -instead of meeting this difficulty with the proper spirit of -improvement, they will fly off at some other tangent, and adopt the -nostrum of some "arrant quack;" thus effectually adding to the -complication. - -Each regiment ought to have moulds, and the means of making their -cartridges on such emergencies; a body of provident officials ought to -attend to this, that a repetition of it may be avoided. - -An ordinary mind would have perceived that, in such lengthened -operations as those our soldiers have been engaged in, the cleaning of -their arms would be almost impossible; still the men are not instructed -that in such a difficulty an oiled rag passed up and down the barrel -would diminish it; neither is such a simple remedy provided: let us -trust, however, that this misfortune will lead to improvement. If this -difficulty is encountered in the Enfield, which is, comparatively -speaking, a smooth bore, what would be the difficulty in the hexagonal -bore with two turns in 39 inches! The possibility of loading the latter -would be very remote indeed, if not quite impracticable, and a total bar -to anything like its general adoption. - -Pure lead is indispensable for all rifle bullets, but more especially -for the expansive, which is in reality useless without it. A lubricating -grease, of a given consistency for various climates, is also a -desideratum yet to be accomplished; how desirable it would be, is shown -by all the accounts of good shooting I have ever received or met with. - -A vast number of projectiles have been produced, and strenuously -advocated; but from the total want of scientific arrangement in their -construction they have had but a very short existence. The vital -principle in all elongated projectiles is to have the centre of gravity -in the fore end; wanting that, an unnecessary spinning motion must be -resorted to, at the cost of immense friction: for the tendency to change -position can only be obviated by excessive spiral motion; whilst in a -bullet having the centre of gravity in the head, much less spiral motion -suffices: its scientific construction admits of no tendency to change; -straight forward is its natural inclination, and to this inclination it -adheres. - -A late writer on projectiles has laboured hard to condemn the expansive -principle and the cup; he has even aspired to lecture on it before -Royalty, and as an improvement upon it, he recommends the following -invention of his own:-- - -"In my endeavours to remedy the evils which have been so often and -justly complained of, I attempted the construction of several bullets, -particularly with the view of solving the question--can a -cylindro-conoidal bullet be contrived, which will have a flat surface -for its base, and the centre of gravity in the fore part? In my attempts -from time to time I met with less or more success until I arrived at my -last improvement, the principle of which has afforded me so much -satisfaction, that I fancy I have only to describe it, to enable any -intelligent marksman to perceive at once the utility of the contrivance. - -"In the end of the bullet, which is a fair cylinder for half its length, -I formed a cavity of a conical form, similar to the inside of a small -thimble, which stretches forward somewhat more than half the length of -the bullet, and which is wide enough to reduce sufficiently the weight -of the hinder end, so as to throw the centre of gravity into the fore -part, even after the explosion of the charge takes place. On the edge of -the cavity I made an indentation, or shoulder, about a twelfth of an -inch in depth, and upon this I placed an iron disc of the same -thickness, which closes up the cavity even with the end of the bullet, -making a flat surface of that part; so that it may be called a hollow -flat-ended bullet, though to all appearance solid." - -The adoption of the disc, and the closing of the orifice at the bottom -of the bullet, is merely the production of an elongated plug with weak -sides, which must necessarily be driven in upon themselves, and thus -shortened; and in so doing they expand. The disc prevents the -possibility of the explosive gases acting upon the centre of gravity or -the head, and thus the advantage of that being the primary motion is -lost; and which ensures the absence of "wobbling," a principle inherent -in all plug bullets after leaving the muzzle: and a defect which it was -the main object of my invention to avoid. The idea is evidently that of -Captain Norton, as evinced in his rifle shell, and consequently is a -plagiarism, either deliberate or accidental. - -[Illustration: SWISS BULLET.] - -The Swiss bullet has obtained to some extent a reputation, admitting, -like the Lancaster elliptical bullet, of being put into higher velocity. -Its range, however, is limited, from the very great friction it -undergoes in passing up the barrel: it is driven in upon itself until it -becomes a mere plug of lead with a hemispherical head; and the centre of -gravity being behind, ensures its flight frequently terminating by -turning "topsy turvy." Moreover, it cannot be used on a large scale, -except by the addition of a hard metal point, as in General Jacob's -bullet. - -The wisdom displayed in rifling barrels with the gathering or deepening -groove may be doubted; it admits of serious consideration, whether or -not it tends to increase the friction of the bullet passing outward. It -is evident that did the bullet expand all at once it would do so; but as -this is well known not to be the case, the question arises what is the -advantage gained? for it is asserted on high authority that it improves -the shooting. The mere deepening of the grooves at the breech end can -have but little effect; and the question is, does the shallowing of the -grooves as the bullet approaches the muzzle, produce the effect? We -think it does. In the process of rifling these barrels, the rifling -tool, by a very ingenious arrangement of screws, is caused gradually to -cut deeper as it travels from the muzzle to the breech, so that when -finished the depth of grooves at the muzzle is ·005 of an inch; half-way -down the barrel it is ·010, and at the breech end ·015: thus gradually -deepening 10/1000 of an inch, whereas the usual method of rifling is to -have one uniform depth of ·010 inches. From the contraction of the -protuberances on the bullet from 1/10 to 1/5000 of an inch in passing up -the barrel, results the apparent benefit: such a reduction would surely -allow of the bullet continuing its flight with less friction on the -atmosphere; for it cannot be too often repeated that perfect smoothness, -even to a polished surface, is essential to the easy passage of all -bullets through the air. - -There are some rather curious deductions obtained by practice alone, -which to ordinary minds appear of trifling importance; but they clearly -show that correct rifle-shooting can only be obtained by the most -perfect arrangement in the rifling and scientific construction of the -barrels. - -The Government have lately adopted a highly finished and costly rifle -arm, with sword bayonet attached to the usual form of bar soldered to -the end of the barrels on the right side. When these barrels were first -constructed, they were made lighter than experience subsequently showed -they ought to be; for it was found that the barrel not expanding equally -with the other portions at this necessarily rigid point, influenced the -shooting of the gun to a considerable extent; so that an increase of -metal was found necessary. - -The difficulty of obtaining good shooting with double rifles, one side -of each barrel being held rigid whilst the other is yielding, explains -the difficulty, and points to the remedy: an increase of metal, or, what -would be more convenient, the adoption of the most perfect laminated -steel for all double rifles; it being self-evident that soft barrels and -correct rifle-shooting are to a certain extent incompatible. - -Double rifles have nearly superseded single ones; for few who can afford -the additional price will use the latter, when in the same weight he can -have two useful weapons. The one great end generally sought in a rifle -is sufficient weight to neutralise the force of the explosion or recoil; -and the additional barrel answers this as effectually as additional -thickness of iron in the single. But there is one objection which I have -never been able to master in the construction of double rifle barrels, -and I much doubt the possibility of effectually overcoming it--another -proof that mathematical demonstrations are frequently wrong in practice, -however correct in theory. Many hold it to be essential that double -rifle barrels should be put together perfectly parallel. I followed this -rule, and was at considerable cost in perfecting tools for the purpose; -yet, strange to say, in trial I found invariably that the right barrel -threw the ball slightly to the right, and the left to the left. This I -have been at enormous trouble to ascertain, and am enabled positively -to declare it is an indisputable fact. The cause of it is evidently the -recoil not striking the stock in the centre, but on one side; which -causes the gun to swerve to that side. However small or unapparent the -recoil may be, still there is a recoil; and hence its effect. To remedy -this it is necessary to incline the barrels in, towards the muzzle, to -counteract that tendency; but in doing this another evil is created, for -you can only do this to suit a given distance, either 100, 150, or 200 -yards, as may be determined. Thus it will be perceived a deficiency must -exist at all times; and it shows clearly the necessity for motion being -resisted centrically, if truth is to be maintained. This defect in the -double rifle will always be a drawback to the "_most correct_ shooting;" -yet under ordinary circumstances it may not be a matter of vital -importance, neither does there exist any means of sighting to overcome -the difficulty. The only way to obtain a double rifle perfectly -true--perfectly parallel, is to construct the barrels one above the -other, as double pistols are now constructed. The only objection to them -is the difficulty attending the arrangement of the locks, as one cock -must strike the nipple the thickness of the barrel below the other, and -is an unsightly matter at best. These facts lead to another, namely, the -necessity of all rifles being stocked as straight as possible, avoiding -in all cases any casting off in the butt; as it is evident that these -matters have considerable influence on the correctness of shooting. - -One great drawback to correct shooting is produced from the stock being -thrown off at the butt end; and, in other cases, from imperfections in -the stocking of the gun--all truth depending on the barrel or barrels -being both stocked and held perfectly level in the act of using. It must -be quite clear, that in case the right barrel of a pair be depressed but -the 32nd part of an inch, the angle of the sight on the top, instead of -giving elevation, will cause the line of flight of ball to be to the -left, and "_vice versâ_." Therefore, first of all be sure the gun is -held square; and great advantage will be found in pointing the muzzle in -all cases a few feet below the object, and raising it in a perfect line -upwards to the bull's eye. If this can be done well, in addition to the -gun being held square, the better half of the difficulty is overcome; -further practice will make perfect. - -The point next in importance, is to take off the weight of the pull in -the trigger, during the upward motion; overcoming the last atom of -weight as the muzzle sight covers the bull's eye. It must be done so -gradually, that no jerk or pull can move the gun, be it ever so -triflingly: in fact, all good shots fire thus while the gun is in -motion. If the sight cannot be correctly obtained during the movement, -always take the rifle down from the shoulder, and raise it again; for -depend upon it, rifle shooting can never be acquired perfectly, where -the habit is practised of holding the gun at the shoulder, "poking" the -muzzle about and seeking the bull's eye. All good shooting is produced -from the shoulder; an absence of pulsation in the body which is induced -by holding a weight. The shoulder rests are found to be the cause of -vibration; resting one part of the body and straining another begets it -instantly, and where rests are used they should be merely supports for -the muzzle, and not for the centre of the gun. If the centre is placed -upon it, the action of recoil is almost sure to jump the gun upwards. -The best shooting can be accomplished from the shoulder, if the above -instructions be carefully followed. Avoid in all cases gripping a rifle -tightly, or you will most assuredly communicate the pulsation of the -body to the rifle. - -During the Crimean war many of the Enfield rifles expanded so much with -the Pritchett plug bullet as not only to loosen all the bands on the -stock, but also to produce a visible effect on the barrel; and to remedy -this the Government adopted my expanding screw bands, which admit of -being tightened by the screw when necessary. - -The production of a perfect breech-loading small arm is as difficult as -the production of a perfect breech-loading cannon, and that is so -problematical as to amount, in my humble opinion, to nearly an -impossibility. All experience teaches that a perfectly sound base of -projection in the gun is indispensable, if good direction and velocity -are required; without which there can be no good shooting. If this be a -law, how can it be obtained where soundness is absent? Joints, slides, -and their attendants, are all incompatible with soundness: the two -cannot exist together; and hence no breech-loader can give the same -results as a solid constructed gun barrel, unsoundness and absorption of -power being always found to go hand in hand together. - -I have had considerable experience in breech-loading guns, having -obtained one or two patents; and very careful attention to the subject -has satisfied me that the question was sufficiently ventilated soon -after the adoption of gunnery, and that it was exhausted by many -hundreds of inventors as ingenious as those of the present day; the -result being in all cases a total failure. - -One of the best breech-loading carbines of the present day is -undoubtedly that of Mr. F. W. Prince, and those to whom they are -unobjectionable will certainly find in this the simplest and a most -effective weapon of the kind: Mr. Prince has certainly made the most of -the practical knowledge he has brought to bear upon the invention. - -Revolving rifles are, like revolving pistols, complicated weapons, -useful only for certain purposes; requiring, as they do, very great care -and cleanliness, to insure at best their limited services. Long barrels -are useless, because all the velocity that can be given to the -projectile has to be generated in the revolving chambers; all the -superfluous force escaping at the joint of breeches and barrels. For any -useful purpose, a nine-inch would be better than a longer barrel, -allowing the bullet to leave the muzzle at a much higher velocity than -it would do after passing through a barrel of thirty inches. It is -evident, indeed, that a revolving pistol and a revolving rifle are -possessed of power in inverse ratio to their lengths. - -The French Government are making great efforts to improve their military -system, in imparting to every soldier as much information relative to -his weapons and the best method of using them, as is compatible with his -limited education. Their institution of a normal-school for the -instruction of the whole army in all that relates to guns, shooting, and -natural "trigonometry," is proof of this. A detachment from every -infantry regiment in the service arrives at "Vincennes" early in the -spring, and the men undergo a complete course of instruction during the -whole of the summer and autumn months, or until by ability they acquire -all that is to be taught. The first and a very essential part of the -duty is to teach them to judge of distance; for this purpose a soldier -takes a target, and runs straight ahead as far as he pleases. Having -planted it, each man is called upon to judge the distance, which is -recorded in a report of the day. This exercise is carried on to a great -extent, until each becomes well able to judge correctly; then commences -the instruction in shooting, each soldier using an elevation according -to the distance he calculates he is from the target; and this is -practised at all distances, from 500 to 1,000 paces. The greatest degree -of perfection attained by the instructed is rewarded, by promotion or -otherwise; and such skill in shooting is displayed by these various -detachments as would truly astonish our military officers. - -The accomplishment of a school of instruction for teachers of rifle -shooting to the British army is now an established fact; the results, -most flattering to the projectors, more than verifying their -anticipations. The degree of perfection attained by some before leaving -Hythe is so extraordinary, that I will leave the reality to be imagined -or witnessed; and it will well repay the journey. The standing order -lately issued, awarding substantial benefits to the adept in shooting, -is sure to bear its fruits, and is only the first step to many others of -no less importance. - -Double rifled carbines can be constructed of so light a weight that -their exclusive use for cavalry purposes is not far distant, 5-1/2 -pounds being sufficient weight to ensure perfect safety. A carbine of -this description, from 18 to 20 inches in the barrel, could give a -practical range of from 600 to 700 yards, with an extreme range of 1,000 -to 1,100. A cavalry soldier armed with two of these would be equal to -four of the present day, for they would be no greater encumbrance than -the late carbine used by the Guards, which approaches 10 lbs. in weight; -and a pair of double carbines could easily be carried at the saddle bow, -their length being no obstacle. - -Revolvers have not yet been, and I fear they never can be, made -sufficiently durable to become a useful cavalry appendage. The fact may -be concealed, but it is true, nevertheless, that their fragile nature, -independently of their great cost, will always confine their use to an -exclusive few: indeed, revolving and breech-loading weapons are among -the doubtful class of arms, not fully developed as yet, even if they -ever can be. - -The adoption of double carbines will eventually throw all other small -arms for cavalry purposes into the back ground; a range of 1,000 yards -with a toy 5-1/2 lbs. in weight is one of the greatest wonders of this -wonderful age, showing the astonishing change which has been effected in -gunnery: for a deadly power now exists in the most Lilliputian toy as -well as in the Brobdignagian monster; and that, too, at immense -distances. In proof of this, I will just quote a letter from that -gallant officer, Lieutenant William A. Kerr, Southern Mahratta Irregular -Horse. - - "_Camp, Bejapore, May 29th, 1858._ - - "SIR, - - "I have received the Enfield carbine, and am much pleased with it in - every respect. It cannot, I consider, be improved on, and is by far - the best weapon for the mounted service I have ever handled. It is but - due to you that I should mention, that your work, as put into the - carbine, is far beyond what I expected at the money. I hope to be in a - position, at no very distant date, to give you a heavy commission, and - will certainly recommend you in every way I can. I have knocked over a - deer at 400 yards with the carbine, and make very good practice up to - 800 yards, by firing with two drachms of fine rifle powder. I have - given it, and Prince's breech-loader, a fair trial; the latter cannot - be compared to the former; it has not the same range, power of - projection, or of shooting; it moreover fouls in the proportion of at - least 3 to 1 more. Had I had such carbines at Kolapore, I would have - destroyed the 27th Native Infantry in an hour. - - "I am, sir, yours, &c., - - "WILLIAM A. KERR." - -The weight of this single carbine is only 5-1/4 lbs., and it is 20 -inches in the barrel. The great power of shooting would justify a -reduction of length to 15 inches, thus reducing the weight to a little -over 4-1/4 lbs.; and yet this carbine would be more certain in its -effects at 600 yards, than old Brown Bess at 150. The complaint that -carbines are found to be an encumbrance in the service is no longer -valid: they may be made to form merely a portion of the saddle with the -same facility of handling as a pistol, and with a hundredfold greater -accuracy of range. - -[Illustration: Mr. Greener's Model Carbine, 22 inches long in the -barrel, .577 bore, 5-1/4 lbs. weight.] - -The hybrid affair, adopted by the Government, of a pistol made to serve -as a carbine by the introduction of a loose butt, is of doubtful -utility: if valuable as a carbine, it will never be used as a pistol; -hence it had been much better to make it a carbine at once, thus -rendering it at the same time more durable and less costly: even a -double carbine might be constructed at about twice the price paid for -the socket joint alone. But there is still a want in the Government -establishment of "designers" of ability; all that has been effected by -way of improvement has been done by feeling the way: a kind of -progressional experiment, with a total absence of mind to grasp good -ideas, and to hold them fast. The arms used by the corps of Guides who -have distinguished themselves so much in India are now seven years old, -and they will bear comparison with the best arms our Government are only -just now producing: in fact, the irregular cavalry in India have always -been armed with weapons in advance of those of the Government troops; -and the explanation of this is very suggestive, they provide arms for -themselves, and are more alive than the Government officials to the -importance of having good ones. - -The adoption of greased cartridges in India by some irregular corps, -took place in carbines supplied by me eight or nine years ago; and the -origin of the idea was this:-- - -The principal objection urged against the adoption of the rifle, is that -of loading. I know not how quickly it is possible to load a musket; but -with cartridges properly made, I think I could load and fire a rifle -four times in a minute. But then it will be said, at the conclusion of -so many shots, the rifle gets so foul, that it will be difficult to get -the ball down. Not difficult at all. Have your cartridges made with a -saturated cover, to surround the ball, and fit properly the grooves of -the rifle. - -It would clean the barrel so much, as to allow forty shots to be fired -with as much ease as you now fire twenty. Or let a steel-wire brush be -attached to the rifle; and by screwing it to the end of the rod, you -can, by two or three times rubbing up and down, remove any accumulation -of dirt from the powder. If, however, the covering I have mentioned were -used with a weighty rod to the rifle, there would be no occasion for -cleaning, short of fifty shots. - -Experience leaves no room for doubt that a few grooves are better than -many, in all expansive-principled rifles: the nearer the approach to a -smooth surface the better, and the three divisions of grooves and -projections adopted by the British Government is the best to meet all -requirements. They will shoot as well as poly-grooved rifles; and if -three grooves give the same result, more are unnecessary and useless. -The advantage of the atmosphere acting to keep the bullet steady by its -current down the grooving on the bullet seems to meet with no -confirmation; improved shooting accruing by the grooves being reduced, -as in the case of the gathering-grooved rifle experiments. In all cases -of wild animal shooting at short distances with small charges, the many -grooves will be an advantage: the same as those formerly adopted, and -which are shown in the cut. - -[Illustration] - -Expansive bullets may be effectually used; but in varying charges, -incidental to game shooting, the same form of cavity in the bullet as -is observed in the Enfield would not act, therefore a large cavity would -be preferable to enable the less charge to act in expanding the lead -into the grooving. - -For other purposes than war, rifles will continue to be constructed on -the poly-groove principle, and with spherical bullets. The perfect -destruction of various animals is dependent generally on two causes: the -penetration into the body, and the shock to the system during that act -of penetration. No doubt exists that a spherical bullet would combine -these two qualities best. The 25 bore, the 32 and 50 hexagonal bore -would be, practically speaking, useless for the killing of elephants, -tigers, &c. The effectual and instant killing of seals on ice is an -illustration: failing to kill a seal dead, he will to a certainty reach -his hole in the ice, and disappear, to the shooter's serious -disappointment. Small bore elongated bullets were very rapidly adopted, -and as rapidly abandoned. "They did not kill dead;" the spherical bullet -did this better. It would be wise to pause and consider whether a good -military rifle is a good game-shooting rifle or not: whether the hole in -the beast be wide enough. I am inclined to think the reduction to a bore -of 25 too small for this purpose. In military muskets of smooth bore, -the elongated bullet is not applicable: very little benefit is gained in -using them in a smooth bore; and, although the original invention -contemplated this, experience decided otherwise. The spherical bullet -being thus indispensable, it follows that one size should be adopted -which combines the greatest number of favourable points. Many years ago -I made numberless experiments to ascertain this fact, and had it -demonstrated beyond all doubt to be a bore of 18 and a bullet of 19; the -difference in size admitting of the paper of the cartridge with a -moderate degree of tightness. The ultimate range of such a musket with -three drachms of gunpowder, would be equal to the range of the Enfield; -but, of course, without one-tenth its accuracy. Yet for close quarters, -line-firing, or quickness of loading, the musket will hold its place for -centuries to come; and that this opinion is entertained by many -officers, is proved by the fact that our Government is at this moment -issuing contracts for 100,000 plain-bored muskets: 17 bore, 3 feet 3 -inches long in the barrel. The near approximation of bore to my standard -is suggestive of the influence my writings have had after many years, as -the following extract from my book of 1842 shows:-- - -"Military rifles should never be shorter than three feet--say three feet -three inches, with half-turn of spiral--the length of the musket. They -should not be larger in the bore than a ball eighteen to the pound, as -at that length a force, calculated to throw an extreme distance, might -be generated. Whatever may be the arguments for heavy substances, they -do not avail here, as it is impossible to throw them either with -velocity or accuracy; for there never can be certainty, where so much -elevation is required. The size of ball we have mentioned, can be thrown -with great certainty, as far, if not farther, than any soldier in her -Majesty's service can accurately survey a single object. For the purpose -of annoying a dense body of men, such as a square column, such a rifle -would be an invaluable gun; as the muskets now made will not throw a -ball one-half the distance. As to the actual range of a rifle of this -bore and length, I should think it would reach, effectively, the -distance of 1,500 yards." - -The experimental or competitive trials by the Royal Engineers at Chatham -to prove the superiority of the elliptical bored rifle over the Enfield, -is another of those occasional clap-traps with which the public are -amused. The ordinary reader would judge and set it down for an -established fact that the elliptical rifle was, as has generally been -represented, an invention purely Lancasterian, gun and bullet; while the -real facts are quite contrary: true, the barrel is rifled, slightly -elliptical, and having "an increasing spiral;" but the ammunition is -that of the Enfield--the "'Greenerian' expansive bullet with the centre -of gravity in the head." The bullet that Lancaster adopted, as well -known, had a leaden plug. I quote from the report of the select -committee:-- - - "The plug bullet used by Mr. Lancaster does not appear suitable for - military service, for when the plug is driven into the bullet by the - ignition of the powder, it generally nips the paper of the cartridge - between itself and the base of the bullet, and carries a portion of it - away, as may be seen by the specimens sent to the committee; upon the - amount of paper so carried away by the ball depends the accuracy or - inaccuracy of its flight; and the plugs do not in all cases remain - firmly attached to the bullet." - -What then are these trials conducted to prove? It cannot be the -superiority of Lancaster's bullet; for he has abandoned that, "_and uses -the Enfield_." Is it the rifling?--if so, let us see what the same -committee say of that:-- - - "The chief peculiarity of this rifle consists in the inner surface of - the barrel being smooth, instead of cut into grooves, as in most - rifled barrels. As a substitute for grooves, the interior of the - barrel is cut into the form of an ellipse, whose major axis exceeds - the minor by ·005 of an inch. The ball is rifled by being forced (when - expanded by the explosion of the gunpowder) into the major axis of the - ellipse, which thus fulfils the office of grooves in conducting the - ball into the required degree of spiral motion. - - "As Mr. Lancaster has adopted the American plan of a 'gaining-twist,' - or 'increasing spiral,' and applied it to his smooth-bored barrels - with _elongated_ projectiles, it may be as well to consider the merits - of this system. - - "The advantages are supposed to be: - - "1st. Increased accuracy. - - "2nd. Less recoil. - - "3rd. An absence of the tendency a ball has, when starting with a - rapid spiral, to twist the rifle over sideways to the right or left, - according to the inclination of the grooves. - - "4th. A diminution of the tendency a ball has to 'strip' when first - started. - - "1st. The alleged increased accuracy has been by some attributed to - the supposition that the revolutions of the bullet round its own axis - increase in rapidity while passing through the air, in consequence of - having acquired that motion when passing through the barrel, under the - influence of the grooves; but it is difficult to imagine how a leaden - bullet can carry within itself, after leaving the muzzle, any power of - increasing its own rotatory or progressive motion. - - "2nd. That there should be less recoil is natural, as the bullet meets - with less opposition when first started from a state of rest; but the - amount of recoil in all rifles now made for expanding projectiles is - quite inconsiderable, and not worth noticing. - - "3rd. The tendency of a bullet to twist the rifle on one side is now - avoided by reducing the spirality of the grooves. Instead of being - one turn in three or four feet as formerly, it is now one turn in six - feet six inches, and sometimes only one turn in eight or nine feet. - - "4th. The advocates of this system maintain that a bullet is less - likely to 'strip,' or pass out of the barrel without rifling itself, - when conducted gradually into the required degree of spirality. But - the question is, whether in a well-constructed rifle, the bullet - _does_ strip? and if not, then a gaining-twist is unnecessary and - objectionable, as it offers to the ball's progress a continually - increasing opposition, while the ball itself is subjected to a - continually increasing urging force from the inflamed gunpowder in the - barrel, so that, as the velocity of the ball increases, so also does - the resistance to its escape. A projectile is set in motion gradually, - and is (or should be, if the quality and quantity of the powder, and - the barrel, have a right proportion to each other) at its greatest - velocity just before leaving the muzzle; consequently the tendency of - a ball would be to yield to the increasing force of the powder and - pass straight out of the barrel without following the grooves; and - this more especially in a smooth bore, which has no clearly defined - edges to hold and guide the ball to its proper degree of spirality, - but where the lead may be compressed along the smooth surface so as to - pass straight along the barrel." - -So much for the gaining twist; it requires no further argument. The oval -bore is not an invention of Mr. Lancaster: it is older than Captain -Beaufoy's book, "Scloppetaria," published in 1808, for in it you will -find a description how to rifle a smooth bore; and he gives drawings of -the tools to do it with. - -If these statements are facts--and I defy them being gainsaid--what -connection has this gentleman with it at all? for what purpose is it -pompously announced that the Lancaster elliptical bored rifle shoots -superior to the Enfield, when there is _not such a thing_? The superior -shooting of one man over another is more than sufficient explanation. -The highly unscientific theory of putting a bullet into excessive -spiral motion at the instant it has acquired a maximum of velocity is -untenable, admitting of no lucid explanation. The Enfield rifle has -evidently many enemies, who do not hesitate in injuring her reputation, -nor hesitate about the means of doing it. All elliptical bores are but -the two-grooved rifle in disguise: an idea fast exploding. - -The truth of my opinion about the two-grooved or Brunswick rifle, -introduced into the service in 1840, is now proved. Many of my readers -will recollect that in my books of 1842 and 1846 I termed this "an -abortion of science:" it has since died with that cognomen; though it -was puffed up, as my readers will remember, by many high authorities, -and amongst the rest by Dr. Ure, who said nearly as much for it as is -now advanced in favour of the hexagonal rifle. On referring to the -report of the Select Committee on Small Arms, published in 1852, I find -the following account of it:-- - - "At all distances above 400 yards the shooting was so wild as to be - unrecorded. The Brunswick rifle has shown itself to be much inferior - in point of range to every other arm hitherto noticed. - - "The loading of this rifle is so difficult that it is wonderful how - the rifle regiments have continued to use it so long--the force - required to ram down the ball being so great as to render any man's - hand unsteady for accurate shooting. Comment is unnecessary." - -The Prussian needle gun, too, has departed this life: another instance -of the absurdity of adopting plans containing in themselves the reverse -of scientific principles; for it may safely be accepted as an axiom that -success at the present day can only arise to mechanical constructions -which are based on those immutable foundations of mechanical science in -accordance with great Nature's laws. - -That the principles of the expansive or "Greenerian" rifles are fast -gaining the approbation of all scientific men qualified by their -pursuits to judge, is evident from the fact that Birmingham has -contributed, within the last twelve months, a considerable number of -workmen to construct Enfield rifles in all the principal States of -Europe. France, and Russia especially, are expending large amounts in -manufacturing this arm; so that it is no stretch of imagination to -suppose that in a few years the equilibrium of arms will be again -established, all nations being armed with equally good weapons, to -contrast with the contemptible ones of bygone times. - -Before separating for the recess, a question was asked from the -officials by an honourable member in the House of Commons:--"When a -report would be given in as to the relative merits of the Enfield and -Whitworth rifles as military weapons?" The answer given was evidently -intended to mystify; for, from the most intimate inquiries I have made, -I find that no experiments whatever are in progress. The last took place -at Woolwich, in October, 1857, and terminated so very unsatisfactorily, -that Mr. Whitworth wished to make some alterations in his rifles, in -order to overcome the difficulties presented. Up to the present time the -authorities inform me that no other rifles have been sent in for further -trial. - -The defects demonstrated in these experiments were precisely those -pointed out in this chapter. On reversing their positions, "hard bullets -_v._ soft," the penetration of the Enfield was found to be equal to that -of the Whitworth; the same number of elm deals being perforated. This -proves what may be done by "mechanical dodges," and how intimately -acquainted those in charge of "gunnery experiments" ought to be with all -its ramifications, or they, too, may be hoodwinked. - -The difficulty of loading was here more strongly exemplified than at -Hythe. The deposit from the "Government gunpowder" became so tenacious -in the "hexagonal grooves," that after a certain number of shots, -loading became a very difficult matter indeed; so much so, that Mr. -Whitworth considerately provided a very superior description of -gunpowder, with which the hexagonal rifle worked a little better. The -recoil, too, was of that severe kind as to leave strong recollections of -its force on the minds of the reluctant operative shooters employed to -carry out the experiment. The entire result may be summed up, in the -mildest term, as "unsatisfactory." The concealment of this result may be -probably a considerate act on the part of the late Government; the -parts acted by some of the members of it must be strong in the -recollection of others; and letting _down quietly_ this very highly -inflated "wind-bag," when it showed symptoms of collapse, was doubtless -a judicious act. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -REVOLVING PISTOLS. - - -Revolving or repeating pistols have now become as necessary in war as -the rifle. The peculiarity of the contests in various parts of America -first showed the necessity of a weapon being constructed, the moral and -destructive effects of which should be equal. - -Colonel Colt was unquestionably the first to overcome the difficulties -found to exist in the earliest productions, and when the introduction of -the revolver into Europe became general, and the demands for it -increased, the manufacturers were enabled, from the commencement, to -avoid the defects which he had overcome in the course of his experience; -and thus, their task was a lighter one than his. An immense number of -revolving pistols have been constructed in a very short time; but, like -all new creations in mechanical science, the production has been -distinguished by quantity rather than quality. The general adoption of -these arms has been greatly impeded by the very inferior quality -produced. Revolving pistols may be had from 10_s._ upwards; but as to -the utility of such cheap trash nothing can be said. The possession of -one may have a moral effect on the courage of the bearer, and its -appearance may act on the fears of the opponent, but the danger is -greatest to him who fires. The complicated arrangement of all repeating -fire-arms requires that they should be of the very best workmanship, if -they are to be safe and efficient weapons. That they have been of the -utmost use to the allied armies in the Crimea, and in that more -desultory but treacherous struggle in the East, is certain. Many and -valuable lives have been saved by their ready application. The moral -effect of the revolver was amply demonstrated where one noble young -soldier held his post at "Rewah" by the dread of his revolver alone; the -mutineers knowing well that six of them must fall before they could -reach him, and feeling that each might be one of the six, he held his -own until relief came. - -Again, a tale is told of another gallant officer who shot five in -succession, reserving the sixth for that arch-miscreant Nana Sahib; but -unfortunately that sixth barrel missed fire. How many thousands of lives -that shot might have saved had it been successfully fired! With all -good, however, comes a certain amount of evil: no perfect weapon has -ever yet been constructed; but this shows how desirable it is that a -perfect revolver should be invented, if possible. - -There are but few manufacturers of revolvers who have reached any degree -of eminence: Colt, Dean, Adams, Tranter, and Webley, comprise nearly all -the distinguished men in this country. There are a multitude of -second-rate makers in England, France, and Belgium; but the most -celebrated makers in Europe are those I have enumerated; and in order -to guide the reader as far as my knowledge will serve, I will -impartially point out the advantages and defects belonging to each -production. - -The construction of Colonel Colt's repeating pistol is, according to his -own description, a motion got by cocking the lock and rotating the -cylinders; as described in the following quotation:-- - - "They differ from those formerly made, principally in the greater - simplicity and the better proportions of the parts of the lock and the - framework. Important additions and improvements have been made in the - loading lever and rammer for forcing the balls firmly into the - cylinder, the employment of the helical or spiral groove on the arbor - on which the cylinder turns, whose sharp edges are intended to prevent - fouling by scraping off any smoke or dirt accumulating in the cylinder - from the lateral fire entering the centre opening, and the inclined - plane leading to the recesses on the periphery of the cylinder, to - direct the bolt below the opposite shoulder in the recesses; thus - preventing the cylinder from being accidentally thrown too far by the - sudden action of cocking. The lock is now composed of five working - parts, instead of seventeen, as formerly; and it is obvious that if - the several parts of the machinery are made proportionally strong for - the work they have to do, so is the arm rendered more efficient by the - greater simplicity of the general construction. - - "In all arms having a moveable breech it is desirable to bring the - barrel and cylinder as nearly in contact as possible, in order to - prevent the escape of lateral fire, and yet to leave freedom for - motion, without friction: this is now effected by the base pin, on - which the cylinder turns, entering a corresponding opening in the - under part of the barrel, being there held in place by a key passing - through and bearing against the back end of the slot in the barrel, - and the fore end of the slot in the base pin, which is thus drawn up - to the bottom of the hole, and yet the barrel is prevented from being - brought too close upon, or in absolute contact with, the cylinder, - whilst its end is still held in its proper position with respect to - the cylinder. In the event of any abrasion of the end of the cylinder - or of the barrel, by deepening the cavity, or filing the end of the - base pin, the key can be driven further in, and the proper distance - for the readjustment of those parts be maintained, whilst the - essential rigidity of structure is secured. - - "In loading the present arm, it is necessary to draw back the hammer - to the half notch, to allow the cylinder to be rotated freely by hand; - a charge of powder is then placed in each chamber, and the balls, - without wadding or patch, are put one at a time upon the mouths of the - chambers, turned under the rammer and forced down, by the lever, below - the mouth of the chamber. This is repeated until all the chambers are - loaded. Percussion caps are then placed on the nipples, when, by - drawing back the hammer to the full catch, the click or lever is - brought into contact with one of the ratchet teeth, on the base of the - cylinder, bringing the nipple into the precise position to receive the - blow of the hammer: the arm is then in a condition for being - discharged by simply pulling the trigger; and a repetition of the same - portion produces the like results, until all the chambers are - discharged through the barrel. - - "The movements of the revolving chamber and hammer are admirably - provided for. The breach, containing six cylindrical cells for holding - the powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it - can, therefore, only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a - direct line. The base of the cylindrical breech being cut externally - into a circular ratchet of six teeth (the lever which moves the - ratchet being attached to the hammer), as the hammer is raised in the - act of cocking, the cylinder is made to revolve, and to revolve in one - direction only. While the hammer is falling, the chamber is firmly - held in its position by a lever fitted for the purpose; when the - hammer is raised, the lever is removed and the chamber released. - - "So long as the hammer remains at half-cock the chamber is free, and - can be loaded at pleasure. The rapidity with which these arms can be - loaded is one of their great recommendations, the powder being merely - poured into each receptacle in succession, and the balls being then - dropped in upon it, without any wadding, and driven home by the - ramrod, which of course is never required to enter the barrel. - - "While carried in the pocket, or belt, there is no possibility of an - accidental discharge of these pistols. Whenever it is required to - clean the barrel and chamber, they can be taken to pieces in a moment, - wiped out, oiled, and replaced. - - "The hammer at full-cock forms the sight by which aim is taken. The - pistol is readily cocked by the thumb of the right hand, a plan in - every way far superior to the arrangement whereby the hammer is raised - by a pull on the trigger: this is in every respect most objectionable, - the pull materially interfering with the correctness of aim; and the - sear-spring having the duty of the main-spring to perform as well, is - apt constantly to be getting out of order. - - "The ramrod attached to these pistols consists of a very clever but - simple compound lever, which, forcing the ball effectually home, - hermetically seals the chamber containing the powder, and by the - application of a small quantity of wax to the nipple before capping, - the pistol may be immersed for hours in water without the chance of a - miss-fire." - -The great disadvantage said to be existing in this revolver is the -necessity of cocking and half-cocking at every discharge; which double -action is difficult in certain positions where revolvers are of the -greatest use, as in a melée surrounded by many enemies, where the -cocking and firing by one pulling motion, as in Tranter's and Dean's, is -more expeditious: in fact, certificates are published by officers who, -at the battle of Inkermann, would have been cut down had the slightest -delay been necessary for cocking the pistol. On the other hand, it is -said, that no certain aim can be taken where the pulling up and sudden -liberation of the mainspring discharges the pistol; the act of -discharging it destroying the aim. These two points have their advocates -and their objectors, as has always been the case with new plans. - -The mechanical construction of Colt's pistol is effected entirely by -machinery, and on this account superiority is claimed for it; in my -opinion, however, the boasted benefits of machinery have never yet been -realised. The manufacture of guns without machinery is difficult, but -the entire use of it is unnecessary. Certain portions of pistol-making -can never be done as they should be by machinery; and I have not yet -been able to discover anything in Colt's manufacture to make me advocate -the use of machinery. I should not consider a pistol made by hand, and -equal to the best of Colt's, as well made; a hand-made pistol ought to -be much better in all respects. - -Dean and Adams were the first makers of note who contested the palm with -Colt. They thus describe their pistol:-- - - "The barrel, the lock-frame, and top-bar were all forged out of one - piece of iron: the chamber to contain five charges, revolved on a - centre pin, which could be either drawn entirely, or partially out, as - was required and was held in its position by a side spring; the - toothed ratchet was secured to the base of the chamber by two screws, - so as to admit of its being renewed, when it was abraded by use, and - motion was given to it by a ratchet pall, connected with the hammer, - which was lifted by pulling the trigger. The hammer moved on a - transverse pin, and was pressed down on the nipple by a back spring in - the stock, being connected with it by a swivel link; the trigger was - kept in position by a horizontal bent spring, and had attached to it - the hammer-lifter and the ratchet pall; the point of the former fell - into a notch in the base of the hammer, so that as the trigger was - pulled, the hammer was raised, until the rounded portion of the base, - acting as a cam, forced the lifter out of the notch, and allowed the - hammer to descend on the nipple and to explode the percussion-cap. On - withdrawing the finger from the trigger, the lifter and ratchet pall - descended and again slipped into the notches of the hammer and the - chamber, in readiness for repeating the operation of firing. The - lifter was retained in contact with the hammer, by a small flat - spring, the upper end of which was attached to the pall, while the - lower end acted upon the lifter, which, in turning on its centre, - brought the lower prolongation against the spring, below the centre, - so as to press the upper end in the proper direction, in order that - its action might be certain. - - "The rotation of the chambers was obtained by a ratchet pall, acting - on a tooth each time the trigger was pulled, thus causing the chambers - to revolve, so far as to bring a nipple into the proper position for - receiving the blow of the hammer, and in that situation it was held by - a projecting stop on the back of the trigger. - - "In order to load the chambers it was necessary that they should - revolve free of the stop: this was effected by pressing inwards - another stop, attached to a spring on the side of the lock, which - engaged the point of the hammer and prevented it from descending on - the nipple, until the chambers were loaded, when, on the trigger being - pulled, the side spring stop was released and resumed its original - position, leaving the weapon ready for action. - - "The bullets were cast with a small 'tang' on them, which served to - fix a wad on each; thus no ramrod was required in loading, the bullets - being merely pressed in with the finger. The aperture of the barrel - was slightly expanded at the lower end to admit of the bullets - entering more readily in firing. The rifling of the barrel was the - reverse of the ordinary system, as it consisted of three projecting - 'feathers,' or ridges, extending the length of the tube, leaving very - wide grooves between them. - - "It would be observed, that the cocking and firing were performed by - the same action of the trigger; therefore the rapidity of firing was - proportionally great; the arm was very light, its construction simple, - and its action certain." - -The defect of cocking and firing by the same action of the trigger must -have been important; for new patents were, I believe, taken to cover -both plans, and they now manufacture what is termed a double-action -pistol, which acts either by cocking with the finger, or by the trigger, -as of old. The important improvement in the durability and soundness of -Dean and Adams's pistol over Colt's is, that the barrel, the lock-frame, -and top bar, are all forged out of one piece of iron; thus, the -cylinders revolve in a frame which cannot undergo any displacement. - -In Colt's, the barrel is supported by a crooked elbow, rising from the -centre, or revolving pin; its principal support consequently is some -distance below the tube of the barrel, but parallel to it: the effect of -long firing is to bend this elbow, causing the barrel to fall or droop -downward, instead of continuing in a straight line with the chambers; -thus, an opening between the chambers and the barrel is established, -increasing the space for lateral escape. - -Next, though certainly not least, is Tranter's pistol, of three -different modes of construction. The name of this manufacturer has risen -higher than that of his London competitors; owing, no doubt, in a great -measure, to the generally entertained opinion that all essential -improvements in the English revolving pistols have arisen from the skill -and untiring industry of Mr. William Tranter. Whether the opinion that -he originated all the improvements claimed for Dean and Adams's pistol -is well founded or not, I cannot say: I only reiterate the opinion; and -I believe, from the very great attention Mr. Tranter has paid to the -subject, and from his great mechanical skill, that he is quite capable -of effecting these improvements. Any admirer of beautiful arrangements -in gunnery has only to examine one of his double-trigger revolving -pistols, to be struck with the elaborate nature of his improvements. I -give a wood-cut of it on the next page, and some quotations from his own -description of its quality:-- - -"W. Tranter's patents for a double trigger, a safety-hammer spring, an -elongated socket for the chamber, a loading lever, and a lubricating -bullet for revolving arms, increase the value and efficiency of these -arms as defensive weapons. - -[Illustration: Half size of the medium 54 gauge double-trigger -Revolver.] - -"By means of the patent double-trigger the pistol can be held more -firmly in the hand while being fired, and only one hand is required to -raise the hammer and fire the pistol. A perfectly accurate and quicker -aim can be taken, and the pistol discharged at the instant desired; the -hammer can be raised again without lowering or removing the pistol from -the object till the whole of the chambers are fired off. The chamber is -held firmly opposite the front barrel before the hammer begins to fall, -and also at the moment it is discharged; the chamber cannot be turned -away from the front barrel by the hammer at the moment it is discharged. -In cases of emergency the pistol can be fired with the greatest rapidity -by pulling both triggers together. The exploded caps do not get into -the works and render the pistol useless till removed. But little -practice is required to enable a person to shoot with accuracy. - -"The patent safety hammer spring always acts with the hammer and -trigger; should anything accidentally lift the hammer, the safety-spring -instantly falls under it and prevents it falling upon the cap, thereby -preventing an accidental discharge. The safety-spring also facilitates -the loading, by allowing the hammer to rest upon it while the chambers -are being charged, and at the same time acting as a safety-spring during -the operation of loading. The pistol can be carried with perfect safety -when loaded, either in the pocket or holster, by allowing the hammer to -rest upon the safety-spring. - -"By means of the patent elongating socket, the chamber can be properly -and readily adjusted to the frame of the pistol; and as the chamber with -use becomes too free, and the strength of the shooting depreciated, the -elongating socket enables it to be readjusted as perfectly as when first -made--an important consideration with these arms. - -"The patent loading lever enables the pistol to be loaded with greater -facility, and fits the lubricating bullet to the chamber so exactly that -the powder cannot fail to bend up the flange of the bullet and -distribute the lubrication all over the inner surface of the chamber and -barrel; it also fixes the bullet so firmly in its place in the chamber -that it does not fall out with being carried in the pocket or holster, -neither does it project forward with the firing of the pistol. - -"The patent lubricating bullet, with the lubricating composition, -effectually lubricates the inner surface of the chamber as far as the -bullet enters, also the face of the chamber where it comes in contact -with the front barrel, and the whole of the inner surface of the front -barrel; thereby preventing any deposit of lead or powder that may deform -the bullet, enabling the pistol to be loaded with the greatest ease -after firing a number of shots, and facilitating the passage of the -bullet through the front barrel. The accurate fitting of the bullet and -the repellent properties of the lubrication completely protect the -powder from exposure to wet or damp, and effectually prevent one chamber -igniting the powder in the other while being fired. The pistol has been -fired five hundred times in succession with the lubricating bullets -without being cleaned or getting out of order, the last fifty shots -being fired with as much accuracy as the first; the pistol could then be -loaded and fired with the greatest facility, there being no deposit -which interfered either with the loading or firing. - -"W. Tranter has taken out another patent for improvements in fire-arms, -and having combined with those improvements some of the improvements -comprised in his former patents, recommends the above as possessing -every requisite for a double-action cocking revolver." - -These revolvers will be found to possess the following advantages:-- - -"The pistol can be used with one hand, and fired with the greatest -rapidity and facility by pulling the trigger with the fore finger only. - -"The hammer can be raised and the pistol fired as an ordinary -fowling-piece. - -"The spring lock for locking the chambers enables the pistol to be -carried safely, and can be released when required by the thumb of the -right hand. - -"The lock of the pistol is simple, and not liable to derangement. It can -be easily taken to pieces when required, and as easily put together -again. - -"The patent elongating socket is combined with this revolver in the same -manner as with the patent double-trigger revolver, and with the same -advantages. - -[Illustration: Tranter's double-action Revolver.] - -"The new patent loading lever is attached to this revolver in the same -manner and with the same advantages as to the patent double-trigger -revolver." - -Webley's patent revolving pistol is an improvement upon Colt's best -pistol, the cylinder rotating by the cocking of the lock. The advantages -obtained are, an exceedingly simple construction in the rotating -movement, enabling the patentee to manufacture them at a lower price -than any of the preceding makers, and thus to produce, what is a great -desideratum, a good and reasonable priced pistol. - -[Illustration: Webley's Revolver.] - -"Keep your powder dry" was the old watchword: "Take care of your -ammunition" ought to be the watchword of the present day. - -Facility of loading is no doubt to a certain extent an advantage, but -doubts exist whether breech-loading guns, if brought to such a state of -perfection as to come into general use, would not, from their very -facility of loading, become a serious evil. - -The difficulty which Commanding Officers have to contend with in war is -in restraining their men from firing too rapidly, using two shots where -one would suffice; but the process of loading inculcates care of it, -takes considerable trouble, and hence men husband their fire the more. - -The two different principles of revolvers illustrate this. The -self-acting one is apt to be fired more than once; a man in a state of -excitement may pull twice before he pauses, and two shots are expended -where one would have sufficed. The cocking-lock pistol, in addition to -the less pull required in firing, gives time for observation, as the -necessity for cocking every time creates a pause, and is an admonition -to coolness: this is often very advantageous in shooting game, in which, -as in the more serious affair of shooting men, deliberate coolness is -required. - -Therefore, excepting only the chance--the very remote chance, that may -arise, requiring you to fire six shots as rapidly as possible--so -rapidly that the cocking pistol would be too slow, I would myself prefer -the cocking pistol; from the fact of being able to take much better aim -with it, and there being less chance of missing, through the heavy pull -necessary to raise the cock and fire the pistol on the self-acting -principle. The almost general adoption, in the present day, of the -cocking-lock, and its application in both Adams's and Tranter's -self-acting principles, is proof of the general bias towards the same -opinion. - -The tendency of all revolving pistols, and of course revolving rifles -also, to foul in the barrel after a few shots, is a very serious -drawback to their efficiency in use. The following quotation from -Lieutenant Symons' work is one opinion which I select from a number in -my possession:-- - -"Revolving pistols only ought now-a-days, in my opinion, to be made -breech-loading; and of these the pistol of Colonel Colt is a very good -specimen. I can generally hit a target the size of a man with this -pistol at a distance of 150 yards when clean, _i. e._, with the first -shot; and I on one occasion put five out of the six shots into the -target successively. When foul, however, the bullets will not fly -steadily and on their points. I one day, for the purpose of experiment, -fired 60 rounds without cleaning, at planks placed a few yards off only, -when latterly the bullets, instead of cutting the circular holes they -had been doing, commenced to make marks in the planks as if nails an -inch long had struck them sideways. On taking off the barrel to -ascertain the cause, I found that it was nearly choked up with lead. The -barrel of this pistol rapidly fouls, though the chambers do not." - -It also furnishes a complete answer to the absurd proposition of -imparting spiral motion to a bullet, by means of an increasing spiral, -after it is put into high velocity. The fouling of the barrel by lead to -an extent (as I have seen) of a considerable portion of the bore, is -absolute proof that the bullet does not follow the course of the -grooving: in its passage through the directing barrel it passes straight -out, with the velocity imparted to it in the chamber. - -The experience of this fact induced Mr. Tranter to invent his -lubricating bullet, the only form of pistol with which many shots can -be fired without cleaning. There are, in reality, many defects to be -overcome (though it is very doubtful whether they will ever be) before -revolvers can in any degree be relied upon for constant operations. I -know for a fact that at this moment Government have in store many -thousands, disabled for all useful purposes, though by the most trivial -circumstances; fouling with lead being one of the most prominent -defects, or some trifling disarrangement of the rotating machinery, such -as it might be supposed could be repaired: but they are returned to -store as hopeless, in the usual course, and thus their fate is sealed as -a military weapon. - -The double-barrelled under-and-over pistol was entirely discarded for -the new toy; but hopes are entertained that the former will soon be -restored to the lost preference of all who value their own safety, and -would rather depend on two certainly destructive shots than six -uncertain ones. For my own personal use in any scene of combat, my -reliance would be on a pair of double-barrelled pistols; or what is of -more use still, on double carbines. The Emperor of the French, however, -is arming his sailors with revolving pistols; and lately, in India, a -squadron of Dragoons used the revolver with deadly effect on a body of -rebel Sepoys. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ENFIELD MACHINE-MADE RIFLES. - - -Enfield, the seat of the Government manufacture of small arms, will -become a celebrated place in future history; its productions being now -one of the wonders of the present age. The term "Enfield Rifle" does not -denote any one improvement, but a series of improvements; Enfield being -merely the name of the place where the manufactory is situated. - -The Enfield rifle differs from the original rifled musket (better known -as the Minié musket) in the fact of the bore having been reduced to -·577, and the weight of the arm to 9 lbs. The regulation Minié musket -was 10 lbs. 8-3/4 oz. in weight, so that a saving of 1-1/2 lbs. has been -effected by the adoption of the present gun. The size of the bore was -·702, and the weight of the bullet 680 grains, whilst the present -regulation musket is only ·577 bore, the bullet being 520 grains in -weight. - -The model arms ordered by Lord Hardinge, the Commander-in-Chief, in -1852, of Messrs. Greener, Purday, Richards, Lancaster, and Wilkinson, -formed the base from which the Enfield was constructed. The "Sight" was -Westley Richards' invention. The Expanding Bands for securing the stock -and barrels (without which a machine-made musket would always be an -uncertainty) are an invention of mine; several other points were also -adopted on my recommendation: as, for instance, the furniture being -case-hardened, as in the rifle-corps gun, and the fastenings of the -bayonet. These points, however, being merely suggested improvements, and -not, strictly speaking, inventions, conferred no benefit on me beyond -the compliment involved in their adoption. - -It is well known that, but for my evidence before a committee of the -House of Commons in 1848, the swivel-lock would not have been so soon -adopted as it was. Thus it is evident that much of the outer form, as -well as the principle, of the present arm is due to my exertions. Much -surprise was shown by the Select Committee in 1852 that I did not give -in for trial some improvement upon my own principle (which, by the by, -they had not at that time admitted); but prudence taught me otherwise: -to have done so would have affected the soundness of my claims. - -About the year 1851 it was determined to adopt some portion of the -American system of manufacturing guns by the aid of machinery. A -commission was appointed and sent out to the United States in order to -inspect the operations of their mechanism, and to ascertain the -advisability of adopting the whole, or a portion, of their machinery in -England. To the selection of the members of that commission, and to -their judgment, may be ascribed whatever is ill or good in the system; -the majority being military men connected with military matters, and the -others machinists, the bias was no doubt in favour of machinery. The -Enfield manufactory, at its starting, was intended to be a moderate -affair, I believe; but now it has expanded into such gigantic -proportions that, if it continues in action, the manufacture of military -arms must partially cease to be the trade of Birmingham: for all large -establishments of machinery must be employed, to protect them from -decay; and whatever may be the cost of production, machinery must go on, -or be entirely given up. - -The extent of the Enfield manufactory may be estimated from the fact -that it now produces weekly 1,100 stand of arms complete, and employs -men and boys to the number of 1,300. At this rate of production, a very -few years will suffice to place such a stock of arms at the command of -the Government as will render the employment of foreign artisans -unnecessary. Enfield machine-made arms are undoubtedly specimens of the -highest class of that description; but whether they will be found as -durable as hand-made arms I very much doubt: time alone can decide -this. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE HARPOON GUN. - - -Whale shooting has now become a great fact; no other means being used to -capture this monster of the deep but the harpoon gun, when it is -possible to obtain it. Although little doubt remains but that whales, -like "grouse," are becoming scarce, and that in a short time they will -become almost extinct, yet their great value when captured will always -stimulate hardy and daring seamen to pursue them even into their -remotest haunts. The following cut represents the boat and gun now in -use. - -[Illustration] - -Experience has proved the value of this invention; and every ship that -goes to the fishing has now a full complement of six harpoon guns. -Nine-tenths of the fish got within the last few years have been shot. -From a calculation I made after the conclusion of a late season, the -result must have been very satisfactory and profitable to the owners of -the ships, and also to the gun-makers. I have every reason to know that -the amount of money realised by these harpoon guns amounted to little -short of 100,000_l._; and this from guns of my manufacture alone: for I, -like most inventors, have competitors, who manufacture upon my model and -at less than my price. - -Harpoon guns are similar to small swivel guns; they are of 1-1/2 inch -bore and 3 feet long in the barrel, which when stocked and complete -weighs 75 lbs. The construction of the lock is very simple, being upon -the principle of a saddle pistol lock; the caps, the nipples, and lock, -are completely and effectually covered, and protected from damp, or -spray from the sea. The lock is also securely bolted until the moment it -is wanted; when by the removal of a pin, the trigger string is pulled, -which fires the gun. The harpoon is projected with considerable accuracy -to any distance under eighty-four yards; that being the greatest range -ever obtained with this description of gun. The charge is very small to -project 40 lbs. weight; for the harpoon itself is 10-1/2 lbs., with an -increasing weight of three-inch line from the gun to the extreme range, -in all weighing full 40 lbs. This immense improvement is the result of -calculations, deduced from the nature of gunpowder. The charge is short -of an ounce of powder; but is, or ought to be, good powder, of the -largest grain; fine powder will not do it, but, on the contrary, would -jump up the end of the harpoon, or bend it, so that it would be of no -further use until repaired. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ON SHOT, CAPS, AND WADDING. - - -Patent shot being still produced as at the time of publishing previous -editions of my works, I have no important improvement to record. - -[Illustration] - -The manufacture is very simple: the lead is first tempered by the aid of -arsenic, in the proportions required by the slag (a technical term) for -the kind used; some lead taking more and some less. The melted metal is -then poured into a perforated pan placed over the mouth of the pit, or -tower (whichever may be in use.) Messrs. Walkers, Parkers, and Co. have -towers in their various factories where they make shot; the cut -represents the one in Newcastle. Messrs. Locke, Blackett, and Co. cast -down the shaft of a pit, and by this means obtain a greater fall. The -fluid metal takes a globular shape in falling, and the concentric motion -of each particle round its axis keeps it in this form until its passage -through the air has extracted the heat, and before it reaches the body -of water placed to receive it. The only difficulty is in casting very -large sizes; for if the distance the drops fall be not sufficiently -great, and they reach the water in a semi-fluid state, the resistance of -the water misshapes them. About three different sizes come out through -one pan. These are separated by the aid of riddles, or tabled, as the -process is termed. A quantity of the shot is placed on a slight incline, -when those that do not run off are rejected. The whole are then polished -in a machine termed a drum, with a mixture of black lead. This gives to -the shot that beautiful polish which captivates the eye, but which -injures the shooting of the gun, as the black lead adheres to the -interior of the tube. All shot should be used unpolished; and the -addition of hardness is unquestionably another advantage. Slag-lead is -lighter than other lead, but it is much harder, and thus more suitable -for shot. I regret the disuse of shot made with quicksilver, as it is -unquestionably much superior, though more costly. A considerable -improvement is yet to be introduced in the manipulation of shot-making; -and I shall commence a round of experiments with that object at the -earliest opportunity. - -Copper caps are now a misnomer: very few are to be met with. Brass caps -boiled to the colour of copper are the rule, the former the exception. -Good caps are made in Birmingham, if a remunerative price is paid for -them; and I have the pleasure to name several makers: Messrs. E. and A. -Ludlow, Messrs. Pursall and Philips, and Mr. Cox. It must be borne in -mind that cheapness means inferiority: every article is made according -to price. - -The mixture of fulminating mercury composition is: - - Fulminating mercury 3 grains or ounces. - Chlorate of potash 5 do. - Sulphur 1 do. - Powdered glass 1 do. - -The above is one of the best compounds in use. - - Chlorate of Potash 6 grains or ounces. - Sulphur 3 do. - Glass, powdered 1 do. - Charcoal, ditto 1/2 do. - -Is the best mixture where the corrosive principle is not heeded. - -Messrs. Eley, Brothers, were the first manufacturers who turned their -attention to making waterproof copper caps for sporting purposes, -commencing it in 1837. The principle is simple, the excellence mainly -consisting in the quality of the ingredients used, and their being -thoroughly secured from the effects of moisture. They are so constituted -that the largest portion of the percussion powder and the weakest part -of the waterproof covering which lines the inner surface of the cap, are -immediately over the surface of the nipple; consequently, when the blow -ignites the percussion powder, the larger portion of the explosion is -forced down the nipple, and is of such intensity of heat (especially in -platina-lined nipples) that it will ignite the gunpowder some distance -up the barrel: in an _eprouvette_ it will do so at four or five inches -from the nipple. A miss-fire thus very seldom occurs, as the heat is -sure to penetrate to the charge, even when a gun has become foul after a -long day's shooting and the powder cannot pass freely through the -chambers to the nipples. It is well known that caps which do not possess -these igniting qualities may be fired through gunpowder, and frequently -fail to ignite it, from the want of proper attention to the constitution -of the fulminate and its mixture. In all cheaply manufactured caps this -inferiority is sure to prevail, and the manifold advantages to be -derived from the sterling quality of all sporting adjuncts is now fully -appreciated by sportsmen generally. "Penny wise and pound foolish" is a -proverb more borne in mind than formerly, and the conviction is now -general that a good gun only proves to be so when proper attention is -paid to the loading in every particular. - -Good wadding is as essential as good gunpowder: a perfect separation -must be maintained between the exploded powder and the shot, or no -result can be depended upon; cheap wadding, therefore, according to the -above adage, is out of favour. - -Cartridges of wire, or "universal," are now so well known as to need no -treatise to point out their advantages. A more striking example of the -progress of knowledge in properly estimating the value of high-class -manufactures cannot be adduced than in the case of Eley, Brothers, who -have by unwearied industry in the production of sporting ammunition of -the first quality, nearly obtained a monopoly in that department of -gunnery. - -I can safely refer to the Manufacturers to be found in the advertising -list as able to supply the sportsman with all requisites, from a gun "to -a turnscrew," and on such terms as will be found to be advantageous to -the purchaser. - - -FINIS. - - - LONDON: - - PRINTED BY SMITH, ELDER AND CO. - - LITTLE GREEN ARBOUR COURT. - - - - -Advertisements. - - - WILLIAM GREENER, - _GUN MANUFACTURER_, - ASTON NEW TOWN, BIRMINGHAM, - HIGHEST PRIZE MEDALLIST IN 1851, 1853, AND 1855, - -In returning thanks to the Sporting World for their distinguished -support during many years, begs to intimate to them that he has now -accomplished the long cherished wish of establishing his manufactory in -Birmingham, the seat of the gun manufacture, where the facilities of -producing a first-rate gun are superior to any other locality in the -world; for here he can reject imperfect materials and replace them, -while makers in other parts of the kingdom would be writing about the -deficiency. Here he can exercise his own judgment on the goodness of -material during the progress of production; here he can carry out any -alteration or improvement in barrels or locks that may suggest itself; -and here eventually will settle the whole manufacture for the kingdom. -This is nearly accomplished now, for it would be idle to conceal the -fact that a vast majority of what is sold in London, as London make, is -made here. Here the best workmen are congregating and meet with the -greatest encouragement. Under these circumstances he has judged it best -to avail himself of the means offered of producing, without "egotism," -guns equal, if not superior, to anything yet produced by any maker -whatever. This may be considered a wide assertion, but to prove he does -not make it rashly he is prepared to test the fact by a competition with -any maker whatever, barring none; to be decided by the following five -points: 1st, safety--the greatest difficulty in bursting; 2ndly, -lightness; 3rdly, goodness of shooting--strength and closeness combined -with the least charges; 4thly, durability; 5thly, beauty and taste -combined. - -He considers it a crime of great magnitude that guns should burst; they -never do so where proper metal is used. He will produce an ordinary -weight of barrel which he will allow any one to burst if they can; in -fact, he believes it to be the greatest difficulty to do so. - -W. G. will undertake contracts for quantities of arms subject to private -arrangement, such as military arms, shipping ditto, rifles or sealing -guns, for foreign powers or private companies, provided in all cases the -quality be sufficiently good to enable him to brand them with his name; -anything inferior he declines to make. - - * * * * * - -The prices of his guns are as under:-- - - Double rifles of every superior quality of taste and £ _s._ _d._ - finish, case complete with every requisite 40 0 0 - Double guns of very superior quality, with laminated - steel barrels, &c., case and every requisite complete 35 0 0 - Double rifle, second quality, same material, but not so - highly finished, case complete 30 0 0 - Double gun, second quality, same material, but not so - highly finished, case complete 25 0 0 - Double rifle, excellent quality, stubs Damascus, no case 18 0 0 - Double gun, excellent quality, laminated steel, no case 15 0 0 - Double rifle, good 10 10 0 - Double gun, good 8 10 0 - Double rifle, no engraving, &c. 8 0 0 - Double gun, ditto 6 0 0 - Very best single rifles, superior style and finish, case - complete 21 0 0 - Second quality, case 16 16 0 - Good quality, no case 10 10 0 - Plain, ditto 5 0 0 - Sealing rifles 3 10 0 - Very best single gun, case complete 16 16 0 - Second quality, with case 12 12 0 - Good quality 7 0 0 - Plain, ditto 4 0 0 - Sealing or other guns in quantity 3 0 0 - Enfield musket percussion, swivel locks 2 0 0 - Enfield rifle, plain ditto 1 5 0 - -The above includes every size which can be fired from the shoulder. - -Pistols, Cutlasses, Pikes, &c., supplied on the most moderate Terms. - -Business done for cash on delivery only. - -Foreign Bills for orders payable in London, or reference for payment in -any part of England. - -N.B.--W. G. now manufactures a very superior double waterproof copper -and iron cap. - - - SCHUYLER, HARTLY, & GRAHAM. - MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK, - SOLE AGENTS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - TO - WILLIAM GREENER, - _GUN MANUFACTURER_, - ASTON NEW TOWN, BIRMINGHAM. - -=Every description of Sporting Guns imported on reasonable Terms.= - -POWDER FLASKS, SHOT POUCHES, WASHING RODS, AND IMPLEMENTS OF EVERY -DESCRIPTION REQUISITE FOR THE SPORTING FIELD. - -ELEY'S CAPS AND WADDINGS, & PATENT CARTRIDGES. - -STARKEY'S, PURSALL AND PHILLIPS'S, E. AND E. LUDLOW'S, AND OTHER -MANUFACTURERS' COPPER CAPS. - - - E. BAYLIS AND SON, - Manufacturers of - EVERY DESCRIPTION OF MILITARY - AND - SPORTING IMPLEMENTS, - DOG-COLLARS, HANDCUFFS AND LEG-IRONS. - -_Contractors to the Honourable Board of Ordnance._ - -ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - THOMAS DERRINGTON AND SON, - Dealers in - GUN AND PISTOL STOCKS, - WHOLESALE AND RETAIL. - -=A large quantity of fine well-seasoned Gun-stocks always on hand.= - -WALNUT TREES, WALNUT PLANKS, OR STOCKS, BOUGHT. - -REED'S BUILDINGS, SHADWELL-STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - PHILIP WEBLEY, - 84, WEAMAN STREET, BIRMINGHAM, - _PRESENT CONTRACTOR TO THE HON. BOARD OF ORDNANCE_, - PATENTEE OF SAFETY REVOLVING PISTOLS. - -[Illustration] - -P. WEBLEY respectfully informs the public, that he is prepared to supply -in any quantity his - -PATENT REVOLVING PISTOLS, - -which he can confidently recommend, as they embrace all latest -improvements with the greatest possible simplicity of construction, and -are pronounced by men of experience, both civil and military, to be most -efficient weapons. - -The action is very similar to the ordinary gun lock; the thumb being -used to bring the hammer to cock, while the arm is extended; the chamber -at the same time revolving and firmly locked at the moment of discharge, -by a spring underneath, thus obviating the objection to other Patent -Pistols, which are self-acting. - -(Large size 48, middle 60, small 120 bores). - -P. W. also manufactures Officers' Double, Under and Over, Breast and -Single Pistols. - -P. W. particularly invites attention to his Under and Over Pistols, -which are rifled and made to suit the present Government size cartridge. - -P. W. also manufactures every description of Revolving, Saloon, Holster, -Pocket, Inlaid and Fancy Pistols. - -BULLET MOULDS - -of every description, Greenerian, Minie, Pritchett, Whitworth, Jacob, -Cone, Spherical, &c. Rifle sights, both military and burden. Rifle -strap, Furniture, Gunlocks, and all other Implements. - -PRESENT CONTRACTOR TO THE HONOURABLE BOARD OF ORDNANCE. - - - _PERCUSSION CAPS._ - E. AND A. LUDLOW, - MILITARY PERCUSSION CAP MAKERS, - _AND PRESENT GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS_, - -Manufacturers of the Patent Double Waterproof Central Fire and -Anticorrosive Caps; Chemically prepared edged Gun Wadding; Cartridges of -every description. Inventor and sole Manufacturer of the Improved -Flanged (or Hat) Caps, as adopted by all the leading sportsmen of the -day, and acknowledged by all to be the best and most ready primer ever -introduced. - -Samples with Price List may be obtained at the Works. - -72 AND 73 LEGGE STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - JOSEPH BOURNE, - (_CONTRACTOR TO H. M.'S WAR DEPARTMENT_,) - -Manufacturer of Guns, Muskets, Revolvers, Pistols, Rifles, and Small -Arms suitable for the various markets and Governments of the world. - -No. 5, WHITTALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - BY HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT. - MOORE AND HARRIS, - IMPROVED FOWLING AND RIFLE GUN, AND - PISTOL MAKERS, - ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - -Improved Breech-Loading Guns, Repeating Arms, and every approved article -in the above line. - - - BY HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT. - PURSALL, PHILLIPS AND SON, - MANUFACTURERS OF T. STARKEY AND CO.'S - CENTRAL FIRE WATER-PROOF SAFETY CAP, - _CONTRACTORS TO H. M.'S HON. BOARD OF ORDNANCE, - AND TO THE HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY._ - -MANUFACTURERS OF - -PERCUSSION, IMPERIAL, AND ANTICORROSIVE COPPER CAPS TUBES. - -_Primers, Cartridges, &c., of every description, Chemically Prepared, -and other Gun Waddings._ - -22, WHITTALL STREET, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - PIGOU AND WILKS, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - DARTFORD AND LONDON. - - - CHARLES LAWRENCE AND SON, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - BATTLE AND LONDON. - - - JOHN HALL AND SON, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - FAVERSHAM MILLS AND LONDON. - - - CURTIS AND HERVEY, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - HOUNSLOW MILLS AND LONDON. - - - THE PRIZE MEDAL - AWARDED TO - JOSEPH BRAZIER AND SON, - THE ASHES WORKS, - WOLVERHAMPTON, - -Manufacturers of Gun Locks of the very best description for the London -and Scotch trades; Shot Pouches, Gun Implements, &c. &c. - -Patentees of Improved Revolving Pistols, &c. - - - RIFLE MAKER TO THE WAR DEPARTMENT. - WILLIAM TRANTER, - INVENTOR, PATENTEE, AND - MANUFACTURER - OF THE - DOUBLE-TRIGGER SAFETY - REVOLVERS, - DOUBLE ACTION COCKING - REVOLVERS, - _REVOLVING - CHAMBER RIFLES - AND CARBINES_, - OSCILLATING - BREECH-LOADING - RIFLES, - LUBRICATING - BULLETS, &c. - -[Illustration: DOUBLE TRIGGER REVOLVER.] - -13, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - JAMES TOWNSEND, - 11 & 12, SAND STREET, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, - BIRMINGHAM. - MANUFACTURER OF - AIR CANES, AIR GUNS, AND AIR WEAPONS - -Of every description, upon an improved construction, adapted for -numerous Sports and Amusements, viz.--Killing Rabbits, Rooks, Sea Fowl, -&c., with ball, destroying vermin, small birds, and collecting rare -specimens with shot, and fish near the surface of the water with -harpoons and lines. - -ALSO, - -Manufacturer of Powder, Walking-Stick Guns, Rifles of every variety, -Saloon Pistols, Bulleted Caps, Needle Rifles, &c., &c. - -_N.B._--Agents for the London Armoury Company for the sale of - -ADAMS' PATENT REVOLVER PISTOLS. - -And likewise Agent for - -COLONEL COLT'S PATENT REVOLVER PISTOL. - -AN ASSORTMENT OF EACH ALWAYS KEPT IN STOCK. - - - W. R. PAPE. - GUN AND RIFLE MAKER, - 44, WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. - -Possesses the highest practical knowledge of what a Gun ought to be for -general sporting purposes, and the fact of submitting every Gun to the -severest tests, before being finally finished, gives him every -confidence in stating, that for shooting powers and other good -qualities, his guns cannot be excelled by any maker whatever; for proof -of which, _see_ the amount of shooting at Ashburnham Park, London, on -the 9th April 1858, in the _Field_ Newspaper of 17th April, 1858. - - - THOMAS KILBY AND SON, - GUN BARREL MANUFACTURERS, - 11, COURT, STEELHOUSE LANE, BIRMINGHAM. - -Every description of Double and Single Barrels, Rifle and Revolving -Pistol Barrels, warranted equal to those of any other Manufacturer of -the day. - -_COUNTRY ORDERS PUNCTUALLY ATTENDED TO._ - - - ELEY'S AMMUNITION. - -ELEY BROTHERS, LONDON, beg to call the attention of Sportsmen to the -advantages to be derived from the use of the Wire Cartridge, in the -pursuit of all kinds of large or small game. - -As there are few Sportsmen who are not in the habit of using these -Cartridges, they are so well known as to make a description of them -scarcely requisite. The shot is packed within a wire cage, which is -constructed so as to allow them to escape from it gradually while the -charge is in motion. They cause all guns to shoot with double the -strength which can be obtained by the ordinary mode of loading, and with -much greater regularity, as each shot retains its spherical form. - -The Royal Cartridge is mostly used in this country for killing wild -game. - -The Green Cartridge is the sort generally in demand for India and -America, being made for foreign field sports with the largest drop shot, -and also with mould shot, and will be found very effective at large game -where the Sportsman has not a rifle in the field. - - - ELEY'S - DOUBLE WATERPROOF CENTRAL FIRE CAPS. - -These Caps are now well known and approved, being found superior to all -others for their certainty and rapidity of fire, either in dry or wet -weather. - -For India and the Colonies, or any climate where Caps may be exposed to -great vicissitudes of heat, cold, or moisture, they are particularly -recommended, as they cannot be injured by any amount of exposure to wet -or heat, nor their qualities impaired, if kept for years in a tropical -climate. The ignition at all times is safe and certain, whilst in humid -weather, the discharge is as instantaneous as with the ordinary Cap on -the dryest day. - -For testimonials as to their value for shooting in India _see_ Colonel -Jacob's work on "Rifles and Projectiles." - -They have been much approved for the rifle in foreign field sports, -where the Cap is often allowed to remain a long time upon the nipple. - -Being perfectly waterproof, they will bear immersion in sea-water for -days without injury; but when testing them in this manner, it is -necessary to blow the water out of them before placing them upon the -nipple. - -Concaved Felt, and chemically prepared Cloth Gun Waddings, to prevent -the leading of guns, warranted not to blow to pieces in the barrel. - -Cartridges for Breech-loading Shot Guns, Rifles, &c.; also for Sharp's -Breech-loading Rifles, and Prince's Breech-loading Carbines. - -Cartridges made for Needle Rifles, very simple and effective in their -construction. - -Skin Cartridges, suitable for Adams', Deane's, and Colt's -Revolvers--warranted to leave no deposit when fired. - -Also Rifle Shell Tubes, as manufactured by direction of Colonel John -Jacob, of the Bombay Artillery, and every description of ammunition for -sporting or military purposes. - -Sole Contractors to the War Department for Waterproof Military Caps, -Revolver Cartridges, Jacob's Rifle Shell Tubes, &c. - -Eley's ammunition may be had of all Gunmakers and Dealers at home or -abroad. - -ELEY BROTHERS, LONDON. - -(WHOLESALE ONLY.) - - - WILLIAM EVANS, - THIRTEEN YEARS WITH JOSEPH BROSIER AND SON, - GUN LOCK MANUFACTURER, - 15 BATH STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - CHARLES MAYBURY, - MANUFACTURER OF - EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SPORTSMAN'S GUNS, - RIFLES, PISTOLS, ETC., - REVOLVERS ON "TRANTER'S" AND ALL OTHER - PATENT IMPROVED PRINCIPLES, - FOR HOME AND EXPORTATION, - 15 ST. 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Inconsistent -capitalisation, hyphenation and spelling have been retained -(spungy/spongy and spunging/sponging; scear/sear; immoveable/immovable; -Minié/Minie, bareled/barelled, brasing/brazing; Froissart/Froisart; -fuse/fuze; Greenerean/Greenerian; Monk/Monck; etc.), except as mentioned -below under Changes. - -The two typographical forms of fractions (for example, 1/2 and 1-8th) -have been retained. - -The List of Plates shows (slightly) different texts from the captions in -the plates themselves. - -The List of Illustrations is incomplete, and not all illustrations have -the captions listed in the List of Illustrations. - -The sometimes slight difference in wording between the Table of Contents -and the actual chapter headings has been retained. - - -Textual remarks - -Page 12, snaphaunce is not a Dutch word; it is derived from the Dutch -snaphaan. - -Page 64, footnote: the original does not show the footnote anchor; the -footnote has been included without its anchor. Possibly the footnote -refers to the Point Blank Range data for the 10-inch and 8-inch -howitzers. - -Page 239, price calculations: the total for single guns should be 19_s._ -9_d._ The other amounts given in the text do not correspond with the -table; this has not been changed. - -Page 240, price calculations: the totals for double and single guns -should be 16_s._ 3_d._ and 9_s._ 9_d._, respectively. - -Page 13 (first set of advertisements), amount of shooting is possibly an -error for account of shooting. - -French accents have not been corrected or added (Andrê, Minie, -èpanouissement, etc.), Latin accents have been retained, unless -mentioned below. - - -Changes made to the text - -Footnotes and illustrations have been moved; some illustrations have -been rotated 90° - -Some missing/incorrect punctuation has been added or corrected silently - -Page vii: Polygroove changed to Poly-groove as elsewhere - -Page ix: Firelock changed to Fire-lock as in the text - -Page xi: Badajoz changed to Badajos; Mallett changed to Mallet (2x) as -in the text - -Page xvi: manufactury changed to manufactory as in the text - -Page 5: a cubic distance changed to a cubit distance - -Page 8: likwise changed to likewise - -Page 23: suphuretted changed to sulphuretted - -Page 27 (table): 9.90 changed to 9·90 - -Page 42: horizonal changed to horizontal - -Page 63: almost from a class changed to almost form a class - -Page 91: enginering changed to engineering - -Page 131: impres changed to impress - -Page 139: fusees changed to fuses - -Page 140: wthin changed to within - -Page 154: furnance changed to furnace - -Page 159: is is changed to is - -Page 160: exhibibits changed to exhibits - -Page 166: Ther changed to There - -Page 169: 1·40265 changed to 1·40625 - -Page 211: fustrum changed to frustum - -Page 219: Weimer changed to Weimar - -Page 229: artizan changed to artisan - -Page 239: Wedgebury changed to Wednesbury as elsewhere - -Page 249: twent changed to twenty - -Page 271: answert hat changed to answer that - -Page 301: expansive powder changed to expansive power - -Page 303: impossibity changed to impossibility - -Page 317: filed changed to filled - -Page 356: frustrum changed to frustum - -Page 358: frustrum changed to frustum - -Page 436: to to changed to to - -Page 5 (first set of advertisements): STEEET changed to STREET - -Page 8 (first set of advertisements): BRMINGHAM changed to BIRMINGHAM - -Page 3 (second set of advertisements): Gobe changed to Globe - -Page 5 (second set of advertisements): Bouchier changed to Bourchier - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gunnery in 1858, by William Greener - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - -***** This file should be named 43799-8.txt or 43799-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43799/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Gunnery in 1858 - Being a Treatise on Rifles, Cannon, and Sporting Arms - -Author: William Greener - -Release Date: September 23, 2013 [EBook #43799] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43799 ***</div> <div class="tnbox"> <p class="center">Please see the <a href="#TN">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this text.</p> @@ -24968,382 +24929,6 @@ Page 5 (second set of advertisements): Bouchier changed to Bourchier</p> </div><!--TN--> - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gunnery in 1858, by William Greener - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - -***** This file should be named 43799-h.htm or 43799-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43799/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lamé, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Gunnery in 1858 - Being a Treatise on Rifles, Cannon, and Sporting Arms - -Author: William Greener - -Release Date: September 23, 2013 [EBook #43799] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lame, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - -TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - -In this e-text, the following transcriptions are used: subscript x is -represented as _{x}, italics are represented _between underscores_, bold -face text is represented =between equals symbols=, and small capitals -have been changed to ALL CAPITALS. [***] represents an inverse asterism, -[oe] represents the oe-ligature. - -More Transcriber's Notes may be found at the end of the text. - - - - -[Illustration: _PLATE. 1._ - -ANGULARLY LAMINATED STEEL BARRELED GUN - -LAMINATED STEEL BARRELED GUN] - - - - - GUNNERY IN 1858: - BEING A TREATISE ON - RIFLES, CANNON, AND SPORTING ARMS; - EXPLAINING THE - PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY, - AND DESCRIBING THE - NEWEST IMPROVEMENTS IN FIRE-ARMS. - - BY WILLIAM GREENER, C.E., - INVENTOR OF THE EXPANSIVE PRINCIPLE AS APPLIED IN THE MINIE AND - ENFIELD RIFLES, AND AUTHOR OF "THE GUN," ETC. ETC. - - _WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS._ - - LONDON: - SMITH, ELDER AND CO., 56, CORNHILL. - 1858. - - (_The Right of Translation is reserved._) - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The urgent need for practical information on the important subject of -Gunnery is evinced by the numerous patents taken out during the last few -years, most of which have fallen still-born, through deficient practical -science on the part of the inventors. My aim in producing this book has -been to point out the errors into which many ingenious inventors have -fallen, and to show how similar failures may be avoided in future, by -indicating the only right road to improvement in Gunnery,--the strict -observance of scientific principles in every old process and in all new -inventions: for it is to the ignorance or neglect of the principles of -the science that failures in Gunnery are due. - -The necessity for progress in the science of Gunnery is now rendered -more than ever imperative on our Government by the prodigious energy and -activity of foreign Governments in providing armaments for land and sea -service, the efficiency of which is ensured by adopting all the newest -improvements in fire-arms. But the obstinate reluctance which all our -previous Governments have shown to enter upon the, to them unwelcome, -duty of investigating and experimenting on warlike inventions, -necessitates strong "pressure from without;" for it may be truly said -that all great improvements in Gunnery in England have been forced upon -the authorities by absolute necessity, and it is still a question -whether we shall profit by our recent experiences, or, as before, allow -war to find us unprepared. We have, doubtless, armaments of gigantic -proportions, and mammoth vessels of war, capable of discharging an -ordinary ship's cargo of shot and shell at a broadside; yet while -millions have been thus expended, the _improvement of the Gun_, without -which they would be mere masses of wood, and targets for more skilful -opponents, has been neglected. - -The GUN and its PROJECTILE will decide the victory in future fights. -Indeed, we are even now waging war with our neighbours,--not on the -battle-field or the ocean wave, but in the foundry; engineers being our -generals, and founders our admirals. The present able ruler of France is -actively at work, while we are but looking on: he is casting cannon the -like of which have never been seen, while we are spending thousands in -experimenting on cast-iron and foundries; and by the time our officials -have discovered the best cast-iron for heavy guns, the French batteries -on sea and land will be bristling with RIFLED STEEL CANNON of tremendous -range and endless endurance. - -Woe betide this country if at the commencement of a war we should find -ourselves just where we are. - -The Emperor Napoleon, as is well known, is well versed, theoretically -and practically, in everything relating to Gunnery. Keenly alive to the -minutest points of progress he receives, investigates, and immediately -adopts all inventions of value; having the ability to perceive, the -sagacity to appreciate, and the liberality to reward merit wherever it -is shown. - -Compare his system with ours, where men are placed in official -positions, and entrusted with power, not because of their ability to -fulfil the duties of their office, but for very inferior and often -unworthy reasons; where talent and fitness are not considered, and -consequently a long routine of forms is made to serve as "a buffer" to -resist the troublesome pertinacity of inventors, who are apt to disturb -the serenity of reluctant or indifferent officials. And when at last a -trial is granted, the invention is either rejected or approved by -incompetent or prejudiced judges. While this practice prevails, England -must ever be behindhand in Gunnery; for improvements in cannon and -projectiles cannot be carried out by private enterprise. - -In thus strongly expressing my opinion of the way in which progress is -balked, I am not merely echoing a cry, but speaking from my own -knowledge and experience. I am actuated by no feeling of disappointment, -for my invention of "the expansive bullet" has been at last adopted -here, after it had been copied in France. My object is to induce public -investigation and inquiry, and to ventilate this important subject; and -I trust that my antecedents, and the fulfilment of my predictions in -matters of Gunnery, will give weight to this deliberate and -disinterested expression of opinion. - -The great favour shown by lovers of shooting to my former efforts to -disseminate a better understanding of the principles of Gunnery, has -been an additional stimulus to the production of the present work; and I -have taken especial care that my observations should tend to the -improvement of sporting arms, and the increased safety of the sportsman. - -Nor has the ingenious mechanic been overlooked, for perfection of -gun-manufacture must ever go hand in hand with scientific principle; and -the desire to promote their combination has prompted my endeavours to -elucidate the subject. - -Leaving to the reader to determine how far I have succeeded in my -efforts, I merely wish to add that I make no pretension to literary -style, but have aimed to produce a practical work for practical men. I -have drawn upon my previous works for such portions of information as -were needful to give completeness to this view of the science of -Gunnery, its present state, and probable future. - - WILLIAM GREENER. - - _Aston New Town, - September 3rd, 1858._ - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -LIST OF PLATES. - - Plate 1.--Laminated Steel Barrels--_To face Title_. - " 2.--Damascus and Fancy Steel Barrels _To face Page 228_ - " 3.--Stub Twist and Stub Damascus Barrels " _234_ - " 4.--Charcoal Iron and "Threepenny" Iron Barrels " _241_ - " 5.--"Twopenny" Iron and "Sham Damn" Iron Barrels " _240_ - - -WOODCUTS. - - PAGE - Cannon of 1390 6 - Iron ship gun of 1540 10 - Paixhan gun and traversing bed 64 - Carronade 67 - New plan of casting a hollow axle 95 - Mallet's monster mortar 100 - Russian 56-pounder 114 - Eight-inch British gun 114 - Sixty-eight pound carronade 116 - Monck's 56-pounder 117 - Ten-inch or 86-pounder 117 - Thirteen-inch sea service mortar 119 - Thirteen-inch land service mortar 119 - Welding steel 155 - Wire twist and Damascus iron 160 - Steel and iron twist 173 - Spirals of Damascus, &c. 187 - Spirals of charcoal and skelp 188 - Spirals of Wednesbury and "sham damn" iron 189 - Barrel welding 191 - Method of plating barrels 195 - Boring barrels 198 - Sections of conical breeches, double barrel 209 - London and Birmingham proof marks 251 - Mode of proving guns 254 - Sections of nipples 283 - Expansive plug bullet 343 - Enfield barrel and bullet 377 - Whitworth barrel and bullet 377 - Swiss bullet 391 - Greener's model carbine 401 - Poly-groove rifle 403 - Tranter's double trigger revolver 421 - Tranter's double action revolver 424 - Webley's revolver 425 - Harpoon gun 432 - Shot tower 435 - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I.--ANCIENT ARMS. - - PAGE. - - The bow--The sling--Crossbow--Field artillery of the Normans-- - Artillery of the ancients--Range of the crossbow and longbow--The ram - of Vespasian--Guns first employed in 1327--Guns at the battle of - Cressy--Cannon of 1390--Skill of English archers--Defensive armour-- - Portable firearms invented in 1430--Primitive hand-gun--Iron cannon - recovered from the _Mary Rose_, wrecked in 1545--"Chambers"--Match- - lock and wheel-lock--Fire-lock--Damascus gun-barrels--Birmingham - guns--Spanish pistol with magazine--Percussion lock--The revolving - pistol not a new invention--Colt's revolver--Breech-loading guns 1 - - - CHAPTER II.--ON GUNPOWDER. - - Origin of its invention--Roger Bacon's recipe--Accidental discovery - by a German monk--Gunpowder introduced by the Saracens--Its explosive - and propellant properties--Composition of gunpowder--Nitre its - essence--Properties of sulphur as an ingredient--Proportions and - constituents of French gunpowder--Sulphur not always indispensable-- - Chemical principles of its composition--Component parts of different - gunpowders--Source of its explosive force--Explosion at Gateshead-- - Variations in strength and quickness of fire--Granulation of sporting - gunpowder and of artillery gunpowder--Importance of suitable - granulation for different firearms--Large grain powder the more - effectual expellant--Fine powder dangerous--Principle of granulation-- - Gun-cotton--Imperfect instrument for testing gunpowder--Charcoal-- - Operation of making gunpowder described--"Glazing" detrimental-- - Utility of granulation--Fine grain powder--Dr. Ure on the projectile - force of gunpowder--Dr. Hutton's calculations and experiments--Mode - of controlling the destructive force of gunpowder--Experiments to test - the velocity of explosive force of different granulations--The grain - should be proportioned to the length and bore of the gun--Chlorate of - potassa used by the French in making gunpowder--Similar powder - proposed by Mr. Parr, and condemned by Sir William Congreve--Velocity - in projectile force must be gradual--Curious experiment--Operation of - blasting stone, &c., with gunpowder--English sporting gunpowder-- - Military and naval gunpowder--Fame of English gunpowder makers 18 - - - CHAPTER III.--ARTILLERY. - - Definition of the term--Modern field gun--English artillery behind - the march of science--Official obstacles to improvement--Various kinds - of British artillery--Table of measurements, and range of iron - ordnance--Brass guns--Their peculiar property--Firing of brass and - iron guns compared--Range of brass ordnance--Paixhan guns--Traversing - beds for ship guns--Ranges of Paixhan guns and howitzers--Mortars-- - Their uses and varieties--Monster mortar at siege of Antwerp--Table of - English mortar practice--Carronades--Table of weights of guns and shot - --Causes of Recoil--Guns of our ancestors--Metal required in rear of - the breech--Results of Hutton's experiments--Weight in fore-part of - gun injurious--Firm base for a gun essential--Leaden bed for mortars - suggested--New materials desirable for projectiles--Mr. Monk's gun - unequalled--Principle of its construction--Wilkinson's opinion--Waste - of explosive force in ordnance--The propellant force should be - accelerative--This attainable by a proper granulation of powder-- - Government powder--Gunnery only in its infancy--Compound shot--Lead - better than iron for cannon shot--Expenditure of shot at sieges of - Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajos--Hutton's experiments--The shrapnell - shell--Improvements in gunnery--The Greenerian rifle--Dangerous - inefficiency of English artillery--Best metal for cannon--Increased - range destroys guns--Cause of mortars bursting--The Lancaster gun-- - English cast-iron inferior--Mallet's monster mortar--Wrought-iron - unsuited to large guns--Reason why--Shaft of the _Leviathan_--New - method of welding iron shafts--Railway carriage axles--Nasmyth's - monster cannon--Light gun-barrels stronger than heavy ones--Brass guns - inferior to cast-iron--Defect of hoop and stave gun--Form and - dimensions of Mallet's monster mortar (with engraving)--Cause of - deterioration of English cast-iron--Russian cast-iron more durable, - and why--Krupp's steel gun--Laminated steel gun-barrels--Captain - Dalgren's improvements in American ordnance--Russian guns--Reinforce - rings and trunnions objectionable, and why--Rifled cannon essential-- - Range of steel rifled cannon--Best form of gun--Professor Barlow on - the strength of iron--Our artillery not constructed on scientific - principles--Russian 56-pounder, English 8-inch gun, English carronade, - Monck's 56-pounder, and 10-inch gun (with cuts)--Land and sea service - mortars (with cuts)--Joseph Manton's rifle cannon--Projectiles for - rifled cannon--Rifle rockets--Mr. Whitworth's improvements in rifled - guns--His polygonal projectile--Experiments with Mr. Armstrong's - field-piece--Increased range and accuracy of rifled cannon with - elongated projectiles--Table of comparative range of smooth-bored and - rifled cannon--Shells for rifled cannon--Spiral motion of projectiles - from smooth-bored guns--Breech-loading cannon useless and unsafe 58 - - - CHAPTER IV.--MANUFACTURE OF IRON FOR GUN-BARRELS. - - Improvement in gun barrels depends on the iron--Continental - manufacturers advance while English stand still--Cheap and inferior - guns of "Park-paling"--Scarcity of horse-nail stubs--Importance of - iron manufacture--Great value of steel in ancient times--Iron - originally made with wood charcoal--Coal coke unfit for making best - iron--British iron ore inferior--Mr. Mushet on steel-iron--English - workmen employed abroad--English gun-makers' names forged in Belgium-- - Indian Iron and Steel Company--Indian process of making steel--Hammer- - hardening recommended--Difference of "Silver steel" and "Twist steel" - --Method of making laminated steel--It is spoilt by over-twisting-- - Watering of Damascus barrels--Proportions of carbon in steel and iron - --Damascus barrels often plated--Modern method of making Damascus iron - (with cuts)--Objection to wire-twist iron--Figured barrels--Damascus - barrels made in Belgium--Damascus iron inferior in strength--Use of - old horse-shoe nails for gun-barrels--Stub iron alone insufficient-- - Prejudices of provincial gun-makers--Mixture of steel and stub iron-- - Importance of welding on an air furnace--Proportions of steel and stub - iron--Efficacy of hammer-hardening and reworking iron--Improvements in - superior iron owing to gun-makers--Explosions of steam-boilers owing - to neglect or bad construction--Boiler iron improveable--Steel- - Damascus barrel iron--Manufacture of "charcoal iron"--Imitation of - "smoke brown"--Gains from using inferior iron--Frauds in barrel making - --Advice of Edward Davies in 1619--"Threepenny skelp iron"-- - "Wednesbury skelp"--Test of a safe gun--"Sham damn skelp"--Base guns - made to sell--Their injurious effect on the gun-making trade--"Swaff- - iron forging." 146 - - - CHAPTER V.--GUN-MAKING. - - Barrel welding--Birmingham welders--Different twists of metal - (illustrated with cuts)--Process of welding--Hammer-hardening--Belgium - welders--Mode of plating barrels--Belgium method (with cut)--Profits - of fraud--Qualifications of a good gun-barrel maker--Processes of - boring and grinding--Proper inclination of double barrels--Elevation - of barrels should be proportionate to charge and distance--Brazing of - barrels detrimental--Mr. Wilkinson's opinion--Solid ribs requisite-- - Advantage of the patent breech--Best shape of breech (with cut)--Gun - locks--Their scientific construction--The Barside lock--Messrs. - Braziers' locks--The stock, fittings, &c.--Recipe for staining steel - barrels--Birmingham method of browning--Belgian method--Varieties of - iron for best barrels--Laminated steel barrels never known to burst-- - Base imitations of laminated steel--Cost of laminated steel barrels-- - Author's method of laminating--Stub Damascus passed off for steel-- - Birmingham guns--Practice of forging names of eminent makers--Author's - offer--Improved metal for axles--Author's imitation Damascus (with - plate)--Joseph Manton's merits--Prize medals awarded to author-- - Advantages of Birmingham for gun making--"London-made guns"--Foreign - imitations of English guns--Periodical exhibition of guns recommended - --Steel-twist and stub Damascus (with plate)--Barrels of charcoal - iron--Inferior guns--Cost of skelp-iron guns--Cost of "sham damn iron" - guns--Sham guns (with plate)--Cost of "park-paling" guns 185 - - - CHAPTER VI.--THE PROOF OF GUN BARRELS. - - Proof-house of Gun-maker's Company--Proof Acts of 1813 and 1815-- - Provisions of Gun Barrel Proof Act of 1855--Penal clauses--Schedule B - --Proof marks--Scale of charges for Proof--Mode of proving (with cut) - --Number of barrels proved in 1857 243 - - - CHAPTER VII.--THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY. - - New principle--Improved rifles--Useless inventions--Scientific - principles of gunnery: 1. The explosive power and its velocity. 2. The - retarding agents. 3. Construction of the tube. 4. Form of projectile-- - Robins's theory--Hutton's experiments--Suitable velocity the germ of - the science--Author's experiments and their results--Penetrating power - of bullets--Resistance of the atmosphere--Friction detrimental-- - Construction of the tube--The Cylindro-conoidal form best suited for - projectiles--Jacob's and Whitworth's bullets--Lengthened projectiles - tend to burst the barrel--Amount of heat needful to explode gunpowder - --Advantage of unglazed powder--Percussion powder--Best form of nipple - (with cuts)--Propellant velocity the grand desideratum--Why short guns - shoot better than long ones--True science of gunnery--Cause of guns - bursting--Mr. Blaine's difference of opinion with the author on - explosive force--Shooting powers of different gun barrels--Tables of - strength and pressure--Colonel Hawker's axiom--Mr. Daniel's remarks on - shot--Duck and swivel guns--The wire cartridge--Bell-muzzle guns--Mr. - Blaine on long barrels--The just medium--Belgium guns will not stand - English proof--Cause of their inferiority--French gun-makers behind - the age--Author's notes on the "Specimens by French Gun-makers at the - Paris Exhibition"--On recoil in shooting--Causes and experiments--Mode - of determining the size of shot suited to the bore of gun--Mr. - Prince's double gun 257 - - - CHAPTER VIII.--THE FRENCH "CRUTCH," OR BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN. - - Breech-loading fire-arms unsafe and inferior--Objections specified-- - Trial of breech-loading against muzzle-loading guns--Danger from using - breech-loaders--Excessive recoil 329 - - - CHAPTER IX.--THE RIFLE. - - Robins's prediction verified--Barrels first rifled at Vienna in 1498-- - Earliest elongated bullets--Captain Delvigne's bullet--The author's - expansive bullet--His memorial to the Board of Ordnance--Report of its - trial by the 60th Rifles in 1836--Decision of the Board of Ordnance-- - Progress of the author's invention--Captain Delvigne's patent of 1842 - --Captain Minie's bullet of 1847--Unsuccessful attempts of author to - have his claim to the invention of the expansive bullet recognised by - Government--Secret report of Select Committee on his invention--His - priority admitted by the Emperor Napoleon--The British Government - award the author 1,000_l._ for his invention--Principle of the - expansive rifle bullet--Projectiles may be lengthened with increase of - range--Action of the expansive bullet--Defects of the Minie bullet-- - Colonel Hay's improvement--Author's experiments, and their result-- - Spiral curve of the rifle barrel--Failure of the "Pritchett bullet"-- - Captain Tamissier's theory--Minie and Greenerian bullet contrasted - (with cuts)--Author's improvement of 1852 (with cut)--General Jacob's - bullet (with cuts)--Remarks of Lieutenant Symons--The Whitworth rifle - --Its defects--Report of trial of the Whitworth and Enfield rifles-- - Author's comments thereon (with cuts)--Importance of safety from - accident--The expansive bullet can be made superior to the Whitworth-- - Fallacy of experiments--Comparative cost of ammunition for the - Whitworth and Enfield rifles--Defective cartridges--Hints to obviate - defects--Vital principle of elongated projectiles--A hollow bullet - proposed, its defects--The Swiss bullet--Doubtful utility of the - deepening groove--Government rifle, with sword bayonet--Double rifles - --Hints on rifle shooting--Author's expanding screw bands--Mr. - Prince's breech-loading carbine--Revolving rifles--French school of - rifle practice--English school of rifle shooting at Hythe--Double - rifled carbines recommended--Revolvers costly and fragile--Lieutenant - Kerr's opinion of the Enfield or Greener's carbine--Government pistol - and carbine--Efficient arms of the Irregular Cavalry of India--First - use of greased cartridges in India--The three-grooved and poly-grooved - rifle (with cut)--Spherical bullets indispensable to smooth bored - muskets--Length and bore of military rifle--Elliptical bored rifle-- - Mr. Lancaster's bullet superseded by the Greenerian bullet--Report of - committee on Lancaster's rifle--The oval bore not a new invention-- - Inferiority of the two-grooved or Brunswick rifle--The Prussian needle - gun--Enfield rifles made for France, Russia, and other states of - Europe--Trials of Whitworth and Enfield rifles--Unsatisfactory results - of the Whitworth rifle 338 - - - CHAPTER X.--REVOLVING PISTOLS. - - Immense demand for them--Their value--Best manufacturers--Colonel - Colt's repeating pistol described--Its double action discussed-- - Machine-made pistols not equal to hand-made--Dean and Adams's revolver - described--Its improvements on Colt's--Tranter's double trigger - revolver--His lubricating bullet and other improvements--Webley's - revolver--Comparison of self-acting and cocking-lock pistols-- - Tendency of revolvers to foul--Lieut. Symons's opinion--Other defects - to be overcome--Author's preference for double-barrelled fire-arms in - warfare 413 - - - CHAPTER XI.--ENFIELD RIFLES. - - The name explained, and weapon described--Its origin--Author's share - in its construction--American machinery for gun-making--Extent and - products of the Enfield manufactory 429 - - - CHAPTER XII.--THE HARPOON-GUN FOR WHALE-SHOOTING. 432 - - - CHAPTER XIII.--SHOT, CAPS, AND WADDING. 435 - - - - - RIFLES, CANNON, - AND - SPORTING ARMS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -ANCIENT ARMS. - - -From the earliest ages of the world, the jealousies and bickerings of -mankind have been fruitful causes of war. Sometimes, perhaps, justified -by political reasons; at others, it may be, arising solely from a -desire, on the part of ambitious chiefs, to extend their territories by -multiplying their conquests; while, in too many cases, the struggle for -religious ascendancy has led to the most sanguinary and cruel battles. - -War has been considered as a science from the most remote ages, and the -ingenuity of the talented has successively been taxed to render it as -perfect as possible. It is true-- - - "Man's earliest arms were fingers, teeth, and nails, - And stones and fragments from the branching woods;" - -but these soon gave place to others, more calculated to decide unequal, -and often protracted, conflicts. - -Arms, in a general sense, include all kinds of weapons, both offensive -and defensive; and amongst the earliest may be classed the bow and -arrow, as it gave facilities to man to capture the wild animals for -food, probably before their use was required for the purposes of war. -The bow and the sling were the first means invented, and next only to -the human arm for projecting bodies with an offensive aim: the great -principle which, to the present day, reigns unrivalled, developing the -ruling passion of man to injure, while remaining himself in comparative -safety,--"self-preservation" being "the first law of nature." - -To the bow and sling were soon added spears, swords, axes, and javelins, -all of which appear to have been used by the Jews. David destroyed -Goliath with a stone from the brook. The invention of the sling is -attributed, by ancient writers, to the Ph[oe]nicians, or the inhabitants -of the Balearic Islands. The great fame that these islanders obtained -arose from their assiduity in its use; their children were not allowed -to eat until they struck their food from the top of a pole with a stone -from a sling. From the accounts left us (probably fabulous), it appears -that the immense force with which a stone could be projected, can only -be exceeded by modern gunnery. Even at that early age, leaden balls were -in use as projectiles; though we cannot put much faith in Seneca's -account of the velocity being so great as frequently to melt the lead. -The use of the sling continued over a long period of time, even as late -as the Huguenot war in 1572. - -The bow is of equal, if not greater, antiquity. The first account we -find of it is in Genesis, 21st chapter and 20th verse, where the -Lawgiver, speaking of Ishmael, says, "And God was with the lad, and he -grew and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer." The arms of the -ancient Greeks and Persians were such as we have described, with the -addition of chariots armed with scythes, in which the chiefs sometimes -fought; though their main dependence was upon their heavy-armed -infantry. Elephants were afterwards used as adjuncts in their military -operations, but their use does not appear to have been very great or -very permanent. - -The Romans were armed much in the same manner as the Greeks, with a -slight difference in the form of their weapons; and the arms of the -early Saxons were similar; those of the Normans were only altered in -their construction, except that to them appears to be awarded the -invention of the _cross-bow_, an instrument which afterwards became of -great repute in England and elsewhere. It has also been asserted, that -the Normans were the first to introduce a species of field artillery, -from which stones and darts were thrown, and arrows, headed with -combustible matter, for firing towns and shipping. - -The artillery-proper of the ancients, as the engines for projecting -masses of stone and such like materials may be termed, reached to -wonderful perfection; and the velocity with which missiles of every -description could be thrown from them, attest the skill and ingenuity -exercised in their construction: indeed it is quite evident they are -only excelled by the _more portable_, and simply constructed, artillery -of our own day. - -The great artillerist of the Sicilians, Archimedes, seems to have made -some of the most powerful engines; but he, considering any attention to -mechanics as beneath the philosopher, has not left us an account of any -one of them. - -It is said of the cross-bow that a _quarrel_ could be projected from -them 200 yards, so that we may imagine the force with which one of these -lumps of iron would strike even the strongest armour,--as the velocity, -to range that distance, would not be far short of 900 or 1,000 feet per -second; nearly equal to the effect of a ball from one of our old -imperfectly constructed muskets. - -We are told incredible stories of the abilities of some of our bygone -archers. Should it be true, as stated, that an arrow could be shot -nearly 700 yards, we can easily conceive the immense velocity with which -it must have left the bow; this range being quite equal, if not -superior, to that of the late unimproved rifles. Though we must bear in -mind, that the peculiar shape of the arrow fits it to cut the atmosphere -with less resistance then the half sphere of a bullet; and hence one -reason of its obtaining an extensive range. There is a story told of the -famous Robin Hood, and Little John, "who could shoot an arrow a measured -mile." We suppose the mile was the reverse of an Irish one, or they had -the advantage of a precious stiff gale of wind. Historians sometimes -"draw the long-bow" as well as archers. Many statements have descended -to us of the power of the battering rams of old; but we have a much more -ready method of blowing open gates by a single bag of gunpowder; and a -68 lb. shot has all the force that could be given even to that famous -ram of Vespasian, "the length whereof was only fifty cubits, which came -not up to the size of many of the Grecian rams, had a head as thick as -ten men, and twenty-five horns, each of which was as thick as one man, -and placed a cubit distance from the rest; the weight, as was customary, -rested on the hinder part, and was no less than 1,500 talents; when it -was removed, without being taken to pieces, 150 yoke of oxen, or 300 -pairs of horses and mules, laboured in drawing it, and 1,500 men -employed their utmost strength in forcing it against the walls." - -With these remarks we shall proceed to introduce the invention of -Gunnery. - -Barbour, in his life of Bruce, informs us that guns were first employed -by the English at the battle of Werewater, which was fought in 1327, -about forty years after the death of Friar Bacon; and there is no doubt -that four guns were used at the battle of Cressy, fought in 1346, when -they were supposed to have been quite unknown to the French, and tended -to obtain for British arms the victory. Froissart gives an excellent -representation of a cannon and cannoneers, in 1390, a cut of which we -give in the following page. - -The use of guns in warfare is, therefore, comparatively of modern date, -and the early specimens which are still extant, of which we have -drawings and descriptions, must have been of very little service -compared with those of the present day. The English musqueteer was -formerly a most encumbered soldier. "He had, besides the unwieldy weapon -itself, his coarse powder for loading in a flask, his fine powder for -priming in a touch-box, his bullets in a leathern bag, with strings to -draw to get at them, whilst in his hand were his musket-rest and his -burning match; and when he had discharged his piece, he had to draw his -sword in order to defend himself. Hence it became a question, and was so -for a long time, whether the bow did not deserve a preference over the -musket."[1] - - [1] Grose's "Military Antiquities." - -[Illustration: Froisart's Gun. 1390.] - -The mention of the _long-bow_ is frequent in English history, and its -use contributed, in no mean degree, to many important victories. Perhaps -it might be that our forefathers were more skilful in the use of their -weapons than their adversaries. - -In our wars in France, in the reign of Edward III., thousands suffered -by the English archery; and the brilliant success which attended them -was, at that time, attributed to their "superior skill, combined with -the valour of the Black Prince." So highly was this practice esteemed, -that many statutes were enacted in successive reigns to encourage or -enforce it. - -Archery furnished matter for oratorical display, both in the senate and -the pulpit; the palace and the cottage alike bore testimony to the great -importance which was attached to the art; and it was at once the study -and pastime of the whole nation. Thus, long after the introduction of -fire-arms, the long-bow was held in great esteem; and it is no wonder -that this favourite instrument should have been reluctantly -relinquished, after obtaining such universal popularity, and becoming so -intimately connected with many national and important events. It is now -superseded by the gun, a more potent and destructive engine. The bow, so -much valued, has vanished from our ranks by slow gradations, to make way -for the musket; and the quivers of cloth-yard shafts have been -supplanted by bristling bayonets. These things are now practically -unknown as military weapons, though they contended for superiority with -fire-arms during two centuries. - -At this period, and for a long time previously, more attention was paid -to the fabrication of defensive armour, than to the invention of weapons -of an offensive character; hence the perfection that was attained in -the manufacture of mail, of every variety, during the fourteenth and -fifteenth centuries. The splendid manner in which some of the chivalrous -knights of that age chose to have their armour constructed and -ornamented sometimes proved fatal to themselves. Froissart relates that -Raymond, nephew to Pope Clement, was taken prisoner, and put to death by -his captors, in order that they might become possessed of his -magnificent armour. Those gorgeous and costly fabrications were likewise -doomed to give place to the advancing knowledge and skill of succeeding -generations; being now only known as matters of history, and regarded as -valuable curiosities. So late, however, as the latter part of the -sixteenth century, armour formed part of the military equipment; and the -French cavalry, called _carabins_, are described as having the cuirass -sloped off the right shoulder, that they might the more readily couch -their cheeks to take aim, while their bridle arms were protected by an -elbow gauntlet. - -The invention of portable fire-arms is awarded to the Italians by Sir -Samuel Meyrick, and, in a memoir in the Archaeologia of the Society of -Antiquarians, he has named the year 1430 as the precise period of their -introduction. - -We have already stated that cannon, or heavy ordnance, was in use in the -English army in 1327, more than a century before that time. It is not -improbable, however, that the Italians were the originators of small -fire-arms, for they had for many years been celebrated as skilful in -the art of making armour--Milanese armour being considered the most -valuable, and it is natural that their attention should be directed to -the construction of offensive weapons of a different description. - -The invention of the portable fire-arm, in its primitive state, was one -of extreme simplicity; the gun consisting merely of a tube fixed to a -straight stock of wood, about three feet in length, furnished with -trunnions, cascable, and touch-hole: the latter was, in the first -instance, at the top, like a large cannon, but was afterwards altered to -the side where a small pan was placed to hold the priming, and lessen -the liability of its being blown away by the wind. This contrivance was -the first step to the gun-lock. - -Before the adoption of the match-lock by the English, cannon, as I have -before shown, had been in use, though they were of a clumsy description. - -[Illustration] - -To the indefatigable exertions of Mr. Dean, we are indebted for the -recovery of several brass and iron guns, belonging to the "Mary -Rose,"--a vessel of war, wrecked in the reign of Henry VIII. of England, -and Francis I. of France, in 1545: "while standing along the coast, -during a distant firing from the French fleet, under Admiral Annebout, -she was overpowered by the weight of her ordnance, and sunk, together -with her commander and crew of 600 men." One of these iron guns is in an -excellent state of preservation, considering it to have been immersed -above 300 years. The cut on next page will convey, together with the -following description, a faint idea of its unwieldy and inefficient -construction. It is composed of a tube of iron, whose joint or overlap -is as its length; upon this is a succession of iron hoops, composed of -iron three inches square, being in fact immense rings; these appear to -have been driven on while red hot, and thus, by their contraction, -forming a much stronger gun, when combined with the interior tube, than -the generality of accounts given of ancient guns would lead us to -expect. It will be perceived, that to describe it as "composed of iron -bars hooped together," is not correct. We may also mention, that if -parties describing guns of this primitive manufacture will observe -accurately, they will find that this is the general method by which they -have been fabricated. They all appear to have been loaded by removing a -breech part, or chamber, inserting the charge, replacing the chamber, -and securing it by wedging it behind; as will be seen on a close -inspection. No means of raising or depressing the muzzle appear -available; the barrel or gun being sunk in a large block of timber, and -secured there by bolts, as a musket barrel is secured in its stock; -while a large piece of iron, or wood, was inserted perpendicularly into -the deck to prevent the recoil. The advantage of "chambers" was -perfectly understood even at this early period; they were apparently -slightly conical, with a spherical bottom. It is no mean evidence of -ancient skill, and knowledge of gunnery and mechanics combined, to -state, that only a few years ago, a gunmaker of some celebrity, -constructed a number of rifles and pistols to load at the breech, on the -very same principle adopted in this gun 312 years ago. Strange, evidence -from "the vasty deep" to show "there is nothing new under the sun." - -During the sixteenth century, fire-arms of every description then in use -underwent a variety of alterations and improvements; each change -bringing with it a change of name, which would neither be profitable or -interesting to enumerate here; our object being to trace out the -advances which have been made in the manufacture of fire-arms since -their general adoption as weapons of war, or auxiliaries to the sports -of the field. - -When first introduced into England, the hand-gun, as it was termed, had -already received a slight improvement, in having a covering for the pan -which contained the priming, and a sight on the breech, to assist in -giving greater certainty to the aim; it remained thus until the trigger -of the cross-bow suggested a contrivance to convey, with equal -certainty and greater rapidity, the burning match to the pan. - -The difficulty of using an instrument thus objectionably constructed, -was in some degree obviated by the Germans; who, together with the -Italians, were no doubt at this early period the principal -manufacturers; they effected this, to a certain degree, by giving the -stocks a crooked form, so that the breech could, with more ease, be -brought to the level of the eye; this was, however, only an alteration -of form, without involving any principle or leading feature of -mechanical invention. Succeeding the match-lock, in the progress of -improvement, came the "pyrites wheel-lock," an invention then looked -upon as exceedingly curious and ingenious; this also is ascribed to the -Italians, and one of the first occasions of its being used, is said to -have been when Pope Leo X. and the Emperor Charles V. confederated -against France. Whether the Italians are fairly entitled to the merit of -this invention is, however, a matter of doubt, as it is well known that -wheel-locks were for a long period manufactured in Germany. - -The "_snaphaunce_" or fire-lock, is distinctly stated by Grose to be of -Dutch origin,--hence the name. It was introduced into England in the -reign of Charles II., though its general adoption is stated not to have -taken place until the reign of William III., about 1692. Since that -period, until the present, their use has been general in all the armies -of Europe. How strange it seems that the Chinese and other Asiatics -should have only the match-lock to the present day, while there can be -no question that they used gunpowder some centuries before its -introduction into our portion of the habitable globe! - -The Syrians were formerly celebrated for their skill in the working of -iron. Damascus gun-barrels were not to be obtained, at certain periods, -at a price less than their weight in silver. The elaborate mixtures in -their barrels, swords, and other weapons, entitle them justly to the -honour of being the best of iron workers, as we shall hereafter have -occasion to show; and the splendour displayed in their inlaying attests -their taste and ability: but as mechanicians, formers of complex -machinery, they never reached mediocrity. Turkey and Greece, as well as -other countries which were renowned as having been, in days of yore, -nurseries of the arts, but which have, in later times, degenerated into -a condition little better than semi-barbarous, were remarkable for the -great labour and pains which they bestowed upon the exterior ornaments -of their firearms; but they never succeeded in improving the machinery -of the lock in the slightest degree. - -Although it was not until the latter part of the seventeenth, or the -beginning of the eighteenth century, that gun manufactories were -established in this kingdom, yet we have attained to a degree of -perfection and excellence unequalled by any other nation in the world. -Birmingham is the emporium of the world for guns, from the most -inferior--the "_park paling_," so called, of the slave-trade, with which -ships might yet be freighted at the cost of eight shillings and sixpence -each--up to the elaborately-finished gun of the peer. Most of the -alterations which have been made in gun-locks in England, have been with -a view to simplify the machinery, and obtain the greatest quickness in -firing: much complication has been discarded; a thorough conviction -having seated itself in the minds of Englishmen, that to attain -perfection, simplicity must be combined. - -Many splendid emanations of genius are left to us, consisting of complex -mechanism for gunnery. The most perfect we have ever seen, is a pistol -made in Spain about the end of the seventeenth century. By moving a -lever towards the butt-end, while the muzzle is depressed, the lock is -primed, half-cocked, and the hammer shut down; return the lever, the -powder is in the breech, and the ball before it. We have seen it fire -twenty-six shots without a failure, and with one supply of ammunition. -The magazine was in two tubes in the stock. The chance of blowing up was -thought remote; but it eventually blew up. In short, it would be -strictly advantageous to inventors in gunnery, to be sure that there has -been no previous invention combining their principle as well as their -arrangements. - -The mine of complex inventions was exhausted during the last century; -and the greatest benefactor to the science of gunnery will be he, who, -blowing away the cobwebs of mystery, renders its principles as clear as -the silvered glass. Nothing now remains of the beautiful machinery of -the flint lock; the fancy cock and hammers have given place to a -"simple" hammer, striking on a copper thimble, covering a steel pivot. -What would the old lock-filers say to this, if they could return and -see their handiwork consigned to the scrap-box as old iron? - -To those curious in the progress of invention as it relates to gunnery, -it would be highly interesting to visit the "Musee d'Artillerie" of -Paris, and there to study the classified selections in the possession of -the French Government. Among other specimens equally interesting, he -will find revolving pistols, revolving rifles, and swords and revolving -pistols combined in one; and these produced in the early part of the -seventeenth century. The revolving pistol did not therefore originate -with the present generation; and however universally we may use the -"Colt," "Adams," or "Tranter," neither can lay the slightest claim to -originality. In that museum will be found four, five, and six charge -chambers; and though in all there is certainly an absence of movement in -the chamber, produced by the cocking of the lock, yet several present -the appearance of having formerly had some mechanical adjunct for -revolving the chamber: this, though well adapted to the present -percussion system, must certainly have been troublesome to manage in the -old flint lock; for when the first barrel was discharged, the priming of -the other barrels would be lost during the revolution of the chamber. - -A great improvement was, however, soon introduced; a hammer and pan were -attached to each division of the chamber, and each being already primed, -presented itself in rotation in the face of the flint. The gun or pistol -was by these protuberances rendered clumsy and cumbersome, and thus -fell, no doubt, into disuse; but every real mechanic must see on -investigating the subject, that the principle was as perfect as that -which is now in use. Mr. Colt had considerable difficulty in securing a -patent for his revolver. The right of patent hinged on this simple -question: did he, or did he not, first introduce a crank or lever for -revolving the chambers during the cocking of the lock? After an -expensive trial it was decided that he _did_ introduce it; though doubts -are still entertained whether there is not now extant a pistol having -the same crank movement as that found in the "Colt" and other revolvers. -At all events the invention of revolving pistols originated with our -progenitors, more than 200 years ago, though their re-introduction is -unquestionably due to Mr. Colt; and the "old broth warmed up" has no -doubt proved more nutritious than the original concoction. In the Paris -museum, a number of breech-loading guns are to be seen; I think more -than sixty varieties. Many of them are highly ingenious, displaying -great mechanical knowledge and working skill, and the whole, kept in -splendid order, cannot fail to command attention. - -Well had it been if the many hundred inventors in England and elsewhere -had studied, and made themselves intimately acquainted with the -productions there to be seen in such abundance. Monuments they are of -mis-spent skill and labour; samples of the almost hopeless task of -fabricating complicated machinery which shall resist the action of -explosive gases at high pressure. An experiment extending over two -hundred years, but unattended with success, notwithstanding all the -skill and ingenuity brought to bear upon it, is, we think, sufficient -to prove that breech-loading guns cannot be made sufficiently durable to -yield any reasonable return for the extra expense and trouble attending -their fabrication. Nevertheless, our "would-be mechanics hope against -hope;" and to such we would, in conclusion, tender a word of advice. -Before spending your money, make acquaintance (and an intimate one is -necessary) with all that has been done before, and if in your own -production you find principles which have been untouched by any previous -invention, and untainted by any of the previous causes of failure, then -patent your invention, and make a fortune--if you can. - -Great mechanical skill, and even scientific principles, are to be found -in some of the earliest productions after the invention of fire-arms; -and thus is established the important fact, that want of experience was -the chief drawback under which they laboured: one elaborate machine -being unequal to their requirements was succeeded by another; and yet, -with all these examples patent to us, we still fruitlessly fall back on -exhausted principles. - -A more intimate knowledge of what our predecessors have accomplished -would be a great boon to our race. Foreign nations, but especially -France, have provided for this by their museums; and we want here a -museum of progression, an epitome of the mind of the present age, and -which, continued to future generations, would leave to no man the -fruitless toil of hauling in an endless rope. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -ON GUNPOWDER. - - -Gunpowder being the base on which the superstructure of this treatise is -to be raised, the history, the use, and the nature of this explosive -compound, are here placed in the foreground; as it is essential to the -correct conception of the various matters hereafter to be explained, -that the reader be first acquainted with the one grand principle in -fire-arms, the propellant power of explosion. - -Gunpowder, whether considered relatively to engines of war, or to those -arms used with so much success in the sporting field, has, since its -first _introduction_, been a source of much and frequent discussion. In -regard to its origin, we shall not much enlarge, nor repeat the many -suppositions and conjectures promulgated by the searchers after -antiquarian evidence. - -The inhabitants of India were unquestionably acquainted with its -composition at an early date. Alexander is supposed to have avoided -attacking the Oxydracea, a people dwelling between the Hyphasis and -Ganges, from a report of their being possessed of supernatural means of -defence: "For," it is said, "they come not out to fight those who attack -them, but those holy men, beloved by the gods, overthrow their enemies -with tempests and thunderbolts shot from their walls;" and, when the -Egyptian Hercules and Bacchus overran India, they attacked these people, -"but were repulsed with storms of thunderbolts and lightning hurled from -above." This is, no doubt, evidence of the use of gunpowder; but as it -is unprofitable to investigate this subject further, we shall merely -confine ourselves to the European authorities. - -Many ascribe the discovery of gunpowder to Roger Bacon, the monk, who -was born at Ilchester, in Somersetshire, in the year 1214, and is said -to have died in 1285. No doubt he was by far the most illustrious, the -best informed, and the most philosophical of all the alchemists. In the -6th chapter of his Epistles of the Secrets of Arts, the following -passage occurs--"For sounds like thunder, and flashes like lightning, -may be made in the air, and they may be rendered even more horrible than -those of nature herself. A small quantity of matter, properly -manufactured, and not larger than the human thumb, may be made to -produce a horrible noise; and this may be done many ways, by which a -_city_ or an _army_ may be destroyed, as was the case when Gideon and -his men broke their _pitchers_ and exhibited their lamps, fire issuing -out of them with great force and noise, destroying an infinite number of -the army of the _Midianites_." And in the 11th chapter of the same -epistle occurs the following passage:--"Mix together saltpetre with -_luru mone cap ubre_, and sulphur, and you will make thunder and -lightning, if you know the method of mixing them." Here all the -ingredients of gunpowder are mentioned, except charcoal; which is, -doubtless, concealed under the barbarous terms used; indeed, the -_anagram_ is easily converted into _carbonum pulvere_, with a little -attention. - -This discovery has also been attributed to Schwartz, a German monk, and -the date of 1320 annexed to it; a date posterior to that which may be -justly claimed for Friar Bacon; and as accident is stated to have been -the means by which he discovered it, we have taken that incident as the -subject of an illustration. - -[Illustration] - -Mr. Hallam, referring to the authority of an Arabic author, infers that -there is no question that the knowledge of gunpowder was introduced into -Europe through the means of the Saracens, before the middle of the 13th -century; and no doubt its use then was more for fireworks, than as an -artillerist projectile force. There is good evidence, too, that the use -of gunpowder was introduced into Spain by the Moors, at least as early -as the year 1343. Now, as Roger Bacon is known to have been an Arabic -scholar, it is not at all unlikely that he might have become acquainted -with the mode of making the composition, and also with its most -remarkable properties, by perusing some Arabian writer with whom we are -at present unacquainted. - -This invention, by which the personal barbarity of war has certainly -been diminished, is, when considered as a means of human destruction, by -far the most powerful that skill has ever devised, or accident -presented; acquiring, as experience shows us, a more sanguinary dominion -in every succeeding age, and subserving all the progressive resources of -science and civilization for the extermination of mankind: which, says -Mr. Hallam, "appals us at the future prospects of the species, and makes -us feel, perhaps, more than in any other instance, a difficulty in -reconciling the mysterious dispensation with the benevolent order of -Providence." - -The composition of gunpowder, as regards the proportions of the -ingredients, has not undergone any material alteration; the chemical -proportions of the ancients being nearly those of the present day. - -Gunpowder is an explosive propellant compound, consisting of saltpetre -or nitre, charcoal, and sulphur. The terms, _explosive_ and -_propellant_, are not here used as synonymous--they are not convertible; -for a chemical mixture may possess the _explosive_ power in a much -higher degree than the _propellant_: fulminating gold, silver, and -mercury, are dreadfully explosive; but they have not the same -projectile force, nor can they be used as a substitute for it. Several -experiments have been made with compounds of this nature, but the result -is the reverse of what might be expected. Nothing can resist the -exceeding intensity of the action of fulminating powder; a shot, when -fired in this way, is not projected as by gunpowder, but is split into -fragments by the velocity of its explosion, as we shall hereafter have -occasion to show. - -Nitre, or saltpetre, is strictly the essence of gunpowder. It is a -triple compound of oxygen, nitrogen, and potassium. The chemical action -of those elements on each other, and the play of affinities between them -at a high temperature, occasion the immense effect produced by gunpowder -on the application of fire or heat. By universal consent, sulphur is -included in the mixture, but it is not absolutely necessary for the -"propellant power;" for nitre and charcoal only will generate effects -similar to the compound with sulphur. Gunpowder made without sulphur -has, however, several bad qualities; it is not, on the whole, so -powerful, nor so regular in its action; it is also porous and friable, -possessing neither firmness nor solidity. It cannot bear the friction of -carriage, and in transport crumbles into dust. The use of sulphur, -therefore, appears to be not only to complete the mechanical combination -of the other ingredients, but being a perfectly combustible substance, -it increases the general effect, augments the propellant power, and is -thought to render the powder less susceptible of injury from atmospheric -influence. - -"There is one good reason," says the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, "for the -use of sulphur, although it does not contribute to the production of any -elastic fluid. The carbonic acid which is generated would doubtless -combine with the potash, if it were not for the presence of the sulphur, -and thus so much elastic fluid would be lost. That this is the case we -know to be true, from the fact that carbonate of potash is always formed -when nitre is decomposed by charcoal alone, which I shall almost -immediately show." This certainly would be the case, to a certain -extent, with gunpowder without sulphur--some carbonate of potash would -be formed. - -The sulphur, we have no doubt, from experiments we have made on this -subject, is, in part, engaged during the explosion of gunpowder in -expelling the sixth proportion of oxygen from the potash, so as to -combine with the potassium, to form a true sulphuret of that metal. This -fact is easily ascertained, from the circumstance that no sulphuretted -hydrogen can be detected, by the most delicate tests, coming from the -residuum left after firing gunpowder, until moisture has gained access -to it. The bad smell which arises sometime after the burning of -gunpowder, is occasioned by the decomposition of the moisture which the -sulphuret of potassium attracts from the atmosphere; giving rise, by -this decomposition and liberation, to the f[oe]tid foul gas, called -sulphuretted hydrogen, and the production of potassa, or the oxide of -potassium. - -A commission of French chemists and artillerists was appointed by the -Government, in the year 1794, to experiment upon the best proportions -and constituents of gunpowder for the use of the French service. The -following were the proportions of five different kinds prepared at the -Essonne works:-- - - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - No.|Nitre.|Charcoal.|Sulphur.| ---- - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - 1 |76.00 | 14.00 | 10.00 |Powder of Bae. - 2 |76.00 | 12.00 | 12.00 | " Grenelle. - 3 |76.00 | 15.00 | 9.00 | " M. Morveau. - 4 |77.32 | 13.44 | 9.24 | " Ditto. - 5 |77.50 | 15.00 | 7.50 | " M. Keffault. - ---+------+---------+--------+---------------------- - -The first and third, after 200 discharges with the proof mortar, were -declared the strongest, and the third proportions were adopted at the -recommendation of the commissioners. Some few years elapsed, and the -first, owing to its better keeping quality, was substituted, as it -contained less charcoal, and a little more sulphur. The French -Government having always been extremely impressed with the value of -durability in gunpowder, they have since returned to their ancient -proportions: 75 nitre, 12-1/2 charcoal, 12-1/2 sulphur. The charcoal, -the absorbent of moisture, being further reduced, and the sulphur, the -preserving ingredient, being increased in the same ratio. - -"Mr. Napier tried a small quantity made of nitre and charcoal only, and -was much surprised to find it project a shot as far as the best powder -made in the usual manner. It is found that, in small charges, sulphur is -advantageous; but, in charges of several ounces, the projecting force is -as great without as with it. Therefore, under certain circumstances, -sulphur may be dispensed with; but to make a good gunpowder, nitre and -charcoal are indispensable." - -Amongst the brilliant discoveries of modern chemistry may be classed the -development of the fact, that a chemical combination, to constitute the -same compound, always takes place in definite and unalterable ratios. To -select one example out of a multitude: one atom of carbon combining with -two atoms of oxygen produces the gas; because more would answer no -useful end. So, with reference to the sulphur, if it enter into -combination only with the potassium--the base of the nitre--the sulphur -should be in that proportion to form the sulphuret of that metal; and in -this case there would be no superfluity, for that would only add to the -weight of the charge of powder, and diminish its absolute and effective -energy. The view of the case which we have taken supposes only two -combinations, viz. carbon with oxygen, and sulphur with potassium. -Should there be a more diversified play of affinities, and the several -elements of the powder enter into more complicated action, accurate -analysis would conduct us through all difficulties, and point out what -the proportions of the ingredients ought to be in order to sustain that -action, and to produce a perfect ultimate result. - -We thus perceive how analysis bears upon the case. We can see by such -reasoning on the subject, that, theoretically, there can be but _one set -of proportions calculated to produce the best and strongest gunpowder_, -and that those proportions must depend upon the established and unerring -laws of nature. The proportions, then, for gunpowder, by these -considerations, will be those in which the carbon will just consume the -oxygen of the nitre, and combine with the sulphur as much as will -exactly saturate the potassium. This will be effected by an atom each of -nitre and sulphur, and three atoms of carbon; or nitre 75.5, charcoal -18.8, and of sulphur 11.8. - -In the present improved state of chemical science, when the nature of -the bodies comprising gunpowder is so well known, as well as the -compounds resulting from their action on each other, the proportions we -have named may be taken as the best for practice. - -The charcoal should, in particular, not be less than the nitre, as the -smallest portion less than the whole atom would be the same as to leave -out the whole atom, in which case there would be no carbonic oxide -formed. If, for example, instead of the proportions of nitre 75.5, -charcoal 16.2, sulphur 15, the carbon were 16, then there would be 4.2 -of carbon left in the residuum, and no carbonic oxide would be formed, -since bodies cannot unite but in definite proportions. - -From these considerations we can perceive the reason why a small -proportion of carbonic oxide is always formed during the decomposition -of nitre by charcoal; for it will be evident, that as the nitric acid -contains five atoms of oxygen, four of these must combine with two atoms -of carbon to form two atoms of carbonic acid, while the _odd atom of -oxygen_ is compelled to take another atom to form carbonic oxide. But -this is not the case in the combustion of gunpowder, as carbonic acid -and nitrogen are the principal gases generated. - -These proportions differ from any other formula yet prescribed; and, -though different in a great degree from the proportions laid down by -various writers on the subject, the reasons which are here given, as has -been seen, are such as carry with them a conviction of their truth: for -there cannot possibly be any benefit arising from a greater quantity of -any of these materials than is absolutely necessary to form the -composition in question; and if the smallest quantity be above what is -requisite to consume the whole, that, however small it may be, is highly -detrimental to the effective energy of the mass. What we may here call -clean gunpowder, such as may be used with confidence for repeated -discharges of fire-arms of any description, is of the greatest -importance; therefore, it does not appear to us, that any given -proportions are so likely to accomplish that object as those before -specified. - - -TABLE OF COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT GUNPOWDERS. - - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - Mills. |Nitre.|Charcoal.|Sulphur. - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - Royal Waltham Abbey |75.00 | 15.00 | 10.00 - France, National Mills |75.00 | 12.50 | 12.50 - French Sporting |78.00 | 12.00 | 10.00 - French Mining |65.00 | 15.00 | 20.00 - U. S. of America |75.00 | 12.50 | 12.50 - Prussia |75.00 | 13.50 | 11.50 - Russia |73.78 | 13.59 | 12.63 - Austria (Musket) |72.00 | 17.00 | 16.00 - Spain |76.47 | 10.78 | 12.75 - Sweden |76.00 | 15.00 | 9.00 - Switzerland (Round Powder) |76.00 | 14.00 | 10.00 - Chinese |75.00 | 14.40 | 9.90 - Theoretical proportions as above |75.00 | 13.23 | 11.77 - ---------------------------------+------+---------+-------- - -Gunpowder consists of a very intricate mixture of sulphur, carbon -(charcoal), and nitrate of potash (nitre). - -The proportions in which they exist are one equivalent of nitre, one of -sulphur, and three of carbon. The great explosive power of gunpowder is -due to the sudden development from its solid constituents of a large -quantity of gases; these gases are nitrogen and carbonic acid. - -At the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere these gases would occupy a -space three hundred times greater than the bulk of the gunpowder used; -but owing to the intense heat developed at the moment of explosion, the -gases occupy at least 1,500 times the bulk of the original gunpowder. -The mixture, consisting of one equivalent of nitre, one of sulphur, and -three of carbon, would yield three equivalents of carbonic acid, one of -nitrogen, and one of sulphuret of potassium. The change may be -represented thus,-- - - S + C_{3} + KONO_{5} = 3 CO_{2} + N + KS. - -The only solid residue, therefore, is the sulphuret of potassium, and -this is the compound which produces the sulphurous odour on washing out -a gun barrel; water is decomposed, sulphuretted hydrogen and potash -being the result of the decomposition. - -Now supposing the elements of gunpowder to exist in these proportions, -it is essential, in order to secure their perfect combination, and thus -to produce the largest possible volume of gas, that the elements should -be in the most minute state of subdivision. Chemical action is a force -exerted at insensible distances only, and chemical substances having the -greatest affinity for each other will not combine, unless their elements -are brought into immediate contact: thus oxygen and hydrogen may be -mixed together in the exact proportions to form water; but no chemical -combination will occur, simply because the ultimate particles of the two -gases are not sufficiently near to each other for their chemical -affinities to be brought into play; if, however, these gases are -subjected to very strong pressure, so as to bring their particles into -immediate contact, combination occurs, and the production of water is -the result. - -In order to insure the perfect combination of the elements of gunpowder -the same conditions are necessary; that is to say, the ultimate -particles of the nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, must be brought into the -most direct contact, or the explosive power of the gunpowder will be -comparatively trifling. If, for instance, the nitre, charcoal, and -sulphur be pounded in a mortar, no explosion but a slow combustion will -occur when the mixture is ignited; so that unless this intimate mixture -of the elements is carefully attended to in the manufacture of -gunpowder, it is easy to see that the article produced will be of -comparatively little value. - -It is evident then that if tons of the elements of gunpowder were stored -in a warehouse which accidentally caught fire, no explosion would occur -from the formation of gunpowder; though its ingredients would greatly -increase the rapidity of combustion. - -This remark is elicited by the recollection of a fearful explosion which -took place at Gateshead in 1854. - -It may be remembered that a warehouse caught fire from an adjoining -mill, and the explosion was supposed to have been produced by the -ignition of the elements of gunpowder stored in the warehouse in a crude -state. The upper story of the building contained a large quantity of -crude sulphur, and the basement story about the same quantity of nitre, -whilst chemicals of various kinds were stored in other parts of the -building; but according to the accounts published there was no large -quantity of carbon in the warehouse; nevertheless, a terrific explosion -took place, and after a lengthened investigation, the conclusion arrived -at was this: the sulphur melting, mixed with the nitre, gunpowder was -thus formed, and igniting, exploded, producing the terrible effects. - -But gunpowder may be made without sulphur, whereas gunpowder without -carbon is an impossibility; and though the elements of gunpowder had all -been present, no explosion could have occurred, unless they had become -mixed in the intimate manner already described. - -It is true some of the chemical substances in the warehouse might have -produced a fearful explosion: but a more plausible explanation is to be -found in the fact, that gunpowder was at that time much more valuable -abroad than at home; and it is quite possible that some kegs of -gunpowder might have been stored away in this warehouse, until a -convenient opportunity presented itself for their removal. - -The foregoing remarks will serve to explain how it is that powder varies -so much in strength and quickness of fire. If the elements are -imperfectly incorporated, the powder can never be equal to that which is -properly made; and the manufacturer, having ascertained the best -proportions in which to mix the elements, had better improve his -machinery for incorporating them, rather than his knowledge of the -chemistry of gunpowder. These observations will also serve to explain -the apparent anomaly, that the French, and some of our other continental -brethren, are held to produce a much inferior sporting gunpowder to that -which is manufactured in old England. - -Gunpowder is now made by all the sporting gunpowder manufacturers from -No. 1 to No. 5 grain; and it appears certain that a further increase in -the size of the grain would be advantageous; for many years of patient -and laborious experiment clearly show, that the old notion of gunpowder -being blown out of an ordinary sized gun in an unburnt state, is one of -the "purest of vulgar errors:" such a thing indeed cannot possibly -happen unless the powder be bad, or the gun _imperfectly made_, or -injudiciously charged. - -I am satisfied that I am under rather than over estimate, when I assert -that six drams of ordinary sporting gunpowder may be beneficially and -completely exploded in a barrel of 14 bore, 2 feet 6 inches long, with a -resisting projectile one ounce in weight above it. This, however, being -more than a double charge for such a gun, cannot be pleasantly -practised; and it is only asserted by way of argument. - -Assuming, then, for argument's sake, that six drams of gunpowder are -exactly consumed in passing from the breech to the muzzle of a gun 2 -feet 6 inches long, and that the shot, therefore, acquires its greatest -velocity as it leaves the muzzle, it follows that the ordinary charge of -2-1/2 drams will be wholly consumed before it has traversed half the -length of the barrel, and consequently the charge of shot must here -acquire its greatest velocity. It is certain, then, that the shot must -travel the latter half of the barrel at a diminished velocity, and its -velocity must continue to diminish as it passes up the barrel; for two -obvious reasons--1st, The column of air in front of the charge is more -condensed, and thus offers a greater resistance to the exit of the -charge; 2nd, The velocity is continually diminished by the increased -friction of the charge against the barrel. - -The perfection of projectile science is to make the projectile acquire -its greatest velocity at the instant of leaving the muzzle; and if, by -increasing the size of the grain of gunpowder, we can diminish the -rapidity of its explosion--thus causing it to burn and generate fresh -gas up to the muzzle of the gun--the projectile will then acquire its -greatest velocity, and leave the gun to the best advantage: this is the -important point which has hitherto been overlooked, not only in -fowling-pieces, but in the expansive principle of rifles. - -For artillery practice of every kind, whatever the weight of the -projectile, gunpowder of a granulation suited to the weight of that -projectile is essential, if we would produce the greatest possible -effect by the least expenditure of means. - -In artillery, at this most important time in war's history, no attention -whatever is paid to this essential principle. A long 10-inch gun, a -68-pounder, and a short 6-pounder are all charged with powder of the -same granulation; whilst by a more judicious use of gunpowder of -suitable granulation, the range might be extended, just as it is in -sporting arms, to nearly 20 per cent. - -Artillerists seek to effect great range by doubling the weight of the -gun, and projectile monsters meet us at all points, to become in every -case "monster failures." - -I fear that the most important points have been entirely lost sight of. -Instead of ascertaining whether we have suited the projectile power to -the 8-inch or 56-pounder, so as to get work from it which is now done by -the 10-inch, we have, in our anxiety to get range, looked only to the -form or material of the gun; vital principles being totally excluded. -The construction of the gun being perfect, the question is, can the -expellant force be brought to an equal state of perfection? - -In order to obtain the best results from a gun, the gun itself must be -perfect in construction, and the expellant force must be brought to bear -in the best possible manner upon the projectile; and this is to be done -by attending to the granulation of the powder, which must be suited to -the length of the gun, to its bore, and to the weight of the projectile. - -Common-sense, engineering skill, will demonstrate, that according to the -weight of matter to be projected must be the nature of the expellant; -_accumulative_--until it has overcome the inertia of that matter, -_accelerative_--until it has communicated to it the highest state of -velocity its power is capable of effecting. If, on the other hand, it is -inferior to this, science has not extracted from it the full -_horse-power_ it contains; and we are uselessly expending force and -destroying our engines by undue pressure being exerted on one part, and -inferior pressure on another; whilst by a proper distribution of that -force, durability of the cannon is insured, and from twenty-five to -thirty per cent. more work may be obtained from an equal quantity of -powder, provided its granulation be judiciously selected according to -the area of the gun. - -There is abundant proof that on this engineering question we have -hitherto worked by the "rule of thumb;" prejudice having been a -stumbling-block, which nothing but stern necessity will remove. The -authorities have but just discovered this, although their attention was -directed to it several years ago. In the year 1852, I produced before -the Small Arms Committee, at Enfield, a portion of gunpowder suited to -the expansive rifle; it was tried to a limited extent, and dismissed -with the remark, "We don't think there is much in it." Experience, -however, has demonstrated the truth of my observations, for, in all -extreme range shooting with the expansive or "Greenerian"-principled -rifles, not only is considerably greater _accuracy_ obtained with it, -but an _increase_ of range equivalent to fifteen or twenty per cent. - -Another advantage of using gunpowder of a suitable granulation is the -absence of sharp recoil; and thus greater accuracy of range is -obtained--accuracy of range and steadiness of weapon being inseparable. - -Large-grain gunpowder is not only a more effectual expellant than the -fine grain, but is much more safe to use, for by using it the risk of -bursting the barrel is much lessened; as a very simple illustration will -show. If we estimate the force generated by the usual charge of 2-1/2 -drachms (I confine the question to the 14-bore gun, for uniformity) to -be 5,000 lbs., whether the powder be fine or coarse grain, it follows -that the fine powder, igniting so rapidly, will exert all its force on -the breech end of the gun; whereas the coarse powder, igniting less -rapidly, distributes this force over the whole length of the barrel: -hence the greater risk of a gun bursting with fine powder than with -coarse. If we suppose the fine powder to be entirely ignited when it -reaches half way up the barrel, then the force of 5,000 lbs. is exerted -on the lower half of the barrel; but if the coarser grain is not -entirely ignited until it reaches the muzzle, then the force of 5,000 -lbs. will be distributed over the whole length of the gun. - -But this is not all. The fine powder, igniting almost instantaneously, -exerts its force in all directions at once, and the barrel may burst at -the side before the charge has time to move; whereas the coarse powder, -igniting as it does more slowly, first lifts the charge, and then the -volume of gas behind it increasing as the powder becomes more thoroughly -ignited, sweeps the charge out of the barrel with a velocity increasing -towards the muzzle. - -If time is not given for the charge to receive the full advantage of the -expansive force of the generated air, the force is exerted, not upon the -charge, but upon the barrel of the gun itself; and that time is -necessary for the full development of this force, is proved by the fact -that miners mix their gunpowder with sawdust, in order to diminish the -rapidity of its explosion and thus get the advantage of its force in the -distance: from the miners, then, let us learn how to obtain the greatest -benefit from this force, and waste it not. - -There can be no doubt of the importance of this principle; little -progress has, however, been effected from want of scientific -illustration; let it be defined like that of steam power, and its -adoption will follow as a natural consequence. - -For several years I have had gunpowder manufactured of various sizes, at -the sight of which most sportsmen would express their astonishment. - -One objection held by sportsmen to the large grained gunpowder is that -it does not come up the nipple of the gun; now although I do not -consider this at all important, still if the specific gravity of the -gunpowder were increased by compressing 1-1/2, 2, or 3 grains of -gunpowder into the space of 1 grain, by means of hydraulic pressure, -this objection would at once be obviated; whilst at the same time, the -powder would be less liable to absorb moisture, or to become friable -with age: either of which conditions is incompatible with good shooting. - -The granulating of gunpowder, to be of the greatest benefit, should be -on a uniform principle; the manipulation should be alike in all -particulars, but especially in that part of the process which determines -the specific gravity. The hydraulic pressure on the cake should be alike -in all cases: in fact, the various sizes of grain might be produced from -the same cake, and the desired object be thus obtained. But so long as -the practice is followed of producing large grain from less condensed -cake, the article produced will give unsatisfactory results; and the -advantages which might be attained, as my experience denotes, and which -would be of the greatest service, alike in sporting, rifle, and -artillery powder, will be nullified. - -Great improvements are yet to be made, especially in the powder used for -artillery; whilst range, accuracy, and lessened recoils are points which -may be determined with almost mathematical precision. - -Great fame is in prospect for any one who can grasp and handle well this -granulation principle; especially if he can define the sizes to be used -for different varieties of guns. Artillerists who contend that a medium -size grain, to suit all sizes of gun, is advantageous, might as well -contend that cannon of a medium size would be preferable to so many -different sizes, because, though we lose in range, accuracy, and recoil, -it would be more convenient to have but one sized gun. - -In making large grained gunpowder, the manufacturers defeat one of the -main objects to be gained by granulation, from not subjecting it to the -same amount of pressure which is necessary for the granulation of the -very fine grain. In granulating very fine powder, it is necessary to -subject the cake to such an amount of hydraulic pressure as shall give -the mass a marble-like structure, or during the process of granulation, -the whole of it crumbles into dust; but the coarser gunpowder may be -granulated without subjecting it to this high degree of pressure, hence -each grain is more porous and of lesser specific gravity: a difference -which it is most important to avoid. It is clear, therefore, that -according to the present mode of manufacturing gunpowder, the large and -the fine grain are of very different kinds; the main difference being in -their specific gravities. Gunpowder of less density burns with greater -rapidity, because it is more open and porous; and if uniform density was -observed, the diversity in the size of the grain need not be so great; -whilst, at the same time, this anomaly might be avoided--that the same -measure of fine and large-grained gunpowder contains a difference of the -expansive element amounting to fifteen or twenty per cent. As gunpowder -is now manufactured, it is highly necessary in all comparative trials to -_weigh_, and not to _measure_ the charge, or the results will be -deceptive and worthless. The granulation question struggles with -undeserved difficulty. Gunmakers, either not understanding the question, -or constructing the chambers of their guns improperly, and not using -suitable nipples, decry the adoption of large-grained gunpowder; but -they forget the increased range obtained in the killing from their guns, -and the _eclat_ a long shot produces. In trials of guns at thirty or -forty yards, the difference in the shooting with fine and large-grained -gunpowder is not so apparent, and the maker exclaims, "Oh! the fine -powder shoots stronger, and as close as the coarse." I admit this to be -the case, at short distances; but the great advantage of using the large -grain is sufficiently evident when shooting at forty-five, fifty, and -sixty yards, for then the fine grain entirely fails: simply from the -oft-repeated fact, that the fine powder is more of a propulsive, while -the large grain is an expellant force; so that according to the law of -resistance in aeriform fluids, the one is sooner reduced to medium -velocity than the other, which exerts its action more evenly. Powder of -larger grain is thus more suitable for the larger sizes of shot, and -would give an increased range in usual shooting, for the shot is kept -better together, and is projected to greater distances. A common way of -testing the quality of gunpowder is, to rub it between the hands, and -observe the darkness of the stain; the darker the stain the more -inferior the gunpowder is held to be. This test is, however, decidedly -fallacious, because the gunpowder may be of low specific gravity, or it -may have become friable from age and other causes. - -Whales are shot with gunpowder proportioned to the weight of the harpoon -required to kill them. Duck guns of the largest calibre are -comparatively useless unless the gunpowder used is granulated according -to the weight of the projectile; and the same law holds in regard to the -most "mammoth" engine yet to be devised by the mind of man. - -Gun-cotton has been before the world for some years, but, except as a -curiosity, it has attracted little public attention; neither has it -gained any reputation as a projectile force. It may be prepared by -steeping cotton wool for a few minutes in a mixture of nitric and -sulphuric acids, thoroughly washing, and then drying at a very gentle -heat. It consists chemically of the essential elements of gunpowder: -viz. carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen; but, in addition, it contains another -highly elastic gas, hydrogen. The carbon in the fibres of the wool -presents to the action of flame a most extended surface in a small -space, and the result is an explosion approaching as nearly as possible -to the instantaneous: in consequence of its rapid ignition it produces a -violent kick; sufficient time is not given to put heavy bodies in -motion, hence it cannot be usefully employed as a projectile agent. No -one who values his limbs should trifle with it, for fearful accidents -have resulted from its exposure to the heat of the sun, and other very -simple causes. - -There is an instrument used by some sportsmen, and strongly recommended -by many gunmakers, for testing the strength of different kinds of -gunpowder. It consists of a chamber closed by a spring, and fired like -an ordinary pistol. When the powder explodes the spring is forced -forward, and moves an index round a graduated circle; the more quickly -the powder explodes the farther does it lift the spring; hence this is a -measure of quickness of fire, but not of expellant force; and from the -observations which have been made on gunpowder, it must be evident to -any one who has paid the least attention to the subject, that this -instrument is utterly useless. - -An instrument to test the comparative strength of different kinds of -gunpowder is yet a desideratum in projectile science; and we cannot -doubt that such an instrument will be produced, when the importance of -the granulation of gunpowder is more generally known and appreciated. - -The charcoal formerly used was made in the common way, by pits, which -must have been seen by almost every one. The method is now to _distil_ -the wood in cast-iron cylinders, extracting the pyroligneous acid, &c., -by heating them red hot, and allowing all other volatile matter to -evaporate, the charcoal only being retained in the cylinder or retorts; -hence arises the name _cylinder gunpowder_. The best charcoal for -sporting powders is the black dog wood; Government use willow and alder. -Any charcoal does for common powders. Charcoal is ground in the same way -as the nitre. Sulphur is purified simply by fusing, and when in that -state, skimming off the impurities: it is cooled and pulverised in the -same way as the other two ingredients. The three ingredients, after -being carefully weighed in their due proportions, are sifted into a -large trough, and well mixed together by the hands. They are then -conveyed to the powder mill. This is a large circular trough, having a -smooth iron bed, in which two millstones, secured to a horizontal axis, -revolve, traversing each other, and making nine or ten revolutions in a -minute. The powder is mixed with a small quantity of water put on the -bed of the mill, and there kept subject to the pressure of the stones; -and if we calculate the weight of the two millstones at six tons, it -follows that in four or five hours' incorporation on this bed, it -subjects the ingredients to the action of full 10,000 tons. It is this -long-continued grinding, compounding, and blending together of the -mixture, that alone renders it useful and good. After this intimate -mixing, it is conveyed away in the shape of mill-cake, and firmly -pressed between plates of copper. Bramah's press has been introduced of -late years--we should say with a good deal of improvement to the powder, -as will be shown hereafter--and by its means the mass is more compressed -and in thinner cakes. It is then broken into small pieces with wooden -mallets, and taken to the corning-house, where it is granulated, "by -putting it into sieves, the bottoms of which are made of bullocks' -hides, prepared like parchment, and perforated with holes about -two-tenths of an inch in diameter; from twenty to thirty of these -sieves are secured to a large frame, moving on an _eccentric_ axis, or -crank, of six inches throw; two pieces of lignum vitae, six inches in -diameter, and two inches or more in thickness, are placed on the broken -_press-cakes_ in each sieve. The machinery being then put in rapid -motion, the discs of lignum vitae (called balls) pressing upon the -powder, and striking against the sides of the sieves, force it through -the apertures, in grains of various sizes, on to the floor, from whence -it is removed, and again sifted through finer sieves of wire, to -separate the dust and classify the grain. One man works two sieves at a -time, by turning a handle and eccentric crank; the sieves being fixed to -a frame, which is suspended over a bin by four ropes from the ceiling." - -The grains afterwards undergo a process of _glazing_, by friction -against each other, in barrels containing nearly 200 lbs., making forty -revolutions in a minute, and lasting several hours, according to the -fancy of the purchaser. This part of the business we entirely disagree -with, as injurious to the quick and _certain ignition_. Gunpowder is -finally dried by an artificial temperature of 140 deg. Fahrenheit, which is -suffered gradually to decline. The last process is sifting it clear of -dust, and then packing it in canisters or otherwise. - -The utility of the process of granulation results from the impossibility -of firing mealed powder sufficiently simultaneously to effect an -explosion; and also from the fact that gunpowder, in a mass, does not -explode. Fire a solid piece of mill-cake, and it does not flash off like -unto granulated powder, but burns gradually, though with an extreme -fury, until the whole is consumed. This arises from its density, the -compression in the press; it also teaches us one fact, that to be of the -greatest service, the time each grain should occupy in burning should be -proportioned to the size of the gun for which it is required; since it -is clear that the explosion of a heap of gunpowder is but the rapid -combustion of all its parts. This action, as is well known, is so rapid, -even in a large quantity of powder, that it appears to be a sudden and -simultaneous burst of flame; though philosophically and actually it is -not so. - -Fine grain, when unconfined, explodes quicker than large, or is sooner -burnt out, and consequently generates more force in the same period of -time; but when it comes to large quantities, its very quickness is -detrimental to its force, by condensing the air around the exterior of -the mass of fluid which thus constrains its bound. In small quantities, -the proportion of condensation is not so apparent, and hence the reason -why greater velocities can be obtained with small arms than with cannon. - -There exists a diversity of opinion in regard to the strength or -projectile force of gunpowder. Dr. Ure remarks--"If we inquire how the -maximum gaseous volume is to be produced from the chemical reaction of -the elements of nitre on charcoal and sulphur, we shall find it to be by -the generation of carbonic oxide and sulphurous acid, with the -disengagement of nitrogen. This will lead us to the following -proportions of these constituents: - - Hydrogen 1. Per Cent. - 1 prime equivalent of nitre 102 75.00 - 1 " " sulphur 16 11.77 - 3 " " charcoal 18 13.23 - --- ------ - 136 100.00 - -"The nitre contains five primes of oxygen, of which three combining with -the three of charcoal, will furnish three of carbonic oxide gas, while -the remaining two will convert the one prime of sulphur into sulphurous -acid gas. The single prime of nitrogen is therefore, in this view, -disengaged alone. - -"The gaseous volume, in this supposition, evolved from 136 grains of -gunpowder, equivalent in bulk to 75-1/2 grains of water, or to -three-tenths of a cubic inch, will be, at the atmospheric temperature, -as follows:-- - - Grains. Cubic Inches. - Carbonic oxide 42 141.6 - Sulphurous acid 32 47.2 - Nitrogen 14 47.4 - ----- - 236.2 - -being an expansion of one volume into 787.3. But as the temperature of -the gases, at the instant of their combustive formation, must be -incandescent, this volume may be safely estimated at three times the -above amount, or considerably upwards of 2,000 times the bulk of the -explosive solid. - -"It is obvious that the more sulphur, the more sulphurous acid will be -generated, and the less forcibly explosive will be the gunpowder. This -was confirmed by the experiments at Essonne, where the gunpowder that -contained twelve of sulphur, twelve of charcoal, in 100 parts, did not -throw the proof shell so far as that which contained only nine of -sulphur and fifteen of charcoal. The conservative property is, however, -of so much importance for humid climates and our remote colonies, that -it justifies a slight sacrifice of strength. - -"When in a state of explosion, the volume," Dr. Hutton calculates, "is -at least increased eight times, and hence its immense power. The -pressure exerted, if in a state of confinement, will depend on the -dimensions of the vessel containing it; so that it would be no difficult -undertaking to obtain any pressure above that of the atmosphere, up, we -may fearlessly say, to the enormous amount of 4,000 lbs. per square -inch." - -The same quantity of gunpowder subjected to a variety of experimental -tests, differs materially in its results; at the same time it is only by -such a method that we can arrive at the relative strength or power which -it possesses. Dr. Hutton, whose authority in all mathematical -calculations is very high, and whose opinions and judgment in matters of -this nature ought not to be unthinkingly controverted, states 2,000 feet -per second (with cannon) as the highest velocity which any projectile -had attained, at the time of his writing, which had gunpowder for its -propellant power. A much greater velocity is now given in all guns -fired at high elevations. "Monks'" gun attained a velocity of 2,400 feet -in the first second of its flight, and this is now exceeded by rifled -cannon. - -This advantage does not arise, in our opinion, so much from the superior -quality of the gunpowder, as from the improvements which have taken -place in the manner of applying it. For instance, where experiments are -conducted, as was the case with Dr. Hutton, with moving _eprouvettes_, a -certain loss is sustained, in the same degree as the instrument is made -to recoil from its original position; therefore, by restraining the -recoil, an increase of momentum is given to the projectile, to the same -extent as had been exerted upon the _eprouvette_, or cannon, in driving -it several feet backward; and instead of dividing the force thus -acquired between the shot and the gun, by having the latter firmly fixed -and the recoil destroyed, the whole power is exerted upon the former, -and its velocity accelerated in the same proportion. - -Gunpowder, though astonishing in its effect, and tremendous in power, -may nevertheless be controlled within a limited sphere, and bounds put -upon its destructive energy. The following curious experiment, first -tried at Woolwich on a small scale, has since been carried out to a -great extent. Screw into each end of the breech part of a gun-barrel a -well-fitted plug; drill a communication, and put in a nipple; having -filled the barrel with powder, screw in the breech, and fire a cap on -it, and the explosive fluid will escape by the small orifice like steam -from a pipe. If the barrel be good, it may safely be held in the hand, -merely using a towel to protect the hand from the heat the barrel -absorbs. We have done it repeatedly with no inconvenience, and even -carried this experiment much further; firing two ounces of the best -powder in a barrel of good quality (though not in the hand) yet the -barrel did not receive any violent motion by which it could be inferred -that it might not be done with safety. - -We have before observed, that, with very short guns, fine gunpowder -produces the greatest result, inasmuch as there is no greater column of -air in the barrel than the explosive fluid is equal to _displace_; or, -in other words, the charge leaving the muzzle of the gun at the very -moment when the explosive force is strongest, all the power is thus -obtained of which it is capable; but if used in a longer barrel, and the -fluid has obtained its greatest power when the charge has twelve inches -of the barrel still to travel, the column of compressed air yet -remaining in the muzzle of the barrel, exerts a resisting influence, in -proportion to its density, upon the charge, and creates a dangerous and -unpleasant recoil. - -If a cartridge be placed in the centre of an open barrel eight feet in -length, having a bullet abutting at each end large enough to fill the -barrel, and a touch-hole is drilled as near the centre of the cartridge -as possible, when it is fired, the balls will certainly be discharged -from the barrel, but with a very small degree of force: in fact, merely -driven out. With the same instrument, vary the experiment: place in it a -cartridge charged with one ball, three feet from the muzzle, leaving a -column of air five feet in length to act against the explosive force of -the gunpowder, and the ball will be driven one hundred yards with -considerable force. Again, let a third cartridge be introduced similar -to the last, two feet from the muzzle, increasing the column of air to -six feet; and the result, in distance and velocity, will nearly double -what has been obtained by the last experiment; tending to prove that air -thus forced back upon itself obtains a density, and consequent resisting -influence, nearly equal to a well-screwed breech. In order to test this -principle further, I put into the same tube a double charge of -gunpowder, merely backed by a wadding, two feet from the muzzle, and -then rammed down four balls as tight as possible into the short portion; -in discharging it, the tube was burst immediately in rear of the charge. - -In another experiment, I took a common musket barrel, having a plug of -iron firmly fixed into the muzzle; the breech being unscrewed, and a -ball introduced one-tenth of an inch less in diameter than the bore of -the barrel, together with one drachm of gunpowder, I then fired the -gunpowder, and the explosive matter escaped by the touch-hole. On -examination, it was found that the ball was flattened to the extent of -one-third of its sphere. The charge for the next experiment was -increased to two drachms; when the ball in the discharge struck the -muzzle very slightly, altering its shape in the least conceivable -degree. The charge was next increased to three drachms, and the ball -was extracted without any perceptible defect. In the fourth trial, -another drachm was added, with which the effect was greater than the -tube was able to resist; it was in consequence burst, about three inches -from the muzzle. - -From this I infer that, in the first trial, the velocity of the ball was -not so great, but that the air escaped past it, by what is technically -called the windage, allowing it to strike the plug at the end of the -barrel with sufficient force to alter the shape of the lead in the -manner described. The second trial gave an increased velocity; the -opposing forces being so nearly balanced that the ball scarcely reached -the end of the barrel, and was very little injured. In the third trial -the velocity became so great, and the air was condensed to such an -extent, that the ball struck upon a cushion-like surface so highly -elastic that it was extracted without the least injury to its shape. The -last charge was too powerful, inasmuch as the lateral pressure of -compressed air rent the tube asunder. - -The one great cause of this and other barrels bursting, arises from the -velocity becoming too great, and thus driving back the air upon itself, -until the mutual repulsion of the particles forms an almost impenetrable -barrier, exerting a lateral pressure on the barrel, and resisting the -passage of the elastic fluid. To make the explanation plain; supposing -that the charge had condensed the air for the distance of three or four -inches immediately preceding it, and then come to rest, the waves of -vibration, travelling at the rate of 1,300 feet per second, would -communicate to the remainder of the column the same pressure, and an -equilibrium would take place. But this not being the case, and the air -becoming still more highly compressed by the velocity not decreasing but -increasing, the lateral pressure becomes greater than the fibres of the -iron are able to withstand, and consequently the barrel is burst. Many -accidents arise from this cause solely, and without any blame being -attached to either the maker or user of the gun. While on this subject, -we may remark that this is the more likely, inasmuch as the powder with -which barrels are proved is not the strongest, and is also of a large -grain; so that it is quite within the range of probability that a barrel -may, and it does often, stand proof, and yet burst when it comes to be -used with extremely fine-grained strong powder; as it is quite clear -that a high velocity must create danger. - -To pursue the subject still further: in order to procure conclusive -evidence in support of this argument, I had a tube of iron manufactured, -sufficiently good in quality to bear an enormous pressure; it was three -feet in length, with a bore large enough to admit an ounce ball, and the -sides of the arch were full a quarter of an inch in thickness. A piece -of steel, one inch in length, was then turned of a size to fit the bore -well, but not so tight as to prevent its free action: this I called a -piston. From the centre of the tube to the muzzle, were drilled, on all -sides, a number of small holes, a quarter of an inch distant from each -other, in all amounting to sixty-eight; these were fitted with small -pieces of steel needles, hardened, projecting into the interior of the -tube a quarter of an inch, so that the piston, in its upward movement, -should strike these pins, and thus enable me to judge how far it was -driven by each experiment. Each end of the tube was then fitted with a -breech, firmly screwed in; the upper one having a flat internal surface, -the lower one, where ignition was to be communicated, being a conical or -patent breech. This machine I termed an explosion metre; and it answered -its purpose. With two drachms of the best canister gunpowder, the piston -was propelled nineteen inches along the tube; breaking eight pins. The -same quantity of the fine diamond grain reached only eighteen inches, or -four pins. No. 3 grain, of both Laurence's and Pigou and Wilks' -manufacture, reached twenty-four inches, or twenty-eight pins. A very -superior powder, containing in one grain five of diamond, four of -canister, and two of the above makers' No. 2, reached twenty-seven -inches, and broke forty pins. In each of these experiments the greatest -accuracy was observed, in preparing the metre as well as in weighing the -charge. - -These facts go far to prove that, in all uses of gunpowder, the grain -should be of a size proportioned to the length and bore of the gun; for -if we have not an accelerating force to overcome the increasing -resistance of the compressed column of air in the barrel, there is great -danger that the gun may be burst, and probably be productive of great -mischief; whilst a judicious application of the extraordinary power thus -placed at our disposal, may be alike conducive to our safety and our -pleasure. A musket ball can be driven through an half-inch boiler plate; -but this can only be accomplished by using as much powder as will -generate a gradually, though rapidly, increasing power, until the ball -has passed the limits of the tube. - -Nitre is not the only salt which has been employed in the manufacture of -gunpowder. Its quantity or proportion in the mixture has been lessened, -and the deficiency supplied by another elementary combination; namely, -by the chlorate of potassa. - -The French succeeded in making powder of which potassa forms one of the -component parts, and they say it ranges the projectile double the -distance; but this is doubtful. The proportions of the mixture are -nitrate of potash twenty-five parts, chlorate of potassa forty-five, -sulphur fifteen, charcoal seven and a half, and lycopodium seven and a -half parts. In the year 1809, a similar kind of powder was proposed to -the English Government, by a person of the name of Parr; but its -introduction was very properly opposed by Sir William Congreve, on -account of the danger attending its use, and also from the fact that -there was no piece of ordnance in the service able to withstand its -effects. The proportions were, chlorate of potassa six parts, fine -charcoal one part, sulphur one part. These ingredients to be _carefully_ -mixed together and granulated. The above mixture was laid aside, not -only from the want of power to restrain its effects, but because it was -useless, from the very extreme rapidity of its explosion: it forms the -atmospheric air into a wall of adamant, by the condensation confining it -to a comparatively small space; it becomes lightning--an electric fluid, -which, from its very intensity, cannot displace any great mass of air. - -Neither can any advantage arise from any greater velocity in projectile -force, except we can obtain that by a graduated scale; for masses -cannot, from a state of rest, be put in extreme motion instantaneously: -philosophy teaches us, and experience makes it evident, that a portion -of time must be occupied, however short that may be. All motion is -gradual, and cannot be obtained otherwise; and hence the fact, that -lightning conveyed into a tube filled with projectiles would not drive -them out: it would not project them, but the blow would break them in -pieces. So is it with this mixture; it is useless from its very rapidity -of ignition. We have shown that even fine grain gunpowder is too quick, -and that its quickness destroys its power; how much more so is the -other: and what would it avail us, with these disadvantages. - -A writer mentions what he conceives to be a curious fact: he says, "If a -train of gunpowder be crossed at right angles by a train of fulminating -mercury, laid on a sheet of paper on a table, and the gunpowder lighted -by a red hot wire, the flame will run on until it meets the cross train -of fulminating mercury, when the inflammation of the latter will be so -instantaneous as to cut off the connection with the continuous train of -gunpowder, leaving one half of the train unignited:" and again, "If the -fulminating powder be lighted first, it will go straight on, and pass -through the train of gunpowder so rapidly as not to inflame it at all." -True; and the cause is quite apparent: the rapidity of combustion -condenses the air so quickly, as to remove the grains of gunpowder -liable to come in contact with the flame, and to form the condensed air -into a line of demarcation: for heat cannot be taken up by the air -quicker than the atmosphere will convey sound; and before the heat can -evaporate the explosion is over, and is consequently noiseless. - -In all mining operations: in the quarrying of stone, the destruction of -sunken rocks, or in any other operations where it is desirable to detach -large masses, the use of gunpowder is indispensable; not only because it -decreases manual exertion but also because it can be used under -circumstances and in situations unapproachable by other means. It -becomes, therefore, a consideration for the miner what kind is best -suited for the purpose; the finest grained powder is useless as is well -known: it is also more expensive; but its principal defect arises from -its quickness of combustion. Masses cannot be detached without first -putting the whole in motion; and as this cannot be done in a very short -time, it is necessary to prolong the explosion, so that the wave of -vibration may have time to travel throughout the whole of the mass acted -upon; and a repetition of these waves is necessary before any mass can -move. Now, to obtain this, it is necessary that matter be so -incorporated with the powder as to prolong that explosion; bituminous -substances might be applied with effect, for their slow burning would -keep the heat necessary to hold the permanent gases at their utmost -stretch of expansion. - -It is obvious, from the extremely high character English sporting -gunpowder has obtained all over the world, that considerable improvement -must have been effected by the private manufacturers, either in the -purification or manipulation of ingredients; indeed the unwearied care -bestowed on this point by several of our best makers is beyond all -praise. To explain the various methods, or otherwise enlarge upon this -point, would be injurious to individual skill and enterprise, and be the -means of imparting knowledge to those who have not ability to invent, -but who gather from the brains of others. The French set great value on -the "Poudre de Chasse" of England. It is rather singular that we should -excel those who pride themselves so much on their chemical knowledge; -but, as before remarked, it is certain that the intimate incorporation -of the ingredients is of more importance than the chemical proportions. - -All military and naval gunpowder is not manufactured of the greatest -strength that can be acquired "_at the Government mills_;" a sample is -furnished to each contractor with each contract, and to this strength he -is limited. - -The fame of our English gunpowder makers is patent to all the world, -and, where skill is equal, to name one rather than another would be -invidious; though we must not lose sight of the facts herein -established. "Granulation," properly understood, is an equivalent point -to either chemical or mechanical knowledge and manipulation in gunpowder -manufacture. Great anxiety to meet the wishes of the sporting world on -this point, and to advance with the age, has been aroused; and specimens -have been kindly furnished to me, not by one, but by all the following -celebrated makers: Messrs. Pigou and Wilks, Curtis and Harvey, Lawrence -and Son, John Hall and Son; and I have received also a very excellent -specimen from the Scotch mills. - -Gunpowder of five sizes of granulation, on the basis before alluded to: -namely, No. 2, containing two quantities of No. 1, and No. 3, three, and -so on in progression; but it is imperative that all the various sizes be -produced from the same mill cake, or be otherwise of the same -condensation or specific gravity, and in all experiments of comparison, -equal weights are a "sine qua non," otherwise the comparison will be -futile; as measure is, for these very obvious reasons, inapplicable in -comparative tests. When these points are carefully attained, increased -power of killing, "decreased recoil," and much greater safety, will be -the important benefits which the gunpowder manufacturers will confer on -every one using a gun. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -ARTILLERY. - - -Arcualia, from "arcus, a bow," appears to have been the original name, -and included all sorts of "missiles," as well as the engines by which -they were propelled. The sling, still in common use by the Arabs on the -banks of the upper Euphrates, being most probably the first kind of -artillery, and the bow and arrow a succeeding stage of improvement. - -Artillery, now in the general acceptance of the term, includes all and -every description of gun, of greater power and dimensions than muskets -and other shoulder guns. - -Modern civilization, with its giant strides of improvement, has rejected -the cumbrous and unsightly complication of springs, levers and wheels; -and given to us, in their stead, the light and handsome six-pounder -cannon; which is so easy of transit that it can accomplish the most -complex and difficult movements, while the horses are at their fullest -gallop. A single minute now suffices to stop when at the greatest speed, -unlimber, load, fire a couple of rounds, and remount; the gun is -speedily at a distance--while the eye can scarcely follow, or the mind -imagine, the destruction that must follow when the "deep-tongued gun" -is fired in attack. - -I shall now proceed to notice the comparative effects of guns of various -calibre and power, and attempt to convey to the reader a distinct idea -of their respective defects and advantages. The artillery of England -comprises an immense variety of weapons of war, suited for various -purposes and situations, as experience has dictated, or necessity -required. The present state of our artillery requires _an advance to the -front_, to be in a line with the march of science, as regards the -knowledge of gunpowder and projectiles; I may, therefore, be permitted -to animadvert on what appears to me to need improvement. - -The profession may think it presumptuous in me to offer a suggestion or -give an opinion; for it too frequently happens that individuals, who -have employed their whole time and study on one especial subject, think -they alone can understand it, and consider any opposition to their -opinions, or any doubt of the soundness of their conclusions, little -short of a positive offence. - -Having given considerable attention to the subject, I would now beg to -offer some remarks on the Government arrangements of gunnery, which are -not yet so perfect as they might be. - -The authorities of the Ordnance Department are, I am sorry to state, too -remiss in considering, and too unwilling to avail themselves of valuable -improvements and discoveries; clinging too much to prejudice in favour -of whatever has been heretofore in use. To such an extent is this habit -carried, that many improvements become familiar to half the kingdom, -aye, and are adopted by other countries, before our guides take -advantage of them: for truly talent and ingenuity are but scantily -patronized by them. My wish is to aid in sweeping away the cobwebs which -still hang on the science of great gunnery; and to push the spur of -conviction deep, that instead of Britain following, she may, in a time -of peace, lead the way in improvements; so that whenever war returns, -she may not be unprepared to wage it on equal terms. - -I have in this chapter endeavoured to divest the subject of all -extraneous matter, and impart as much information as will enable the -reader to form an opinion for himself, and understand something of a -science hitherto considered abstract, and which is, no doubt, abstruse. -This I have sought to effect in plain language, avoiding, wherever it -was possible, all technicalities. - -The guns of the British nation may be divided into four classes--Park, -or Field artillery, Siege guns, or battering train, garrison guns, and -marine artillery. The numbers of different descriptions of rates, or -weight of guns, vary in all the different classes of the service. There -are light, medium, and heavy six-pounders; long and short twenty-four -pounders; and two or more weights in all the varieties, even up to the -ten-inch gun and thirteen-inch mortar. We have iron ordnance and brass, -for long and short ranges, for small or great velocity. The rate, -weight, length, charges, point blank, extreme range, &c., of iron guns, -will be found in the annexed table, by which will be seen, at a glance, -the various matters referred to. - -IRON ORDNANCE. - - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - Nature | | | Charge |Point |Extreme| - of |Weight.|Length.| of |Blank |at | Windage - Gun. | | | Powder. |Range.|5 deg. |decreased. - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - Pounders.| cwts. |ft. in.|lbs. ozs. |yards.| yards.| - 32 | 63 | 9 7 | 10 10-1/2| 380 | 1950 | -- - 32 | 56 | 9 6 | 10 10-1/2| 380 | 1950 | -- - 32 | 48 | 8 0 | 8 0 | 330 | 1740 | -- - 32 | 40 | 7 6 | 6 0 | 340 | 1700 | .06 - 32 | 32 | 6 6 | 5 0 | 330 | 1640 | .11 - 32 | 25 | 6 0 | 4 0 | 225 | 1500 | .11 - 32 | 25 | 5 4 | 4 0 | 225 | 1500 | .11 - 24 | 50 | 9 6 | 8 0 | 360 | 1850 | -- - 24 | 48 | 9 0 | 8 0 | 360 | 1850 | -- - 24 | 40 | 7 6 | 8 0 | 340 | 1800 | -- - 24 | 33 | 6 6 | 6 0 | 260 | 1560 | -- - 18 | 42 | 9 0 | 6 0 | 360 | 1780 | -- - 18 | 38 | 8 0 | 6 0 | 340 | 1730 | -- - 12 | 34 | 9 0 | 4 0 | 360 | 1700 | -- - 12 | 29 | 7 6 | 4 0 | 340 | 1650 | -- - 9 | 26 | 7 6 | 3 0 | 330 | 1600 | -- - 6 | 17 | 6 0 | 2 0 | 320 | 1520 | -- - Carronades. | | | | | - 68 | 36 | 5 4 | 5 10-1/2| 270 | 1420 | -- - 42 | 22 | 4 6 | 3 8 | 240 | 1350 | -- - 32 | 17 | 4 0 | 2 10-1/2| 235 | 1260 | -- - 24 | 13 | 3 9 | 2 0 | 225 | 1150 | -- - 18 | 10 | 3 4 | 1 8 | 220 | 1100 | -- - 12 | 6 | 2 8 | 1 0 | 205 | 1000 | -- - ---------+-------+-------+------------+------+-------+---------- - -Brass guns are invariably lighter, and considered less likely to burst. -Gun metal, technically so called, is a compound of copper and tin, in -the proportion of five, eight, and ten pounds of the latter to 100 -pounds of the former. The peculiar property of the tin is to give -hardness and solidity to the mass. The greater proportions are used -principally for mortars, as they require a greater degree of hardness -than other guns. A peculiar property attaches to the using of brass -guns. If a considerable number of rounds be fired in rapid succession, -the bore of the gun becomes to a certain extent elliptical. This -peculiarity arises entirely from the extreme windage allowed by the -present established rules of British gunnery; and is produced by the -tendency of the shot, when propelled by the explosive force, to strike -upwards from the breech, and then rebound downwards, and so on till it -reaches the muzzle. Iron guns are not liable to this (although the same -cause exists) from the unductile nature of the cast iron. - -Brass guns are, after certain use, recast: this is done solid, with the -cascable of the gun downwards, to give a greater density to the metal at -the breech. The boring and turning are performed simultaneously by a -very simple arrangement. At the siege of Badajos, the firing continued -for 104 hours, and the number of rounds that each gun fired averaged -1,249; and at the siege of Sebastian, the quantity fired by each gun was -about 350 rounds, in 15-1/2 hours. These guns being of iron, none of -them were rendered unserviceable; though three times the number of brass -guns would not have been equal to such long and rapid firing. All brass -guns are bouched with a bolt of copper at the vent, on the same -principle as flint guns for sporting were formerly with gold or platina; -copper withstanding the rapid escape of the flame better than the -gun-metal. The charges, ranges, &c., are as follows:-- - -EXTREME AND POINT BLANK RANGE OF BRASS ORDNANCE, CHARGE, &C. - - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - |Charge.|Point |Extreme|Eleva-| - ---- | |Blank | Range.| tion.| ---- - | |Range.| | | - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - |lb. oz.|yards.| yards.| deg. | - Medium 12-pounder| 4 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |} - Light 12-pounder | 4 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - 9-pounder | 3 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |}With round solid - Long 6-pounder | 2 0 | 300 | 1,200 | 3 |}Shot. - Light 6-pounder | 2 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - Heavy 3-pounder | 1 0 | 200 | 1,000 | 3 |} - 24-pounder | | | | | } - howitzer | 2 8 | 250 | 950 | 3-1/2| } - 12-pounder | | | | | }With common Shells. - howitzer | 1 4 | 200 | 950 | 3-3/4| }When Shot is fired, - Heavy 5-1/2-inch | | | | | }they increase the - howitzer | 2 0 | 250 | 1,750 | 12 | }elevation 1/2 a deg. - Light 5-1/2-inch | | | | | } - howitzer | 2 0 | 100 | 1,350 | 2 | } - -----------------+-------+------+-------+------+---------------------- - -The twelve, ten, and eight-inch guns, almost form a class of themselves, -known as the "Paixhan Gun." They are intended for throwing both hollow -and solid shot. The larger are the description of ordnance with which we -at present arm our steam frigates. - -These are unquestionably part of the many doubtful descriptions of -artillery which have been adopted of late years, with a view to -_fracture_ more than to secure a range of projectile. They are enormous -machines, as will be seen on reference to their weights, as given in the -following table; and their splintering powers are certainly very -extensive indeed. But their range is contemptibly small, if we take into -consideration their great weight. The effect of the explosion of the -charge of one of these guns must be sensibly felt even by the strongest -built steamer in the world. They are used with traversing beds. The gun -carriage, when recoiling, in a backward direction, being driven up an -inclined railway, with from 3 deg. to 4 deg. of elevation, from the cascable of -the gun. This greatly tends to lessen the distance which the gun would -be driven back, and facilitates the running out of the piece to the -point of discharge. The woodcut gives a representation of the traversing -beds; and the following table displays the ranges, &c., of this class of -heavy artillery. - -[Illustration] - -RANGE AND ELEVATION, &C., OF 12, 10, AND 8-INCH GUNS, AT POINT BLANK AND -EXTREME, AND 10 AND 8-INCH HOWITZERS. - - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - | | | Charge |Point |Extreme|Eleva- - Nature of Ordnance.| Length. | Weight.| Powder. |Blank | Range.|tion. - | | | |Range.| | - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - |ft. in. |cwt. qr.|lbs. ozs.|yards.|yards. |deg. - 12-inch gun, with }| | | | | | - hollow shot, }| 8 4 | 90 3 | 12 0 | 240 | 1,550 | 6 - weight 112 lbs. }| | | | | | - 10-inch, with } | | | | | | - ditto, weight 86 } | 7 6 | 57 3 | 7 0 | 210 | 1,500 | 6 - lbs. } | | | | | | - Ditto | 8 4 | 62 1 | 8 0 | 250 | 1,400 | 5 - Ditto | 9 4 | 84 0 | 12 0 | 325 | 1,700 | 5 - 8-inch gun, with }| | | | | | - hollow shot, 48 }| 6 8-1/2| 50 0 | 7 0 | 210 | 1,300 | 5 - lbs. }| | | | | | - 8-inch ditto, } | | | | | | - solid shot, 68 } | 8 6 | 60 0 | 9 7 | 340 | 1,500 | 5 - lbs. } | | | | | | - Ditto | 9 0 | 65 0 | 10 0 | 300 | 3,250 |15 - Ditto, hollow shot | 9 0 | 65 0 | 12 0 | 370 | 2,920 |15 - 10-inch iron | | | | | | - howitzers | 5 0 | 40 0 | 7 0 |2 deg.| 2,078 |12 - | | | | 600 | | - 8-inch ditto | 4 0 | 21 0 | 4 0 |3 deg.| 1,725 |12 - | | | | 730 | | - -------------------+---------+--------+---------+------+-------+------ - - [2] Length of time occupied in flight, 14 seconds, and 15-1/4 - seconds. - -Mortars are intended for three purposes; firstly, to bombard a town, or -injure the defenders' artillery; secondly, to fire or overthrow the -works, and to spread havoc and slaughter among the troops; thirdly, to -break through the vaulted roofs of barracks and magazines which are not -bomb-proof, or, in other terms, are not strong enough to resist the -fire. - -They consist, as will be seen, of five descriptions, but the 10-inch is -considered, on the score of economy, as equal to all useful purposes. -The French have, at various times, constructed mortars of enormously -large dimensions, but certainly with no useful result. The monster -mortar, used at the siege of Antwerp, fired only ten or twelve shots, -and with comparatively little effect. It burst some time after, while -under a course of experiment, with a considerably less charge than it -had formerly withstood; thus affording one very conclusive and -illustrative fact in the theory of vibrations in metals: for there can -be no question but that the shell, from the smallness of the charge, was -too long detained in the mortar; the waves of vibration caused by the -explosive force moving so rapidly through the mass that the metal at -last lost its cohesive nature from their very rapid succession. - -It will be perceived, on reference to the adjoining tables, that ranges -are obtained by the modifications of charges. - -ENGLISH MORTAR PRACTICE.[3] - - [3] Artillerist's Manual. - - --------------------------------++--------------------------------+ - 13-INCH IRON. || 10-INCH IRON. | - Weight, 16 cwts. || 16 cwts. 2 qrs. | - Shell filled, 200 lbs.[4] || 92 lbs. | - Bursting powder, 6 lbs. 2 ozs. || 2 lbs. 10 ozs. | - Blowing powder, 2 ozs. || 1-1/2 ozs. | - -------+-----------+-----+------++-------+-----------+-----+------+ - Ele- | Charge. |Fuse.|Range.|| Ele- | Charge. |Fuse.|Range.| - vation.| | | ||vation.| | | | - -------+-----------+-----+------+--------+-----------+-----+------+ - deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.|| deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.| - 45 | 2 1-1/2| 1.90| 450|| 45 | 1 0-1/2| 1.90| 450| - | 2 3 | 2.00| 500|| | 1 2 | 2.00| 500| - | 2 4-3/4| 2.10| 550|| | 1 3-1/4| 2.10| 550| - | 2 6 | 2.20| 600|| | 1 4-3/4| 2.20| 600| - | 2 7-3/4| 2.30| 650|| | 1 6 | 2.30| 650| - | 2 9-1/2| 2.40| 700|| | 1 7-1/2| 2.40| 700| - | 2 11-3/4| 2.45| 750|| | 1 9 | 2.45| 750| - | 2 14 | 2.50| 800|| | 1 10 | 2.50| 800| - | 3 0-1/2| 2.55| 850|| | 1 11 | 2.55| 850| - | 3 3 | 2.60| 900|| | 1 12 | 2.60| 900| - | 3 5-1/2| 2.65| 950|| | 1 13 | 2.65| 950| - | 3 8 | 2.70| 1,000|| | 1 14 | 2.70| 1,000| - | 3 10 | 2.75| 1,050|| | 1 15-1/4| 2.75| 1,050| - | 3 12 | 2.80| 1,100|| | 2 0-1/2| 2.80| 1,100| - | 3 14 | 2.85| 1,150|| | 2 1-3/4| 2.85| 1,150| - | 4 0 | 2.90| 1,200|| | 2 3 | 2.90| 1,200| - -------+-----------+-----+------++-------+-----------+-----+------+ - - +------------------------------------+ - | 8-INCH IRON. | - | 8 cwts. 1 qr. | - | 46 lbs. | - | 1 lb. 14 ozs. | - | 1 oz. | - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - |Elevation.| Charge. |Fuse.|Range.| - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - | deg. |lbs. ozs. |inch.|yards.| - | 15 | 0 14 | 0.80| 500| - | | 1 0 | 1.00| 550| - | | 1 2 | 1.10| 600| - | 45 | 0 9-1/2| 1.90| 450| - | | 0 10-3/4| 2.00| 500| - | | 0 12-1/2| 2.10| 550| - | | 0 13-3/4| 2.20| 600| - | | 0 14-1/2| 2.30| 650| - | | 0 15-1/2| 2.40| 700| - | | 1 0 | 2.45| 750| - | | 1 0-1/2| 2.50| 800| - | | 1 1-1/4| 2.55| 850| - | | 1 2 | 2.60| 900| - | | 1 2-3/4| 2.65| 950| - | | 1 3-1/2| 2.70| 1,000| - | | 1 4 | 2.75| 1,050| - | | 1 4-3/4| 2.80| 1,100| - | | 1 5-1/4| 2.85| 1,150| - | | 1 6 | 2.90| 1,200| - +----------+------------+-----+------+ - - +--------------------------------++-------------------------------- - | 5-1/2-INCH BRASS. || 4 2-5th-INCH BRASS. - | Weight, 1 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lbs. || 3 qrs. 19 lbs. - | Shell filled, 16 lbs.[5] || 8 lbs. - | Bursting powder, 10 ozs. || 5 ozs. - | Blowing powder, 1/2 oz. || 1/2 oz. - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - |Elevation.|Charge. |Fuse.|Range.||Elevation.| Charge.|Fuse.|Range. - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - | deg. |ozs. dr.|inch.|yards.|| deg. |ozs. dr.|inch.|yards. - | 15 | 6 0 | 0.73| 350 || 15 | 4 8 | 0.80| 450 - | | 7 0 | 0.75| 400 || | 4 12 | 0.85| 500 - | | 7 8 | 0.80| 450 || 25 | 4 0 | 1.10| 540 - | | 8 0 | 0.85| 500 || | | | - | 25 | 5 8 | 1.10| 480 || | | | - | 45 | 4 8 | | 300 || 45 | 2 6 | 1.65| 300 - | | 4 12 | | 350 || | 2 9 | 1.70| 350 - | | 5 0 | 1.75| 400 || | 2 12 | 1.75| 400 - | | 5 4 | 1.80| 450 || | 3 0 | 1.80| 450 - | | 5 8 | 1.85| 500 || | 3 4 | 1.85| 500 - | | 5 12 | 1.90| 550 || | 3 8 | 1.90| 550 - | | 6 0 | 1.95| 600 || | 3 12 | 1.95| 600 - +----------+--------+-----+------++----------+--------+-----+------ - - [4] Shells filled with sand, which will account for the weight. - - [5] Shells filled with sand, which will account for the weight. - - 13-INCH LAND SERVICE. 10-INCH DITTO. 8-INCH DITTO. - Greatest charge, 8 pounds powder. 4-1/2 pounds. 1 pound. - Greatest range, 2,706 yards. 2,536 yards. 1,720 yards. - -WEIGHT OF LAND AND SEA SERVICE MORTAR. - - Inches. cwts. qrs. lbs. Inches. - 13 Land service, Weight, 36 2 0 Length, 36.563 - 10 do. " 16 2 0 " 28.125 - 8 do. " 8 2 14 " 22.500 - 5-1/2 do. brass, " 1 1 15 " 15.104 - 4-2/3 do. do. " 0 3 20 " 12.713 - 13 Sea service, " 100 1 14 " 52.810 - 10 do. " 52 0 0 " 45.620 - -[Illustration] - -Carronades are a short description of ordnance without trunnions, but -fastened by a loop under the reinforce. Their construction is materially -different from that of guns. They have a chamber like a mortar, a part -scooped out inside the muzzle, forming a cup, and they have also a patch -on the reinforce. The name arises from the Carron Foundry in Scotland, -the first of them having been cast there in 1779. The construction is -considerably lighter than that of guns of similar calibre. Their -principal use is on board ship; but they are sometimes used in -casemates, or retired flanks of fortresses. - -The proportions of all guns to shot, will be found below; and in looking -at this table, it will scarce be conceivable how such light guns can -project such heavy shot. - -COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF GUNS AND SHOT. - - -------------------+-------+----------- - |Weight |Comparative - ---- | of | Weight. - | Guns. | - -------------------+-------+----------- - | cwts. | - 12-inch Gun | 90 | 1 to 112 - 10 do. | 84 | 1 " 82 - 8 do. | 65 | 1 " 107 - 8 do. | 60 | 1 " 96 - 8 do. | 50 | 1 " 82 - 32-pounder | 64 | 1 " 224 - Do. | 56 | 1 " 196 - Do. | 48 | 1 " 168 - Do. | 40 | 1 " 140 - Do. | 32 | 1 " 112 - Do. | 25 | 1 " 84 - 24-pounder | 50 | 1 " 233 - Do. | 48 | 1 " 219 - Do. | 42 | 1 " 186 - 18-pounder | 42 | 1 " 261 - Do. | 37-1/2| 1 " 233 - 12-pounder | 34 | 1 " 318 - Do. | 29 | 1 " 270 - Do. | 21 | 1 " 196 - 9-pounder | 31 | 1 " 285 - Do. | 26 | 1 " 323 - Do. | 17 | 1 " 211 - 6-pounder | 23 | 1 " 429 - Do. | 17 | 1 " 327 - 68-pound Carronades| 30 | 1 " 59 - 42 do. | 22-1/4| 1 " 58 - 32 do. | 17 | 1 " 62 - 32 do. | 25 | 1 " 96 - 24 do. | 13 | 1 " 55 - 18 do. | 10 | 1 " 56 - 12 do. | 6 | 1 " 56 - -------------------+-------+----------- - -The recoil, which in all the before-mentioned guns is very great, arises -from the blow communicated to the iron in immediate contact with the -explosive fluid. The granulatory system of the metal transmits to those -grains, or crystals, immediately behind them, the blow or concussion -they are subjected to, and these again to others, and so on, until the -vibration has passed through the metal, from the interior of the breech -to the exterior of the gun. - -I am satisfied that in all small guns, from their slight substance, -recoil is communicated a great deal quicker than in larger ones; hence -arises the well-known fact that in shooting you receive a knock nearly -simultaneous with the explosion. The greater and heavier the gun (even -carry it up to General Miller's gun of 84 cwt.) if the proportion which -the shot bears to it be not too great, the less will be the velocity of -recoil. But in carronades, as will be seen, the proportions are as high -as 1 to 55, while in long guns, it is 1 to 429; a very considerable -degree of difference. - -Our ancestors had but a limited knowledge of the laws of projecting -bodies by gunpowder. Their explosive power was not good; for there is -clear proof, even since the time of Robins, that the purification of the -ingredients has nearly doubled the explosive force. The mechanical -construction and outer mould of their guns, were calculated to resist -and limit the effects of recoil to a great extent. - -Accumulation of metal in the rear of the breech-end of a gun is true -science, and of so easy an attainment, that wonder arises in the mind -why it has not been effected. The extent to which this principle is -worked upon in our gunnery is very trifling; though recoil can by this -simple arrangement be nearly destroyed, or so lessened as to add -considerable percentage of range to the projectile. Add no considerable -weight to the gun, but add it judiciously, behind the end of the chamber -and vent, and immediately surrounding the breech. I have tried this to a -great extent, on a small scale, "with fowling-piece barrels," and find -that the greatest advantage arises from an additional inch of metal to -the extreme end of the barrel, as the recoil is thereby lessened; while, -on the contrary, by reducing the exterior end of the breech, until it -becomes of less thickness than the sides of the barrel, the recoil is -doubled. Guns will some day be constructed as mortars are, with the -axles, or trunnions, in rear of the tube and of the vent; for by this -arrangement recoil would act less on the mass of metal forming the gun, -and more on the base from which it is fired. We are quite aware that an -arrangement of this nature could only be applied to certain descriptions -of ordnance, and in certain situations; but on forts, or batteries -commanding rivers and bays, and even in the bows of steam vessels, they -may be placed with great advantage. But this objection may be started: -"You could not use guns fitted in this manner horizontally, or nearly -so." Why not? The muzzle could be as easily raised or depressed as the -breech, by mechanical means. I should much like to see the principle -tried, and I hope to do so. - -The following results of experiments prove, that if a true basis is not -laid down, all the fabric raised upon it is but one of sand, which will -crumble away from under us. Hutton says,--"Varying the weight of the -gun, produced no change in the velocity of the ball. The guns were -suspended in the same manner as the pendulous blocks, and additional -weights were attached to the pieces, so as to restrain the recoil; but -although the arcs of the recoil were thus shortened, yet the velocity of -the ball was not altered by it. The recoil was then entirely prevented, -but the initial velocity of the ball remained the same." No doubt this -was the result of his experiments by the pendulous suspension of the -gun: but here he erred; for had he suspended a thousand tons to it, -without incorporating it in the gun, the result would still have been -the same. All the improvements effected, or yet to be accomplished, will -be obtained by a concentration of metal. - -An excess of weight in the fore part of a gun is very injurious, by -inducing and lengthening the tremulous vibration created by the -explosion. The only necessity for strength forward in a cannon, arises -from the necessity of resisting the lateral pressure from the -condensation of the column of air in the tube. The pressure of the -explosive gases is, by the velocity obtained before reaching the fore -part, of very little amount, from the short period it is exerted on the -interior. Therefore weight, in the fore part of a gun, be it ever so -great, will not prevent recoil if there is not a proportionate quantity -behind. It will retard or lessen the distance to which the recoil will -drive the gun and carriage, but the evil is then over. - -If the slightest movement occurs in the gun, the shot is projected from -an unsound base or foundation. It is precisely similar to a man who, in -the act of throwing a stone, slips his foot backwards: the effect is at -once apparent on the stone. If the trunnion of a gun breaks in the -discharge, or a quoin flies out, the shot is materially affected; never -ranging, under such circumstances, the accustomed distance, nor with its -usual accuracy. Practice with mortars proves beyond dispute the -necessity of a firm base for the gun, for with a much less charge they -project a greater mass farther. A mortar discharged on land, exceeds in -range the same description of gun on board of ship, or on the -best-constructed platform. In truth, this is but another illustration of -a law of nature: if you have not a solid fulcrum, it matters little what -the power of your lever may be. Gunpowder is a powerful lever if -exploded on a solid base; if not, its effects become limited in -proportion. Unquestionably, much may yet be gained by an economical -arrangement of our projectile force. Great and rapid as have been the -acquisitions of knowledge in everything relating to gunnery in modern -times, there still remains, I have no doubt, an unexplored mine of -valuable treasure to be added to the science. - -It would effect a great improvement in the mortars used by the navy, -destroying the tremendous vibration and shake given to the ship, -increasing their efficiency and aiding the projecting power, to place -them on beds of the softest lead, not less than twelve inches in -thickness. Though this suggestion is only theoretical, experience would -soon determine the least degree of substance available. Advantage would -arise, in the first place, from the non-conducting tendency of the lead; -in the second, from its density, and, of course, incompressibility. The -one protecting the ship, the other being the most solid bed for the -mortar that can by possibility be obtained. - -The weight of a hollow 13-inch shell is 190 lbs.; the bursting powder 6 -lbs. 8 oz.; the weight, if cast solid, would be 290 lbs.: thus the -action of so large a body on the atmosphere must be immense of itself. -There seems to be much difficulty in projecting masses of great -diameter, from this cause; and this should lead us to seek, as indeed it -points to, another material for fabricating projectiles. As weight is -less in substance, and, of course, less in space, much less resistance, -in proportion, will exist in a bore of six inches than in one of twelve; -and a greater projectile force will be generated with fewer -countervailing disadvantages. - -The first step in the vast improvements about to be effected in gunnery, -has been successfully taken by Mr. Monk, of Woolwich arsenal, who has -induced the authorities to allow a gun to be made from drawings and -calculations of his own. The dimensions of the gun are as follows: -length from cascable to muzzle, 11 feet; weight, 97 cwt. 3 qrs.; bore, -7-7/10 inches; weight of solid shot, 55 lbs.; shell, 42 lbs.; windage, -0.175; charge, 16 lbs. of powder; giving a range, at 32 deg. of elevation, -of 5,327 yards. _A compound shot_, (a shell filled with lead), was -projected 5,720 yards, or _three miles and a quarter_, at a velocity, -during the first second of time, of 2,400 feet per second, and occupying -during the whole flight only 29-1/2 seconds. The comparative weight of -gun and shot is 1 to 220. - -A course of experiments, extending over seventeen years, has firmly -established this gun as the best ever yet constructed. Many attempts -have been made to excel it, but all have failed. Guns have been made on -drawings varying not more than three-tenths of an inch in their -dimensions from those of his gun, and, with extreme _modesty_, the -individuals have claimed a right to compete with Mr. Monk; and have -even obtained competing trials, without any claim whatever to the -discovery of the principle of it; coming into competition by no just -claim or merit, but solely from the tendency to supersede any -improvement emanating from a _civilian_. Eighteen, twenty-four, and -thirty-two pounders are now, however, constructed on this model;--indeed -the improvement is so great and so apparent, as to overcome every -obstacle as yet thrown in its way. - -With no wish to detract from the merit of Mr. Monk's invention (upon -which I congratulate him and the country) but, in justice to myself, I -may remind some of my readers, that in "The Gun," published early in -1835, I clearly laid down the principle in _projectile force_, on which -this gun is constructed; and as he has since so successfully -accomplished this great improvement, he must permit me to say, that the -principle is the same which I have striven for, for many years. - -Wilkinson says, "Guns cast on this principle, although several -hundredweight lighter altogether, recoil less than those on the old -plan, with equal charges of powder and ball, in consequence of the -weight being _properly_ distributed." He adds, "One remarkable fact -attended these experiments, namely, that by increasing the windage a -little, the range was increased also, contrary to the received opinion; -but this may be explained by the circumstance, that with very great -velocities, and long guns, the column of air to be displaced before the -ball quits the gun is considerable, and is condensed so rapidly, that -it offers immense resistance to the passage of the bullet, if it fit the -bore closely; but, by reducing the size of the ball, and thus increasing -the windage, the air has more space to rush round it, and the ball -escapes with greater facility." - -If the condensed air prevented the velocity being greater, it argues -most clearly, that there was an insufficiency of explosive matter to -keep up the velocity until the ball of less windage left the muzzle; and -the result with the ball of greater windage establishes this assumption. -For if the condensed air was allowed to pass the ball by the windage -into the tube, it proves beyond doubt that there was a deficiency of -matter there, or that the pressure without was greater than that within. -How otherwise could such a result occur? It is a clearly established -fact, that with the generality of ordnance, a full waste of one-fourth -of explosive force, if not more, occurs by the _elastic fluid_ escaping -past the ball by the windage, instead of the reverse. Neither could the -condensed air rush into the gun by the windage if there are any -_permanent gases_ generated; which Mr. Wilkinson himself says there are, -to the extent of "250 times the bulk of the powder in grain." These -would offer a sufficient resistance to prevent the condensed air rushing -in. I have found, by an experiment before described, that a ball driven -against a column of air which has no escape, if the velocity be -trifling, say 800 feet per second, the air will escape by the windage; -but double this even, and it is so condensed as to form a cushion for -the ball to strike against. Then how much less will the chance be of its -escaping, if the velocity become two thousand four hundred feet per -second. No, the cause is remote from that of Mr. Wilkinson's -supposition. There is a want of force--an accelerative propellant -force--which should continue to the end of the tube, be that length ever -so great; and on this point, for one, turns the whole future improvement -of gunnery. - -The result wished for can be obtained by a systematical arrangement of -the granulation of powder. That a much greater velocity than is obtained -in this gun--at present the greatest in any piece of ordnance in use, -and possessing a longer range than has been obtained by any power in -Europe--may and will be attained, I fearlessly assert. I have obtained a -velocity with an ounce ball nearly doubling this; and though, as it will -be argued, this may be too limited an experiment, yet let us not forget -that great results most frequently spring from little causes. Large -rivers owe their origin to small springs, and if the same principle by -which we can penetrate a plate of iron half an inch thick with an ounce -of lead, be fearlessly and judiciously carried through, we may (and no -doubt we shall) live to see projectiles thrown 5-1/4 miles. That this -will be difficult to accomplish I deny: no difficulty attends it, -provided the principles before explained are duly carried out. - -The great principle in a propellant force is so to arrange it that you -do not obtain too great a velocity at the first move of the projectile; -as no mass can be forced from a state of rest to a rapid state of -motion, without communicating to the gun a corresponding motion, which -will create a recoil: and the greater the motion, the greater the -recoil. If the explosive matter merely expands for a brief period, and -is burnt out before the shot has reached midway the length of the gun, -the velocity there acquired will be reduced, by the condensed column of -air in the other half of the barrel, to the velocity it possessed when -only one fourth the length of the whole from the breech; consequently it -would be advantageous to cut the gun in two at the middle, as a greater -force would be then generated advantageously, than by the whole. But if -you so arrange the granulation of your powder that it shall proceed into -motion more gradually, a rapidly increasing force of elastic fluid will -continue to be generated, until it reaches its greatest maximum of -velocity (which it should do just as the ball leaves the muzzle) then -you obtain with your means the greatest result possible. - -We believe that the generality of gunpowder used by our Government is -vastly inferior in strength to some made by private makers; yet it is -not advisable to jump from one extreme to another. What is wanted is the -proper blending of the qualities; an addition of a quantity of Harvey's -quick powder to a charge, when it has driven the ball up three-fourths -of the tube of a gun, and probably had acquired a velocity of 2,000 feet -per second, might so aid it, that it would leave the muzzle with a -velocity of 3,000. - -You cannot put a locomotive train in motion at once: if it were -attempted, you would break all the carriages; but if you gradually add -your force, you gain in time the greatest possible velocity. I have -drawn a parallel case: it is the same with gunpowder; only the -velocities are widely different. Therefore, I may be pardoned, if I say -gunnery is like steam, but in its infancy. Let us but clearly see and -understand aright the principle--knowing that the greater momentum the -less the action of the atmosphere--and if 3-1/4 miles can be obtained -with a ball 60 lbs. weight, 5-1/4 may be easily accomplished by a ball -of 120 lbs. Powder is made, and can be had, that will do this. - -The use of compound-shot has of late years become quite common in -experiments: why lead, with its alloys, has not been more extensively -used as a projectile for large guns, has always appeared to me -extraordinary. Its weight and density peculiarly fit it for this -purpose, and its non-conducting principle is its greatest -recommendation. How is it? In no instance, except as compound-shot, do -we find any record of the use of leaden bullets on a large scale, save -in Sir Howard Douglas's "Naval Gunnery," where, in a note, he says, "A -very distinguished naval commander mentioned to me, that he knew a -person who had served in an American privateer, which, being out of -shot, and unable to procure a supply of iron balls, used leaden shot as -substitutes. This person always mentioned with great surprise the -superior effect of leaden balls." Well he might; for the reader need not -be told that its greater specific gravity would add to its momentum, and -a longer medium velocity be retained during its flight. But it -possesses another recommendation, superior to all these, in warfare: -that of communicating all its force, all its velocity, be they ever so -great, to the body struck. Iron does not possess this quality; except to -a certain extent, and that at low velocities. Hence the cause of its -being found in naval warfare, that balls at low velocities damage and -destroy ships' sides more than at higher velocities, even when passing -quite through. Lead, in the act of striking hard substances, iron or -stone for instance, is partially flattened, until the flat surface is -nearly equal to the diameter of the sphere of the ball; thus parting -with all the force it struck the object with, and in most instances -falling motionless at the base of the object struck; while in the stone, -the surrounding crystals or grains are, by their abrasion on each other, -pounded into dust, in proportion to the size and force of the body of -lead striking them: in many instances to many times the shot's bulk, and -only flattening the lead, less or more, in proportion to the capability -of the stone to resist. Iron striking stone retains its shape: the -grains are driven back upon each other, and each offering its proportion -of elasticity, the ball is enabled to rebound back; which it does in -many instances to a considerable percentage of the whole distance it had -been projected. The greater the velocity with which an iron ball is -projected the greater the rebound back from a hard substance such as -stone. Reversely, the greater the velocity of lead, the greater its -effect on the object struck. Walls or fortifications struck by leaden -balls at the same velocities (waiving the advantage to lead by its -greater specific gravity) would be pounded into sand by less than -two-thirds the same number of lead as of iron shot. Any unprejudiced -person may soon satisfy himself of this, by trying it with a musket or -fowling piece. A leaden ball will pound itself a hole many times its own -bulk, while an iron ball will not make a hole half its size. - -I have tried many experiments to ascertain the penetrating powers of -iron and lead relatively, by striking various objects, from a boiler -plate of half an inch thickness down to fir deals. The same size of lead -will, under certain circumstances, punch a perfect hole in a plate of -half-inch thickness, as I shall have occasion to show; while, under -precisely the same arrangement, the iron ball would rebound back with -very little diminution of force; and if the plate of iron be at a -perfect right angle, the iron ball would nearly return into the muzzle, -of the gun. In truth, I had a narrow escape seventeen years ago, from a -bullet actually cutting the rim of my hat: so that it will be well, when -experimenting in this way, to be sure that the person is well esconced, -for fear of unpleasant results. - -Lead, therefore, for destroying ships, as well as stone walls, is -unquestionably highly advantageous; even if projected with the same -velocities as at present adopted for iron. The additional weight would -not decrease the destructive effects; it would augment them. I perfectly -agree with the American _privateer_, that the wonderfully destructive -power of leaden cannon balls will create surprise, whenever they shall -come generally into use. Imagine the effect from a gun of the -dimensions of a 10-inch bore. It is dreadful to contemplate. - -The effect of lead will be easily understood when explained in the -following way. If a 36 lb. shot have a velocity of 2,000 feet per -second, the force is equal to the velocity multiplied by the weight, or -72,000 lbs. The whole of this force would strike a wall, and be left -there, if communicated by soft lead; if by iron, at the same velocity, -it would be minus the amount of force required to make it rebound to the -great distance to which iron invariably returns. Though created by the -elasticity of the iron itself, this must be deducted from the effect -produced, and hence arises the great advantage the lead possesses. We -are aware that iron driven with a slight velocity rebounds less; true, -and less is its real effect; for under the very same circumstances would -the great advantages of the lead predominate. It may be objected, that -lead is too easily misshaped; "pure it is, but with alloys not so." At -low velocities it might, but the greater velocities diminish that -chance, as it is a well known fact that all dense incompressible bodies -are least affected by an extremely sharp motion. All our arrangements in -warlike preparations, at present, involve great weight of projectile for -fracturing, not perforating. During the siege of Ciudad Rodrigo, 2,159 -rounds, of twenty-four and eighteen pounders, were requisite to form the -small breach of thirty feet wide, and 6,478 rounds for the larger of 100 -feet. At Badajos there was expended, to form three breaches of 40, 90, -and 150 feet respectively, the enormous amount of 31,861 rounds of the -same sized iron shot. We may be pardoned if we presume to say, one-half -the number of lead shot would have done more, and done it better. - -If we bear in mind, that the whole round of experiments from which -Hutton drew his deductions, were conducted with iron projectiles, the -inconsistency of taking his data as the standard will be apparent. The -dissimilitude of specific gravities being great, namely, 7,425 and -11,327--or one-third difference--it clearly shows, without any effort of -the imagination, that the range must be in the same proportion, with the -addition of greater momentum. For it will scarcely be denied, that a -ball of gold or platina, from the same cause, will maintain a velocity -longer, and consequently range further, than even lead. Hutton's theory -only establishes the principle, that the lighter the body projected, the -sooner it is acted upon by atmospheric resistance, and a medium velocity -induced. We cannot attribute his preferring iron to arise from an -opinion of its penetrating to greater depths; for a man of his extensive -knowledge and research could scarcely be guilty of such an error. But -even in our enlightened times we are told that elephants cannot be -killed with any projectile but steel: leaden balls cannot do it. I -should like to try, and receive the _tusks_ in return. - -The shrapnell shell (invented by General Shrapnell), or spherical case -shot, introduced into the British service of late years, is probably the -most destructive of any missile in use. It was intended to -supersede--which it has done--canister and grape shot; effecting the -same results at treble the range. The construction and principle are -very simple, being merely a shell of an unusually light description; in -fact, little more than a light cast-iron hollow ball, with a fuse hole. -A certain quantity of leaden, or iron bullets is put into it, and the -interstices around the ball shaken full of powder; a fuse of the length -required is inserted, and explodes the shell during its flight: the -peculiarity being, that the body of small balls retain their medium -velocity and travel on, merely diverging, latterly, like an immense -charge of bird shot. They are usually fired from howitzers, carronades, -and other wide bored-guns, at or near horizontal ranges. A considerable -delay occurred before they were successfully perfected. It was found -that when the small balls did not pack perfectly tight, or were packed -overtight, the case frequently exploded in the gun: occasioned, no -doubt, by the friction creating a spark at the moment of the howitzer -being fired, and thus exploding the shell before its time; but we -believe such an occurrence rarely happens now, from other improvements -since adopted. - -The preceding pages appeared in my last work published in 1846. They are -still so much in keeping with the state of gunnery at the present day, -and so prophetic of what has, and is about to occur, that they will be -regarded, I trust, as bearing the stamp of authority. - -Progress, in its rapid advance, has made many English guns objects for -the furnace or the museum; and many guns, which formerly ranked high as -useful and important weapons, have become things of the past. - -Monsters are now all the rage, with a range of three miles, and -artillerists contemplate extending the range to double that distance; -whilst the projectiles used are not "pounders," but approximating to -tons. So much for improvement. In political economy we are told that -improvement to be good must be gradual; but only effect some slight -improvement in gunnery, make but one step in advance, and the desire for -further improvement then ranges at will, and impossibilities are craved -for and sought to be attained. - -Twelve years ago the success of Mr. Monck (certainly the first modern -improver of ordnance,) led to the unlimited production of undigested -plans for changes in gunnery; but, unfortunately for the science, no -progress was made on the one great improvement of Mr. Monck. - -War found us ill prepared in the field, and out-weighted "afloat," so -that almost as many men were killed by the bursting of mortars, and -other ill-constructed guns, as by the fire of the enemy: so critical was -our situation, indeed, that but for the general adoption in England's -army of my great invention, the rifle on the expansive or "Greenerian" -principle, and its skilful use by our brave soldiers, the war had gone -against us. Our rifles were equal in range to our artillery, and this -saved us; whilst the enemy, astonished at the effects produced by our -bullets, and conscious of their inferiority both in the construction -and use of small arms, abandoned the contest: but no doubt with a firm -determination to profit by their dear-bought experience. - -It is generally admitted that our artillery was never so effective as -that of the enemy, and that more is due to the patient and enduring -bravery of the British soldier than to our field-pieces and heavy -ordnance. That England's artillery was at this time most disgracefully -inefficient, it would be folly to deny. The larger guns were destroyed -in an inconceivably short space of time. After five, ten, or fifteen -rounds were fired the guns burst, killing the gunners in great numbers. - -The readers of my works are already familiar with my opinions on this -subject, and their value will now be enhanced by the fact that they have -been proved to be the opinions of a "practical man." Success in the -improvement of small arms is a sure encouragement to those anxious for -the advancement of projectile science, and it is a coat of mail in which -to fight against the prejudices and incompetency of official management. - -Who, on reading my work of 1841, believed the prediction I therein made, -that small arms would be produced which would render field guns useless? -The fact is, however, firmly established, that the best rifles on my -principle will out-range by several hundred yards the best "six-pounder" -in her Majesty's service; and that, too, with a repetition of fire -wonderfully quick and effective: as the Russians in the Crimea can -testify, on more than one occasion. - -To endeavour to point out that an improvement may be effected in -artillery equal to that which has been effected in small arms, is the -object of the following pages. - -The author asks a dispassionate perusal and careful study of his work, -in justice to himself and to the importance of the subject. Judging of -future probabilities by what has already been accomplished, the reader -will be prepared for what follows. That great and important changes must -take place in artillery cannot be doubted, and should England refuse to -avail herself of the improvements to be effected, other nations, and -amongst them our late opponent, will be the first to seize and adopt -them. In former works I have asked the indulgence of my military readers -on account of my scanty military knowledge; but professional men appear -to be equally in the dark with the uninitiated: indeed, the lamentable -shortcomings of the English artillerists have placed them in the rank of -mere "waiters upon providence" for the next step towards improvement. -The present time is decidedly propitious; let improvements now be made, -and we may surely hope that they will be appreciated by the public, if -not by the Government authorities. - -What is the best metal for cannon? is a question which has often been -asked, and the answers have been very conflicting. Some have advocated -mixtures of copper and tin; others have advocated cast iron, and more -recently wrought iron; still more recently steel, and, lastly, cast -steel, have had their advocates. Arguments as plentiful as summer -flowers have been advanced in favour of each, and the argument has been -carried on with a vast amount of prejudice and warmth, according to the -degree of acquaintance with or attachment to the favourite metal of each -individual. It is rare to meet with a mind free from bias, equally well -acquainted with the merits of the several metals, and their application -to the purposes intended. Still more rare is it to meet with a mind -possessing all this metallurgic knowledge, and combining with it an -intimate acquaintance with the principles of projectiles, as well as a -scientific knowledge of the construction of the engine (the perfection -of which consists in its having no points which are weak or -unnecessarily strong); and yet it is by such a combination of knowledge -and the application of these principles that we must be guided, if we -would be successful in the accumulation of projectile power. In the -present age we are really alive to the advantage of "playing at long -bowls;" and the question now to be determined is, what is the greatest -weight of shot and shell we can throw, and how many miles can we project -it. The Americans were undoubtedly the first to discover the great -advantage of this question with their lesser frigates; the late war has -developed it still more; and it now remains to be ascertained how much -further can we go. For on this important point the superior efficacy of -artillery depends. - -At St. Sebastian, in 1813, cast-iron guns threw tons of shot at a range -of 1,500 yards; some particular guns firing as many as 3,000 rounds, and -yet it is more than probable that had the same guns been used in the -Crimea, they would have burst with one-fourth the number of rounds. -Experience proves that it is not the great number of rounds fired which -strains and destroys the gun, but the high elevation at which these guns -are placed, in order to get range; this it is which shakes and -disintegrates the crystalline structure of the metal, and thus extreme -range is obtained at extreme cost. A gun which at 6 deg. of elevation could -stand without a strain 200 rounds, would be likely at an elevation of -30 deg. to burst before 50 rounds were fired. The explanation of this is -sufficiently simple. A gun fired at 6 deg. recoils as the projectile is -projected forward, in proportion to its relative weight and friction; -but when brought up to an elevation above 30 deg. the gun is entirely out of -the horizontal, and cannot recoil as it does at an elevation of 6 deg.: the -force is now exerted downward, and the gun impinges on its support--_i. -e._, either upon its bed on the deck of the ship, or on the solid earth -of the battery, which is comparatively immovable; thus the force which -displaced the gun in the first instance is now exerted on the sides of -the gun, and the projectile receiving additional force is projected -further. But this increased range is obtained at the expense of the gun, -which is rapidly destroyed: 50 rounds being sufficient to render it -unfit for service. To obviate this rapid destruction of cannon, the -metal has been changed from the molecular to the fibrous; that is from -cast iron to wrought iron. One object of this chapter is to point out -the difficulties which arise in determining what the best metal for -cannon really is, and to show the advantages to be gained by attending -to the proper construction of projectile engines, without attaching -undue importance to the _material_ of which they are made. - -Before rejecting cast iron as useless for the construction of large -guns, it would be well to assure ourselves that no better quality of -metal can be produced than that which is at present manufactured. We -must also satisfy ourselves that we have clearly understood the proper -shape and form of cannon to resist concussions. These concussions, be it -remembered, were more violent in the late than in any previous war; and -it is an undoubted fact that we had many more fractures then than on any -previous occasion: first, on account of the strain produced by the great -elevation required to get increased range; and, secondly, on account of -the imperfect shape of the gun. The average number of rounds fired from -the 13-inch mortars which burst at the bombardment of Sweaborg was 120, -and the fracture in all was peculiarly alike; being at right angles to -the supports. Now, that this is due to the form of the gun cannot be -doubted; and it will be shown more fully in a subsequent page. - -But there is another cause to which I wish now to direct attention, -viz., the jamming of the Lancaster shell, which takes place in the -increasing spiral of the oval gun at the very point where the projectile -acquires a proportional increase of velocity. The effect of this may be -illustrated by running a locomotive at its maximum of speed over an -increasing curve in the railroad, with the certainty of landing it in an -adjoining ditch. The principle which determines the result is quite -immutable: viz., that matter in rapid motion cannot be materially -affected by any force inferior to the primary force: the tendency of the -body being to go straight forward; whereas a slow train goes round a -curve with the greatest ease. Two motions can easily be given to matter -in a lower velocity; but not so easily when the velocity is much -increased. Hence I fear that the inventor of the Lancaster gun must have -had a misconception of the true laws of motion; for by increasing the -degree of spiral at the muzzle, instead of at the breech of the gun, he -has rendered nearly useless what would otherwise have proved a most -formidable engine of war. - -From these observations it may, I think, fairly be doubted whether the -bursting of cannon is owing entirely to the inferior quality of the cast -iron used in their formation; though there can, I think, be no doubt -that English cast iron is not only much inferior to what it formerly -was, but that it is also inferior to that which is now manufactured in -Russia. Why it is so will be subsequently explained. - -These defects in cast iron have naturally led to many attempts to -substitute for it a more durable metal; and in most cases the metal -selected has been wrought iron. Wrought iron has been used, not only in -solid cannon, but in the original "hoop and stave:" "staves outside," -and "staves inside," as in Mr. Mallet's monster mortar. Forms of gun as -numerous as can be conceived have been constructed, only to prove -themselves in every case most complete failures. Our friends at the -Mersey Works, Liverpool, will, no doubt, demur to this assertion; as -"all creations of the mind appear most perfect to the father of the -thought." - -Great credit is, however, due to the enterprise and energy displayed by -the inventors, forgers, and finishers of this great gun; which has been -the wonder of many minds in this age of wonders: and it is a highly -important invention, as showing what we, as a people, are capable of -producing by our mechanical and engineering skill. But here, in my -estimation, the wonder ceases; for so sure as there is any truth in the -Scotch proverb, "A silk purse cannot be made out of a sow's lug," so -surely is it true that no man, however great his genius and working -powers, can make a good cannon of wrought iron. When the hardness and -ductility of silver can be imparted to and held by lead, then will it be -possible to make wrought iron accomplish all the purposes required of a -good cannon. - -In vain may Mr. Horsfall urge that his gun has never been burst. Why? -Simply because it has not yet been subjected to the same amount of -pressure on the square inch; neither has it been tested at the same -elevation as some other 10-inch guns, which, in proportion to their size -have stood a more severe test. It is a fact, which may be clearly -demonstrated, that if a 10-inch gun of 95 cwt. be fired at an elevation -of 40 deg. with 17 lbs. of gunpowder, then a gun of more than six times that -weight would not be overloaded if its due proportion of powder were -about 100 lbs. Has this gun been fired with one half of this? Until it -has been satisfactorily proved to this extent, we feel sure that the -authorities are justified in not considering Mr. Horsfall's a successful -achievement. - -Whatever may be Mr. Horsfall's impression with regard to the advantages -of wrought iron for making cannon, I am satisfied, after a long and -careful study of the results of all its varieties, from the -most ordinary to the most perfect combination that has been -manufactured--either for tenacity, tenuity, or resistance of lateral -pressures--that it cannot answer in large guns. - -This I think any one will admit, after considering the two following -facts; which apply equally to all varieties and mixtures of wrought -iron. - -1. The strength of iron is at its maximum in the smallest mechanical -structures. - -2. The quality of the metal is improved as it is subjected to greater -pressure and condensation. - -The extent to which this improvement may be carried has never yet been -ascertained; every fresh manipulation improves its quality. The tenacity -of wrought iron is best displayed in a wire, drawn out until it is not -thicker than a human hair. Large masses of wrought iron are weak and -spongy in geometrical progression with the mass, and the crystalline or -molecular form increases with the mass. If large forgings are carefully -examined, crystals will be found whose facets would produce inches of -surface; as was clearly demonstrated by the bursting of a 10-inch gun at -Woolwich: made, if we mistake not, by Mr. Nasmyth. - -Another very important cause which renders large masses of wrought iron -unsound (and which was fatal in Mr. Nasmyth's gun) is the impossibility -of condensing tons of wrought iron equally all through the mass. No one -has yet been able to overcome this difficulty. - -When the force of a blow, however great, is exerted on the surface of a -mass of metal, its effect is neutralized within a few inches of the -surface; condensation takes place in inverse ratio from the point of -impact, and thus the effect is limited. The force which produces this -condensation tends also to elongate the fibres of the metal. This -elongation is greatest in the immediate vicinity of the force; the -fibres in the interior of the mass are less elongated therefore than on -the exterior; and the fibres in the interior of the mass being less -ductile (from the cause already explained) than those on the exterior, -the interior of the mass elongates, by disintegration of its fibres or -crystals, and a porous open mass is thus produced, surrounded by a -fibrous case. Instances of this are to be seen in broken engine-shafts -and anchors; and, indeed, in all large masses of wrought iron, whether -fractured by design or accident. - -Another cause of this defect in large masses of wrought iron, is the -long continued heat to which it is necessary to expose such large -forgings. The iron expands as it is heated, but it does not expand -equally all through the mass; and the result of this is that the -interior becomes porous and spongy: an appearance which must have been -observed by every one who has operated upon large masses. - -The shaft of the _Leviathan_ weighs 26 tons; but, instead of resisting -twenty-six times the pressure of a shaft one ton in weight, it will, -from the causes already mentioned, be found unequal to half that amount. - -We have watched with much interest the forging of these immense shafts; -and the difficulties attending the forging of this structure prove the -accuracy of our reasoning on the strength of large masses of wrought -iron. The weight of the shaft when finished is 26 tons, and the waste -during the process of welding amounts to 74 or 75 tons. - -The present shaft is the third which has been manufactured; the two -first having proved notorious failures: thus 200 tons of iron have been -wasted; which we think is sufficient proof either of the unfitness of -the material, or of imperfection in the method of construction. -Moreover, I fear that when the vessel encounters a rolling sea, the -sudden check and strain produced by the total immersion of one -paddle-wheel and the freedom of the other, will subject the present -shaft to a strain which will affect its duration; and a vessel costing -nearly a million of money may thus be left to reach her port with -crippled powers of propulsion. - -Where, it may be asked, is the skill in devising engines more powerful -than the ingenuity of man can beneficially work out? This has indeed -been done in the case of the _Leviathan_; a monster vessel has been -built, but all the engineering skill expended upon it has as yet been -insufficient to bring it to perfection. - -The skill hitherto displayed in welding large forgings of wrought iron -into shafts, or other large masses, has been of a very low order; much -more may be done than has yet been accomplished, if men will only set -about it in a scientific manner. The present mode of proceeding is to -build a structure of iron much as a builder would raise a structure of -bricks; large and small pieces being mixed together until the requisite -mass is obtained. - -Now, a much simpler method, and one which we have tried on several -occasions, is first to construct several segments of iron of the -requisite length, and of dimensions equivalent to the intended object; -each segment being fitted to fill its place amongst a given number of -other segments (whether twenty, forty, or fifty segments be required,) -so as to form a complete cylinder; as the wood-cut will fully -explain:-- - -[Illustration] - -In welding this structure, the heat is equally diffused all through the -mass; and thus the great evil of unequal expansion and contraction is -avoided. When the steam hammer is brought into play, its face is a -"swage" of circular form, calculated to clasp a large portion of the -upper part, whilst a corresponding space is formed in the anvil; and by -gradually turning the shaft, the whole is forged into a perfect round. -The peculiar advantage gained by this mode of proceeding, is not only -the facility with which heat is diffused through the mass, but that each -segment is made to act like a wedge on its neighbour; thus producing the -most solid forging that has yet been attained. This is rendered still -more perfect, both as regards strength and durability, from the fact -that a hollow axle has been produced; the great advantages of which it -would be out of place to dilate upon in this work. - -We trust that these anticipated misfortunes may be avoided by the -construction of a more perfect shaft; and that, not only for the sake of -the shareholders, but for the credit of the engineer who devised this -great vessel--deservedly one of the wonders of the world. A spare shaft -would be profitable ballast, if of no more value to the _Leviathan_. - -Rolled railway-carriage axles were constructed for me with perfect -success on this principle nearly twenty years ago, at the Walker Iron -Works, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. The idea has, however, been in a measure -"shelved;" but necessity will bring it into use again. - -The only engineer who has, by practical experience, satisfied himself -that large masses of wrought iron are totally useless for making heavy -ordnance is Mr. Nasmyth; whose monster cannon, which was to astonish the -whole world, proved, when heated, to have so little cohesion that it -would scarcely hold together whilst being lifted from the furnace to the -anvil. And, to his credit be it said, Mr. Nasmyth, seeing that wrought -iron would not answer the purpose, manfully gave up his hopeless task. -Similar experience would probably make some of our present engineers -wiser men. - -My experience in manufacturing the largest wrought iron guns which it is -prudent to construct, sufficiently proves the truth of these assertions. - -Harpoon gun-barrels, one inch and a half in the bore, having the metal -at the breech end an inch and a quarter thick, will stand a proof which -invariably bursts a thicker barrel; in fact, all experience tends to -show that light wrought iron or steel barrels are stronger than -unusually heavy ones. As all depends on the principle of condensing the -fibres of the iron, _ceteris paribus_, the greater the condensation the -greater the strength, and the less the condensation the greater the -weakness. - -That this argument applies principally to solid forged guns I am ready -to admit; and that guns forged of hoops, rings, and bars, in smaller -sections, are free from this objection, I am also ready to admit. These -guns are, however, liable to objections equally fatal, both as regards -their enduring and projective powers, as I shall presently show. -Experience proves that brass guns are inferior, both in sharpness of -shooting and in range, to cast-iron guns: this is undoubtedly -attributable to the greater softness of brass than of cast iron; and for -the same reason a wrought-iron gun, though made as sound as one of cast -iron, would be inferior in these two important points. But when a -wrought-iron gun is composed of many particles imperfectly secured (and -no mechanical force is sufficient to secure perfect cohesion in large -masses), the wrought becomes doubly inferior to the cast gun: a shot -projected from such a gun starts from an unsound base; a large portion -of the explosive force is absorbed by the variety of sections composing -the gun, to the injury both of the accuracy and length of range of the -projectile. The softer metals cannot be beneficially used in the -construction of large guns, because they destroy the force of the -expellant without making any equivalent return; and the softer the metal -and the greater its substance, the more clearly is this important fact -demonstrated. Thus, in experiments made with large cannon for increasing -the weight of the gun beyond a certain proportion to that of the -projectile, a gun of ten tons weight and ten inch bore would not exceed -in range a gun of five tons, if the charge of powder were the same; on -account of the indisputable fact that much more force of the expellant -is destroyed, whilst more than double the force is absorbed for the -recoil of the ten ton than of the five ton gun; and the loss from these -two causes must materially affect the flight of the projectile, though -fired at exactly the same elevation. - -The great defect which experiment shows to exist in the hoop-and-stave -wrought iron gun, and which renders the gun self-destroying, is -separation at points between the trunnions and cascable of the gun. The -force acting first upon the breech, it yields, and the force is then -brought to bear upon the longitudinal portion of the gun behind the -trunnions; the staves have thus to bear the first strain, and, after a -few shots, become elongated. An opening of the hoops at their junction -with each other (most frequently between the breech and trunnions) -begins, after a very few shots, to be distinctly visible, and increases -at every discharge, until further proceeding amounts to madness, or -recklessness of human life. - -That enormous engine, Mallet's monster mortar, of which I give an -engraving on page 100, clearly proves this to be the case. It will be -observed to be constructed with a solid cast iron breech end, the -dimensions of which will be seen by referring to the engraving. Abutting -upon this are a succession of wrought iron hoops, ingeniously inserted -into each other, and more firmly secured by six outside staves of great -dimensions, which, at the muzzle ring, pass through openings in the -muzzle ring, with heads like enormous rivets. The binding power is given -by "quoin-like" wedges, driven through the opposite end of the stave, -beneath the projection of the cast breech, giving power to tighten the -longitudinal binders by a blow when required. - -[Illustration: Mallet's Mortar.] - -DIMENSIONS. - - Tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. - Cast iron base with wrought iron breech shrunk - into bore 21 19 0 2 - Wood carriage complete, with wrought iron screw - and spanner for elevating mortar 8 8 0 14 - Bottom part of mortar to fit on top of the breech 7 5 3 23 - Part of mortar (a ring) to fit on the top of the - above 5 8 3 23 - Do. do. do. 3 0 2 13 - Muzzle ring 1 2 3 12 - Wood ring 0 0 1 0 - Wrought iron ring 0 4 3 4 - Wrought iron conical ring to fix on top of muzzle - ring 0 3 3 25 - T-headed bolts, with gibs and keys for fixing - mortar to base: may be called outer staves 1 16 2 0 - Wood-wedges, &c., for elevating 0 13 3 22 - Outer pin, with cross for turning mortar round 0 8 3 14 - ------------------ - Total weight 50 13 2 21 - - Weight of shell unfilled, 26 cwt. 2 qrs.; diameter, 36 inches. - -This is notorious as a monster failure, even with a charge of powder -amounting to only one half what the projector fondly hoped would be -perfectly harmless in its effects. This Brobdignagian toy has proved to -be fearfully expensive, the cost having been estimated at eight thousand -pounds. It has, I believe, been the largest and most expensive -experiment indulged in by the noble "projector,"[6] and I sincerely hope -it will be the last. - - [6] Lord Palmerston. - -The preceding pages will have done much to remove from an unbiassed mind -any favourable impression of the advantages expected to result from the -use of wrought-iron cannon. The knowledge of this subject, even among -talented and scientific men, appears to be at a very low ebb, as is -evinced by the multitude of failures that have taken place; not one -success of any moment has as yet been attained, and not a discovery has -been made worthy of being chronicled. - - * * * * * - -Having enlarged thus much on the qualities of a metal which it is -certain can never supersede the use of cast-iron, even though it be -freed from the defects found practically to exist in our present -constructed iron artillery; and having also alluded to the fact that the -_form_ has much influence on the durability of cast-iron guns, I now -proceed to the more important point of the qualities of cast-iron -itself. - -Little doubt exists that guns cast a hundred years ago were more durable -than those of more recent formation; it is evident, therefore, that -apart from mere form, some material depreciation must have taken place -in the quality of the metal. The use of hot blast-furnaces, better -fluxes, and improved chemical knowledge in the reduction of metallic -ores, though highly profitable in a commercial point of view, doubling -the products of our mines, and enriching their proprietors, has, -unfortunately rendered English cast-iron perfectly unfit for the -formation of cannon, if increased range and greater strain by high -elevation are to be the order of the day. - -The durability of Russian cast-iron is unquestionably greater than that -manufactured in England. Some cause must exist for this; and the -question arises, is the ore superior to ours, or does the superiority of -Russian iron depend on their method of smelting? The latter is, we -believe, the cause of the superiority of Russian iron; for experiments -show that Russian ore, smelted in an English furnace, yields the same -kind of cast-iron as is produced from the ore found in England. The -inference, therefore, is plain, that the difference in the process of -smelting makes all the difference in the quality of the iron. - -Two thousand years ago the Romans, or their dependents, smelted iron in -the county of Durham: vast accumulations of slag exist there at the -present time; and thousands of tons have been beneficially re-smelted by -two adjoining iron-works, and a percentage of iron obtained sufficient -to prove that the Romans were little indebted to fluxes or hot blasts -for the quality of iron they obtained. The Russians cannot boast of -these adjuncts any more than the Romans: the old agents, wood and -energy, are alone employed in the smelting of their ores; and in the -absence of scientific aids, though they obtain a much smaller aggregate -quantity of metal, yet it is undoubtedly of a much superior quality. -With the Romans, also, the yield was meagre, but the quality was good; -now, however, circumstances are reversed, quantity, not quality, being -the order of the day. - -The use of coals instead of wood in the process of smelting has -introduced a mixture which is very prejudicial. Most of the coal, even -from our very best mines, contains a large quantity of pyrites, or -bisulphuret of iron, which, combining with the cast-iron, injures it to -an incalculable extent. - -These facts fully explain why our cast-iron guns are not so good now as -formerly. Select the most suitable mine in the kingdom, erect a furnace -on the most improved principles, employ wood fuel only, avoid fluxes and -hot and cold blasts, and be content with the small amount of metal -produced, and beyond all doubt the quality will be all that the most -sanguine founder or artillerist could wish. - -Thus the inferiority of our cast-iron guns has been accounted for, and a -method suggested, which, if efficiently carried out, would effect the -desired improvement. - - * * * * * - -We are indebted to Krupp for the first suggestion of, as well as the -first attempt to introduce, a cast steel gun of greater durability and -power than the best cast-iron gun which has yet been manufactured. -Steel, possessing, as it does, hardness to any desired extent, ductility -in an equal degree, tenacity unrivalled, and all the other requisites, -is destined to take the place of all other metals in the construction of -artillery. This metal waits only to be tested; and the greater the -extent to which the trial is carried, the more confident we are that it -will answer every purpose. - -Krupp, like many other men with valuable ideas, has been peculiarly -unfortunate in his attempts to carry them out. With a vast amount of -knowledge of the science of metallurgy, he wants more knowledge in the -not inferior science of projectiles; the most important point being to -ascertain the form of gun calculated to be suitable for new metal, of -the use of which, for cannon, the world possesses no antecedent -knowledge. - -The only failures Mr. Krupp has made (if they can, strictly speaking, -be so called), have arisen from mal-construction, imperfect form, and -unscientific combinations; defects which might be expected from a mere -novice, though not from experienced artillerists or founders of -artillery. The trial of the only steel gun sent by Mr. Krupp to this -country, was conducted in the most absurd manner, and on wholly -unscientific principles. I will endeavour to convey some idea of this -most extraordinary of experiments. Whether Mr. Krupp was unacquainted -with the durability of his metal, or was persuaded, against his will, to -conduct the experiment as he did, I know not, but the following is what -took place:-- - -In 1851 Mr. Krupp brought to Woolwich a specimen steel gun of ten-inch -bore, weighing about four tons. He was induced (but why, I am at a loss -to conceive,) to construct a cast-iron jacket, or outer gun, into which -his steel gun was inserted up to the trunnions. The steel gun was -separated from its cast-iron jacket by a space of half an inch in its -whole length, except at each end, where the jacket was fitted to the gun -with a moderate degree of tightness; thus the gun and jacket consisted -of two tubes, one within the other, fastened only at their extremities, -and that by a very slight force. The result, as might have been -expected, was the bursting both of the gun and its case; but that the -steel gun or its jacket would have stood the test, if subjected to it -singly, cannot be doubted. The difference of expansion between the steel -gun and its jacket would be quite enough to account for its bursting. -Had the contact of the two been perfect throughout the whole length, -but allowing half an inch all around for the expansion of the steel gun -in that part which was subjected to the greatest pressure, the very act -of restraining it in other parts so as to prevent equal expansion, would -be perfectly certain to produce a fracture. Mr. Krupp's friends have -complained loudly of unfair treatment, whether justly or not, no opinion -need now be given; but it is much to be regretted that his experiment -was not carried out on scientific principles. The introduction of cast -steel guns will be the most essential improvement in artillery: and an -extensive series of experiments, extending over many years, during which -time I have manufactured gun-barrels of steel alone, ought to give my -opinion some weight on this subject. - -Laminated steel gun-barrels were well known in 1851; but the English -bugbear, prejudice, raised a clamour against them, which was echoed by -interest and ignorance, and thus their general adoption was for a long -time prevented. However, in the short space of seven years, they have -become universally adopted, with the most beneficial results; better -shooting, less annoyance from recoil, less weight to carry, and greater -safety to the sportsman, being the principal. And so it will be with -steel cannon; as a short time will suffice to enable scientific -investigation to remove all prejudices against them. - -The external form of cannon is a question of vital importance, but one -which is little understood by artillerists of the present day. Whilst it -is a demonstrable fact that all excessive bulk of cast-iron causes -weakness in proportion to the excess, no effectual steps have as yet -been taken by the Government to ascertain what is the due proportion of -metal which ought to exist in different parts of the gun. The American -authority on naval gunnery, Captain Dhalgren, has paid considerable -attention to this subject; and if the reports on the durability of -American heavy ordnance can be relied on (and there is no reason why -they should not) his investigations have been attended with much -success. - -Captain Dhalgren has extended the principle acted upon many years ago by -Mr. Monck; his great improvement consisting in lessening the weight of -iron in front of the trunnions, and adding to that of the breech. In -cannon, as in fowling-pieces, weight in the fore part is useless; -conducing neither to the safety of the gun, nor to the smartness of its -shooting. For endurance, it is necessary that the expansion should be -equal in every part of the gun; rigidity in one part increasing the -strain on the immediately adjacent parts, which, if much reduced, are -thus rendered liable to fracture. The breech has to endure the -lengthened explosion produced by the burning of the gunpowder; and, as -this continues until it has overcome the inertia of the projectile, it -is necessary in all cases that the maximum of strength should be in the -breech of the gun. When the projectile is once in motion the strength of -the tube may be rapidly decreased; the only strain it has to bear is -exerted whilst the projectile is passing over it; and this strain, in -properly constructed guns, becomes of shorter and shorter duration as -the projectile attains its highest velocity at the muzzle of the gun. -The greatest strain a gun has to bear near the muzzle is that produced -by the condensation of the column of air in front of the charge; and in -almost every form of English ordnance the weight of metal here is -greater than is necessary. - -The Russian guns which have been brought to this country present the -same superabundance of metal at the muzzle, whilst at the breech there -appears to be a deficiency; and when we take into consideration the -extraordinary reports of their endurance, we must ascribe it to some -other cause than the proper distribution of metal. Their endurance is no -doubt owing in part to the goodness of the metal, in part also to the -form of the breech, to the uniformity of thickness in the sides of the -arch, and, lastly, to the absence of those protuberances called -"reinforce rings." These rings might with propriety be termed "rings of -destruction;" for wherever irregularities exist in the substance of the -metal, there the waves of vibration are interrupted, and the weak point -then becomes fractured. The science of spring-making in all its -varieties demonstrates the truth of this statement. Leave on a -coach-spring an abutment of metal like a "reinforce ring," and a few -motions will be sufficient to break it, however well the spring may be -constructed in every other part. The rigidity of this protuberance, by -interrupting the waves of vibration, causes additional vibration in the -adjacent and more yielding part, and thus produces fracture. The same -thing occurs in all ill-constructed artillery: where the vibrations are -checked, there is always a danger of some weaker part giving way. But -the laws which regulate the distribution of vibrations in metal -substances are not yet understood by artillerists, or cannon would be -differently constructed. Those unscientific protuberances called -"trunnions," which are to be seen in almost every description of gun, -prove the accuracy of my assertions. These protuberances, if -scientifically considered, would soon be discarded, since they tend not -only to the rapid destruction of the cannon, but also exert a most -injurious influence on the direction of the projectile. The most -wonderful shooting ever heard of (and which has been before alluded to) -is partly to be attributed to the absence of trunnions. Trunnions act as -the fulcrum of a scale-beam; they allow the breech and muzzle of the gun -to oscillate, but in an opposite direction to a scale beam. Rifled -cannon can never be correctly constructed whilst any weight impinges on -the gun in front of the first starting point of the projectile; they -must have the fulcrum behind the point of discharge, and the more nearly -in a direct line the better. - -Rifled cannon will in some few years be perfectly constructed of cast -steel; the projectile being made of gun metal, _i. e._, ninety-five -parts of copper to five parts of tin, or of lead and its alloys, and at -a probable cost of ten times that of a cast-iron projectile of equal -weight. - -Rifled cannon must be elevated by raising the muzzle; no depression of -the breech must occur as by the usual elevating screw; and the recoil -must be received and borne by fastenings and axle in rear of the breech -only. Trunnions and all impinging influences are incompatible with -correctness of fire. The muzzle must be raised in a similar manner to -the raising of a hand rifle, the recoil being thrown backwards, in as -direct a line as possible with that of the shot. - -It is only on account of the difficulty of experimenting with rifled -cannon that they are at all behind rifled muskets in point of -perfection. The ardent lover of science is appalled when an experiment -costs hundreds of pounds. We have not a General Jacob everywhere who can -afford to spend a thousand or two in experiments; but, nevertheless, the -lover of science, could he experiment, might attain such extraordinary -accuracy of range, as to blow up a smaller magazine than that of -Kurrachee at four times the distance; and that, too, with a more certain -effect, though with a projectile heavier than several of Jacob's rifles -tied together. Correct direction is certain in proportion to the -increase of weight; deflection being in the minimum with the heavier -weight, from the well known law of momentum. That astute and energetic -sovereign, the Emperor Napoleon, is pursuing experiments with rifled -cannon; with what result there can be little doubt. - -It must be by the use of rifled cannon that our artillery will regain -the place it has lost. A short time will suffice to make the disparity -between our artillery and small arms as great as when we were content -with the six-pounder field gun and old "Brown Bess." Ranges will only be -ruled by sight, and objects will be hit eventually with as much ease at -5,000 yards as they now are at 1,000. Steel, rifled cannon, and -projectiles of gun-metal will assuredly bring about as complete a -revolution in artillery as the Greenerian rifle and bullet have effected -in small arms. - -The form of gun best suited for all purposes has yet to be determined; -and we have pointed out these defects in our artillery with the hope -that some of the great practical philosophers of the present age may -devote themselves to the study of this question. It is nearly allied to -the science of bell-making, and a few more fractures of Big Ben will -extend our knowledge of the subject, and produce a remedy which lies not -very deep below the surface. The laws which should guide us in the -construction of cast steel guns, so as to insure their durability, are -very analogous to those which determine the durability of bells; for the -laws which regulate disintegration of crystalline structures are very -similar. Hitherto the rule of thumb has, unfortunately, been the only -rule observed in measuring out the quantity of metal which shall -surround that portion of a cannon which has to sustain the most violent -concussion. - -Professor Barlow many years ago proved, to the satisfaction of the -Institution of Civil Engineers, that the metal in any cylinder decreases -in utility in proportion to the square of its distance from the centre: -that the outside of a gun of the form now used, in fact, is only -one-ninth as useful as the inside; being three times as far from the -centre. If we double the thickness, the outside, being five times as far -from the centre as the inside, will be but one-twenty-fifth as useful; -or in plain English, nearly useless. The reason of this is simple, and I -will endeavour to explain it. - -"A bar of cast iron one inch thick each way and 40 inches long will -stretch about one-twentieth of an inch, if a weight of about four tons -be suspended by it. When the weight is removed, the cast iron nearly -recovers its previous form, and is uninjured; but if it be stretched -more, by a greater weight, it is permanently injured. - -"A bar of the same thickness, but three times as long--120 inches--will -stretch three times as much, or three-twentieths of an inch, with the -same weight; or if only one-third the weight--one ton and a third--be -suspended, it will stretch one-twentieth of an inch, the same as the -shorter bar. - -"If we suspend 16 tons by four bars, one inch thick and 40 inches long, -they will each stretch one-twentieth of an inch only, and remain -uninjured; but if we attempt to do so with two bars 40 inches long and -two 120 inches long, then, when the whole have lengthened one-twentieth -of an inch, the short ones are exerting a force of eight tons, but the -long ones that of only two and two-thirds tons. The weight, therefore, -will still further lengthen the bars, and permanently injure the short -ones; perhaps break them first, and then the long ones. - -"This is the way a gun is burst. The inside is a series of bars of iron, -say 40 inches long, in the form of a ring; the outside a series of -rings, representing the bars three times as long." - -Warfare, since the first introduction of gunnery into Europe, has been -like one continued series of experiments for testing the efficacy of our -guns. No description of gun we now possess can lay any claim to -existence fifty years ago: the great majority of our guns now in use are -of a much more recent date. - -With one or two exceptions, no artillery has been constructed on any -scientific theory; some alteration has been made, and if a gun of a -certain form and dimensions gave a certain result, then an extension or -emulation of that gun was tried; and if it succeeded a loud cry of -exultation was raised, and the discovery was announced to the world as a -great improvement. - -[Illustration: Russian 56-pounder gun.] - -[Illustration: 8-inch British gun.] - -Colonel Prejudice has invented a vastly improved description of gun; -another guess is made, and so different forms of guns are multiplied. -Can there be a more striking illustration of this than the one which -took place during the late Crimean war? It was boasted that the whole -human race might be exterminated by the new invention; but the -"Lancaster gun" turned out to be most unscientific in its construction, -and most eccentric in its action. Had such a thing as scientific -knowledge in gunnery existed among the artillerists of the day, such a -monstrosity would have been buried soon after its birth; instead of -being allowed to squander large sums of money at every discharge, and -then at last to become a "Whistling Jemmy" for our bluejackets to laugh -at. - -The form of cannon no doubt exercises a vital influence over their -durability; bad form and imperfection of material combined, tended to -produce the rapid destruction of our guns during the late important -struggle. - -The gun which has been experimented with to the greatest extent, and -which has withstood all trials successfully, is a Russian -fifty-six-pounder; taken, I believe, at Bomarsund. In this gun there are -two great peculiarities; the shape, as will be seen in the diagram, -differs from all our own guns: it is a "chambered gun," and the metal is -taken away from the outside precisely as the contraction increases on -the inside thus giving an equal thickness of metal in every part, of the -arc (see page 114). - -In contrast with this, we give a cut of our 8-inch gun, which most -nearly resembles it as a chambered gun (see page 114). - -The reader's attention is especially directed to the dissimilarity in -the distribution of the metal in the two guns. The want of uniform -thickness of metal in our 8-inch gun must be sufficient to convince any -one that, if the Russian gun be properly constructed, the principle of -ours must be radically wrong. That such is the case, indeed, I cannot -doubt, the Russian gun having undergone such a test as would have -destroyed six of ours. The gun has since been made two inches larger in -the bore, and even oval-bored, for firing shells, which should alone be -enough to destroy it; and yet with all this the gun remains perfect. - -The gun which most nearly resembles this is our English carronade; and -that these guns have some important principle in their shape is proved -by their great durability under all trials; and I believe that the tests -to which the carronade has been subjected have been more severe than -that of any other piece in the British service. - -There have been many shrewd conjectures as to the cause of this -durability; one of these was very pungent, viz., "the invention was not -by one of the cloth." An examination of the drawing of the 68-pounder -carronade will enable the reader to perceive the great similarity -between this and the Russian gun before spoken of (see page 114). - -[Illustration: 68-pound carronade.] - -The manufacture of these guns was originally in the hands of the -inventors, and it is quite evident that they must have taken great pains -with the form of the gun, and also have taken special care that the -material of which it was constructed was of the very best quality. - -There is too much reason to doubt the proficiency of military men in -the science of metallurgy; and the British system of depending solely on -their knowledge for the last half century, has no doubt proved an -obstacle to advancement in the science of gunnery. - -[Illustration: Monck's 56-pounder gun.] - -The gun which ranks next is Monck's 56-pounder. Although not a chambered -gun, it will be seen, from the diagram (see p. 117), to be an attempt -(if not a perfectly successful one) to obtain uniformity of thickness in -every part of the arc. The durability of these guns ranks as we have -placed them. - -The next in rotation is the 8-inch or 68-pounder (see p. 114); which, -although not the original sized gun that was rifled for the Lancaster -shell, yet it was the one eventually used for that projectile up to the -end of its very brief career. - -[Illustration: 10-inch or 86-pounder gun.] - -The 10-inch gun of 95 cwt., delineated at page 117, will be seen to be -defective in its outlines when tested by the principles before laid -down, and the fact of more 10-inch guns bursting at Sebastopol than any -others (mortars only excepted), may be taken as exclusive evidence of -its imperfection. - -The bursting of mortars is quite notorious, especially the 13-inch -mortars used for sea-service in the attack on Sweaborg. A slight -examination of the engraving of one will be sufficient to convince any -person that, if what has already been advanced on the form of guns can -lay claim to being scientific, then this is of all guns the most -unscientific that was ever manufactured. Its durability, too, like its -shape, is of a very low order. - -[Illustration: 13-inch sea-service mortar.] - -The 13-inch land mortar depicted below is a much more serviceable -production, because it contains much less metal. - -[Illustration: 13-inch land-service mortar.] - -Mortars will retain their place in spite of all improvements. Rifling is -inapplicable to them. Their principal utility consists in obtaining a -vertical fire; the shell being pitched to a great height, so as to fall -into places that cannot be assailed by a horizontal fire. - -The late Joseph Manton has the merit of being the first modern inventor -of rifled cannon. His idea was, that if a motion on an axis parallel to -the horizon could be given to cannon balls, they would range farther and -with greater accuracy. As there exists great difficulty in causing the -rifling in a gun to act upon an iron ball, he constructed a cup of wood, -into which the ball was fitted, projections being made upon the wood to -fit into the groves of the rifle; the spinning motion thus being -communicated to the ball by its wooden adjunct. The result was twofold; -for the expansions of the wood during the explosion, filled the tube of -the gun tight, and effectually destroyed the windage. The government of -the day did offer him a premium of one farthing each; but "Joe" -over-reached himself, asking the sum of L30,000 down; this was refused, -and the patent was allowed to expire without the Government taking any -advantage of it, and experiments ceased to be made in this direction. - -Rifled cannon have now, however, become a certainty. Mechanically -speaking, they are as easily to be produced as hand rifles. The general -application has, however, vast difficulties, which must be overcome -before their use can become general. Small arm projectiles suitable for -rifles must of necessity be made of ductile metal, and all the attempts -previously made, whether with brass or iron guns, are alike useless. The -mass in motion, even when of equal hardness with the gun (as in the case -of cast iron guns and cast iron shot), invariably destroys that in a -comparative state of rest; and the rifling is obliterated after a very -few discharges. In a brass gun the destruction is certainly not so -rapid, on account of the different nature of the metal; yet the -destruction of the gun for all useful purposes is equally effectual. It -is evident, then, that success cannot be obtained by using the present -materials in rifled cannon; and the question inevitably arises, what -better material can we use? Wrought iron shells have already been -thoroughly tried in the Lancaster oval gun, with a well-known result. - -Great hopes were at one time entertained, that something suitable would -result from Mr. Bessemer's discovery of the combustion of carbon, and -that an iron of sufficient ductility, yet without the usual hardness, -would be produced; but this, it appears, is still a myth. - -Extent of range and accuracy of fire in gunnery will in future be of so -much importance in war, that it is not extravagant to assert, that in -contests between well-matched belligerents, the precious metals (if they -gave any advantage to the user) would be unhesitatingly used in -projectiles. But on the score of economy, science need not be impeded. -Gun-metal projectiles and cast steel cannon would work as effectually -together as lead and iron in small arms. - -Some other mixtures less expensive might be produced (lead and copper in -certain proportions are very ductile), and at the same time sufficiently -strong to resist all tendency to squash; as the softer metals would -inevitably do. The more ductile metals are limited in their utility, by -the same law which limits the use of pure lead: that is, to given -weight, height of column, or velocity. Great doubt exists whether a -bullet made of gun metal, and of the same proportionate dimensions and -form as an Enfield bullet, but fitted for a ten-inch gun, would not, if -fired with the proportionate charge of powder (namely, seventeen -pounds), be as completely squashed, or driven in upon itself, as the -Enfield bullet if fired with the old Brown Bess charge of four drachms -and a half. - -Considerable time and experience will be required to ascertain the -proportions of metallic mixture necessary to meet all contingencies; -this, however, is a matter of detail, and must extend over so large an -area, that it can be handled only by the government officials, with the -necessary "sinews" of experiment. Nevertheless it must be undertaken; -and the sooner it is done the better, for the prestige of that nation -which would lead the van of improvement in gunnery, and increase its -power of attack and defence beyond those of its rivals. - -Rifled cannon is a generic term of endless application, presenting to -the mind modifications of projectiles in endless variety, ranging from -the "_light firebrand_" to the twice deadly rocket: not rockets of that -eccentric and erratic character by which Congreve made an undying name; -but real _bona fide_ rifle rockets, which shall hit the dead-lights in -the quarter-gallery of a frigate, carry away the halyards of your -enemies' ensign (making him drop his colours at the first shot) or dash -the glass from the hand of the pilot. All such imaginary feats will yet -be accomplished; though the reader may smile at the idea. My experience -with rockets goes to justify me in asserting that rockets discharged -from a gun, under certain circumstances, can be as effectually -controlled, and kept to a direct course, as a bullet fired from a rifle. -The rocket, however, may be fired a much greater distance than we have -ever been able to project a bullet; because, in addition to the force -which projects it from the gun, its flight is maintained by the self -sustaining agency in the body of the rocket. Rockets require a much -smaller charge of powder to project them than that which is used for a -bullet; a rocket started by its own force, expends, in acquiring even an -approximation to its highest velocity, at least one-third of the force -with which it is charged; but when projected by a small charge of -gunpowder this force is saved, and the flight of the rocket is -afterwards sustained by the force with which it is charged. - -Firing rockets from cannon can only be practised under certain -circumstances. The observations already made on the granulation of -gunpowder will have prepared the reader for this announcement. When -fired from a cannon under the old regime, the rocket was projected at -high velocity, and the case of the rocket was destroyed by the very -force which set it in motion. A rocket suitable for artillery should be -cast of gun metal, with a frame of considerable strength. In form it -should nearly approximate to an expansive bullet; but, instead of the -limited length of one and three quarters diameter; it should approach to -four diameters; two of which, at least, should be appropriated to the -cylinder behind the head. - -The head is charged with composition more densely driven than is -customary in the ordinary rocket; the tubes in the cylinder are also -charged with a composition equally dense. The outer frame of the rocket -is cast with suitable projections to fit the grooves of the gun: the -spiral of these grooves is considerable, being one turn in every three -feet, in order to impart to the rocket an effectual spinning motion when -in a low state of velocity. The rocket properly constructed is then -placed in the rocket-gun, and fired in the usual way; but it is -essential that the gunpowder used should be of a suitable quality: its -combustion must be as slow as possible, a starting velocity of from 500 -to 800 feet per second being sufficient to ensure the flight of the -self-sustaining projectile to the end of its range. This principle may -be extended from a light firebrand, as already stated, to that of a -rocket charged in the head with the most deadly and destructive -fulminate. - -It may appear absurd to speak of fulminates being projected; since all -experiments show that fulminates, even when adulterated, will not stand -the concussion of a discharge, but invariably ignite in the gun, however -carefully placed or packed in the shell which contains them: for this -reason fulminates have never been successfully used. But if the -fulminate is placed in the head of a rocket, this objection may be -obviated. The gradual manner in which velocity is given to a rocket does -not subject it to violent displacement during its flight; neither need -the concussion in the gun be severe, owing to the nature of the -gunpowder used, which in its gradual expansion is analogous to steam: -thus the field for the application of fulminates is opened to an -unlimited extent. - -My own experience on this subject has been limited to its application -for the saving of life from shipwreck, where the application of a line -to the rocket limits its range and velocity; but sufficient is left in a -rocket of an inch and a half diameter effectually to carry out a line of -a quarter of an inch diameter to a distance of 600 or 800 yards: that -is, more than double the distance obtained by either Manby's apparatus -or the rockets now in use; which, lamentable to state, are quite -inadequate to the purposes for which they are intended. - -Though the improvements in rifled cannon are at present only in their -infancy, they have nevertheless attained to an extraordinary degree of -perfection, verifying all our predictions to the letter. - -A writer in the _Times_ makes the following statements in favour of Mr. -Whitworth's improvements:-- - -"While some men of really inventive talent, and a great many charlatans, -have been permitted to waste the public money in trying vainly to -improve our artillery, it seems passing strange that it should not long -ago have been discovered how impossible it was to hope for successful -results in the direction in which they were working. It was clear that -while increased range and precision of firing were wanted, it was nearly -as important to bring the charges of ammunition and the weight of metal -in guns into more manageable proportions to each other, and to the -facilities for transit on active service. No sensible man can have -witnessed the frightful damage done to the efficiency of our army in the -Crimea by the exigencies of the siege-train during the winter of 1854-5 -without being impressed with this conviction. The principle of the rifle -offered an obvious suggestion for the proper means of working out the -foregoing problem; but then for artillery, rifling by grooves would not -do without the use of a pliant metal in the projectile, and the cost of -lead rendered its application to that purpose impracticable. It was -necessary, therefore, to alter the existing mode of rifling, and to -modify the bore of the cannon, so that an iron projectile could be -discharged from it, rotating on its own axis in the line of flight. This -result once secured, it is obvious that a field-piece or gun of position -would become a rifle on a large scale, and that the same immense -increase of range and of penetration which had been realised by the -smaller weapon as compared with Brown Bess, would be placed at the -command of the artillery service. It is consolatory, after a series of -failures worthy even of Brunel in launching the _Leviathan_, that the -country has at last the well-grounded hope of an improvement by which -our ordnance may be placed on a proper footing. In pursuing those -careful experiments which he undertook for the Government, principally -to improve the rifle, Mr. Whitworth, the eminent machinist, adopted a -polygonal spiral bore of a uniform pitch, but more rapid than could be -attained by grooves. This bore has enabled him to surpass immensely the -range and penetration of the Enfield rifle; but even these advantages, -important as they are, scarcely surpass those which it places within the -reach of our artillery service. The strain of the projectile being -distributed evenly over every side of the polygon, iron can be -substituted for lead in the projectile, and this simple but beautiful -mechanical appliance at once becomes available for cannon." - -The powerful aid of the _Times_ is "almost success;" though in this -instance it has signally failed, the boasted accuracy there spoken of -not having been yet obtained. This has no doubt arisen in part from the -fact that Mr. Whitworth's great mechanical knowledge would not suffice -to make him _au fait_ at the compound science of gunnery. His "polygonal -spiral bore of uniform pitch, more rapid than could be obtained by -grooves," is after all only an experimental gun, not sufficiently -developed as yet for practical utility. Still, the writer already -alluded to has favoured us with the following remarks in the _Times_: - -"Moreover, Mr. Whitworth has discovered in the course of his -experiments, that according to the quickness of the turn in the polygon -is the length of the projectile that may be fired; so that 24 lb. and -48 lb. shot have been sent to extraordinary ranges with half the usual -charge of powder, from an ordinary 12-pounder howitzer. Here, then, is -at once the solution of the whole question which has troubled the brains -of so many inventors, real or pretended, for years. The artilleryman at -one stride resumes the relative position to the soldier of the line -which the Enfield rifle had so perilously deprived him of, and this -mechanical country, after finding herself on the level of France, -Russia, and other European States, is once more, as during the -Peninsular campaigns, enabled to assert her natural superiority in the -manufacture of cannon. We trust that no petty jealousies on the part of -narrow-minded officials will be allowed to interfere with the course of -Mr. Whitworth's experiments, and that the encouragement which he is now -receiving from the Minister at War and the Commander-in-Chief will -enable him, at no remote date, to realise for the benefit of the army -and the nation that revolution in gunnery which the results already -obtained by him promise." - -Report says that 25,000_l._ is the amount of encouragement Mr. Whitworth -has received from the Minister of War and the Commander-in-Chief; an -adequate sum with which to conduct such an experiment, but not -sufficient to insure success. - -Of the success of Mr. Whitworth's polygonal projectile, on a large -scale, none need speculate, for the principle is self-destructive. - -Lancaster's oval shell, oscillated in its flight, took a flight so -extraordinary, on account of the resistance of the atmosphere on the -protuberances of the oval, that the principle may be regarded as fully -established that enlarged projectiles must be smooth and free from -projections that "saw the air," otherwise range and accuracy of fire -will be sacrificed. The principle of Mr. Whitworth's polygonal bore is -fully discussed in its proper place, and will here receive only a -passing notice. - -To Mr. W. G. Armstrong, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, much more credit is due -than can be claimed for Mr. Whitworth. Long before the paid efforts of -Mr. Whitworth, Mr. Armstrong had made the subject of rifled cannon a -special study, and the success of his investigations has been such as to -couple his name with those of the earliest inventors of effectual rifled -cannon. Mr. Armstrong may also lay claim to being an originator of -wrought steel cannon; though here his name stands second as an inventor, -for to Mr. Krupp is due the honour of first introducing cast steel -cannon to the notice of our Government. - -Mr. Armstrong tells his own tale so well in the columns of the _Times_ -that we cannot do better than quote it:-- - -"In the latter part of 1854, I submitted to the Duke of Newcastle, then -Minister at War, a proposal for a gun which I anticipated would possess -great superiority over the common forms of light artillery, and I -undertook, with his Grace's authority, to construct a field-piece in -conformity with the plan I had suggested. The gun was accordingly soon -afterwards made, and has since, during a period of nearly two years, -been the subject of numerous experiments, partly upon the ordnance -firing-ground at Shoeburyness; but principally under my own direction in -this neighbourhood. - -"I have hitherto avoided publicity in reference to these experiments, -but, as matured results of much interest and importance have now been -arrived at, and as other names are already before the public in -connection with gun experiments made during the same period, I feel that -I may now, without impropriety, give some information on the subject. - -"With a view to strength and durability, the gun is composed internally -of steel and externally of wrought iron, applied in a twisted or spiral -form, as in a musket or fowling-piece. The bore is nearly two inches in -diameter, and is rifled. The projectile is a pointed cylinder 6-1/2 -inches long, and its weight is 5 lb. It is made of cast iron, coated -with lead, and is fired from the gun with a charge of 10 ounces of -powder; it contains a small cavity in the centre, and may be used either -as a shot or a shell. When applied as a shell, the cavity is filled with -powder, and a detonating fuse is inserted in front, so as to fire the -powder in the centre on striking an object. When used as a shot, the -powder is omitted, and an iron point, which favours penetration, is -substituted for the fuse. The gun is constructed to load at the breech, -the object being not only to obviate the disadvantages of sponging and -loading from the front, but also to allow the projectile to be larger in -diameter than would enter at the muzzle, and thus to insure its taking -the impress of the grooves and completely filling the bore. The piece -weighs 5 cwt., and is mounted upon a carriage which bears a general -resemblance to that of an ordinary 6-pounder field gun, but which -embraces a pivot frame and recoil slide. A screw is also applied, not -only for elevating and depressing the gun, but also for moving it -horizontally, by which means great delicacy of aim is effected. The -recoil slide has an upward inclination, which enables the gun, after -running back, to recover its position by gravity; and its use is to -relieve the pivot-frame and adjusting screws from injurious concussion. - -"I shall now give some particulars of the experiments recently made with -this gun on the coast of Northumberland, near the village of Whitley, -under the official inspection of Colonel Wilmot. - -"Fourteen shots were in the first instance fired from a distance of -1,500 yards at a timber butt, 5 ft. wide 7-1/2 ft. high. Six of these -were expended in finding the elevation proper for the distance, but -after that was determined every succeeding shot hit the object without -previous graze. The final elevation of the gun was 4 deg. 26 min., and -the mean lateral distance of the shot-marks from a vertical line through -the centre of the butt was only 11-1/2 in. - -"Persons who are conversant with artillery practice will be able to -appreciate the accuracy of this firing; but, for the information of -those who are unacquainted with the subject, I may state that the -ordinary 6-pounder field-piece, which in point of weight forms the -nearest approach to the present gun, is perfectly useless at a distance -of 1,500 yards, and is very uncertain even at 1,000 yards. It is only, -therefore, with heavy artillery that a comparison can be drawn; and it -will be sufficient to state that in tabulating the practice made with -such ordnance the deflections are invariably recorded in yards, whereas -with this rifled gun they can only be properly given in inches. - -"With respect to penetration, the following particulars will be regarded -as equally remarkable, considering the small weight of the shot and the -length of the range. The butt was 3 ft. thick, and was composed of six -layers of rock elm bolted together, so as to form a solid block. One -shot passed entirely through; another struck near the edge and glanced; -and the remaining six penetrated within a few inches of the opposite -side. - -"Shell firing was next tried at a distance of 1,500 yards; the gun being -fired at the same elevation and with the same charge as in the previous -practice at the butt. - -"In this case two targets were erected, one behind the other, so as to -appear as one object when viewed from the gun, and a space of 30 feet -was left between them. The front target was intended to exhibit the -perforations of the shell before bursting, and the back one to show the -effect of the fragments resulting from explosion. - -"After some preliminary experiments twenty-two shells were fired at the -front target, and of these only one missed the object of aim. The -following are the particulars:--Seventeen hit the first target direct, -and burst behind it, the fragments penetrating the second one; three -grazed and burst immediately in front of the first target, and -perforated both with the pieces; one hit the bottom of the first target -and exploded in the ground, and the remaining one missed entirely and -burst on some rocks nearly on line beyond. A strong side wind was -blowing at the time, and accounted for the deviation of this single -shell. - -"Four shells and three shots were then fired at an elevation of 6 -degrees, from a distance of 2,000, or, more accurately, 1,964 yards. All -these struck within the breadth of the target; but the elevation being -scarcely sufficient, they all fell a little short, except one shell, -which, ranging somewhat further than the others, hit the target and -burst as usual. - -"The results of this shell-firing were as follows:--The front target -contained 51 holes, and the back one 164, while the ground between and -adjacent to the targets exhibited about 70 perforations by fragments of -shells, the greater portion of which were afterwards recovered by -digging. - -"With respect to ranges exceeding 2,000 yards, I may state that on -previous occasions the gun had been tried up to 3,000 yards--a distance -which was reached with an elevation of 11 deg., and the usual charge of -10 ounces of powder, or 1-8th the weight of the projectile. By -augmenting the charge the range is increased, but the accuracy is -impaired; and I therefore adhere to the 10-ounce charge, which gives -ample penetration, as the experiments at the butt will testify. I may -also observe that the ranges obtained with this charge bear a favourable -comparison with those of the heaviest round-shot guns fired with a much -larger proportion of powder. - -"It is a curious fact, and one which greatly increases the efficiency of -the shells, that owing to the bursting charge requiring a minute space -of time to mature its ignition after the firing of the fuse by impact, -the shell is enabled to travel four or five feet after striking an -object before disruption takes place. Hence, therefore, it acts as a -shot before it bursts as a shell. When it perforates a target the -explosion may be seen to take place at a few feet beyond, and when it -grazes it has time to rise, and may be observed to burst after clearing -the ground. If, therefore, it were fired against a ship, it would first -penetrate the side in its entirety, and then, bursting, traverse the -deck in fragments; or if directed against troops, it would pierce the -front line as a bullet, and operate like grape-shot beyond. The shells -explode with equal certainty whether the first substance struck be hard -or soft; and, in fact, they even burst on the surface of water, provided -the elevation of the gun be not too great. The bursting charge is very -small, but it suffices to break the shell into about 30 pieces, which -pursue their forward course without too much dispersion. - -"It is impossible to contemplate the results obtained with this gun -without being impressed with the important part it is calculated to -perform in warfare. Opposed to any ordinary field-piece, it would be -like the Greener rifle against the old musket; and no gun could be -worked at an embrasure if a fire of shells were directed against it by -one of these rifled pieces placed within the distance of a mile. In -naval operations, also, guns of this description, but of larger size, -might apparently be applied with great effect--more especially as a -system of breech loading, combined with a self-recovering recoil action, -would be peculiarly advantageous in firing from portholes. Even light -5-pounders, sending their shells from great distances through the sides -of a ship and sweeping the decks with fragments of lead and iron, would -produce very destructive effects; and a small swift steamer carrying a -few such guns might prove a very troublesome opponent to a large ship of -war. But if the dimensions of the gun were increased so as to adapt it -for shells of 20 lb. or 30 lb., still more terrible injury could be -inflicted at greater distances; and the ponderous artillery now used at -sea would be of little service when opposed to the accurate and -long-range firing of such rifled shell-guns." - -Since the publication of these remarks, rifled artillery of Mr. -Armstrong's production has, we believe, been extensively tried. The -results of these trials have been most extraordinary; and the principle -is, we believe, identical with the expansive principle bearing my -cognomen: an extension of the principle of the Greener and Enfield -rifle, hereafter to be described. I have had the honour of being -consulted both by English and foreign authorities, and I have assisted -in constructing rifled artillery for several years; and the experience -thus obtained justifies me in making known to the world some of my -observations on this subject. - -Rifled cannon with elongated projectiles, similar in shape and principle -to the Greenerian bullet, give, with charges inferior to those of the -old regime and calibre, more than double the range, with ten times -greater accuracy. - -Now, either of these points, if gained, would be most important -improvements, and when combined would produce the most extraordinary -results. But this is not all: a great diminution in the weight of the -gun might also be effected; and these advantages may be still further -extended when we have had time to increase our knowledge of the valuable -materials with which we are only just now becoming acquainted. - -The following table will show the advantages to be gained both in length -and accuracy of range. - -Before reverting to the table, it may be necessary to remind the reader -that the great reduction in the weight of guns arises from the adoption -of the elongated projectile. For example: the diameter of the -_elongated_ projectile for an "18-pounder" is much less than the -diameter of the gun for the _spherical_ 18-pounder; thus allowing the -thickness of metal to be equal in both guns. The gun for the elongated -projectile may be greatly reduced in weight without at all diminishing -its strength, simply on account of the great diminution in the diameter -of the arc. - -There is another important fact, which Mr. Whitworth, with all his -boasting, has carefully concealed: viz., that a much greater pressure is -exerted upon the square inch in the lesser than in the larger diameter -of bore; and to conceal this fact, whilst claiming merit for a bullet of -50-gauge exceeding in range one of 25-gauge, the charge of gunpowder -being alike in both cases, appears very like deception. Any engineer -will tell us that the pressure in the lesser is twice as great as in the -larger bore; and this explains why greater velocity is given to the -projectile. - -With these explanations the reader will be better prepared to weigh -carefully my observations. My task would, doubtless, have been rendered -more easy, if a clear elucidation of the principles of the expansive -bullet could have been given thus early in the work; but it is thought -better to do this in its proper place. I will only add here, that -although two bullets, one elongated, the other spherical, and of equal -diameter, meet with the same amount of atmospheric resistance, yet the -one containing twice as much matter as the other retains its medium -velocity nearly double the distance. With these explanatory remarks I -give the following table:-- - - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - |Present Range|Present|Reduced Weight|Range when - |of Guns. |Weight.|when Rifled. |Rifled. - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - 6-pndr. | 1,500 yds. | 17 | 12 cwts. |3,000 yds. - 9-pndr. | 1,600 " | 26 | 18 " |4,000 " - 12-pndr. | 1,700 " | 34 | 22 " |4,500 " - 18-pndr. | 1,780 " | 42 | 29 " |5,000 " - 24-pndr. | 1,850 " | 50 | 34 " |5,500 " - 32-pndr. | 2,000 " | 63 | 42 " |6,000 " - 48-pndr. | 2,500 " | 70 | 45 " |6,500 " - 56-pndr. | 5,000 " | 85 | 60 " |8,000 " - 68-pndr. or 8-in. | 4,500 " | 85 | 60 " |8,000 " - 86-pndr. or 10-in.| 4,700 " | 95 | 65 " |9,000 " - ------------------+-------------+-------+--------------+---------- - -The reader must understand that all the guns given in this table were -not rifled, and that they have not all been subjected to trial. The 6, -12, 18, 24, and 48-pounders have been tried, with the results given -above; but the heavier guns have not as yet been tested: the ranges and -weights given in the table have, however, been derived from the results -yielded in the trial of the lesser guns, and may be safely relied on as -scientific data; being, in truth, rather under than over the mark. - -All experiments clearly establish one very important principle, long -known to those acquainted with the science of projectiles, viz., "That -the heavier the projectile, the less the deflection." Thus it is quite -possible that the longest ranges may ultimately be obtained without any -perceptible deflection. And when we observe that the deflection of an -ordinary 32-shot in a range of 2,000 yards, is 50 feet, and in 2,500 -yards, 80 feet, whilst the elongated shot, at a much greater distance, -is not deflected half as many inches, I think we may fairly say that our -knowledge of gunnery is yet in its infancy. Fulminating powder may be -used as an auxiliary in shells for various important purposes; such, for -instance, as destroying an entire fleet; and it is clearly within the -range of possibility that by its agency the largest ship may be -destroyed by a single shot. The accuracy of rifled cannon renders it an -easy task to strike a plank only one inch above the water line, and the -penetration of an elongated gun-metal or lead-alloyed shell would enable -us to reach the innermost parts of the magazine: for it is scarcely -possible to produce even an iron casing which shall resist the power of -such projectiles. It is possible, therefore, that we may see the noblest -fleet destroyed in a few minutes by the agency of such projectiles. - -I will endeavour to give an outline of the method by which this may be -effected. A long rifled cannon, constructed for an elongated gun-metal -shell; of from fifty-six to eighty-six pounds, and with an extreme range -of from 6,000 to 7,000 yards, may be considered to be a suitable -instrument. This shell should be charged in the head with a given -quantity of the fulminate, such as would be most calculated to prevent -the tendency to explode from the concussion produced by the discharge of -the gun. It will be necessary to place the fulminate in thin layers -between sheets of prepared caoutchouc, or some other preparation of -India-rubber; having thus arranged the fulminate in the head of the -shell and secured it there, the usual method of filling the remainder is -resorted to, and the aperture is securely screwed up: fuses not being -necessary in this arrangement. - -The difficulty in using this shell is to prevent its explosion when the -gun is discharged; and to obviate this all our engineering skill is -required. Time and experience will show that, by a modification of the -propelling agent, the shell may be started from a rifled cannon at a -very low velocity; the velocity being increased like that of the rocket. -This is to be done by modifying the arrangement of the gunpowder so as -to ensure the shell acquiring its greatest velocity as it leaves the -muzzle of the cannon. The result of this has been already shown. On the -shell striking any object, such as the ship's side, the metal of the -shell is driven in upon itself, and an explosion of the fulminate -follows as a natural consequence. Experiment has proved that shells -exploding as they strike the ship's sides, produce very little damage -beyond making a hole in the ship the size of the shell. This, no doubt, -arises from the short space of time occupied by the shell in passing -through the side of the ship; all its force being exerted in the -interior instead of on the sides of the vessel. All shells of the nature -alluded to would, at certain distances, take such a line of flight as to -ensure them dipping towards the centre of gravity, and thus exploding -the magazines, however deep below the water-line; and when we consider -the destructive effects of fulminates, we think it quite within the -range of probability that they might produce all the effects we have -spoken of. - -There are many agents equally powerful to be introduced into destructive -warfare; and with the advantages to be derived from improvements in -rifled shells, which the ingenuity of the present race will certainly -effect, he would be a rash man who would set any limits to the -advancement of projectile science. The great difficulty in the use of -fulminates will be surmounted if these suggestions can be carried out; -and experiment is all that will then be necessary to establish the line -of proceeding. To effect this is the province of the Government of the -country; to wait for it to be perfected by individual skill and -enterprise would be unjust to science, and injurious to the best -interests of the nation. The needful expenditure can only be borne by -the nation, and should be entered upon, in order to effect improvement -in projectiles, with the view of maintaining our land and marine -artillery at the highest point of efficiency. - -There is one question of great importance to inventors, and to which I -have paid much attention, namely, the obtaining a spiral motion in a -projectile which has been fired from a smooth bored gun. All we have -witnessed goes far to prove that the attainment of this is impossible, -in consequence of a principle not hitherto investigated by inventors. If -the course of a projectile is changed from the straight to the spiral, -it can only be done at the expense of range; and that for the following -reasons: first, the force which is necessary to induce this spiral -movement must be exerted at the expense of the force which propels it -forward; secondly, when this spiral movement is acquired, it is so much -in excess of the direct movement, that after advancing a certain -distance it falls to the ground. A very simple experiment will prove -this. Take an ordinary tin tube, cut a bullet of an elongated -form--cylindro-conical if wished--having grooves from the point -backwards, with the degree of spiral necessary to effect the object in -view. Let the bullet be made of cork or light wood, such as can be -projected by a blast from the mouth, and the result will be that the -projectile will go one-half the distance before the friction of the -atmosphere produces a motion on its axis parallel to its line of -flight; from this point it gradually loses its velocity in a forward -direction, it spins until its force is expended, and then falls -vertically to the ground. To find the sequel, try the same experiment -without grooving, and the range, with the same force, will be found to -be double. Some years ago I witnessed such a trial with a 32-pounder; -and, to the astonishment of all present, the bullet rose above the -horizontal line, and then fell to the ground, like the cork bullet of -which we have already spoken. - -The endeavour to produce breech-loading cannon is an effort to obtain -uncalled-for and superfluous facility in gunnery; and if a perfect -breech-loading cannon could possibly be produced, what would it avail? -What superior property could it possess over the solid gun? It could not -be safety; for when we consider the very limited number of explosions by -which the very best guns are destroyed, it can scarcely be possible for -a gun composed of many parts to endure the intense vibrations to which -large cannon are subjected. The regular distribution of vibrations in -the metal of the gun is the great point to be attended to in the -construction of artillery; so that vibrations may not be incorrectly -induced by malformation, or by an excess or deficiency of metal at any -particular point; for where the waves of vibration are checked by an -unequal distribution of metal, or other causes, there the weak point in -a gun is always found, as all fractured guns clearly demonstrate. An -intimate acquaintance with the metallurgy of cannon, enables me to give -an almost unerring opinion as to the causes leading to the fracture. -Most undoubtedly, vibration, if judiciously distributed, is the soul of -endurance; but if injudiciously distributed is certain to result in the -destruction of the cannon. In structures composed necessarily of many -joints, obstruction to the waves of vibration must occur; the different -parts do not expand and vibrate equally; a kind of revulsion is induced; -part repels part, and destruction ensues as a natural consequence. Under -no circumstances, therefore, can a breech-loader be as safe as a solid -gun. - -The facility with which breech-loaders can be charged is generally -trumpeted forth to the world as an advantage of vital importance; but -let us carefully examine this point and see if it has not been -exaggerated--whether, in fact, a solid gun cannot be charged and -discharged as rapidly as a breech-loader. - -In the first place, all guns recoil; this necessitates the relaying of -the gun after every discharge, in order to obtain accuracy of aim; and -if facility of loading is to be obtained at the expense of aim, it can -scarcely be called an advantage. Aim consumes more time than loading. A -six-pounder may be loaded and fired six times in the first minute; but -it would be impossible to do this and re-lay the gun after each shot. -Where then is the advantage of firing six shots per minute if you cannot -hit six objects? And if breech-loaders could be fired _sixty_ times per -minute, what would they avail if aim was wanting? The raising or -depressing of the breech of a gun by means of the elevating screw; -slewing to the right or left, spunging the gun, and ramming home the -powder and shot, all consume time; hence we think that quickness of -loading is worthless. - -Breech-loading cannon cannot be constructed for bullets of larger -diameter than that of the rifle bore, without a ductile bullet be used; -for, as is usual in breech-loading small-arms, the bullet rifles itself -as it is forced up the grooves. The projectiles for rifled cannon have -hitherto been cast with corresponding grooves and lands to fit the -internal form of the cannon. A compound shot, composed of iron, and -covered externally with ductile metal, has been tried in a few -instances; but, unfortunately, the difficulty of combining two metals so -dissimilar as iron and lead has been found so great as invariably to end -in a failure; therefore no prospect exists of bringing into play this, -the best point existing in breech-loading arms. - -Lastly, the tendency of all guns to absorb the heat, developed during -explosion, puts a limit to all extreme rapidity of fire; even if this -was not already limited by the more essential point of taking aim. At -Sweaborg it was found necessary to allow an interval of five minutes -between each discharge of a mortar, and yet the whole of them burst -after an average of 120 shots. Time and ingenuity spent in planning and -constructing breech-loading cannon will always end in disappointment and -failure. Many are the plans extant, evincing great skill, perseverance, -and everything needful in point of mechanical experience, but betraying -a total ignorance of the metallurgic science and of practical results -from the use of the engine. The study of these points will save money, -time, and what is of more value, brain-work, which might be better -employed. Striving to produce perfect breech-loading cannon is like -striving to square the circle. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ON THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON FOR GUN BARRELS. - - -A considerable progress in improvement has taken place in manufacturing -the higher quality of iron since my last publication. Not that I -arrogate to myself any credit on that score, but it is evident that good -frequently comes of flagellations, whether on the body or the mind. One -part of human nature will ever fear the exposure of bad qualities, while -another is emboldened to advance in improvement if the slightest chance -exist of success or encouragement. Thus we often see men striving to -produce one invention on the back of another, with wonderful -perseverance, finding many blanks and rarely a prize; for truly in this -competing age, the mind must be strong that can fight long. Bitter is -the disappointment of the truly ingenious mind, to see the produce of -his brains thrown as lumber into the _herring barrel_,--as the printer -terms the receptacle for what he sets no value upon; while the valueless -contrivances of the mean and sordid are preferred and rewarded, because -they enable the manufacturer to produce cheaper, by foisting on the -public a deceptive or a spurious article. All inventions for purposes -of deception, are readily, aye, eagerly, patronised; for they return -gold to the coffers sooner. - -The improvement in the manufacture of gun-barrels depends on the quality -of the iron entirely; for it would be a useless waste of time to -endeavour to make a good barrel of inferior metal. Science and -experience have worked a wonderful change in the mixture of the superior -qualities of iron: we have had announcements of silver-steel barrels at -_ten guineas a pair_ in the rough, of Brescian steel barrels, carbonised -iron, and I know not how many more descriptions or compounds of metals, -to form the best material for high-priced barrels. We have now metal -which, in the rod, cannot be sold for less than one shilling and -twopence per pound: the iron for a pair of barrels thus costing sixteen -shillings and fourpence. This is good; nay, more than good--'tis -excellent. But there is a dark side of the picture, over which I would -fain draw a veil: but I must not. Belgium, France, Holland, and Germany, -are improving, are marching onward, and we, alas! are standing still. -Competition and cheapness combined, are driving our gun trade into a -labyrinth, out of which it will be long ere it finds the clue of exit. -Our manufacture of inferior gunnery has certainly reached a depth of -inferiority which never any other manufacture in the world reached, and -I hope never will. - -During the existence of the slave-trade, many thousand guns per year -were made of what is, by the trade, technically termed "_park paling_," -a material only fit for such purposes; and the cost of it was only -_seven shillings and sixpence_ each _spike_; but now we can furnish -slave traders with ship-loads, if they choose, at only _six shillings -and sixpence_ each, and it is still supposed that one of these -_imitation_ guns is the blood-money for a fellow-creature. It would be a -just and equitable law, if our legislature would pass it, "That every -man should fire the guns he manufactures:" nothing would more surely -tend to improve the quality of guns of a low grade. - -A considerable increasing difficulty attends the obtaining of horse-nail -stubs from the continent. In various continental markets from whence we -draw our supply, the skill and ability of the gun-barrel makers have -increased; and the preference for superior fire-arms which is gaining -ground with many continental sportsmen, has taught foreigners the value -of their old horse-nails; and hence their increased scarcity. The -inferior iron of which we make horse-nails prevents entirely the use of -our own; consequently it requires no foresight to predict that our -manufacturers will soon resolve themselves into two descriptions--the -very best and the very worst. The latter are already actively employed, -and the others are advancing; as no doubt an increasing desire to obtain -the most perfect gun pervades the thinking and affluent portion of the -sporting world. - -The manufacture of iron is a science truly worth the consideration of -the philosopher, for it is fraught with the most important consequences, -considered either as a material of commerce, or the means to an end. In -advancing manufactures and the progress of improvement, it has had an -effect on civilization unequalled by any known product, gold not -excepted; for no substitute exists for iron, or ever did. No doubt the -ancients had their bronze, of which they could form edge tools, even -razors; but that was a very limited use of cutting tools: enough, -perhaps, for war or subsistence, but not for the progress of the arts. - -Of the first discovery and use of iron we have no record; though its -value may be presumed from the fact, that Quintus Curtius mentions that -"Alexander of Macedon, received a present from Porus, an Indian chief, -of about 30 lbs. weight of steel." If this were a present fit for the -conqueror of the world, its value, even at that early date, must have -been great indeed. - -For many centuries, up to the sixteenth, all iron was produced by the -aid of wood charcoal; and with such contracted and limited means, it was -found that not more than 50 per cent, of the metal contained in the ore -was extracted; consequently at this day all the ancient deposits of -_slag_ are sought for and re-smelted, yielding a handsome return to the -manufacturer. The adoption of coal coke was a matter of necessity, but -it has been productive of extensive benefit in all manufactures of iron -of medium quality. The opinions of many men of science lead to the -belief that it has benefited the higher quality also; but I am quite -satisfied of the reverse. The quantity formerly obtained in the yield -was, as shown, only 50 per cent. of the quantity existing in the ore; -but yet it was the purest metal: for it is unquestionable that the best -is soonest fused. - -The iron ore of Great Britain is, beyond a doubt, inferior to that of -many parts of the world; as all attempts to produce good steel from it -have been attended ultimately with disappointment. Mr. Mushet, in his -excellent work on iron, says, "The successful exertions of individuals -have increased the manufacture of cast and malleable iron beyond all -precedent in this country; nor have we been without some enlightened -individuals, who have laudably endeavoured to form a superior quality -along with the extension of their manufactures. Success has so far -crowned their praiseworthy exertions, aided by the operation of -knowledge, in removing the prejudices of the artisan, that bar iron of -our own manufacturing has been substituted, to a great extent, in place -of that formerly used of the Swedish and Russian marks; but hitherto all -attempts have failed to make bars of proper quality to form steel, in -any degree comparable to that we daily manufacture in great quantities -from foreign iron. - -"Here we remain at an immense distance behind; and while our manufacture -of iron goods exceeds the collective exertions of all Europe, we humbly -feel our dependence upon two foreign markets for the supply of that -steel-iron, without which the beauty, the utility, and extent of our -hardware manufactures would be essentially injured and abridged. - -"The policy of the foreign holders of this article communicates many -undue advantages to the favoured few to whom the steel-iron is consigned -in this country. The rapid progressive rise in value of this iron, for -many years past, has already nearly doubled the price of steel to the -workman, and given the trade in general a melancholy foretaste of the -evils of dependence and _monopoly_." - -So it is with the scrap, requisite to form good iron for gun-barrels. I -have had several pairs of barrels sent from Berlin and Vienna, to be -fitted up in the English style, with a certain knowledge that they were -wanted for patterns; and in justice let it be said, the material and -figure in the barrel were most beautiful: being a variety of Damascus, -or fancy pattern in the metal, _superior_ to anything seen of this -country's manufacture. True, this is not an essential requisite, being -more for appearance than utility; but the fact clearly shows the -industry and will of the artisan. The iron, too, in clearness and -density, we can scarcely surpass; therefore, if I regret that we are not -advancing with our competitors, it proceeds from a clear conviction of -the truth that we are slumbering upon our fancied superiority. A friend -who had lately visited Liege, informed me that in one gun-maker's shop -alone, were employed fourteen of our best workmen; in fact, he brought -with him a gun which attests the great improvement the Belgians have -made of late years. I have had possession of three guns, bearing on the -lock and barrels, "Joseph Manton, London;" "Joseph Egg, London;" and -"John Manton and Son, London;" all of which were manufactured in -Belgium; and so well is the imitation executed, that it would puzzle -most amateurs to discover the fraud. - -Recently a company, entitled "The Indian Iron and Steel Company," has -commenced importing and and manufacturing iron and steel from Hindostan -ore, and native-made bar iron.[7] If they succeed in competing with -Sweden and Russia, this iron will be a valuable acquisition to the -British empire. They have already issued a quantity 35 per cent. cheaper -then the latter, but quality is the end they should strive for. However, -the business is in able hands, and I have no doubt but that this object -will be kept prominently in view. - - [7] The fine quality of the Indian steel is generally acknowledged. - The iron is first obtained by smelting, in small quantities, the - wootz-ore, or the magnetic oxide of iron, which it found combined with - about 42 per cent. of quartz; the yield being, out of 100 parts of - ore, only 15 parts of metal: but this is of the finest character. - - The process by which the iron is converted into steel is as follows, - and fully accounts for that peculiar quality for which the Indian - steel is valued. - - The iron is cut into pieces and packed closely in a crucible of clay, - containing about 1 lb. only of the iron, mixed with a tenth part of - dried wood cut small, the whole covered over with green leaves. The - crucible is then stopped, by covering the mouth with tempered clay, so - as to effectually exclude the air. After a time that is, as soon as - the clay-plugs are sufficiently hard, from twenty to thirty of the - crucibles are built up in an arched form placed in a small blast - furnace, and kept covered with charcoal; thus being subjected to the - heat of the furnace for two or three hours. The process is then - complete. - - As soon as the crucibles are cool, they are broken open and the cakes - of steel are found rounded at the bottom. - - The top of the cakes should be found covered with striae, radiating - from a centre, and be free from holes or rough projections. If the - cakes are honeycombed, the process has been imperfect and incomplete. - When re-melted and tilted into rods, a very superior article has been - the result. - - The natives prepare the cakes for being drawn into bars, by annealing - them for several hours in a small charcoal furnace, excited by - bellows; the current of air being made to play upon the cakes while - turned over before it, whereby a portion of the combined carbon is - dissipated and the steel probably softened: without which operation - the cakes would break in drawing them. They are drawn by a hammer of - only a very few pounds weight, but the repeated hammering greatly - tends to the production of a highly condensed and perfect article. - -Foreseeing the difficulty that would eventually beset us in obtaining a -sufficient supply of old horse nails from Germany and elsewhere, I -directed my experiments to steel entirely, having formerly perceived -that where the greatest quantity of steel existed in the mixture -necessary to form material for their best gun barrels, there also -existed the greatest tenuous strength. I had at that time a decided -objection to all steel, as the following quotation from "The Gun" will -show:-- - -"We recommend hammer-hardening in all mixtures containing iron. If you -throw the iron aside, and confine your manufacture wholly to steel, it -would be an evil, from this simple cause:--steel is of itself close -enough in the grain; hammering it, therefore, in a cold state, only -tends to make it more brittle. But the reverse is the case with iron: -the more it is beaten the greater becomes its tenacity; and when mixed -with steel in the way the stubs-composition is, it prevents the -particles of steel from becoming too hard." - -Mr. Adams, of Wednesbury, and the successors of Mr. Clive, of -Birmingham, manufacture a considerable quantity both of silver steel and -common twist steel for the trade; I make my own laminated steel: the -difference in silver steel and common twist steel merely consists in the -variety of tortuous twisting the former undergoes, while the latter is -rolled out into rods of 6-16ths broad, with the fibres running perfectly -longitudinal. The method of making or welding the pieces into a bloom, -is in the following way. Having collected a sufficiency of mild steel -scraps, such as cuttings of saws, waste from steel pen making, old coach -springs, and the immense variety of pieces arising from the various -manufactures of tools, they are cut into pieces of equal dimensions, -polished in a revolving drum by their friction on each other, until -quite bright, and then placed for fusion on the bed of an air furnace. -The parts first fused are gathered on the end of a similarly fabricated -rod, in a welding state, and these gather together by their adhesion, -the remainder as they become sufficiently heated, until the bloom is -complete. The steel is then removed from the furnace, and undergoes the -effect of a three-ton forge hammer and the tilt, until it forms a large -square bar; it is then re-heated, and thence conveyed to the rolling -mill, where eventually it is reduced to the size of rod required. I -generally have the metal required cut into short pieces of six inches -long. A certain number are bundled together and welded, and then drawn -down again in the rolling mill. This can be repeated any number of -times--elongating the fibres and multiplying their number to an -indefinite extent as may be required. - -[Illustration] - -The great advantage derived in this instance from air-furnace welding is -a chemical one; for while the small pieces of steel are fusing on the -bed of the air furnace, the oxygen is extracting the carbon, and leaves -the resulting metal mild steel, or iron of the densest description; -while the succeeding hammering and rolling and re-welding, produce the -mechanical arrangement of making the whole of an extremely fibrous -description. The polishing secures a clean metal; indeed, so free from -specks are the generality of barrels thus made, that it is scarcely -possible to imagine clearer metal. When contrasted with the best of -ordinary iron, by a powerful microscope, the closeness and density of -grain are strongly apparent. - -To such an extent has this been carried, that I can produce specimens of -a considerably increased specific gravity. The barrels made of this -metal, in general, beat all tried against them; with this great -advantage, that the finer the polish in the interior the better they -shoot, and continue longer free from lead. The only difficulty is in the -working; as the boring, filing, &c., are more difficult. Moreover, -greater care is required to see that they are not annealed,[8] when in -the hands of the borer or filer; for in such case they would be -considerably injured, though not to the same extent as barrels of a -softer nature. I tested a great variety of bars by drawing them asunder -longitudinally by the testing machine, and the average strength of a rod -of 6-16ths broad by 5-16ths thick and 12 inches long, containing 1.40625 -solid inches of iron, was equal to a tension of 11,200 lbs. This -furnished a barrel having a thickness of metal in all parts of the arch -equal, or 3-16ths of an inch thick, capable of bearing an internal -pressure of 6,022 lbs. to the inch of the tube. - - [8] Dr. Ure falls into an error in describing the process of barrel - boring: he says "the barrel is first properly annealed, and allowed to - cool gradually," &c. The barrel-maker that would take such a - proceeding with a barrel of ours should never do so to another. The - Doctor ought to have pointed out the evil tendency of this. We never - saw it done, and we doubt much whether he did, though we have heard of - the practice, which induces us to notice it, but the Doctor describes - it as a _necessary_ proceeding. - -The generality of barrel makers spoil this metal by an attempt to obtain -figure; for all extreme twistings in the rod depreciate the metal, by -separating the fibres: to borrow a simile, they obtain only an -over-twisted rope. This is not only disadvantageous but useless; for -the extreme density of the metal renders the figure difficult to be -shown distinctly, as acid acts upon it but slightly, and never so well -as on metal fabricated from two differently constructed carbonised -materials. - -Many conjectures have been advanced, and an endless discussion created, -to account for the watering or "_jowher_" in oriental sword-blades, and -genuine Damascus gun-barrels. Anything approaching the truth is seldom -met with; though I think the explanation is very simple. It must be well -known that there is an immense variety of different qualities in both -iron and steel: no uniformity of quality is found in two productions out -of a hundred. The very ore, the coal, the presence of oxygen, the excess -of it, all vary the quality of the material. An excess of carbon is more -detrimental than a scarcity; for where carbon has once been, it leaves -an indelible mark, and though extracted to as great an extent as -practicable, it leaves a residue that possesses an affinity to absorb -carbon again equal to the original quantity: thus, steel once made will -never, by any process yet known, be reconverted back to iron of the same -nature it was originally. - -Mr. Mushet has given us the proportions of carbon _held in solution_ by -the various qualities of steel and iron, and the reader will find them -in the note below.[9] It inevitably follows, as a principle, that the -quantity of carbon contained in the metal--avoiding cast iron--will -increase or decrease, and thus regulate the degree of hardness of the -metals in question. A quantity of metals dissimilar in this particular, -mixed together, and run into a vessel in a state of fusion, then, when -cold, filed and polished, will show a variety according to the place -they hold in the crystallised mass. Work and twist this material in all -the tortuous ways and shapes it is capable of, and you only twist the -fibres of the different bodies in the same way; and when they come to be -acted upon by acid or oxidisation, they still retain their relative -positions, forming the watering or figure, as was the intention of the -tortuous twisting. All the beautiful arrangements in Damascus figures -are obtained in this way. Metals containing more or less carbon will -always produce this watering. To obtain a satisfactory proof, any person -may case-harden a few pounds weight of stubs, and afterwards melt them -in a crucible, and run them into a receiver; when these are worked down -into the bar (or not, as he pleases), dress and apply a little sulphuric -acid, and the peculiar situation the various stubs had taken in the -fluid state, will be clearly discernible. - - [9] - Iron, semi-steelified, is made with charcoal 1-150th part. - Soft cast steel, capable of welding with ditto 1-120th do. - Cast steel, for common purposes, with ditto 1-120th do. - Cast steel, requiring more hardness, with charcoal 1-90th do. - Steel, capable of standing a few blows, but quite - unfit for drawing with ditto 1-150th do. - First approach to a steely granulated fracture is - from 1-50th to 1-40th do. - White cast iron, with charcoal 1-25th do. - Mottled cast iron, with ditto 1-20th do. - Carbonated cast iron 1-15th do. - And supercarbonated crude iron 1-12th do. - -The original barrel-welders, the real Damascus iron-workers, were, like -some of ours of the present day, not the most _conscientious_ -individuals, nor the most honourable. For, strange to say--but it is not -more strange than true--on examination of most real Damascus barrels to -be met with, we find the iron must have been so valuable as to induce -the workmen _to plate_ or _veneer_ the superior mixture over a body of -the commonest iron: all large barrels are thus made, rifles especially. -I presume the moderns _borrowed_ the invention; and it would be well if -they made no more extensive use of it than on rifle barrels. - -The modern method of making wire-twist and Damascus iron, being -gradations from the same material, are here described under one head:-- - -Alternate bars of iron and steel are placed on each other, in numbers of -six each; they are then forged into one body or bar; after which, if for -the making of wire-twist barrels, they are rolled down into rods of -3-8ths of an inch in breadth, varying in thickness according to the size -of the barrel for which they are wanted: if for Damascus, invariably -3-8ths of an inch square. When about to be twisted into spirals for -barrels, care must be taken that the edges of the steel and iron shall -be outermost; so that when the barrel is finished and browned it shall -have the appearance of being welded of pieces the size of wires, the -whole length of the barrel. A portion of the rod, pickled in sulphuric -acid, exhibits the following appearance, the bright parts being the -steel, the other the iron. - -[Illustration] - -When about to be converted into Damascus, the rod is heated the whole -length, and the two square ends put into the heads (one of which is a -fixture) of a kind of lathe, which is worked by a handle similar to a -winch. It is then twisted like a rope (or, as Colonel Hawker says, wrung -as wet clothes are) until it has from twelve to fourteen complete turns -in the inch, when it presents this appearance. - -[Illustration] - -By this severe twisting, the rod of six feet is shortened to three, -doubled in thickness, and made perfectly round. Three of these rods are -then placed together, with the inclinations of the twists running in -opposite directions; they are then welded into one, and rolled down into -a rod 11-16ths of an inch in breadth. Being pickled in acid, to eat away -the iron, it exhibits the following appearance:-- - -[Illustration] - -This iron has long been held in great esteem. It looks pretty; but -certainly does not possess either the strength or tenacity of wire-twist -iron. It is well known that the strength of a rope may be destroyed by -twisting it too much: so is it with this sort of iron. Iron is best when -not twisted at all: I speak of the bar. It resembles wood, inasmuch as -the strands or fibres run parallel, firmly adhere, and add strength to -each other; if you twist those fibres you tear them asunder, and they no -longer support each other. So it is with iron. - -The objection made to the wire-twist is, that owing to the iron and -steel being perfectly separate bodies running through the whole -thickness of the barrel, there is a difficulty in welding them -perfectly; and, of course there is danger of their breaking across, at -any trifling imperfection or mis-weld. This objection is certainly well -grounded, as many barrels break in the proving. I have seen a very -strong barrel indeed broken across the knee without the slightest -difficulty, while, to all appearance, it was perfectly sound. This is -the reason why the manufacturers have ceased to make them, except for -the American trade. - -It may be said that the fibres in the Damascus, after being torn -asunder, are welded anew. True; but could you ever glue the fibres of a -piece of wood (twisted in the same way) together again, to make them as -strong as before? No: cut several pieces of wood across the grain and -glue them together, you would not expect them, though equal in substance -with a piece in which the grains run lengthwise, to be of equal -strength. In short, I hold a Damascus barrel to be little superior to a -common barrel, in which the fibres run parallel to the bore. - -All the varieties of figured barrels are but modifications of Damascus. -The most endless variety possible may be attained; a figure with the -carbonised material, showing only the ends or edges of the various -laminae, or portions of the face of that laminae, may with equal facility -be obtained, if the patience of the artist be in proportion. It would be -a never-ending task, a subject for many volumes, to endeavour to -describe a tithe of the varieties that might be, and have been made. - -The Belgians are very expert at this sort of ornamental work. The very -minute Damascus figure they frequently produce, is admirable, if beauty -alone were the advantage sought in a gun barrel. They use thirty-two -alternate bars of steel and iron, and roll them into a sheet of 3-16ths -thick, and then slit them by a machine into square rods; these are -twisted in the way just described, but to such an extreme as to resemble -the threads of a very fine screw: six of them are welded into one, -instead of three as with us. The figure is so extremely fine as to -appear not to be larger than the finest needle. I have seen barrels made -in Liege, superior in minute figure to any real Damascus barrel, or -sword either. Our workmen here say the steel is better; which I am -inclined to think is true: it is a branch of the gun manufacture they -have long excelled in. The very best "Damascene" workers are to be found -at La Chafontaine, a few miles from Liege, where they dwell in as -beautiful a dell as fancy could wish, with a powerful hill-stream -working their boring and grinding-mills, thus enabling them to send -their barrels into Liege, ready for the filer. I have spent considerable -time, and taken great trouble, to produce in Birmingham iron equally -good; and I have succeeded: but, unfortunately, Englishmen are so -extravagant in their ideas of value, as to render the constant -manufacture of this iron here, a losing speculation. It can, however, be -obtained from Belgium now, under the amended tariff, at ten per cent. on -the value. It can be purchased there, ready for barrel making, at a -franc per pound; and cheap it is at that price: two and a half francs -would not purchase it here. - -That Damascus iron is incompatible with goodness, I can and shall -clearly prove. Experiment with the testing machine shows a rod of -wire-twist 3-8ths square, containing 1.6875 solid inches, as equal to a -tension of 11,200 lbs.; whereas a rod, when converted into Damascus of -11-16ths of an inch in breadth, by 4-16ths in thickness, containing -2.625 solid inches, was only equal to 8,960 lbs.; thus showing a clear -loss of full thirty-five per cent. And when welded into barrels of the -dimensions described, the relative internal strength of each is -5,019-1/2 lbs., and 3,292 lbs. _to the inch of tube_. This constitutes a -great difference. But unfortunately that is not all. - -In the preceding chapter I noted the fact, that all sorts of iron lose a -portion of their strength by being heated or softened; but I found that -Damascus suffered more than any other sort of iron, excepting the -common kinds. For instance, the bar of wire-twist would, in the state it -came from the rolling mill, bear 11,200 lbs., but, after softening, it -would only bear 10,180 lbs., being a diminution of 10 per cent. A bar of -Damascus suspending a weight of 8,940 lbs., the measure of its strength, -when annealed, was 7,840 lbs., being a falling off of 12-1/2 per cent. -Thus, I trust I have clearly shown, that whatever other quality Damascus -possesses, strength is not one of its properties. It must not, however, -be supposed that the above weight indicates its greatest strength; on -the contrary, its strength can be increased full 22-1/2 per cent. by -cold hammering. Still, however, it will only hold its relative position -to other kinds of iron with respect to strength, since they are all -capable of having their strength increased by the same process. - -Damascus barrels have fallen much into disuse, being rarely seen except -as pistol barrels,[10] which, together with a great quantity of -_counterfeits_, are made for the South and North American trades, in the -shape of double and single guns of a flashy appearance--all invariably -_veneered_ or _plated_ with ribbons of this ornamental iron. I shall now -dismiss this subject; after remarking, that certainly a very handsome -barrel may be made after this principle, if too much twisting be -avoided. It has been seen that the rods are twisted until there is -fourteen turns in the inch of length: an excess productive of the -detrimental effect mentioned; while, had there been but two turns, a -large proportion of strength, if not all, would have been retained. One -turn only, under the same circumstances, would very likely be highly -beneficial; indeed I have found it to be so: one twist binds the -interior strands, as the outer does the interior in a rope, and thus -adds strength. This shows that there is a medium in all things. - - [10] The London makers are again using them extensively; which is - certainly no proof of their judgment. - -The use of old horse-shoe nails is of a date nearly coeval with the use -of small fire-arms. These nails are made from rod iron of the best -description; and the hammering cold, or tempering the nail, so benefits -and condenses the iron as to improve it greatly. The method in use until -a late period, was to fill and force into an iron hoop, of six or seven -inches diameter, as many stubs as it would contain, to weld the whole, -and draw them down to a bar of such dimensions as might be required. -Modern improvement, however, has shown the advantage of cleansing the -stubs perfectly by a revolving drum, and then fusing and gathering them -into a _bloom_ on the bed of an air-furnace. Thus a body of from 40 to -50 lbs. of melting iron can be obtained at one heat; a matter of economy -and necessity, where large quantities are required, besides possessing -the superior advantage of having the whole mass equally heated: this -cannot be done by the old hoop method, as the surface must be frequently -burnt before the interior is at all in a welding state. - -Experience taught the late Mr. Adams and his brother George--who still -manufacture some of the best gun iron in the world--that the stub iron -alone was insufficient; for even then (forty years ago) the absurdity -of imagining that no barrels were or could be good without being soft, -was understood and acted upon by them. They introduced at first -one-fourth of steel to three of stubs; this having been found highly -advantageous, the prejudices of the gun-makers were gradually overcome, -or left in abeyance from ignorance of the introduction. It is a fact, -that as late as 1842, when I issued my former work, men who had been all -their lives _gun-makers_ (by courtesy) actually refused to believe that -any steel at all entered into the composition of the best barrels; and -several whom I know perfectly well, ordered the factors with whom they -dealt "to be sure to send them no barrels with steel in, as they did not -wish their customers' hands to be blown off." - -Charcoal iron has, up to this day, been the only stub twist barrels they -(and we believe two-thirds of the provincial makers also) have ever been -served with. Reason with these men, and they will snappishly tell you, -"We pay the best price, and we ought to have the best: we don't see that -our neighbours have any better." On one occasion of my calling upon one -of the first provincial gun-makers in the kingdom, the subject of -barrels was adverted to--"An excellent work that of yours, I dare say; -but, sir, you have done a deal of harm: it is wrong to let gentlemen -know too much; they give you far too much trouble: they get too -knowing." These, and such like observations, are the only thanks I ever -received from the generality of the gun trade. There are, however, some -enlightened men who, understanding the subject, have appreciated my -motives; but by far the greater proportion have done the reverse, -asserting "that I had told them nothing but what they knew before." - -The mixture of a portion of steel with the stubs having clearly shown an -improvement, an increased proportion has been adopted by various makers: -we have had as high as three-fourths of steel to one of iron. Where -proper attention is paid to the clipping of the steel to pieces, -corresponding with the stubs, and properly mixing the whole, welding and -forging by the heavy hammer, reducing by a tilt and rolling down to the -smallest description of rod, a most excellent, tenacious, and dense body -of iron is thus obtained; while, by cutting into lengths of six inches, -bundling a number together, and re-welding them into a bar, an increased -density and tenacity is gained, by an increase in quantity, and an -elongation of the fibrous system. Any description of barrel, of this -iron, if made with a moderate degree of care and attention, is -considerably stronger than any explosive fluid ever yet compounded could -burst, under any circumstances bordering on _fair experiment_. - -The great advantage derived from welding on the bed of an air-furnace, -arises from an absence of the minute portions of charcoal, of either -wood or coal, as the case may be. Millions of these very minute portions -are imbedded in the midst of the metal in every part. They are enclosed -in cells originally of their own dimensions, but are drawn out with the -fibres to an indefinite extent, forming a system of tubes that may be -compared to the capillary system in trees, and making the iron of a -spungy, compressible nature. It is the absence of these particles of -charcoal that gives part of the superiority to steel as now made for -gun-barrels; and the existence of a portion of them causes the -inferiority of all other kinds of iron. In a chemical analysis of iron, -a large portion of crude coal-charcoal or wood-charcoal is found, -according as either has been used during the manufacture. This is not of -course given as so much carbon in the result, though the injury is -equally detrimental as an excess of carbon is to the goodness of the -metal; for it renders the whole porous, and liable to attract moisture -and induce oxidation. It must be kept prominently in view, and clearly -comprehended, that the denser the body of metal, the less the liability -to oxidise, or in other words _rust_; and here is the one great -preservative principle in good iron: "it is the fibre of dense -cocoa-wood, compared with that of willow or saugh." In all situations -and for all purposes, where iron is liable to sudden changes of either -heat or cold, wet or dry, the very best of iron should be obtained; as -it will be less affected by the changes of temperature, and amply repay -by its durability the extra cost in the first instance. - -The very extensive round of experiments to which I have submitted -mixtures of this nature, clearly establishes all the conclusions I have -formed on these points. The strength of the mixture, three parts steel -to one of stubs, gives a resistance in the rod of 6-16ths broad by -5-16ths thick, and 12 inches long, containing 1.40625 solid inches, -equal to 10,295 lbs. before separating; thus being equal, in a barrel of -the dimensions before mentioned, to an internal pressure of 5,555 lbs. -to the inch of tube. The proportions mentioned in my previous work are -25 lbs. of stubs to 15 lbs. of steel; the strength of this mixture in -the rod is equal to a tension of 8,960 lbs., and the barrel is capable -of restraining a pressure internally of 4,818 lbs., making full 15 per -cent. dissimilarity in favour of the larger proportion of steel: indeed, -all experience points to the great advantage, that steel, properly -worked, possesses over iron alone. Great good can be effected by -condensing iron by hammer-hardening; greater than I have shown steel to -be capable of receiving additionally: as, already having it naturally, -there is no necessity for using artificial means to obtain it. Nor is -steel so liable to depreciation in the hands of an inexperienced -artisan; as the degree of expansion is not more, in the large proportion -of steel mixture, than a loss of strength equal to 4-1/2 per cent, by -heating and cooling gradually. The loss in the mixture containing less -steel is 7-1/2 per cent. The specific gravity of the two is in -proportion. - -The frequent welding and re-rolling of iron is of the most beneficial -tendency, the elongation of the fibres being highly advantageous; for, a -fibrous piece of iron may be compared to a wire rope, the more strands -the greater tenacity; and the smaller the strands, even up to a -proximity of fineness to the human hair, the greater the weight they -will bear in tension. One large wire which, when single, will suspend -500 lbs., will, when drawn down to six small ones, suspend 600 lbs.; and -so on to the greatest extreme. Another great advantage received by the -repeated reworking of iron, is obtaining an increased density; for when -this is secured to a certain extent, you have closed in proportion the -pores of the metal; and in this state it is not liable to that degree of -expansion or contraction, or that fluctuation in strength, which arises -from softening the iron. Nor can you gain, save to a limited extent, any -improvement by hammering,--hammer-hardening, for instance,--simply -because it is already improved to the utmost extent we are at present -acquainted with. - -How wonderfully beneficial to mankind is this beautiful arrangement of -the metallic fibrous system! Without it what could we do? our -manufactures would be confined to simple castings, or crystallizations, -possessed merely of strength in proportion to the cohesive nature of the -metal. Where would be all the wonderful springs whose fineness vies with -the silken fibre? Of what could they be constructed? All-powerful gold -would not suffice, nor silver; though each, in its place, possesses -wonderful properties. Gold and silver may both be spread in the thinnest -conceivable coat over space incredible; on the gilded cup, or, still -thinner by electric agency, on the plated epergne. But iron alone is to -the arts, the "_summum bonum_" for which there is no substitute: it is -the "_sine qua non_" of practical mechanics. - -Improvements in the manufacture of a very superior iron may, we believe, -be placed to the credit of the gunmaking profession exclusively; no -other body or class of men having ever yet deemed it worth their trouble -to endeavour to obtain anything of a better description _than bar iron, -suitable to make steel from_. Mr. Mushet, from whose work I have already -quoted, has evidently been more intimately acquainted with the routine -of iron manufacturing than any other person I ever met with or read of: -he understands the question perfectly; yet he seems to care for nothing -further _than a suitable steel iron_. - -How many and how fearful have been the explosions by all-powerful steam -since the period of its introduction. How many weeping widows, and how -many fatherless children have had to mourn its effects! Yet what has -human ingenuity done, what have the wonderful energies of the present -race of scientific men accomplished to stay this annual slaughter? -Comparatively little beyond discovery of mysterious causes where none -exist. It reminds me of my first lesson in coursing--"If you want to -find a hare, young man," said the keeper, "look at your feet: you will -not find her at a distance." So it is with the state of knowledge on -steam boiler explosions; if you want to find the cause, look "at your -feet:" do not endeavour to envelope in mystery, what you may find in -simple and natural causes. - -I may here observe that I have been professionally engaged to inspect -the effects, with a hope of finding the cause, of thirty-four cases of -explosion, where the sacrifice of human life was above an average of -two each, or nearly one hundred, and I never yet have found one single -case which could not be clearly demonstrated to have been caused either -solely by neglect of the superintendent, or from sheer ignorance on the -part of the engineer constructing the arrangement of boilers. For every -accident may _sweepingly be said_ to be occasioned by a want of space -for the escape of the steam: a too small valve, in the first instance, -and in the second, a villanous construction of what is called iron -boiler plate--a concentration of the veriest rubbish, under the name of -wrought iron, ever gathered together. For this reason, I have drawn the -reader's attention aside for a few moments. - -The improvement of boiler-iron may detain us slightly, if by the delay -any good can be accomplished. For an inconsiderable increase of outlay, -a boiler might be rendered doubly safe to what it is at present, by -simply using moderate caution in the selection of scrap iron, a perfect -cleansing of that scrap, and by fusing the bloom on the bed of an air -furnace. The great advantage would be that you would get a stronger, a -much denser, and consequently a much better, metal: nor is this all the -advantage; you might use a very much thinner plate, which would yet be -equally strong; and science will tell you that steam would be more -easily generated, as heat is more rapidly conducted. - -There is a very handsome description of barrel-iron made, generally -termed "Stub-Damascus." The method of preparing it, is of late -considerably altered. A quantity of old files are hardened, by being; -heated red-hot and immersed in water, then broken in pieces with a -hammer, and afterwards pounded in a mortar until the pieces do not -exceed in size a corn of number five shot. A proportion of 15 lbs. of -these to 25 lbs. of stubs, is fused together on the bed of an -air-furnace, beaten down, and rolled into rods. The rod of 3-8ths of an -inch square, is twisted like a rope, precisely in the same way as the -Damascus. The effect of this winding, is to give a beautiful mottle to -the barrel; which will be found depicted in plate No. 3. - -Another mixture, represented in plate No. 2, was first made by Mr. -Wiswould, of Birmingham. It is a compound, so far as I have been able to -ascertain, of three parts of steel to two of iron, intimately blended -and intermixed, and twisted as just described. It is a most beautifully -clean and dense iron; but the extreme twisting is to it, as to all, -highly injurious and prejudicial. The twisting is similar to the -Damascus; only that two twisted rods are welded together instead of -three, and with the twist of the strands running in opposite angles, as -depicted in the wood-cut below. - -[Illustration] - -The degree of strength is similar to that of the stub, and other -Damascus; it being quite certain, that, be the composition what it may, -this rending of the cohesive attachment by twisting, will eventually -equalise the strength of the whole. - -The use and introduction of what is called "charcoal-iron," is one of -the shams reared and supported by the hotbed of competition and -deception combined: a wish to foist on the purchaser a counterfeit for -the real metal. I would not give shop-room to the best barrels ever made -from such a compound. I hate a scoundrel and a hypocrite; this iron -exemplifies the qualities of both. - -This worthless compound consists principally of cuttings of sheet iron; -of which there is an endless supply in the neighbourhood of Birmingham, -from punchings and from one inferior metal and another. After properly -cleaning, a quantity is put into a charcoal furnace and melted, cast -into a pig, then forged down to a bar, and rolled into rods -corresponding with the size of stub twist, which it is intended to -represent. The action of the charcoal communicates to it a portion of -carbon, which, when stained in a certain way, gives an appearance much -resembling that beautiful metal just mentioned (stub-Damascus); but if -every means imagined by the inventive faculty of man were employed upon -it, it could not be made into really good iron. An iron which is -technically termed "weak," can never be made a strong bodied iron, or an -"iron suitable to make steel," to repeat a former quotation. The -original iron from which these scraps generally come, is required to be -"weak" iron, for the facility with which it can be rolled into plates; -a strong fibrous iron is not necessary. - -Its greatest strength appears to be as follows: 7-16ths of an inch -broad, and 5-16ths thick, solid contents 1.40635 inches, will bear a -weight of 10,080 pounds; so that if my calculations are correct, it will -bear only a pressure of 4,526 pounds in the tube. The loss of strength -by heating or softening, being full 10 per cent. - -This converted iron, however, will not endure the test of browning by -smoke, or, more properly, flame; as the oxygen invariably destroys the -appearance of steel in twelve hours after its application. By the old -method of staining, it would be as impossible for any man, who was not a -judge, to point out the real from the counterfeit, as to discern a copy -executed by a clever artist from an original painting by one of the old -masters. - -But deception is ever fertile in expedients, and an ingenious invention -was soon found out to imitate the advantage possessed by the "_smoke -brown_," which they obtain by first browning or staining the barrels -very dark. A weak solution of muriatic acid, or spirits of salt, is -applied very lightly with a sponge, and the colour is extracted from -those portions of the iron left more prominent, by the excessive -_pickling_ they are subjected to before staining; they are then -immediately dried, scalded with hot water, and the stain is complete; it -is a most ingenious imitation. - -I have already stated that this iron is very much used in consequence -of its cheapness; its cost being only fourpence per pound, while stub -twist costs fivepence. It is also easily worked, being considerably -softer than any of the above-described kinds of iron. - -It may be asked, why so much inferior iron is used, when the difference -in the price between the good and the bad is only a penny per pound? The -reason is this:--If a barrel filer receive an order for a pair of -barrels, he (having probably deceived his customer before, or, at any -rate, knowing that he can deceive him without running any risk of -detection) sends to the welder sufficient charcoal-iron to forge these -barrels. Should the quantity amount to ten pounds, he, of course, saves -tenpence. The welder receives two shillings less for welding this -description of iron, than for welding stub-twist; so that here is -already a saving of 2_s._ 10_d._ At the boring-mill, and the -grinding-mill, the charge is also proportionate: the wages of the -journeymen are less; so that by imposing on his customer one pair of -barrels manufactured of this sort of iron instead of the real -stub-twist, he pockets a clear gain of above 9_s._; and should he -manufacture one hundred pair of such barrels in the year, it would make -at the end no small item in the year's account of profit. - -Thus it is with all description of barrels. The charge for making, by -each workman, in the various stages of the manufacture, is according to -the quality of each pair of barrels. The saving, then, to the man who -makes one hundred pairs of barrels in the year, though it be but a -farthing in the pound of iron, amounts to a considerable sum. This -fraudulent gain of more than 5_s._ on a pair of pretended stub barrels, -is what is called in Birmingham, "doing the natives," and is a reward -for ingenious knavery. - -When orders are given by what are called general factors, who very -kindly supply their country friends at a moderate commission of 40 to 50 -per cent., these gentry take care to lap up the cream; for we know from -facts that the barrel filer has sometimes scarcely five per cent. for -his trouble of overlooking. One consequence naturally results from this, -that every species of deception will be resorted to, in order to -indemnify workpeople for their labour and trouble. At the present time, -I have no doubt that there are hundreds of guns made in Birmingham, the -barrels of which, in some instances, never enter the proof house: as -eightpence per barrel, the cost of proof, is a great temptation! -Besides, a great number of barrels declared "wasters"--such as -repeatedly bulged in the proof, are full of flaws, have holes in the -sides, or some other fault sufficient to condemn them in the eyes of a -moderately conscientious barrel-maker--are bought by men who live by -this species of fraud; and are repaired with great neatness, by putting -in pieces artfully, beating down swellings or bulges. Then the -proof-mark "of doubtful identity;" and, last of all,--mark!--they fit -them up, and send them to the engraver to have the name of some living -or defunct London gun-maker of respectability engraved upon them, and -palm them off upon some dealer as a good article. - -I commend to the reader the advice of "Edward Davies," a gentleman who -wrote in 1619; who says "He that loves the safetie of his own person, -and delighteth in the goodness and beautie of a piece, let him always -make choice of one that is double breeched; and if possible, a Mylan -piece, for they be of tough and perfect temper, light, square, and bigge -of breech, and very strong where the powder doth lie, and where the -violent force of the fire doth consist, and notwithstanding thinne at -the end. Our English pieces approach very neare unto them in beautie and -goodness, (their heaviness only excepted) so that they be made of -purpose, and not one of these common sale pieces, with round barrels, -whereunto a beaten souldier will have great respect, and choose rather -to pay double money for a good piece, than to spare his purse and -endanger himself." Truly, the fraternity have always, we find, been of -doubtful honesty: always making "sale pieces." - -"Threepenny skelp iron" is made from an inferior quality of scrap to -that from which "charcoal iron" is made; but unlike it, there is no -pretension of quality. Its inferiority is not denied; it is poor in -quality, and suits parties who cannot buy better. The method of -preparing is by an air-furnace, forge, tilt and rolling mill, as before -described. The greatest strength of a bar 11-16ths broad by 3-16ths -thick, containing 1.5468 solid inches, is 7,840 lbs.; or equal to an -internal pressure of 3,841 lbs. to the inch of tube. One particular -fact attaches to all kinds of inferior iron--the greater the mass acted -upon by the rollers the greater the variation of strength. This arises -entirely from the increased sponginess of the metal, and its greater -expansibility. For instance, a rod 1-16th thicker, is 15 per cent. -weaker in proportion; and so on to the greatest extent. But on the other -hand, it is capable of recovering a great increase of strength by cold -hammering; greater than better iron. A considerable quantity of this -iron is sold to engineers, and used in the construction of locomotive -and other engines; the price and uniformity of texture in grain fitting -it for that purpose. - -"Twopenny" or "Wednesbury skelp" is almost too bad to be used in making -an article which may endanger the limbs of our fellow creatures, and is -now little used, fortunately. It is made of an inferior scrap to the -former, in precisely the same manner; and in point of strength is still -lower. The bar is generally 1 and 1-16th inches in breadth, by 3-16ths -thick, the solid contents 2 inches and 25-64ths, and will bear a weight -of 7,840 pounds; consequently the strength will be 2,840 pounds to the -inch of tube. - -This is a great falling-off in strength; and I would ask any one who -values the safety of his hand, if he would like to risk it, by using a -gun made of iron possessing so low a degree of strength, as compared to -the force of the charge it has to bear? Let him recollect that the force -of the charge may be increased by a variety of circumstances. The -pressure of a certain quantity of powder, on which a certain weight of -shot is placed, is so many pounds to the inch; and if you double that -weight of shot, you nearly double the pressure. In estimating the force -of pressure, the opposing friction is also to be taken into account. If -the gun be allowed to get very foul, then friction is increased, and of -course a still greater pressure is thrown on the tube of the barrel. All -these circumstances being taken into consideration, I repeat, that _no -barrel is safe, whose power of resistance is not more than double the -strength of a charge of sufficient force for general shooting_. Every -bad gun should be thrown aside as unsafe, or used with the greatest -caution. Bad and inferior guns are made from the foregoing material; and -not many years have elapsed since it was thought good enough for -military arms. - -"Sham damn skelp" is made from the most inferior scrap. I should not -have mentioned this description of iron had I not seen hundreds of -barrels made of it, all which are utterly unfitted for the use of any -person who cares at all for his safety. I have met with them frequently -under the dignified name of twisted barrels. Guns that are fitted up at -from ten to twelve shillings each are not of course patent breeched, but -are made to appear so by staining them generally blue, and by having a -couple of bands to imitate platina, across the squares. A projecting -part is welded on to the side, into which the nipple is inserted, and -the lock joints neatly under it. Many of them are good imitations; but -only take the barrel out of the stock and the deception is instantly -apparent, as it is rarely carried further than the outside. The -beautiful way in which the barrels are painted to imitate fine twist, -catches the eye of the simple countryman, who is generally the dupe of -this artifice; and the persuasive eloquence of the itinerant -hardwareman, seldom fails to extract from the pocket of his unsuspecting -purchaser sometimes thirty or forty shillings of his earnings for what -the _modest trader_ rarely pays above fifteen shillings. Many are the -anathemas vented, when the deception is found out by some one more -knowing than the dupe, who not unfrequently purchases his experience at -the expense of a finger or a hand. It is astonishing what a quantity of -this rubbish is disposed of by hawkers who infest market towns and -villages with guns for sale. - -But the English peasant is not the only dupe of this species of knavery. -Thousands of these guns are sent monthly to the United States, to the -Brazils, and South America; where they are disposed of, among the poor -Indians, in exchange for skins and furs. - -They are all understood to be "proved." How many are so who can tell; -but that some of them are not, there can be no doubt. - -It is said that the manufacture of these guns is a great support to the -gun trade of Birmingham. In one respect it is, certainly; yet would not -the interest of the trade be advanced, if we were to manufacture none of -so inferior a quality? "But then," it will be urged, "we could not -compete with our rivals in Germany and the Netherlands." True, we should -not be their rivals in the production of rubbish; but the superiority of -our guns would then command a better market. By sending to the market an -article no better than theirs, we have made foreigners indifferent about -the purchase of ours: they say "The English guns are no better than the -Belgian or German; we may as well purchase one as the other." The force -of this remark is illustrated by the state of the African trade. The -base kind of articles we supplied them with some years ago, has produced -a distrust of our manufacture, which will not easily be removed; and a -similar distrust is engendered by the same cause in the minds of our -present customers. It is much to be deplored that the eagerness for -present gain, should render men blind to the consequences of their -conduct, and lead them to prefer the immediate gratification of their -avarice even to their own future prosperity; to say nothing of the -welfare of the trade of the country. - -The method I suggested of testing all iron in the bar would go far to -destroy this trade. I have not thought it worth while to test this iron. -But twist barrels are made of it. Should the reader meet with a double -gun so made, let him avoid it: it is unsafe, unless it be so heavy as to -be unmanageable. - -A great many long rifle barrels are made of this iron, principally for -the American trade; but from their immense weight, and the small charge -of powder required, there does not exist the same danger from their -use. - -Fowling-piece barrels made of it may be generally recognised by the -smallness of the bore and the thickness of metal. As the charge of -powder used in proving is very small when compared with the charges for -proving guns of a wider calibre, we need not be surprised that many of -those that are proved stand proof. - -"Swaff iron forging" is a profitable branch of forging carried on in -Birmingham under the above title. It is a metal which is composed of -iron and steel filings, chippings of breeches, pieces and cuttings of -the ends of the screws, lock-plates, cocks, the rough borings of -barrels, and all other small scraps found in gunmakers' and other -workshops. These are collected by the boys in each shop, and when they -have accumulated, are sold to the "swaff-forger," the proceeds being -considered as drinking money. They are forged into bars of iron by -attaching them together and immersing them in diluted sulphuric acid; -then, after draining it from them again, and placing a large iron pan -full in a hot situation, they become cemented together by the action of -the oxide. The compound is then taken from the pan, by turning it upside -down, and is put into an air-furnace heated to a welding heat, being -thence removed and beaten into a bar: three men with light hammers -beating it as quickly as they do in welding a gun-barrel. This iron is -sold to the gun-work forgers, for the forging of the patent breeches, -lock-plates, furniture, and other parts of the gun which they think -worthy of good iron; but since cheapness has become so much the order of -the day, the use of this iron is confined to the forging of best -gun-work, cast iron being thought quite good enough for common -gun-work. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -GUN-MAKING. - - -In this chapter I shall briefly describe the process of the manufacture -of guns of all qualities, commencing with barrel-welding; which, in -importance, is inferior only to the _quality of iron_ in the routine of -good gun-making. - -Birmingham, and the surrounding districts, are the only places in -England where barrel-welding is practised. The superior advantage -possessed in having coal nearly (if not entirely) free from the presence -of the sulphuret of iron, which has always been found a considerable -hindrance to the obtainment of clear and good barrels, is greatly in -their favour. For a considerable period individuals in London contended -with the Warwickshire welders; but being an unequal contest, it ended in -favour of the provincialists. This is to be regretted, as there can be -no doubt but that greater reliance could be placed on the material of -the London manufacture. But a considerable drawback existed with the -latter: they made only one sort of barrel, and that the best. Now it is -requisite to have a fire fitted for the purpose of welding best -barrels--tempered, as it were--and this can only be effected by some -hours' using, which is generally employed in the production of a number -of very inferior barrels. As the London people made no common guns, and -needed no inferior barrels, they welded their best barrels in a raw, -untempered fire; and hence arose the admitted inferiority of their work. -The late Mr. Fullard struggled long and hard in the competition; but -with his death, barrel-welding ceased in the metropolis. Indeed it would -have been highly imprudent and unprofitable for any one to have entered -upon such a speculation; there being no certainty of success, but rather -of the contrary. The Birmingham barrel-welders are wonderfully clever -smiths: they cannot be excelled. If _ridden with a curb_, they do well; -but no opportunity must be given them, or to a certainty they will -"bolt" from the true path. - -The metal rods are twisted by means of two iron bars, the one fixed the -other loose. In the latter there is a prong or notch to receive one end; -and when inserted, the bar is turned by a handle. The fixed bar -preventing the rod from going round, it is bent and twisted over the -moveable rod like the pieces of leather round the handle of a whip. The -loose bar is unshipped, the spiral knocked off, and the same process -recommenced with another rod. The length of all the spirals depends on -the breadth of the rod: for instance, the stub-twist has sixteen circles -in six inches long; a rod of five feet will make a spiral of only seven -inches; while iron, of an inch in breadth, will make a spiral of as many -inches long as there are twists: hence the reason why best barrels have -more joinings than common ones of equal length. - -The Damascus being rolled into rods of 11-16ths broad forms a spiral -with the appearance shown in the accompanying woodcut. - -[Illustration] - -The fancy steel barrels and others, where the rod is formed of more than -one piece, such as the stub Damascus, &c., is of rather greater breadth, -like the representation below. - -[Illustration] - -The iron made from stubs and steel, and plain fibrous steel, is -invariably rolled down into rods of 6-16ths broad, forming a spiral, as -below. - -[Illustration] - -A proper attention to the fineness of the spiral will always enable an -amateur to detect any attempt at imposition. - -The spiral formed from the rod of charcoal iron has a somewhat different -appearance; but in cases where it is intended to supply the place of the -real stub iron it is of corresponding dimensions, and in general very -difficult to detect without a very intimate knowledge indeed of the -nature of iron. When honestly intended, it forms a similar spiral to the -accompanying one. - -[Illustration] - -The wideness of the twist, or the angular direction of the fibres, will -enable the most uninitiated to recognise a barrel made from threepenny -skelp iron: the very few welds required, is one cause of the cheapness -of barrels made from it. Judgment may be formed of it from the following -representation. - -[Illustration] - -Twopenny, or Wednesbury skelp is coarser in the spiral still, and -running so angular as not to be very difficult to detect. - -[Illustration] - -All iron formed in spirals, as a matter of certainty, forms _twist -barrels_--the parties whose use they are intended for, seldom know or -care for anything further than having "a twist barrelled gun." The -advantage of _sham damn_ iron being twisted is all imaginary: if used at -all, it may be twisted; but those who value their safety would consult -it best by tying a large stone to such a gun and sinking it fathoms -deep. But to satisfy those who may fancy such things, I give a woodcut -of the spiral ready for welding. - -[Illustration] - -The spirals being thus formed, the welders commence their day's work. -The batch consists of a foreman, one on whose skill all depends, and two -subordinates, whose duty it is to blow the bellows, strike, &c. - -They proceed to weld probably a dozen long common barrels for the -American trade; which are generally composed of the inferior iron -mentioned before, rolled into two lengths of different thicknesses. -These skelps are heated, and beaten on a groove until they form a tube -half closed. They are then heated again, and closed with one edge -over-lapping the other; as a brazier would over-lap the edge of a tin -pipe, for boys to blows peas with. - -Having got the two lengths of the whole dozen turned into tubes, they -proceed to weld the longer length or forepart, by heating it -sufficiently for four or five inches, introducing a mandril of the -required size to suit the bore wanted, and then beating it into a -perfect tube, in a groove on the anvil, of corresponding diameter; -heating it again and again, until the joint is closed the whole length. -They then proceed with the other eleven foreparts, and advance the whole -to that stage before welding on the breech lengths; which are now -partially heated by laying on the outskirts of the fire, to be in -readiness: they are then closed the same as the foreparts. The end, when -about to be jointed, is opened a little on the peam of the anvil, to -admit a portion of the end of the forepart; which is introduced as soon -as both are in a welding state: the mandril is then introduced, and the -joint is perfected, in less time than we have occupied in the -description. The other part of the tube is closed, and the barrel is -then complete. If, however, the breech part is to be square or octagon -shaped, it is not welded in a groove, but on a plain surface. - -Competition has reduced this department of the trade to a low ebb; -thousands of these sort of barrels being now annually welded for about -eightpence each: if to this we add one penny farthing per pound for six -pounds of iron, we get a forged gun barrel for one shilling and -threepence halfpenny. This is certainly a poor remuneration for sweating -over a furnace containing from two to three hundredweight of intensely -heated coal. The introduction of welding by the rolling mill, will -eventually supersede this arrangement; a matter to be regretted only on -the score of its answering the purpose of preparing the fire for best -welding. Of late years rolling has nearly superseded this description of -welding. - -[Illustration] - -They now commence the welding of twist barrels. Spirals that are -intended for the breech end, are heated to a welding heat for about -three inches, removed from the fire, and jumped close by striking the -end against the anvil. Again they are heated, and again jumped, to -ensure the perfect welding. They are then beaten lightly in a groove, to -make them round. The neatest part of the process consists in the -joining of the points of the two rods, so as to make the barrel appear -as if it had been twisted out of one rod. The ends of the two rods are a -little detached, brought from the fire, and applied to each other; a -gentle tap is then given, and the union is perfect in an instant. The -rapidity and dexterity with which this is accomplished, ought to be seen -to be duly appreciated. This trouble is only taken with the best -barrels. In the manufacture of barrels of an inferior description, the -ends of the rods are cut in a sloping direction, and when welded -together, become quite square at the part where the pieces are joined. -In a finished barrel the points of junction are easily recognised. By -tracing the twist, a confusion will be found to exist for about an -eighth of an inch, every six or seven inches; and from this appearance -you may conclude that, for a barrel so joined, the welder had not the -best price. Having joined the whole of the spirals, three inches are -again heated to a welding heat, the mandril is introduced, and the tube -hammered, in a groove, to the size required. This operation is repeated -until the whole length is finished. - -Then follows hammer-hardening: that is, beating the barrel, in a -comparatively cold state, in a groove, with light hammers, for the space -of half an hour. This is a most important part of the process. It closes -the pores, condenses the texture of the metal, compresses a greater -substance into less bounds, increases greatly the strength of the -barrel, and renders it more elastic. Yet this is seldom done, unless -specially requested; and then a gratuity is, of course, expected either -in money or beer. A few pots of the juice of Sir John Barleycorn will -infuse more strength into your barrels than you could purchase for ten -times the amount in money; as they have the effect of making the hammers -descend with increased velocity. - -If all barrels were hardened in this manner, their shooting powers would -be increased, and they would not be so liable to burst in the hands of -the sportsman. This, however, cannot be done, unless the purchaser -either sees it done himself, or has it done under the superintendence of -some person on whom he can depend. The Birmingham workmen, if well paid -and well looked after (to counteract the bad habits they have acquired -from being employed in the manufacture of so large a quantity of goods -of an inferior quality), would produce an article superior to any that -could be produced, at the same cost, in any other part of the world. - -The Belgian welders do their work at considerably less cost in coal than -our English workmen. Coal, it is well known, is very dear in Liege, and -necessity may have taught them the extreme of economy both in the size -of their fire and the duration of it. They effect this by adding to -two-thirds of coal, beat into dust, one-third of clay; the latter is -mixed with the coal by being put into a wooden barrel, the two well -stirred up together, and the water drained from it. Even this mixture is -used sparingly: the fire being scarcely larger than might be held in the -two hands, while with us little short of two hundredweight suffices: -which is unquestionably a great and unnecessary waste. True the Belgian -does not get through the great quantity of work the Englishman does by -having "_a great many irons in the fire_" at once; but he certainly does -it well and clean: the quantity of earthy matter in the Belgian's fire -gives a great heat, which also is retained longer; and it is also free -from any excessive quantity of particles of charcoal. - -All twist barrels undergo a similar round; the time and care bestowed -upon them depending entirely on the price, which varies from one pound -per pair down to eighteenpence, and in some instances lower. - -In a former work I noticed the introduction of a villanous system of -covering or plating barrels with fine iron over a body of very inferior -iron. I here quote that description:-- - -The deceptions practised in this branch of manufacture are numerous, and -injurious to the trade. For instance, if you wish to have a heavy single -barrel made from Damascus, or any of the best irons, and you send to the -manufacturer the weight of iron required, the probability is, that -unless you superintend the manufacture yourself, iron of an inferior -quality will be introduced into the inside of the spirals. By this fraud -they obtain iron worth threepence a pound more than that which they -knavishly insert into the barrel. I had been repeatedly told of this -practice, but was incredulous. However, I gave an order for four very -heavy rifle barrels to be made of Damascus iron. They were made; but on -pickling these barrels for the purpose of showing the figure of the -Damascus, I discovered that the iron seemed to be much more easily eaten -away at the muzzle than on the surface. This led me to examine them, -when I found that the inside was entirely composed of iron, over which -the covering of Damascus had been twisted. But for the pickling, this -fraud never would have been detected; yet for these barrels I was -charged at the rate of two barrels for each. Since this occurred, I have -subjected many heavy barrels to examination, and have found the fraud to -be very common. The practice is not only dishonest, but spoils the gun, -by destroying the shooting power, in consequence of the metals, being of -different temperatures, not acting together at the moment of expansion. - -[Illustration] - -Veneering or plating barrels is more extensively practised in Belgium -than in any other nation we are acquainted with; they do not conceal it, -but they use equally good iron, though not ornamented iron: of this -there is much doubt. The method of accomplishing this is by having the -iron required rolled down into ribbons of a thin description; these are -twisted spirally round a tube of common iron having the fibres running -length-ways, or parallel with the bore. The accompanying cut will convey -an idea of this method. - -Many will ask what inducement have the welders to take this extra -trouble? Gain. The cost of Damascus is 7-1/2_d._ per pound, and the iron -they use for this purpose is only 1-1/4_d._ A pair of barrels take 14 -lbs. of iron; say 6 lbs. of this is Damascus plate, costing 3_s._ 9_d._; -8 lbs. is common, amounting to 10_d._ instead of 5_s._, or a saving of -4_s._ 2_d._ a pair. A splendid profit if you order one hundred. The -borer charges less, the iron is softer, the filer has less, and all -items clubbed amount to something. The facility with which welders can -do this is wonderful; it clearly establishes their ability, and proves -their claim to be considered the cleverest _blacksmiths_ on the face of -the earth. It is not only the best descriptions of iron they plate with: -twopenny skelp is more in use than any. It is now rare to meet with -_painted_ barrels: all are _genuine twist barrels_, _warranted_; for -they are mostly all plated, even down to the gun costing but fourteen -shillings, wholesale price. - -This is a subject of serious importance; one which the gun-makers, both -metropolitan and provincial, should resolutely condemn; for safety as -well as goodness of shooting cannot be secured in perfection with any -barrels so constructed. I have met with plated barrels in guns which -cost the purchaser thirty-five guineas, and I have detected them in some -of the first makers' guns; for the _perfection_ with which the fraud is -accomplished is wonderful, and few can detect it who are not strictly up -to "the dodge." The application of a portion of sulphuric acid into the -tube at the breech end of the barrel, is the best way of showing the -fraud; for, in most cases, it is all bored out at the thin portion of -the muzzle, and the application there would, under these circumstances, -be no test. - -I have frequently been applied to by many masters in the trade for -advice in the recommendation of a barrel-maker. It is at all times an -invidious task to act as a selector for individuals, and to give praise -to one man over another; more especially where the merits of workmen -approximate near to each other. But in barrel-making, a man, to be a -master of his trade, should not only be a good workman, breeching and -filing well, but should possess a good eye in putting barrels together -(for here everything depends upon the eye) and finishing them highly: -these are only a portion of the abilities a barrel-maker should possess. -Several of the London barrel-makers are exceedingly good workmen, for I -have tried them all; but only converse with them, and you find the -technicalities of the work is all they can discourse upon: the iron, the -vital principle, is Greek to them; they know nothing about it, and care -less. How can these men be guides in the right direction? They may have -seen barrels welded; but, if so, it is only a matter of chance: even in -Birmingham, where this can be seen daily, nineteen out of twenty know -nothing theoretically. You will frequently hear them heaping _anathemas_ -on a hard barrel, when floating it, and wishing the man who invented -steel barrels "_in the shades below_." Ask these men's opinions, and if -they expect to have the job of filing the barrels, they will surely -recommend you soft iron, stub-twist, or charcoal-iron. - -[Illustration] - -Boring and grinding gun-barrels generally take place under the same -roof; the borer occupying a very small shop, the grinder a large one. -Two men and two boys are generally found in a shop. There are four -benches, to each a spindle, in which there is an oblong hole to receive -the end of the boring bit. The barrel is secured on a sort of carriage, -which is at liberty to traverse the whole length of the bench. A boring -bit is then selected of suitable size; it is put into the spindle, and -the point introduced into the end of the barrel. A sort of lever is then -taken and hooked on to a kind of staple, or a piece of hooked iron (a -number of which are fixed in one side of the bench the whole length), -and passed behind the carriage to force it up to the bit; this is -removed and fixed again, until, by forcing up the carriage, the boring -bit has passed through the whole of the barrel. During this operation a -stream of water is kept playing on the barrel to keep it cool. A bit, of -larger dimensions, is next introduced and passed through; then others of -still larger dimensions, until the whole of the scales or blacks are -entirely bored out; or until the barrel has become so large in the bore, -as to preclude any further boring with safety. If the scales are of -great extent, the fault is the forger's, and the loss will consequently -be his. If the barrels be found perfect, they are sent back to the -filer, or he comes to inspect them, in order to ascertain whether they -be perfectly straight in the inside; if not, to make them so. - -The necessity of great care and attention to this point, must be very -obvious; for, if not perfectly correct at this stage, it will require -more skill and time to get it correct afterwards than the generality of -barrel-makers are inclined to bestow. - -When the inside has been found to be all right, the barrel is ready for -grinding. Many barrel-makers turn their barrels entirely by self-acting -lathes, and thus obtain a correct taper from breech end to muzzle. -Experience has clearly convinced us that this is not the best shape, but -slightly hollow towards the muzzle is preferable, as additional weight -there is decidedly injurious, and the shooting of barrels of lighter -construction is decidedly better. - -The generality of Birmingham barrels are ground to the size required on -large stones, which revolve at a terrific rate. The skill acquired by -many of the workmen is astonishing. Over and over again, have we seen -barrels coming from the mill put into the lathe, and found almost as -true as if they had been turned. They have a method of allowing the -barrel to revolve in their hands at half the rate of the stone, and by -this means they grind them so fine that many would be puzzled to -determine whether they had been turned or ground, were the barrel -smoothed lengthways merely to take out the marks of the stone. We have -seen the squares of a rifle barrel ground to as perfect an octagon as -the eye could assist in forming. Best barrels are generally turned after -they are ground. Inferior barrels are struck up with a large rubber, or -smooth, by boys; in some instances by women. - -There is one advantage derived from grinding barrels, namely, that the -friction of the stone being continuous, the temper of the barrel is not -so much affected as where the tool in the slide-rest is cutting a -considerable portion at once; for all barrels are best, and superior to -their compeers, which require least metal to be either ground or turned -off their surface, as there is a density on the outer which is not in -the interior portion. The harder the material, the less the extent of -this objection. - -To obtain the true form, it is important that they should be turned. The -way of fixing them in the lathe is by having a number of plugs or -mandrils, which are perfectly true, and of various sizes, to fit -different bores; these are centred and put in the lathe; a carrier is -then secured on a part of the plug that projects out of the breech-end -of the barrel, and then put into the face-plate of the lathe, which -carries it round. The leading screw that travels the slide-rest, is then -set in the angle to which the barrel is to be turned (though some lathes -have not the power of alteration, but turn all barrels in one angle); -the slide is next adjusted to the thickness of the muzzle wanted, and, -when all is ready, the lathe is set going; the leading screw is turned -at the same moment by the machinery connected, which keeps the tool -cutting sufficiently keen to turn a barrel in about twenty-five minutes. -This being done, nothing more is required than a fine smooth file to -remove the marks of the tool. - -There can be no doubt of the superiority of this mode of turning -barrels, if due care only be taken with the tool. If it get blunted by -any scales or impurities, it is apt to tear pieces out of the barrel, -similar to the rings that may be noticed in a slovenly bored barrel, -owing to dirt getting on the edges of the bit. In turning a barrel by a -common lathe, it is fixed in the same manner as before; about an inch of -the surface at the breech and the muzzle is turned to the diameter -wanted; the rest is then removed, and half an inch more is turned four -or five inches from either end; then another half inch, at another -distance of four or five inches, and so on, according to the length; -making an allowance each time in the depth of the turning, according to -the taper of the barrel. The iron between these cuttings is then filed -off by floats the lengthways of the barrel, or more frequently ground -off; this is a sure mode of getting the barrels perfectly straight on -the outside, and without any of those hollows and shades which may be -always discovered in an ill-made barrel. It is astonishing how -beautifully many barrels are struck by the float. The mode of turning by -the lathe is, however, cheaper, and is now confined to military barrels. - -There is a great diversity of opinion as to the proper inclination of a -pair of double barrels. It is needless to state the precise distance at -which the converging lines drawn from the centre of each barrel, and -indicating the inclination of the barrels to each other, should come to -a point. If we take the point of convergence of those lines at 2-1/2 -yards, it will follow that, at 40 yards, each barrel, were it fixed in a -vice, would throw the centre of its charge six inches on the opposite -side of the mark fired at; but if the gun be fired from the shoulder, -the recoil will invariably cause the gun to swerve outwards, so that at -that distance it will never fail to throw the shot in a good direction -for the mark or bull's-eye. - -The subject may be understood by the following observations. All -tapering substances, when laid together were the taper extended, would -come to a point at a certain distance. Gun-barrels are made to taper -towards each other, and some more than others. To make them uniform, it -requires that they should be reduced or flattened, so that the thick or -heavy end should join closer, to allow the point of convergence to be -extended to a greater distance. If, then, we take two barrels two feet -eight inches long, and having a solid substance of metal at the breech -of 3-16ths of an inch each and 1-16th at the muzzle; it requires the -difference 4-16ths to be multiplied 45 times (there being that number of -lengths in 40 yards) to ascertain what distance the points of the -different lines are from each other: which will be eleven 4-16ths of an -inch, or five 10-16th inches from the centre or line of sight. If you -wish to reduce it from the centre, you have to join the barrels so much -nearer at the breech; or should the inclination be too little, the -muzzle must be jointed closer. As, however, all guns are now made very -heavy at the breech, they very seldom require any closing at the muzzle: -though it is customary to do it, and to a great extent; but it is owing -to the ignorance of the nature of shooting. - -Different lengths require a difference in the height of the rib. A -greater height is also required for a person accustomed to use a crooked -stock, and less height for one accustomed to the use of a straighter -one; and so on. Few barrels are to be met with in which the elevation is -sufficient. This is a species of innovation much practised by gunmakers -of the present day; but whatever merit there may have been in the -original invention, there is none in "the improvement," as they term it. -Take any of the modern barrels, and calculate what is the real elevation -of them, and you will find it is not equal to the distance that charges -will droop at forty yards, when we consider the very large charges of -shot that many are accustomed to use, without a corresponding quantity -of powder. It remains then to be decided what elevation a gun should -have for that distance. - -I have tried the experiment some hundreds of times with guns of all -descriptions, both with a rest and from the shoulder, and standing as -firm as possible; by turning quickly round, and firing (as we might do -were a bird to spring in a situation where we could only get a snap -shot) against targets such as are used in military ball-practice, being -about six feet high, and by means of which one can perceive where the -body of the shot had struck. I have also fired against the steep sides -of sand-banks, on which, from their smoothness, you can tell every shot -that has struck them. My conviction is, that almost all guns charged (as -is the custom) with heavy charges of shot, droop full twelve inches in -forty yards; though by using small charges of shot you will find them to -be thrown much more correctly than the heavy charges; so that it is -possible to make a gun too high on the rib for a shooter who thinks more -powder and less lead preferable to much lead and little powder. - -The elevation I have given will be found to be as near what is requisite -as possible, if we continue to load as heretofore; if reduced charges of -shot be adopted, a less elevation will suffice. To ascertain what -elevation at the breech for the above scale is requisite, take the -thickness of the breech and muzzle, and multiply the difference by as -many times as there are lengths of your barrels in the forty yards, and -you will then ascertain what elevation they give of themselves; and to -make up the difference wanted, must be the elevation of the rib, which -may be calculated in the same way as the barrels; the length of the -barrels being the only way of obtaining a correct idea of the height -required. If making woodcock guns, less elevation is required, the -distance of shooting being shorter. In large guns a greater elevation is -necessary. We believe, however, Colonel Hawker has fallen into an error, -when he says that long guns require a greater elevation than short ones. -Does not a long gun keep the shot more together? Is not more force -generated? and is not the initial velocity greater than in a short gun? -If these be facts, why is more elevation required if the shot do not -droop? We apprehend the Colonel means, if the same height be required to -be given above the mark. Nothing can be plainer than this--that if one -pair of barrels be four inches longer than another, and the elevation -the same, there cannot be as many lengths in the forty yards of the -longer barrels as of the shorter, and hence the difference when -multiplied. I think, therefore, he cannot have taken into consideration -the superiority in their shooting; for there cannot be a doubt that, if -a gun keep the shot together longer, it cannot require that allowance -for drooping which a shorter gun does. - -As soon as the barrels are properly jointed; care must be taken to see -that they are perfectly level. If the barrels are not level, it will be -impossible to shoot correctly, as one barrel will throw the shot above, -the other below the mark. This being done, the barrels are bound -together and brazed with hard solder or brass, for about four or five -inches. Greater injury cannot be done to barrels than by this pernicious -practice; for they cannot be brazed without being heated to a white -heat; and by this heat all the advantages derived from hammering are -dissipated at once: the condensation is gone, and the strength is -reduced at least 12-1/2 per cent. And for what purpose? Under the -pretence that the barrels are firmer and not so liable to become loose. -This is a point trivial in importance compared to the excellence and -strength of the barrel; for even if they have received no more hammering -than is necessary in the forging, they are still injured to the extent -of 12-1/2 per cent.: for even beating them when hot improves them much, -provided they be not heated again; but if they have been cold hammered, -the injury is full 30 per cent. This circumstance shows how little the -principles of gun-making are understood by the first gun-makers, the -brazing of barrels being practised by all. - -Mr. Wilkinson admits this, for he says--"The practice of brazing the -barrels is decidedly injurious, by softening that part more than the -other; but if they were only soft soldered, the inconvenience would be -far greater, as the barrels would be liable to some accident by the -repeated expansion and contraction that takes place in firing, as well -as by the force required to turn out the breechings." I can only say -that I have had considerably more than five thousand pairs of barrels -made and put together with soft solder only, and not one pair has come -asunder from any of the causes mentioned; nor ever will, with fair play. -On the contrary, barrels brazed can never be sound; for at some distance -from the part heated for brazing, you cannot get the barrels re-tinned -effectually, and thus for a considerable space between the soft and hard -solder, there is no cohesion at all. Barrels brazed together only for -three or four inches at the breech-end, can never be sound: they almost -invariably become so rusted under the rib, in a few years, as both to -seriously injure the barrels, and force the rib upwards; therefore, if -you hard solder at all, do so from breech to muzzle, as that will be -preferable to partially doing it. I feel quite satisfied, and can prove -it to demonstration, that this is undoubtedly the most injurious process -to which iron can be subjected; and I believe the prejudice with which -the London barrel-makers stick to this practice is productive of -considerable injury to them: more especially when we recollect that they -are the advocates (in practice) of a very inferior quality of Damascus -barrels: an iron very susceptible of injury. The Belgian barrels, and -French also, are of good iron; and I fear not contradiction in asserting -their inferiority to English barrels mostly consists in the foolish -practice of brazing them together from end to end. Both chemically and -mechanically it is a practice for which no valid excuse can be offered. - -All barrels should have solid ribs for at least eight inches from the -breech: they tend to lessen the vibration of recoil, as well as to -render the barrels more sound and firm. No maker either understands -science or studies quality, who advocates brazing and hollow ribs. - -The invention of the patent breech was the emanation of a scientific -mind; for it has been productive of more real benefit to the progress of -gunnery than any other improvement of the last two centuries. Experience -and study in the theory of guns and gunpowder, give the mind a much more -enlarged view of the subject, if regulated by the established laws of -true and sound principles: a want of thorough knowledge induces the -individual to draw conclusions prematurely, and thus he is apt to fall, -and to lead others, into error. I confess, that, together with many -hundreds more, I once concluded that the great advantage of the patent -breech arose entirely from the loose state in which the powder was -preserved while in the breech, and its thus being more instantaneously -ignited. But I have already shown that the quickness of powder is, in a -great measure, the greatest drawback to its efficacy, and I am clearly -convinced that compression, in most instances, is beneficial, by -retarding the ignition to a certain extent. Here, then, is proof -positive, that we have been on the wrong scent, and running after a -"Will o' the Wisp." - -[Illustration] - -There is the clearest evidence, that the only advantage to be derived -from any conical form of breech, does not arise from any peculiarity -attached to the ignition of the gunpowder, but solely from the effect -of the angular shape; conical form being best suited, or presenting the -least direct surface, to the action of the exploded fluid: the angles -receive the blow and throw it off at the same opposite angle, and so on, -without receiving any amount of force from the element striking it, and -thus the elastic fluid is enabled to be resisted efficaciously. The cone -becomes and forms an artificial solid base, to a certain extent; and as -such, it is much more beneficial than the same quantity of powder -ignited on a flat surface--as a common plug breech, for instance; for -here the direct quantity of space on the face of the breech receives the -same impulse as the ball projected, and is acted upon in precisely the -same ratio in proportion to their different weights. In a musket of 11 -lbs., the comparative weight of gun and ball is as 1 to 176; and exactly -in that proportion will be the distribution of impulse from the -expellant fluid. It thus becomes a plain question between the patent -breech and the flat surface of the plug. The two halves of a parabola -inverted, or the shape of a parabolic spindle, will be the best shape, -according to the laws of science. The representation given on page 209 -is as near as I can get the engraver to represent my views of the best -shape of breech. - -A great variety of forms have been advocated and puffed; some of them of -the most unscientific description possible: but it matters not; for if a -zealous advocate could be found to puff well the advantages of the old -matchlock, he would find believers; so prone are mankind to be deluded -by the veriest quackery. The absurdity of exploding gunpowder in a -_shell_ at the breech of a gun, and persisting in the advantage of it, -is certainly tilting at a windmill. It will be asked how it is that -Government do not adopt the patent breech in the musket? I answer, -because of a want of science in the direction, and an imperfect system -of experiments. In fact, they say they do not find any advantage from -the patent breech in a musket: that the range is as great without it as -with it. - -Government never considers the personal comfort of the private soldier, -or it would have long ago used the patent breech for military arms; for, -setting aside the propellant advantage, the recoil is (as near as I have -been able to ascertain) under the same circumstances, as one to two in -favour of the angular breech. This is no exaggerated statement: I have -tested it, and will stake my reputation upon its accuracy. But the -superior knowledge of projectiles which artillerists have obtained since -the extensive introduction of chambers to nearly all descriptions of -ordnance, is the clearest proof, were any wanting. The use of the Gomer -form of chamber, is nearly universal in brass guns: the shape is the -frustum of a cone with a spherical bottom. The inutility of enlarging -on, or describing, the various shapes or plans of breeching, will be -apparent; my intention being to point out the science of the question, -not the folly of every invention. - -There have been many good gun-lock makers; but they have, I fear, -decreased much of late. From the great demand for second-rate goods, -they are rarely called upon to make a first-rate article; and thus, from -being so little accustomed to make any but inferior locks, they, of -course, are out of practice. Instead of the manufacture of the best -being encouraged, it is becoming every day more rare to meet with a good -one. There is a great degree of skill displayed in the making of locks, -though to the casual observer it is not apparent. On the simple hanging -of the swivel depends all the smoothness of the play of the main-spring; -and on the placing the hole for the scear-pin depends the sweetness of -the scear playing on the tumbler. Many who now pass for excellent -workmen would find this a difficult undertaking, simple as it may seem, -without a pattern by which to work. All locks for percussion should -have the greatest strength of mainspring at the moment they strike the -nipple, or as it is termed, when the lock is down. On the pitching the -scear depends the cutting of the bents, and on their formation, the -danger of the lock catching at half-cock, when the trigger is made to -pull easy; but these observations will be understood by a lock-maker -better than I can explain them. - -The quality of all locks depends on the price they cost filing, and -unless you pay the workman a proper remuneration, you may rely on having -them somewhat inferior, or in accordance with the price: but this -requires a workman to point out; so that any person who is not a -first-rate judge, is completely dependent on the honesty of the workman. - -There is more real science displayed in the construction of a gun-lock -than mechanics in general imagine. The placing or hanging of the swivel -on the arm of a tumbler, is an arrangement of leverage partaking of the -multiplicate; as the weight when at full cock, is lessened by the lever -bringing the moving force in the immediate vicinity of the axle, and -when down on the nipple, increasing or multiplying that force by the -divergence. The Barside lock possesses this advantage to a greater -degree than has yet been obtained by any backwork lock yet made; though -I perceive no hindrance, if properly understood and tried: it is only -needful to obtain a greater length of arm, and a proportionate length of -swivel. - -The family of the Braziers, of Wolverhampton, have long been celebrated -for the goodness of their locks; which arises solely from the fact that -they take more pains, and will not manufacture any but the best: for it -would be ridiculous to suppose that there are not plenty of men equally -as good, and probably better, workmen than themselves in the kingdom, -were they properly encouraged, and confined to making nothing but -first-rate articles. The Braziers have apprentices and journeymen, and -it is preposterous to imagine that they file the tenth part of the locks -they furnish to the trade; but yet they have always, and deservedly, -obtained a much better price than any other lock-filers out of London. -Several of Brazier's workmen have of late years commenced manufacturing -on their own account, and now most excellent locks can be had from W. -Evans, of Bath-street, Birmingham, who for many years held the first -place in Joseph Brazier and Sons' manufactory. - -The operations of false breeching, jointing locks, stocking, &c., are -merely mechanical; requiring, certainly, great skill and ability, but -yet involving no principle further than is contained in the proper -suiting of the shape to the make of the user. An endless variety of -opinions has always existed, and always will exist, as to the -description of bend or crook best fitted for rapid shooting, as flying -or running. I have instructed, and with success, too, many young -shooters, who by commencing with a long and straight stock, have -attained a perfection in shooting scarcely to be excelled; and they -never entertain afterwards any wish to change either length or bend. -Therefore I recommend to all beginners to use as long and as straight a -stock as they can _conveniently_ bring to the shoulder. All practised -shooters have generally so accustomed themselves to one shape, that it -would be prejudicial to change. The practice of throwing off a stock at -the butt, or bending from the hand to the heel-plate, in a direction to -the right, so that the eye may get more readily in a line with the -centre of the breech and the sight, is a practice not to be defended on -scientific principles. The body will suit itself best; and if the stock -be not too straight, the eye will always find the true line. - -The percussioning of a gun (as the fitting-in of nipple, boring -breeches, filing cocks, &c., is termed,) is also a mechanical operation, -requiring workmen of the very best abilities. The desideratum to be -obtained is nearly a direct communication into the barrel, and an -absence of unnecessary angles, antechambers, &c.; therefore it is -needful that, in a double gun, the nipples should be inserted as near -the centre of the breeches as they can be conveniently placed, with the -nipples standing, not upright, but at an angle of 45 deg.; so that the blow -of the cock shall be in or as near a line with the imaginary upright of -the nipple as possible. - -The various plans of copper cap, copper tubes, and I know not how many -other devices, will be discussed under the head of guns and shooting. - -Finishing the stock, polishing, engraving, hardening, &c., strictly -speaking, involve no science of consequence, and as such it is scarcely -necessary to occupy the attention of the reader respecting them. The -best method of staining barrels is by the following recipe: but one -material fact must not be overlooked. A considerable difficulty exists -in staining barrels all steel; in such a case, therefore, the acid -should not be so much diluted. - - 1 oz. muriate tincture of steel. - 1 oz. spirits of wine. - 1/4 oz. muriate of mercury. - 1/4 oz. strong nitric acid. - 1/8 oz. blue stone. - 1 quart of water. - -These are to be well mixed, and allowed to stand a month, to amalgamate. -After the oil or grease has been removed from the barrels by lime, the -mixture is laid on lightly with a sponge every two hours. It should be -scratched off with a steel-wire brush night and morning, until the -barrels are dark enough; and then the acid is destroyed by pouring on -the barrels boiling water, and continuing to rub them till nearly cool. - -The Birmingham people brown their barrels of inferior quality in the -following way, to make them look equal to the best. They dissolve as -much muriate of mercury as can be taken up in a dram-glassful of spirits -of wine; this solution is mixed with one pint of water, or as much -diluted as the person requires. A small quantity of the mixture is -poured on a little whitening, and laid on the barrel with a sponge, -rather lightly; as soon as dry, it is brushed off, and a fresh coat is -laid on; and so on until the barrel is dark enough, which is generally -about two days. The effect that the mercury has on every one of the -joints of the fibres is wonderful: it never fails to make them, in two -or three days at most, a beautiful brown; while the other parts, being -harder, remain, comparatively speaking, quite light. The rust is killed -by hot water, but after that, the barrels are suddenly immersed in cold -water; which has the effect of heightening the brightness of both the -colours. The appearance is beautiful, and equally as fine to the eye as -stub-barrels browned in the same way; though this process is mostly used -for the charcoal iron and the threepenny iron barrels. The only method -in which there is no deception, is the smoke brown or stain; and, -plainly speaking, this and no other is the reason the gun-makers condemn -it. As the acid is decidedly weaker, and of course less liable to impart -injury to the iron, no barrel can be browned by it, to look well and -fine, but the best; or, in other words, none save those possessing steel -in their composition. - -The method of staining is this: the barrels are anointed with a little -vitriolic acid, to cause the iron to receive the effect of the gas more -readily; it is then washed off, and the barrels rubbed dry. The forge -fire must then be lighted, and blown up with coal possessing as much -hydrogen gas and as little sulphur as possible. When the coals are burnt -till they give out a clear white flame with no black smoke around it, -the barrels must be passed gradually through that flame backward and -forward, until the whole are covered with a black sooty covering. Place -them in as damp and cool a cellar as can be procured, and allow them to -stand for eighteen hours; at that time, if the place is sufficiently -damp, the iron parts will be found covered with a red rust, while the -particles of steel still retain the original sooty coat. Scratch these -off with a steel brush, the same as by any other method of staining; -then take a piece of linen cloth, and wash or polish the barrels with -water and a little washed emery; when the steel will be found of its -original bright colour, and the iron a shade darker, with the outlines -of both distinctly preserved. Rub the barrels dry, and again pass them -through the flame precisely as before; but above all things be careful -not to allow them to remain in the flame till they become hot enough to -melt the solder. When you have once passed them through, do not be in a -hurry to pass them again; but in both be guided by moderation: neither -allow them, after the first time, to stand to rust more than twelve -hours each time. Polish them as before, and you will find them a shade -darker at every smoking. Persevere, until they become as dark as you -wish to have them. The utmost you can obtain is a fine purple-black -colour on the iron; and on the steel, a shade inclined to a copper -colour: but if proper attention be paid to the polishing, it will not -change much from its original colour. - -The barrels are taken out of stain in the same way as in the other -recipes, by hot water; but you must continue to scratch or brush them -longer, for by that means you obtain a greater gloss. The principle of -this stain is simply thus: the hydrogen gas contained in the coal acting -on the iron (from being of a softer nature than the steel, which it does -not affect), and the flame also possessing a quantity of tar, it is -imperceptibly embodied by the iron during the action of the oxide; and, -when finished, by filling up the spaces created, it becomes decidedly -more impervious to damp or wet than the other stain, which is entirely -composed of the oxide of iron. - -The only objection to this brown has been found to arise from the -discharge of the black colour from the softer parts of the barrels; as -it being but coal tar, the sweat of the hand, hot water in washing, &c., -invariably extract it in a comparatively short time. - -The recipe, for the Birmingham imitations, is as follows:-- - - 1 oz. sweet nitre. - 1/2 oz. tincture of steel. - 1/4 oz. blue vitriol. - 6 drops nitric acid. - 14 grs. corrosive sublimate. - 1 pint of water. - -When the barrels are dark enough, drop a few drops of muriatic acid in a -basin of water, and wash the barrel slightly, to brighten the twists. - -This last process is borrowed from the Belgians. In the working of their -extremely fine Damascus barrels, they found a very great difficulty in -staining them so as to produce a clear and distinct figure. The way -they now proceed is either to eat away the particles of iron, leaving -the steel prominent and the barrels bright; or they polish them -extremely fine from end to end, and then blue them in a stove with -charcoal. The process is thus described in the notes to a German -translation, by Dr. Schmidt, of Weimar, of my last edition of the -"Science of Gunnery." - -"The method of browning the Damascus barrels, which are so much admired -in England for their distinctness in colour and beauty of figure, is -obtained very simply: namely, first burnish the barrels very fine; then -cover them with bone oil; pound, or drop, or strew wood-ashes all over; -then heat them in a cage of wire filled with charcoal, until you obtain -a dark first blue; after they are cold, mix a small quantity of -sulphuric acid in water (a quarter of a pint with so many drops); then -take a hard brush and apply it to the barrel, when the acid will extract -the colour from the steel, leaving the iron with its greater adhesion -covered with the blue colour. Great care must be used and skill -displayed to keep a good colour and not to extract too much." - -This we cannot do, because we solder with tin. - -The "Belgian Damascus" barrels are generally "eat up," as it is -technically termed. "Pickled" is the term also used to describe the -process, which is simply eating away the softer metals from around the -steel or harder material. The best preparation for this purpose is 1 lb. -of the sulphate of copper (known as blue vitriol) dissolved in a gallon -of soft water, at the boiling point, and continued boiling in an -earthenware vessel, until the quantity is reduced by evaporation 25 per -cent.; let it cool, and then pour it into a leaden trough or bath. The -barrels, when properly secured at the muzzle and breech-ends to prevent -the liquid getting into the interior, are immersed therein. The solution -will act sufficiently upon the metals in the space of from fifteen to -twenty minutes; care being taken to remove and carefully wash them with -cold water, and then, after observing the progress of the _pickling_, -re-immersing them as before, until the operation is complete. Then pour -boiling water over them, and scratch them well with a steel brush, which -will eventually give that beautiful bright "wavy" surface much admired -by many people. Laminated steel barrels also look very well, after being -subjected to this operation. - -Having now detailed as much of the "_modus operandi_," as the patience -of the reader will admit, I shall endeavour to give a peep into the -"_sanctum sanctorum_" of the gun-makers' workshop. I have shown in -detail what course ought to be pursued in the construction of guns of -the best quality only; and before proceeding further shall finish this -part of the subject. I am not, as some would say, "going to expose the -_whole_ secrets of the trade:" oh no, only a portion. - -There are six qualities or varieties of mixtures of iron for barrels of -best quality. The plate-facing contains two kinds finished, composed of -steel entirely, but of different degrees of carbonization; one is -composed entirely of a laminated series containing many scores of -distinct laminae in the thickness of the sides of the barrels, twisted -and beat into tortuous shapes. The other, of larger laminae, but showing -the edges of the laminae at an angle with the length, and thus appearing -larger than, if presenting the side or end of the plates. - -Care must be taken that the great proportion of the fibres shall always -run round the tube, so that the greatest portion of strength may be -obtained, together with a beautiful figure. The cost of this arrangement -is considerable, as it involves a great waste of metal, and occupies a -considerable time to work and re-work--twisting, faggoting with the bars -placed in various forms, at acute angles to each other, at right angles, -plaiting three or four rods together, as a lady does her hair, cutting -these into pieces, faggoting and welding them into one, and, in short, -undergoing an endless routine of manipulations, which it would be -strictly unprofitable to detail, but are all productive of cost. An -ingenious man may work and improve metal of this nature until its cost -equals the price of silver; and, if judiciously done, improving it -still, even until he has wasted 90 per cent. of the original material. - -The ultimate characteristics and properties of iron have, as yet, never -been ascertained: it is capable of being condensed until it becomes -nearly, if not quite, equal to the specific gravity of silver or lead. -No pursuit, mechanical or philosophical, presents so great and so -beneficial a research, to the whole civilized and scientific world, as -iron. I could twist and retwist iron, until, from the beautiful and -interesting results, it would become with me a sort of monomania. I -wonder not at the variety of patterns in a Damascus sword-blade: the -mind conveys me to the scene, and a regret arises that I did not live in -those times; yet still it is but a mechanical arrangement directed by an -ingenious mind, and the ultimate benefit, apart from the beauty, is more -than imaginary. However, it proves that the Orientals were artists, and -that they were appreciated: were this the case now with us, we could do -all they ever did, and more. - -Laminated steel is now a great fact. It is a name stereotyped in -Belgium, Germany, France, and America, as well as in the place of its -birth--England; and orders come from all quarters of the globe for the -celebrated laminated steel. Every writer of eminence is loud in its -praise, and justly so too; for about its merits there is no mistake. No -combination of metals ever yet before tried since the birth of gunnery, -can equal it, either in density, ductility, or tenacity. A laminated -steel barrel has never been known to burst. "Reputed" laminated steel -barrels have been burst, but no real one ever. Nor is it probable, save -from malconstruction. Through inattention in the welding the best of -metal may be burnt; but the better the iron, the greater the difficulty. -Steel is more liable to melt than burn; so that, with care and skill on -the part of the workman, it will very seldom indeed occur. But that -chance is provided for, as far as human judgment can do, in entrusting -such barrels only to first-rate and steady workmen. Such men are no -doubt, to a certain extent, scarce; but they may yet be found: the -Birmingham welder of proved skill and ability is inferior to none in the -world. Laminated steel barrels are more scarce than welders. - -Although the various manufacturers of Europe have complimented me by -adopting the name of my invention, yet I am sorry to add it is but in -name: there are very few even tolerable imitations of them. The cost is -the "bugbear:" the name costs nothing, and can easily be assumed; but to -make laminated steel barrels is quite another matter: it touches the -pocket, and interferes with the profit; and it is only in very rare -cases indeed--although the order may be explicit as words can make -it--that the real article is supplied. There are very few makers in -Birmingham who in reality make "laminated steel." Steel barrels are more -plentiful: they care not so much for the price of the metal; it is the -after repeated manipulations that are evaded: the labour and loss of -material is too much, and is necessarily "shirked," and argument is -always met with the answer, "We see nothing in it." Yet the words -"laminated steel" are to be found engraved upon barrels of the lowest -quality of iron of which double barrels are made. Iron twist is -subjected to a similar process to that already described as employed in -producing Damascus iron, and which may be termed common iron Damascus. -Thousands of guns are made from this kind of metal, and yearly sent to -the United States of America; yet all are unblushingly represented as -"laminated steel barrels." The actual price charged for these sort of -guns in the United States I know not, but have no doubt for the whole -gun it is about equal to what would be the prime cost of a pair of real -laminated steel barrels alone. - -Purchasers should be fully acquainted with the fact that it is -impossible to produce laminated steel barrels at a low figure: labour, -high-priced, skilled labour, is always costly; and talent must be paid -for in all parts of the world. The attainment of high class barrels at a -low figure, as a rule, is an impossibility; and the maker who would -pretend, promise, or undertake to make a laminated steel barrelled gun -under 15_l._ to 20_l._ is an arrant deceiver: he could never profitably -carry out such an intention, even if he possessed the ability to produce -the article. For judgment, skill, and ability, as well as labour, are -required to produce laminated steel barrels. Steel alone is not -laminated; and that is another difficulty: fortunately there are not -many persons capable of effecting it. My method of laminating steel is -kept as much out of sight as possible, as a means of self-protection. - -Stub Damascus is by many makers called "steel:" both first and second -class stub; and any attempt to reason them out of the absurdity is a -hopeless task. Many of the highest class makers still doggedly stick to -stub Damascus, and insinuate underhandedly that the benefit of steel is -doubtful: few do it openly; but I feel sorry to record the fact that -prejudice on this point is still rampant. - -On the superior shooting properties of steel barrels I will enlarge in -another place. - -The Exhibitions have told very beneficially on the future of Birmingham; -the fact of standing highest in every competition will do (and has done) -more to remove the prejudice entertained against Birmingham manufacture -than aught beside. Sportsmen begin to understand the fact that it is -better to order their guns direct from the manufacturer than from the -mere salesman, who can only take his goods on trust, and warrants -without knowing that he can justly do so. Any system that would identify -the maker with his work would do all that is necessary to emancipate -Birmingham from the stigma which prejudice has entailed upon her name; -and from which I hope to see her rise rapidly yet. But I do not wish to -see her rise on the reputation of London: would that all Birmingham guns -were like those of London makers; or superior to them, if possible. - -In addition to the serious evil of producing guns of such great -inferiority in material, and dubbing such barrels "laminated steel," a -far more serious one is the practice of unscrupulously adding to such -guns the names of makers who have spent the majority of their lives in -obtaining a name for their manufacture; thus robbing them indirectly of -what is dear to all honest men--reputation. Few are judges sufficiently -qualified to detect a spurious gun of this description; and the name -thus forged reflects unmerited discredit on a maker who would scorn to -allow such an article to leave his manufactory: but as long as the -standard of moral honesty is so low, both among merchants and -manufacturers, such things will be. Men may excuse themselves for -affixing the names of men and firms to inferior or worthless guns by the -plea of having been ordered to do it by the exporters, but they are not -the less doing a moral wrong, in thus aiding in a deception which -profits them not. But such practices will continue, until the sense of -right and wrong becomes more conscientious, and trade morality rises to -a higher standard than at present. - -I have every reason to believe, and have not the least hesitation in -stating the fact, that not only is the epithet "laminated steel" added -to guns the barrels of which do not contain a particle of steel, but -that a far more serious misrepresentation and injury is perpetrated by -affixing the words "William Greener's Laminated Steel, indestructible by -Gunpowder," to many guns not even of middling fair quality, but the -veriest rubbish ever manufactured. That this is a species of forgery -there can be no doubt; yet the law of this country affords no remedy to -effectually prevent and punish the rascality of offering for sale an -article fraudulently professing to be what it is not, to the injury of -the purchaser as well as the manufacturer whose good name is thus -maligned. Forged "Greener's" are to be found principally in the American -markets; where batches of ten and twelve have been seen in various parts -of the States, principally in the hands of "itinerant merchants." They -are, I believe, pretty plentifully produced in "Liege," also; where, in -fact, forgeries on all our principal makers are produced. - -As the law provides no effectual remedy or punishment for such -rascality, I now, in order to lessen it as much as possible, mark every -gun leaving my manufactory with a "_private mark_" in addition to its -number; and on reference to me, giving a description of the gun -purchased "and its number," information will be returned of the private -mark, which will stamp the article as real or spurious. If the gun has -no number reference is useless, as I number every gun that I send out, -and the want is certain proof that it is a forgery. But with a view to -lessen the evil as much as can be, I may here say that the best double -gun, with case complete, that I can make will be freely given to any -individual who will produce evidence which will enable me to expose all -parties concerned in such nefarious dealing, and justify me in holding -them up to public reprobation: which will be done as certainly as proof -can be adduced. - -There are ample fields of commerce in gunnery yet to be developed, were -articles produced suitable for use, not for show or deception. -Inferiority of manufacture combined with deception is the worst course -ever adopted by any community. If Birmingham would repudiate such a -course, and refuse to make worthless articles, attending more to quality -than cheapness, the gun trade would be more prosperous than it ever has -been. - -Time is rapidly realising the recommendations I have put forth of the -great benefit to be obtained, not only in steam boilers, but various -other mechanical constructions, by the use of higher qualities of -metals. We have now even "steel ships" as well as steel guns, giving -double the strength, with half the weight; and if all manufacturers of -high class machines adopted the same principles, an immense saving would -be effected in the long run, from the absence of repairs alone, in -addition to the greater durability of the machine. - -There ought to be no accidents from the breaking of railway carriage -axles: such an occurrence as the breaking of an axle is an everlasting -disgrace; for axles could be constructed that no known "fair -application" of strain could possibly break. A simple combination of -steel and iron faggoted in segments, as before described, and rolled -hollow, would enable axles to last double the time of those at present -in use: 40,000 miles travelling is stated to be the maximum distance an -axle can be safely trusted; the destruction being mainly due to the -heating in the journals, or to galvanic action changing the fibrous iron -into crystalline in the immediate vicinity of the bearing. Axles -constructed of different metals, as steel and iron in conjunction, would -not be so affected; and might be rendered still less likely to be so by -a small hollow in the centre of the axle. But this is a digression; -though I may be pardoned for it, in consideration of the importance of -the subject. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. II._ - -DAMASCUS BARRELED GUN - -FANCY STEEL BARRELED GUN] - -The opposite plate (No. 2) represents my mixture in imitation of -Damascus; the process necessary to produce it, as well as its companion, -has already been described. These two also come under the head of -best barrels, as they are costly, and when honestly made (not plated) -constitute, with the defects before enumerated, good barrels. - -The cost of a really good first-rate gun must and will always vary, -according to the circumstances of manufacture or the peculiar -arrangements of the manufacturer. Joseph Manton is entitled to the -gratitude, not only of the present generation of gun-makers, but of all -succeeding ones, for this reason,--he not only gave a character to -English guns, but so linked his name with improvements, that it will -never be forgotten. His was the mind to know and appreciate the value of -good workmanship; he elevated the English artisan with himself, and -raised the gunmaker to the acme of mechanical skill: for, without -invidious comparison of the ability required in other professions, we -may say that a first-rate workman as a _gun-maker_[11] (_I mean only a -gun-maker_) is one of the very best mechanics England can boast of, or -in truth any part of the world. Gun-making is the profession of a man of -mind: any man or any workman cannot make a gun, working by square and -rule entirely, as other mechanics do: no, the true _gun-maker_ is an -artist, and Joe Manton made him so. - - [11] Barrel welders, borers, lock-filers, &c., are not technically - gun-makers: the latter are those workmen who, having barrels, locks, - wood for stock, &c., make them into a gun. It has been customary to - say gunsmiths; but this appellation can be applied to the worker in - iron only. - -It is true, we have not now that complex machine, the flint-lock gun, -in which Joe so peculiarly excelled; but we have a more simple and a -more efficacious one in the percussion gun. He was not so fortunate in -the latter as the former; but all men are at fault sometimes, and he -could not be expected to fondle the child of another: no, it was for the -first improvement of the _workmanship_ of the gun, that his memory must -be revered. The English gun, at the outset of his career, was as far -inferior to what he left it, as the tawdry manufacture of the continent -is to ours of the present day. The prices he obtained were enormous -certainly; but all men should be paid well, who can prove they possess -extra brains and ability: he remunerated his workmen on this scale, and -he unquestionably had the best set the world ever saw. We can, at this -period, far excel them, for the _pupil_ sometimes exceeds the _tutor_; -but this arises from laying firmly the foundation of a superior system. - -All my ambition has been to be able to make an article that cannot be -exceeded in goodness and neatness, combined with taste, by the -generation in which we live. In proof of this success I may mention that -the two First Class Prize Medals in the Great Exhibition of 1851; two -more in 1853 at New York; and, lastly, two at Paris in 1855, were -awarded to me. - -The best gun, or as good a one as ever was constructed, or ever will be, -should yield the maker a profit at 35_l._ Cheaper it cannot be made, if -it be _honestly the best_. I have studied and estimated the cost both -of town and country-made guns, and am aware that the London maker would -be barely remunerated at this rate, owing to the extra expenses he is -liable to. But I also know, without doubt, that as good guns can be, and -have been, made in Birmingham as ever were produced in London: the -facilities Birmingham possesses will always tell in that competition. -Westley Richards is an example; for not much better guns can be -manufactured than he produces daily, as most London gun-makers full well -know. Let but some individual, with the head and the _cash_, try the -experiment of making guns himself at Birmingham, and a fortune would be -the result; as better workmen, if well looked after, cannot be found in -the world. But their talents are now prostituted in the production of -inferior articles; and when wanted are, of course, _amiss_ for any great -effort. Birmingham is a workshop where if one tool does not suit you you -can get another: if a barrel be faulty, or locks inferior, you can have -a new one in the time a London house would take in ordering it. These -remarks are not dictated by any feeling of dislike to the metropolitan -makers, but from a conviction of their truth. Establishments like Joe -Manton's are not met with in London now-a-days--not one house in the -business can maintain them. - -I cannot possibly have any wish to depreciate. What benefit would be -gained by it? But I cannot praise the London manufacturer against -conviction; and I am unfortunately too much in the secret: I know too -well where and how the vast majority of London guns are made. Why keep -up a distinction that does not exist? Why call a gun London-made because -the seller rents a shop and calls himself a gun-maker? Why not at once -say, "Our manufactory is in Birmingham, as we find we can make both -better and cheaper there." This is truth, and ought to be told. It is -now the extreme of folly to say, "These are _Brummagem_ guns:" that term -only applies to the "_rubbish_," the low priced article, which no honest -man has hardihood enough to brand with his own name, but substitutes -that of some deceased member of the _fraternity_. But when sensible -London tradesmen so far forget themselves as to designate the produce of -a "_brother chip_" as "only Birmingham guns," without ever having seen -or examined that work, _I feel sensitive on the point_; for though the -term is strictly correct, yet the meaning is slanderous. - -I have always written and impressed upon sportsmen the imperative -necessity of obtaining the very best gun that hands could produce; I -urged this sincerely, and for doing so feel myself entitled to the -gratitude of all gunmakers who delight in good work. Yet instead of the -merit of my work being appreciated, I have unfortunately had to contend -with the secret revilings of those who possess not the heart or ability -to compete with me. "A fair field and no favour" has ever been my motto; -and, without egotism, I can safely offer to make a gun or guns against -any maker in the world. I do not claim this ability exclusively; for I -can name several in Birmingham, who, if they have the price, will not -be far behind. I may fearlessly point to the fact that throughout the -whole breadth of England every gunmaker is a copyist of my patterns. -Three months after the opening of the Paris Exhibition, imitations were -found in every gun-maker's shop in Paris, labelled, "Fusils de chasse a -l'Anglais." - -Both the Belgians and French are making vast strides in competition with -us. In Liege they have very recently purchased guns by most of our -celebrated makers as models; and every part of the gun is being imitated -to the greatest nicety. I have before alluded to twenty-six of Westley -Richards' guns, forgeries, having been sent to London; in truth they -have taken us as a model, and if we do not _keep going ahead_, depend -upon it we shall be hard run. In every respectable maker's shop abroad -you will find proof of this fact. I brought to England several specimens -of their productions, and amongst others a pair of imitation "Braziers' -locks;" these have been shown to many makers in Birmingham, and -pronounced unanimously a fair pair of locks: indeed no workman in the -kingdom but would have taken them to be of English manufacture. In Paris -they carry their imitation, _if possible_, farther still. I saw in Le -Page's establishment some very good work indeed, and said so; remarking -that they were very _little inferior_ to our best English guns. -"_Inferior_, indeed!" said he, "we consider them quite as good, I assure -you:" showing evidently a wish to _have them as good_. The French may -excel us in the laudable desire to improve. Their periodical Exposition -is a proof of this. We should have our "Exposition" also. Look at the -national importance it would give to our artists in all metals! how many -bright men would then spring into notice! what an impetus it gives to -competition. Artists and sculptors exhibit the effects of their genius: -why should not gunmakers also? The highest skill is required in -producing a gun: a first-rate gun is indeed a work of art. Why is it not -done? "Self" is the stumbling-block. The first makers "_par excellence_" -do not encourage it, being jealous of being beaten by some provincial. -There wants unanimity, a co-operative feeling, both in London and -Birmingham. A well-arranged "Mutual Improvement Society" would be the -means of driving the "_rubbish_" out of the market, and the sordid -manufacturer into a reformation of his ways; it would show him that -honesty in his manufactures is as essential as honesty in his outward -dealings. I lament that this untoward feeling should exist; more -especially in Birmingham, where they possess all the elements for future -prosperity: but these are blighted, from the want of an expansive, -liberal feeling to each other. I hope to see this state of things -attained soon: the seeds of improvement are taking root. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. III._ - -STUB TWIST BARRELED GUN - -STUB DAMASCUS BARRELED GUN] - -The plate (No. 3) opposite represents stub twist and stub Damascus; the -former, if properly attended to in manufacture, will long hold its -station in the construction of good guns. An excellent second-rate gun -can be made for about 20_l._, with case, &c. At this time there are a -great number made at this price: in fact, very few cost more; even -those of the best production of Birmingham. Superior articles to any yet -produced could be made there, if occasion demanded it, and if there were -a sufficiency of heads to direct and control. The generality of -gunmakers in Birmingham are merely mechanics, and when you say this, all -has been said that can be: a vast majority of excellent workmen have -never fired a gun, and know nothing, strictly speaking, of its use. A -gunmaker, in the true meaning of the word, is, or ought to be, an -enthusiast; delighting in, and living for, his art alone; without being -clogged with prejudice or with a stubborn mind that refuses to advance, -but animated by a spirit to conceive and realize the emanations of -genius. - -I have already sufficiently enlarged upon the inferiority of barrels -made from charcoal iron. A great quantity of these guns are made or got -up for the general factors, who take orders for everything, from "a -needle to an anchor;" but they manufacture nothing, and only employ -their money _for a moderate return_. The hardwareman is the principal -seller of this description of guns; he generally pays between eight and -ten pounds each for them, and retails them at from twelve to fourteen -pounds, if he can make his customers believe that they are as good as -they can get elsewhere for twenty pounds. I have known a tradesman of -this kind sell more guns in a season than three gun-makers in the same -town during the same time. A certain portion of the warranty was -correct, "that they were as good as could be got elsewhere for eighteen -pounds;" for the articles, as far as barrels and locks are concerned, -are identically the same. - -Unfortunately, the generality of gunmakers are content to live like the -snail, who cares not how the world goes, so long as his house remains -whole above his head; rather than try to improve their productions, or -to meet the exigencies of the times, they are content to allow the trade -to be injured by the influx of worthless articles, to their own loss and -the discredit of the business generally. The enormous prices which -gentlemen have been charged for provincial-made guns of the most -inferior quality, has driven them to obtain still worse at a less cost. -An honourable and tradesmanlike method of conducting business will -always be appreciated, and if a gun be required at a low figure, an -honestly-made article might be furnished at a price to suit the -customer, and of equal and mutual benefit to buyer and seller. But this -will not do: high prices or no orders is the rule. It would do very well -if nothing were manufactured but high-priced articles, as good in -quality as they pretend to be; but few provincial makers have the means -to do this: an establishment sufficiently large can only be supported in -certain districts. I must be excused for making these remarks, as I have -both the interest of the maker, combined with that of the sporting -world, in view, and have no other end to serve. I do not include all, -only a part of the profession in these strictures, for there are many -honourable exceptions. - -The ironmonger receives these inferior guns, and disposes of them as -stub-twist barrels: he knows no other, nor would he care if he did. A -flashy outside is very captivating to the novice; but one or two years' -use will soon show the quality of the article: the wood then shrinks, -the glue and wax wash out of the fittings, and an apparently crazy and -breaking-up constitution displays itself most clearly: for work put -together at a certain price will have only a certain duration. Were I -free of the gun-making profession entirely, and asked for my -conscientious advice in the purchasing of a gun, I should decidedly say, -buy a gun from no one who has not a character to lose; who is not only -answerable for the article he sells, but also capable of judging of the -quality, and appreciates the value of good materials. The trade is -over-run with swarms of Jew salesmen and others, who cannot, nor ever -will be, able to duly understand and appreciate the responsibility -attached to the profession of a gun-maker. - -There have been individuals in Birmingham who realised considerable sums -by manufacturing guns of this quality only for two or three sale shops -of puffing celebrity in London, and so extensive are their orders still, -that an engraver is kept in full employment by them, the excellence of -whose forged imitations of names, &c., is wonderful: so devoid of shame -and debased in intellect do men become from perseverance in evil. Joe -Manton's guns have become like pictures of celebrated masters; had he -produced one per hour during his existence, he could not have made -one-half of the number that bear his name. - -Guns made of threepenny skelp iron are plentifully to be met with in -sale-shops and pawnbroking establishments; they generally bear false -colours and hail from fictitious ports, and are bedecked with painted -stocks and tawdry imitation gold and silver ornaments; but as to the -mechanical arrangement, to use a Brummagism, they are as if they had -been pitched together. A decent gun could be made with barrels of this -quality, if constructed a little heavier than usual; and it would be -perfectly safe, and suited for the use of those who could not purchase -better: if firm and soundly fitted up, with decent locks, sound stock, -&c., it would be worth about eight guineas; but you can get them by the -hundred in Birmingham for 3_l._ 15_s._ each, and, if you particularly -wish it, at 2_l._ 15_s._, or less; and single guns, with plated barrels, -about half that sum. - -We have now reached the utmost limits of civilization, and are about to -pass the great desert, where science is never seen or heard of, except -it be in the pretences of an inventor of deceptions: things of wood and -iron, called guns. Pocket volcanoes would be a fitter title, or portable -exploders--for no one can possibly expect anything but destruction who -uses such compounds of dangerous contrivances. But for the edification -of those who use such, we give the prices of each part and cost of -manufacture of them: the statement is literally true; and, except that -by possibility the items may vary a penny or two, the whole is -substantially correct. - - -_Cost of Material and Workmen's Prices for making Double and Single -Guns, with "Twopenny" or "Wednesbury Skelp Iron" Twist Barrels._ - -DOUBLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Double barrels, twist, patent breeched 12 0 - Pair of locks 2 0 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Set of cast furniture 0 5 - Stocking 2 0 - Screwing together 3 0 - Percussioning 2 0 - Polishing and engraving 1 0 - Varnishing (including painting) 0 6 - Browning 0 6 - Finishing 3 0 - Ramrod, tip, and worm 0 6 - Small work, nails, escutcheons, wood, screws, &c. 1 0 - ---------- - L1 8 5 - ---------- - -SINGLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Single barrel, twist, &c. 5 9 - Lock 1 0 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Set of cast furniture 4 0 - Stocking 1 0 - Screwing together 2 0 - Percussioning 1 0 - Polishing and engraving 0 8 - Stock varnishing and painting 0 4 - Barrel browning 0 4 - Finishing 2 0 - Ramrod, tip, and worm 0 6 - Small work, &c. 0 8 - -------- - 16 1 - -------- - -Common iron barrels plated with this iron can be furnished by -barrel-makers, double for eight shillings per pair, single for four -shillings each; which deducted from each, gives double complete, 1_l._ -4_s._ 8_d._, and single 14_s._ 4_d._ each; and for these we have known -the factor charge the ironmonger, double: 3_l._ 10_s._ each, and 1_l._ -15_s._ single; so it is strictly an imposition on both sides, one -charging 5_l._, and the other 3_l._ - -Now for the next: bad as is the preceding, this is infinitely worse; the -former costs two-pence per pound, the present varies from one penny to -one penny farthing per pound. "Sham damn iron" is similar in nature to -brass; a metal with fibres certainly, but they are like the fibres of -willow compared to oak: it is an iron soft and spongy, capable of being -condensed to an immense degree. All slave gun-barrels are made of it. -Mungo Park detailed some of the lamentable atrocities committed by these -guns bursting. The many thousands of mutilated wretches who have lived -to curse the cupidity of their fellow-men, form not a bright side in the -picture of human nature; but were you to bawl into the ears of those -employed in the construction, all these and a thousand more such direful -effects of their handiwork, you would not abate one in the number of -these man-traps. - - -_Cost of Guns made of Sham Damn Iron._ - -DOUBLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Double barrels, plain iron, with side huts, per pair 7 0 - Locks 1 6 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Stocking 1 2 - Furniture 0 5 - Screwing together 2 0 - Percussioning 1 4 - Polishing and engraving 0 9 - Varnishing and painting stock 0 4 - Painting twist barrels 0 4 - Rod, tip, worm 0 4 - Small work 0 7 - -------- - Total 16 0 - -------- - -SINGLE GUNS. - - _s._ _d._ - Single barrel, ribbed and breeched 3 8 - Lock 0 9 - Wood for stock 0 6 - Stocking 0 8 - Furniture 0 4 - Screwing together 1 4 - Percussioning 0 9 - Polishing and engraving 0 6 - Varnishing and painting stock 0 4 - Painting twisted barrel 0 3 - Rod, tip, worm 0 4 - Small work 0 4 - -------- - Total 10 9 - -------- - -The above guns are sold to the factor, at 20_l._ and 12_l._ the score -respectively. The Jews sometimes get even them at that, or a lower -price, as money happens to be plentiful or scarce. There is a -description of tradesmen in this town of hardware, whose establishments -bear the euphonious titles of the "_slaughter shop_" and "_blood -house_;" and in these emporiums of the productions of the needy; may be -obtained gunnery of all kinds, as well as all other material, the -productions of Birmingham. If the article costs little manufacturing, it -costs these men still less. The slaughter-master is a cormorant, who -swallows the substance of the weak, and once past his awful jaws he -cannot be made to disgorge. Here itinerant hardwaremen find an abundant -supply: he has always a stock. The wants of the poor are always -pressing, and the gun-making portions of the inhabitants of Birmingham -are not _over provident_, seldom caring for what to-morrow may bring -forth. The painted pair of shams is faintly portrayed in the opposite -engraving (Plate 4); and the uninitiated may be able to detect what I -have endeavoured to acquaint them with. - -[Illustration: _PLATE. IV._ - -CHARCOAL IRON BARRELED GUN - -THREEPENNY IRON BARRELED GUN] - -[Illustration: _PLATE. V._ - -TWOPENNY IRON BARRELED GUN - -A SHAM DAMN BARRELED GUN] - -I shall just give the cost of the various items in the fitting-up of an -imitation gun for the African market, combined with an _imitation_ -musket for the same; the former is not so desperately bad as the latter, -the one being barely half an inch in the bore, the other full -three-quarters of an inch, and yet their weights are not dissimilar. - -You can have a shipload of these for 5_s._ 9_d._ each. It is -satisfactory to know that they send powder with them of _corresponding -quality_. - - -_Cost of "African guns" alias "Park Paling."_ - - _s._ _d._ - Common musket barrel, or birding barrel 2 0 - Lock 0 4 - Stock 0 4 - Stocking 0 5 - Brass furniture 0 3-1/2 - Screwing together, and finishing 0 9 - Polishing and hardening, hammer, &c. 0 4 - Steel rod 0 3 - Browning and painting barrel and stock 0 4 - Small items 0 3 - ------------ - Total 5 3-1/2 - ------------ - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE PROOF OF GUN BARRELS. - - -For a considerable period subsequently to the introduction of the -manufacture of gunnery into England, there existed no public proof, or -test, for the goodness and safety of barrels; further than that the -feeling of the maker induced him to protect the limbs of his customer. -Even so early as the seventeenth century, the bias of human nature to -evil began to be displayed in the production of materials for guns, the -use of which was attended with loss of both life and limb. In -consequence of the frequent bursting of inferior guns, the Company of -Gunmakers of the City of London instituted a proof-house, to which the -barrels of respectable makers were all sent to be proved. The East India -Company required all their muskets to undergo the same test; hence it -became a custom to have barrels proved there: many also underwent an -extra test on the premises of the manufacturer; so jealous were -sportsmen, and so necessary was it deemed to provide against any -possibility of accident. Thus it was shown clearly that laws are not -always required to carry out certain results, but that it is sometimes -preferable to allow matters of this kind to be arranged according to -the knowledge of the parties interested; for frequently when an -individual is aware that there is a law under which, in case of need, he -can shelter himself--as many do at this day in case of guns bursting--he -becomes careless: he has always a ready answer, "I can assure you the -barrel was proved; and there must have been some unfortunate cause for -her going: you could not have rammed the wadding home, or you must have -put in an extra charge," and such like excuses. It is never for a moment -supposed that there was any insufficiency in the proof. - -The great demand for rubbish of a villanous description during the -existence of the slave trade, induced some philanthropic gentlemen in -Birmingham to found a Company, with suitable premises, for the proof of -all gun barrels; and an Act of Parliament was obtained in the year 1813, -incorporating the body. The first Act proved insufficient, as the -Birmingham makers found easy means of evading it; so they had to obtain -a fresh Act in 1815, by which parties receiving any barrel to rib, -stock, &c., without its having previously been proved, became liable to -a penalty of twenty pounds, and not less than twenty shillings: it also -enacted that any person or persons making and selling any gun, the -barrels of which had not been proved at either this or the London -proof-house, became liable to the same penalty; and it further enacted, -that any person or persons forging the stamps or marks of either of the -two proof-houses, should be liable to the same penalties, and in -default of payment, to a certain term of imprisonment, &c. It also -ordered, that all barrels be proved with the quantity of powder in -proportion to the various bores enumerated in the table. - -The severe, but just, strictures cast upon the lax nature of this Act of -Parliament, and the equally lax way in which its provisions were carried -out (individual benefit being held to be the most important element in -the interpretation), imperatively called for an immediate improvement. -The heavy denunciations which I felt bound to visit on the defective -working of this "miscalled proof of gun barrels" in my former works, at -length opened the eyes, not only of the sportsman and the trade, but -also of the Government; and (I believe in 1854) it was intimated to the -proof companies of London and Birmingham that the time had arrived -"_when gun barrels should be proved in reality_;" and that if the -initiative was not taken by the trade, the Government were prepared to -introduce a public Act of Parliament for that purpose. The natural -consequence followed, and in 1855 an Act was passed entitled "The Gun -Barrel Proof Act 1855," by which most extensive powers are delegated to -the two companies. - -The clause of most vital importance enacts that all gun barrels shall be -proved twice; first in the rough, which is called provisional proof; and -secondly, when the barrels are soldered together, breeched, and -percussioned. Thus, in a comparatively finished state, when all the -necessary reductions and other operations have been effected, the -barrels become properly tested. Not only the metal of the barrels and -the soundness of the breeches, but the screwing in of the nipples is -proved--a most important check on a very important branch of -workmanship, and which if imperfectly done renders the gun dangerous. - -The first regulation enacts that "barrels are not to be made up unless -proved, and marked as proved." - -2nd. Small arms are not to be sold or exported unless proved, and marked -as proved. - -3rd. Barrels provisionally proved and reduced in strength are to be -deemed unproved. - -4th. Barrels reduced so that the mark does not represent the proof are -to be deemed unproved. - -5th. Barrels with marks defaced are to be deemed unproved. - -6th. Barrels with marks removed are to be deemed unproved. - -7th. Barrels are to be marked according to scale. - -Here follows a list of offences:-- - - XCIX. Every person committing any of the following offences shall for - every such offence be guilty of a misdemeanour, and shall at the - discretion of the court be sentenced to imprisonment, with or without - hard labour, for not more than three years, to wit: - - 1. Every person who forges or counterfeits any stamp or any part of - any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by either of the two - companies for the marking of any barrel: - - 2. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any such - forged or counterfeit stamp or part of a stamp, knowing the same to be - forged or counterfeit: - - 3. Every person who knowingly marks any barrel with any such forged or - counterfeit stamp or with any part of such forged or counterfeit - stamp: - - 4. Every person who makes up any barrel so marked, knowing the same to - be so marked: - - 5. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any barrel - so marked, knowing the same to be so marked: - - 6. Every person who forges or counterfeits or by any means whatever - produces an imitation upon any barrel of any mark or of any part of - any mark of any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by either - of the two companies for the marking of any barrel: - - 7. Every person who sells or parts with the possession of any such - mark or part of a mark, knowing the same to be forged or counterfeit - or an imitation: - - 8. Every person who transposes or removes from any barrel to any other - barrel any mark or any part of any mark of any stamp already or - hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for making - any barrel: - - 9. Every person who shall have in his possession or who shall part - with the possession of any mark or any part of any mark so transposed - or removed, knowing the same to be transposed or removed: - - 10. Every person without lawful excuse, the proof whereof shall lie on - him, having in his possession any such forged or counterfeit stamp or - part of a stamp, or any such forged or counterfeit mark or imitation - of a mark, or any such transposed or removed mark, knowing the same - respectively to be forged, counterfeit, imitated, marked, transposed, - or removed: - - 11. Every person who cuts or severs from any barrel any mark or any - part of any mark of any stamp already or hereafter provided or used by - either of the two companies for the stamping of any barrel, with - intent that such mark or such part of a mark be placed upon or joined - or affixed to any other barrel: - - 12. Every person who places upon or joins or affixes to any barrel any - such mark or part of a mark so cut or severed: - - 13. Every person who, with intent to defraud, uses any genuine stamp - already or hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies - for the marking of any barrel: - - 14. Every person who forges or counterfeits, or by any means produces - an imitation upon any barrel of any mark, or of any part of any mark, - of any stamp of a foreign country registered by the two companies - pursuant to the provisions of this Act. - - C. Every person committing any of the following offences shall for - every such offence be subject to a penalty as follows, to wit: - - 1. Every person selling or exchanging, or exposing or keeping for - sale, or exporting or importing, or attempting to export or import - from or to England, or having in his possession without lawful excuse - (the proof whereof shall lie upon him), any barrel having thereupon - any mark of any forged or counterfeit stamp or part of a stamp already - or hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for - marking any barrel, or having thereupon any forged or counterfeit mark - or imitation of a mark of any stamp or part of a stamp so provided or - used, or having thereupon any mark of any stamp or part of a stamp so - provided or used, such mark having been transposed or removed thereto - from any other barrel, shall for every such barrel so sold or - exchanged, or exposed or kept for sale, or exported or imported, or - attempted to be exported or imported, or so in his possession, forfeit - not exceeding twenty pounds: - - 2. Every person selling or exchanging or exposing or keeping for sale, - or exporting or attempting to export from England, any small arm, the - barrel or barrels whereof are not under this Act duly proved and - marked as proved, shall for every such barrel forfeit not exceeding - twenty pounds: - - 3. Every person fraudulently erasing, obliterating, or defacing, or - fraudulently causing to be erased, obliterated, or defaced from any - barrel, any mark or any part of any mark of any stamp already or - hereafter provided or used by either of the two companies for the - marking of barrels, shall for every such offence forfeit not exceeding - twenty pounds: - - 4. Every person delivering or sending or causing or procuring to be - delivered or sent for sale, or under pretence of sale, or removing, - consigning, or transmitting, or causing or procuring to be removed, - consigned, or transmitted for sale, or under pretence of sale, any - small arm, the barrel or barrels whereof are not duly proved at the - Proof-house of the Gunmakers' Company, or the Birmingham Proof-house, - or some other public proof-house established by law, and marked as - proved, shall, for every small arm so delivered or sent, or caused or - procured to be delivered or sent, or removed, consigned, or - transmitted, or caused or procured to be removed, consigned, or - transmitted, forfeit not exceeding twenty pounds. - -The preceding list of offences against the proper conducting of the gun -manufacture have been found, after nearly three years' experience, to -fulfil the intentions of the framers[12] of the bill. Undoubtedly a much -more healthy tone has been given to the constitution of the trade; and -it is to be fervently hoped that it will entirely eradicate the evil of -producing such a vast amount of worthless and dangerous guns. The -double-proof has been too much for many of the "sham damns." No doubt -much remains to be done even yet; but the trade is progressing towards -convalescence, after this severe purging. With these remarks I shall -introduce schedule B of the new Act. - - [12] I had the honour of being one of a committee to frame the - clauses. - -SCHEDULE (B.) - -RULES AND REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO THE PROOF OF SMALL ARMS. - - _Classification of Small Arms._ - - _First Class._--Comprising single-barrelled military arms of smooth - bore. - - _Second Class._--Comprising double-barrelled military arms of smooth - bore, and rifled arms of every description, whether of one or more - barrels, or constructed of plain or twisted iron. - - _Third Class._--Comprising every description of single-barrelled - birding and fowling-pieces for firing small shot; and also those known - by the names of Danish, Dutch, Carolina, and Spanish. - - _Fourth Class._--Comprising every description of double-barrelled - birding and fowling-pieces for firing small shot. - - _Fifth Class._--Comprising revolving and breech-loading small arms of - every description and system. - - _Rule of Proof._ - - The gunpowder used for proof shall be of equal quality and strength - with that which is now used by the Honourable Board of Ordnance. - - The balls used for the proof of barrels of all classes shall be of - lead, and spherical, and of the size and weight prescribed by the - scale for proof. - - Barrels for arms of the second class and of the fourth class, and for - breech-loading arms of the fifth class, shall be proved provisionally - and definitively, and barrels for all other arms shall be proved once - definitively. - - _Conditions precedent to Proof._ - - Barrels for arms of the first class shall not be qualified for proof - until they shall be in a fit and proper state for setting up. - - Barrels for arms of the third class shall not be qualified for proof - until they shall be in a fit and proper state for setting up, with the - proper breeches in; and all barrels lumped for percussioning shall be - proved through the nipple hole, with the proper pins or plugs in. - - Barrels for arms of the second and fourth classes: - - For provisional proof:--If of plain metal, shall be bored and ground, - having plugs attached, with touch-holes drilled in the plugs, of a - diameter not exceeding one-sixteenth of an inch. If any touch-hole - shall be enlarged, from any cause whatever, to a dimension exceeding - in diameter one-tenth of an inch, the barrel shall be disqualified for - proof. Notches in the plugs instead of drilled touch-holes shall - disqualify for proof. If of twisted metal, they shall be fine-bored, - and struck up, with proving plugs attached, and touch-holes drilled as - in the case of plain metal barrels. - - For definitive proof:--The barrels, whether of plain or twisted metal, - shall be in the finished state, ready for setting up, with the - breeches in the percussioned state, break-offs fitted and locks - jointed; the top and bottom ribs shall be rough struck up, pipes, - loops, and stoppers on. All rifle barrels must be rifled; the top and - bottom ribs of double barrels shall be struck up, pipes, loops, and - stoppers on, the proper breeches in, and the thread of the screws - shall be sufficiently sound and full for proof. - - Barrels for revolving arms of the fifth class shall have the cylinders - with the revolving action attached and complete. - - Barrels for breech-loading arms of the fifth class shall be subject to - provisional proof, according to the class to which they belong, and to - definitive proof when the breech-loading action is attached and - complete. - - _Marks of Proof._ - - The marks applicable to the definitive proof shall be the proof and - view marks now used by the two companies respectively. - - The marks applicable to the provisional proof for the Gunmakers - Company shall be the letters (G.P.) interlaced in a cypher surmounted - by a lion rampant, and for the Birmingham Company shall be the letters - (B.P.) interlaced in a cypher surmounted by a Crown. - -[Illustration: London marks.] - -[Illustration: Birmingham marks.] - - _Mode of affixing Proof Marks._ - - On arms of the first and third classes the definitive proof mark and - view mark shall be impressed at the breech end of the barrel, and if - the barrel be constructed with a patent breech, the view mark shall be - also impressed upon the breech. - - On arms of the second, fourth, and fifth classes, the provisional - proof mark shall be impressed at the breech end of the barrel; the - definitive proof mark and view mark shall be impressed upon the barrel - above the provisional proof mark; and if the barrel be constructed - with a patent breech, or with revolving cylinders or chambers, the - view mark shall be also impressed upon the breech, or upon each of the - cylinders or chambers with which the barrel is connected, as the case - may be. - - On all barrels the gauge size of the barrel shall be struck, both at - the provisional and at the definitive proof. - -_Scale for Proof._ - -The Scale following shows the Proportions of Gunpowder applicable under -the foregoing Rules and Regulations to the Proof of the various Classes -of Arms as distinguished by the Trade Numbers indicating the Calibre. - - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - | | | | ||Charges of Powder || - |Number| Diameter | Diameter |Weight of|| for Proof. || - | of | of Bore by |of Balls for|Balls for++------------------++ - |Gauge.|Calculation.| Proof. | Proof. || First Class. || - | | | | ++------------------++ - | | | | ||Definitive Proof. || - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - | | inches. | inches. | grains. ||grains. ozs. drs. || - | 1 | 1.669 | 1.649 | 6752 || 4812 11 ... || - | 2 | 1.325 | 1.305 | 3342 || 2324 5 5 || - | 3 | 1.157 | 1.107 | 2211 || 1531 3 8 || - | 4 | 1.052 | 1.032 | 1649 || 1176 2 11 || - | 5 | .976 | .956 | 1315 || 930 2 2 || - | 6 | .819 | .899 | 1090 || 766 1 12 || - | 7 | .873 | .853 | 931 || 656 1 8 || - | 8 | .835 | .815 | 812 || 602 1 6 || - | 9 | .803 | .783 | 720 || 492 1 2 || - | 10 | .775 | .755 | 646 || 465 1 1 || - | 11 | .751 | .731 | 586 || 437 ... 16 || - | 12 | .729 | .709 | 535 || 437 ... 16 || - | 13 | .710 | .690 | 493 || 410 ... 15 || - | 14 | .693 | .673 | 457 || 383 ... 14 || - | 15 | .677 | .657 | 425 || 383 ... 14 || - | 16 | .662 | .642 | 399 || 369 ... 13-1/2|| - | 17 | .649 | .629 | 374 || 369 ... 13-1/2|| - | 18 | .637 | .617 | 352 || 342 ... 12-1/2|| - | 19 | .626 | .606 | 334 || 301 ... 11 || - | 20 | .615 | .595 | 316 || 273 ... 10 || - | 21 | .605 | .585 | 300 || 273 ... 10 || - | 22 | .596 | .576 | 287 || 246 ... 9 || - | 23 | .587 | .567 | 274 || 246 ... 9 || - | 24 | .579 | .559 | 262 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 25 | .571 | .551 | 251 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 26 | .563 | .543 | 242 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 27 | .556 | .536 | 231 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 28 | .550 | .530 | 223 || 232 ... 8-1/2|| - | 29 | .543 | .523 | 214 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 30 | .537 | .517 | 207 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 31 | .531 | .511 | --- || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 32 | .526 | .506 | 194 || 205 ... 7-1/2|| - | 33 | .520 | .500 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 34 | .515 | .495 | 182 || 191 ... 7 || - | 35 | .510 | .490 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 36 | .506 | .486 | 172 || 191 ... 7 || - | 37 | .501 | .481 | --- || 191 ... 7 || - | 38 | .497 | .477 | 162 || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 39 | .492 | .472 | --- || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 40 | .488 | .468 | 154 || 178 ... 6-1/2|| - | 41 | .484 | .464 | --- || 164 ... 6 || - | 42 | .480 | .460 | 146 || 164 ... 6 || - | 43 | .476 | .456 | --- || 164 ... 6 || - | 44 | .473 | .453 | 139 || 164 ... 6 || - | 45 | .469 | .449 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 46 | .466 | .446 | 133 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 47 | .463 | .443 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 48 | .459 | .439 | 127 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 49 | .456 | .436 | --- || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - | 50 | .453 | .433 | 122 || 150 ... 5-1/2|| - +------+------------+------------+---------++------------------++ - - +------+---------------------------------------------------------++ - | | Charges of Powder for Proof. || - |Number+-------------------------------------++------------------++ - | of | Second Class. || Third Class. || - |Gauge.+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - | |Provisional Proof.| Definitive Proof.|| Definitive Proof.|| - +------+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - | |grains. ozs. drs. |grains. ozs. drs. ||grains. ozs. drs. || - | 1 | 4812 11 ... | 2406 5 8 || 3850 8 12-3/4|| - | 2 | 2324 5 5 | 1162 2 10-1/2|| 1859 4 4 || - | 3 | 1531 3 8 | 766 1 12 || 1225 2 12-3/4|| - | 4 | 1176 2 11 | 588 1 5-1/2|| 941 2 2-1/2|| - | 5 | 930 2 2 | 465 1 1 || 744 1 11-1/4|| - | 6 | 766 1 12 | 383 ... 14 || 612 1 6-1/2|| - | 7 | 656 1 8 | 328 ... 12 || 525 1 3-1/4|| - | 8 | 602 1 6 | 301 ... 11 || 481 1 1-1/2|| - | 9 | 492 1 2 | 246 ... 9 || 394 ... 14-1/2|| - | 10 | 465 1 1 | 232 ... 8-1/2|| 372 ... 13-1/2|| - | 11 | 437 ... 16 | 219 ... 8 || 350 ... 12-3/4|| - | 12 | 437 ... 16 | 219 ... 8 || 350 ... 12-3/4|| - | 13 | 410 ... 15 | 205 ... 7-1/2|| 328 ... 12 || - | 14 | 383 ... 14 | 191 ... 7 || 306 ... 11-1/4|| - | 15 | 383 ... 14 | 191 ... 7 || 306 ... 11-1/4|| - | 16 | 369 ... 13-1/2| 185 ... 6-3/4|| 295 ... 10-3/4|| - | 17 | 369 ... 13-1/2| 185 ... 6-3/4|| 295 ... 10-3/4|| - | 18 | 342 ... 12-1/2| 171 ... 6-1/4|| 273 ... 10 || - | 19 | 301 ... 11 | 150 ... 5-1/2|| 241 ... 8-3/4|| - | 20 | 273 ... 10 | 137 ... 5 || 219 ... 8 || - | 21 | 273 ... 10 | 137 ... 5 || 219 ... 8 || - | 22 | 246 ... 9 | 123 ... 4-1/2|| 197 ... 7-1/4|| - | 23 | 246 ... 9 | 123 ... 4-1/2|| 197 ... 7-1/4|| - | 24 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 25 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 26 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 27 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 28 | 232 ... 8-1/2| 116 ... 4-1/4|| 186 ... 6-3/4|| - | 29 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 30 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 31 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 32 | 205 ... 7-1/2| 102 ... 3-3/4|| 164 ... 6 || - | 33 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 34 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 35 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 36 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 37 | 191 ... 7 | 96 ... 3-1/2|| 153 ... 5-1/2|| - | 38 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 39 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 40 | 178 ... 6-1/2| 89 ... 3-1/4|| 142 ... 5-1/4|| - | 41 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 42 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 43 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 44 | 164 ... 6 | 82 ... 3 || 131 ... 4-3/4|| - | 45 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 46 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 47 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 48 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 49 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - | 50 | 150 ... 5-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4|| 120 ... 4-1/2|| - +------+------------------+------------------++------------------++ - - +------+-------------------------------------+ - | | Charges of Powder for Proof. | - |Number+-------------------------------------+ - | of | Fourth Class. | - |Gauge.+------------------+------------------+ - | |Provisional Proof.| Definitive Proof.| - +------+------------------+------------------+ - | |grains. ozs. drs. |grains. ozs. drs. | - | 1 | 3850 8 12-3/4| 2406 5 8 | - | 2 | 1859 4 4 | 1162 2 10-1/2| - | 3 | 1225 2 12-3/4| 766 1 12 | - | 4 | 941 2 2-1/2| 588 1 5-1/2| - | 5 | 744 1 11-1/4| 465 1 1 | - | 6 | 612 1 6-1/2| 383 ... 14 | - | 7 | 525 1 3-1/4| 328 ... 12 | - | 8 | 481 1 1-1/2| 301 ... 11 | - | 9 | 394 ... 14-1/2| 246 ... 9 | - | 10 | 372 ... 13-1/2| 232 ... 8-1/2| - | 11 | 350 ... 12-3/4| 219 ... 8 | - | 12 | 350 ... 12-3/4| 219 ... 8 | - | 13 | 328 ... 12 | 205 ... 7-1/2| - | 14 | 306 ... 11-1/4| 191 ... 7 | - | 15 | 306 ... 11-1/4| 191 ... 7 | - | 16 | 295 ... 10-3/4| 185 ... 6-3/4| - | 17 | 295 ... 10-3/4| 185 ... 6-3/4| - | 18 | 273 ... 10 | 171 ... 6-1/4| - | 19 | 241 ... 8-3/4| 150 ... 5-1/2| - | 20 | 219 ... 8 | 137 ... 5 | - | 21 | 219 ... 8 | 137 ... 5 | - | 22 | 197 ... 7-1/4| 123 ... 4-1/2| - | 23 | 197 ... 7-1/4| 123 ... 4-1/2| - | 24 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 25 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 26 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 27 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 28 | 186 ... 6-3/4| 116 ... 4-1/4| - | 29 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 30 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 31 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 32 | 164 ... 6 | 102 ... 3-3/4| - | 33 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 34 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 35 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 36 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 37 | 153 ... 5-1/2| 96 ... 3-1/2| - | 38 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 39 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 40 | 142 ... 5-1/4| 89 ... 3-1/4| - | 41 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 42 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 43 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 44 | 131 ... 4-3/4| 82 ... 3 | - | 45 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 46 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 47 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 48 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 49 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - | 50 | 120 ... 4-1/2| 75 ... 2-3/4| - +------+------------------+------------------+ - -N.B.--Revolving Arms of the Fifth Class shall be proved once only, and -such Proof shall be by the Scale laid down for definitive Proof of the -Fourth Class. - -[Illustration] - -As soon as a number of gun barrels are loaded according to the foregoing -scale, they are taken to a house or detached building, standing apart -from other offices. (The woodcut represents the interior accurately.) -The house is lined throughout with thick sheet iron, and the windows, -which resemble Venetian blinds, are constructed of the same metal. Iron -frames are laid the whole length of the room; on these the barrels of -various qualities, when about to be fired, are placed. In the front of -these frames lies a large mass of sand, to receive the balls. Behind the -frame, on which the twist barrels are fixed, lies another bed of sand; -in which, on the recoil, the barrels are buried. Behind the frame, on -which the common barrels or muskets are tried, a strong iron bar is -placed, having a number of holes large enough to receive the tang of the -breech, but not the barrel. The barrels being thus fixed, it is -impossible for them to fly back. A groove runs along the whole length of -each frame, in which the train of powder is strewed to ignite the -charges, upon which the barrels are laid, with the touch-holes -downwards. - -When everything is ready for the proof, the windows are let close down, -the door is shut and secured, and an iron rod heated red hot is -introduced through a hole in the wall. On igniting the train, a -tremendous explosion takes place. The windows are then drawn up, the -door opened, and the smoke dissipated. The twist barrels are found -buried in the sand, the common ones are thrown forwards; some are found -perfect, others burst to pieces. It is rarely that best barrels are -found burst; more frequently they are bulged, or swelled out, in places -which are faulty, or of a softer temper. Those that are found perfect, -are then marked with the provisional punch of different sizes (but -having the same impression), according to the quality of the barrel. In -London and Birmingham they have now an additional punch, containing the -number of the bore by which the barrel has been tried. This mark easily -enables the observer to discover whether the barrel has had any -considerable quantity bored out after proving. Those that are bulged are -sent to the maker, who beats down the swellings, and sends back the -barrels to be proved again. They generally stand the second proof, -though we have known a barrel undergo four proofs before it was marked. -The common barrels are required to stand twenty-four hours before they -are examined; when, if not burst, any holes or other material -imperfections are made quite apparent by the action of the saltpetre. -Such barrels are, of course, sent back unmarked. Those that are found -satisfactory are duly stamped and taken home. - -The importance of the gun trade to England may be estimated from the -number of barrels proved during the last year, 1857, of which the -following is a correct statement:-- - -_Provisional Proof._ - - Plain iron barrels 185,776 - Twisted barrels 136,804 - Saddle pistol barrels 33,480 - Best pistol barrels 962 - Common pistol barrels 2,066 - Revolving and double barrel pistols 57,106 - ------- - Total 416,194 - - Definitively proved, 70,100, being principally double barrels. - -This is in Birmingham alone; no doubt the London Company prove to the -extent of 200,000 yearly, which may also be debited to Birmingham, as -the barrels are all welded, bored, and ground before being sent to -London. In addition to these may be counted the Government contracts of -some hundred thousands yearly. - -The passing of this Act of Parliament levelled all distinctions between -London and Birmingham proved barrels; they are now treated precisely -alike, and one is equally good with the other. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE SCIENCE OF GUNNERY. - - "Science begins at the point where mind dominates matter, where the - attempt is made to subject the mass of experience to the scrutiny of - reason. Science is mind brought into connection with nature."--COSMOS. - - -A new era in the science of gunnery may be dated from the commencement -of the latter half of the nineteenth century; and long before its close -other improvements may be effected which shall eclipse even those of our -day. A new elementary principle has been infused into the science. -Rifles are now really weapons of the highest order; in truth we may be -said to have only recently become acquainted with the principles on -which they should be constructed. Little of science had hitherto been -applied to them; as military arms they were neglected for centuries, to -be ushered into notice at last by the unassisted efforts of private -individuals; Government, to whom arms were of the greatest importance, -having systematically neglected all improvement, by invariably refusing -pecuniary aid, the only grease at all calculated to overcome the -friction retarding the wheels of progress. It is an old proverb, that -"one extreme begets another," and when changes are once started, the -difficulty is to stop them; the tendency is to rush on from one -alteration to another, before we are really well acquainted with what we -have so hastily thrown aside. Improvement does not always follow a -change; the human race, and the English more especially, have an -inordinate desire for "the marvellous;" and multitudes of "wonderful -discoveries" and inventions of the utmost value are heralded daily by -the ever eager press, often to be as hastily forgotten, or discovered, -even by their promulgators, to be myths. - -Improvement, to be at all beneficial, must bring with it all the -elements of improvement; and to render it easy of attainment, none of -its essential points should be costly. In gunnery more especially, it is -essential to avoid all unnecessary friction, excess of recoil, and waste -of gunpowder; whilst, at the same time, transport of the gun must not be -cumbersome, and durability in all its points is essential. - -How few study the subject in all its bearings! How rapidly conclusions -are jumped at! Even in getting range, if it is to be purchased at the -cost of other essential principles, it is not economy to sacrifice -several even moderately valuable principles for the sake of range alone. -The experience of the present age has shown that all our important -discoveries have their limits: the locomotive cannot be used with -advantage beyond a certain limited speed; steam vessels attempted to be -propelled at an unusual velocity have but a very brief endurance, and -rapidly decay. All matter has power only to effect a certain amount of -work, and this is endured best at a medium application; showing most -clearly that "the race is not always to the swift or the battle to the -strong." - -Experience is required in the greatest of modern inventions. -Electricity, at a moderate immersion, subjected to a moderate -superincumbent weight, is an effectual messenger, swift as thought; but -when overweighted by immersion to depths where the superincumbent -pressure amounts to thousands of pounds upon the square inch, then the -messenger becomes paralysed, and refuses to obey man's will; showing -very clearly that until that pressure be artificially removed by -insulating the conducting wire in tubes equal to restrain or keep from -it that enormous load, the lasting success of an Atlantic telegraph is -very doubtful. Many similar instances might be cited to show the -necessity of considering well the established laws of nature, and their -bearing on the object pursued. In no science is this of more importance -than in gunnery; and the hundreds of useless inventions in gunnery are -to be ascribed to the non-observance of these rules. The two-grooved -rifle, the "steam gun," "the sciva," "Warner's long-range myth," and -many other inventions equally absurd, engage the attention for a time, -but soon vanish: in fact, all experience shows that improvement can only -be effected in accordance with certain established principles of nature -and practical science. - -Iron, in quantities sufficient for all reasonable requirements, is a -dutiful servant; but, when required of colossal proportions, it refuses -to obey: giving us a hint from nature, that we should be content with -moderation. - -All the principles appertaining to science are based on certain -established laws; the unsoundness of one renders the superstructure -unsound also; and any deductions drawn from unsound principles are -comparatively worthless. Gunnery, as a science, must be in uniformity -with truth in all its parts, or no science exists in its arrangements. -This will be best illustrated by dividing the subject into several -heads: 1st, the explosive power and its velocity; 2nd, the retarding -agents, air and friction; 3rd, the construction of the projectile tubes; -and 4th, the form of projectile best calculated to attain a perfect -result. - -1st. The explosive power. Gunpowder has been stated by different -authorities to liberate its gases with very different degrees of -rapidity. Hutton has given to it a much greater rapidity than Robins has -evidently even surmised; though, no doubt, as we have already shown, -high velocity in gunpowder depends on several circumstances--the degree -of purification of its ingredients, their intimate mechanical mixture -(that the elements may exert their affinities with the utmost facility), -and, lastly, the degree of granulation observed: and in addition, the -suitability of the tubes or vessels for carrying on correctly such -important experiments. Robins and Hutton unquestionably may be regarded -as the English, if not the European, authorities, and any work on the -science of gunnery would be very incomplete without their valuable -elucidations. - -Previously to the researches of Robins, the theory of atmospheric -resistance was but imperfectly surmised, and when he made his statements -of the immense resistance which the fluidity of the air offered to -projectiles in a high state of velocity, they were treated as the idle -chimeras of a speculative brain; and yet he only was enabled to estimate -the real effect of the explosive nature and force of gunpowder to a very -limited extent: indeed, so limited, that Hutton, only twenty years -subsequently, speaking of Robins' theory, says, "Mr. Robins and other -authors, it may be said, have only guessed at, rather than determined. -That ingenious philosopher, in a simple experiment, truly showed that, -by the firing of a parcel of gunpowder, a quantity of elastic air was -disengaged; which, when confined in the space only occupied by the -powder before it was fired, was found to be nearly 250 times stronger -than the weight or elasticity of the common air. He then heated the same -parcel of air to the degree of red hot iron, and found it in that -temperature to be about four times as strong as before; whence he -inferred, that the first strength of the inflamed fluid must be nearly -1,000 times the pressure of the atmosphere. But this was merely guessing -at the degree of heat in the inflamed fluid, and, consequently, of its -first strength; both which in fact are found to be much greater. It is -true that this assumed degree of strength accorded pretty well with that -author's experiments; but this seeming agreement, it might easily be -shown, could only be owing to the inaccuracy of his own further -experiments; and, in fact, with far better opportunities than fell to -the lot of Mr. Robins, we have shown that inflamed gunpowder is about -double the strength that he has assigned to it, and that it expands -itself with the velocity of about 5,000 feet per second." On the same -subject he further says:--"On this principle it was that Mr. Robins made -all his experiments and performed all his calculations in gunnery. But -it is manifest that this method of guessing at the degree of heat of the -flame must be very uncertain and unsatisfactory, being much below the -truth; since all our notions and experience of the heat of inflamed -powder convince us that it is higher than that of red hot iron, and, -indeed, it has clearly appeared from our experiments, that its heat is -at least double that of red hot iron, and that it increases the -elasticity of the elastic fluid more than eight times." - -Here is evidence, though not conclusive, of the immense force of -gunpowder, and also of the progress of knowledge on the subject; yet it -clearly shows the evil of coming to hasty conclusions, however well -supported by apparent facts, as it has had in this case a tendency to -check inquiry and retard the advancement of knowledge. For the extensive -experiments of Hutton were but limited in discovery, because they were -not carried to a sufficient extent, and thus, they are quite unsuited to -the present day. He was satisfied because he had gone further than any -of his predecessors; and though he established and clearly proved the -soundness of his own theory, yet he could not either view the subject to -its utmost bounds, nor yet go sufficiently far, but that others, taking -up the question where he left it, may pursue the subject to a much more -remote limit. The subject, indeed, was limited to him. He far excelled -Robins, no doubt, as he has shown; but that involves no detraction from -the merit due to Robins for his experiments and discoveries, no more -than any individual proving the subject to be a more extensive one than -Hutton did, would excel Hutton; for the value of improvement is more to -be attributed to him who lays the foundation, than to him who raises the -building. So is it in this case; Robins laid the foundation for an -extensive knowledge of the nature and power of the explosive fluids, and -Hutton built upon that foundation a certain extent of superstructure, -and there he left it, without roofing the building: he considered the -question as settled. Common consent has, as yet, received his conclusion -as unshaken and uncontroverted; and it is not my intention to make the -attempt to controvert it, but merely to show that his deductions fall -short of what the principles of gunpowder-making admit--carried out in -the more extensive way it has been within the last few years--owing to -the limited nature of his experiments. This is rather an extensive -position for me to occupy, or endeavour to hold: but I do not mean the -size of the _tools_ of _experiment_ so much as the diversity of them; -for exploding ten thousand tons of powder in the same machine and in -the same way, would but give the same or similar results; it is the -variety and the singularity of experiments that expand and increase the -fund of knowledge, and enable the mind to conceive and comprehend the -immensity of the power and velocity of this wonderful combination. We -have been principally indebted to the exertions of the chemist for means -of purifying and extracting from the ingredients which form this -astonishing compound force, the impurities and foreign substances which -exist, to a certain extent, in all the three, and thus tending to form a -more perfect combustion by increasing the affinities. - -Hutton shows that gunpowder is but so much condensed air; for he says -"We may hence, also, deduce the amazing degree of condensation of the -elastic air in the nitre and gunpowder, and the astonishing force -experienced by its explosion. It has been found by Mr. Robins, and other -philosophers, that 3-10ths of the mass of the powder consists of the -pure condensed air, or that the weight of the condensed air is equal to -3-10ths of the whole composition. But the whole composition of the -powder consists of eight parts by weight, of which six parts are nitre, -one part sulphur, one charcoal; of which the nitre or 3-4ths of the -composition furnishes the whole of the condensed air, while the sulphur -and charcoal only give the fire that produces the explosion. But 3-10ths -of the whole mass of eight parts is equal to 4-10ths of the six parts -of nitre, that is 4-10ths or 2-5ths of the nitre consists of condensed -air, or the weight of the gross matter in the nitre as four to six, or -as two to three; and these two parts, it is probable, are of equal -density or specific gravity. Yet the specific gravity of nitre is 1,900, -that of water being 1,000, and of air 1.2, which is contained in 1,900, -as much as 1,583 times; that is, the air in the nitre must be condensed -the amazing quantity of 1,583 times, if its specific gravity be equal to -the compound nitre itself." Also, "The air is condensed in the nitre -about 1,600 times, nearly double the density of water, which may well be -considered as probably the greatest degree of compression that air is -capable of. Hence it may be perceived that a prodigious force must be -exerted by nature in generating nitre; and as this great force actually -exists in nature, it is very probable that the air in the nitre is thus -compressed into the most dense state possible, and in this consists the -similitude among the different particles of nitre." - -This extract from Hutton enables us to divest the question of any -technicalities, and puts it in so plain a garb that the simplest mind -may comprehend it. Now, the great improvement of chemistry has been to -extract from the nitre the gross material which is contained in the -proportions--2-5ths impurities, and 2-5ths condensed air; thus, half the -quantity being useless, the extraction of these alloys gives a greater -quantity of condensed gases in the same quantity of matter; for if we -take away 2-5ths of the proportions of useless matter, and supply its -place with 2-5ths more condensed air, we thus get 4-5th explosive matter -in the same bulk of material, and thus simply obtain an immense increase -of power without an increase in bulk. We have here evidence of the -progress that has been made in the science of explosive force. - -Considering the difference between gunpowder in 1783 and gunpowder in -1858, I cannot say, with Hutton, that the force is doubled now to what -it was when he wrote; but I believe that this would not be far from the -truth; for it must be quite clear--if he is correct (which I believe he -is) in saying the force of gunpowder consists in the quantity of -explosive matter let loose and expanded by heat--that the greater the -quantity of condensed matter we may have in any given weight, the -greater the force, and the more rapid the explosion: purified saltpetre -thus forming nearly pure gaseous matter; as the diamond is pure carbon. -It seems singular, and is rather presumptuous to say, that Hutton was -not much of a chemist; but had he been more so, he must have perceived -that in the extraction of the foreign matter from the nitre, existed the -means of obtaining an increased quantity of explosive power, and a -proportionate increase of speed or velocity in that explosive material. - -To ascertain the velocity best suited to all projectiles, constitutes -the germ of the science; and that we are approaching a new era in even -that more intimate portion of the science, is daily apparent. Science -shows clearly that if a given force, a quantity to be correctly -ascertained, can produce a certain result, the use of more is waste, and -unworthy of the seeker after perfection; and thus we have to determine -upon, or define, what is the degree or size of gun for certain effects: -a mere calculation nearly allied to that portion of engineering which -would define what power of engine would work a thousand cotton spindles, -or raise a million gallons of water; and all this will eventually be -done. Science requires that there should be no excess, no waste, no -unnecessary recoil, and all that combined with the utmost range of -projectile; this will have to be defined accurately before we can -clearly or truly say we are masters of the science of gunpowder. True it -is that the granulation of gunpowder gives a clear road to its -attainment; but it will be a wearisome journey to reach the summit: yet -it must and will be effected, and the nation that first attempts and -carries out the attainment, will evince a real love for and mastery of -science. - -The following practical experiments illustrate the degree of velocity -and the effects of projectiles so clearly, that they alone will convey -some idea of the high velocity of the evolutions of the gases in -gunpowder. - -My experiments are, like Robins', on a small scale; nor would I, like -Hutton, try a brass gun of sixty calibres in length, carrying a -one-pound ball; for one is strictly more limited than the other, and -thus rendered the results laid down by him imperfect: for, as he says, -"If you fill the tube with powder you get no greater velocity, as there -is not a duration in the confinement to enable the powder to explode." -If he had assimilated the grain of his powder to the gun, he would have -obtained a different result; and a knowledge of this fact, I apprehend, -makes all the difference. The greatest velocity he obtained was with -powder 1-1/2 times the weight of the ball in a gun of sixty calibres in -length, and the velocity he then obtained was only 3,181 feet per -second. The inferences that probably induced him to recommend others not -to endeavour to obtain a greater velocity than 2,000 feet per second, -were, like these experiments, drawn from imperfect data. With a ball of -an ounce weight in a barrel of sixty calibres, and with 3-4ths the -weight of ball in powder, or 12 drachms, a velocity can be given to the -ball to equal it in force to 46,875 pounds. The velocity of this ball I -leave to the calculations of the mathematical world. But, however, I -will give the results of a round of experiments tried to ascertain this; -and if the data laid down be correct, that the velocity of a ball must -be multiplied by its weight to find the force, the result will be the -establishment of a system of velocity never yet dreamt of. I cannot but -imagine that there exists some error; though where it is I know not: -every deduction I have drawn is consequent upon the results hereafter -described. - -"The power required to force a punch 0.50 inch diameter through an iron -plate 0.08 inch thick is 6,025 pounds, through copper 3,938 pounds. A -simple rule for determining the force required for punching may thus be -deduced:-- - -"Taking one inch diameter and one inch in thickness as the units of -calculation it is shown that 150,000 is the constant number for -wrought-iron plates, and 96,000 for copper plates. - -"Multiply the constant number by the given diameter in inches, the -product is the pressure in pounds which will be required to punch a hole -of a given diameter through a plate of a given thickness." - -Now an idea struck me, that this would form a very good test of the -comparative force of gunpowder, and I consequently commenced an -extensive round of experiments. - -In the first attempt I found the results to vary with the weight of the -pendulum of iron plate, and that it was necessary to obtain uniformity -of size and surface; as it must be comprehended that the only resisting -medium to the pendulous plate was atmospheric resistance, and a -dissimilarity of size of surface would invariably give different -results. Having a number of plates of the different thicknesses -hereafter described, I continued increasing the charge from a definite -quantity, until the projectile was driven with sufficient velocity to -perforate the plate suspended. The gun selected for this purpose was of -heavy material, weighing nearly seventeen pounds, it was three feet -long, the metal of the barrel as thick at the muzzle as at the breech, -and carried a spherical ball of sixteen to the pound, or one ounce, and -which fitted tight with the thinnest patch procurable. The bore was -perfectly cylindrical, and plain inside, being polished longitudinally -to a high state of fineness. With a charge of twelve drachms of Curtis -and Harvey's diamond grain powder, the ball went through the half-inch -plate, but went only a few yards further; denoting that the effort -necessary had nearly exhausted its velocity and momentum. - -The recoil of the gun was of the most severe description, and the -shoulder had to be protected for many explosions previous to this high -charge. The larger sized grain was insufficient, ten drachms effecting -the greatest extent of power it seemed capable of, and it became quite -apparent that the tube would not explode more powder, as indications -convinced me: when any more was added, a portion came out unburnt. - -The force necessary to effect this, by the above calculation, is 46,795 -pounds. - -The next plate was 7-16ths thick, and a charge of ten drachms punched -the piece out clean; nine and a half drachms were equal to it, when the -centre of the pendulum could be hit fairly, because there was then an -equal resistance from the atmosphere, which cannot exist in cases where -the edge of the disc receives the blow. - -I got with ease a perforation in a 6-16ths plate, with a charge of -either fine or coarse powder, not exceeding eight drachms; a charge of -seven drachms of fine grain was unequal to the task; but seven drachms -of the coarse showed evidently greater effects produced, though the -perforation was not perfect. Six and a half drachms of No. 2 grain -penetrated a plate of 5-16ths thick easily, while it took full six and -three-quarters drachms of fine grain; five drachms of the larger -perforated a quarter-inch plate, but it took full five and a half -drachms of fine grain to effect the same; while a 3-16ths plate took -three and three-quarters drachms of fine, or three and a quarter of No. -2 grain; and 1-8th plate was easily punched by a charge of two and a -half drachms coarse or three drachms fine. I will place the relative -results in a table, with the force effected by each:-- - - Oz. Drachms. Punched a boiler plate Equal in force to - 1 ball 12 of powder Half-inch thick 46,875 lbs. - 1 " 10 " 7-16ths " 41,015 " - 1 " 8 " 6-16ths " 35,155 " - 1 " 6-1/2 " 5-16ths " 29,295 " - 1 " 5 " 4-16ths " 23,437 " - 1 " 3-1/4 " 3-16ths " 17,578 " - 1 " 2 " 2-16ths " 11,718 " - -Were I to adopt the established method of calculation, multiplying the -weight of ball by the velocity, I should get an answer that would point -to the utter impossibility of any such velocity being possible. And yet -the result is, according to the rule of figures, correct; but in truth -there are exceptions to many rules, for they are only correct when -applied to known products. - -That the velocity of these balls was much, very much, greater than 7,000 -feet per second of time, there cannot be any doubt; it was nearly three -times that. Yet I must not conceal the fact, that this punching is the -more perfect, the higher the velocity; and it shows how the fibres of -iron are separated from a want of vibration to equilibrise the cohesion. -Mr. Colthurst found that duration of pressure lessened the ultimate -force necessary to punch through metal, and thus it may be that -extremely quick pressure may produce the same. Therefore I suspect it is -not the most correct theory that calculates force to be accomplished at -all times by extreme velocity; there will be found discrepancies in the -rule, and one of them arises from no calculation ever having been made -with extreme velocities: medium velocities may generally give such -conclusions, but the very extreme in this case can never have been taken -into consideration at all; as I have very little doubt--in fact, I am -certain--that no person ever obtained such high velocity before. It -must, and is a vast deal greater, incomprehensibly greater, than any -velocity obtained by Hutton; and much more extensive than ever could be -obtained, or, in fact, ever will, by any ordnance whatever. I wish much -I could have experimented with a gun of greater length and bore, for -with one in every way fitted for the purpose, I have no doubt of being -able to perforate an inch thickness of plate. - -Should any person possessing the opportunity and means, wish to try the -experiment, I would advise them to get a barrel of 4-1/2 feet long, 8 -bore, to carry a 2 oz. ball, and of a weight to allow of extending the -explosion up to 30 drs. of powder; they would then obtain the extent of -force I have suggested. There is a certain point to be strictly -observed: see that the plate you use is perfectly sound; for if -laminated, or composed of various plates not firmly welded and attached, -the experiment would be imperfect, as there would be an uneven vibration -created, and acting as the hammer does when held against the point of -the nail while driving it in, clinches the point, so does the substance -in the portions of plate prevent a perforation. An ounce ball, suspended -against the back of the pendulum, by the jar or blow it receives and -communicates, completely prevents the effect, and the ball is flattened, -instead of perforating the object struck: so is it if you place a -1/4-inch plate against any support; it thus has the power of perfectly -resisting the force of the ball, though fired with considerably more -power than is requisite under other circumstances. The effect appears to -be chiefly mechanical; the outer fibres are driven in upon those behind -them with such quickness that they lose cohesion, or are condensed -quicker than the waves of vibration travel, thus giving them no means of -communicating the vibration. But when punched, the rapidity of their -motion produces in the metal a sound of the most intense vivacity, which -plays upon the ear for a considerable period, with rather a pleasant -effect. Lead alone is capable of being used in this experiment; except, -of course, the precious metals, which it would not be _convenient_ to -use. Even an adulteration of the slightest quantity of solder is -sufficient to prevent the result which lead, pure, will invariably give. -Lead projected against lead, if sufficiently thick, cannot perforate, -but the lesser portion becomes flattened; a cast-iron ball fired against -lead, with a certain velocity, is broken into pieces, affecting the lead -comparatively little: showing beautifully the peculiarity of dense -incompressible bodies to resist most effectually the greater the -velocity with which they are struck. Water will, if struck very sharply -with the flat of a sword, act against the blow in a way to splinter the -blade into pieces. The greater the velocity with which a ball is fired -into water, the less the depth of penetration; thus showing clearly the -many excellent properties of dense incompressible bodies as projectiles, -and proving the objection that lead is too soft for artillery to be -without a foundation, and only entertained from a want of knowledge of -its nature. - -A point of great importance was exemplified during these experiments; -and as the question has lately given rise to considerable discussion, it -will be well that the facts should be stated. - -At very short distances from the muzzle of the gun the penetration was -found to be less than at distances more extended. At five yards the iron -plate could not be perforated; at ten yards the effect was much greater, -but fifteen yards was the least distance at which it could be said to be -effectually perforated; at twenty yards the result was still more -satisfactory, clearly demonstrating that bullets gain both in velocity -and penetration for a considerable distance after leaving the muzzle of -the gun. The following experiments verify this remark:-- - -In the report of the experiments which were carried on at Cork in 1852, -it is stated that the power of penetration of an elongated rifle bullet -gradually increases as the range is increased, up to 190 yards. - -In order to prove this, experiments were carried on at Enfield for three -days with a variety of fire-arms, and different sorts of projectiles. -On the fourth day the experiments were repeated with the common musket -and Wilkinson's rifle. The former, at forty yards, gave a penetration of -2.25 inches; and the latter averaged 2.75, in a target of green elm. -Again: at ninety yards, the musket penetrated 2.25 inches, and the rifle -3.5 inches. At 120 yards, the musket gave 2.5 inches, and the rifle -3.25. Both being subsequently fired at every successive ten yards up to -220, the result was that the penetration of the musket ball gradually -decreased in power as the distance increased, while the elongated bullet -gained power of penetration up to 190 yards; after which it slightly -decreased. - -2nd. Consequent on the velocity of the explosive fluids is the -resistance of that aeriform fluid filling all space. It has been -calculated that in a vacuum, matter in motion would be a long time in -coming to rest; and very providentially it is that nature in her grand -arrangements has made one element to control another. In no other -portion of nature's work has anything more wonderful than atmospheric -air been produced; its action on the velocity of projectiles is of so -extensive a nature, that without clearly understanding that action, the -science of gunnery never can be thoroughly acquired. The resistance of -the atmosphere is in proportion to the velocity of the attempt to -displace it; the higher that velocity becomes, the greater is the -resistance. This is shown by the actions of all the fulminates. A -quantity of the fulminate of silver exploded on a copper plate will -perforate that plate, or, if fired upon a piece of wood, will bury -itself in that substance, splintering it in proportion to the quantity. -Now, ordinary gunpowder has no such effect as this, because, though it -may produce the same amount of expansive gas, it produces it at -one-fourth the velocity of the fulminates: the air is driven back upon -itself so gradually as to offer no very important resistance; but the -action of the fulminates is so rapid and so violent that the high -elasticity of the air has not time to yield, and the force is driven -into the apparently more solid material, the copper or the wood. - -The mode in which atmospheric resistance mostly interferes with -projectile force is owing to the columnar form it assumes in the tubes -of all descriptions of gunnery. If the velocity of gunpowder be as great -as we suppose it to be, the displacement of a column of air must be -effected by driving the whole column in a gun-barrel of many inches, -into a column probably less than half an inch in height; or, if the -length of the tube from the starting of the charge to the muzzle be 38 -inches, then will the displacement require a force capable of condensing -thirty-eight atmospheres into one, or something like 570 lbs.; without -estimating the lateral pressure of that column on the sides of the -gun-barrel, which may be safely estimated at one-half more. It may be -supposed that the column would be partially in motion for a greater -distance than half an inch in front of the projectile; but this is -disproved by the fact that time is essential to put aeriform matter in -motion, and naturally it never does so at a greater velocity than it is -familiarly known to do in the shape of winds: but the fact is better -illustrated by the frequent bursting of barrels near the muzzle, caused -by a piece of snow or clay, a piece of paper or wadding. Were a current -established around this projection it would pass on, but the air strikes -these light obstructions when in a high state of condensation, amounting -to many atmospheres in one: so many as to be nearly equal to a solid -which is more powerful than the barrel; the latter therefore succumbs to -it. - -The resistance of the air is so highly philosophical a question, that I -merely touch on its actual bearings on the passage of projectiles to -show how the quantity of force is absorbed or expended in relation to -the quantity of the gunpowder employed; which, it may be assumed, is a -proportion of nearly one-third of the whole, or a quantity independent -of that necessary to give velocity to the leaden projectile, to enable -it to overcome the still and uniform impeding agent up to the end of its -flight. The rapid exit of the bullet from the barrel, with a resisting -influence of this weight into the comparatively insignificant one of 15 -lbs. to the square inch, will fully explain how it is that a bullet -increases in velocity even up to a considerable distance after leaving -the muzzle of the gun; and further showing that in all arrangements of -truly scientific gunnery, the increasing resistance must be met by a -fresh production of explosive fluid over every atom of space in that -tube, where it is demonstrable that the resistance is increasing in a -geometrical progression as the point of exit is becoming nearer; so that -gunnery, unless all the contingencies are provided for, must necessarily -remain an imperfect science. - -Intimately allied to the displacement of the atmosphere is the amount of -friction. Gunnery is now rid of the anomaly of being assisted by -friction: the detention of the projectile in the tube by artificial -friction, to enable more force to be generated, is one of those -absurdities pardonable only in bygone days. Science is best consulted by -lessening friction; guns of steel, with interiors as fine as the polish -in a mirror, are found to shoot best: a rough road is but so much force -uselessly absorbed; the experience of the last few years having proved -that a range of 1,800 yards cannot be accomplished except with barrels -having surfaces as smooth as possible. - -Rifles, no doubt, are now in use in which, by increasing the degree of -spiral, friction is more than doubled, perhaps trebled; but such -unscientific constructions are but as one error to counteract another. -Unscientifically formed projectiles not having in themselves the -principles necessary for true flight, have to receive a counteracting -agency in the shape of additional spinning, on an axis coincident to the -line of flight, to enable them to range a given distance, with, as it -will be perceived, an additional amount of expellant agency; but these -cannot be included in the category of scientific gunnery. - -3rd. Next to absence of friction is the construction of the gun barrel. -Already have we shown that the inner surface of a gun barrel requires -to be like glass; next to this it is necessary that the metal should be -composed of the most unyielding structure. Metals absorb force in -proportion to their softness: a barrel constructed of lead gives the -worst result of any metal; in truth, as is the increase of tenacity and -density in the tube, so is the increase of range in projectiles. The -wonderful results displayed by the use of steel guns of all descriptions -bear out this assertion to the fullest extent. A yielding gun barrel may -be compared to the dragging of a heavily loaded waggon over boggy -ground, which rises in a wave before the wheels during its progress. - -4th. Next in importance to the inflexibility of the gun barrel is the -form of projectile best calculated to displace the atmosphere during its -extended flight. Under the head of Rifles this subject will be more -fully discussed; but, as thousands of years have stamped the arrow as -being in accordance with nature's laws, it should no doubt be the object -of science to approximate the leaden projectile to that form as much as -possible, and hence the cylindro-conoidal may be assumed to be the best -form of projectile. - -That both Jacob's and Whitworth's bullets partake of a certain amount of -"_wabbling_" motion after leading the muzzle of the gun is certain, from -their length, as well as from the fact that in both the centre of -gravity is in the hinder part of the bullet; thus they are both in -reality bad in a scientific point of view. - -If any merit can be claimed for either, it is on account of the -mechanical ingenuity displayed in neutralizing the effects of want of -scientific principle. The want of principle, however, is not the only -evil, were such guns to come into general use; their manufacture, in the -hands of that portion of the gun trade which never estimates -consequences, and never studies the theory of the science at all, but -manufactures all fire-arms by "rule of thumb," would prove dangerous in -the extreme. - -The bursting of barrels in any attempt to project lengthened projectiles -is of a very different description to that which ordinarily occurs, on -account of the different direction in which the force is applied. In -consequence of their greater length, and their increased friction -against the sides of the barrel, they are more reluctantly set in -motion--_i. e._, their inertia is with greater difficulty overcome. The -result of this is, that in overcoming their inertia the greatest strain -is exerted backward, on the breech of the gun; which, if not more firm -than usual, is blown out, entering the forehead of the shooter: an -accident which would prove fatal not only to the gun, but to the person -who used it. - -This accident may no doubt be effectually guarded against by -strengthening the breech end of the gun as well as the breech itself; -but without that precaution it is to be feared that such accidents would -be of frequent occurrence. - -A considerable error may easily be promulgated, as to the heat necessary -to be applied ere gunpowder will explode. A late writer says, it is -necessary to raise it to 600 degrees before it is explosive. This is a -splitting of hairs, and such a palpable mystification, that it is -scarcely worth noticing. But I will explain: if you place upon a plate a -few grains of powder, by heating the plate underneath (for instance, on -a smith's fire,) you will see the sulphur giving out a blue flame, it -being easily fused. As the plate becomes heated to nearly a red heat, -the whole explodes, in consequence of the charcoal and nitre not being -hot enough to allow the gases generating the heat to be liberated; but -as soon as this does take place the explosion ensues. Now, it is a well -known fact, that the smallest particle of matter possessing above 600 deg. -of heat, will ignite any quantity of powder it comes in immediate -contact with; we will suppose with one portion of charcoal, one of -sulphur, and one of nitre (it matters not how small they are: a ten -hundredth part of the substance of one of the smallest grains of powder -would suffice), and if it has the means of communicating to these small -portions 600 deg., this is sufficient, as their explosion induces also that -of the very largest quantity: for it ought to be perfectly understood, -that a great explosion is but so many millions of small ones combined, -and by their united force effecting the great results we see. The -ingredients of powder are ground and intimately mixed together on the -bed of the mill to the great extent they are, to the end that, if -possible, there shall not be in the composition two grains or portions -of one ingredient in immediate contact with each other; but that, when -the ignition does take place, each may be present to add its peculiar -gas, in order that each affinity may be supplied. Thus becomes evident -the necessity of a most extensive incorporation, a blending and equal -division of mixture throughout the whole material. - -The advantage of unglazed gunpowder is here fully shown; for it presents -an inequality, a roughness of surface, over which the flame from the -percussion mixture cannot travel without igniting some of the prominent -parts, and thus the whole. You may glaze powder and make it so smooth -that it would be very difficult indeed to ignite; but except that it -enables the powder to resist moisture better, it is otherwise very -detrimental, as tending both to prevent ignition and lengthening the -period of effecting it. - -The flame from the percussion powder is of that intense and vivid -description, that if a charge of powder in the breech of a gun is loose, -the flame will form a mass of condensed air round itself, and driving -the grains of powder before it, prevent the immediate contact of the -heat and the particles of powder, until the heat is expended; and thus -arises a "miss fire." If the powder is up only to the nipple, there -being a quantity of air in the tube of that nipple, the explosion of the -fluid will drive down this air, and condense it between the powder and -top of the nipple to such an extent as to cause a certain "miss fire." -It becomes requisite to find a remedy for this, and it can only be done -by bringing the powder into the very vicinity of the explosion on the -nipple. This can be effected in several ways, but the most perfect is -to obtain as direct a communication as possible; a widening of the -perforations of the breech, and space to allow the powder free access up -the nipple. For this purpose we propose an improved form of nipple. The -centre one of the three (here shown in section) is considerably broader -and shorter than the others. A cap made broader and not so deep would be -an improvement, as bringing the point of ignition nearer the charge, and -thus effecting a saving of time; for great and wonderfully quick as is -the explosion, it is clear to the senses that it may be quickened. We -are not finding fault with the "lightning being too slow," as Colonel -Hawker says; but science means perfection, and the nearer we can come to -it the better. - -[Illustration: OLD PLAN OF NIPPLE. - -NEWEST PLAN OF NIPPLE. - -IMPROVED NIPPLE OF 1835.] - -The nipples now in general use have the smaller orifice at the bottom, -and, being lined with platina, never foul. Experience has shown that -admitting the gunpowder into the nipple "is not advantageous," -especially with large grained powder; by constructing the nipple with -the small orifice at the bottom, the largest grain can be used -beneficially. As the velocity of the fulminating gas is much greater -than "a train" of gunpowder ever can be, quickness is also gained by -their adoption. I have used them for many years with great success; -nothing but cost deters their general adoption. The passing of the flame -through the very small opening in the platina, by this very high -impingement, increases its heat to a great extent, ensuring explosion. - -The true science of gunnery consists in knowing that a certain force is -requisite to effect a certain purpose, or, in other words, to kill at a -certain distance; and also how to arrange that force so as to effect the -purpose without having any extra _force_, or any waste of powder, nor -yet too little, but with a corresponding result: a sufficiency; neither -more nor less. This we have shown is attainable by the mechanical -arrangement of granulation; for it is useless to use less, or to use an -iota more of fine grain powder, if the size larger will effect the -purpose without that iota. Propellant velocity is the grand desideratum -in all gunnery; the obtainment of this, to the greatest extent, is the -power of killing at the greatest distance: all ranges are dependent on -velocity; no extreme _range_ can be obtained without a corresponding -speed. - -The very finest powder, it will be perceived, is fitted--perfectly -fitted, preferable, indeed--to coarser grain for guns of a short length -of tube, where a perfect combustion of the whole charge can be obtained -without any waste or want; but as such is quite unsuited for longer -barrels: I cannot too often repeat it. The column of air is the ruling -power. Look what its effects are by Hutton's calculations, with the -very low velocities he obtained! So great as to bring all projectiles he -used to a medium velocity, before they were projected beyond a certain -distance. Then what must its resistance be where the velocities are -trebled? I say trebled, for my powder and the percussion combined have -more than trebled the velocities. You must then clearly have a powder of -such grain as suits the capacity of your gun. All barrels have a size of -grain that will suit them best, and manufacturers of gunpowder will -consult their own profit and the convenience of sportsmen, if they -assimilate the grain of powder to various sizes; as in shot, to No. 1, -No. 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on: eventually this system must be adopted. - -This will explain quite clearly how the fact (singular to many) occurs, -of short guns excelling their longer competitors, and how frequently a -particular maker obtains an immensity of credit for an excellent gun -only twenty-two inches: "Beat my Lord So-and-so's of thirty inches!" and -how, "When I cut four inches off my double, she shot better than ever -she did." All these occurrences are perfectly dependent on a knowledge -of the generating of the explosive force, and may be reversed at any -time by a person possessed of sufficient knowledge of these facts: put -in coarse grain into the short gun, and fine into the long, and the -facts will be changed considerably, as will be easily seen. A degree of -mystery has hitherto existed as to the cause of this discrepancy; but I -trust this explanation will clear it up. - -Experiment has shown the error of stating that only a certain quantity -of powder could be consumed: the proportion stated was considerably -below the actual quantity, as the experiments of punching the plates -show; for since twelve drachms can be burnt in a three-feet barrel, -therefore ten drachms may be consumed in one two feet eight inches, with -a given weight to lift. In addition to this, must be placed the fact of -improvement, both in the composition and granulation of the powder; -which we have no hesitation in stating has been considerable, within -only a very few years, all tending to the quickness of generating force. -The granulatory system, if acted upon, will give the sportsman or -soldier a completely new power in gunnery; for it must be evident, if we -have the means of projecting certain bodies with an extreme velocity, -say 5,000 feet per second, it becomes a simple calculation to ascertain -the quantity of force and length of tube to give to a certain weight. -Take, for instance, an ounce ball in a barrel two feet six inches long. -Extremely fine grain powder, from its rapidity of expansion, gives to -the ball this velocity at fifteen inches from the breech; the remaining -fifteen inches contain a column of air highly condensed, which will -inevitably reduce this velocity back nearly fifty per cent., or 2,500, -and with that velocity the ball leaves the muzzle. Therefore, as we have -already said, it must be evident you have here generated a high speed to -be as quickly reduced; and it shows clearly that if a different grain of -powder would expand from breech to muzzle, increasing the velocity on a -granulated scale until it obtained the highest, or 5,000 feet per -second, as the ball left the muzzle, you would save here clear 50 per -cent. in force, with less recoil, less internal strain on the barrel, -and with exactly the same weight of powder; thus showing that you have -just a definite quantity of force in a definite quantity of powder. - -The true science of gunnery is the knowledge how to best arrange the -collateral parts, so that you may obtain the greatest result with the -least means. I have also clearly shown that the resistance of the -atmosphere is one, and the principal obstruction in the attainment of -high velocities; its resistance being regulated entirely by the degree -of speed with which it is wanted to be displaced. Thus it is true, as -both Robins and Hutton have shown, that only a certain velocity can be -obtained beneficially; though the degree is considerably greater then -either conceived, as far greater impetus has been obtained, and -projected bodies have ranged much beyond their calculations, and that -beneficially too. One drawback on the theory of these gentlemen is their -calculating the velocities with iron projectiles; for the heavier the -material the more powerful the momentum, and consequently the longer -retention of their velocity, from not presenting the same space to the -resisting medium, the air. - -The development of the system of granulation must and does exercise -considerable control over the shooting of barrels of every description. -I have already explained what has been hitherto considered the curious -phenomena of short and long barrels shooting so dissimilarly, and this -illustration completely establishes the fact of the expulsive and -repulsive forces being controlled by each other: as either -preponderates, so is the result. The open-ended barrel projecting balls, -and eventually bursting, is a beautiful and interesting elucidation, -both of the force of gunpowder and the stubborn nature of the -atmospheric fluid. All these facts are valuable, inasmuch as they lay -bare circumstances which have never been satisfactorily accounted for, -and enable the mind of lowest capacity to understand the cause and -effect. - -The superiority of one barrel in throwing shot stronger and more evenly -distributed, arises, it will be easily seen, from the absence, or -existence of, internal friction, when contrasted with the different -degrees of expelling force, and the degree of resistance from the -atmosphere; it also accounts clearly for the fact of guns shooting -stronger on one day than on another, in fine and in rough weather: the -weight, the resistance of the air, is the only cause of the variation; -for gunpowder cannot drive back a dense atmosphere as quickly as a -lighter one. The cause of guns bursting is to be placed to the account -of both air and the generation of the explosive fluid so -instantaneously; the solid front which air offers to quick compression, -throws the force on the barrel, and the sides of the tube give way -because they are weaker: this cannot occur so easily with powder of a -more gradually expansive force, therefore safety is consulted in its -use, in addition to the numerous advantages it otherwise possesses. - -Mr. Blaine, in his Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports, has the following: "The -increase of metal in the detonator, we think, with Colonel Hawker, to be -an essential requisite, first, to resist the quicker, and, consequently, -more forcible, expansive force applied by the ignition of the powder -through the agency of detonation, and tend to lessen the recoil so much -more forcibly felt in most detonators. This increased weight of -percussion Mr. Greener, however, objects to, and inquires, 'Whether some -of the best flint guns met with, have not been very light?' To this we -answer, that it was the principle on which the explosion of the flint -gun was effected that enabled it to be made lighter, and yet to remain -equally safe in using; but we also know, that where it was required to -add to the rapidity and force of the ignition, it then became necessary -to increase the substance of the barrel." - -Experience teaches the writer, and I dare say it would Mr. Blaine, if he -were to experiment to the extent I have done, that there is no rapidity -in the ignition further than the closing of that point of ignition by -the cock, and no "force" beyond what the comparative instantaneous -ignition of the gunpowder in the nipple creates. This is quite -sufficient to prevent the further penetration of the percussion flame; -and the only increase, to quote his own words, "to resist the quicker, -and, consequently, more expansive, force applied by the ignition of the -powder through the agency of detonation," arises from an improvement (as -it is termed) in the granulation of the powder, which alone creates the -increased expansive force. This will be clearly understood by any one -reading this work from the beginning; the only difference between the -flint and percussion systems is the stopping of the orifice of ignition -in one, and allowing it to escape in the other; for the flame has to -travel to _windward_ (to use a nautical expression) in the flint; the -other has its own accumulating power to force ignition through the body -of the powder. This alone constitutes the difference. The necessity for -an increase of metal at the breech of a barrel does not arise from any -peculiarity in the mode of communicating the fire, but in the increased -inflammability of the powder alone. The extreme smallness of grain has -effected this more than the use of fulminating flame; and the continuous -cry for fine powder, to get better up the nipples, has produced an -alteration which is placed wrongfully to the credit of the percussion. - -Again, he says, "Mr. Greener, however, would have us acquire this -increase of power of resistance, not by quantity of material, but by -increased tenacity and elasticity in the metal the gun is formed of, and -we agree that it would be a great improvement if it could be brought -about. But what is our prospect of it? Is it not the general complaint -that gun metal is not by any means what it was? We have shown that it is -not; and, therefore, we do not think, as Mr. Greener asserts, that any -recommendation of increased weight of metal to the percussion barrel -beyond that of the flint gun "is founded on ignorance;" but, on the -contrary, that the very reason Mr. Greener gives to prove it, is that -which we think affords evidence of its perfect rationality, _the -explosive force created_." The answer given above applies to this also: -save on the score of lessening recoil, superior quality is preferable, -to quantity. - -The shooting powers of gun barrels are dependent on two -circumstances--goodness of metal, and a proper shape of exterior: it -cannot be too often repeated, _that a gun barrel is a spring_, to all -intents and purposes; if you add metal, you add stubbornness, and -destroy that expansibility, without the existence of which the barrel -is, comparatively speaking, useless. Heavy, ponderous barrels do not -propel a charge of shot with either that smartness or degree of -closeness that a barrel more scientifically constructed does; you have -less recoil certainly, but the addition of half an inch of more metal -behind the butt of the breech would do this more effectually, and save -you carrying an additional weight. The gradual ignition of powder -obviates the necessity of a great thickness of metal in the sides of the -barrels; but if it is determined to persevere in the use of peculiarly -fine grained powder, you would certainly be justified, nay, required, to -have more and better metal than at present, for the electrical nature of -the explosion will throw upon the tube that force which would be more -judiciously employed in giving impetus to the charge of projectiles. - -I have found that expansion will increase the shooting powers of a -barrel; but then it must not be the expansion of an unelastic piece of -metal, but of metal whose elasticity rebounds with a force equal to that -with which it expands; for whatever else you may obtain by creating -friction, by boring the breech end of the barrel wider you obtain a -greater expansion, as it no doubt has that tendency. We find it an -invariable fact, that when barrels are very heavy, compared with their -size of bore (if a cylinder), they shoot weak. Also, when barrels are -made of irons of different temperatures, where one is placed to prevent -the expansion or springing nature of the other, they are never found to -shoot well. As a proof of this fact, let any one take the best barrel he -ever shot with, and encase it with lead very tight; fire it at a dozen -sheets of paper, and see if the effect be equal to what it was when the -barrel was unencumbered. On the contrary, it will be found to have shot -very weak, though close. Let him then examine the lead; and, if any -moderate substance, he will find that the explosion has enlarged it -considerably. This experiment I have tried repeatedly, and can vouch for -its truth. - -The proof of barrels is another fact corroborating the truth of our -assertion. What else can occasion the bulging, but the expansion? Where -the barrels are possessed of soft and hard portions (which is the result -of different tempers of different metals), one expands further than the -other, and then, of course, the soft part receives no assistance from -the hard, and it does not return to its original state. - -Put on a barrel, from the breech end to the muzzle, a number of rings of -lead; be sure you have them tight, and not further apart than three or -four inches; fire that barrel with a usual charge, and if it be a -correct taper for shooting, it will have expanded the whole of the rings -an equal distance. - -From the observations already made, the reader will perceive that the -shooting of all barrels depends on a certain degree of friction. The -degree of friction necessary, varies according to the nature and -substance of the metal. Those metals that require least shoot best. The -object of the friction is to create a greater force, by detaining the -charge longer in the barrel. If, then, there should not be an extra -quantity of powder to consume, the friction would be a decided evil. - -This may be understood by rifle practice, in which we find that a short -barrel of eighteen inches, with a certain charge, will throw a ball as -straight, and quite as strong, or stronger, than a barrel of three feet, -loaded with a similar charge. I account for this fact thus: the barrel -of eighteen inches will burn all the powder put into it; the long one -can do no more. As soon as the ball has left the short barrel, it meets -with no impediment but the air. By the time the ball in the longer one -has travelled eighteen inches the powder is all consumed; the volume of -air in the remaining eighteen inches acts as a destroyer of the force -given to it, and it naturally drops its ball short of the other. -Increase the charge of powder to as much as the long one can burn, and -then it will throw its shot to nearly twice the distance of the other. - -An addition of powder beyond the quantity the barrel can consume is -disadvantageous; the reverse will be found equally so. Thus it is with -fowling-pieces. The quantity of powder that a gun would burn in the -shape of a cylinder, would be too little, when, by altering that shape, -you increase the friction. The quantity must, therefore, be increased, -or this friction will diminish the force of the shot. It is on this that -the mistaken supposition is founded, that short barrels will shoot as -far as long ones. It is true that with a small charge, or very fine -powder, the short barrel will kill at the distance of thirty yards, as -well as the long one; but put in the long one as much powder as it can -consume, then try the two at twice the distance, and you will find out -the mistake under which you have been labouring. - -It is on the nature of the metal that the goodness of the shooting -principally depends. That barrel which is possessed of the greatest -degree of elasticity and tenacity, will throw its shot strongest and -closest with the least artificial friction. It is on the knowledge of -the qualities and temperatures of the various irons, and on practice in -the art of shooting, that a man's ability in making guns shoot with -precision must rest. All plans are merely methods by which an -unscientific maker has most frequently succeeded. It would be no -difficult task to produce a hundred barrels which will shoot nearly -alike; yet every barrel shall be different in its bore. - -The length of friction depends entirely on the length of the barrel. -Long barrels require more than short, though the latter require it in a -greater degree. A mode of creating friction, much practised by those who -are ignorant of the true method, is to bore the barrels as rough and as -full of rings as possible. These rings are often taken for flaws; though -that may be ascertained by noticing whether or not they have the same -inclination as the twist, and whether or not they are at the jointing of -a spiral. If they be not, the chance is that the barrel is ring-bored, -as it is termed. This roughness, however, answers the same as friction -by relief; but barrels thus roughened are very liable to lead, and -become foul. While the well-bored barrel will fire forty shots as well -as twenty, these cannot be fired more than twenty times with safety and -effect. - -Each of the barrels in the table below, if 3-16ths thick at the breech, -is equal to the pressure stated. The resistance of a charge of shot of -one ounce we find to be more than before stated; and the additional -increase of explosive force obtained at the moment of ignition, requires -the amount to be much greater in computation, therefore, we may safely -take a pressure of 1,700 pounds to the inch of tube. The reader will -perceive, on reference to the following table, that with the tube filled -with powder for an inch in length, which is a small charge, the -explosive force will be equal to 40,000 pounds, or nearly 1,700 pounds -to the inch. - - Pressure of Surplus - charge. strength. - Laminated and other steel barrels lbs. lbs. lbs. - are equal to a pressure of 6,022 1,700 4,329 - Wire twist 5,019-1/2 1,700 3,319-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 1,700 3,855 - Old stub twist 4,818 1,700 3,118 - Charcoal iron 4,526 1,700 2,826 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 1,700 2,141 - Damascus iron 3,292 1,700 1,592 - Fancy twisted steel 3,134 1,700 1,434 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 1,700 1,140 - -If the charge he increased to one ounce and a half, the length it -occupies, and the lateral pressure by the jamming, will create an -additional pressure in proportion, or near 2,550 pounds, as under:-- - - Pressure of Surplus - 1-1/2 oz. shot. strength. - Laminated and other steel barrels lbs. lbs. lbs. - are equal to a pressure of 6,022 2,550 3,472 - Wire twist barrel 5,019-1/2 2,550 2,469-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 2,550 3,005 - Old stub twist 4,818 2,550 2,268 - Charcoal iron 4,526 2,550 1,976 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 2,550 1,291 - Damascus iron 3,292 2,550 742 - Fancy twisted steel 3,134 2,550 584 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 2,550 290 - -A charge of shot two ounces weight will be greater in pressure than -barrels of these dimensions are equal to restrain, and, consequently, no -barrels should be charged to this extent at any time; but inferior -barrels, as a matter of certainty, are sure to give way if so loaded. - - Pressure of Surplus. - 2 oz. shot. - lbs. lbs. lbs. - Laminated barrels, &c. 6,022 3,400 2,622 - Wire twist barrels 5,029-1/2 3,400 1,619-1/2 - New stub twist mixture 5,555 3,400 2,155 - Old stub twist 4,818 3,400 1,418 - Charcoal iron 4,526 3,400 1,126 - Threepenny skelp iron 3,841 3,400 441 - Damascus iron 3,292 3,400 - Fancy steel barrels 3,134 3,400 - Twopenny skelp iron 2,840 3,400 - -The foregoing tables show clearly the danger of persevering in using -heavy charges of shot; for it must be borne in mind that accidental -circumstances will increase this pressure, and never can act so as to -lessen it: a foul gun, or a variety of other circumstances, being sure -to increase the danger. - -Having fully explained the nature of gunpowder, it remains to say -something about the other portion, namely, the shot. That a barrel -creating explosive force, until the charge is in the act of leaving the -muzzle, will shoot better than another which does not do this, there -cannot exist a doubt; for this is the germ of the science. Also that the -column of air in barrels, where the explosive fluid is sooner expended, -acts upon the wadding, and influences the lateral direction of the shot, -there can also be no doubt; therefore, more attention is requisite to -this point than is generally given. I am quite certain that all -well-constructed barrels, both as regards metal and exterior shape, -shoot best, shoot so longest, and foul or lead less, than barrels having -the aid of friction: soft barrels require it, no doubt, but why make -soft barrels? The others cost but little more, and the superiority -admits of no question. The quantity of shot is a matter of the first -consequence, and I think that I have clearly established the fact, that -the less the weight, in proportion to the force, the greater the speed -or velocity given to that weight; hence it follows that to be beneficial -a certain quantity is suited. - -All guns, according to their bore and length, will shoot a certain -weight and a certain size of shot best. A great deal of shot in a small -bore lies too far up the barrel, and creates an unnecessary friction; -and the shot, by the compression at the moment of explosion, becomes all -shapes: a circumstance which materially affects its flight. If of too -great a weight, the powder has not power to drive it with that speed and -force required to be efficacious, because the weight is too great in -proportion. - -Those who reason from mathematical calculation will object to this -doctrine. They will say, the greater the weight the greater the effect. -No doubt it is so, if thrown with a proportionate force; but that cannot -be obtained with a small gun. We must adapt the weight of projectile -force to the power we are in possession of; and from many experiments, I -am inclined to think, that a fourteen gauge, two feet eight inches -barrel, should never be loaded with above one ounce and a quarter of -shot (No. 6 will suit best), and the utmost powder she will burn. A -fifteen gauge will not require more than one ounce; and no doubt No. 7 -would be thrown by her quite as strong as No. 6 by the fourteen gauge -gun, and do as much execution at forty yards with less recoil. Setting -aside all other reasons, I should, on this account, prefer the fifteen -gauge-gun, if both be of a length; as I find as much execution can be -done at the same distance with one as with the other. To render a -fourteen gauge barrel superior, Colonel Hawker is right in stating, that -it should never be under thirty-four inches; which description of barrel -I very much approve. He also says, "You cannot have closeness and -strength in shooting combined, beyond a certain degree:" an observation, -in the truth of which I fully concur; it being found that where there is -a greater degree of either strength or closeness, the other requisite is -always wanting. Neither would it be advisable, as the sportsman will -find a medium decidedly the best: a medium that will give the shots -fairly spread over a space of thirty inches diameter, at forty yards; -and so regularly, that a space, which would allow a bird to escape, -shall not occur above twice out of five shots, and each shot to -penetrate through thirty sheets of paper. It will be found, that a gun -doing this regularly, is far superior to one throwing twice as close and -not one-half through the paper; as the latter will require four or five -pellets to kill a bird, when two of the other would be quite as -efficacious, on account of penetrating twice as far. - -In favour of small shot, Mr. Daniel's observations are so pertinent, -that I cannot do better than quote him. He says, "The velocity of a -charge of No. 7 being equal (we will say nearly) to one of No. 3 at -that distance (35 yards), and since small shot fly thicker than large in -proportion to its size; and as there are many parts about the body of a -bird, wherein a pellet of No. 7 will affect its vitality equal to a -pellet of No. 2, the chances by using the former are multiplied in the -workman's favour; for it is the number and not the magnitude of the -particles that kills on the spot. They who prefer large shot, and -accustom themselves to fire at great distances, leave nearly as many -languishing in the field as immediately die. Whereas, those that use -small shot, and shoot fair, fill their bag with little spoil or waste -beyond what they take with them from the field." To an old gamekeeper of -his (he tells us) he has often put the question, "Why he was so partial -to small shot," and his reply was, "Sir, they go between the feathers -like pins and needles; whilst the large shot you use, as often glance -off as penetrate them." No doubt, here Mr. Daniel is as correct as may -be. Mr. Blaine says, query? But he ought to be aware, as I suppose he -is, though allowing himself to lose sight of principles, that small shot -can be, and are, propelled from the barrel with an equal velocity with -the larger; it is only in the length of range that the greater triumphs; -but if we take thirty or thirty-five yards' distance as an average, the -latter will not "_lead_" in the race. Therefore, the advocates of small -shot have unquestionably the better of the argument at this distance; at -greater, I will not dispute it, though I have picked up No. 5 shot 300 -yards from the spot fired from; larger, No. 3, rarely reaches 400 yards. - -Hard shot is not so liable to be mis-shaped, nor does it lose its -velocity by contact, as easily as soft. - -Under the head mixed shot, Blaine observes, "We do not believe any law -in projectiles can be brought forward to prove its impropriety. The mass -of shot is propelled by the expansive power of the powder; it is ejected -in a mass; and when it separates, each shot carries with it its own -share of ejective force, with very little interference with any other, -it being evident that the projectile force acting on each shot is in the -proportion of its area of dimensions," &c. - -Here is a great mistake. The law of projectiles is not wanted to prove -its fallacy; the laws of motion will do that. If you take any number of -equal or dissimilar sizes of shot, and place it as a charge is placed in -a gun barrel, occupying 3/4 of an inch of tube, there is, of course, a -wadding between powder and shot; this wadding is, or ought to be, a -piston; velocity is communicated to this piston by the explosion; it -does so to the shot immediately above it, that to the layers above, and -so on until the whole mass is in motion. The velocity behind the piston -is increasing to a certain point, where it ceases; then it is that the -layer farthest from the piston, having received its maximum from the -layers below, travels quicker than its assistants; who, having parted -with their force, fall behind in proportion: so does each layer, even -until the last one which received it from the piston, having -communicated so much to his friends before him, is left without himself. -It is an undisputed law in motion that one body may convey to another, -by contact, nearly its own velocity, but in so doing, is sure to come to -rest immediately. Strike one billiard ball against another, if the blow -is centrical, the ball struck receives the motion, the other comes to -rest; and so is it with shot: it is only the layers next the muzzle -which strikes the target, the remainder fall without travelling the same -distance. I have fired three balls from a rifle, and having marked them -I found the uppermost projected farthest, and the others in proportion. -This is easily proved. - -Thus, it is quite clear that in all charges of mixed shot, the larger -will extract the velocity from the smaller, and consequently become -useless for the purpose intended: this fact is unquestionable. - -In speaking of the longest duck or swivel guns, I may instance Colonel -Hawker's account of the performance of such fowling artillery. It -appears evident that they do not effect anything like the execution -which might be expected from their immense size and capability. The -reason of this is obvious. From the great space of the interior, in -order to receive that equal pressure on the inch which a common -fowling-piece receives, they should be charged in proportion to the -increased size; but then, I scarcely need add, they would become -ungovernable. In addition to this objection, they could not be forged of -malleable iron, so as to be safe; on account of the impossibility of -forging a barrel of that weight by hand hammers, and the little -probability of hammers ever being invented to work by steam to do it -sufficiently quick. The greater the weight of the barrel its strength is -gradually decreased, owing to the impossibility of sufficiently beating -it throughout the whole body. - -It must be well known to any one versed in mechanics, that an -anchor-shank weighing some hundredweights is more easily broken than -iron one-twentieth part of the weight, which has had the advantage of -being forged by hammers where the blows were felt through the whole -mass. This cannot be the case in forging large barrels, as the workmen -cannot use hammers heavy enough; consequently the barrel is turned out -of hand with the pores more open than a piece of cast iron. They have -tried this with large guns for the artillery, and it has repeatedly -failed, entirely from the want of sufficient power to compress the iron. - -All guns, therefore, of an unusual size, are not of strength in -proportion to a small gun; hence the reason they cannot with safety be -charged up to the corresponding scale. Neither are they of the length -they should be, if the bore is to be the criterion. It must be -remembered that to be charged in proportion, the pressure on the inch -should be as many times the pressure on the inch of the small gun, as -the one is the number of times larger than the other. If we come exactly -to the real state of the case, we doubt much (when taking into -consideration the difference of surface) that the pressure on the inch -in the large gun is equal even to that on a small gun. The comparison -might be carried up to the largest artillery, and I doubt whether it -would come up to this scale; as it is well known that the heaviest guns -will not throw their projectile as far in proportion as the small gun, -because you dare not generate the force required to do it. The same -principle is applicable to artillery as to fowling-pieces. - -From the above data, I would say, never make duck-guns above -seven-eighths in the bore, if you wish them to kill at a great distance; -and not less than fifteen or sixteen pounds weight, and full four feet -long; because then you can generate strength sufficient. Therefore, -instead of the large stanchion-guns being one hundred pounds weight, -they should, strictly speaking, be two hundred, and so on. In proof of -this I may just mention that, upon repeated experiments, I have -ascertained that a double stanchion-gun, with each barrel of the same -bore, weight, and length, as a single gun, will kill further than the -latter; simply owing to the advantage of the greater weight of the -double gun. I have made observations, when trying moderate-sized and -shoulder duck-guns on that fine level piece of sand before spoken of, -and by tracing the grazing of the shots I have been enabled to pick them -up. The large shot from the duck-gun, mostly No. 2, I found scarcely 400 -yards from the spot where she was fired; the small shot, five and six, -from a fourteen bore, were repeatedly picked up at 350 yards: thus -showing that the large gun had not much advantage; but yet making -probable many assertions made of killing at seventy, eighty, and -sometimes a hundred yards, with a common-sized gun. By this it appears -possible; for shot that will fly that distance must kill, if it hit -during its flight through the first quarter of such a range; but then, -at a single bird, above fifty-five or sixty yards, it is always twenty -to one against hitting the object at all; as the pellets begin to -separate rapidly at that distance, though their force is still -sufficient, and in large flocks is apt to do execution. - -The invention of the patent wire cartridge is rather the production of a -scientific mind than the production of chance; though the invention of -General Shrapnell contains the principle, and the perfection attained is -but the extension of that principle: namely, the means of projecting a -number of bodies of a similarity in size without subjecting them to an -extreme jamming by the lateral expansion, and thus allowing each to -travel his allotted distance without any of his companions robbing him -of his speed by impact. The great peculiarity of the wire cartridge is, -that being less than the bore, and having no bottom wadding, the -explosive fluid acts all around, between the sides of the barrel and the -net, by what may not inaptly be termed the windage, and the shot are -thus expelled by a cushion-like force, which does not jam or compress -them in the way it is liable to by a wadding forcing it outwards. Here -the net is of use to keep the whole in a mass; but you must not suppose -the same would be obtained by a charge of shot, without a wadding -below. The net opens, after leaving the muzzle of the gun. The -introduction of bone-dust is intended for, and answers the purpose of -preventing the grains of shot being mis-shaped by the compression: -during their passage up the barrel they form with the bone-dust a -comparatively solid body, and keep the pellets from impact, thus -allowing them to go forth into the atmosphere beautifully round and -uninjured; and, as such, more likely to travel farther and stronger. The -latter arrangement possesses all the science, as the net can be -dispensed with; for it aids the combination but slightly, and in no case -more than a moderate quantity of good paper would do. - -The science of this mechanical construction of projectiles is perfectly -in keeping with all the established laws of motion, and more -particularly good in thus avoiding the necessity of lateral pressure on -the sides of the tube of the gun, the upper end having the means of -better resisting the column of air in their progress outwards; for there -can be no question but this controls and induces the divergence of the -shot in leaving the muzzle. One of the old arrangements, often laughed -at, I mean the bell muzzle in old guns, intimates that our ancestors -possessed some smattering of science; as the relief in the muzzle of a -gun has a tendency, by allowing a gradual expansion laterally, to keep -the charge of shot better together: for it is quite apparent that any -body severely compressed for a certain distance, expands in proportion -when free of that restraint; and the consequence is a tendency to fly -off at a tangent, as the friction of a crooked barrel induces a ball to -fly in a curve contrary to the bend of the barrel. - -The extreme relief we find in some old barrels is certainly not -required; but still it clearly shows that the principle was understood -and acted upon: the very extreme has been produced by ignorance, as -certainly as the suggestion was a proof of knowledge on the part of the -suggestor; for many think, if a small dose is good for a patient, a -large one must be equally so. Like ourselves of the present day, having -discovered that fine gunpowder was advantageous, we have carried the -principle so far as undoubtedly to overstep the line to which it was -beneficial we should advance; thus clearly establishing the truth of the -old adage, "One extreme begets another." - -Therefore, in advocating the adoption of gun-barrels of the very essence -of iron, I also say, let that part of the tube whose duty is the -generating of force be nearly cylindrical, and let there be a gradual -expansion of the bore for a few inches in approaching the muzzle, that -the restraint of the lateral pressure may not be too rapidly loosened. -But yet let that expansion be so graduated that there shall not be an -extreme either way--only a scarcely perceptible relief; yet such as will -influence and prevent the divergence of the projectiles to a -considerable extent. - -Blaine says--"A very long barrel is liable to have the force of its -discharge lessened by the increase of counter pressure in the greater -volume of internal air in a long than in a short barrel." The column of -air in the barrel is unquestionably calculated to lessen the force of -the discharge. But I have already shown that this is completely -controlled by the system of granulation. Further, he says--"Its force -must also suffer by the loss which the elasticity of the propelling gas -experiences in its lengthened transit through an extended range of -barrel." He is here supposing an instantaneous generation of force, -which cannot possibly happen; and if it did, would be comparatively -useless. But he is evidently on the right scent, if he could only follow -it up. Again,--"In such cases, it is probable, that the shot, which -should leave the mouth of the piece at the instant when the propelling -force has gained its maximum, in a long barrel are detained beyond that -particular limit of capacity we have pointed out as inherent in each -barrel; and which properties, and which quantities of charge, nothing -but repeated and varied trials can teach the owner of the gun." - -This is an excellent illustration of the "theory" of the resistance of -the column of air in long barrels with very fine quickly-burnt powder; -and could he have pointed out the cause, the explanation would have been -perfect; as it must be quite apparent to the reader that it is not the -length of barrel which is in fault, but a want of a continuous producing -force in the powder; for when all the charge is exploded, the maximum -has been obtained. This clearly proves that the charge was too small to -keep up that maximum, or that the grain of the powder was too fine, and -thus too quickly expended. There is no discrepancy between the fact of -long barrels being preferable half a century ago, and short ones now; -for it is in the improvement of gunpowder burning in half the time now -that it did then, and leaves the question of length of barrel precisely -where it has ever been. You may have any length you like in moderation, -if you suit the grain of powder to it. - -I am quite satisfied to steer between extremes; avoiding alike too small -a charge of projectiles and too wide a calibre with too heavy a charge -of the former, and preferring a size of bore that gives, under all -circumstances, the greatest range with the least amount of explosive -material; which neither requires that to be too fine a grain, nor too -coarse: namely, a bore of fifteen and two feet six inches long. Under -all the above circumstances combined, this size will long hold a -position in the front rank of sporting guns. - -The Belgians have long been, and still are, our principal competitors in -supplying those parts of the world which do not rank gun manufacturing -among their staple trade. The cost of labour being small, they have -great facilities for producing cheap material; and the extent to which -they tempt the eye of those inexperienced in gunnery is quite obvious to -the world; but excepting the cheapness of the lower grade of guns, the -Belgian products are not at all to be placed on an equality with the -well made English manufacture. - -In consequence of the relaxation of our custom laws, foreign gunnery is -now admitted at ten per cent. duty; and as soon as this change was -made, the Belgians sent large quantities of their guns and pistols to -London; whence they found their way through different parts of the -country. Regular establishments were opened for the sale of their very -highly ornamented barrels: ten different varieties were produced, even -to the imitation of laminated steel. - -These barrels were at first sent in the bored and ground state, in large -quantities; their apparent low price and great beauty quite captivated -some of the "Brums," so that for a period they were all the rage; and -the Belgians began to boast of the extensive trade they were doing. But -nothing in this world runs smooth. "The best laid schemes of mice and -men oft gang agee;" and so it was with the Belgian importations. Our -proof was not exactly to their liking, or perhaps the iron was not equal -to the proof; losses and discoveries began to accumulate: "Too soft, by -far," says one; "They are all plated," says another; "Filed it through, -by jingo!" exclaimed a third; "Common iron, by all that's wonderful!" -protested a fourth; "Oh, twisted iron, under such inimitable Damascus!" -growled a fifth: in short, steel over iron turned out to be the secret -of the whole business. - -It is very probable that such facts as these soon established the -inferiority of "the beautiful Damascus and arabesque" of the Belgian -manufacturers; and they have, I trust, disappeared for ever from the -English market: at least, they are not held in estimation by those -qualified to judge. - -Their advocates have for years adduced the fact, that the Belgian laws -required guns to be twice proved; and our old laws not requiring this, -they had certainly a tangible argument; but our improved proof laws have -now removed that anomaly, and certainly our proof is now much superior, -even to that of the Belgians: so much so, indeed, that I have now before -me a letter from a Belgian barrel maker, who, in reply to the inquiry -why he did not send any more barrels, says very truly, "your English -proof is too severe." - -A very carefully conducted experiment on at least twenty best Belgian -barrels, satisfied me of the indisputable fact, that at least nineteen -out of the twenty were plated, and principally on twisted iron of the -softest description; as was shown by eating it entirely away, by a -lengthened immersion in a solution of the sulphate of copper. This may -be done in the course of a few hours, leaving the Damascus, and the -arabesque plating comparatively untouched. The production of that -extremely beautiful figure has to be effected by using metals of -considerable dissimilarity in their state of carbonization; the iron -evidently being entirely decarbonized before mixing with the steel, and -the steel even appearing extremely soft; although, no doubt, much of -this would be effected during the heating of the barrels to solder with -brass: and it is well known this cannot be done, except by heating them -to nearly a white heat. - -As this is the universal practice with all barrels which the Belgians -finish, a good shooting gun is, by all fixed laws of science, a -scarcity with them. But a point of still greater importance arises from -this injurious proceeding. In the act of heating two tubes like gun -barrels, it is an impossibility to heat them equally, so that neither -shall be at a higher temperature than the other; and again in lifting -them from the furnace, and in cooling, all are subject to bend by -expansion and contraction alone; the result is that perfectly straight -Belgian hard soldered barrels are utterly unattainable. To an -unpractised eye the bending in and out appears trifling, but -professionally, it is a very serious defect indeed; and on that score -alone, the Belgian can never compete in quality with our own -manufacture. Time, however, will no doubt remedy this; already they are -great imitators, and they will, no doubt, become greater. They are -competitors whom respectable manufacturers need not fear; and though -they eschew the imitation of our higher quality, they imitate, even to -the name, the "marks" of our leading makers. I still would welcome and -fraternize with them, as highly skilled workers in elaborate mixtures of -metals suitable for ornamental gun-barrels. - -The French gunmakers have not yet realized the true value of the -shooting of their fowling-pieces. This arises, in a great measure, no -doubt, from the want of a proper field for improvement. Necessity has -always been an important improver, and wild game creating the necessity -for good guns in England, a different direction has been given to the -manufacturer, owing to the continual cry for long killing guns; and not -a doubt can exist that English guns are better constructed for that -purpose, than those of any other country. Attention to the shooting has -always been the first study of every English gunmaker, and great -progress has been made during the last twenty years; indeed, a -comparison between the largest "target" of to-day, and the best that -Colonel Hawker ever made with his crack Joe Manton, will show a -progressive improvement of nearly 100 per cent., not only in closeness -of shooting, but also in penetration. All this may not be due entirely -to the gun, but in part to the gunpowder; and to the sensible course we -now pursue of using less weight of shot, avoiding artificial friction in -the barrels, instead of increasing it to retard the shot with the view -of increasing its power: also by having the expellant agent accelerative -to the greatest extent, closeness and strength of shooting are obtained, -with the least amount of recoil possible. - -Our French competitors have paid much more attention to the artistic -decoration of their guns than to their usefulness; and the universal -result of this sort of proceeding, ever since the invention of gunnery, -has been a total neglect of their power of extreme projection. The -metal, like other portions of their work is, in all cases, manipulated -with a view to beauty only; as the fact of their veneering, or plating, -their barrels proves. - -If at all masters of the science, they must be aware that this weakens -the shooting of the barrels, and is an injurious practice. But the -greater fact remains, that they continue to fix all their barrels -together, by brasing them with brass from end to end, as they do in -Belgium; thus lessening the strength of the barrels in point of safety, -and nearly destroying any smart shooting power they might have -possessed. - -The French appear to me to have only reached that stage of progress -which we attained forty years ago, when every intelligent mechanic was -seeking after that "useless thing," even when attained, "a perfect -safety gun;" which, from its complex character, might have been -designated "the dangerous gun;" indeed, experience taught (though not -without great cost) that few would use it when attained, and the -consequence was that it fell into disuse. Our Continental neighbours, -however, are mining it with great energy. A little more of our -experience, and they, also, will see the folly of the attempt. All the -facts go clearly to establish the truth of the assertion, that for all -useful purposes they are half a century behind us in the essential part -of gun manufacturing. The anxiety shown by all leading Continental -sportsmen to obtain a first-class English gun, and more especially of -laminated steel, is very strong evidence in support of this assertion. -All the guns I exhibited in Paris in 1855 were eagerly bought up at high -figures; and I have since executed many orders for France, Austria, -Prussia, Sardinia, and Russia, as well as for other northern states. - -The display of artistically constructed guns by the French makers in -their Great Exposition of 1855, was very great, and by certain classes -of sportsmen would be considered superb. My notes, made at the time of -inspection, will show better than a description can do, in what state of -transition their manufacture is, and how they vacillate between their -old and our present style:-- - -Parisian gunmakers presented 36; Rheims, 1; St. Etienne, 14. - -Leopold Bernard, barrel-maker.--Very good work; barrels made of two -spirals, inner and outer, with the twist running the reverse way; fine -figure; mixture of steel and iron. - -Monsieur Gauvain.--Very good sound work; all highly artistic; the cock -formed so as to resemble a tree with a snake coiled round it, the head -of the snake striking on the nipple. Several other guns of the latest -English patterns. - -Monsieur Beringer.--Guns ornamented arabesque; a medium show of work; -principally breech-loaders. - -Monsieur Caron.--Showy, ornamental, very middling. - -Lepage and Moutier.--Work good, ornamented, principally arabesque. Game -and English scroll pattern, engraving, cocks, &c., but inferior to the -English patterns of Gauvain. - -Houllier Blanchard.--Good work; designs English; a very novel pattern of -figure in the barrels. - -Monsieur Le Perrin.--All his guns artistic; raised, embossed, artistic, -ornamental, heavy cocks to imitate my shape; one good English pattern -soft gun. - -Monsieur Laine.--Good sound work; English pattern of twenty years ago. - -Monsieur Andre.--Good work; ornaments embossed; "Devisme" inlaying; -carving and embossing unequalled; several English pattern guns, but of -the standard twenty years ago. - -"Thomas."--Guns well inlaid; work medium. - -Albert Benard, barrel-maker.--Iron very good, but all lined; bar -apparently reduced from a mass two inches square, which tenuates the -figure extremely, as the bars are only 1/4 inch thick. - -Gastienne Renette.--All highly artistically ornamented; work good, -carving very elaborate. A novel mode of breech-loading: a piece on hinge -turns out, a cartridge, slides in return to its place, and a quoin like -a wedge forces it up into a chamber; the wedge and head receiving all -the force of the recoil. - -Lenoir, barrel-maker.--Iron very good; thirty rods in a faggot 5 + 6, -and welded and drawn down into 3/8 of an inch square: an enormous -elongation of the fibres. - -Doye.--Good English pattern-work--nothing else. - -Fontereau.--Work, all English pattern; very good. - -M. Brunn, successor to Armand and Bourbon.--Highly embossed work: a -novel breech-loader; artistic design for cock; female figures with -fishes' tails in scroll on to the tumbler. - -Guerin.--A novel safety guard; locks while on the nipple at half cock, -and full cock; swivel double like a split ring. - -May.--A novel safety guard, very likely to break the finger: sure to do -it if on an English gun. Breech-loader: central fire, the same as now -made by Lancaster. - -Loger, barrel-maker.--Bars faggoted 6 + 2, and so formed to imitate -laminated steel. - -Dufour.--All breech-loading guns; but all work of the first class. - -Juelle Magana, barrel-maker, St. Etienne.--Barrels well fitted and -figure varying, but not possessing the regularity observed in the -Belgian barrels. - -Chapellon.--Coutereau.--Exhibit some barrels filled, with a charge of 12 -inches of powder, 6-1/2 inches of shot, and warrant them not to burst on -firing that charge. - -Delabourse, Paris.--Good work "a la Purdey." - -Lefaucheaux, Paris, prize medalist, 1851.--Good embossed work; -breech-loaders; also very good imitation of English work. - -Such is a fair sample of the whole. But the best work by far is that by -Gauvain, though not so highly estimated by the jury; but that is in many -cases no test of ability whatever--as much depends upon the influence -and standing of the individual. - -Great exhibitions are calculated to effect great good if properly -carried out. In that of the English exhibitors at Paris nothing could be -more reprehensible, for the jurors left them to the tender mercies of -their foreign competitors. In the case of the gun-makers, nothing could -be worse, for the two jurymen appointed by the English Government never, -I believe, saw a gun, home-made or foreign; and the fact of my obtaining -two first-class medals speaks much for the impartiality of our -Continental brethren. - - -RECOIL. - -Recoil varies according to the position of the gun; when fired on the -horizontal, the resistance to be overcome is the tendency of the -projectile to fall to the earth, and its friction as it moves in a line -parallel to the earth. When the muzzle is elevated this resistance is -increased, because the force generated by the explosion of the gunpowder -has to exert its action more directly in opposition to the direction of -the force of gravity; and when this force is exerted in a line directly -opposed to the centre of gravity, as it is when the gun is fired -vertically, then the recoil is doubled, and is made more painful, -because the body resting on the earth cannot yield. - -A gun fired in the direction of the earth, or in the line of the centre -of gravity, would recoil much less (perhaps fifty per cent. less) than -when fired vertically; from the very obvious fact, that if the bullet -was not kept in position by its friction on the sides of the barrel, it -would fall to the ground of itself. - -"The recoil of a gun is inseparable from a discharge of its contents--on -the broad principle that action begets reaction; it is, therefore, only -when the 'kick,' as it is called, becomes painful, that it is essential -to avoid or lessen it. Irregularity in the bore of the barrel is a very -common source of violent recoil; _contracted breeches_ also, but more -than all, the contraction of the barrel at its centre, occasion recoil, -and that of the most dangerous kind: the expanding flame, during its -ignition, presses violently to make its way through the contracted to -the wider part, thus also destroying the expelling force. 'Now, action -and reaction being equal, it follows, that the weight of the piece being -the same, the recoil will be in proportion to the quantity of the -powder, and the weight of the ball, or shot; and that with the same -charge the recoil will be in proportion to the weight of the piece, or -the lighter the piece the greater the recoil.'"--_Essay on Shooting._ - -Here is a true exposition of recoil, though not of contractions in the -breech; for there the action would not be directly back, but have an -inclination towards the muzzle; for the reaction would not have time to -tell on the breech, before the charge was out of the muzzle. An -extremely spiralled rifle barrel destroys the explosive force of -gunpowder, but the effects are not felt in the recoil, being most all -expended laterally. Blaine says, "Could we entirely obviate all recoil -from a gun, we should not only remove an unpleasant shock to our -persons, but there is reason to believe we should much assist the range -and force of the shot likewise; although there is an opinion prevalent, -that the degree of the recoil is in the proportion of the projectile -force." Of this, however, some doubts are entertained, which are -warranted by the following fact:--"Mortars with iron beds immoveably -fixed in the earth throw their shot to greater distances than guns which -are affixed to carriages can do, and which, therefore, can recoil. This -has been incontestibly proved, both in large and small artillery. -Having suspended a gun barrel, charged with a determinate quantity of -shot, from the ceiling by two cords, so as to allow of its recoil, fire -it point blank at a target, and mark the result accurately. Now, fix the -same barrel to a block, and charge it exactly with a similar charge; -then having moved the target fifteen yards further, fire the barrel; it -is probable that the last shot, though at this increased distance, will -exceed the former, both in range and force.' These and such like -experiments are laughed at by the giddy and inconsiderate; but it is by -these illustrations that the most important facts are brought to light. - -"Projectile force is, therefore, to be increased by resistance; and the -knowledge of this fact offers us a practical hint, that when we stand -immoveable to our shot, not only by holding the gun tightly to our -shoulder, but by also _leaning somewhat forward_ in our shooting -attitude, we considerably increase the resistance, and, consequently, we -not only lessen the shock of the recoil to ourselves, but we aid the -force of the shot and extend its range. That such is the case, may be -further exemplified by the following experiment:--Throw a hand-ball -against any moveable body, and it will displace that body; but the ball -will drop to the ground perpendicularly, however hard the body against -which it is thrown may be. Fix the same body securely, and then the -rebound of the ball will be nearly equal to the force with which it was -thrown." - -The weight or amount of force with which a gun recoils against the -shoulder, is due to, and regulated by, several circumstances. The first -and most important is the amount of explosive force generated before the -charge is moved and during the act of moving, and the amount of inertia -in the body of the projectile. When a quantity of gunpowder is exploded -without any resisting weight in front of it, then the column of air -gives comparatively a slight recoil; though there is, in fact, -considerable recoil, but such as is due to the resistance of the air -only, and, consequently, more like a push than a blow. The exact amount -of recoil is also due to the difference between, or proportionate -weights of, the charge of shot or bullet and the gun; action and -reaction being always equal until one or the other body moves; the -division then will be in favour of that moving fastest, and hence the -obtaining of accelerative velocity: it thus follows, as a truism, that -the smaller the quantity of exploded gases that can be employed to first -move the charge, the less the recoil. - -The advantage of the granulation system is here again most clearly -shown; and (alluding again to the law of putting matter in motion -gradually) if you would gain the greatest benefit, it is clear that, in -the same length of tube, you would, at the termination of the -accelerative power, have gained a much greater amount of velocity than -could be obtained under any other circumstances with the more violently -explosive gunpowder. - -Many theories have been advanced, and many conjectures made as to the -cause of the recoil of guns; and it must be evident that the causes vary -with the form of gun, with the nature of the gunpowder, and the weight; -or peculiar arrangement of the shot or bullet. For instance, an ounce of -shot, and an ounce of lead in the form of a round bullet, fired from the -same gun would give two very different amounts of recoil, when measured -by the spring cushion; the ounce bullet not giving much more than half -the recoil produced by the ounce of shot. This is owing to the simple -fact that the bullet being a compact body, offers only the resistance of -its weight, and the simple friction of sliding or rolling along the -barrel according as it is tight or loose; but the tendency of the -hundreds of shot corns is to "jam and wedge" in the most extreme manner, -offering, by their lateral pressure against the sides of the barrel, the -greatest amount of friction and reluctance to be driven out: hence the -reaction on the gun, and thence on the shoulder of the shooter; and the -smaller the size of shot the greater the jamming. Again, the same weight -of shot, fired from a 16-bore and a 12-bore will recoil much more in the -smaller than in the larger bore, even when all other points are equal; -because the charge reaches higher in the 16-bore, thus offering at first -a greater amount of inertia. Secondly, there is also more tendency to -jam; and, thirdly, the extension of the surface of lateral pressure on -the tubes of the barrel must also add to recoil. Dirty guns, it is well -known, kick violently, simply from the greater friction, or difficulty -of the matter of the charge being put in motion. - -The question as to what the actual amount of recoil really is has never -been settled satisfactorily; the most erroneous opinions have been -given, and assertions equally erroneous have been made, by those who -have attended to the subject. To clearly elucidate this question, it is -absolutely necessary that the circumstances be reduced to one standard: -but the difficulty is to obtain that; for it would vary according to -muscular development, the weight and height of the sportsman. Indeed any -principle laid down would be liable to be disputed, from the very -different way in which every sportsman lifts his gun to his shoulder: if -one presses it against his shoulder with a pressure equal to 5 lbs., he -will receive a certain amount of recoil; he that presses it with a force -equal to 10 lbs. will receive less; and with a pressure of 30 lbs. it -will be found to yield the least of all. I will illustrate it in this -way. Take a spring cushion (something like the spring machine found at -all fairs for testing the force of a man pressing against it), if you -allow a gun to recoil against this when the starting pressure is only 5 -lbs., it will drive it up to 70 lbs., or nearly so, from the velocity -with which you have put the 7 lbs. of matter which is contained in the -gun into a long sweeping blow. The next time you try, put the starting -point at 10 lbs., and you will find a much less result in the extreme -weight denoted; but carry on this experiment, placing the cushion with a -resisting force of 30 lbs., and you will find the extreme recoil -indicated at from 40 lbs. to 45 lbs., and even up to a higher starting -resistance. But to this extent it is not advisable to go, for the strain -becomes too great on the handle of the gun-stock, and there is too near -an apparent approach to a solid resistance, which it is well-known would -break the best stock that was ever made. - -Having shown how we may approximately obtain the exact amount of force, -and how it may, even with two persons, give different results, I will -now state what I have found to be the result of many hundreds of trials -made with the view of deciding this question. Before doing so, however, -I will further premise that hundreds of attempts have been made at -various times by different Governments, and by many talented men, to -obtain a correct recoil machine which shall efficiently measure the -recoil, and in such a perfect line with the intended direction of the -projectile as to obtain accurate results: but this is found to be -perfectly unattainable, though I believe the nearest approach to it has -been made by Mr. Whitworth during his experiments with the hexagonal -rifle. - -To prove that it is impossible to get all the circumstances alike, so as -accurately to ascertain the exact force of the recoil, one instance only -need be cited. Fire your gun at a fixed object, then fire at an object -in motion, and to your senses the recoil will appear double when fired -at the fixed object; but it is not really so: in the latter instance, -the body of the person firing the gun, and the gun itself being in -motion, a considerable amount of the force of the recoil is absorbed in -overcoming the motion of the gun, and then that of the shooters body, so -that the effect is not noticed. I have already alluded to the greater -force of recoil felt from the lighter pressure of the gun against the -shoulder; here the tendency of the gun and body moving in one direction -is to close them together, and the proportion will be as the velocity of -that movement. Therefore, to bring this to a conclusion, I find that -under ordinary circumstances a 12-bore gun of 7-1/2 lbs. weight, 30 -inches in length, with a charge of 2-1/2 drams of No. 5 grained -gunpowder, and 1-1/4 oz. shot, the barrels draw-bored cylindrically, -with the least possible easing at the breech ends, and metal of the best -laminated steel, will recoil with a force of from 40 lbs. to 48 lbs., or -on an average 44 lbs.: this is the most satisfactory conclusion I have -been able to draw from my experiments. This of course will vary, as I -have shown; and it is also liable to deviations, according to the state -of the atmosphere, and other collateral circumstances. Great variations -will of course arise from guns of fine or rough insides; guns new or -old, well kept or neglected; and in guns bored larger at the -breech-ends, in order to give artificial resistance to the escape of the -charge. These last are now, I trust, obsolete, except in that abortion -of science the "French breech-loading crutch gun;" and as an exception, -all ill-constructed guns. - -The science of the question may now be regarded as clearly established. -Gun-barrels of the utmost tenacity, with insides of a cylindrical form -as true as possible, polished as fine as a mirror, with a moderate -weight of shot calculated to suit the gun and a good charge of large -granulated gunpowder, will give the greatest killing power, with the -greatest amount of comfort, or absence of recoil, that is to be found in -the pursuit of shooting. - -A point of considerable importance in obtaining regular and good -shooting--one, however, which is frequently neglected--is that of -ascertaining what sized shot is particularly suited to the size of bore -used. - -The correct adaptation of No. 5 or No. 6 for your particular gun is -easily attained. Place in the muzzle an ordinary wadding, press it into -the barrel the depth of the diameter of the shot, which should be -exactly flush with the muzzle, place as many shot corns on this as you -can, without having more than one distinct layer, and observe the size -that best fills, in concentric rings, the whole circumference of the -bore, leaving no half-spaces unfilled; note whether it be No. 5 or No. 6 -shot, and keep to that size for your general shooting. Again, on other -occasions you may wish to use larger shot (Nos. 4, 3, or 2); then -ascertain by the same method which fills the concentric rings most -perfectly: the same should be done with the smaller sizes, Nos. 8 or 9. - -The rationale of this proceeding is that any half-spaces are filled by -shot from above pressed in upon the lower layer, disfiguring itself and -those it comes into contact with; this is multiplied up to the 13 or 14 -layers of which the charge is composed, and the inevitable result is -that four or five pellets are pressed together until they adhere; either -"balling" or leaving empty spaces in the distribution of the charge, to -the injury of the gun's shooting--a defect which may easily be obviated -by attending to the instructions given above. One other point may be -observed, viz., that if 1-1/4 give 15-1/2 layers of shot in concentric -rings, the charge should be reduced until the rings are complete, for -the half-layer will do much mischief by its unequal pressure on the -layers beneath it. And it is further necessary to observe that in -loading a gun, either with powder or with shot, the gun should be kept -as nearly in the upright position as possible: the more upright the gun -is held, the more perfectly will it be charged, and the more perfect -will be its shooting. - -A vast number of useless changes have of late years been introduced into -the construction of gunnery; they have died, however, a natural death, -as they ought to have done, and have thus afforded additional evidence -that sportsmen of the present day only adopt what are really -improvements. Great professional reputation in a gunmaker is not now, as -formerly, all that is required to command a trial of individual plans of -improvement: the improvement must be self-evident; nothing being taken -on trust: a _bona fide_ benefit to the sportsman is essential in the -present day to obtain patronage. - -There has lately been introduced a very novel improvement in the -construction of double gun barrels, in order to overcome that defect -long admitted to exist in firing the second shot. It has long been -known that in a 40 yards' flight, shot falls several inches; and it is -an established fact that few sportsmen can kill with the second shot so -well as with the first, although it is certainly within range of the -gun. This no doubt arises in almost every case, from the shot having -fallen below the object in traversing the greater distance; or, in other -words, the second barrel, in order to kill as well as the first, ought -be fired six inches higher; but this the best shots find it difficult to -do, and it has therefore been proposed to do it for them. - -Mr. F. W. Prince, of No. 138, Bond-street, has patented an improvement -to obviate this difficulty; this he does by elevating or pointing upward -the second barrel, so as to cover the calculated fall in the body of the -shot; and the result is, that the second bird is as well aimed at and as -efficiently killed as the first. The alteration is so exceedingly -simple, and the benefit resulting from it so apparent, that the only -wonder is that it should never have been done before; and it being the -improvement of a really practical sportsman of the very first class, as -Mr. Prince has long been known to be, is sufficient to stamp his -invention as worthy of every consideration. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE FRENCH "CRUTCH," OR BREECH-LOADING SHOT GUN. - - -Sporting in France has never been brought to the same state of -perfection as in this country. Grouse-shooting on our wild romantic -hills is a very different sport from quail, partridge, or rabbit -shooting in the vales and on the hills of the Continent. Wild game -requires great energy and perseverance on the part of the sportsman, -courage and strength on the part of the dog, and last, though not least, -great capacity on the part of the gun. For many years the superiority of -the English manufactured gun, as well as of the English gunpowder, and -the matchless skill of the English sportsman, have been acknowledged by -all the world. All things, however, have their limits--the longest lane -has a turning, and a very plausible and insidious innovation has been -made to detract from the acquired reputation of the English sportsman, -and render his shooting inferior to that of some of our friends on the -other side of the Channel. - -The French system of breech-loading fire-arms is a specious pretence, -the supposed advantages of which have been loudly boasted of; but none -of these advantages have as yet been established by its most strenuous -advocates. How it is that the British sportsman has become the dupe of -certain men who set themselves up for reputable gunmakers I know not. It -is certain, however, that by these acts they have forfeited all claim to -the confidence of their too confiding customers, and that they never -could have tested the shooting properties of their guns. With regard to -the safety of these guns, they display an utter want of the most -ordinary judgment; and this is abundant proof that they considered -neither their safety, nor (what is also of importance) the economy of -the whole arrangement, as regards their manufacture or their use. - -Guns are perfect only so long as they possess the power of shooting -strong and close, with the least available charges. The period has -passed when barrels were bored by rule of thumb, without any -well-defined intention; the workman being ignorant as to whether he -would have the bore of the barrel cylindrical, or (as was frequently the -case) in the form of two inverted cones, and thus he continued to bore -at the barrel until it was utterly useless, or until by chance he hit -upon a tidy shooting bore. Barrels are now constructed so nearly alike, -that it is no stretch of truth to assert that ninety-six or ninety-eight -barrels out of a hundred can be made so nearly alike in their shooting, -as to render it very difficult to discover the real difference between -them. Yet, in the face of this high state of perfection certain -English gunmakers introduce, and recommend to their patrons as an -improvement, a description of gun possessing the following negative -qualities:--First, there is no possibility of a breech-loader ever -shooting equal to a well-constructed muzzle loader; secondly, the gun is -unsafe, and becomes more and more unsafe from the first time it is used; -and, thirdly, it is a very costly affair, both as regards the gun and -ammunition. Nor are these negative qualities at all compensated for by -any of the advantages claimed for these guns by their advocates; this -assertion I now proceed to establish. - -In the first place recoil has been an important obstacle to contend -with, ever since the invention of fire-arms, and the methods of -lessening recoil have engaged the special attention of all inventors up -to the present day; on this important point, indeed, very much depends. -Gunnery is good only when recoil exists in a minimum degree. Force, -whether it be that of the gentle "zephyr," or of the mammoth -steam-boiler which is capable of moving thousands of tons, can always be -measured, and the friction of steam against the tube through which it -passes can be measured also. - -The time was, when guns were so imperfectly constructed, that the recoil -and friction of the charge against the barrel destroyed more than half -the force generated by the explosion of the gunpowder; and this loss of -force having been obviated, by finely polishing the interior of the -barrel, as well as by improving the metal of the gun, has rendered -English guns superior in their performance to those manufactured in any -other country. Breeches of a conical form offer the greatest resistance -to the action of aeriform bodies in a direct line; this is the principle -of what is best known as "the patent breech:" to speak of which would be -a waste of time, as nothing more is required to support its superiority -than the fact, that in well constructed artillery of every country, the -interior form of the breech or chamber is more or less conical. Thus we -see that by adopting the crutch gun, we have to give up one of the -oldest and most universally acknowledged principles in lessening -recoil--namely, the conical form of the breech--and to adopt the very -reverse of this: namely, the old right-angled, flat-faced breech, upon -which recoil can exert its utmost force with the certainty of its -reaching the shoulder of the unfortunate user. - -Secondly, to enable the gun to be loaded with a cartridge which shall -keep its place, a complicated arrangement is necessary. On inspection of -the barrel, it will be perceived that a cavity has been formed larger -than the bore of the barrel, and that this in some cases only tapers -toward the further end. This cavity exactly receives the cartridge, and -the gunpowder is inflamed in a space much larger than the barrel, which -it has afterwards to pass through. The charge of shot is also started in -a larger space than that which it afterwards has to traverse, and the -column must of necessity become contracted and elongated before it can -escape from the barrel. The first consideration is at what cost of force -is all this effected? Thirty per cent. would certainly be a shrewd -guess; and who is there conversant with the nature of gunpowder hardy -enough to gainsay the fact? - -I here present the reader with the measurement of a pair of -barrels--bore 12, diameter of the cavity 10, or two sizes -difference,--tried at the celebrated trial of Breech versus -Muzzle-loading fire-arms, which took place in April last, in the court -at Cremorne. The following are the results of the trial:-- - -Class 1 comprised twelve bore double guns, not exceeding 7-1/2 lbs. in -weight; the charge for the breech-loaders was three drachms of powder, -and one ounce and a quarter of shot; that for the muzzle-loaders, two -and three-quarter drachms of powder, and an ounce and a quarter of shot. -The question will be asked why were both not charged alike? and the -answer is, because the advocates for breech-loaders well knew the loss -of power caused by the enlarged breech end would require a larger -quantity of powder; yet, with this advantage, the result was a verdict -in favour of the muzzle-loaders of nearly two to one. I quote from the -_Field_. The aggregate number of pellets in the targets from -breech-loaders was 170, the penetration 19. The aggregate number of -pellets put in by the muzzle-loaders was 231, the penetration 48; and -this was effected with a quarter of a drachm of powder less. - -Few will doubt that this must be the inevitable result. Force cannot be -expended and retained: we "cannot eat our cake and have it." If force is -destroyed by friction, it is as useless as if it had never been -generated. So much, then, for the shooting qualities of the -breech-loader. - -And now comes the question, of much more importance than the shooting -qualities of these guns: namely, can all this force--30 per cent., in -fact, of the whole charge--be thrown away with no worse result than the -mere wasting of the powder? Is there no change taking place in the -barrel of the gun every time it is discharged? Iron and its combinations -are as certainly limited in their duration as is human life itself. -Every bar of iron is capable only of resisting a certain amount of -pressure; every successive strain on its fibres deteriorating it more -rapidly; and whether it be the mainspring of the lock, or a gun-barrel -itself, a certain number of strains will destroy it. This being the -case, how much more rapidly must a breech-loader be destroyed where 30 -per cent. of the charge is always "absorbed" on the sides of the barrel -in the cavity alone. This a lengthened experiment will prove; though the -fact is so self-evident, that no experiment is required to demonstrate -it. - -Caution in gunnery is absolutely necessary under the most favourable -circumstances, and disregard of perfection in the construction of a gun -is quite unpardonable; then what shall be said of that member of society -who, with all those facts before him, can say to his customers, "I -advise you to have a breech-loader: they are really good guns?" In what -estimation such a tradesman must be held I will not venture to say. Much -more might fairly be said against these guns, but I sum up the whole in -the following damnatory sentence: Breech-loaders do not shoot nearly so -well, and are not half so safe, as muzzle-loading guns. - -It is said, and truly, that a breech-loader can be charged more rapidly -than a muzzle-loader; but I hold this to be no advantage, for this -reason: all guns can be loaded more quickly than they are fired, and the -tendency of all barrels to absorb heat, puts a limit to rapidity of -firing; indeed, after ten rapid shots with each barrel, both guns would -be about on an equality. Another question is, can breech-loaders be used -longer than muzzle-loading guns, without cleaning? My opinion is, _they -cannot_. At the trial already spoken of, after twenty-two shots had been -fired from the breech-loaders, the cartridge-cases had to be extracted -from the barrels with a hook, and in several cases it was necessary to -cut them out with a knife; whilst a muzzle-loading gun without friction -would have gone on to a hundred shots without being wiped out. There are -few plans or presumed improvements which have not some redeeming points; -but in the case of breech-loading fire-arms it is quite a task to find -even a resemblance to one. All the advocates for breech-loaders whom I -have ever met with yield, with this acknowledgment: "I must admit that I -never liked them; but so many gentlemen are asking for them that I was -compelled to make them, to keep my customers." This is, no doubt, the -truth; but it is calculated to lead to serious calamities: for it was -apparent to hundreds, at the Cremorne trials, that even the best and -newest breech-loading guns permitted an escape of gas at the breech to -an extent that I never thought possible; and if this occurs in new guns, -what will happen after a single season's shooting, should any one be -found sufficiently reckless to use a breech-loader so long? - -No fear need be entertained that the use of breech-loaders will become -general; manufactures on false principles soon show themselves -worthless, however pertinaciously they may be puffed off. The number of -accidents arising from the use of breech-loading fire-arms has not been -very great as yet; though I have already heard of several very serious -cases, from the use of well-made guns: let us consider what would be -result if the workmanship was inferior? - -There is one other point to which I may briefly allude before dismissing -the breech-loader to the "tomb of all the Capulets." The majority of -guns on this principle merely abut against a false breech; and, from the -fact of there being no connection either by hook or by cohesion, the -explosion causes a separation between the barrel and the breech to an -extent which would scarcely be credited. This may, however, be -satisfactorily demonstrated by binding a small string of gutta percha -round the joint, when after explosion the string will be found to have -fallen in between the barrel and the breech; thus showing that the -muzzle droops in the act of being discharged, which must must materially -influence the correctness of fire. - -The recoil of an ordinary 12-bore gun, loaded at the muzzle, varies from -forty to forty-eight pounds, seldom exceeding the latter; that of a -breech-loader varies from sixty-eight to seventy-six! And this quite -independently of the enormous force which is exerted on the sides of -these enlarged breech guns. The shoulder left in the barrel, too, is a -formidable barrier for the charge to pass by; and, in doing this, the -circle of shot in immediate contact with the barrel becomes disfigured -and misshaped, so as to insure its flight only to a very short distance. -In the muzzle-loader an average of 180 shots strike a target of two feet -six inches diameter; but breech-loaders of the same calibre will rarely -put in 120 shots; showing a clear loss of 60 pellets. This is due to the -enormous jamming they have undergone in passing from the greater to the -lesser area of the barrel. It is said that the paper of the cartridge -fills up this enlargement; but any one who knows what the force of -gunpowder is, must also know that paper intervening between the charge -and the sides of the barrel would be condensed at the moment of -explosion to one-fourth its original thickness. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE RIFLE. - - -The Rifle has at length taken its place among scientifically improved -weapons. Mathematicians laboured long and earnestly to develope the -important principles involved in it, and which lay hidden like latent -heat, only waiting for the moment when they were to be extracted, as -they were at length by experiment, the result of necessity: indeed -necessity has done more for the improvement of gunnery than all the -mental toil and labour bestowed on the science itself. The philosopher -has sought in vain for that which mechanical skill unpatronised and -unheeded forced upon the world, and that, too, in spite of prejudice and -contempt; and the present generation see improvements brought out which -were predicted generations before--as the following quotation from -Robins clearly shows:--"Whatever state shall _thoroughly comprehend the -nature_ and advantages of rifle pieces, and having facilitated and -completed their construction, shall introduce into their armies their -general use, with a dexterity in the management of them, they will by -this means acquire a superiority which will almost equal anything that -has been done at any time by the particular excellence of any one kind -of arms, and will perhaps fall but little short of the wonderful effects -which histories relate to have been formerly produced by the first -inventors of fire-arms." - -That the result here predicted has now been obtained no one can doubt. -Greater extension of range is yet attainable; but accuracy of range -amounts already to almost mathematical precision. All that is now -required is, that the same principle should be applied to the heaviest -projectiles; and when these are projected under precisely the same laws, -experience will further establish this principle, that "the heavier the -body in equal velocities the less the deflection from atmospheric -resistance." When this is demonstrated the present order of things will -be reversed; heavy ordnance will exceed the shoulder rifle in extension -and accuracy of range, whilst the shoulder rifle will again fall back to -its former state of comparative inferiority. - -Barrels were first grooved or rifled at Vienna, about the year 1498. The -original object of grooving or rifling the barrels was to find space for -the reception of the foul residue produced by discharging the rifle, and -thus to diminish the friction of the bullet as it was forced down by the -ramrod. During the next twenty years a spiral turn was given to the -groove, and bullets were used with projections to fit the grooves, the -degree of twist or spiral varying as the skill of the gun-maker thought -best. - -The difficulty of loading rifles has at all times been a drawback to -their universal adoption as warlike weapons, and it has been reserved -for a humble individual to achieve that which all the talent devoted to -it for three centuries had hitherto failed to accomplish. - -A multitude of claimants have "put in their plea" for a share in some -part of the invention; and it may benefit not only the present but also -the future generation, if we give a succinct account of the approaches -made by different men towards the present established principle, and -show the bearing each had in bringing about the revolution that has -taken place in the science of gunnery. - -The earliest notice of an elongated bullet is Robins's "egg-shaped," -which gives to the hemispherical end the centre of gravity, thus -establishing the first essential principle; but theory and practice were -here sadly discordant, for its wild uncertain flight, caused by the -small end acting as a rudder, rendered his theory useless, and it soon -died of a natural death. - -The next innovation on the spherical principle of bullets was the -attempt made by the late Sir Home Popham to introduce elongated -sphero-cylindrical bullets into cannon, with grooves and projections on -the exterior to impart a spinning motion, which should be sustained by -the action of the atmosphere; but this, like Robins's idea, survived -only a very short time. The next in rotation is a description given by -Captain Beaufoy, in his work on the rifle called _Scloppetaria_, and -published, we believe, in 1808. Captain Beaufoy gives a drawing of an -elongated bullet one and a quarter diameters in length, having a -hemispherical cavity accurately corresponding in shape to its -counterpart at the opposite end. "This," he states, "he had heard was -beneficial from the fact of the rush of atmospheric air into the vacuum -created, thus inducing a forward motion by the kick _a posteriori_." -This apparently was but a surmise, an idea never carried out, for in the -same work a degree of spiral grooving is advocated with which the action -of this bullet, had it ever been intended to be expansive in principle, -would be quite incompatible. - -Next comes the celebrated Joseph Manton with his invention, intended to -give a spiral motion to the ball by the cup of wood already described -under the head of rifled cannon. This very idea has since been revived -by General Jacob; and in 1822 Captain Norton introduced to the notice of -the Government his "Rifled Shell" for the explosion of an enemy's -tumbrils. This was of necessity an elongated hollow bullet, containing a -small charge of gunpowder, which was ignited by the explosion of a cap -on a nipple, screwed into the fore-end of the leaden shell. - -Here, no doubt, was a partially expansive bullet; for the bullet would -be driven in upon itself, and thus expand from the weakness of the -hollow shell; this near approach, however, to the invention was not -intentional: the sole object in view was the action of the shell, and no -more importance was attached to its expansion, in Captain Norton's -estimation, than to the bullet described by Captain Beaufoy in his -_Scloppetaria_. It is only within the last few years that some friend, -with more acumen than the gallant officer, discovered his near approach -to the subsequent invention, and a claim has been made on his behalf -which he himself never dreamt of, during the many years we were -battering at the doors of prejudice; closed as they were against -military innovation. - -In 1826, Capt. Delvigne proposed to use an elongated bullet: "having -observed that when a bullet was forced in by the old system of the -mallet, its diameter was increased perpendicularly to the axis of the -barrel, he came to the conclusion that by giving a chamber to the breech -of the rifle, and loading with an elongated bullet having just -sufficient windage to enter freely, two or three taps from a steel -ramrod would flatten it sufficiently to make it take the form of the -grooves, into which it would certainly penetrate when fired." This -contrivance was, however, found to be useless for military purposes; for -after a trial, extending over two or three years, by the Garde Royal in -Algeria, it was given up in 1830. This, then, is clear proof of an -attempt to construct an expansive bullet, and conclusive evidence also -of its failure. - -From 1830 to 1839, no evidence can be found of any progress having been -made by these inventors. In 1836 I had the honour of producing the first -perfect expansive bullet. During the winter of 1835 and the spring of -1836, I made an extensive series of experiments in order to overcome the -effect of the very extensive windage existing in military muskets at -that time; better known in the present day by the name of "Old Brown -Bess." - -The mean diameter of the bore was .760, the diameter of the bullet was -.701, or of the better understood gauge of 11 and 14 bore, thus leaving -more than three sizes for windage. To obviate this great discrepancy by -expanding a bullet from 14 to 11 bore, so as to destroy the windage, was -the first consideration; and, indeed, the first great step towards that -change of which we have as yet only seen the beginning. I here give a -representation of my first attempt, and the observations made upon it in -1841:-- - -Five years ago I perfected and laid before the Board of Ordnance a new -plan or system of constructing expansive balls, which is accomplished by -having two dissimilar portions. An oval ball with a flat end and a -perforation extending nearly through, is cast; a taper plug with a head -like a round topped button is also cast, of a composition of lead, tin, -and zinc, as below. - -[Illustration: EXPANSIVE BALL BEFORE USING.] - -[Illustration: EXPANSIVE BALL WITH PLUG DRIVEN HOME.] - -The end of the plug being slightly inserted into the perforation, the -ball is put into the rifle or musket with either end foremost. When the -explosion takes place, the plug is driven home into the lead, expanding -the outer surface, and thus either filling the grooves of the rifle, or -destroying the windage of the musket, as the case may be. The result of -this experiment was beyond calculation; and for musketry, where the -stupid regulations of the service require 3-1/2 sizes of bore difference -for windage, it is most excellent, as remedying this considerable -drawback upon the usefulness of the arm; the facility of loading being -as great, if not greater, than by the present practice. - -Inventions, however, are of no use whilst kept in obscurity, and my -first and natural course was to bring it under the notice of the parties -for whose benefit it was intended. Accordingly, in July, 1836, a -memorial was duly drawn up, and laid before the Master-General and Board -of Ordnance, soliciting a trial. After overcoming some difficulties, a -trial was ordered at the "cost of the inventor," and in August, 1836, it -took place at Tynemouth, in Northumberland, under the command of Major -Walcot, of the Royal Horse Artillery, a party of the 60th Rifles being -the firing party. The exact form of the memorial, and the points claimed -by the inventor, are as follows:-- - - "To the Right Honourable the Master-General and Officers of His - Majesty's Board of Ordnance. The humble Memorial of William Greener, - Gunmaker, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, humbly sheweth-- - - "That your memorialist has, after considerable trouble and expense, - discovered a method by which the facility of loading all rifles, - muskets, and other small fire-arms will be much increased, as well as - a considerable additional force or range of the projectile be - obtained, even with a less quantity of powder than at present used. - Your memorialist has frequently loaded one of his Majesty's rifles by - this method, as quickly as any soldier could load the plain musket, - and the balls when fired have received the same or greater effect from - the action of the grooves of the rifle. Your memorialist's plan simply - consists in the manufacture of a more ready kind of cartridge, which - will answer for all fire-arms as at present constructed, and will also - be a considerable saving to his Majesty. - - "Your memorialist being aware, from former communications with your - Honourable Board, that in no case is any sum of money allowed for - travelling expenses, &c., and your memorialist being very far from - rich, is unable to attend any committee, either at Woolwich or - elsewhere, your memorialist, therefore, suggests that if it meet the - approbation of your Honourable Board to issue an order to the officer - commanding the depot of his Majesty's 1st Brigade 60th Rifles, at - present stationed in this town, or to any other regiment or detachment - in the neighbourhood, to appoint a squad of men to fire 100 rounds of - memorialist's and 100 rounds of the cartridges now in use, and to - compare their respective merits, the whole to be provided at your - memorialist's expense. - - "And memorialist, as in duty bound, will ever pray. - - "WILLIAM GREENER." - -The success of the experiments far surpassed the expectations of the -military men present; and that they fully established all the points -claimed, will be evident from the following secret report made by Major -Walcott to the Board of Ordnance:-- - - "I then examined Mr. Greener's ammunition, and found he had not made - it up into complete cartridges, but that his ball was separate from - his powder. I then examined the ball, which being less than the barrel - of the rifle, went down very easily--indeed slided down, and is thus - formed. The ball is cast with a hollow in it, to which a plug of the - same metal is inserted, but not going home. The force of the charge is - said by Mr. Greener so to act on this hollow ball as to expand it, - filling up the whole barrel, preventing all windage, and so truly - keeping its flight that the head of the plug first striking the object - fired at, is then driven home; the ball becomes a solid, and as such - is equal to the present mode, as well as having more force and with a - less quantity of powder than at present used. - - "A detachment of the 60th was then ordered to load with Mr. Greener's, - and an equal number with his Majesty's practice ammunition. The first - certainly had the advantage in quickness of loading, but this may be - accounted for by Mr. Greener's ball being put in separate from the - cartridge; for I am by no means certain (it being necessary that his - plug should be exactly in the centre, either next the cartridge or - from it) whether, when made into a complete form, should the plug have - shifted from its position, it would not cost the soldier more time to - place it right; neither am I certain whether the plug might not be - liable to become jammed in the soldier's cartouch-box. - - "After firing several rounds, at 200 yards, at the target, we - succeeded in obtaining some of Mr. Greener's balls, one of which that - had struck the target and did not go through I send (marked) as the - most favourable specimen of the day's practice, the plug being driven - hard into the ball, the others having lost their plugs. Mr. Greener, - whose wishes I complied with in every way I could, then proposed - firing a number of rounds into a sandbank, to show that the plugs did - not quit the ball. A great many rounds were fired; in many the plugs - were out, in many loosely fixed and easily removed, and in a part - firm. Not having the advantage of the target I had desired him to - bring, a number of rounds were fired at the rifle's extreme range, 350 - yards, as the best means left of ascertaining the difference of range; - the only result of which was, that it appeared invariably to me and - others on the slightest resistance from the first the plug quitted the - ball, and therefore must have lessened its force from loss of weight. - The balls from both charges, Mr. Greener's and his Majesty's, went - home to the target, but only one of the latter went through. I had - then fired most of Mr. Greener's cartridges and balls, and fifty - rounds of the practice ammunition of the 60th. I beg to submit with - the greatest deference that in so great a change as this proposed, - even should it be considered worthy any other trial, that the - specimens I shall send up by the earliest opportunity may have - competent examination--for, although the balls of Mr. Greener bear the - impress of the grooves of the rifle, I am not able to state whether - such may not equally well be produced by the action of being forced - from the rifle as by the expansion Mr. Greener states to take - place--should the Master-General deem it necessary that any further - experiment be made by me and with cartridges properly made up." - -The immediate result was a very pithy epistle from the Secretary to the -Board, saying, that "in consequence of the bullet I had submitted being -'_a compound_,' it was totally unfit for his Majesty's service, and no -more trials could be allowed." - -This, in 1836, was the universal mode of proceeding, as subsequent -events clearly proved; whether from inability on the part of the -constituted military science controllers, or from a fixed determination -to reject all improvements from civilians, I knew not; but time -explained it all, as the sequel will show. - -The total destruction, in 1841, of the small arms department in the -Tower of London, together with all the arms it contained, opened a vista -to improvement both in the principle and mechanical construction of "Old -Brown Bess." This opportunity was not lost. A series of letters, Nos. 1 -to 6, appeared in the _Times_ in November and December, 1841, urging the -necessity of a radical change in the construction of military arms, if -the nation was still to hold its high military prestige. The sensation -created at this time was immense, and no doubt laid the foundation stone -for that change which has rendered English arms superior to any in the -world, instead of being, as they formerly were, inferior to any in -Europe. - -In one of those letters, which may still be found in the _Times_ of -December 25th, 1841, the following account is given of the progress I -had made in the invention since 1836; and when the form and proportions -of my expansive bullet of 1841 are contrasted with the present and the -original form adopted by our Government from the French of Captain Minie -in 1849, it must strike the reader as being so palpable a copy as to -leave no ground for argument. - -"One favourite suggestion of Hutton's has hitherto been strenuously -rejected, even by those to whom his recommendations have, in other -respects, been laws--viz., his plan of using 'oblong bullets.' Some -years ago I laid before the Board of Ordnance a very simple plan of -getting rid of all windage, yet of loading easily, and adding to the -weight of the projectile (a favourite theory with the artillerists). -This was effected by employing an oblong ball of lead '_a diameter and a -half in length_,' having a perforation extending through two-thirds of -it. An iron plug of a conical shape is slightly inserted into this -perforation, and the gun loaded with it. When the explosion takes place, -this plug is driven home into the lead, and, by expanding its outer -surface, the projectile comes out of the gun fitting as tight as -possible, and a line of flight is given to it of corresponding accuracy. -The advantages of this arrangement are numerous, but, in naval warfare, -of the most important nature, giving heavier metal with smaller rates, -and from the composition and shape of the projectile combined, producing -a corresponding destruction. - -"But the authorities laid the plan upon the shelf, where it will rest -until produced by some more important personage than myself. The poor -inventor obtains but poor encouragement, while his more wealthy -competitor is enabled to have every opportunity of trying schemes which, -in most cases, are not worth the consideration of any, save the friends -of the party." - -In 1842, powerful influence being brought to bear, it was hoped that a -trial of my invention would result; and in order to meet the strongly -expressed public opinion, the Board of Ordnance ordered me to construct -them model arms on my own principle. This was done, and the trial -promised by the Master-General was demanded, but as obstinately refused -by the Select Committee at Woolwich, whose power was superior to that of -the Master-General; though he was fully pledged to afford me a trial. - -Thus the progress of invention was delayed until 1848; sometimes -enlivened, however, by the bursting of a shell of intelligence in the -camp of military prejudice. Slashing letters appeared from time to time -on military incapacity. Meanwhile Captain Delvigne and Captain Thierry -continued their experiments, and on June 21st, 1842, a patent was -obtained in France, which is thus described:-- - -"For having hollowed the base of my cylindro-conical bullet, not only -for motives mentioned in the descriptive memoir given with my demand for -a patent, but besides to obtain its expansion (son epanouissement) by -the effect of the gases produced through the ignition of the powder. By -this means the effort of the powder itself, which formerly caused -spherical bullets to deviate from the grooves, now contributes to force -the bullets of my system more firmly into them." - -In a paper published by M. Delvigne in the _Spectateur Militaire_, of -August, 1843, we also find:-- - - "In order to avoid too great friction I grooved the cylindrical - surface of the bullet; but, whilst I thus increased the windage of - the body of the projectile, I reserved, at the two extremities of the - cylindrical part, two circular rings of a diameter almost equal to - that of the calibre. These two rings fixed accurately in the bore, - secured the perfect position of the axis of the bullet, which the blow - of the ramrod then forced tightly. In case of foulness, they easily - gave way to the blows of the ramrod, and the axis of the bullet - remained in the required position. The hollowing of the sides of the - bullet gives besides the means of fixing on the cartridge without - increasing the diameter of the calibre. But during these - investigations, _I made an important discovery, which was, that the - gas produced by the ignition of the powder, rushing into the vacuum - formed at the base of the bullet, expanded it and forced it into the - grooves_. I here give the idea, a new one, as I think, and recommend - its application to such as occupy themselves with the effect of - fire-arms and powder. The following, however, must be avoided: if the - hollow is too deep, the expansion is too great, and the consequent - friction enormous; sometimes even the gas will traverse the bullet, - and consequently the projectile is deprived of a proportionary amount - of velocity; if too small, the expansion does not take place." - -In 1847 and 1848 Captain Minie makes his first appearance on the boards; -and he proposed a hollow iron cup to fill up the cavity in Delvigne's -bullet, and from this circumstance we get the name of Minie rifle. - -The serious defects in our arms were now, however, becoming so glaring, -and the disgrace of getting worsted in skirmishes with contemptible foes -in the Cabul and Caffre wars, as well as nearer home in the -Mediterranean, raised public indignation against the military arms -department; and this indignation reached such a pitch that an immediate -change was called for. The so-called invention of Captain Minie offered -itself, and was immediately adopted, though the very same thing had -previously, on two occasions, been rejected at my hands. - -Thus the history of the rifle is brought up to the adoption by the -Government of my principle, under the name of the Minie rifle; and the -validity of the pleas on the part of the several claimants for a share -in the invention has been succinctly stated. - -During the succeeding years I several times made unsuccessful attempts -to obtain from the English Government a recognition of my claim to the -invention. True it is that insult was not added to injury, for they did -not tell me I had no claim as an inventor, but they sheltered themselves -under the political plea of "Oh, my dear sir, the injustice did not -occur under our Administration, or we should be so happy to remedy it!" - -Time went on, and war came at length, and brought with it proof that but -for my invention we should have been ill prepared. "The queen of weapons -saved the fight:" so said the Thunderer. "When war's wild din was done," -the poor inventor was listened to. - -The first step taken was through Mr. Scholefield, the member for -Birmingham, who moved in the House of Commons for copies of the -correspondence between myself and the Board of Ordnance in 1836, and the -papers therewith connected. Thus an act of glaring injustice was -exposed, and there was evidence of proceedings having been enacted over -which I would rather draw a veil. The authorities were no doubt shocked -at the injustice which the poor inventor had met with at the hands of -the then Board of Ordnance. - -Thus I obtained the Secret Report, which elevates so high the names of -those who could designate a plan as "useless and chimerical,"[13] which -was destined eventually to create greater changes in gunnery than it had -undergone from its earliest invention. - - [13] THE SECRET REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE. - - PRESENT:--Major-General Millar; Colonel Adye, C.B.; Colonel Tyer, - C.B.; Colonel Drummond, C.B.; Sir Alex. Dickson, K.C.B.; Major Dundas. - - "_Woolwich, 29th August, 1836._ - - "SIR,-- - - "I have the honour to report that, in obedience to your minute, dated - the 22nd inst., I assembled the Select Committee for the purpose of - considering a new invented cartridge for rifles, made by Mr. William - Greener, gunmaker, of Newcastle. Patterns of these cartridges, with a - report from Major Walcott, Royal Horse Artillery, of a day's practice - with them at Tynemouth. Several balls that have been discharged at and - collected after that practice were submitted to the Committee, who, - after an attentive consideration, is of opinion that the ends purposed - by Mr. Greener have not been accomplished; that his plan _is useless - and chimerical_. The Committee do not, therefore, recommend any - further trial in the terms solicited by Mr. Greener in his memorial of - the 6th inst. - - "I have, &c., - - "WILLIAM MILLAR, _Dep.-Adjut.-Gen._" - -I then disputed the fact of its being a French invention before the -juries of the French Exposition in 1855; there, however, my evidence was -inadmissible, from the fact of it not having been exhibited, and the -invention not being a recent one. In spite of all this, I still -persevered; and my next step was to submit the subject to royalty. I -first submitted it to the Emperor Napoleon, who carefully investigated -the facts of the case, and admitted the Englishman's priority. -Eventually the British Government, after much trouble, also admitted the -fact, (though not until after it had been submitted to the successors -of the original select committee) and awarded me the sum of 1,000_l._ in -the army estimates of 1857. - -It is a fact, which all will acknowledge, that the principles involved -in an invention should be best known to the inventor himself; and if he -is unable to explain the very principles of such invention, then it is -quite fair to presume that he was not the original inventor. - -Now there is no evidence that either Delvigne or Minie had any profound -knowledge of the science of gunnery, and their knowledge of the -principles of the expansive rifle was so meagre as to justify the -assumption, that their only connection with its production was that of -copying from the _Times_ newspaper, or from my works published in 1842 -and 1846. My observations certainly appeared before any of theirs; and I -believe that no straining of facts can in any way connect them with the -invention, which was as perfect in 1841 as when they reproduced it in -1848 and 1849. - -With these remarks, I pass on to what is of more importance, viz., the -principle of the expansive rifle. - -It had long been known that to give a spiral motion to a bullet in a -direction coincident to its line of flight, was the standard of -perfection in rifle projectiles; but this, until the invention of the -expansive bullet, could never be attained with safety. - -Spheres receiving this motion are not likely to retain it, because the -periphery of the spherical bullet is, in all cases, subjected to much -more friction than the rest of the sphere; a change would therefore -certainly be induced, the axis of the spinning motion being changed from -one coincident to the line of flight to that of one vertical to the -same. The two grooved rifle was an illustration of this; for in all -cases the projections on the bullet induced a change, the ring of the -bullet revolving parallel to the horizontal line, as I predicted in -1841. - -Enough has been said to point out the prejudicial action of any -projections on projectiles, both as regards their accuracy and length of -flight; perfect smoothness of surface being, in fact, absolutely -necessary. Lengthened study and a series of experiments with bullets of -a sphero-cylindrical shape having grooves and projections on their -exterior identical with the grooving of the interior of the barrel, led -me to consider the production of a bullet with a considerable cavity -(equal, in fact, to two-thirds of its length) at the same time adopting -as a standard one and a half diameters in the length of the bore of the -gun; thus the thickness of the metal between the apex of the bullet and -apex of the cavity was nearly one half of the diameter, as the following -diagram will show. - -[Illustration] - -This enabled me to insure two important principles, on which depended -the success of the whole invention. 1st. The centre of gravity was in -the head of the projectile. 2nd. "_The force was communicated directly -to the centre of gravity during the explosion._" This is a most -important principle, which all writers presuming to give their version -to the theory of the expansive system, have entirely overlooked. - -If the arrow could receive the propelling force in the head, its motion -would be even, and free from "hobbling," as Roger Ascham wishes it to -be; but if, on the contrary, it is received at the opposite extremity, -then there is a struggle between the head and the tail, as to which -shall be first, and a "wobbling" motion is induced, enduring until an -equilibrium of velocity is established. - -It is essential to all future progress in the science of projectiles, -that this point should be remembered, and its importance duly estimated; -and it is possible to apply this principle to projectiles of any weight. -If this point be attended to, where is the difficulty in extending the -length of our projectiles to that of arrows? thus increasing their range -indefinitely. There is, in fact, no law to limit the length of expansive -bullets: the only limit to their length now is the tendency of lead to -squash; but alloys of lead and other metals may yet be beneficially used -for projectiles, and that to an extent of which at present we can form -no conception. - -The range of vision of the human eye being inferior to the range of the -rifle will probably be the only limit to its use; and this range will -not be difficult to attain: reduction in the size of bore enables us to -elongate the bullet without diminishing its weight or the accuracy of -its range; but without the existence of a cavity to insure the force -being applied to the head of the bullet, this cannot possibly be done; -whilst all other shapes are limited in their application, and an -extension of range cannot be obtained with them. - -Next to these two important points in the invention comes the question -of expansion, whereby the grooves of the rifle are filled up with lead, -and windage is as far as possible obviated. The expander I first -employed consisted of a tapering piece of iron, similar in shape to the -frustum of a cone, and this, when inserted into the cavity of the -bullet, was flush with the bottom of the cylinder. The force generated -by the ignition of the charge was exerted equally on the plug and on the -leaden cylinder; the plug, however, moving more rapidly than the lead, -is driven quicker into the bullet, the bullet expands, and thus the -filling up of the grooves is accomplished. There can be no doubt that at -the same time an upward force is exerted by the plug on the leaden -bullet; and that, too, of a more elastic character than would be exerted -by the gases themselves, if they were allowed to act directly with all -their force upon the lead; for it is a fact beyond all dispute, that any -force tending to set matter in motion gradually is more effective than -that which is instantaneous in its action. - -Many writers condemn _in toto_ the Minie principle and its cup. Minie -did not understand it; and the introduction of the cup by him was, I -believe, an accident, or the best he could do by copying my mode of -using it: it was not the production of his own brain. - -It has been urged as an argument against the use of this cup, that -sometimes expansion does not occur. This, however, may easily be -accounted for by the fact that the cup is not tightly fitted into the -cavity of the bullet; a space is left through which the elastic fluid -penetrates the cavity, the cup then has as much pressure exerted upon it -behind as in front, and hence it remains undisturbed. - -Then the cup is sometimes driven in so violently that it becomes -flattened against the flat surface of the upper portion of the cavity, -cutting the lead so entirely as to leave the cylindrical portion of the -bullet in the breech of the gun; this is well known to have been a -frequent occurrence on the first introduction of this bullet. These -defects are instanced, as evidence to show that Minie and others have no -claim whatever to the production of the original idea--they cannot even -now grasp it, but condemn it, because it is beyond the limits of their -comprehension. True it is that, after blundering for several years, our -Government have come back to my original idea, as the following -quotation will show:-- - -"Colonel Hay," says Sir Howard Douglas, "has introduced an important -improvement in the shape of the cup, and in the figure of the cavity -into which it is forced on the firing of the charge. It will be -perceived that the cavity in the Minie shot has the form of the frustum -of a cone, while that of the cup is a hemisphere: now all who have -examined the shot picked up after having struck an iron target or -penetrated into the earth, find that the hemispherical cup is very -liable to be canted or turned instead of being forced directly into the -hollow space; the lead of the shot is not driven equally into the -grooves of the rifle. For this evil Colonel Hay has proposed a remedy, -in giving both to the cup and the cavity in the shot conoidal forms; by -which means the former must, by the force of the powder, proceed -directly forward in the hollow space, and thus uniformly expand the -lower part of the shot in the bore." - -If this is not conclusive evidence of the priority of my invention, then -I cannot understand the English language. - -The next object I sought to obtain in the invention was a reduction of -opposing surface, and an increased momentum. The law of atmospheric -resistance is as the area of displacement, and the velocity with which -that displacement is effected. Thus, a spherical bullet of one ounce -weight displaces a bulk of the atmosphere equal to the area of its -hemisphere; whereas an elongated bullet of the same weight would have to -displace so much less as is the difference between their diameters. -These two bullets, started at equal velocities, are acted upon very -differently by opposing forces; the velocity of the spherical is -diminished much sooner than that of the elongated bullet, on account of -its greater diameter: hence the increased range of the elongated bullet. -Let us suppose an extreme case. Take a bullet produced from a -description of hardened lead five diameters in length, and presenting to -the atmosphere one-fifth the surface of a spherical bullet of equal -weight; the reasonable assumption would be that this bullet would range -a greater distance if projected at the same velocity, and if the same -charge of gunpowder be used as with a spherical bullet. - -The first series of experiments clearly established the fact that -increased range could be obtained, and also with a vast reduction in the -charge of gunpowder: with a saving, in fact, of nearly 50 per cent. Two -drachms and a half were found equal to a range of fourteen hundred -yards, whilst four drachms and a half on the old system would rarely -reach half that distance. These important points were gradually -developed, though not without many disappointments and much mental -anxiety: the last discovery, to have rendered the task easy, should have -been the first. - -Extreme spiral curve in the rifle barrel is incompatible with the -correct action of the expansive bullet. The old-established turns of one -in four feet, one in three feet, and one in two feet nine inches, gave -results in the order I have placed them; and it was not until the -adoption of a spiral approximating to one turn in five and a half up to -six feet, that I found the success of my experiments uniform: and this -fact illustrates one great obstacle which my invention had to contend -with before it was generally adopted. - -The ordinary sporting rifles have invariably too much spiral; the amount -of friction generated by an expansive bullet in a rifle of this -construction is enormous, absorbing in many cases one half the power of -the expellant. The result of this is most unsatisfactory: the bullet -suddenly loosed from this immense friction, and freed from the column of -air in the tube, rushes so wildly forward as entirely to destroy -equilibrium in its flight; and hence the very loud complaints of -disappointed experimenters. - -The expansive principle now adopted combines such qualities that, -however long and loudly it may be condemned, it will again assert its -superiority, and hold undisputed the first place for generations to -come. It is based on that law of nature which will always tell in -mechanical productions; namely, minimum of friction, and hence maximum -of propulsion or velocity; the greatest possible range with the least -amount of expellant agency. The same law holds, even though the bullet -should be elongated and made into an arrow. That which has been -introduced to the world as an improvement on my invention, and modestly -termed the "Pritchett bullet," I rejected in 1841 as being inferior to -the expansive bullet: any one who is curious, and wishes to be convinced -of this fact, will find the following quotation in the _Naval and -Military Gazette_ for February, 1842:--"A great improvement may be -effected by using plugs of a cylindrical shape, having the upper end -round, and the part next the powder flat or concave; for rifles, to be -of use, must be constructed for high velocity, and this can be done by a -proportionate spiral and the use of a plug similar to that given above. -In this case we may load with the greatest facility, and the bullet -expanding, forces itself into the grooves of the rifle, and thus -receives the modicum of spiral motion required." A perusal of "Captain -Jervis on the Musket Rifle" would lead one to infer that this was a -great invention on the part of Mr. Pritchett, and that it would -supersede to a certainty the more perfect expansive bullet; but Mr. -Pritchett's so-called invention has sunk into oblivion, from whence it -will never emerge. - -From practice I found that the most material defect in this bullet was -its uncertainty of action: it was driven in upon itself, and thus its -diameter was increased. A slight difference in the hardness of the lead, -a bullet moulded when the metal was hot, and the reverse, would be such -insuperable difficulties as to render their adoption quite -impracticable; moreover, when rapid firing became necessary, the -enormous friction created by the heat and hardness of the previous -deposit from exploded powder, rendered the use of these bullets highly -dangerous; as was proved in the Crimean war. I trust they are now for -ever abandoned, for their adoption did not show great intelligence on -the part of their advocates. - -The expansive principle not being adopted in the armies of France and -other Continental nations, may be justly attributed to the experimenters -of the French school having been led astray; claiming, as they did, the -entire merit of the invention. It is but fair that whilst endeavouring -to establish my own claim to the invention, I should point out the -discrepancies existing in the theory of my opponents. - -That considerable imperfections exist in the expansive rifle used in -France, is evident from the results of their experiments, and the time -which has been wasted in discussing the principles necessary for -correcting the flight of the bullet by "annular rings" being applied to -its cylindrical part. - -Captain Tamissier's theory is "that an elongated bullet in passing -through the air, describing the curve of the trajectory, maintained its -axis parallel in its successive positions to the position it had at -starting, and that the angle formed by this axis with the element of the -trajectory--that is, the direction of the motion--changed every instant. -The action of atmospheric resistance would also be altered by the -surface presented by the projectile; as the point of application of this -force would not always pass through the centre of gravity, but would -establish a rotatory motion different from that with which the bullet -was originally animated: in different words, the bullet, by preserving -its original position, would after a time be pursuing its path with its -broadside foremost; that is, with the point of its axis above the line -of the trajectory and the near end below. - -"To remedy this, and increase the precision of fire with these bullets, -Captain Tamissier thought it was necessary to create resistances to the -atmosphere as far as possible behind their centre of gravity, in order -to bring the point of the bullet back to its original course. For this -purpose he formed a number of circular grooves on the cylindrical part -of the bullet, in imitation of the feathers of an arrow; which, he says, -are placed at the hinder part to engender resistances." - -The folly of such a theory must be very apparent to a practical man. The -engraving below of a bullet obtained direct from Captain Minie in -December, 1855, and with which the troops were then experimenting at -Vincennes, when compared with my bullet of 1843, renders any further -argument unnecessary. - -[Illustration: MINIE BULLET, 1855.] - -[Illustration: GREENERIAN BULLET, 1843.] - -With this I contrast my bullet of 1841, at page 354, and a very slight -inspection will be sufficient to satisfy any one of its superiority: -every practical rifle-shooter knows that the smoother all the surfaces -of the bullet, the more extensive and accurate is the range. That the -French experiments should have given unsatisfactory results I am not at -all surprised: the flat surface on the point of the bullet must offer a -large space for the resistance of the atmosphere, during 1,000 yards of -flight. Then to this must be added the effect produced by the rings -around the bullet; and when the resistance of the atmosphere and that -produced by the friction of the bullet are added together, we need not -be surprised that the results of the experiments turned out very -unsatisfactory. Surely, if the French school invented the bullet which -produced this wonderful revolution in gunnery, they would have rendered -it perfect, instead of producing it in a more rude state in 1848 than I -had produced it in 1840. - -Another point affording strong evidence that the whole was copied from -my work of 1842, is this. In my original plan the bottom of the cavity -of the bullet was flat, exactly as it now appears in Captain Minie's -annular ringed bullet. In 1843 this was changed into a hemispherical -bottom; and this exists in all English expansive bullets, as the -adjoining woodcut will show. - -In 1852 I produced a new form of cup, intended to obviate the use of the -heavier substance, or conical piece of iron. In addition to a cup of a -parabolic spindle shape, it had a rim like that on a man's hat, as the -woodcut will show. - -[Illustration] - -A great advantage is gained by this contrivance in effectually expanding -the bullet, and thus closing up stray appendages, which are found to -exert considerable influence on the ultimate direction of the bullet. A -slight tail of cartridge-paper, a string, or an appendage of any -description, exerts such an important influence on the bullet's flight, -as to cause it in some instances to describe a curve, the termination of -which is very eccentric, and commences from the very base of its -starting. It is evident, then, that great accuracy is necessary in order -to produce a perfect expansive bullet. English bullets are pressed into -shape by machinery, whilst in France they are formed in the ordinary -mould; this, however, is at all times an uncertain mode of making them: -a slight cavity in the head of the bullet would make it eccentric in -its flight; and this is very difficult to avoid: a slight puncture, or -an eruption on the surface, would, during a lengthened flight, be -materially acted upon by the atmosphere, so as to influence in a great -degree the direction of its flight. - -The scientific world is deeply indebted to General Jacob, of the Scinde -Horse, for the zeal and energy he has displayed in carrying out his -principle of projectiles. He experimented on a scale never before -attempted by any private individual; his explosive projectiles have -created universal interest, and the great ranges he obtained will hand -down the General's name in the history of gunnery to all future -generations. - -Whilst ascribing all credit to General Jacob for the benefit he has -bestowed on projectile science, it is not less my duty to point out how -unfortunate for science, and for the General's scientific reputation, -were the defects which exist in the system of which he is so strenuous -an advocate. - -General Jacob's principle differs from mine as widely as the poles are -separated from each other. In mine there exists the least amount of -friction, the minimum of spiral motion, and a most extensive range, with -the smallest expenditure of expellant force. - -In the General's invention these points are exactly reversed: friction -is at the highest point, the degree of spiral in the groove is more than -double, and the charge, as a matter of course, is much greater. The -range is greater, no doubt; as it ought to be, being obtained at treble -cost. Cost, in all cases, is the key to success or failure; not cost in -a monetary sense only, but cost of wear and tear. Destruction of the -barrel, and the amount of buffeting by recoil, are points of cost; and -the principle of General Jacob is so nearly allied to that of the -"hexagonal" rifle, that many will think, and perhaps not without good -reason, that the one has given rise to the production of the other. The -great length of column, 2-1/2 diameters in height, is so extreme, as to -be evidence in itself of the very unsound principles on which this rifle -is constructed. When bullets composed entirely of lead are used, the -result is that the bullet is so driven in upon itself, as to upset the -whole structure, "swaging" it whilst in the barrel into a long -cylindrical tube of lead, as the wood-cut, exhibiting the bullet before -and after firing, will sufficiently explain; whilst the friction and -lateral pressure on the tube of the barrel, which must be necessary to -effect the change in the bullet, require no further comment. - -[Illustration: POINT OF BULLET BEFORE FIRING.] - -[Illustration: WHOLE BULLET AFTER FIRING.] - -The experience gained by General Jacob induced him subsequently to -adopt an iron or zinc-pointed bullet, as is depicted in the wood -engraving. - -[Illustration: COMPLETE BULLET.] - -[Illustration: METAL POINT.] - -Thus departing from the true science of the question, instead of giving -the centre of gravity to the head of the bullet, he tries to overcome -the difficulties by which his system is beset, by increasing the spiral -motion. As other writers take a similar view of the question, I insert -the following quotation from a small work by Lieutenant Simons, Bengal -Artillery, entitled "A Treatise on Fire-arms," where we have the -following appropriate remarks, strongly bearing on the peculiarities of -this system:-- - -"Every point upon the surface of a projectile in motion, whether it be a -rocket, javelin, ship, bullet, arrow, or any other description of -projectile, is the end of a lever, the fulcrum of which is situated in -the projectile's centre of gravity. The effect of the air to upset, _i. -e._, to force the light or pointed end of such projectile to the rear, -or to unsteady, or cause to waver, the same, depends upon the lengths of -the levers at the ends of which it acts, and upon the angles at which -it presses against such levers, as determined by the positions of the -points and by the shape of the projectile; it likewise depends upon the -specific intensity of the pressure, which is doubtless greatest in the -neighbourhood of those parts of the projectile which least easily allow -the air to escape past them. - -"An illustration in part of the truth of the foregoing proposition will -present itself to the conceptions of those who have taken notice of the -manner of the flight of rockets, or who have witnessed shells projected -from mortars at night time. The light of the burning fuse, particularly -during the first part of the flight of the shell, is seldom obscured -from the sight of the beholders in the battery from which it is fired. -The end of the fuse protruding beyond the general surface of the shell -is the end of a lever whose fulcrum is the shell's centre of gravity. -The pressure of the air against this lever as the shell moves forward, -drives it to the rear, in which place it would remain steady, did the -shell in its course describe a straight line; a curve, however, being -the line actually described, it follows that the direction from which -the resistance created by the shell's own motion comes, is ever varying; -whereby the occurrence of an equilibrium is prevented, and the shell is -caused to oscillate laterally as it were. If the size of the fuze end of -it, however, be at all considerable, the shell will rarely topple over, -and, in consequence, the light of the fuze, during the ascending curve, -will generally be visible. - -"The more rapidly a ball is made to reach its goal, the nearer will the -line described by it approach to a straight one, and the less will it -roll. It is possible that the old musket-ball did not roll much during -the first fifty or hundred yards of its flight, and that the accuracy of -shooting with it will have been less on this account. A ball which does -not roll, may be said to be 'in position;' there is inherent in it a -fixed tendency to deviate from the line in which it is projected. Now a -shell which rolls much by reason of its comparatively slow motion, is -ever tending to stray in different directions, and, therefore, a -movement in the wrong direction, at one moment, being compensated for -the next by a corresponding movement in the opposite direction, it may -be by this means a recipient of an amount of accidental compensation to -which, perhaps, the musket-ball is a stranger. - -"Such being the manifest effect of projections upon the surface of a -shell, it is not difficult to imagine what must be the unseen effect of -projections on the surface of a rifle ball. One projection, placed -without regard to effect upon such surface, would make the ball jog and -oscillate much after the manner that has been described. Two or more of -proper form and construction will, on the contrary, if properly placed -upon a projectile, hold it steady, and so impart to it a fixed tendency -to digress, thereby preparing it to be usefully operated upon by spiral -motion. - -"So much as has been said will, I think, suffice to disprove that not -unfrequently entertained notion to the effect that the light end of a -bullet is kept forward by the operation of the spiral motion imparted to -it. I could cite more than one person and pamphlet (General Jacob), -apparently under the influence of this belief, but which certainly does -not accord with theory, and the practical incorrectness of which was -thus manifested to me." - -The Whitworth rifle, which was introduced to the world with a clarion -flourish from the _Times_, has not made any very rapid progress toward -perfection. It still drags out an existence, it is true, but its boasted -superiority is all a myth; as time and experience will show. - -Like the former, but more meritorious, invention of General Jacob, it is -based on an unsound principle, an untenable theory, good only in -seeming, which collapses when grasped by the hand of practical -experience. - -The peculiarity connected with this weapon is the extraordinary -circumstances under which it first saw the light:--It was produced by -the aid of Plutus, dragging in reputed science to fashion on the instant -a weapon superior to the tardy results of three centuries; though during -that period numbers of talented individuals had devoted their lives to -the study of gunnery. - -Wealth is generally believed to be able to remove all obstructions, and -even to purchase capacity, if need be; though it can scarcely enable one -individual to surpass the experience of ages, however talented that -individual may be. The attempt thus to obtain such assistance was a -slight by the Government of the day to the improvers of British -fire-arms; they were passed over as of no value, and the country's -wealth was thrown into the lap of a talented, but at the same time, not -a practical man. - -The Government of this country had on all previous occasions exacted -from inventors their brains and their money, as an offering in exchange -for patronage; on this occasion, however, they departed widely from -their usual custom, for the "mountain came to the mouse." It would have -been a grateful compliment if the Government had said to the inventor, -"You have done something for the good of your country with your limited -means, here are thousands of pounds at your command; do something -better, for we need it." But nothing of the kind was done: a selection -was made, justified by no antecedent qualifications. The first thing -necessary was the acquirement in a very short time of a practical -knowledge of gunnery, in order that a weapon should be produced superior -to any other; but whether success has attended these efforts or not is -still doubtful, and this is in itself a fit rebuff to the Minister, who -expected, like the citizen's wife, that "gold would purchase capacity." - -The great defect in the hexagonal-bored rifle is the extreme amount of -friction, and the consequent useless expenditure of means. - -The bullet is produced in the most accurate manner in a lathe, and is -composed of an alloy of lead, tin, and manganese, so as to render it -hard enough to resist the tendency to squash or swage; which is the case -in General Jacob's principle. The angles on the bullet are cut with the -greatest precision, in order to fit the groove of the barrel; -constituting, in fact, a female screw of two turns in every thirty-nine -inches of length. - -As fair play has always been my motto, I am actuated by no other desire -than that of enabling the reader to form a true conception of the -intricate nature of projectile science; and though the eulogium bestowed -on the inventor's own creation is rather egotistical, I give it entire, -dissecting it afterwards in the manner I think most conducive to a -correct knowledge of the real science of gunnery. - -"THE WHITWORTH AND ENFIELD RIFLES. - - "For the last few days a very interesting and important series of - experiments has been in progress at the Government School of Musketry, - Hythe, in order to test the comparative merits of these two rifles. - The trial, which was of the most searching and impartial character, - was conducted by Colonel Hay, the able head of the school, and has - terminated in establishing beyond all doubt the great and decided - superiority of Mr. Whitworth's invention. The Enfield rifle, which was - considered so much better than any other as to justify the formation - of a vast Government establishment for its special manufacture, has - been completely beaten. In accuracy of fire, in penetration, and in - range, its rival excels it to a degree which hardly leaves room for - comparison. - - "The following table gives the best results that have been obtained - from 10 shots of each arm respectively, in the course of the - experiments, which have extended over a week in time, and were brought - to a close yesterday in the presence of Lord Panmure and of a number - of military and scientific spectators:-- - - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - |Range in |Elevation.|Figure of - RIFLE. | yards. | | Merit. - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - | | Deg. | Feet. - Whitworth } | { | 1.15 | 0.37 - Enfield } | 500 { | 1.32 | 2.24 - Whitworth }| {| 2.20 | 1.00 - Enfield }| 800 {| 2.45 | 4.11 - Whitworth } | { | 3.45 | 2.41 - Enfield } |1,100 { | 4.12 | 8.04 - Whitworth }| {| 5.00 | 4.62 - Enfield }|1,400 {|6.20 to 7.| No hits - Whitworth } | { | 6.40 | 11.62 - Enfield } |1,800 { | -- | -- - -------------+---------+----------+--------- - - It would appear from these figures that at 500 yards in 10 shots the - Manchester rifle has a superior accuracy of 1.87 of a foot; at 800 - yards 3.11; at 1,100 yards 5.63; and that at 1,400 yards and upwards - the Enfield weapon ceases to afford any data for a comparison. In - penetration the results obtained have been equally decisive; the - Whitworth projectile, with the regulation charge of powder, going - through 33 half-inch planks of elm, and being brought up by a solid - oak bulk beyond, while the Enfield ball could not get past the 13th - plank. - - "The shooting on Tuesday was more to satisfy Lord Panmure and the - other strangers present upon the comparative merits of the two weapons - than to show the limit of what each could do under favourable - circumstances. Still, the targets of every 10 shots on either side - bore decisive evidence of the superiority of the new rifle, as a - glance at the following table will prove:-- - - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - |Range in|Elevation.|Figure of - RIFLE. | yards.| | Merit. - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - | | Deg. | Feet. - Whitworth } | {| 2.22 | 1.41 - Enfield } | 800 {| 2.45 | 5.67 - Whitworth }| | { | 1.27 - Enfield }| 500 | -- { | 3.30 - Whitworth } | | {| 1.33 - Enfield } | 500 | -- {| 4.01 - -------------+--------+----------+--------- - - "The last entry in the table records the mean radial distance from a - central point of 10 shots fired from a table-rest, by Colonel Hay and - Mr. Gunner, the manager of the Enfield factory. Both are first-rate - marksmen, yet at 500 yards the Manchester rifle in the hands of the - former gives three times as good shooting as the latter can get out of - the Government arm. All the other trials were made by firing from a - beautifully-constructed machine rest, which placed both weapons on a - footing of perfect equality as to the conditions under which they were - tested. In addition to the foregoing experiments, there was one for - showing that with cylindro-conoidal balls on the expansion principle - of those used for the Enfield rifle, very superior shooting could be - obtained from Whitworth's hexagonal bore. This was most satisfactorily - established, the mean deviation on the target from the centre of the - group of 10 hits being only .85 of a foot at 500 yards' range. It will - be observed that at 500 yards' range, at which the practice commenced, - the shooting of Whitworth's rifle was so much better than the other - that no greater distance was attempted. A reference to the first table - of experiments will also demonstrate that the target made by the - former weapon at 1,100 yards is nearly as good as that made by the - latter at 500. These are great results to have achieved, and amply - justify the forethought of the late Lord Hardinge in securing the - services of so eminent a mechanic as Mr. Whitworth for the improvement - of the rifle. Until he took the subject in hand the proper principles - for guidance in the construction of the weapon had not been accurately - determined. The manufacture was still conducted by rule of thumb, and - in a very hap-hazard way on the most important points. The use of - grooves and an expansive projectile made it impossible to secure the - requisite amount of pitch in the rifling and the indispensable - hardness of metal in the bullet for penetration. Moreover, from the - small amount of bearing, the wear and tear both in the barrel and in - the projectile were enormous, and the length of the latter could not - be increased without causing it to capsize in its flight. By the - polygonal bore and rapid pitch to which the form of the bullet - accurately conforms, Mr. Whitworth has rendered stripping impossible, - and, his rifle when fired acting exactly like a male and female screw, - the projectile must rotate with perfect steadiness and precision on - its axis. He can increase its length so considerably as to secure - space for converting it into a shell if necessary; and, being able to - use metal of any degree of hardness, he can adapt its form and - strength exactly to the work which it has to perform. Thus with a - rifle 39 inches long and half-inch bore, having a turn in 20 inches, - or two turns in its length, he finds no difficulty in penetrating a - wrought-iron plate 6-10ths of an inch thick or cutting a core out of - a piece of solid timber half a foot thick; and some idea may be formed - of the extraordinary power of this arm when we mention that his - projectiles in their flight rotate at the rate of 15,000 revolutions - per minute. The question of driving holes in the 4-inch breast plates - of floating batteries is at once solved by the application of these - principles to artillery, the construction of which this new rifle - proves must be completely revolutionized. A weapon which in expert - hands will make good practice at 1,400 yards, and the range of which - can be very easily helped by a telescope if necessary, gives the _coup - de grace_ to our present system of field batteries. At the Alma it - would have silenced the Russian guns or driven them from their - position, rendering the rush of the Light Division, with the heavy - loss of life consequent thereon, unnecessary. Nor during the siege of - Sebastopol would the rope mantlets of the Redan and the Malakhoff - having given much protection to the men working behind the - embrasures," &c., &c., &c. - -So much for the praise bestowed by Mr. Whitworth on his own production. -A beautiful experiment it has been, and one for which the scientific -world is bound to be thankful; giving, as it does, perhaps a faint idea -only of what is yet to be effected. - -However, all is not gold that glitters: it is very well to do all this -by straining every principle that can be brought to bear,--extra charge, -bullets hardened and turned with mathematical precision, steel barrels, -with a fineness of polish in the interior like that of a -looking-glass--these are all great adjuncts in the trial against an -ordinary unprepared gun, taken from a number promiscuously, and which -perhaps might be the worst specimen in the possession of the party at -Hythe. But these are trifles when compared with the two following facts. -The diameter of the bore of Mr. Whitworth's is 500, or half-inch at the -largest diameter, and 450 at the smallest, or a mean, taking the two -extremes, of fifty bore; the Enfield is 577, or twenty-five bore, and -the bullets on leaving the guns were the same weight exactly. The length -of the Enfield bullet is 7/8 inch, that of the Whitworth is 1-3/8 inch. -But all this will be more fully seen from the woodcuts. - -[Illustration: ENFIELD BARREL AND PRITCHETT BULLETS.] - -[Illustration: WHITWORTH BARREL AND BULLETS.] - -Thus it will be seen that the amount of resistance or displacement of -atmospheric air by one bullet is nearly double that of the other, and -this is a most important point in Mr. Whitworth's favour; but the -quantity of gunpowder used in the one is precisely the same as that used -in the other, though Mr. Whitworth's rifle is little more than half the -size of bore, the pressure on the square inch being consequently nearly -double; hence the circumstances are not sufficiently equal for Mr. -Whitworth to claim for his rifle any great superiority: the gun may take -the attention of the unwary, but its principles will not bear -investigation. - -Let me change the circumstances of the case, by retaining the principle -of the Enfield, but changing the bore to the same as Mr. Whitworth's, -increasing at the same time the length of projectile, and I will engage -to beat it with a much reduced charge. The extreme degree of female -screw or spiral, one turn in twenty inches, or two turns in the whole -length of the barrel, creates, as must be familiar to the most obtuse -mind, an enormous amount of friction, and in consequence of this an -equal quantity of force is absorbed: in other words, there is a useless -waste of force. - -The Enfield barrel has but a proportion of turn, one in six feet six -inches, or exactly half a spiral in the three feet three, generating 300 -per cent. less friction than in the Whitworth rifle; so that on this -score alone the saving would be very great, and in this trial the -Whitworth would be inferior to the Enfield; the inventor, therefore, has -unjustly laid claim to superiority, as the trial has been conducted on -very unequal terms. - -Mr. Whitworth says his bullet rotates at the rate of 15,000 revolutions -in a minute; now the friction on the periphery of a bullet having this -extreme spinning on an axis, must very much lessen its range. If we -weigh force, and carefully calculate its expenditure in 2,000 yards, the -periphery has made 4,000 revolutions. Now look at the shape of the -hexagonal body depicted in the woodcut at page 377, and estimate the -friction it will undergo. The Enfield in the same distance would rotate -only 1,000 times, thus affording another gain of 300 per cent. The -question, therefore, which arises is this: If all this can be done -equally well with the Enfield, why not do it? And the answer is, because -there is nothing to be gained by it. Great doubts now exist whether the -bore 25 is not too great a reduction: in fact, you will find no military -advocates for it. The faculty will tell you that small wounds are not so -destructive as large ones: the human body is as much affected by the -shock as by the penetration of a bullet. Many other reasons might be -advanced in favour of increased size of bullet, and much more important -reasons must be given, before the whole military system has to be -re-changed, than a mere gain of 300 or 400 yards; whilst there can be -little doubt that the ranges we now possess in the Enfield are more than -equivalent to our wants. The human eye cannot define precisely at 900 or -1,000 yards, and yet greater accuracy is required to fire a ball at a -distance of 2,000 yards; again, it is a question which has frequently -arisen in my mind, in how many situations in England or on the Continent -can we get a clear view of 2,000 yards. The effort, indeed, to increase -range appears like seeking after a remedy for a disease which has never -yet been discovered. - -If ranges of 2,000 yards and upwards are required, rifled cannon will -again take their proper place; for on investigating the tables of -practice published by General Jacob, I find the average distance of -shot from the centre of butt to be, at 2,000 yards, nearly 9 feet, with -13.7 degrees elevation; whilst the Whitworth is said to be 11-1/2 feet, -with about 8 degrees of elevation. I saw, some time ago, some practice -at Shoeburyness with an 18-pounder rifle cannon, which gave a range of -3,650 yards, with an elevation of 0.10-3/4 degrees, and a breeze blowing -across, a mean deflection of only 30 inches from the centre. This throws -Jacob, Whitworth, and the Enfield all into the shade together; yet there -can be no doubt that this can be excelled, when heavier guns are brought -to the same state of perfection as this 18-pounder. The case therefore -stands thus: the Jacob rifle has a greater range than the Enfield, at a -cost of 100 per cent. more friction, and an expenditure of 50 per cent. -more of projectile force; the Whitworth has also a greater range, but at -a cost of 300 per cent. more friction, and 100 per cent. additional -projectile force. With these observations I leave this subject in the -hands of the public, being convinced that projectile power obtained at -such a cost will never come into general use; though the production of -the Whitworth rifle will always be looked upon as an experiment of very -great interest. - -There is but one other point relating to the use of guns on such a -principle, and that is their safety; which is always of the greatest -importance. It is a well-known fact that the first movement of -projectiles depends very much on the amount of inertia in that -projectile; and different forms of projectiles, though of the same -weight, will offer very different amounts of resistance to motion. No -one can doubt that two columns of lead, each of an ounce in weight, one -being as high again as the other, will offer different amounts of -resistance; first, from the law that the time occupied in overcoming -inertia is in proportion to the length of that body; secondly, if these -columns of metals are confined in tubes, then the friction on the one -which is half an inch long will be much less than on the other, which is -one inch in length: and this is, on the mildest terms, the relative -position of the two. There can be no doubt that a much greater pressure -is required to start the longer column of double the length; but when we -consider that there are the facets of six angles, with a spiral -inclination of one in nineteen, the difficulty of starting this bullet -becomes still more apparent. Now suppose the gun has been loaded a few -hours, and a certain amount of adhesion has been effected between the -bullet and sides of the barrel, by the unctuous deposit from previous -discharges, then the difficulty of starting the bullet instantaneously -will be still more increased: supposing the breech end of a barrel, with -the ordinary charge of the Enfield cartridge and bullet, has a force -exerted upon it of 2,000 pounds in the square inch, then in the -hexagonal not much less than double that strength will be requisite to -meet the contingencies of dirty guns: in fact I know that a serious -accident did occur very recently with a double rifle constructed on -Whitworth's principle, notwithstanding all the care bestowed upon it by -a first-rate maker; and I believe that this gun, if it is to be used -with safety, must have a barrel double the strength of other rifles. - -The doubtful nature of Mr. Whitworth's experiments must be apparent from -the fact that they were made in a shed, from which strong currents of -air were excluded: any bullet would range accurately in vacuo, or in -atmosphere equally quiescent; deductions, therefore, drawn from such -experiments must be worthless. Battles occur not under such favourable -circumstances; protuberances on bullets tell most in high currents, and -least in a quiet atmosphere; so that had the experiments been instituted -in the open air, they would doubtless have yielded a different result. -The hexagonal bullet of large size has been proved to be very eccentric -indeed in its flight; hence a bullet of the smallest dimensions was -used, for had it been larger, its great enemy, the atmosphere, would -have rendered the chance of even partial success perfectly hopeless. - -Now, observe what would be the effect of extension of length and -decrease of diameter in the Greenerean expansive bullet. Harden it by -alloys, as adopted in the Whitworth; use the same charge, and the -probability is great, that, from the absence of extreme friction, it -will excel in range, accuracy, and penetration the Whitworth, as much as -that does now the Enfield. - -If the Government can see any important advantage to be gained by -extending the range we now possess; if anything is to be gained by -reduction from 25 to 50 bore; if, indeed, there is any point which is -advantageous in the Whitworth, I will pledge my reputation that this -may be obtained in the expansive principle: and that, too, with a much -less expenditure of expellant force. - -The "hoodwinking" of the public by not disclosing the fact that the -pressure of the gunpowder in the Whitworth was double, the bore being -but one-half, is at best an attempt at concealment not creditable to the -parties concerned. Knowledge of the principles which regulate projectile -science is not so scanty as to allow the palm to be carried away from -the profession, and worn by a gentleman who, on his own admission, is -unpractised in the science of gunnery. The science to be effectually -improved must be carried on at the cost of the nation, as Mr. -Whitworth's experiments were. This fact certainly bears the appearance -of a good precedent, and I hope it may be extended. - -Mr. Whitworth, like General Jacob, has had to sacrifice scientific -economy in order to obtain the points he required. I have already -dilated upon the truism that all projectiles range with the greatest -economy which have the centre of gravity in the head or fore part of the -bullet. I have also pointed out the fact that the elongated projectiles -which have not the centre of gravity in the head, turn over during their -flight after leaving the muzzle of the gun; and this is also found to be -the case in rifles having a greater degree of spiral than the Enfield, -one turn in six feet 6 inches. To meet this difficulty, therefore, -General Jacob adopts one turn of spiral in every three feet: thus his -bullet in passing out has double the friction of the Enfield; and when -we look at the fact that he is further compelled to increase the length -of his bullet to 2-1/2 diameters, a little reflection will point out the -entire want of economy in his whole arrangement. - -On turning to the Whitworth, we find that, in order to ensure his bullet -keeping point foremost in its flight, he has to double the very great -spiral adopted by Jacob: thus we have all its concomitant disadvantages, -friction, expenditure of matter, and danger of bursting the gun. When we -contemplate such arrangements as exist in these two guns, it must be -evident that they are both self-destructive. No system of projectiles -can be durable which is effected by straining all the acknowledged -principles of mechanics; and this has been done in each of these cases. - -The scientific world knows well that a much higher rate of speed can be -attained in railway travelling than is daily practised; but they also -know that it can only be obtained in the same way as Jacob and Whitworth -obtained their range in gunnery: namely, by an excessive expenditure of -fuel, and a wear of engine amounting to comparative destruction; whilst, -at the same time, the danger is so much increased that it would be folly -and recklessness to persist in such a course. The question, therefore, -resolves itself into this; that in locomotion and in projectile science, -if we would have them perfect, we must study the mode of obtaining the -greatest results with the least expenditure of means. - -Facility of loading must at all times be of great importance: the -soldier cannot have the means of cleaning his rifle when in action, and -yet if the hexagonal principle were to be adopted, it must be repeatedly -cleaned, or it would be almost impossible to load it, and when -discharged it would either burst or its fire would not be effective. -During such a war as that in India, going on day and night, a soldier -could not be expected to wash out his rifle after every half-dozen -shots. - -The field in which experiments are carried on is very different from -that of a battle. Experiments, as detailed, sometimes turn out most -fallacious when put to the use for which they are intended; and in no -case is this more apparent than in breech-loading arms: thousands of -rounds may be fired in a few days with great success; but extend that -over twelve months, a certain number being fired every day, and the gun -being cleaned after each day's practice, and long before thousands are -fired, the gun displays weak points--points which could not be -discovered in the lesser experiment. So it is in practice: a gun left -dirty for hours is undergoing rapid destruction; the unctuous deposit -from gunpowder has such an affinity for iron that minute galvanic cells -are formed on its surface in a very short time: half an hour after a gun -has been discharged in a damp atmosphere these operations may be seen to -be going on with rapidity, and an old gun on the hexagonal principle (if -one should last long enough to grow old) would not be a very desirable -weapon, in point of safety. - -The comparative cost of ammunition for the hexagonal rifle and the -Enfield, is a point of no little importance. Calculation gives the -former at something equivalent to 4-1/2_d._ or 5_d._ at each discharge, -while the latter cannot exceed 1-1/4_d._, or at most 1-1/2_d._--a -serious question for the Chancellor of the Exchequer. - -That this sum may be lessened by the employment of machinery is not -unlikely; but this can only be done to a limited extent, it being -essential that mathematical nicety, as well as the right degree of -hardness, should be strictly observed, otherwise the power of -penetration will be sacrificed: and of this property a great deal has -been made. There are few who do not know that a pound hammer will soon -drive to the head a fine-pointed slender nail; whilst a short, thick, -stumpy nail requires three times the force: again, if fine steel -polished nails were constructed, a still smaller amount of force would -suffice. If such effects are carefully studied, much may be done with -very little means. - -Very recently a statement appeared in the press that, owing to some -ill-made cartridges being served out to the troops in India, the men -found it almost impossible to load their Enfield rifles at all; having -to call in the aid of trees and stones against which to butt the ramrod, -in order to force the bullet home. The same account attributed this -defect to the careless construction of these cartridges by the -contractors. This, however, is unjust; all cartridges for the Enfield -rifles being alone produced in the laboratory at Woolwich; and hence the -defect is the more unpardonable. It is easy to conceive that in India, -where the heat is intense, the grease on the cartridge might have -disappeared; the unctuous deposit of gunpowder on the interior of the -barrel is also rendered more adhesive, and necessarily offers greater -obstruction to the ramming down of the bullet. The very slight -difference between the diameter of the bullet and that of the bore, or -windage, must necessarily add to the difficulty under such -circumstances; but if half a size, or a few decimals of diameter, were -taken from the sides of the bullet and added to its length, the -difficulty would be effectually removed: with increased length, and -increasing means of expansion, if necessary, such an occurrence could -never take place. - -The original expanding bullet was intended to fill up the difference of -three sizes of gauge; surely, then, there can be no difficulty in -expanding a much less diameter of bullet one half, or even full one size -of gauge. Where would be the difficulty in having the bullet 26-bore, or -even smaller, and expanding it to 25. The occurrence, indeed, of -such a fact as that alluded to is to an intelligent mind quite -incomprehensible; it could only arise from gross incompetency--some -cobbling with the bullet's cup in the pressing, or perhaps enlargement -by wear, or more likely still from the pulp-made cartridge paper. That -this difficulty has been experienced is obvious; and the inference is -strong, that the official managers of these affairs are still in the -midst of a long experiment: it is clear that they are not perfectly -masters of the practice of gunnery, and it is almost time the people of -this country had their work better done. It is more than probable that, -instead of meeting this difficulty with the proper spirit of -improvement, they will fly off at some other tangent, and adopt the -nostrum of some "arrant quack;" thus effectually adding to the -complication. - -Each regiment ought to have moulds, and the means of making their -cartridges on such emergencies; a body of provident officials ought to -attend to this, that a repetition of it may be avoided. - -An ordinary mind would have perceived that, in such lengthened -operations as those our soldiers have been engaged in, the cleaning of -their arms would be almost impossible; still the men are not instructed -that in such a difficulty an oiled rag passed up and down the barrel -would diminish it; neither is such a simple remedy provided: let us -trust, however, that this misfortune will lead to improvement. If this -difficulty is encountered in the Enfield, which is, comparatively -speaking, a smooth bore, what would be the difficulty in the hexagonal -bore with two turns in 39 inches! The possibility of loading the latter -would be very remote indeed, if not quite impracticable, and a total bar -to anything like its general adoption. - -Pure lead is indispensable for all rifle bullets, but more especially -for the expansive, which is in reality useless without it. A lubricating -grease, of a given consistency for various climates, is also a -desideratum yet to be accomplished; how desirable it would be, is shown -by all the accounts of good shooting I have ever received or met with. - -A vast number of projectiles have been produced, and strenuously -advocated; but from the total want of scientific arrangement in their -construction they have had but a very short existence. The vital -principle in all elongated projectiles is to have the centre of gravity -in the fore end; wanting that, an unnecessary spinning motion must be -resorted to, at the cost of immense friction: for the tendency to change -position can only be obviated by excessive spiral motion; whilst in a -bullet having the centre of gravity in the head, much less spiral motion -suffices: its scientific construction admits of no tendency to change; -straight forward is its natural inclination, and to this inclination it -adheres. - -A late writer on projectiles has laboured hard to condemn the expansive -principle and the cup; he has even aspired to lecture on it before -Royalty, and as an improvement upon it, he recommends the following -invention of his own:-- - -"In my endeavours to remedy the evils which have been so often and -justly complained of, I attempted the construction of several bullets, -particularly with the view of solving the question--can a -cylindro-conoidal bullet be contrived, which will have a flat surface -for its base, and the centre of gravity in the fore part? In my attempts -from time to time I met with less or more success until I arrived at my -last improvement, the principle of which has afforded me so much -satisfaction, that I fancy I have only to describe it, to enable any -intelligent marksman to perceive at once the utility of the contrivance. - -"In the end of the bullet, which is a fair cylinder for half its length, -I formed a cavity of a conical form, similar to the inside of a small -thimble, which stretches forward somewhat more than half the length of -the bullet, and which is wide enough to reduce sufficiently the weight -of the hinder end, so as to throw the centre of gravity into the fore -part, even after the explosion of the charge takes place. On the edge of -the cavity I made an indentation, or shoulder, about a twelfth of an -inch in depth, and upon this I placed an iron disc of the same -thickness, which closes up the cavity even with the end of the bullet, -making a flat surface of that part; so that it may be called a hollow -flat-ended bullet, though to all appearance solid." - -The adoption of the disc, and the closing of the orifice at the bottom -of the bullet, is merely the production of an elongated plug with weak -sides, which must necessarily be driven in upon themselves, and thus -shortened; and in so doing they expand. The disc prevents the -possibility of the explosive gases acting upon the centre of gravity or -the head, and thus the advantage of that being the primary motion is -lost; and which ensures the absence of "wobbling," a principle inherent -in all plug bullets after leaving the muzzle: and a defect which it was -the main object of my invention to avoid. The idea is evidently that of -Captain Norton, as evinced in his rifle shell, and consequently is a -plagiarism, either deliberate or accidental. - -[Illustration: SWISS BULLET.] - -The Swiss bullet has obtained to some extent a reputation, admitting, -like the Lancaster elliptical bullet, of being put into higher velocity. -Its range, however, is limited, from the very great friction it -undergoes in passing up the barrel: it is driven in upon itself until it -becomes a mere plug of lead with a hemispherical head; and the centre of -gravity being behind, ensures its flight frequently terminating by -turning "topsy turvy." Moreover, it cannot be used on a large scale, -except by the addition of a hard metal point, as in General Jacob's -bullet. - -The wisdom displayed in rifling barrels with the gathering or deepening -groove may be doubted; it admits of serious consideration, whether or -not it tends to increase the friction of the bullet passing outward. It -is evident that did the bullet expand all at once it would do so; but as -this is well known not to be the case, the question arises what is the -advantage gained? for it is asserted on high authority that it improves -the shooting. The mere deepening of the grooves at the breech end can -have but little effect; and the question is, does the shallowing of the -grooves as the bullet approaches the muzzle, produce the effect? We -think it does. In the process of rifling these barrels, the rifling -tool, by a very ingenious arrangement of screws, is caused gradually to -cut deeper as it travels from the muzzle to the breech, so that when -finished the depth of grooves at the muzzle is .005 of an inch; half-way -down the barrel it is .010, and at the breech end .015: thus gradually -deepening 10/1000 of an inch, whereas the usual method of rifling is to -have one uniform depth of .010 inches. From the contraction of the -protuberances on the bullet from 1/10 to 1/5000 of an inch in passing up -the barrel, results the apparent benefit: such a reduction would surely -allow of the bullet continuing its flight with less friction on the -atmosphere; for it cannot be too often repeated that perfect smoothness, -even to a polished surface, is essential to the easy passage of all -bullets through the air. - -There are some rather curious deductions obtained by practice alone, -which to ordinary minds appear of trifling importance; but they clearly -show that correct rifle-shooting can only be obtained by the most -perfect arrangement in the rifling and scientific construction of the -barrels. - -The Government have lately adopted a highly finished and costly rifle -arm, with sword bayonet attached to the usual form of bar soldered to -the end of the barrels on the right side. When these barrels were first -constructed, they were made lighter than experience subsequently showed -they ought to be; for it was found that the barrel not expanding equally -with the other portions at this necessarily rigid point, influenced the -shooting of the gun to a considerable extent; so that an increase of -metal was found necessary. - -The difficulty of obtaining good shooting with double rifles, one side -of each barrel being held rigid whilst the other is yielding, explains -the difficulty, and points to the remedy: an increase of metal, or, what -would be more convenient, the adoption of the most perfect laminated -steel for all double rifles; it being self-evident that soft barrels and -correct rifle-shooting are to a certain extent incompatible. - -Double rifles have nearly superseded single ones; for few who can afford -the additional price will use the latter, when in the same weight he can -have two useful weapons. The one great end generally sought in a rifle -is sufficient weight to neutralise the force of the explosion or recoil; -and the additional barrel answers this as effectually as additional -thickness of iron in the single. But there is one objection which I have -never been able to master in the construction of double rifle barrels, -and I much doubt the possibility of effectually overcoming it--another -proof that mathematical demonstrations are frequently wrong in practice, -however correct in theory. Many hold it to be essential that double -rifle barrels should be put together perfectly parallel. I followed this -rule, and was at considerable cost in perfecting tools for the purpose; -yet, strange to say, in trial I found invariably that the right barrel -threw the ball slightly to the right, and the left to the left. This I -have been at enormous trouble to ascertain, and am enabled positively -to declare it is an indisputable fact. The cause of it is evidently the -recoil not striking the stock in the centre, but on one side; which -causes the gun to swerve to that side. However small or unapparent the -recoil may be, still there is a recoil; and hence its effect. To remedy -this it is necessary to incline the barrels in, towards the muzzle, to -counteract that tendency; but in doing this another evil is created, for -you can only do this to suit a given distance, either 100, 150, or 200 -yards, as may be determined. Thus it will be perceived a deficiency must -exist at all times; and it shows clearly the necessity for motion being -resisted centrically, if truth is to be maintained. This defect in the -double rifle will always be a drawback to the "_most correct_ shooting;" -yet under ordinary circumstances it may not be a matter of vital -importance, neither does there exist any means of sighting to overcome -the difficulty. The only way to obtain a double rifle perfectly -true--perfectly parallel, is to construct the barrels one above the -other, as double pistols are now constructed. The only objection to them -is the difficulty attending the arrangement of the locks, as one cock -must strike the nipple the thickness of the barrel below the other, and -is an unsightly matter at best. These facts lead to another, namely, the -necessity of all rifles being stocked as straight as possible, avoiding -in all cases any casting off in the butt; as it is evident that these -matters have considerable influence on the correctness of shooting. - -One great drawback to correct shooting is produced from the stock being -thrown off at the butt end; and, in other cases, from imperfections in -the stocking of the gun--all truth depending on the barrel or barrels -being both stocked and held perfectly level in the act of using. It must -be quite clear, that in case the right barrel of a pair be depressed but -the 32nd part of an inch, the angle of the sight on the top, instead of -giving elevation, will cause the line of flight of ball to be to the -left, and "_vice versa_." Therefore, first of all be sure the gun is -held square; and great advantage will be found in pointing the muzzle in -all cases a few feet below the object, and raising it in a perfect line -upwards to the bull's eye. If this can be done well, in addition to the -gun being held square, the better half of the difficulty is overcome; -further practice will make perfect. - -The point next in importance, is to take off the weight of the pull in -the trigger, during the upward motion; overcoming the last atom of -weight as the muzzle sight covers the bull's eye. It must be done so -gradually, that no jerk or pull can move the gun, be it ever so -triflingly: in fact, all good shots fire thus while the gun is in -motion. If the sight cannot be correctly obtained during the movement, -always take the rifle down from the shoulder, and raise it again; for -depend upon it, rifle shooting can never be acquired perfectly, where -the habit is practised of holding the gun at the shoulder, "poking" the -muzzle about and seeking the bull's eye. All good shooting is produced -from the shoulder; an absence of pulsation in the body which is induced -by holding a weight. The shoulder rests are found to be the cause of -vibration; resting one part of the body and straining another begets it -instantly, and where rests are used they should be merely supports for -the muzzle, and not for the centre of the gun. If the centre is placed -upon it, the action of recoil is almost sure to jump the gun upwards. -The best shooting can be accomplished from the shoulder, if the above -instructions be carefully followed. Avoid in all cases gripping a rifle -tightly, or you will most assuredly communicate the pulsation of the -body to the rifle. - -During the Crimean war many of the Enfield rifles expanded so much with -the Pritchett plug bullet as not only to loosen all the bands on the -stock, but also to produce a visible effect on the barrel; and to remedy -this the Government adopted my expanding screw bands, which admit of -being tightened by the screw when necessary. - -The production of a perfect breech-loading small arm is as difficult as -the production of a perfect breech-loading cannon, and that is so -problematical as to amount, in my humble opinion, to nearly an -impossibility. All experience teaches that a perfectly sound base of -projection in the gun is indispensable, if good direction and velocity -are required; without which there can be no good shooting. If this be a -law, how can it be obtained where soundness is absent? Joints, slides, -and their attendants, are all incompatible with soundness: the two -cannot exist together; and hence no breech-loader can give the same -results as a solid constructed gun barrel, unsoundness and absorption of -power being always found to go hand in hand together. - -I have had considerable experience in breech-loading guns, having -obtained one or two patents; and very careful attention to the subject -has satisfied me that the question was sufficiently ventilated soon -after the adoption of gunnery, and that it was exhausted by many -hundreds of inventors as ingenious as those of the present day; the -result being in all cases a total failure. - -One of the best breech-loading carbines of the present day is -undoubtedly that of Mr. F. W. Prince, and those to whom they are -unobjectionable will certainly find in this the simplest and a most -effective weapon of the kind: Mr. Prince has certainly made the most of -the practical knowledge he has brought to bear upon the invention. - -Revolving rifles are, like revolving pistols, complicated weapons, -useful only for certain purposes; requiring, as they do, very great care -and cleanliness, to insure at best their limited services. Long barrels -are useless, because all the velocity that can be given to the -projectile has to be generated in the revolving chambers; all the -superfluous force escaping at the joint of breeches and barrels. For any -useful purpose, a nine-inch would be better than a longer barrel, -allowing the bullet to leave the muzzle at a much higher velocity than -it would do after passing through a barrel of thirty inches. It is -evident, indeed, that a revolving pistol and a revolving rifle are -possessed of power in inverse ratio to their lengths. - -The French Government are making great efforts to improve their military -system, in imparting to every soldier as much information relative to -his weapons and the best method of using them, as is compatible with his -limited education. Their institution of a normal-school for the -instruction of the whole army in all that relates to guns, shooting, and -natural "trigonometry," is proof of this. A detachment from every -infantry regiment in the service arrives at "Vincennes" early in the -spring, and the men undergo a complete course of instruction during the -whole of the summer and autumn months, or until by ability they acquire -all that is to be taught. The first and a very essential part of the -duty is to teach them to judge of distance; for this purpose a soldier -takes a target, and runs straight ahead as far as he pleases. Having -planted it, each man is called upon to judge the distance, which is -recorded in a report of the day. This exercise is carried on to a great -extent, until each becomes well able to judge correctly; then commences -the instruction in shooting, each soldier using an elevation according -to the distance he calculates he is from the target; and this is -practised at all distances, from 500 to 1,000 paces. The greatest degree -of perfection attained by the instructed is rewarded, by promotion or -otherwise; and such skill in shooting is displayed by these various -detachments as would truly astonish our military officers. - -The accomplishment of a school of instruction for teachers of rifle -shooting to the British army is now an established fact; the results, -most flattering to the projectors, more than verifying their -anticipations. The degree of perfection attained by some before leaving -Hythe is so extraordinary, that I will leave the reality to be imagined -or witnessed; and it will well repay the journey. The standing order -lately issued, awarding substantial benefits to the adept in shooting, -is sure to bear its fruits, and is only the first step to many others of -no less importance. - -Double rifled carbines can be constructed of so light a weight that -their exclusive use for cavalry purposes is not far distant, 5-1/2 -pounds being sufficient weight to ensure perfect safety. A carbine of -this description, from 18 to 20 inches in the barrel, could give a -practical range of from 600 to 700 yards, with an extreme range of 1,000 -to 1,100. A cavalry soldier armed with two of these would be equal to -four of the present day, for they would be no greater encumbrance than -the late carbine used by the Guards, which approaches 10 lbs. in weight; -and a pair of double carbines could easily be carried at the saddle bow, -their length being no obstacle. - -Revolvers have not yet been, and I fear they never can be, made -sufficiently durable to become a useful cavalry appendage. The fact may -be concealed, but it is true, nevertheless, that their fragile nature, -independently of their great cost, will always confine their use to an -exclusive few: indeed, revolving and breech-loading weapons are among -the doubtful class of arms, not fully developed as yet, even if they -ever can be. - -The adoption of double carbines will eventually throw all other small -arms for cavalry purposes into the back ground; a range of 1,000 yards -with a toy 5-1/2 lbs. in weight is one of the greatest wonders of this -wonderful age, showing the astonishing change which has been effected in -gunnery: for a deadly power now exists in the most Lilliputian toy as -well as in the Brobdignagian monster; and that, too, at immense -distances. In proof of this, I will just quote a letter from that -gallant officer, Lieutenant William A. Kerr, Southern Mahratta Irregular -Horse. - - "_Camp, Bejapore, May 29th, 1858._ - - "SIR, - - "I have received the Enfield carbine, and am much pleased with it in - every respect. It cannot, I consider, be improved on, and is by far - the best weapon for the mounted service I have ever handled. It is but - due to you that I should mention, that your work, as put into the - carbine, is far beyond what I expected at the money. I hope to be in a - position, at no very distant date, to give you a heavy commission, and - will certainly recommend you in every way I can. I have knocked over a - deer at 400 yards with the carbine, and make very good practice up to - 800 yards, by firing with two drachms of fine rifle powder. I have - given it, and Prince's breech-loader, a fair trial; the latter cannot - be compared to the former; it has not the same range, power of - projection, or of shooting; it moreover fouls in the proportion of at - least 3 to 1 more. Had I had such carbines at Kolapore, I would have - destroyed the 27th Native Infantry in an hour. - - "I am, sir, yours, &c., - - "WILLIAM A. KERR." - -The weight of this single carbine is only 5-1/4 lbs., and it is 20 -inches in the barrel. The great power of shooting would justify a -reduction of length to 15 inches, thus reducing the weight to a little -over 4-1/4 lbs.; and yet this carbine would be more certain in its -effects at 600 yards, than old Brown Bess at 150. The complaint that -carbines are found to be an encumbrance in the service is no longer -valid: they may be made to form merely a portion of the saddle with the -same facility of handling as a pistol, and with a hundredfold greater -accuracy of range. - -[Illustration: Mr. Greener's Model Carbine, 22 inches long in the -barrel, .577 bore, 5-1/4 lbs. weight.] - -The hybrid affair, adopted by the Government, of a pistol made to serve -as a carbine by the introduction of a loose butt, is of doubtful -utility: if valuable as a carbine, it will never be used as a pistol; -hence it had been much better to make it a carbine at once, thus -rendering it at the same time more durable and less costly: even a -double carbine might be constructed at about twice the price paid for -the socket joint alone. But there is still a want in the Government -establishment of "designers" of ability; all that has been effected by -way of improvement has been done by feeling the way: a kind of -progressional experiment, with a total absence of mind to grasp good -ideas, and to hold them fast. The arms used by the corps of Guides who -have distinguished themselves so much in India are now seven years old, -and they will bear comparison with the best arms our Government are only -just now producing: in fact, the irregular cavalry in India have always -been armed with weapons in advance of those of the Government troops; -and the explanation of this is very suggestive, they provide arms for -themselves, and are more alive than the Government officials to the -importance of having good ones. - -The adoption of greased cartridges in India by some irregular corps, -took place in carbines supplied by me eight or nine years ago; and the -origin of the idea was this:-- - -The principal objection urged against the adoption of the rifle, is that -of loading. I know not how quickly it is possible to load a musket; but -with cartridges properly made, I think I could load and fire a rifle -four times in a minute. But then it will be said, at the conclusion of -so many shots, the rifle gets so foul, that it will be difficult to get -the ball down. Not difficult at all. Have your cartridges made with a -saturated cover, to surround the ball, and fit properly the grooves of -the rifle. - -It would clean the barrel so much, as to allow forty shots to be fired -with as much ease as you now fire twenty. Or let a steel-wire brush be -attached to the rifle; and by screwing it to the end of the rod, you -can, by two or three times rubbing up and down, remove any accumulation -of dirt from the powder. If, however, the covering I have mentioned were -used with a weighty rod to the rifle, there would be no occasion for -cleaning, short of fifty shots. - -Experience leaves no room for doubt that a few grooves are better than -many, in all expansive-principled rifles: the nearer the approach to a -smooth surface the better, and the three divisions of grooves and -projections adopted by the British Government is the best to meet all -requirements. They will shoot as well as poly-grooved rifles; and if -three grooves give the same result, more are unnecessary and useless. -The advantage of the atmosphere acting to keep the bullet steady by its -current down the grooving on the bullet seems to meet with no -confirmation; improved shooting accruing by the grooves being reduced, -as in the case of the gathering-grooved rifle experiments. In all cases -of wild animal shooting at short distances with small charges, the many -grooves will be an advantage: the same as those formerly adopted, and -which are shown in the cut. - -[Illustration] - -Expansive bullets may be effectually used; but in varying charges, -incidental to game shooting, the same form of cavity in the bullet as -is observed in the Enfield would not act, therefore a large cavity would -be preferable to enable the less charge to act in expanding the lead -into the grooving. - -For other purposes than war, rifles will continue to be constructed on -the poly-groove principle, and with spherical bullets. The perfect -destruction of various animals is dependent generally on two causes: the -penetration into the body, and the shock to the system during that act -of penetration. No doubt exists that a spherical bullet would combine -these two qualities best. The 25 bore, the 32 and 50 hexagonal bore -would be, practically speaking, useless for the killing of elephants, -tigers, &c. The effectual and instant killing of seals on ice is an -illustration: failing to kill a seal dead, he will to a certainty reach -his hole in the ice, and disappear, to the shooter's serious -disappointment. Small bore elongated bullets were very rapidly adopted, -and as rapidly abandoned. "They did not kill dead;" the spherical bullet -did this better. It would be wise to pause and consider whether a good -military rifle is a good game-shooting rifle or not: whether the hole in -the beast be wide enough. I am inclined to think the reduction to a bore -of 25 too small for this purpose. In military muskets of smooth bore, -the elongated bullet is not applicable: very little benefit is gained in -using them in a smooth bore; and, although the original invention -contemplated this, experience decided otherwise. The spherical bullet -being thus indispensable, it follows that one size should be adopted -which combines the greatest number of favourable points. Many years ago -I made numberless experiments to ascertain this fact, and had it -demonstrated beyond all doubt to be a bore of 18 and a bullet of 19; the -difference in size admitting of the paper of the cartridge with a -moderate degree of tightness. The ultimate range of such a musket with -three drachms of gunpowder, would be equal to the range of the Enfield; -but, of course, without one-tenth its accuracy. Yet for close quarters, -line-firing, or quickness of loading, the musket will hold its place for -centuries to come; and that this opinion is entertained by many -officers, is proved by the fact that our Government is at this moment -issuing contracts for 100,000 plain-bored muskets: 17 bore, 3 feet 3 -inches long in the barrel. The near approximation of bore to my standard -is suggestive of the influence my writings have had after many years, as -the following extract from my book of 1842 shows:-- - -"Military rifles should never be shorter than three feet--say three feet -three inches, with half-turn of spiral--the length of the musket. They -should not be larger in the bore than a ball eighteen to the pound, as -at that length a force, calculated to throw an extreme distance, might -be generated. Whatever may be the arguments for heavy substances, they -do not avail here, as it is impossible to throw them either with -velocity or accuracy; for there never can be certainty, where so much -elevation is required. The size of ball we have mentioned, can be thrown -with great certainty, as far, if not farther, than any soldier in her -Majesty's service can accurately survey a single object. For the purpose -of annoying a dense body of men, such as a square column, such a rifle -would be an invaluable gun; as the muskets now made will not throw a -ball one-half the distance. As to the actual range of a rifle of this -bore and length, I should think it would reach, effectively, the -distance of 1,500 yards." - -The experimental or competitive trials by the Royal Engineers at Chatham -to prove the superiority of the elliptical bored rifle over the Enfield, -is another of those occasional clap-traps with which the public are -amused. The ordinary reader would judge and set it down for an -established fact that the elliptical rifle was, as has generally been -represented, an invention purely Lancasterian, gun and bullet; while the -real facts are quite contrary: true, the barrel is rifled, slightly -elliptical, and having "an increasing spiral;" but the ammunition is -that of the Enfield--the "'Greenerian' expansive bullet with the centre -of gravity in the head." The bullet that Lancaster adopted, as well -known, had a leaden plug. I quote from the report of the select -committee:-- - - "The plug bullet used by Mr. Lancaster does not appear suitable for - military service, for when the plug is driven into the bullet by the - ignition of the powder, it generally nips the paper of the cartridge - between itself and the base of the bullet, and carries a portion of it - away, as may be seen by the specimens sent to the committee; upon the - amount of paper so carried away by the ball depends the accuracy or - inaccuracy of its flight; and the plugs do not in all cases remain - firmly attached to the bullet." - -What then are these trials conducted to prove? It cannot be the -superiority of Lancaster's bullet; for he has abandoned that, "_and uses -the Enfield_." Is it the rifling?--if so, let us see what the same -committee say of that:-- - - "The chief peculiarity of this rifle consists in the inner surface of - the barrel being smooth, instead of cut into grooves, as in most - rifled barrels. As a substitute for grooves, the interior of the - barrel is cut into the form of an ellipse, whose major axis exceeds - the minor by .005 of an inch. The ball is rifled by being forced (when - expanded by the explosion of the gunpowder) into the major axis of the - ellipse, which thus fulfils the office of grooves in conducting the - ball into the required degree of spiral motion. - - "As Mr. Lancaster has adopted the American plan of a 'gaining-twist,' - or 'increasing spiral,' and applied it to his smooth-bored barrels - with _elongated_ projectiles, it may be as well to consider the merits - of this system. - - "The advantages are supposed to be: - - "1st. Increased accuracy. - - "2nd. Less recoil. - - "3rd. An absence of the tendency a ball has, when starting with a - rapid spiral, to twist the rifle over sideways to the right or left, - according to the inclination of the grooves. - - "4th. A diminution of the tendency a ball has to 'strip' when first - started. - - "1st. The alleged increased accuracy has been by some attributed to - the supposition that the revolutions of the bullet round its own axis - increase in rapidity while passing through the air, in consequence of - having acquired that motion when passing through the barrel, under the - influence of the grooves; but it is difficult to imagine how a leaden - bullet can carry within itself, after leaving the muzzle, any power of - increasing its own rotatory or progressive motion. - - "2nd. That there should be less recoil is natural, as the bullet meets - with less opposition when first started from a state of rest; but the - amount of recoil in all rifles now made for expanding projectiles is - quite inconsiderable, and not worth noticing. - - "3rd. The tendency of a bullet to twist the rifle on one side is now - avoided by reducing the spirality of the grooves. Instead of being - one turn in three or four feet as formerly, it is now one turn in six - feet six inches, and sometimes only one turn in eight or nine feet. - - "4th. The advocates of this system maintain that a bullet is less - likely to 'strip,' or pass out of the barrel without rifling itself, - when conducted gradually into the required degree of spirality. But - the question is, whether in a well-constructed rifle, the bullet - _does_ strip? and if not, then a gaining-twist is unnecessary and - objectionable, as it offers to the ball's progress a continually - increasing opposition, while the ball itself is subjected to a - continually increasing urging force from the inflamed gunpowder in the - barrel, so that, as the velocity of the ball increases, so also does - the resistance to its escape. A projectile is set in motion gradually, - and is (or should be, if the quality and quantity of the powder, and - the barrel, have a right proportion to each other) at its greatest - velocity just before leaving the muzzle; consequently the tendency of - a ball would be to yield to the increasing force of the powder and - pass straight out of the barrel without following the grooves; and - this more especially in a smooth bore, which has no clearly defined - edges to hold and guide the ball to its proper degree of spirality, - but where the lead may be compressed along the smooth surface so as to - pass straight along the barrel." - -So much for the gaining twist; it requires no further argument. The oval -bore is not an invention of Mr. Lancaster: it is older than Captain -Beaufoy's book, "Scloppetaria," published in 1808, for in it you will -find a description how to rifle a smooth bore; and he gives drawings of -the tools to do it with. - -If these statements are facts--and I defy them being gainsaid--what -connection has this gentleman with it at all? for what purpose is it -pompously announced that the Lancaster elliptical bored rifle shoots -superior to the Enfield, when there is _not such a thing_? The superior -shooting of one man over another is more than sufficient explanation. -The highly unscientific theory of putting a bullet into excessive -spiral motion at the instant it has acquired a maximum of velocity is -untenable, admitting of no lucid explanation. The Enfield rifle has -evidently many enemies, who do not hesitate in injuring her reputation, -nor hesitate about the means of doing it. All elliptical bores are but -the two-grooved rifle in disguise: an idea fast exploding. - -The truth of my opinion about the two-grooved or Brunswick rifle, -introduced into the service in 1840, is now proved. Many of my readers -will recollect that in my books of 1842 and 1846 I termed this "an -abortion of science:" it has since died with that cognomen; though it -was puffed up, as my readers will remember, by many high authorities, -and amongst the rest by Dr. Ure, who said nearly as much for it as is -now advanced in favour of the hexagonal rifle. On referring to the -report of the Select Committee on Small Arms, published in 1852, I find -the following account of it:-- - - "At all distances above 400 yards the shooting was so wild as to be - unrecorded. The Brunswick rifle has shown itself to be much inferior - in point of range to every other arm hitherto noticed. - - "The loading of this rifle is so difficult that it is wonderful how - the rifle regiments have continued to use it so long--the force - required to ram down the ball being so great as to render any man's - hand unsteady for accurate shooting. Comment is unnecessary." - -The Prussian needle gun, too, has departed this life: another instance -of the absurdity of adopting plans containing in themselves the reverse -of scientific principles; for it may safely be accepted as an axiom that -success at the present day can only arise to mechanical constructions -which are based on those immutable foundations of mechanical science in -accordance with great Nature's laws. - -That the principles of the expansive or "Greenerian" rifles are fast -gaining the approbation of all scientific men qualified by their -pursuits to judge, is evident from the fact that Birmingham has -contributed, within the last twelve months, a considerable number of -workmen to construct Enfield rifles in all the principal States of -Europe. France, and Russia especially, are expending large amounts in -manufacturing this arm; so that it is no stretch of imagination to -suppose that in a few years the equilibrium of arms will be again -established, all nations being armed with equally good weapons, to -contrast with the contemptible ones of bygone times. - -Before separating for the recess, a question was asked from the -officials by an honourable member in the House of Commons:--"When a -report would be given in as to the relative merits of the Enfield and -Whitworth rifles as military weapons?" The answer given was evidently -intended to mystify; for, from the most intimate inquiries I have made, -I find that no experiments whatever are in progress. The last took place -at Woolwich, in October, 1857, and terminated so very unsatisfactorily, -that Mr. Whitworth wished to make some alterations in his rifles, in -order to overcome the difficulties presented. Up to the present time the -authorities inform me that no other rifles have been sent in for further -trial. - -The defects demonstrated in these experiments were precisely those -pointed out in this chapter. On reversing their positions, "hard bullets -_v._ soft," the penetration of the Enfield was found to be equal to that -of the Whitworth; the same number of elm deals being perforated. This -proves what may be done by "mechanical dodges," and how intimately -acquainted those in charge of "gunnery experiments" ought to be with all -its ramifications, or they, too, may be hoodwinked. - -The difficulty of loading was here more strongly exemplified than at -Hythe. The deposit from the "Government gunpowder" became so tenacious -in the "hexagonal grooves," that after a certain number of shots, -loading became a very difficult matter indeed; so much so, that Mr. -Whitworth considerately provided a very superior description of -gunpowder, with which the hexagonal rifle worked a little better. The -recoil, too, was of that severe kind as to leave strong recollections of -its force on the minds of the reluctant operative shooters employed to -carry out the experiment. The entire result may be summed up, in the -mildest term, as "unsatisfactory." The concealment of this result may be -probably a considerate act on the part of the late Government; the -parts acted by some of the members of it must be strong in the -recollection of others; and letting _down quietly_ this very highly -inflated "wind-bag," when it showed symptoms of collapse, was doubtless -a judicious act. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -REVOLVING PISTOLS. - - -Revolving or repeating pistols have now become as necessary in war as -the rifle. The peculiarity of the contests in various parts of America -first showed the necessity of a weapon being constructed, the moral and -destructive effects of which should be equal. - -Colonel Colt was unquestionably the first to overcome the difficulties -found to exist in the earliest productions, and when the introduction of -the revolver into Europe became general, and the demands for it -increased, the manufacturers were enabled, from the commencement, to -avoid the defects which he had overcome in the course of his experience; -and thus, their task was a lighter one than his. An immense number of -revolving pistols have been constructed in a very short time; but, like -all new creations in mechanical science, the production has been -distinguished by quantity rather than quality. The general adoption of -these arms has been greatly impeded by the very inferior quality -produced. Revolving pistols may be had from 10_s._ upwards; but as to -the utility of such cheap trash nothing can be said. The possession of -one may have a moral effect on the courage of the bearer, and its -appearance may act on the fears of the opponent, but the danger is -greatest to him who fires. The complicated arrangement of all repeating -fire-arms requires that they should be of the very best workmanship, if -they are to be safe and efficient weapons. That they have been of the -utmost use to the allied armies in the Crimea, and in that more -desultory but treacherous struggle in the East, is certain. Many and -valuable lives have been saved by their ready application. The moral -effect of the revolver was amply demonstrated where one noble young -soldier held his post at "Rewah" by the dread of his revolver alone; the -mutineers knowing well that six of them must fall before they could -reach him, and feeling that each might be one of the six, he held his -own until relief came. - -Again, a tale is told of another gallant officer who shot five in -succession, reserving the sixth for that arch-miscreant Nana Sahib; but -unfortunately that sixth barrel missed fire. How many thousands of lives -that shot might have saved had it been successfully fired! With all -good, however, comes a certain amount of evil: no perfect weapon has -ever yet been constructed; but this shows how desirable it is that a -perfect revolver should be invented, if possible. - -There are but few manufacturers of revolvers who have reached any degree -of eminence: Colt, Dean, Adams, Tranter, and Webley, comprise nearly all -the distinguished men in this country. There are a multitude of -second-rate makers in England, France, and Belgium; but the most -celebrated makers in Europe are those I have enumerated; and in order -to guide the reader as far as my knowledge will serve, I will -impartially point out the advantages and defects belonging to each -production. - -The construction of Colonel Colt's repeating pistol is, according to his -own description, a motion got by cocking the lock and rotating the -cylinders; as described in the following quotation:-- - - "They differ from those formerly made, principally in the greater - simplicity and the better proportions of the parts of the lock and the - framework. Important additions and improvements have been made in the - loading lever and rammer for forcing the balls firmly into the - cylinder, the employment of the helical or spiral groove on the arbor - on which the cylinder turns, whose sharp edges are intended to prevent - fouling by scraping off any smoke or dirt accumulating in the cylinder - from the lateral fire entering the centre opening, and the inclined - plane leading to the recesses on the periphery of the cylinder, to - direct the bolt below the opposite shoulder in the recesses; thus - preventing the cylinder from being accidentally thrown too far by the - sudden action of cocking. The lock is now composed of five working - parts, instead of seventeen, as formerly; and it is obvious that if - the several parts of the machinery are made proportionally strong for - the work they have to do, so is the arm rendered more efficient by the - greater simplicity of the general construction. - - "In all arms having a moveable breech it is desirable to bring the - barrel and cylinder as nearly in contact as possible, in order to - prevent the escape of lateral fire, and yet to leave freedom for - motion, without friction: this is now effected by the base pin, on - which the cylinder turns, entering a corresponding opening in the - under part of the barrel, being there held in place by a key passing - through and bearing against the back end of the slot in the barrel, - and the fore end of the slot in the base pin, which is thus drawn up - to the bottom of the hole, and yet the barrel is prevented from being - brought too close upon, or in absolute contact with, the cylinder, - whilst its end is still held in its proper position with respect to - the cylinder. In the event of any abrasion of the end of the cylinder - or of the barrel, by deepening the cavity, or filing the end of the - base pin, the key can be driven further in, and the proper distance - for the readjustment of those parts be maintained, whilst the - essential rigidity of structure is secured. - - "In loading the present arm, it is necessary to draw back the hammer - to the half notch, to allow the cylinder to be rotated freely by hand; - a charge of powder is then placed in each chamber, and the balls, - without wadding or patch, are put one at a time upon the mouths of the - chambers, turned under the rammer and forced down, by the lever, below - the mouth of the chamber. This is repeated until all the chambers are - loaded. Percussion caps are then placed on the nipples, when, by - drawing back the hammer to the full catch, the click or lever is - brought into contact with one of the ratchet teeth, on the base of the - cylinder, bringing the nipple into the precise position to receive the - blow of the hammer: the arm is then in a condition for being - discharged by simply pulling the trigger; and a repetition of the same - portion produces the like results, until all the chambers are - discharged through the barrel. - - "The movements of the revolving chamber and hammer are admirably - provided for. The breach, containing six cylindrical cells for holding - the powder and ball, moves one-sixth of a revolution at a time; it - can, therefore, only be fired when the chamber and the barrel are in a - direct line. The base of the cylindrical breech being cut externally - into a circular ratchet of six teeth (the lever which moves the - ratchet being attached to the hammer), as the hammer is raised in the - act of cocking, the cylinder is made to revolve, and to revolve in one - direction only. While the hammer is falling, the chamber is firmly - held in its position by a lever fitted for the purpose; when the - hammer is raised, the lever is removed and the chamber released. - - "So long as the hammer remains at half-cock the chamber is free, and - can be loaded at pleasure. The rapidity with which these arms can be - loaded is one of their great recommendations, the powder being merely - poured into each receptacle in succession, and the balls being then - dropped in upon it, without any wadding, and driven home by the - ramrod, which of course is never required to enter the barrel. - - "While carried in the pocket, or belt, there is no possibility of an - accidental discharge of these pistols. Whenever it is required to - clean the barrel and chamber, they can be taken to pieces in a moment, - wiped out, oiled, and replaced. - - "The hammer at full-cock forms the sight by which aim is taken. The - pistol is readily cocked by the thumb of the right hand, a plan in - every way far superior to the arrangement whereby the hammer is raised - by a pull on the trigger: this is in every respect most objectionable, - the pull materially interfering with the correctness of aim; and the - sear-spring having the duty of the main-spring to perform as well, is - apt constantly to be getting out of order. - - "The ramrod attached to these pistols consists of a very clever but - simple compound lever, which, forcing the ball effectually home, - hermetically seals the chamber containing the powder, and by the - application of a small quantity of wax to the nipple before capping, - the pistol may be immersed for hours in water without the chance of a - miss-fire." - -The great disadvantage said to be existing in this revolver is the -necessity of cocking and half-cocking at every discharge; which double -action is difficult in certain positions where revolvers are of the -greatest use, as in a melee surrounded by many enemies, where the -cocking and firing by one pulling motion, as in Tranter's and Dean's, is -more expeditious: in fact, certificates are published by officers who, -at the battle of Inkermann, would have been cut down had the slightest -delay been necessary for cocking the pistol. On the other hand, it is -said, that no certain aim can be taken where the pulling up and sudden -liberation of the mainspring discharges the pistol; the act of -discharging it destroying the aim. These two points have their advocates -and their objectors, as has always been the case with new plans. - -The mechanical construction of Colt's pistol is effected entirely by -machinery, and on this account superiority is claimed for it; in my -opinion, however, the boasted benefits of machinery have never yet been -realised. The manufacture of guns without machinery is difficult, but -the entire use of it is unnecessary. Certain portions of pistol-making -can never be done as they should be by machinery; and I have not yet -been able to discover anything in Colt's manufacture to make me advocate -the use of machinery. I should not consider a pistol made by hand, and -equal to the best of Colt's, as well made; a hand-made pistol ought to -be much better in all respects. - -Dean and Adams were the first makers of note who contested the palm with -Colt. They thus describe their pistol:-- - - "The barrel, the lock-frame, and top-bar were all forged out of one - piece of iron: the chamber to contain five charges, revolved on a - centre pin, which could be either drawn entirely, or partially out, as - was required and was held in its position by a side spring; the - toothed ratchet was secured to the base of the chamber by two screws, - so as to admit of its being renewed, when it was abraded by use, and - motion was given to it by a ratchet pall, connected with the hammer, - which was lifted by pulling the trigger. The hammer moved on a - transverse pin, and was pressed down on the nipple by a back spring in - the stock, being connected with it by a swivel link; the trigger was - kept in position by a horizontal bent spring, and had attached to it - the hammer-lifter and the ratchet pall; the point of the former fell - into a notch in the base of the hammer, so that as the trigger was - pulled, the hammer was raised, until the rounded portion of the base, - acting as a cam, forced the lifter out of the notch, and allowed the - hammer to descend on the nipple and to explode the percussion-cap. On - withdrawing the finger from the trigger, the lifter and ratchet pall - descended and again slipped into the notches of the hammer and the - chamber, in readiness for repeating the operation of firing. The - lifter was retained in contact with the hammer, by a small flat - spring, the upper end of which was attached to the pall, while the - lower end acted upon the lifter, which, in turning on its centre, - brought the lower prolongation against the spring, below the centre, - so as to press the upper end in the proper direction, in order that - its action might be certain. - - "The rotation of the chambers was obtained by a ratchet pall, acting - on a tooth each time the trigger was pulled, thus causing the chambers - to revolve, so far as to bring a nipple into the proper position for - receiving the blow of the hammer, and in that situation it was held by - a projecting stop on the back of the trigger. - - "In order to load the chambers it was necessary that they should - revolve free of the stop: this was effected by pressing inwards - another stop, attached to a spring on the side of the lock, which - engaged the point of the hammer and prevented it from descending on - the nipple, until the chambers were loaded, when, on the trigger being - pulled, the side spring stop was released and resumed its original - position, leaving the weapon ready for action. - - "The bullets were cast with a small 'tang' on them, which served to - fix a wad on each; thus no ramrod was required in loading, the bullets - being merely pressed in with the finger. The aperture of the barrel - was slightly expanded at the lower end to admit of the bullets - entering more readily in firing. The rifling of the barrel was the - reverse of the ordinary system, as it consisted of three projecting - 'feathers,' or ridges, extending the length of the tube, leaving very - wide grooves between them. - - "It would be observed, that the cocking and firing were performed by - the same action of the trigger; therefore the rapidity of firing was - proportionally great; the arm was very light, its construction simple, - and its action certain." - -The defect of cocking and firing by the same action of the trigger must -have been important; for new patents were, I believe, taken to cover -both plans, and they now manufacture what is termed a double-action -pistol, which acts either by cocking with the finger, or by the trigger, -as of old. The important improvement in the durability and soundness of -Dean and Adams's pistol over Colt's is, that the barrel, the lock-frame, -and top bar, are all forged out of one piece of iron; thus, the -cylinders revolve in a frame which cannot undergo any displacement. - -In Colt's, the barrel is supported by a crooked elbow, rising from the -centre, or revolving pin; its principal support consequently is some -distance below the tube of the barrel, but parallel to it: the effect of -long firing is to bend this elbow, causing the barrel to fall or droop -downward, instead of continuing in a straight line with the chambers; -thus, an opening between the chambers and the barrel is established, -increasing the space for lateral escape. - -Next, though certainly not least, is Tranter's pistol, of three -different modes of construction. The name of this manufacturer has risen -higher than that of his London competitors; owing, no doubt, in a great -measure, to the generally entertained opinion that all essential -improvements in the English revolving pistols have arisen from the skill -and untiring industry of Mr. William Tranter. Whether the opinion that -he originated all the improvements claimed for Dean and Adams's pistol -is well founded or not, I cannot say: I only reiterate the opinion; and -I believe, from the very great attention Mr. Tranter has paid to the -subject, and from his great mechanical skill, that he is quite capable -of effecting these improvements. Any admirer of beautiful arrangements -in gunnery has only to examine one of his double-trigger revolving -pistols, to be struck with the elaborate nature of his improvements. I -give a wood-cut of it on the next page, and some quotations from his own -description of its quality:-- - -"W. Tranter's patents for a double trigger, a safety-hammer spring, an -elongated socket for the chamber, a loading lever, and a lubricating -bullet for revolving arms, increase the value and efficiency of these -arms as defensive weapons. - -[Illustration: Half size of the medium 54 gauge double-trigger -Revolver.] - -"By means of the patent double-trigger the pistol can be held more -firmly in the hand while being fired, and only one hand is required to -raise the hammer and fire the pistol. A perfectly accurate and quicker -aim can be taken, and the pistol discharged at the instant desired; the -hammer can be raised again without lowering or removing the pistol from -the object till the whole of the chambers are fired off. The chamber is -held firmly opposite the front barrel before the hammer begins to fall, -and also at the moment it is discharged; the chamber cannot be turned -away from the front barrel by the hammer at the moment it is discharged. -In cases of emergency the pistol can be fired with the greatest rapidity -by pulling both triggers together. The exploded caps do not get into -the works and render the pistol useless till removed. But little -practice is required to enable a person to shoot with accuracy. - -"The patent safety hammer spring always acts with the hammer and -trigger; should anything accidentally lift the hammer, the safety-spring -instantly falls under it and prevents it falling upon the cap, thereby -preventing an accidental discharge. The safety-spring also facilitates -the loading, by allowing the hammer to rest upon it while the chambers -are being charged, and at the same time acting as a safety-spring during -the operation of loading. The pistol can be carried with perfect safety -when loaded, either in the pocket or holster, by allowing the hammer to -rest upon the safety-spring. - -"By means of the patent elongating socket, the chamber can be properly -and readily adjusted to the frame of the pistol; and as the chamber with -use becomes too free, and the strength of the shooting depreciated, the -elongating socket enables it to be readjusted as perfectly as when first -made--an important consideration with these arms. - -"The patent loading lever enables the pistol to be loaded with greater -facility, and fits the lubricating bullet to the chamber so exactly that -the powder cannot fail to bend up the flange of the bullet and -distribute the lubrication all over the inner surface of the chamber and -barrel; it also fixes the bullet so firmly in its place in the chamber -that it does not fall out with being carried in the pocket or holster, -neither does it project forward with the firing of the pistol. - -"The patent lubricating bullet, with the lubricating composition, -effectually lubricates the inner surface of the chamber as far as the -bullet enters, also the face of the chamber where it comes in contact -with the front barrel, and the whole of the inner surface of the front -barrel; thereby preventing any deposit of lead or powder that may deform -the bullet, enabling the pistol to be loaded with the greatest ease -after firing a number of shots, and facilitating the passage of the -bullet through the front barrel. The accurate fitting of the bullet and -the repellent properties of the lubrication completely protect the -powder from exposure to wet or damp, and effectually prevent one chamber -igniting the powder in the other while being fired. The pistol has been -fired five hundred times in succession with the lubricating bullets -without being cleaned or getting out of order, the last fifty shots -being fired with as much accuracy as the first; the pistol could then be -loaded and fired with the greatest facility, there being no deposit -which interfered either with the loading or firing. - -"W. Tranter has taken out another patent for improvements in fire-arms, -and having combined with those improvements some of the improvements -comprised in his former patents, recommends the above as possessing -every requisite for a double-action cocking revolver." - -These revolvers will be found to possess the following advantages:-- - -"The pistol can be used with one hand, and fired with the greatest -rapidity and facility by pulling the trigger with the fore finger only. - -"The hammer can be raised and the pistol fired as an ordinary -fowling-piece. - -"The spring lock for locking the chambers enables the pistol to be -carried safely, and can be released when required by the thumb of the -right hand. - -"The lock of the pistol is simple, and not liable to derangement. It can -be easily taken to pieces when required, and as easily put together -again. - -"The patent elongating socket is combined with this revolver in the same -manner as with the patent double-trigger revolver, and with the same -advantages. - -[Illustration: Tranter's double-action Revolver.] - -"The new patent loading lever is attached to this revolver in the same -manner and with the same advantages as to the patent double-trigger -revolver." - -Webley's patent revolving pistol is an improvement upon Colt's best -pistol, the cylinder rotating by the cocking of the lock. The advantages -obtained are, an exceedingly simple construction in the rotating -movement, enabling the patentee to manufacture them at a lower price -than any of the preceding makers, and thus to produce, what is a great -desideratum, a good and reasonable priced pistol. - -[Illustration: Webley's Revolver.] - -"Keep your powder dry" was the old watchword: "Take care of your -ammunition" ought to be the watchword of the present day. - -Facility of loading is no doubt to a certain extent an advantage, but -doubts exist whether breech-loading guns, if brought to such a state of -perfection as to come into general use, would not, from their very -facility of loading, become a serious evil. - -The difficulty which Commanding Officers have to contend with in war is -in restraining their men from firing too rapidly, using two shots where -one would suffice; but the process of loading inculcates care of it, -takes considerable trouble, and hence men husband their fire the more. - -The two different principles of revolvers illustrate this. The -self-acting one is apt to be fired more than once; a man in a state of -excitement may pull twice before he pauses, and two shots are expended -where one would have sufficed. The cocking-lock pistol, in addition to -the less pull required in firing, gives time for observation, as the -necessity for cocking every time creates a pause, and is an admonition -to coolness: this is often very advantageous in shooting game, in which, -as in the more serious affair of shooting men, deliberate coolness is -required. - -Therefore, excepting only the chance--the very remote chance, that may -arise, requiring you to fire six shots as rapidly as possible--so -rapidly that the cocking pistol would be too slow, I would myself prefer -the cocking pistol; from the fact of being able to take much better aim -with it, and there being less chance of missing, through the heavy pull -necessary to raise the cock and fire the pistol on the self-acting -principle. The almost general adoption, in the present day, of the -cocking-lock, and its application in both Adams's and Tranter's -self-acting principles, is proof of the general bias towards the same -opinion. - -The tendency of all revolving pistols, and of course revolving rifles -also, to foul in the barrel after a few shots, is a very serious -drawback to their efficiency in use. The following quotation from -Lieutenant Symons' work is one opinion which I select from a number in -my possession:-- - -"Revolving pistols only ought now-a-days, in my opinion, to be made -breech-loading; and of these the pistol of Colonel Colt is a very good -specimen. I can generally hit a target the size of a man with this -pistol at a distance of 150 yards when clean, _i. e._, with the first -shot; and I on one occasion put five out of the six shots into the -target successively. When foul, however, the bullets will not fly -steadily and on their points. I one day, for the purpose of experiment, -fired 60 rounds without cleaning, at planks placed a few yards off only, -when latterly the bullets, instead of cutting the circular holes they -had been doing, commenced to make marks in the planks as if nails an -inch long had struck them sideways. On taking off the barrel to -ascertain the cause, I found that it was nearly choked up with lead. The -barrel of this pistol rapidly fouls, though the chambers do not." - -It also furnishes a complete answer to the absurd proposition of -imparting spiral motion to a bullet, by means of an increasing spiral, -after it is put into high velocity. The fouling of the barrel by lead to -an extent (as I have seen) of a considerable portion of the bore, is -absolute proof that the bullet does not follow the course of the -grooving: in its passage through the directing barrel it passes straight -out, with the velocity imparted to it in the chamber. - -The experience of this fact induced Mr. Tranter to invent his -lubricating bullet, the only form of pistol with which many shots can -be fired without cleaning. There are, in reality, many defects to be -overcome (though it is very doubtful whether they will ever be) before -revolvers can in any degree be relied upon for constant operations. I -know for a fact that at this moment Government have in store many -thousands, disabled for all useful purposes, though by the most trivial -circumstances; fouling with lead being one of the most prominent -defects, or some trifling disarrangement of the rotating machinery, such -as it might be supposed could be repaired: but they are returned to -store as hopeless, in the usual course, and thus their fate is sealed as -a military weapon. - -The double-barrelled under-and-over pistol was entirely discarded for -the new toy; but hopes are entertained that the former will soon be -restored to the lost preference of all who value their own safety, and -would rather depend on two certainly destructive shots than six -uncertain ones. For my own personal use in any scene of combat, my -reliance would be on a pair of double-barrelled pistols; or what is of -more use still, on double carbines. The Emperor of the French, however, -is arming his sailors with revolving pistols; and lately, in India, a -squadron of Dragoons used the revolver with deadly effect on a body of -rebel Sepoys. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -ENFIELD MACHINE-MADE RIFLES. - - -Enfield, the seat of the Government manufacture of small arms, will -become a celebrated place in future history; its productions being now -one of the wonders of the present age. The term "Enfield Rifle" does not -denote any one improvement, but a series of improvements; Enfield being -merely the name of the place where the manufactory is situated. - -The Enfield rifle differs from the original rifled musket (better known -as the Minie musket) in the fact of the bore having been reduced to -.577, and the weight of the arm to 9 lbs. The regulation Minie musket -was 10 lbs. 8-3/4 oz. in weight, so that a saving of 1-1/2 lbs. has been -effected by the adoption of the present gun. The size of the bore was -.702, and the weight of the bullet 680 grains, whilst the present -regulation musket is only .577 bore, the bullet being 520 grains in -weight. - -The model arms ordered by Lord Hardinge, the Commander-in-Chief, in -1852, of Messrs. Greener, Purday, Richards, Lancaster, and Wilkinson, -formed the base from which the Enfield was constructed. The "Sight" was -Westley Richards' invention. The Expanding Bands for securing the stock -and barrels (without which a machine-made musket would always be an -uncertainty) are an invention of mine; several other points were also -adopted on my recommendation: as, for instance, the furniture being -case-hardened, as in the rifle-corps gun, and the fastenings of the -bayonet. These points, however, being merely suggested improvements, and -not, strictly speaking, inventions, conferred no benefit on me beyond -the compliment involved in their adoption. - -It is well known that, but for my evidence before a committee of the -House of Commons in 1848, the swivel-lock would not have been so soon -adopted as it was. Thus it is evident that much of the outer form, as -well as the principle, of the present arm is due to my exertions. Much -surprise was shown by the Select Committee in 1852 that I did not give -in for trial some improvement upon my own principle (which, by the by, -they had not at that time admitted); but prudence taught me otherwise: -to have done so would have affected the soundness of my claims. - -About the year 1851 it was determined to adopt some portion of the -American system of manufacturing guns by the aid of machinery. A -commission was appointed and sent out to the United States in order to -inspect the operations of their mechanism, and to ascertain the -advisability of adopting the whole, or a portion, of their machinery in -England. To the selection of the members of that commission, and to -their judgment, may be ascribed whatever is ill or good in the system; -the majority being military men connected with military matters, and the -others machinists, the bias was no doubt in favour of machinery. The -Enfield manufactory, at its starting, was intended to be a moderate -affair, I believe; but now it has expanded into such gigantic -proportions that, if it continues in action, the manufacture of military -arms must partially cease to be the trade of Birmingham: for all large -establishments of machinery must be employed, to protect them from -decay; and whatever may be the cost of production, machinery must go on, -or be entirely given up. - -The extent of the Enfield manufactory may be estimated from the fact -that it now produces weekly 1,100 stand of arms complete, and employs -men and boys to the number of 1,300. At this rate of production, a very -few years will suffice to place such a stock of arms at the command of -the Government as will render the employment of foreign artisans -unnecessary. Enfield machine-made arms are undoubtedly specimens of the -highest class of that description; but whether they will be found as -durable as hand-made arms I very much doubt: time alone can decide -this. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -THE HARPOON GUN. - - -Whale shooting has now become a great fact; no other means being used to -capture this monster of the deep but the harpoon gun, when it is -possible to obtain it. Although little doubt remains but that whales, -like "grouse," are becoming scarce, and that in a short time they will -become almost extinct, yet their great value when captured will always -stimulate hardy and daring seamen to pursue them even into their -remotest haunts. The following cut represents the boat and gun now in -use. - -[Illustration] - -Experience has proved the value of this invention; and every ship that -goes to the fishing has now a full complement of six harpoon guns. -Nine-tenths of the fish got within the last few years have been shot. -From a calculation I made after the conclusion of a late season, the -result must have been very satisfactory and profitable to the owners of -the ships, and also to the gun-makers. I have every reason to know that -the amount of money realised by these harpoon guns amounted to little -short of 100,000_l._; and this from guns of my manufacture alone: for I, -like most inventors, have competitors, who manufacture upon my model and -at less than my price. - -Harpoon guns are similar to small swivel guns; they are of 1-1/2 inch -bore and 3 feet long in the barrel, which when stocked and complete -weighs 75 lbs. The construction of the lock is very simple, being upon -the principle of a saddle pistol lock; the caps, the nipples, and lock, -are completely and effectually covered, and protected from damp, or -spray from the sea. The lock is also securely bolted until the moment it -is wanted; when by the removal of a pin, the trigger string is pulled, -which fires the gun. The harpoon is projected with considerable accuracy -to any distance under eighty-four yards; that being the greatest range -ever obtained with this description of gun. The charge is very small to -project 40 lbs. weight; for the harpoon itself is 10-1/2 lbs., with an -increasing weight of three-inch line from the gun to the extreme range, -in all weighing full 40 lbs. This immense improvement is the result of -calculations, deduced from the nature of gunpowder. The charge is short -of an ounce of powder; but is, or ought to be, good powder, of the -largest grain; fine powder will not do it, but, on the contrary, would -jump up the end of the harpoon, or bend it, so that it would be of no -further use until repaired. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -ON SHOT, CAPS, AND WADDING. - - -Patent shot being still produced as at the time of publishing previous -editions of my works, I have no important improvement to record. - -[Illustration] - -The manufacture is very simple: the lead is first tempered by the aid of -arsenic, in the proportions required by the slag (a technical term) for -the kind used; some lead taking more and some less. The melted metal is -then poured into a perforated pan placed over the mouth of the pit, or -tower (whichever may be in use.) Messrs. Walkers, Parkers, and Co. have -towers in their various factories where they make shot; the cut -represents the one in Newcastle. Messrs. Locke, Blackett, and Co. cast -down the shaft of a pit, and by this means obtain a greater fall. The -fluid metal takes a globular shape in falling, and the concentric motion -of each particle round its axis keeps it in this form until its passage -through the air has extracted the heat, and before it reaches the body -of water placed to receive it. The only difficulty is in casting very -large sizes; for if the distance the drops fall be not sufficiently -great, and they reach the water in a semi-fluid state, the resistance of -the water misshapes them. About three different sizes come out through -one pan. These are separated by the aid of riddles, or tabled, as the -process is termed. A quantity of the shot is placed on a slight incline, -when those that do not run off are rejected. The whole are then polished -in a machine termed a drum, with a mixture of black lead. This gives to -the shot that beautiful polish which captivates the eye, but which -injures the shooting of the gun, as the black lead adheres to the -interior of the tube. All shot should be used unpolished; and the -addition of hardness is unquestionably another advantage. Slag-lead is -lighter than other lead, but it is much harder, and thus more suitable -for shot. I regret the disuse of shot made with quicksilver, as it is -unquestionably much superior, though more costly. A considerable -improvement is yet to be introduced in the manipulation of shot-making; -and I shall commence a round of experiments with that object at the -earliest opportunity. - -Copper caps are now a misnomer: very few are to be met with. Brass caps -boiled to the colour of copper are the rule, the former the exception. -Good caps are made in Birmingham, if a remunerative price is paid for -them; and I have the pleasure to name several makers: Messrs. E. and A. -Ludlow, Messrs. Pursall and Philips, and Mr. Cox. It must be borne in -mind that cheapness means inferiority: every article is made according -to price. - -The mixture of fulminating mercury composition is: - - Fulminating mercury 3 grains or ounces. - Chlorate of potash 5 do. - Sulphur 1 do. - Powdered glass 1 do. - -The above is one of the best compounds in use. - - Chlorate of Potash 6 grains or ounces. - Sulphur 3 do. - Glass, powdered 1 do. - Charcoal, ditto 1/2 do. - -Is the best mixture where the corrosive principle is not heeded. - -Messrs. Eley, Brothers, were the first manufacturers who turned their -attention to making waterproof copper caps for sporting purposes, -commencing it in 1837. The principle is simple, the excellence mainly -consisting in the quality of the ingredients used, and their being -thoroughly secured from the effects of moisture. They are so constituted -that the largest portion of the percussion powder and the weakest part -of the waterproof covering which lines the inner surface of the cap, are -immediately over the surface of the nipple; consequently, when the blow -ignites the percussion powder, the larger portion of the explosion is -forced down the nipple, and is of such intensity of heat (especially in -platina-lined nipples) that it will ignite the gunpowder some distance -up the barrel: in an _eprouvette_ it will do so at four or five inches -from the nipple. A miss-fire thus very seldom occurs, as the heat is -sure to penetrate to the charge, even when a gun has become foul after a -long day's shooting and the powder cannot pass freely through the -chambers to the nipples. It is well known that caps which do not possess -these igniting qualities may be fired through gunpowder, and frequently -fail to ignite it, from the want of proper attention to the constitution -of the fulminate and its mixture. In all cheaply manufactured caps this -inferiority is sure to prevail, and the manifold advantages to be -derived from the sterling quality of all sporting adjuncts is now fully -appreciated by sportsmen generally. "Penny wise and pound foolish" is a -proverb more borne in mind than formerly, and the conviction is now -general that a good gun only proves to be so when proper attention is -paid to the loading in every particular. - -Good wadding is as essential as good gunpowder: a perfect separation -must be maintained between the exploded powder and the shot, or no -result can be depended upon; cheap wadding, therefore, according to the -above adage, is out of favour. - -Cartridges of wire, or "universal," are now so well known as to need no -treatise to point out their advantages. A more striking example of the -progress of knowledge in properly estimating the value of high-class -manufactures cannot be adduced than in the case of Eley, Brothers, who -have by unwearied industry in the production of sporting ammunition of -the first quality, nearly obtained a monopoly in that department of -gunnery. - -I can safely refer to the Manufacturers to be found in the advertising -list as able to supply the sportsman with all requisites, from a gun "to -a turnscrew," and on such terms as will be found to be advantageous to -the purchaser. - - -FINIS. - - - LONDON: - - PRINTED BY SMITH, ELDER AND CO. - - LITTLE GREEN ARBOUR COURT. - - - - -Advertisements. - - - WILLIAM GREENER, - _GUN MANUFACTURER_, - ASTON NEW TOWN, BIRMINGHAM, - HIGHEST PRIZE MEDALLIST IN 1851, 1853, AND 1855, - -In returning thanks to the Sporting World for their distinguished -support during many years, begs to intimate to them that he has now -accomplished the long cherished wish of establishing his manufactory in -Birmingham, the seat of the gun manufacture, where the facilities of -producing a first-rate gun are superior to any other locality in the -world; for here he can reject imperfect materials and replace them, -while makers in other parts of the kingdom would be writing about the -deficiency. Here he can exercise his own judgment on the goodness of -material during the progress of production; here he can carry out any -alteration or improvement in barrels or locks that may suggest itself; -and here eventually will settle the whole manufacture for the kingdom. -This is nearly accomplished now, for it would be idle to conceal the -fact that a vast majority of what is sold in London, as London make, is -made here. Here the best workmen are congregating and meet with the -greatest encouragement. Under these circumstances he has judged it best -to avail himself of the means offered of producing, without "egotism," -guns equal, if not superior, to anything yet produced by any maker -whatever. This may be considered a wide assertion, but to prove he does -not make it rashly he is prepared to test the fact by a competition with -any maker whatever, barring none; to be decided by the following five -points: 1st, safety--the greatest difficulty in bursting; 2ndly, -lightness; 3rdly, goodness of shooting--strength and closeness combined -with the least charges; 4thly, durability; 5thly, beauty and taste -combined. - -He considers it a crime of great magnitude that guns should burst; they -never do so where proper metal is used. He will produce an ordinary -weight of barrel which he will allow any one to burst if they can; in -fact, he believes it to be the greatest difficulty to do so. - -W. G. will undertake contracts for quantities of arms subject to private -arrangement, such as military arms, shipping ditto, rifles or sealing -guns, for foreign powers or private companies, provided in all cases the -quality be sufficiently good to enable him to brand them with his name; -anything inferior he declines to make. - - * * * * * - -The prices of his guns are as under:-- - - Double rifles of every superior quality of taste and L _s._ _d._ - finish, case complete with every requisite 40 0 0 - Double guns of very superior quality, with laminated - steel barrels, &c., case and every requisite complete 35 0 0 - Double rifle, second quality, same material, but not so - highly finished, case complete 30 0 0 - Double gun, second quality, same material, but not so - highly finished, case complete 25 0 0 - Double rifle, excellent quality, stubs Damascus, no case 18 0 0 - Double gun, excellent quality, laminated steel, no case 15 0 0 - Double rifle, good 10 10 0 - Double gun, good 8 10 0 - Double rifle, no engraving, &c. 8 0 0 - Double gun, ditto 6 0 0 - Very best single rifles, superior style and finish, case - complete 21 0 0 - Second quality, case 16 16 0 - Good quality, no case 10 10 0 - Plain, ditto 5 0 0 - Sealing rifles 3 10 0 - Very best single gun, case complete 16 16 0 - Second quality, with case 12 12 0 - Good quality 7 0 0 - Plain, ditto 4 0 0 - Sealing or other guns in quantity 3 0 0 - Enfield musket percussion, swivel locks 2 0 0 - Enfield rifle, plain ditto 1 5 0 - -The above includes every size which can be fired from the shoulder. - -Pistols, Cutlasses, Pikes, &c., supplied on the most moderate Terms. - -Business done for cash on delivery only. - -Foreign Bills for orders payable in London, or reference for payment in -any part of England. - -N.B.--W. G. now manufactures a very superior double waterproof copper -and iron cap. - - - SCHUYLER, HARTLY, & GRAHAM. - MAIDEN LANE, NEW YORK, - SOLE AGENTS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - TO - WILLIAM GREENER, - _GUN MANUFACTURER_, - ASTON NEW TOWN, BIRMINGHAM. - -=Every description of Sporting Guns imported on reasonable Terms.= - -POWDER FLASKS, SHOT POUCHES, WASHING RODS, AND IMPLEMENTS OF EVERY -DESCRIPTION REQUISITE FOR THE SPORTING FIELD. - -ELEY'S CAPS AND WADDINGS, & PATENT CARTRIDGES. - -STARKEY'S, PURSALL AND PHILLIPS'S, E. AND E. LUDLOW'S, AND OTHER -MANUFACTURERS' COPPER CAPS. - - - E. BAYLIS AND SON, - Manufacturers of - EVERY DESCRIPTION OF MILITARY - AND - SPORTING IMPLEMENTS, - DOG-COLLARS, HANDCUFFS AND LEG-IRONS. - -_Contractors to the Honourable Board of Ordnance._ - -ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - THOMAS DERRINGTON AND SON, - Dealers in - GUN AND PISTOL STOCKS, - WHOLESALE AND RETAIL. - -=A large quantity of fine well-seasoned Gun-stocks always on hand.= - -WALNUT TREES, WALNUT PLANKS, OR STOCKS, BOUGHT. - -REED'S BUILDINGS, SHADWELL-STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - PHILIP WEBLEY, - 84, WEAMAN STREET, BIRMINGHAM, - _PRESENT CONTRACTOR TO THE HON. BOARD OF ORDNANCE_, - PATENTEE OF SAFETY REVOLVING PISTOLS. - -[Illustration] - -P. WEBLEY respectfully informs the public, that he is prepared to supply -in any quantity his - -PATENT REVOLVING PISTOLS, - -which he can confidently recommend, as they embrace all latest -improvements with the greatest possible simplicity of construction, and -are pronounced by men of experience, both civil and military, to be most -efficient weapons. - -The action is very similar to the ordinary gun lock; the thumb being -used to bring the hammer to cock, while the arm is extended; the chamber -at the same time revolving and firmly locked at the moment of discharge, -by a spring underneath, thus obviating the objection to other Patent -Pistols, which are self-acting. - -(Large size 48, middle 60, small 120 bores). - -P. W. also manufactures Officers' Double, Under and Over, Breast and -Single Pistols. - -P. W. particularly invites attention to his Under and Over Pistols, -which are rifled and made to suit the present Government size cartridge. - -P. W. also manufactures every description of Revolving, Saloon, Holster, -Pocket, Inlaid and Fancy Pistols. - -BULLET MOULDS - -of every description, Greenerian, Minie, Pritchett, Whitworth, Jacob, -Cone, Spherical, &c. Rifle sights, both military and burden. Rifle -strap, Furniture, Gunlocks, and all other Implements. - -PRESENT CONTRACTOR TO THE HONOURABLE BOARD OF ORDNANCE. - - - _PERCUSSION CAPS._ - E. AND A. LUDLOW, - MILITARY PERCUSSION CAP MAKERS, - _AND PRESENT GOVERNMENT CONTRACTORS_, - -Manufacturers of the Patent Double Waterproof Central Fire and -Anticorrosive Caps; Chemically prepared edged Gun Wadding; Cartridges of -every description. Inventor and sole Manufacturer of the Improved -Flanged (or Hat) Caps, as adopted by all the leading sportsmen of the -day, and acknowledged by all to be the best and most ready primer ever -introduced. - -Samples with Price List may be obtained at the Works. - -72 AND 73 LEGGE STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - JOSEPH BOURNE, - (_CONTRACTOR TO H. M.'S WAR DEPARTMENT_,) - -Manufacturer of Guns, Muskets, Revolvers, Pistols, Rifles, and Small -Arms suitable for the various markets and Governments of the world. - -No. 5, WHITTALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - BY HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT. - MOORE AND HARRIS, - IMPROVED FOWLING AND RIFLE GUN, AND - PISTOL MAKERS, - ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - -Improved Breech-Loading Guns, Repeating Arms, and every approved article -in the above line. - - - BY HER MAJESTY'S ROYAL LETTERS PATENT. - PURSALL, PHILLIPS AND SON, - MANUFACTURERS OF T. STARKEY AND CO.'S - CENTRAL FIRE WATER-PROOF SAFETY CAP, - _CONTRACTORS TO H. M.'S HON. BOARD OF ORDNANCE, - AND TO THE HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY._ - -MANUFACTURERS OF - -PERCUSSION, IMPERIAL, AND ANTICORROSIVE COPPER CAPS TUBES. - -_Primers, Cartridges, &c., of every description, Chemically Prepared, -and other Gun Waddings._ - -22, WHITTALL STREET, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - PIGOU AND WILKS, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - DARTFORD AND LONDON. - - - CHARLES LAWRENCE AND SON, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - BATTLE AND LONDON. - - - JOHN HALL AND SON, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - FAVERSHAM MILLS AND LONDON. - - - CURTIS AND HERVEY, - _GUNPOWDER MANUFACTURERS_, - HOUNSLOW MILLS AND LONDON. - - - THE PRIZE MEDAL - AWARDED TO - JOSEPH BRAZIER AND SON, - THE ASHES WORKS, - WOLVERHAMPTON, - -Manufacturers of Gun Locks of the very best description for the London -and Scotch trades; Shot Pouches, Gun Implements, &c. &c. - -Patentees of Improved Revolving Pistols, &c. - - - RIFLE MAKER TO THE WAR DEPARTMENT. - WILLIAM TRANTER, - INVENTOR, PATENTEE, AND - MANUFACTURER - OF THE - DOUBLE-TRIGGER SAFETY - REVOLVERS, - DOUBLE ACTION COCKING - REVOLVERS, - _REVOLVING - CHAMBER RIFLES - AND CARBINES_, - OSCILLATING - BREECH-LOADING - RIFLES, - LUBRICATING - BULLETS, &c. - -[Illustration: DOUBLE TRIGGER REVOLVER.] - -13, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - JAMES TOWNSEND, - 11 & 12, SAND STREET, ST. MARY'S SQUARE, - BIRMINGHAM. - MANUFACTURER OF - AIR CANES, AIR GUNS, AND AIR WEAPONS - -Of every description, upon an improved construction, adapted for -numerous Sports and Amusements, viz.--Killing Rabbits, Rooks, Sea Fowl, -&c., with ball, destroying vermin, small birds, and collecting rare -specimens with shot, and fish near the surface of the water with -harpoons and lines. - -ALSO, - -Manufacturer of Powder, Walking-Stick Guns, Rifles of every variety, -Saloon Pistols, Bulleted Caps, Needle Rifles, &c., &c. - -_N.B._--Agents for the London Armoury Company for the sale of - -ADAMS' PATENT REVOLVER PISTOLS. - -And likewise Agent for - -COLONEL COLT'S PATENT REVOLVER PISTOL. - -AN ASSORTMENT OF EACH ALWAYS KEPT IN STOCK. - - - W. R. PAPE. - GUN AND RIFLE MAKER, - 44, WESTGATE STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. - -Possesses the highest practical knowledge of what a Gun ought to be for -general sporting purposes, and the fact of submitting every Gun to the -severest tests, before being finally finished, gives him every -confidence in stating, that for shooting powers and other good -qualities, his guns cannot be excelled by any maker whatever; for proof -of which, _see_ the amount of shooting at Ashburnham Park, London, on -the 9th April 1858, in the _Field_ Newspaper of 17th April, 1858. - - - THOMAS KILBY AND SON, - GUN BARREL MANUFACTURERS, - 11, COURT, STEELHOUSE LANE, BIRMINGHAM. - -Every description of Double and Single Barrels, Rifle and Revolving -Pistol Barrels, warranted equal to those of any other Manufacturer of -the day. - -_COUNTRY ORDERS PUNCTUALLY ATTENDED TO._ - - - ELEY'S AMMUNITION. - -ELEY BROTHERS, LONDON, beg to call the attention of Sportsmen to the -advantages to be derived from the use of the Wire Cartridge, in the -pursuit of all kinds of large or small game. - -As there are few Sportsmen who are not in the habit of using these -Cartridges, they are so well known as to make a description of them -scarcely requisite. The shot is packed within a wire cage, which is -constructed so as to allow them to escape from it gradually while the -charge is in motion. They cause all guns to shoot with double the -strength which can be obtained by the ordinary mode of loading, and with -much greater regularity, as each shot retains its spherical form. - -The Royal Cartridge is mostly used in this country for killing wild -game. - -The Green Cartridge is the sort generally in demand for India and -America, being made for foreign field sports with the largest drop shot, -and also with mould shot, and will be found very effective at large game -where the Sportsman has not a rifle in the field. - - - ELEY'S - DOUBLE WATERPROOF CENTRAL FIRE CAPS. - -These Caps are now well known and approved, being found superior to all -others for their certainty and rapidity of fire, either in dry or wet -weather. - -For India and the Colonies, or any climate where Caps may be exposed to -great vicissitudes of heat, cold, or moisture, they are particularly -recommended, as they cannot be injured by any amount of exposure to wet -or heat, nor their qualities impaired, if kept for years in a tropical -climate. The ignition at all times is safe and certain, whilst in humid -weather, the discharge is as instantaneous as with the ordinary Cap on -the dryest day. - -For testimonials as to their value for shooting in India _see_ Colonel -Jacob's work on "Rifles and Projectiles." - -They have been much approved for the rifle in foreign field sports, -where the Cap is often allowed to remain a long time upon the nipple. - -Being perfectly waterproof, they will bear immersion in sea-water for -days without injury; but when testing them in this manner, it is -necessary to blow the water out of them before placing them upon the -nipple. - -Concaved Felt, and chemically prepared Cloth Gun Waddings, to prevent -the leading of guns, warranted not to blow to pieces in the barrel. - -Cartridges for Breech-loading Shot Guns, Rifles, &c.; also for Sharp's -Breech-loading Rifles, and Prince's Breech-loading Carbines. - -Cartridges made for Needle Rifles, very simple and effective in their -construction. - -Skin Cartridges, suitable for Adams', Deane's, and Colt's -Revolvers--warranted to leave no deposit when fired. - -Also Rifle Shell Tubes, as manufactured by direction of Colonel John -Jacob, of the Bombay Artillery, and every description of ammunition for -sporting or military purposes. - -Sole Contractors to the War Department for Waterproof Military Caps, -Revolver Cartridges, Jacob's Rifle Shell Tubes, &c. - -Eley's ammunition may be had of all Gunmakers and Dealers at home or -abroad. - -ELEY BROTHERS, LONDON. - -(WHOLESALE ONLY.) - - - WILLIAM EVANS, - THIRTEEN YEARS WITH JOSEPH BROSIER AND SON, - GUN LOCK MANUFACTURER, - 15 BATH STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - - - CHARLES MAYBURY, - MANUFACTURER OF - EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SPORTSMAN'S GUNS, - RIFLES, PISTOLS, ETC., - REVOLVERS ON "TRANTER'S" AND ALL OTHER - PATENT IMPROVED PRINCIPLES, - FOR HOME AND EXPORTATION, - 15 ST. MARY'S SQUARE, BIRMINGHAM. - - - W. AND C. SCOTT AND SON, - GUN AND PISTOL MAKERS, - 95, BATH STREET, BIRMINGHAM. - GUNS FOR HOME USE AND EXPORTATION. - - - - -_65, Cornhill, London, September, 1858._ - - NEW AND STANDARD WORKS - PUBLISHED BY - SMITH, ELDER & Co. - - -WORKS IN THE PRESS. - -_Social Innovators and their Schemes._ By WILLIAM LUCAS SARGANT, Author -of "The Science of Social Opulence," &c. - - _Post 8vo._ - -_Indian Scenes and Characters, Sketched from Life._ By Prince ALEXIS -SOLTYKOFF. - - _Sixteen Plates in Tinted Lithography, with Descriptions. Colombier - Folio._ - - (_Nearly Ready._) - -_Christianity in India._ By JOHN WILLIAM KAYE, Author of "Life of Lord -Metcalfe," &c. - - _8vo._ (_In the Press._) - -_Lectures and Addresses on Literary and Social Topics._ By the late Rev. -FRED. W. ROBERTSON, of Brighton. _Post 8vo._ (_Just Ready._) - -_Tents and Tent Life._ By Capt. GODFREY RHODES, 94th Regt. _Post 8vo., -with Twenty-eight Plates, 12s. cloth._ - -_The Life of J. 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Fcap. 8vo, -price 4_s._ cloth. - - "Rendered into English Lyrics with a vigour and heartiness rarely, if - ever, surpassed."--_Critic._ - - -London: Printed by SMITH, ELDER & CO., Little Green Arbour Court. - - - - -TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES - -This e-book uses the text of the original work. Inconsistent -capitalisation, hyphenation and spelling have been retained -(spungy/spongy and spunging/sponging; scear/sear; immoveable/immovable; -Minie/Minie, bareled/barelled, brasing/brazing; Froissart/Froisart; -fuse/fuze; Greenerean/Greenerian; Monk/Monck; etc.), except as mentioned -below under Changes. - -The two typographical forms of fractions (for example, 1/2 and 1-8th) -have been retained. - -The List of Plates shows (slightly) different texts from the captions in -the plates themselves. - -The List of Illustrations is incomplete, and not all illustrations have -the captions listed in the List of Illustrations. - -The sometimes slight difference in wording between the Table of Contents -and the actual chapter headings has been retained. - - -Textual remarks - -Page 12, snaphaunce is not a Dutch word; it is derived from the Dutch -snaphaan. - -Page 64, footnote: the original does not show the footnote anchor; the -footnote has been included without its anchor. Possibly the footnote -refers to the Point Blank Range data for the 10-inch and 8-inch -howitzers. - -Page 239, price calculations: the total for single guns should be 19_s._ -9_d._ The other amounts given in the text do not correspond with the -table; this has not been changed. - -Page 240, price calculations: the totals for double and single guns -should be 16_s._ 3_d._ and 9_s._ 9_d._, respectively. - -Page 13 (first set of advertisements), amount of shooting is possibly an -error for account of shooting. - -French accents have not been corrected or added (Andre, Minie, -epanouissement, etc.), Latin accents have been retained, unless -mentioned below. - - -Changes made to the text - -Footnotes and illustrations have been moved; some illustrations have -been rotated 90 deg. - -Some missing/incorrect punctuation has been added or corrected silently - -Page vii: Polygroove changed to Poly-groove as elsewhere - -Page ix: Firelock changed to Fire-lock as in the text - -Page xi: Badajoz changed to Badajos; Mallett changed to Mallet (2x) as -in the text - -Page xvi: manufactury changed to manufactory as in the text - -Page 5: a cubic distance changed to a cubit distance - -Page 8: likwise changed to likewise - -Page 23: suphuretted changed to sulphuretted - -Page 27 (table): 9.90 changed to 9.90 - -Page 42: horizonal changed to horizontal - -Page 63: almost from a class changed to almost form a class - -Page 91: enginering changed to engineering - -Page 131: impres changed to impress - -Page 139: fusees changed to fuses - -Page 140: wthin changed to within - -Page 154: furnance changed to furnace - -Page 159: is is changed to is - -Page 160: exhibibits changed to exhibits - -Page 166: Ther changed to There - -Page 169: 1.40265 changed to 1.40625 - -Page 211: fustrum changed to frustum - -Page 219: Weimer changed to Weimar - -Page 229: artizan changed to artisan - -Page 239: Wedgebury changed to Wednesbury as elsewhere - -Page 249: twent changed to twenty - -Page 271: answert hat changed to answer that - -Page 301: expansive powder changed to expansive power - -Page 303: impossibity changed to impossibility - -Page 317: filed changed to filled - -Page 356: frustrum changed to frustum - -Page 358: frustrum changed to frustum - -Page 436: to to changed to to - -Page 5 (first set of advertisements): STEEET changed to STREET - -Page 8 (first set of advertisements): BRMINGHAM changed to BIRMINGHAM - -Page 3 (second set of advertisements): Gobe changed to Globe - -Page 5 (second set of advertisements): Bouchier changed to Bourchier - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Gunnery in 1858, by William Greener - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUNNERY IN 1858 *** - -***** This file should be named 43799.txt or 43799.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43799/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Harry Lame, Google Print and the -Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net -(This file was produced from images generously made -available by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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