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diff --git a/43795-0.txt b/43795-0.txt index b4654c4..638a7ac 100644 --- a/43795-0.txt +++ b/43795-0.txt @@ -1,36 +1,4 @@ -Project Gutenberg's Sketches of Central Asia (1868), by Arminius Vámbéry - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Sketches of Central Asia (1868) - Additional chapters on my travels, adventures, and on the - ethnology of Central Asia - -Author: Arminius Vámbéry - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43795] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA (1868) *** - - - - -Produced by Albert László and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43795 *** Transcriber's note: @@ -11245,361 +11213,4 @@ transcriber and is placed in the public domain. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Sketches of Central Asia (1868) - Additional chapters on my travels, adventures, and on the - ethnology of Central Asia - -Author: Arminius Vámbéry - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43795] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA (1868) *** - - - - -Produced by Albert László and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - -Text enclosed by + symbols is transliterated Greek (+parasangês+). - -Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. - - - * * * * * - - - - -SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - - - - SKETCHES - OF - CENTRAL ASIA. - - ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS - ON - MY TRAVELS, ADVENTURES, - AND ON THE - ETHNOLOGY OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - BY - ARMINIUS VÁMBÉRY, - PROFESSOR OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGES IN THE - UNIVERSITY OF PESTH - - PHILADELPHIA: - J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. - WM. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, - PALL MALL, LONDON. - - 1868. - - [_All rights reserved._] - - - - -Lewis and Son, Printers, Swan Buildings, Moorgate Street. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In the reviews of my "Travels in "Central Asia," which have -issued from the European and American press, I have generally -been reproached with scantiness of details and scrappiness of -treatment;--in a word, with having said much less than I could have -said about my journey from the Bosphorus to Samarkand,--so rich in -varied adventures and experiences. - -Now, I will not deny that such a charge has not been quite unfairly -levelled against me. - -While I was writing my memoirs, during the first three months of -my stay in London, after my year-long wanderings in Asia, I had -very great trouble in accustoming myself to the idea of being -firmly settled down. I always kept fancying myself bound on the -morrow to pack up and extend my travels with the caravan: hence my -irresolution and hasty procedure. Moreover, I was quite a stranger -in the domain of travelling, and deemed it my duty now to keep -something back for mere decency; anon to leave out something else, -as of inferior interest. Hence many an episode was left untouched, -many a picture remained but a feeble sketch. - -To make up for this defect--if sparingness in words be really a -defect--I have written the following pages. They contain only -supplementary papers, partly about my own adventures, partly on the -manners and rare characteristics of the Central Asiatic peoples, -linked together in no particular connection. It would naturally have -been better to offer these pages in the place of the former volume; -and yet the slightest notice of a country so little known to us as -Turkestan, which political questions will soon bring into the front -of passing questions, will always have its uses; and "meglio tardi -che mai." - - A. V. - - PESTH, - _2nd December, 1867_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - CHAPTER I. - - Dervishes and Hadjis 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - Recollections of my Dervish Life 22 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Amongst the Turkomans 44 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - The Caravan in the Desert 62 - - - CHAPTER V. - - The Tent and its Inhabitants 75 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - The Court of Khiva 87 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Joy and Sorrow 98 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - House, Food, and Dress 114 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - From Khiva to Kungrat and back 127 - - - CHAPTER X. - - My Tartar 150 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - The Round of Life in Bokhara 166 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - Bokhara, the Head Quarters of Mohamedanism 186 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - The Slave Trade and Slave Life in Central Asia 205 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Productive Power of the Three Oasis-Countries of Turkestan 231 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - On the Ancient History of Bokhara 257 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - Ethnographical Sketch of the Turanian and Iranian Races - of Central Asia 282 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - Iranians 313 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - Literature in Central Asia 339 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - Rivalry between Russia and England in Central Asia 379 - - - - -SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DERVISHES AND HADJIS. - - -The dervish is the veritable personification of Eastern life. -Idleness, fanaticism, and slovenliness, are the features which in -him are regarded as virtues, and which everywhere are represented -by him as such. Idleness is excused by allusion to human impotence; -fanaticism explained as enthusiasm in religion; and slovenliness -justified by the uselessness of poor mortals in struggling against -fate. If the superiority of European civilization over that of the -East was not so clearly established, I should almost be tempted to -envy a dervish, who, clad in tatters and conversing in a corner -of some ruined building, shows, by the twinkling in his eye, the -happiness he enjoys. What a serenity is depicted in that face; -what a placidity in all his actions; what a complete contrast -there is between this picture and that presented by our European -civilization! In my disguise as a dervish it was chiefly this -unnatural composure which made me nervous, and in the imitation of -which I made, of course, the greatest mistakes. I shall never forget -one day at Herat, when, after reflecting on the happiness of the -early termination of the painful mask I had been wearing for so many -months, I suddenly jumped up from my seat, and in a somewhat excited -state began to pace up and down the old ruin which gave me shelter. -A few minutes afterwards I perceived that a crowd of passers by -had collected at the door, and that I was the object of general -astonishment. Seeing my mistake, I blushingly resumed my seat. Soon -afterwards several people came up to ask me what was the matter with -me, whether I was well, &c. The good people thought I was deranged; -for, to oriental notions, a man must be out of his senses if, -without necessity or a special object in view, he suddenly leaves -his seat to pace up and down a room. - -As the dervish represents the general character, so he does the -different peoples of the East. It is true, Mahomedanism enforces -the dogma: "El Islam milleti wahidun"--all Islamites are _one_ -nation; but the origin and home of the different sects are -easily recognised. Bektashi, Mewlewi, and Rufai, are principally -natives of Turkey; because Bektash, the enthusiastic founder of -the Janissaries, Moola Djelaleddin Rumi, the great poet of the -Mesnevi, lived, and are buried in Turkey; the Kadrie and Djelali -are most frequently met with in Arabia; the Oveisy, and Nurbakhshi -Nimetullah in Persia; the Khilali and Zahibi in India; and the -Nakishbendi and Sofi Islam in Central Asia.[1] The members of the -different fraternities are bound together by very close ties; -apprentices (Murid) and assistants (Khalfa) have to yield implicit -obedience to the chief (Pir), who has an unlimited power over -the life and property of his brethren. But these fraternities do -not in the least trouble themselves about secret political or -social objects, as is sometimes asserted in Europe by enthusiastic -travellers, who have even discovered Freemasons amongst the Bedouin -tribes of the Great Desert. The dervishes are the monks of Islamism; -and the spirit which created and sustains them is that of religious -fanaticism, and they differ from each other only by the manner in -which they demonstrate their enthusiasm. For instance; whilst one of -these religious orders commands constant pilgrimages to the tombs of -saints, the other lays down stringent rules for reflection on divine -infinity and the insignificance of our existence. A third compels -his votaries to occupy themselves day and night with repeating the -name of of God (Zikr) and hymns (Telkin); and it cannot surprise us -to learn that the greater number of a company which has continually -been calling out with all its might: "Ja hu! Ja hakk! La illahi -illa hu! are seized with _delirium tremens_. The orthodox call this -condition Medjzub; _i.e._, carried away by divine love, or to be -in ecstacy. A person to whom such a fortunate event happens, for -as such it is regarded, is envied by everybody; and as long as it -lasts, the sick and the maimed, and barren women, try to get in his -immediate presence, taking hold of his dress,--as touching it is -supposed to have healing powers. - - [1] Sofi Islam is a sect which originated about thirty years ago. - Its founder, a Tadjik from Belkh, was desirous of opposing the - ever-increasing influence of the Nakishbendi. In this fraternity - prevails the principle of communism and blood relationship. The Sofi - Islamites wear a cap trimmed with fur, and are most frequently met - with this side of the Oxus, as far as Herat, and also amongst the - Turkomans. - -What the dervishes are able to do during the ecstacy caused by -_Zikr_, I had once an opportunity of witnessing in Samarkand. In -Dehbid, close to the tomb of the Makhdun Aazam, one of these howling -companies had grouped themselves around the Pir (chief) of that -district. At first they contented themselves with repeating the -formula in a natural tone of voice, and almost in measured time. -The chief was lost in the deepest thought; all eyes and ears were -fixed upon him; and every motion of his hand, and every breath he -drew, was audible, and encouraged his followers to utter wilder and -louder ejaculations. At last he seemed to awake from his sleep-like -reflections, and as soon as he raised his head all the dervishes -jumped up from their seats like possessed beings. The circle was -broken, and the different members began to dance in undulating -motions; but hardly did the chief stand upon his feet than the -enthusiastic dancers became so terribly excited that I, who had -to imitate all their wild antics, became almost frightened. They -were flying about, constantly dancing, right and left, hither and -thither, some leaving the soft meadow and getting upon the rough -stones, constantly dancing, till the blood began to run freely from -their feet. Still they kept on their mad excitement, till most of -them fell fainting to the ground. - -In a country like the East, where such social relations exist, and -where we meet with such amusing extremes, the dervish or beggar, -though placed at the very bottom of the social scale, often enjoys -as much consideration as the prince who reigns over millions and -disposes of immense treasures. Man, an unresisting plaything in the -powerful hand of Fate, can, if Destiny wills it, be transported -from one extreme to the other, of which history furnishes us with -numerous instances; and as in fiction we see with pleasure the -two antipodes--the king, Shah-ü Keda, and the beggar, brought -into close propinquity--even so we often find a ragged and dirty -dervish, covered with vermin, sitting on the same carpet with a -magnificently-dressed prince, and engaged with him in familiar -conversation, nay, often drinking with him out of the same cup. -European travellers view such a _tête-à-tête_ with surprise, and -even sometimes with a feeling of amusement; but in the East it is -considered as quite natural. For, says the oriental moralist, the -king must see in the glaring contrast between him and his neighbour -the vanity of earthly splendour, and banish from his mind all -feeling of pride; while the dervish discovers beneath the pompous -dress of the prince a mere mortal man, and mindful of the vanity of -sublunary things, laughs at the farce of life. - -Though perfectly conscious of their relative position, these two -extremes exhibit, when they meet, an admirable degree of toleration -and indulgence. The dervish, who, when received in private, behaves -with the freedom and unconstraint of an intimate friend, never -forgets on public occasions that he is the poorest of the poor. The -man of rank suffers from him what to any other person would appear -insupportable. At Kerki, the governor of the province had a dervish -in his palace, who, in conformity with a precept of his order, had -the agreeable office of crying aloud uninterruptedly, from sunset -till break of day: Ya hu! ya hakk! La illa hu![2] and that with the -voice of a Stentor. As soon as darkness prevailed, and the busy hum -of public life had become silent, the melancholy and monotonous -exclamations became more and more audible, not only in the palace -itself, but to a considerable extent around it. That his devotions -disturbed many in their sleep, may be easily imagined. Nevertheless, -the governor, notwithstanding the entreaties of his own family, -did not venture to make any objection to this proceeding, and the -dervish continued his vociferations every night as long as he -sojourned in Kerki. As I lodged in the vicinity of the palace, I -enjoyed my share of this nightly concert; and as the voice of the -enthusiastic bawler became towards the approach of dawn weaker and -weaker, I was enabled to calculate from it the distance of daybreak -without stepping out of the dark cell in which I lay. - - [2] Yes, it is he! it is the righteous one! there is no God but he; - are the usual forms of prayer which occur in the Zikr. - -We may say, however, that we nowadays very seldom meet with a -dervish in the strict sense of the word; that is, a man who, -renouncing from inward conviction earthly goods and worldly -comforts, is desirous only of obtaining experience of life and -devoting himself to the practice of religious duties: such a man, -in a word, as the poet Saadi is represented to have been. Those who -embrace this vocation are either unprincipled and lazy fellows, -or professed beggars, who, under the cloak of poverty, collect -treasures, and when they are sufficiently enriched often adopt some -lucrative trade. This is particularly the case in Persia. So long -as Fortune is favourable to them they lead a life of ostentatious -magnificence, and forget how transitory all is in this world. But -should he be overtaken by adversity, then he retires to some modest -corner, rails at the vain pursuits of men, and, inflated with pride, -cries out: Men dervish em; I am a dervish. - -The dervishes of India, and particularly those of Cashmere, are -throughout the East pre-eminent among their Mahometan brethren for -cunning, secret arts, forms of exorcism, &c. These fellows impose -most impudently on the credulity of the people in Persia and Central -Asia, and even men of wit and understanding sometimes fall into -their snares; for, wherever such a Cashmere dervish appears, gifted -as he generally is with a noble figure, striking features, bright -eloquent eyes, and long dark flowing hair, he is sure of success. - -The Mahometans of India and the adjoining eastern countries have -always been celebrated in the Islamite world for their supernatural -gifts. As soon as such a travelling saint arrives in a Mahometan -country, he is entreated to cure dangerous maladies, to exorcise -ghosts, or to point out where hidden treasures are buried; for, -although those arts are forbidden by the Koran, they appear -everywhere as the most zealous Mahometans. Count Gobineau, in his -work, "Trois Ans dans l'Asie," tells us of an excellent trick, which -an alchemist from Cashmere played a gold-seeking prince in Teheran. -A similar trick was played on the brother of the reigning Khan of -Khiva, who, wanting to have all his saddles and bridles converted -into gold, was cheated in a most ridiculous manner. But they are -sometimes so devoid of conscience as to rob the poorest man of his -last penny. In Teheran, a Hadji, lately arrived from Central Asia, -told me, with tears in his eyes, the following story. As, said he, -I had heard much in Meshed of the frequent robberies that occurred -on the road to Teheran, I and my companion were anxious to know -what would be the best way to conceal our little capital, which -was to defray our expenses to the holy grave of the Prophet. This -money was the savings of five hard years, and thou knowest how -difficult it is to travel without money in this land of heretics. -Next to us in the caravanserai at Meshed there lodged a pious Ishan -(sheikh) from Cashmere; to him we communicated our fears, and were -delighted when he offered, by means of a certain form of prayer, -to secure our money against all attacks of robbers. He invited us -to follow him to the mosque of Iman Riza: there he bade us perform -the usual ablutions. We then placed our money in his lap, and after -he had breathed on it several times he put it with his own hands -into our purses, wrapped them up in seven sheets of paper, and -then strictly enjoined us not to open them till, on our arrival at -Teheran, we had performed our devotions three times in the mosque. -It is now six weeks since we left Meshed; and imagine our fright, -when yesterday, after the third prayer, we opened our purses and -found in them, instead of our dear ducats, nothing but heavy reddish -sand. The poor fellows uttered bitter complaints and seemed almost -to have lost their wits. The cunning rogue from Cashmere had, while -pronouncing the blessing, changed the money without being perceived -by the simple Tartars, who continued their journey to Teheran in the -perfect persuasion of the efficacy of the ceremony,--a persuasion -which they now found had cost them dear. - -It is the same with dervishism as with all the other oriental -institutions, customs and manners; the more we penetrate towards the -East, the greater is the purity with which they have been preserved. -In Persia the dervishes play a much more important part than in -Turkey; and in Central Asia, isolated as it has been from the rest -of the world for centuries, this fraternity is still in full vigour, -and exercises a great influence upon society. In my "Travels," I -have frequently alluded to the position occupied by the _Ishan_ -or secular priests in Central Asia. Their influence may be called -a fortunate one, contrasted with the fearful tyranny existing in -those countries. This is the reason why every one occupies himself -with religion; every one tries to pass himself off as a worker of -miracles (Ehli Keramet); or, if he fails in that, he endeavours -to be recognised as a saint (veli ullah ....) Those who make the -interpretation of the sacred writings their business are great -rivals of the _Ishans_, who, by the mysticism by which they surround -themselves, enjoy a large share of popular esteem. The native of -Central Asia, like the wildest child of Arabia, is more easily -imposed upon by magic formulas and similar hocus-pocus than by -books. He may dispense with the services of a Mollah, but he cannot -do without a _Ishan_, whose blessing (_fatiha_) or breath (_nefes_) -is required when he sets out on one of his predatory expeditions, -and upon which he looks as a talismanic power, when moving about his -herds, his tent, or the wilds of the desert. - -After the Ishans, the most interesting class are the mendicant -dervishes (_Kalenter_),[3] which the Kirguese and Turkomans call -Kuddush[4] or Divani (insane). In the whole of the great deserts -which stretch from the eastern boundaries of China to the Caspian -Sea, it is only these people, in their ragged dress, who are able -to move unmolested. They do not take any notice of the differences -of tribe or family, and the mighty words, _Yaghi_ or _Il_ (friend -or enemy) have to them no meaning. In travelling along they join -whomsoever they meet, be it a peaceful caravan or band of _robbers_. -The dervishes who travel through Kirguese or Turkoman steppes are -generally this class of people, who form a strong inclination to -do nothing, follow a trade which throughout the East is considered -respectable, viz., that of a mendicant. All they have to acquire -is a few prayers and a certain power of mimicry, with which the -chiromantic feats are performed; and I have never seen a nomad who -has not been moved when he found himself in the close presence of -one of those long-haired, bare-headed, and bare-footed dervishes, -who, with his fiery eyes, stared hard at the son of the desert, and -whilst shaking his Keshkul[5] howled a wild "_Ja hu!_" - - [3] Kalentor is a corruption of the old Persian Kelanter the - greater. In eastern Persia the title is still given to the judges of - villages. - - [4] Kuddus is derived from Kud, to become mad. Thus, the Arabs call - the dervishes Medjnun, _i.e._, insane. - - [5] Keshkul is a vessel formed of half a cocoa nut,--the _vade - mecum_ of the dervishes,--in which he plunges all the food he has - collected by begging, whether dry or fluid, sweet or sour. Such a - dish of _tutti frutti_ would but ill suit our gastronomers; and yet - how delicious it tasted to me after a long day's march. - -The arrival of one of these fakirs in a lonely group of tents -is regarded as a joyful event, or almost a festival; it is of -especial importance in the eyes of the women; and the time of his -arrival is differently interpreted. Early in the morning signifies -the happy birth of a camel or a horse; at noon a quarrel between -husband and wife; and in the evening a good prospect of marriage to -the marriageable daughters. The dervish is generally taken in hand -by the women, and is well supplied with the best things the tent -contains, in hopes that he may be tempted to produce from beneath -his battered dress some glass beads, or other talisman. Alms, which -amongst the nomads seldom consist of money, are rarely denied him; -and he often receives an old carpet, a few handfuls of camel hair or -wool, or an old garment. He may also stop with the family for days, -and move about with it without his presence becoming a burden. If -the dervish possesses musical talent, _i.e._, able to sing a few -songs and accompany himself on the two stringed instrument called -dutara, he is made much of, and has the greatest difficulty in -getting away from the hospitable host. - -It is very seldom that dervishes are insulted or ill-treated; -this, however, is said to be the case amongst the Turkomans, whose -rapacity knows no bounds, and prompts them to commit incredible acts -of cruelty. A dervish from Bokhara, of robust figure and dark curly -hair, whom I met at Maymene, told me that a Tekke-Turkoman, prompted -by the thirty ducats which his athletic figure promised to fetch -in the slave market, made him a prisoner to sell him a few days -afterwards. "I pretended," my colleague continued, "to be quite -unconcerned, and repeated the _Zikr_ whilst shaking my iron chains. -The time was fast approaching when I was to be taken to the market, -when suddenly the wife of the robber of my liberty and person was -taken ill, and prevented him from starting. He seemed to see in -this the finger of God, and began to be pensive, when his favourite -horse, refusing to eat his food, showed signs of illness." This was -enough. The robber was so frightened that he removed the chains of -his prisoner, and returned to him the things he had robbed him of, -begging him to leave his tent as soon as possible. Whilst a Turkoman -impatiently awaited the departure of the ominous beggar, the latter -fumbled about his dress, and pretended that he had lost a comb which -his chief had given him as a talisman on the road, and without which -he could not go a single step. The nomad returned in great haste to -the place where the plunder had been kept, and as the comb did not -turn up he became still more frightened, and promised the dervish -the price of twenty combs if he would only take a single step beyond -the boundary of his tent. The cunning bush-rite saw he was master -of the situation; he pretended to be inconsolable about the lost -property, and declared that he now would have to remain for years in -the tent. Imagine the confusion of the deceived and superstitious -robber! Like a madman he ran about asking his neighbour for advice. -Formal negotiations were now commenced with the dervish, to whom, -finally, a horse, a dress, and ten ducats were presented, to make up -for the loss of the comb, and on condition that he should leave a -tent whose proprietor will probably think twice before he ventures -again upon molesting a travelling dervish. - -Besides the dervishes who, as physicians, miracle-working saints, -or harmless vagabonds, are wandering about in Central Asia, there -is a class called "_Khanka neshin_," or convent dwellers, who -always wish to appear as the poorest, and are without doubt the -most contemptible fellows in the world. Generally speaking they are -opium eaters, who by their excessive filth, skeleton-like body, and -frightfully distorted features, present a most repulsive appearance. -The worst is that they do not confine themselves to practising this -fearful vice themselves, but with a singular persistency endeavour -to make converts amongst all classes; and, supported by the want of -spirituous drinks, they succeed but too frequently in their wicked -attempts. What surprised me most was that these wretched people were -regarded as eminently religious, of whom it was thought that from -their love to God and the Prophet they had become mad, and stupefied -themselves in order that in their excited state they might be nearer -the Beings whom they loved so well. - -Speaking of dervishes we may mention a class of hypocrites who, -under the pretence of carrying out sacred vows, indulge in their -desire to travel, and after their return assume, under the title -of Hadji (Pilgrims) authority and a good social position. The Koran -says, "_Hidji ala beiti min isti Itaatun sebila_"--Wander to my -house (_Kaaba_) if circumstances permit. These "circumstances" are -reduced to the following seven conditions by the commentators. The -pilgrimage must be undertaken, 1st,--With sufficient money for -travelling expenses; 2nd,--In bodily health; 3rd,--In an unmarried -state; 4th,--Without leaving debts behind; 5th,--In times of peace; -6th,--Overland and without danger; and, 7th,--By persons who have -reached the age of puberty. That our good Tartars ill-observe these -conditions will be evident to all who have some idea about the -countries situated between Oxus and Yaxartes. In Persia people go to -Kerbela, Meshed or Mekka, only when sufficient funds enable them to -do it comfortably. In Central Asia, on the contrary, it is always -the poorest class who undertakes pilgrimages. A certain taste for -adventure, coupled with religious enthusiasm, are the two motives -which prompt the inhabitants of Central Asia to start from the -remote east for the tomb of their Prophet. True, they do not suffer -any material losses, for a beggar's bag is a money bag; but they -frequently lose what is most precious to them--their life; as every -year at least one-third of the pilgrims from Turkestan die from -exposure to the climate. - -This sacred or profane desire to travel braves all danger; this -vague thought of tearing himself away from his family, and friends, -and countrymen, to see the wide world, surrounds the Hadji with a -certain poetry. I have lived weeks with my companions, and yet it -always interested me to behold them, palm staff in hand, as a sacred -memento of Arabia, vigorously making their way through the deep sand -or mud. They were returning happily to their homes; but how many -did I meet who only commenced their long and tedious journey? and -yet they were equally happy. On my road from Samarkand to Teheran -I had as a companion a native of Chinese Tartary, who, in total -ignorance of the route he had to take, asked me every evening, even -when we were yet at Meshed, whether we should see to-morrow, or at -the farthest after to-morrow, the minarets of Mekka. The poor fellow -had no idea how much he would have to endure before he reached -his destination. However, this should not surprise us when we -remember that during the time of the crusades so many honest Teutons -undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and after two or three -days' journey hoped to behold the walls of Jerusalem.[6] - - [6] See Noesselt's "Geschichte für Tochter schulen," who also states - that many pilgrims, ignorant of the road, allowed themselves to be - led by a frightened goose which ran before them. - -The routes to Arabia adopted by the pious Tartars are the following, -viz.:--1. Yarkend, Kilian, Tibet, Kashmir.[7] 2. Through Southern -Siberia, Kazan and Constantinople. 3. Through Afghanistan and -India to Djedda. 4. Through Persia, Bagdad, and Damascus. None of -these routes is a comfortable one, and the amount of danger to be -incurred is very much dependent upon the season of the year and -the political state of the countries through which they pass. The -travellers form themselves in larger or smaller companies, and -elect a chief (_Tchaush_) from amongst themselves, who also fills -amongst them the office of _Imam_, (the person who first says the -prayers to be repeated by the rest,) and who enjoys a considerable -superiority over his companions. A visit to the Kaaba and the tomb -of the Prophet (which may be paid at any season) is not so much the -culminating point of the whole pilgrimage as the ascent of Mount -Arafat. This can be made only once a year, viz., on the Kurban -festival, (10th Zil Hidje,) which is nothing more or less than -the sacrifice of Abraham and Isaac dramatized. All those who have -taken part in this festival and have joined in the cry, "Lebeïk -Allah!"--Command, Oh God," (in allusion to Abraham's implicit -obedience,) are regarded as genuine Hadjis. This cry of "Lebeïk! -Lebeïk!" uttered at the most solemn moment of the whole pilgrimage, -seems also to have the deepest impression upon the pilgrim himself. -My travelling companions, whenever they became excited or were in -a happy mood of mind, always alluded to it; and the stillness of -the Tartar deserts was often broken by this _memento_ of the stony -districts of Arabia. - - [7] From Yarkend to Kilian on the boundary line are three days' - journey, from there, by way of Tagarma and Kadun, to Tibet, twenty - days, and thence to Kashmir fifteen days. - -However painful and heartrending separation from home may be when -so long and dangerous a journey has to be undertaken, the joy which -the Hadjis experienced on their return fully counterbalances it. -Friends and relations, informed of his near arrival, go out to meet -them several days in advance. Hymns are sung, and tears of joy are -shed when the Hadji makes his entry into his native place. Every -one wants to embrace him, to touch him, for the atmosphere of holy -places still surrounds him, the dust of Mekka and Medina still -covers his garments. In Central Asia the Hadji is held in much -greater esteem than in any other Mohammedan country. It has cost -him much to obtain his dignity, but he is amply repaid. Respected -and supported by his fellow citizens he is better protected against -the tyranny of the Government than any other citizen. The title of -a "Hadji" is a patent of nobility, which, during his lifetime, he -parades on his seal, after death on his tombstone. - -The Hadjis, of course such as are not mere beggars, often transact, -during their pious pilgrimage, a little commercial business. "_Hem -tidjared hem ziaret._"--"Commerce and pilgrimage together" are not -allowed by their religion; but nobody seems to suffer any pricks of -conscience in taking to his co-religionist in Arabia a few articles -from distant Turkomania. The products of Bokhara and other holy -places of Central Asia are in high esteem amongst the people of -Arabia; besides, every one wishes to show a Hadji some favour, and -is easily induced to pay double the value for any article offered. -This small trade is carried on between the easternmost point of -Islamitic Asia to the Galata bridge of Constantinople. Amongst the -crowd of that famous capital one often sees a Tartar, whose features -contrast as strangely with the rest of the population as the -colours of the thin silk kerchief differ from those of our European -manufacture. Fine ladies seldom become purchasers of such articles, -but old matrons are frequently seen, inspired by feelings of piety, -paying a good price for them, pressing them repeatedly to their -faces and forehead while repeating a loud "_Allahum u Sella_," and -continuing their walk. - -That the successful sale of the exported articles leads to the -importation of similar merchandize needs no confirmation. No Hadji -leaves the holy places without making some purchases. At Mekka -he lays in a stock of scents, dates, rosaries and combs, but -especially water from the sacred well called Zemzem.[8] In Jamba -and Djedda are bought European goods; these go by the name of -Mali Istambul--"Stamboul Goods;" as the unbelieving Franks must -not obtain credit for anything, and they consist of penknives, -scissors, needles, thimbles, &c. Aleppo and Damascus enjoy the -reputation of supplying the best misvak, a fibrous root, used as -tooth brushes by all pious Moslems. In Bagdad are bought a hirka, -made of camel's hair, and of superior quality at this place, as it -is this kind of garment which the Prophet is said to have worn next -his skin. Finally, in Persia, ink, powder and pens made of canes are -purchased. In Central Asia all these articles are great curiosities, -and they are paid for handsomely, partly from necessity, partly from -religious motives. - - [8] Zemzem is the name of a famous well on the road, of miraculous - power, the water of which is exported in small vessels to all - Islamite countries, as a single drop of it taken just at the moment - of death frees from 500 years of purgatory. The origin of the well - is ascribed to Ismail, who, after being left behind by Hagar, - stamped his little foot and made the well spring up. - -Generally speaking a caravan of Hadjis, I mean one whose character -has been well inquired into, are the best travelling companions -one can have in Central Asia, or rather in the whole of the east, -provided one can manage to agree with them. With regard to the -travelling necessaries the Hadji is well supplied, and it was -always surprising to me to see how a man who had only one poor -donkey he could call his own, could make a display of a separate -tea-service[9] (à la Tartar,) Pilou-apparatus, and carpet when -arrived at the station at which we halted. Nobody is more clever -than a Hadji in negotiating, be the people he has to deal with -believers or unbelievers, nomads or agricultural tribes. A Hadji -may be converted into anything, he being thoroughly penetrated by -the principle "_Si fueris Romae_." Instead of being cast down and -gloomy, as his ragged exterior would lead us to suppose, he is of a -merry disposition, and during the long marches the greatest saint -and miracle-worker occasionally indulges in a profane joke. The -comicality of these generally serious faces has often made me forget -the privations which I was myself undergoing. - - [9] The tea service consists of a can-like vessel made of copper, - and is, next to the Koran, the most indispensable _vade mecum_ - of every travelling Tartar. Even the poorest beggar carries it, - suspended by the handle, about with him. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -RECOLLECTIONS OF MY DERVISH LIFE. - - -On the evening of the 27th of March, 1863, my excellent friend, the -Turkish ambassador in Teheran, gave me a farewell supper, at which -all declared--to inspire me, of course with fear, and divert me -from my adventurous undertaking,--that I was for the last time in -my life to enjoy European food in the European manner. The handsome -dining room at the residence of the ambassador was brilliantly -lighted, the choicest viands were served, and the choicest wines -handed round; for the intention was clear,--to give me a strong dose -of reminiscences of European comforts on the difficult expedition -before me. My friends were for ever scrutinizing my features, to -discover whether my outward appearance might not betray some trace -of inward excitement. But they were very much mistaken. I had -ensconced myself comfortably in the velvet arm chair, which had -been brought thither from the distant land of the Franks; the wine -had tinged my face with the same colour as the fez which covered -my head. A pious dervish and wine--what a frightful antithesis! -To-night, however, I must transgress, the penance will be a long -one, whether or no.... - -Twenty-four hours later, in the evening of the 28th of March, I -was in the midst of my company of beggars on the road to Lar, in a -half-dilapidated mud hut, called Dagaru. The rain was pouring in -torrents. We had been pretty well wetted through during our day's -march, so that all were anxious for shelter and a dry roof; and, -the space being narrow, fate brought me the very first evening into -the closest contact with my travelling companions. Their tattered -garments, never very sweet-scented, and now thoroughly soaked with -the rain, gave out the strangest evaporations; and no wonder if, -under such circumstances, I had no great desire to take my share out -of the large wooden bowl, from which the starved Hadjis, splashing -about with their fists, were eating their supper. Moreover, hunger -tormented me less than fatigue and my wet, ragged garments, to -which I was as yet unaccustomed. Rolled up like a ball, I tried to -get to sleep; but this also was impossible, packed together as we -were in such close quarters. Now I felt the hand, now the head of -one of my neighbours, falling upon me; then my opposite companion -stretched out his foot, to scratch me behind the ears. It required -the patience of Job to defend myself against these unpleasant -civilities; and yet I might have had some sleep, but for the loud -snoring of the Tartars, and above all the loud moaning of a Persian -muleteer, who was sadly troubled with the gout. - -Finding that all endeavours to close my eyes remained unsuccessful, -I rose and sat upright in the midst of this mass of people, who were -lying about in the most utter confusion. The rain kept falling, and, -as I looked out into the dark and gloomy night, my thoughts returned -to the difference in my position only twenty-four hours before, and -the sumptuous farewell supper at the splendid Turkish embassy. The -whole scene appeared to me not unlike a dramatic representation -of "King and Beggar," in which I acted the chief part. The bitter -feeling of reality, however, made little impression. I myself was -the author of this sudden metamorphosis, and I had prepared my fate -for myself. - -The hard task of self-control lasted but a few days. As far as all -outward peculiarities were concerned, I soon became familiar with -the habitual as well as physical attributes of dervishism, such as -dirt, &c. I gave my better garments, which I had brought with me -from Teheran, to a weak and sickly Hadji, an act of kindness which -gained all hearts. My new uniform consisted of a felt jacket, which -I wore next my skin without any shirt, and of a _djubbe_ (upper -garment),[10] composed of innumerable pieces of stuff, and fastened -with a cord round the loins. My feet were enveloped in rags, and -an immense turban covered my head, serving as a parasol by day and -pillow by night. I had also, in conformity with the rest of the -Hadjis, hung round me a voluminous Koran in a bag, which resembled a -cartridge pouch; and, viewing myself thus, "_en pleine parade_," I -had reason proudly to exclaim: "Yes, indeed, I am born a beggar!" - - [10] It is called _Hirkai dervishan_ (the dervish cloak), which - even those dervishes that are most comfortably off are obliged - to wear over their otherwise good garments. It is the symbol of - poverty, and is often composed of countless small pieces of new - patchwork, cut round the edge in points of unequal length; and, - while it is sewn together on the outside with thick packing thread - and large stitches, the lining often consists of silk or some other - valuable material. It is the _ne plus ultra_ of hypocrisy; but long - before the Romans the wise men of the East have said, _Mundus vult - decipi--ergo decipiatur_. - -The outer or material part of the _incognito_ was thus easily -assumed, but the moral part presented more serious difficulties -than I expected. Although I had had the opportunity, for some years -past, of studying the contrast between European and Asiatic modes -of life, and the critical position in which I found myself made it -incumbent upon me ever to be strictly on my guard, nevertheless, I -could not avoid committing many glaring mistakes. The difference -between Eastern and Western society does not consist merely in -language, physiognomy, and dress. We Europeans eat, drink, sleep, -sit, and stand, nay, I feel inclined to say, laugh, weep, sigh, -and gesticulate otherwise than Eastern people. These things are -visible trifles, but in reality difficult ones, and yet they are as -nothing when compared with the effort required to disguise one's -feelings. When travelling, people are naturally of a more eager -and excitable temperament than in everyday life, and therefore it -costs the European an unspeakable effort to conceal his curiosity, -admiration, or any kind of emotion, when brought into intercourse -with the indolent orientals, who are for ever indifferent to all -and everything around them. Besides, the object of my travelling -was merely to travel, whilst that of my friends was to reach their -distant homes. My individual person excited their interest only -during the first moments of our acquaintance, while to me they were -each a continual study; and it certainly can never have entered the -head of any one of them that, whenever we laughed and joked most -intimately together my mind would just then be doubly occupied. -No one but he who is practically acquainted with the East, can -have any idea of the difficulty of entering into all these marked -differences. I had been pretty well schooled by a four years' -residence at Constantinople; yet there I played merely the part of -an amateur, whilst here I dared not deviate even a hair's breadth -from reality. Nay, I will make no secret of the fact, that during -the first few days the struggle, though short, was severe, and that -repentance and remorse seized me at every fresh difficulty. However, -my mind, being stimulated by vanity, was in that state of excitement -when everything had to give way before the irresistible impulse of -its ardour; and, supported in its triumph by a sound constitution, -it was enabled to bear easily whatever might happen. - -I shudder even now when I think back of the fatigue I underwent -during the first few days, and how much I suffered from the wet and -cold, the uncleanliness--which makes one's hair stand on end--and -the never-ending, harassing worry with the fanatic Shiites, during -our long and tedious day-marches in Mazendran, a part of the world -of historical reputation for its bad roads. Sometimes it rained -from early in the morning until late in the evening, and, whilst -not a thread of my tattered garments remained dry, I was moreover -obliged to wade for hours knee-deep in mud. The narrow mountain-path -has become hollow by the wear of centuries, and in many places -it resembles a muddy brook, winding along between huge fragments -of pointed rock that have fallen from the heights above. It is a -sheer impossibility to remain in the saddle; and, in order to avoid -danger, the best course is to tread slowly and cautiously, sounding -the hollows with one's foot. No one will doubt that, under such -circumstances, we arrived at the station at nightfall thoroughly -exhausted and fatigued. Fire and shelter are the chief objects of -desire, for which the eye looks longingly around. They both exist -in Mazendran; but we, the Sunnitic beggars, had preferred, for the -sake of quiet, to pass the night undisturbed and far from any human -dwelling. A fire was kindled, to dry ourselves and our clothes, when -the elder of our Tartar fellow-travellers observed, that such a -proceeding would be prejudicial to health; and, indeed, they always -preferred to dry themselves in another and more singular fashion. -It is well known that, throughout the East, horse dung is dried and -then ground into powder, to serve as stabling for the horses by -night. During the day it is exposed to the sun, either spread out or -made into conical-shaped heaps; and I was not a little astonished -to see how my companions, divesting themselves entirely of their -apparel, buried their soaked bodies up to the neck in such like -_poudre de santé_. I need not add, that contact with this _poudre_, -so well known as strong and stinging, cannot be very agreeable; but -its effects are only felt during the first quarter of an hour, and I -can assert, from my subsequent personal experience, that such a bed -induces a most sweet and refreshing sleep, however it may offend the -European eye and sense of refinement. - -In spite of the drawbacks, I should have felt quite contented with -my lot had it not been that, besides these fatigues common to all, -an extra share was allotted to me, being a stranger in the company. -As such, it was my duty to affect the qualities of modesty and -devotion, to show myself not only friendly, but submissive, to all; -and to endeavour to conciliate the affection of old and young, by -professing an obliging disposition, and a readiness to perform any -kind of small service. At first these offers were declined by most -of them, since they did not wish to offend in me the character -of "efendi," having made my acquaintance as such. However, it -was my duty in no case to yield, but on the contrary, to strive -continually to make myself useful to one or the other. Besides the -minor services I performed on the march, I had to try to be helpful -to every one at the station, either by preparing tea and baking -bread, or by looking after the riding horses, or by packing and -unpacking. Some of my companions were obliging to me in return for -my attention, but others, who soon had forgotten my former position, -treated me like an old fellow-traveller. Services were demanded -and performed without the smallest ceremony; and I could not help -laughing heartily, when a Hadji from Khokand once coolly handed me -his shirt for me to free it from the many "uninvited guests," he -being fully occupied in like manner on another part of his costume. - -It was to be foreseen that in this way an _entente cordiale_ would -speedily ripen between us. The more I accommodated myself to my -present position, forgetting the past, the quicker also disappeared -the barrier between me and the other Hadjis. The society of others -exercises a powerful influence upon us, uniting as it does the -most opposite elements; and after I had lived for a whole month as -dervish, all appeared to me not only natural and endurable, but the -charm of novelty in the life around me had actually effaced Teheran, -Stamboul, and Europe, from my memory; and the continual excitement -in which I lived had produced in me a state of mind which was -extraordinary, it is true, but never disagreeable. - -One feeling alone disquieted me: this was the fear of discovery, or, -rather, of its consequences,--the terrible death of torture which -Tartar cruelty and offended Mahometan fanaticism would have invented -for my punishment. Already during the first days of my residence -with the Turkomans I became aware that, in assuming my incognito, I -was playing a dangerous game; and, but for the unlimited confidence -I placed in the fidelity of my companions, and my own preparations, -this spectre would have haunted me every moment of my existence. -During the greater part of the day, society, occupation, and events -of various interest prevented the intrusion of these suspicions; but -at night, when everything around was hushed in silence, and I sat -alone in a solitary corner of my tent, or in the waste and barren -desert, I became absorbed in thought. Fear appeared before me in its -blackest guise and most terrible aspect; nor would it leave me for a -long, long time, however much I attempted to dispel it by sophistry -or light-heartedness. Oh, this terrible Megæra! How she tormented -me, how she tortured me, at those very moments when, seeking repose, -I was about to lose myself in contemplation on the grandeur of -nature and the wonderful constitution of man. In the long struggle -between us, fear was finally subdued; but it is this very struggle, -which I now blush to remember; for it is marvellous what efforts are -required to grow familiar with the constant and visible prospect -of death, and how great the anxiety in seeing only a doubtful -foundation for the hope of one's further existence. - -No one, I am sure, will blame me for acting with precaution, nay, -at first, with scrupulous precaution; but often it degenerated into -ridiculous extremes. I was, for instance, conscious of my habit -of gesticulating with the hands when speaking,--a habit peculiar -to many Europeans, but strictly forbidden in Central Asia;--and, -fearing lest I might commit this mistake, I adopted a coercive -remedy. I pretended to suffer from pains in the arms, and strapping -them down to the body, they soon lost the habit of involuntary -movement. In like manner I seldom ventured to make a hearty meal -late in the evening, for fear of being troubled with heavy dreams, -which might cause me to speak some foreign, European language. I -laugh now at my pusillanimity, for I might have remembered that -the Tartars, being unacquainted with European languages, would not -have noticed it; and yet I rather bore in mind the words of my -companions, who observed one morning with great _naïveté_, that my -snoring sounded differently from that of the Turkestanis, whereupon -another interrupted and informed him: "Yes; thus people snore in -Constantinople." - -It may be objected, that as so many of my actions might cause remark -or offence when in company with others, I must at all events have -shaken off this restraint when alone. But alas! Even then I was the -slave of precaution; and is it not striking, or rather ridiculous, -that at night, when in the boundless desert and at a considerable -distance from the caravan, I did not venture to eat the unleavened -bread, mixed up with ashes and sand, or take a draught of stinking -water without accompanying it with the customary Mahometan formula -of blessing! I might have thought to myself, no one sees you, -all around are asleep; but no! the distant sand hills appeared -to me like so many spies, who were watching whether I was saying -the Bismillah, and whether I had broken the bread in the proper -ritualistic manner. Thus it happened when in Khiva, that, when -sleeping alone in a dark cell, bolted and barred, I started up from -my couch at the call to prayer, and began the troublesome labour of -the thirteen Rikaat. When at the sixth or eighth, I had a great mind -to leave off, thinking I was safely out of sight. But no! it struck -me, that perhaps the eyes of a spy might be watching me through the -crevice in the door, and conscientiously I performed my unpleasant -duty. - -Only time, the universal panacæa, could remedy this evil. Although -my moral sufferings were considerably more painful than the physical -ones, time and habit came to my aid, and gained me here also the -victory, and after having lived happily through four months, my -mind had grown as hardened to any fear or terror as my body to dirt -and uncleanliness. The epoch of indifference succeeded, and with it -I began to feel the true charms of my adventure. I was attracted -above all by the unlimited freedom of our life as vagrants, the -total absence of trouble as to food and clothing, the gratuitous -manner in which the dervish had everything provided for him, and, -in addition, the mental superiority which he exercises over the -people at large. No wonder, then, that I lost no opportunity in -amply profiting by the advantages of my position. My companions -admitted that I possessed eminent talents for the life of a dervish, -and whenever the question rose how to get money from hard-hearted -villagers, or to beg and collect a larger store of victuals, I -was always entrusted with that part of the business. I one day -brilliantly justified the confidence thus placed in me, in an -encampment of Tchandor Turkomans. These, the wildest of all nomad -people, had the reputation of being exceedingly wicked, and Hadjis, -Tshans and Dervishes habitually avoided going near their tents. -Having been told of this I set out on my way, accompanied by three -companions who were known as famous singers, and taking with me a -goodly store of holy dust, Zemzem water, tooth-picks, combs and the -like gifts, presented by pilgrims. Some received me rather coldly, -but yet the son of the desert, however wild he may be, cannot resist -the words or the mimics of a dervish's strategy, and not only did -I receive ample presents in the shape of wheat, rice, cheese and -pieces of felt, but I succeeded in persuading one of the men to -load his own ass with this harvest, and take it to our astonished -caravan. - -Success leads to boldness. No wonder, then, that after several -successful expeditions, I assumed a demeanour in which many will -trace a certain degree of impudence. And, indeed, I can hardly -refute this accusation entirely, but how was I to have done -otherwise? No European can realize to himself what it is to stand, -a disguised Frenghi, (this word of terror to orientals,) face to -face with such a tyrant as the Khan of Khiva, and to have to bestow -upon him the customary benediction. If this man were to discover the -dangerous trick, this man with the sallow face and sinister look, -as he sits there surrounded by his satellites--such an idea is only -endurable to a mind steeled to the highest pitch of resolution. At -my first audience I appeared really with a step so firm and gesture -so bold, as if my presence were to bestow felicity upon the Khan. -All looked at me with astonishment, for submissiveness is befitting -to the pious and saints. However, they thought such was the custom -in Turkey, and I heard no remark made about it. - -Such bold measures, however, were seldom necessary, and, in its -ordinary routine, the life of a dervish has often given me moments -of the greatest happiness. Without feeling any inclination to -imitate the Russian Count D----, who, wearied of the artificial -life of Europeans, withdrew into one of the valleys of Kashmir, -turning beggar-dervish, I must confess that a peculiar feeling -of enjoyment came over me when, basking in the warm rays of the -autumnal sun, either in some ruin or other solitary spot, I could, -in true oriental manner, absorb myself in vacant reflection. It -is inexpressibly pleasurable to be rocked in the soft cradle of -oriental repose and indifference, when one is without money or -profession, free from care and excitement. To us Europeans such an -enjoyment of course can only be of very short duration, for if our -thoughts turn at such moments toward the distant, ever-active, and -stirring west, the great contrast between these two worlds must at -once strike the eye, and instinctively we feel attracted towards -the latter. European activity and Asiatic repose are the two great -subjects which occupy the mind, but we have only to cast our look -upon the ruins scattered around us to see which of the two follows -the right philosophy of life. Here everything is on the road to -ruin and servitude, there everything leads to prosperity and the -sovereignty of the world. - -These varied scenes of life, in which I moved during my incognito, -were far from being devoid of attractions, as many a prejudiced -European might imagine, although they naturally could fascinate but -for a time. I was truly frightened one day, when the Khan of Khiva -proposed to me seriously to marry and settle in Khiva, since persons -of such extensive travelling as myself were far from disagreeable -to him. The idea of spending my whole life in Turkestan, with an -OEzbeg wife for my partner, was horrible, and I should certainly -have thrown up my plans if I had been obliged to accept the offer; -but, as it is, I shall certainly never repent having spent a few -months in an adventure which ended happily. I say never, for even -the remembrance of all I experienced is indescribably sweet, and -even now, when already more than three years have elapsed since my -return, I find every circumstance as fresh in my memory, the whole -scene as near and vivid, as if I had arrived with my caravan only -last night, and were obliged to start off again on the morrow, -and load my ass for the journey; as often as I think back on my -fellow-travellers, the most pleasant feelings are re-awakened in -remembrance of that intimate and hearty friendship which existed -between us. We chatted, laughed, and bantered with each other on -our long day's march, as if we could not wish for a more enjoyable -existence; it was above all my merry humour which greatly pleased -them, and my jokes and puns afforded to them an endless source of -amusement when we were alone, for in public we all of us wore the -long, stony faces suited to the gravity of our character as holy -men. What would they say if they could see me now in the midst -of so many unbelievers, and dressed in a garment so ridiculous -in their eyes, the forked garment, as they designate European -trousers?--_me_, in whom they and the rest of the world believed to -see a true specimen of a western Mahometan Mollah! I must confess -that although the pleasant episodes of my incognito are even now -frequently the cause of cheerful moments of recollection, the sad -hours of suffering and extremity of danger loom like black clouds on -the horizon of the present. Their gloomy shadows remind me vividly -of past terrors, and even now, whenever I start up in my sleep, -haunted by oppressive dreams, it was very often His Majesty, the -Khan of Bokhara, or the frightful tortures of thirst, or a fanatic -group of Mollahs, who, hastening hither from Central Asia on the -wings of Morpheus, honoured me with a visit. How happy do I feel on -awaking, to find myself in Europe, in my dear native country, in my -peaceful home! - -I have often been in critical, nay, extremely critical situations, -but on the whole only a few episodes have left behind on me such -an impression as never will be effaced, and which, from being -associated with the most imminent danger to my life, will never be -forgotten by me as long as I live. - - -I. - -The evening in the Khalata desert, when, after having endured for -two days the torments of thirst, I felt, with the last drop of -water, my vital energies gradually ebbing away. Around me were lying -many of my fellow-travellers, suffering, probably, as acutely as -myself, to judge from their wild, haggard looks, and rigid features. -Raising my heavy head with the greatest effort, I met the glance of -those near me. They all seemed to be looking at me with expressions -of bitter resentment, for during the afternoon I had heard the old -ascetic, Kari Messud, repeat several times, "We are, alas! the -propitiatory victims for some great evil-doer who is amongst us in -our caravan." Possibly not one of them referred to me, but I felt, -nevertheless, full of anxiety. Meanwhile the hour of evening prayer -was approaching. Only a few could join in it. The sun was fast -setting, and, as the last rays lit up the unhappy group of sufferers -in that vast desert, I could not help casting a look towards -the spot, where from the horizon he sent his last beams towards -me,--that spot, which we call the west, the beloved west, which I -had little hope to live to see the next morning again; and with -unspeakable sadness I clung to the word 'west;' my half-exhausted -senses revived anew, for with the word returned the thought of -Europe, of my beloved home, my early departure from this world, the -hard struggles of my past life, the wreck of all my aspirations, of -all my pleasant hopes. My heart nearly broke with the burden of this -great sorrow; I longed to weep, but could not. This moment is one of -imperishable memory; the terror of that scene has impressed itself -indelibly on my mind, and whenever my thoughts turn towards the -Khalata desert it will rise and haunt me like a phantom. - - -II. - -The next occasion was during my audience with the emir of Bokhara, -in the palace of Samarkand. This prince, who had been represented -to me as a person of doubtful character, had been severely examining -my countenance as I sat by his side, in order to discover in me -a Frenghi in disguise. The readers of my travels are already -acquainted with a part of the conversation that took place between -us. I hoped to gain him over to our interests, but it cost me a -giant's effort not to betray by my countenance, and especially my -eyes, the excitement within me; and, although I shook and trembled -in every nerve, I was obliged to suppress even the slightest symptom -of fear. An old adept in the part I played, I effectually succeeded -in preventing a blush, or any change of colour, but I did not feel -confident about the result. Let the reader realise my position, when -the emir, after an audience of a quarter of an hour, called to him -one of his servants, cautiously whispered something in his ear, and, -motioning to me with a serious expression of countenance, ordered me -to follow his attendant. - -I rose quickly from my seat. The servant led me through room after -room, and court after court, whilst the uncertainty of my fate -filled me with alarm; and, as oppression of heart breeds none other -but images of terror, I fancied that this ominous walk was leading -me to the torture-chamber, and to that dreadful death which so often -had presented itself to my imagination. After some time we came to -a dark room, where my guide ordered me to sit down and wait for his -return. I remained standing, but in what state of mind my readers -may readily imagine. Perhaps I should have felt less terror could I -only have known what my death was to be, but this uncertainty was -like the torture of hell, and I shall never forget it as long as I -live. With a feverish impatience I counted the minutes, until the -door should open again.... A few more seconds of torture and the -servant appeared. I fixed my eyes upon him, and perceived by the -light that entered through the doorway that he did not bring with -him the dreaded instruments of the executioner, but carried under -his arm, instead, a carefully folded-up bundle. This contained -a dress of honour, presented to me by the emir, as well as the -'viaticum' for my long pilgrim road. - - -III. - -The third instance occurred to me when waiting for the arrival of -the Herat caravan on the banks of the Oxus, during the hot days -of August, in the company of the Lebab Turkomans. I dwelt in the -court of a deserted mosque, and in the evenings the Turkomans -usually brought with them one of their collections of songs or -ballads, from which I had to read to them aloud, and it gave me -especial pleasure to witness the undivided attention with which they -listened to the deeds of some popular hero, while the silence of -the night air around us was only broken by the hollow murmur of the -rolling waters of the Oxus. One evening our reading lasted till -near midnight. I felt rather tired, and, unmindful of the advice -I had often received, not to sleep in the immediate proximity of -ruined buildings, I stretched myself out beside a wall, and soon -fell sound asleep. After about an hour I was suddenly awakened -by an indescribably violent pain in my foot, and jumping up and -screaming aloud, I felt as if hundreds of poisoned needles were -shooting through my leg, and concentrating in one small point near -the big toe of my right foot. My screams awakened the eldest of -the Turkomans, who slept near me, and without questioning me, he -exclaimed, "Poor Hadji, a scorpion has bitten thee, and that during -the unlucky period of the Saratan (the dog days!) May God help -thee!" With these words he seized my foot, and bound it up round -the ancle with such violence as if he were going to cut it in two, -then searching in all haste with his lips for the wounded spot, he -sucked with such force that I felt it all through my body. Another -soon took his place, and two more bandages having been applied they -left me with these words of comfort, that, if it be the will of -Allah, between now and the hour of the next morning prayer, it would -be seen whether I should be released from pain, or freed from the -follies of this world of vanity. - -Although I felt completely maddened by the itching, pricking and -burning, which kept increasing more and more in violence, yet I -remembered the legend of the scorpions of Belkh, well known for -their venomous nature even in ancient times. The reasonable -apprehension of death rendered the pain still more unbearable, -and that, after many hours of suffering, I really did surrender -all hopes of recovery, was shown by the fact that, forgetting my -incognito, I began to pour out my lament in expressions and sounds -which, as the Tartars afterwards told me, appeared to them extremely -droll, since they are in the habit of using them when shouting for -joy. It is remarkable that the pain spread in a few minutes from the -toe to the top of the head, but only on the right side, and kept -flowing up and down me like a stream of fire. No words can describe -the torment I had to undergo the hour after midnight. Loathing any -longer to live, I was about to dash my head to pieces by beating it -upon the ground, but my companions observed my intention and tied -me fast to a tree. Thus I lay for hours, half fainting, whilst the -cold sweat of death was running down me, and my eyes turned fixedly -towards the stars. The Pleiades were gradually sinking in the west, -and whilst awaiting in perfect consciousness the voice that calls to -prayer, or rather the break of morning, a gentle sleep fell upon me, -from which I was soon roused by the monotonous la illah il Allah. - -No sooner was I fully awake when I was sensible of a faint -diminution of the pain. The pricking and burning disappeared more -and more, in the same way as it had come, and the sun had not yet -risen a lance's height over the horizon when I was able, though -weak and exhausted, to rise to my feet. My companions assured me -that the devil, having entered my body through the bite of the -scorpion, had been scared away by the morning prayer, a fact I dared -not of course discredit. But that terrible night will for ever -remain engraven on my memory. - -It is these three events which were the critical moments in my -adventures in Central Asia. As to the rest, the many curious eyes -that scrutinised me, the various suspicions I laboured under, as -well as the unspeakable fatigues of travelling in the guise of a -beggar, all these privations and obstacles have left behind but -few sad remembrances. The fascinations in seeing those strange -countries, for which my eyes were longing from the earliest days -of my youth, possessed in itself a charm at once animating and -invigorating, for, except in the few cases just mentioned, I felt -always particularly cheerful and happy. This much is certain, that -I often miss, in my present civilised European life, the bodily and -mental activity of those days, and who knows but that I may, in -after years, wish that time to return, when, enveloped in tatters -and without shelter, but vigorous and high in spirits, I wandered -through the steppes of Central Asia. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -FROM MY JOURNAL. - -AMONGST THE TURKOMANS. - - - _13th April._ - -Struck with astonishment and surprise at the strange, social -relations, amongst which I was to-day living for the first time, I -was sitting in the early morning hours upon one and the same carpet -with Khandjan, my hospitable host, listening with eager attention -to his descriptions of Turkoman life and manners. He was one of the -most influential chiefs amongst the nomads, by nature an upright -man, and anxious to make me acquainted with the faults as well as -the merits of his countrymen; for being firmly convinced of my -Turkish and semi-official character, he hoped to gain, through my -position with the Sultan, on whom the whole Sunnitish world relies, -assistance against Russians and Persians. He spoke with zeal, -without betraying it outwardly; and after having given me his first -lesson he rose, to show me, as he said, his house and court-yard, -or in our phraseology, to make me acquainted with the ladies of the -family. This is a very especial mark of distinction among Asiatic -nations; however, a man supposed to be an agent of the Sultan, well -deserves such an attention; and accordingly I endeavoured, by my -attitude in sitting, my whole mien and carriage, to show myself -worthy of it. - -After a few minutes I heard a strange clattering and clinking, the -curtain of the tent was raised, and there entered a whole crowd of -women, girls and children, who, headed by a corpulent and tolerably -old matron, walked towards the place where I was sitting. They -were evidently as much struck as myself by the scene; looking -timidly around, the young women cast down their eyes, whilst the -children clung with evident signs of fear to the clothes of their -parents. Khandjan introduced the matron to me as his mother. She -was about sixty years old, in the primitive costume of a long, red -silk garment, and wearing across her chest, to the right and left, -several large as well as small silver sheaths, in which as many -talismans of great virtue were preserved; some even were inlaid with -precious stones, as were also a considerable number of armlets, -necklaces and anklets,--the heirlooms of the family through several -generations, and, to judge from their appearance, bearing the traces -of high antiquity. The other women and children were likewise -arrayed in ornaments of a similar kind, varying, however, with the -wearer's rank and position in the favour of their lord and master. -The clothes themselves are often torn and dirty, and are looked upon -as quite a matter of secondary importance; but a Turkoman lady is -not fashionably dressed, unless she carries about her person one or -two pounds of silver in ornaments. - -The old lady was the first to extend her wrinkled hands for the -customary greeting, the others followed, and, after the young -girls and children had embraced me,--for such is the rule of the -_bon ton_,--all squatted down around me in a semicircle and began -to question me about my health, welfare, and happy arrival. Each -one addressed me three or four times on the same subject. I had to -return just as many answers; and not in Europe alone does it happen -that a circle of ladies may perplex and embarrass an inexperienced -Solomon: even in the desert of Central Asia the like may occur. -Everywhere among the nomad people of the Mahomedan East the women -lose more and more their moral and physical attributes, the older -they grow. During my first interview I was obliged to reply to the -most delicate questions of the younger portion; whilst the elder -ones conversed on religion, politics, and the domestic relations of -the neighbouring tribes. I had to guard against exhibiting surprise -at the manner of either of them; the younger women I succeeded in -inspiring with awe for my strict virtue as a Mollah, and the elderly -ones received an ample share of blessings. Several men, neighbours -and relatives, arrived during this visit, but they caused no -disturbance or discomposure among the ladies, who enjoy, as I have -often had the opportunity of observing, a certain respect, although -they are exclusively the working class of the community. And indeed -the Turkoman women deserve such, for nowhere in the East have I met -with their equals in exemplary virtue, devotion to their families, -and indefatigable industry. - -This visit lasted nearly an hour, and towards the end of it I had -to write several talismans, in return for which the women presented -me with sundry small gifts, their own handwork. The old lady came -several times afterwards to visit me; once I even accompanied her -to the tumulus which is raised over the remains of her husband, in -order to pray for the soul of the departed. The good understanding -between us two struck even the nomads: however, at present the -reason for it is sufficiently clear to me. In the first instance -a certain foreign look in my appearance, as well as the halo of -piety which surrounded me, had attracted her, at the same time -that I was ever ready to lend a patient ear to her conversations; -listening attentively to her discourses on the short-comings of the -Persian female slaves in her household, on the want of skill in the -women of the present day, in weaving carpets, preparing felt, &c., -interspersing now and then an observation of my own, as if I had -been accustomed to these subjects from my youth and took an especial -interest in all the details of a nomad household. - -And, after all, this is the philosophy of life that should guide -a traveller everywhere, if he wishes to learn anything. Here, for -instance, a pliant demeanour proved of considerable use, since -the affection of the old matron towards me contributed in a great -measure to render my residence amongst the Turkomans agreeable,--a -people, amongst whom not even an Asiatic stranger can move freely, -still less an European. - - * * * * * - - _16th April._ - -I entered the tent of Khandjan after the morning prayer and found -here a whole company, listening with the greatest attention to -the narrative of a young Turkoman, who was covered with dust and -dirt, and whose face bore evident traces of excitement and severe -hardships. He was describing in a low voice, but in lively colours, -a marauding excursion against the Persians of the evening before, -in which he had taken part. Whilst he was speaking, the women, -servants and slaves (what must have been the thoughts of these -latter), squatted down around the circle of listeners, and many a -curse was hurled at the slaves, the clanking of the chains on their -feet interrupting for a time the general quiet. It struck me as -remarkable, that, in proportion as the speaker warmed in describing -the obstinate resistance of the unfortunate people, who were fallen -on unawares, the indignation of the audience increased at the -audacity of the Persians, not to have at once quietly submitted to -being plundered. - -No sooner was the narration of this great feat of arms at an end -when all rose to their feet to have a look at the spoils, the -sight of which excites in the Turkoman's breast a mixed feeling -of envy and pleasure. I followed them likewise, and a terrible -picture presented itself to my eyes. Lying down in the middle of -the tent were two Persians, looking deadly pale and covered with -clotted blood, dirt and dust. A man was busily engaged in putting -their broken limbs into fetters, when one of them gave a loud, wild -shriek, the rings of the chains being too small for him. The cruel -Turkoman was about to fasten them forcibly round his ancles. In a -corner sat two young children on the ground, pale and trembling, -and looking with sorrowful eyes towards the tortured Persian. -The unhappy man was their father; they longed to weep, but dared -not;--one look of the robber, at whom they stole a glance now and -then, with their teeth chattering, was sufficient to suppress their -tears. In another corner a girl, from fifteen to sixteen years old, -was crouching, her hair dishevelled and in confusion, her garments -torn and almost entirely covered with blood. She groaned and sobbed, -covering her face with her hands. Some Turkoman woman, moved either -by compassion or curiosity, asked her what ailed her, and where -she was wounded. "I am not wounded," she exclaimed, in a plaintive -voice, deeply touching. "This blood is the blood of my mother, my -only one, and the best and kindest of mothers. Oh! ana djan, ana -djan (dear mother)!" Thus she lamented, striking her head against -the trellised wood-work of the tent, so that it almost tumbled -down. They offered her a draught of water, and her tongue became -loosened, and she told them how she (of course a valuable prize) had -been lifted into the saddle beside the robber, but that her mother, -tied to the stirrups, had been obliged to run along on foot. After -an hour's running in this manner, she grew so tired that she sank -down exhausted every moment. The Turkoman tried to increase her -strength by lashing her with his whip, but this was of no avail; -and as he did not want to remain behind from his troop he grew in a -rage, drew his sword, and in a second struck off her head. The blood -spirting up, had covered the daughter, horseman and horse; and, -looking at the red spots upon her clothes, the poor girl wept loud -and bitterly. - -Whilst this was going on in the interior of the tent, outside the -various members of the robbers' family were busy inspecting the -booty he had brought home. The elder women seized greedily upon one -or another utensil for domestic use, whilst the children, who were -jumping about merrily, were trying on the different garments,--now -one, now another, and producing shouts of laughter. - -Here all was triumph and merriment; not far from it a picture of the -deepest grief and misery. And yet no one is struck by the contrast; -every one thinks it very natural that the Turkoman should enrich -himself with robbery and pillage. - -And these terrible social relations exist within scarcely a -fortnight's distance from Europe, travelling by St. Petersburg, -Nishnei Novogorod, and Astrakhan! - - * * * * * - - _18th April._ - -Eliaskuli, who dwelt in the fourth tent from mine on the banks of -the Görgen, was a "retired" Turkoman, who, up to his thirtieth year, -had carried on the usual profession of kidnapping and pillaging, and -had now retired from business, in order, as he said, to spend the -rest of this futile, ridiculous life (fani dünya) here below in the -pious exercise of the law; as far as I know, however, it is because -several shot wounds of the "hellish" weapons at Ashurada prevented -him from carrying on any longer his infamous trade. He was in hopes -I might invoke upon his wicked head every blessing of heaven by my -prayers, and to this effect he narrated to me, with many details, -how the Russians, after having declared a religious war, had once -landed here, and attacked and set fire to all the tents that stood -on the banks of the Görgen. This religious war was in fact nothing -else than that the Russians wanted to release some countrymen of -theirs, whom these robbers had carried off prisoners, but the fight -lasted more than a whole day. He added, that although the Russians, -being too cowardly to come near, shot only from a distance, yet the -valiant Gazis (religious combatants) could not resist their devilish -arts, that he too received at that time some death wounds, and was -a whole day without giving a sign of life, until at last his Pir -(spiritual chief) called him back into existence. - -This same Eliaskuli offered to accompany me to-day to the Ova of -the Ana Khan, who is the chief of the Yarali tribe, and dwells on -the upper Görgen, close to the Persian frontier. From curiosity, -perhaps, or some other motive, he wished to make my acquaintance. -Our road lay for some time along the left bank of the river, but -soon we were obliged to make a considerable circuit, in order to -avoid the large marshes and morasses. Unacquainted as the people -around me were with my motives for travelling, I laid myself open -to suspicion, no doubt; but the experience of a few days calmed my -fears for the security of my position, and indeed all misgivings -vanished, when I saw how the people, whenever we were passing some -tent on our route, came towards me with milk, cheese and other -presents, asking for my blessing. Thus I rode on in high spirits, -troubled at nothing but the heavy Turkoman felt cap, on the top -of which in addition several yards of linen were folded round in -the shape of a turban, and the heavy musket on my back, which for -propriety's sake I was obliged to carry, in spite of my character as -Mollah. Eliaskuli sometimes remained behind for full half an hour, -but I continued my way alone, meeting now and then a few marauding -stragglers, who, returning home empty from some unsuccessful foray, -measured me with sinister looks from head to foot. Some saluted me, -others only asked, "Whose guest art thou, Mollah?" in order to judge -from my personality whether it was feasible to plunder me or not; -but no sooner did I reply "Kelte Khandjan Bay," when they rode on in -evident displeasure, muttering in their beard an abrupt "Aman bol," -(farewell.) - -Towards evening we arrived at the tents, together with Khandjan, -who, having taken a different road, had joined us on the way. Ana -Khan, the patriarchal chief, a man about sixty years of age, was -seated on the green slope of a hill, surrounded by his grandchildren -and little children, (it is only in the east that one meets with -people, thus related to one another, of the same age,) watching -them with looks of pleasure, as also the flocks of sheep and herds -of camels who were returning home from their rich pasturage. Our -reception was short, but friendly. Walking before us, he conducted -us into the ready prepared tent, where I was appointed to the seat -of honour; the proper conversation, however, not beginning until the -very last remnants of the sheep, killed expressly for the occasion, -had disappeared from the table. Ana Khan spoke little, but he -listened attentively to my description of Turkish life and Russo -Turkish relations. The next morning, however, he grew rather more -talkative, and he began by treating us with the narrative of an act -of hospitality on his part towards an English iltshi (ambassador) -on his way to Khiva. I guessed at once that this must have been -the mission of Mr. William T. Thomson, who was sent thither by his -government to adjust the differences between Persia and the Khan of -Khiva. Ana Khan, in describing the arms, trinkets and person of the -Frenghi ambassador, laid such particular stress upon the resemblance -of his features to mine, that the cause of his curiosity was at once -evident, as well as his reason for wishing me to visit him. Looking -significantly and with glowing eyes at his countrymen, as if to -persuade them of the keenness of his perceptions, he came close up -to me, and gently tapping me on the shoulder, said, "Efendi! the -Tura (rule) of the Sultan of Rum is held in high honour amongst us; -first, he is the prince of all the Sunnites; secondly, Turkomans -and Osmanlis are blood-relations, and thou art our honoured guest, -although thou hast brought us no presents." In this remark I read -much, but inferred still more from it. My incognito, then, as -dervish, did not always meet with implicit belief. The majority, -however, especially the Mollahs, trusted in me, and single sceptics -did not by any means cause me disquiet. - -I observed, moreover, that Khandjan did not share the views of Ana -Khan, the subject was never again broached, and I enjoyed the full -hospitality of the suspicious chieftain. - - * * * * * - - _20th April._ - -In distant Mergolan, in the Khanat of Khokand, religious zeal -recommends the frequent collection of money among the people, to -support the high schools at Medina, which town possesses a large -number of such institutions. Here, at the fountain-head of Islamism, -ardent students crowd together, eager interpreters of the Koran, -who, under the protecting Ægis of their pious occupation, are -supported in luxurious idleness by all the Mahometan countries -far and near. Stipends arrive here from distant Fez and Morocco; -the chiefs of the Algerine tribes send their annual gifts; Tunis, -Tripolis and Egypt as well as other smaller Mahommedan states, -send hither their tribute. Turkey vies with Persia in the support -of these pupils. The Tartar, living under Russian protection, the -native of India, subject to English dominion, all give freely to the -high schools of Medina. And yet all this is not deemed sufficient; -even the poor inhabitants of the oasis in Turkestan are asked to -contribute their mite. - -It was at the time of my travels in Central Asia, that Khodja -Buzurk, the much-revered saint in those parts, had collected, no -doubt by dint of immense assiduity, 400 ducats for Medina. Mollah -Esad, the confidential friend of His Holiness, was commissioned -to take the sum to its destination. Although in Central Asia the -possession of money, the great source of danger for its possessor, -is always kept secret, yet the above-mentioned Mollah made no -mystery of the object of his journey, in the hope of enlarging his -fund. Bokhara, Khiva and other towns he visited had contributed to -increase it, and in the belief of meeting with equal success among -the Turkomans, he entered upon his journey through the desert, -relying upon his letters of recommendation to several of the nomad -learned men. - -He reached Gömüshtepe without any mishap, but with the news of his -arrival there spread simultaneously that of the contents of his -travelling bag. The Turkomans were told at the same time that the -money was destined for a pious object, but this did not trouble -them. Each man endeavoured to catch him before he became the guest -of any one, for until a traveller enjoys the rights of hospitality -he is completely unprotected among the nomads; he may be plundered, -killed, sold into captivity,--there is no one to call the offender -to account. The host alone it is, whose vengeance is dreaded; -whosoever is taken under his protection is looked upon as a member -of his family, and is tolerably secure from attack. - -With these facts our Khokand Mollah must have been acquainted, and -nevertheless he trusted to the mere lustre of his religious zeal. -One morning, having gone a short distance from the caravan, he was -fallen upon by two Turkoman men, and plundered of all his money. No -entreaties on his part, no appeal to the holiness of his mission, -no threats of terrible and condign punishment, nothing was of any -avail; they stripped him even of his clothes, and left him nothing -but his old books and papers. Thus he returned to the caravan, -stunned and half naked. This happened about a fortnight before -my arrival, during which time the delinquents were found out and -summoned before the religious tribunal. In my position, as Mollah -from Constantinople, I had the good luck to be honoured with a seat -in court, and the scene at which I was present, and in which I took -an active part, will long remain vivid in my recollection. We, that -is to say, the learned men, had assembled in a field, where we were -sitting in the open air, forming a semi-circle, and holding large -volumes in our hands, surrounded by a great crowd, who were eager -with curiosity. The robbers made their appearance accompanied by -their families and the chief of their tribe, without betraying the -least embarrassment, just as if they had come for the settlement of -some honest transaction. When questioned, who has taken the money? -the culprit answered in the haughtiest tone, "I have taken it." I -felt sure from the very beginning that a restitution of money would -never be made. Most of the council having exhausted their talents -of rhetoric by endless quotations from the Koran, it was my turn to -try and impress the hero, and I did so by pointing out to him the -wickedness of his deed. "What wickedness!" the Turkoman exclaimed, -"is robbery punished in thy country? This is strange indeed! I -should have thought that the Sultan, the Lord of the Universe, was a -man of more sense. If robbery is not permitted amongst you, how do -thy people live?" - -Another Mollah threatened him with the Sheriat (religious precepts,) -and depicted in glowing colours the punishments of hell, which the -Turkoman had to expect in another world. "What Sheriat?" he replied, -"each man his own! Thou, Mollah, possessest laws and precepts in thy -tongue, which thou twistest as thou likest, I possess my Sheriat in -my good sword, which I brandish whenever my arm commands!" After -long and fruitless exhortations, and equally long consultations -amongst the grey-beards, our sitting was closed without any success -on our part. The Turkoman went away with his money, which he spent -in furnishing himself with new weapons, instead of its being sent -to Medina towards the support of her students. Mollah Esad returned -with a sad heart to Khokand, having learnt from bitter experience -that the Turkomans, although calling themselves orthodox, are the -blackest Kafirs on the face of the earth. - - * * * * * - - _6th May._ - -Oraz Djan, a young, daring and wild looking Turkoman, of about -eighteen years old, who had taken part in marauding excursions -ever since he was twelve, was a daily guest in our tent at Etrek, -in order to listen to the Pir (spiritual chief) of the kidnapping -robbers, in his discourses on religion and moral philosophy. It -happened one day, that Omer Akhond, a Mollah from the neighbourhood, -was present, a man celebrated for his great knowledge, and still -better known as the owner of a particularly excellent horse. The -animal was spoken of, and every one was loud in the praise of its -high qualities, when young Oraz, catching fire on hearing this, -called out half in earnest, half in joke, "Akhond, I will give thee -three asses and a Persian for thy horse. It is a pity that it should -rest in the stable, whilst the Persians so freely wander in their -fields. But, if thou dost not consent, then mark my words, in a -few days it will be stolen from thee!" The Mollah and Pir rebuked -him severely, but he laughed aloud wildly, and the conversation -continued as before. - -Scarcely four days had passed when the Mollah entered our tent one -morning with tears in his eyes, and looking very sad. "My horse -has been stolen from me," he exclaimed with a sigh, "thou alone, -Kulkhan, canst restore it to me. Let me entreat thee, by the love of -the Tshiharyar (the four first chiefs,) do thy utmost!" "This is the -work of the Haramzade (Bastard) Oraz," muttered Kulkhan, "you will -see, I shall tear his black soul from out of his dirty body." - -At the time of evening prayer our amiable Oraz was, as usual, among -the rest of our orthodox friends, who assembled on the terrace-like -height, where stands the mosque of the desert, and certainly no one -would have guessed, from his devotional expression at his prayers, -that this very day he had been robbing a father of the church. When -after the Namaz all formed the customary circle (Khalka,) Oraz -did not fail to come. Kulkhan at once addressed him with, "Young -fellow! The horse of the Mollah has been stolen, thou knowest -where it is; to-morrow morning he must be again in his stable, do -you hear me?" This address caused the young robber not the least -embarrassment. Playing with one hand in the sand, and with the -other pushing on one side his heavy fur hat, he replied, "I have -the horse, but I shall not return it; he who wants it must fetch -it." These words, I thought, would have roused the indignation of -every one present, but not a trace of it was seen in the features of -one of the company. Kulkhan went on speaking to him in his former -quiet tone of voice, but the robber insisted on refusing to restore -the horse, and when some of the grey-beards began to use threats, -he, too, caught fire, and having turned to his spiritual chief -with "Hast thou done better with the mare of the Hadji?" rose and -left the company; and for some time was heard singing aloud the -refrain of the poem Körogli, in the still evening air, thus proving -sufficiently his joy at the victory he had gained. - -A considerable time was spent in consultation after he was gone. No -one ventured to attack him, since his tribe, according to custom, -would have taken him under their protection, in spite of his -abominable conduct, and they were too powerful to risk an attack. -Spiritual aid, therefore, had to be called in, and that it should -have taken immediate effect is not to be marvelled at. - -According to the _Deb_ no greater punishment can befal a living -man, than to be accused before the shade of his departed father -or ancestor. This is done by planting a lance upon the top of the -grave, and fastening to it a couple of blood-stained rags, if murder -has been committed, and for any other crime a broken bow. Such an -appeal unites the Turkomans as one man against the offender and his -tribe, and how deep an effect it has on the mind of the culprit, -I saw on this occasion, for no sooner did Oraz perceive the lance -fixed upon the high Yoska of his grandfather, when in the silence of -the following night he led the horse back to the tent of the Mollah, -and tied it to its former place. This act of restitution, as he -himself told me, will pain him for a long time to come. But it is -better to lie in the black earth than to have disturbed the repose -of one's ancestors. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE CARAVAN IN THE DESERT. - - -"The _Chil menzili Turkestan_, or the Forty Stations across the -desert of Turkestan," I often heard my friends say, "are far more -troublesome and much more difficult to get over than the _Chil -menzili Arabistan_, or the Forty Stations on the Pilgrims' route -from Damascus to Mecca. On this last one finds every day fresh -cisterns, which furnish drinkable water for thousands; the pilgrim -is sure to get fresh bread, a good dish of pilaw or meat, cool -shade, and all the comforts he longs for after the exhausting -day's march. But on the former route, man has done nothing for the -support of the poor traveller. He is in constant danger of dying -from thirst, of being murdered, of being sold as a slave, of being -robbed, or of being buried alive under the burning sand-storm. -Well-filled water-skins and flour sacks, the best horses and arms, -often become useless, and there is nothing left to one but to strive -to get forward as fast as possible, while invoking the name of -Allah." - -The readers of my "Travels in Central Asia," may be supposed to -have some idea of the awfully imposing journey from Persia to -the oasis-lands of Turkestan. I may here furnish a few additional -particulars about the experience of our caravan. I have several -times been blamed for being too concise to be graphic, and this -charge, I confess, is not altogether undeserved. I propose here to -make up for my faults of omission. - -During the first three days' march, the impressive, endless silence -of the desert--a silence as of the grave--cast a most powerful -spell over my soul. Often did I stare vacantly for hours, my eyes -fixed on the distance before me, and as my companions believed me -to be sunk in religious meditations, I was very seldom disturbed. -I only half observed how, during the march, certain members of -our caravan nodded in sleep on the backs of their camels, and by -their ludicrous movements and sudden starts afforded our company -exquisite amusement. Any one overcome with sleep would lay hold of -the high pummel of the saddle with both his hands, but this did not -prevent him from either, with a forward lurch, knocking his chin -with such force that all his teeth chattered, or, by a backward -one, threatening to fall with a summersault to the ground. Indeed -this last often happened, arousing the hearty laughter of the whole -party. The fallen became the hero of the day, and had to support the -most galling fire of jokes on his awkwardness. - -The most inexhaustible fountain of cheerfulness was a young -Turkoman, named Niyazbirdi, who possessed no less liveliness of -spirits than agility of body, and by every word and movement -contrived to draw laughter from the most venerable of the Mollahs. -Although he was owner of several laden camels, he was, nevertheless, -for the most part, accustomed to go on foot; and running now right, -now left, he alarmed by cries or gestures any group of wild asses -that showed themselves along our route. Once, indeed, he succeeded -in getting hold of a young wild ass, which, through fatigue, had -loitered behind the rest. The young shy creature was led along by a -rope, and was the occasion of really droll scenes, when its lucky -captor gave a prize of three spoonfuls of sheeps-tail fat to any one -who dared to mount it. Three spoonfuls of mutton fat is a tempting -prize for Hadjis in the desert, so that many were seduced by the -prospect of gaining it. Nevertheless, they could make nothing of -this uncivilized brother of Balaam's charger, for the unfortunate -Hadjis had no sooner seated themselves on its back than they were -stretched sprawling in the sand. - -Only after a march of several hours is general weariness to be -remarked. All eyes are then turned towards the _Kervan bashi_, -whose gaze at such a time wanders in every direction to spy out -a suitable halting place, that is to say, one which will afford -most plentiful fodder for the camels. No sooner has he found such, -than he himself hastens towards it, while the younger members of -the caravan disperse themselves to right and left to collect dried -roots, or scrub, or other fuel. Dismounting, unpacking, and settling -down, is the work of a few moments. The hope of much-desired rest -restores the exhausted strength. With speed the ropes are slackened, -with speed the heaviest bales of merchandize are piled up in little -heaps, in whose shade the wearied traveller is accustomed to stretch -himself. Scarcely have the hungry camels betaken themselves to -their pasture-ground when a solemn stillness fills the caravan. -This stillness is, I may say, a sort of intoxication, for every one -revels in the enjoyment of rest and refreshment. - -The picture of a newly-encamped caravan in the summer months, and on -the steppes of Central Asia, is a truly interesting one. While the -camels, in the distance but still in sight, graze greedily, or crush -the juicy thistles, the travellers, even the poorest among them, -sit with their tea-cups in their hands and eagerly sip the costly -beverage. It is nothing more than a greenish warm water, innocent of -sugar, and often decidedly turbid; still human art has discovered no -food, has invented no nectar, which is so grateful, so refreshing -in the desert, as this unpretending drink. I have still a vivid -recollection of its wonder-working effects. As I sipped the first -drops a soft fire filled my veins, a fire which enlivened without -intoxicating. The later draughts affected both heart and head; the -eye became peculiarly bright and began to gleam. In such moments I -felt an indescribable rapture and sense of comfort. My companions -sank in sleep; I could keep myself awake and dream with open eyes. - -After the tea has restored their strength the caravan becomes -gradually busier and noisier. They eat in groups or circles which -are here called _kosh_, which represent the several houses of the -wandering town. Everywhere there is something to be done, and -everywhere it is the younger men who are doing it, while their -elders are smoking. Here they are baking bread. A Hadji in rags is -actively kneading the black dough with dirty hands. He has been so -engaged for half an hour, and still his hands are not clean, for -_one_ mass of dough cannot absorb the accumulations of several days. -There they are cooking. In order to know what is being cooked, it is -not necessary to look round. The smell of mutton-fat, but especially -the aroma, somewhat too piquant, of camel or horse-cutlets, tells -its own tale. Nor have the dishes when cooked anything inviting to -the eye. But in the desert a man does not disturb himself about such -trifles. An enormous appetite covers a multitude of faults, and -hunger is notoriously the best of sauces. - -Nor are amusements wanting in the caravan-camp when the halt is -somewhat prolonged. The most popular recreation is shooting at a -mark, in which the prize is always a certain quantity of powder -and shot. This sort of diversion was very seldom possible in our -caravan, as on account of our small numbers we were in continual -danger, and had therefore to make ourselves heard as little as -possible. My comrades were accustomed to pass their leisure time in -reading the Koran, in performance of other religious exercise, in -sleeping, or in attending to their toilet. I say "toilet," but it -is to be hoped that no one will here understand the word to imply a -boudoir, delicate perfumes, or artistical aids. The Turkomans are -accustomed to pluck out the hair of the beard with small pincers. As -to the toilet of the Hadjis, and, indeed, my own, it is so simple -and so prosaic as to be scarcely worth alluding to. The necessary -requisites were sand, fire, and ants. The manner of application I -leave as a riddle for the reader to solve. - -Certainly, of all the nations of Asia, the Tartar seems to fit in -most appropriately with the bizarre picture of desert life. Full -of superstition, and a blind fatalist, he can easily support the -constant dread of danger. Dirt, poverty and privations, he is -accustomed to, even at home. No wonder, then, that he sits content -in clothes which have not been changed for months, and with a crust -of dirt on his face. This inner peace of mind could never become a -matter of indifference to me. At evening prayers, in which the whole -company took part, this peace of mind struck me most forcibly. They -thanked God for the benefits they enjoyed. On such occasions the -whole caravan formed itself into a single line, at whose head stood -an imâm, who turned towards the setting sun and led the prayers. -The solemnity of the moment was increased by the stillness which -prevailed far and wide; and if the rays of the sinking sun lit up -the faces of my companions, so wild yet withal so well satisfied, -they seemed to be in the possession of all earthly good, and had -nothing left them to wish. Often I could not help thinking what -would these people feel if they found themselves leaning against the -comfortable cushions of a first-class railway carriage, or amid the -luxuries of a well-appointed hotel. How distant, how far distant are -the blessings of civilization from these countries! - -So much for the life of the caravan by day. By night the desert is -more romantic, but at the same time more dangerous. As the power -of sight is now limited, the circle of safety is contracted to -the most immediate neighbourhood; and both during the march and -in the encampment every one tries to keep as close as possible to -his fellows. By day the caravan consisted of but one long chain; -by night this is broken up into six or eight smaller ones, which, -marching close together, form a compact square, of which the outmost -lines are occupied by the stoutest and boldest. By moonlight the -shadow of the camels as they stalk along produces a curious and -impressive effect. During the dark starless night everything is full -of horror, and to go one step distant from the side of the caravan -is equivalent to leaving the home circle to plunge into a desolate -solitude. In the halt by day each one occupies whichever place may -please him best. At night, on the contrary, a compact camp is formed -under the direction of the _Kervan bashi_. The bales of goods are -heaped up in the middle; around them lie the men; while without, as -a wall of defence, the camels are laid, tightly packed together, in -a circle. I say laid, for these wonderful animals squat down at the -word of command, remain the whole night motionless in their place, -and, like children, do not get up the next morning until they are -told to do so. They are placed with their heads pointing outward -and their tails inward, for they perceive the presence of any enemy -from far, and give the alarm by a dull rattle in the throat, so that -even in their hours of repose they do duty as sentinels. Those who -sleep within the _rayon_ find themselves in immediate contact with -these beasts, and, as is well known, they have not the pleasantest -smell. It often happens that the saline fodder and water which these -animals feed upon produce palpable consequences for such as sleep -in their immediate neighbourhood. I myself often woke up with such -frescoes. But no one takes any notice of such things, for who could -be angry with these animals, who, although ugly in appearance, are -so patient, so temperate, so good-tempered, and so useful? - -It is no wonder that the wanderers over the desert praise the camel -as surpassing all other beasts of the field, and even love it with -an almost adoring affection. Nourished on a few thorns and thistles, -which other quadrupeds reject, it traverses the wastes for weeks, -nay, often for months together. In these dreary, desolate regions, -the existence of man depends upon that of the camel. It is, besides, -so patient and so obedient that a child can with one "_tshukh_" -make a whole herd of these tall strong beasts kneel down, and with -a "_berrr_" get up again. How much could I not read in their large -dark blue eyes! When the march is too long or the sand too deep, -they are accustomed to express their discomfort and weariness. -This is especially when they are being laden, if too heavy bales -are piled upon their backs. Bending under the burden, they turn -their heads round towards their master; in their eyes gleam tears, -and their groans, so deep, so piteous, seem to say, "Man, have -compassion upon us!" - -Except during a particular season of the year, when through the -operation of the laws of nature it is in a half-intoxicated, -half-stupefied condition, the camel has always a striking impression -of seriousness. It is impossible not to recognise in its features -the Chaldee-aramæan type, and in whatever portions of the earth he -may be found at the present day, his original home is unquestionably -Mesopotamia and the Arabian desert. The Turkomans disturb this -serious expression of countenance by the barbarous manner in which -they arrange the leading-rope through the bored nose. With the -string hanging down to the chest, the camel resembles an European -dandy armed with his lorgnon. Both of them hold their heads high in -the air, and both are alike led by the nose. - -As the word of command to encamp is enlivening and acceptable, so -grievous, so disturbing, is the signal for getting ready to start. -The _Kervan bashi_ is the first to rouse himself. At his call -or sign all prepare for the journey. Even the poor camels in the -pastures understand it, and often hasten without being driven to -the caravan; nay, what is more extraordinary, they place themselves -close to the bales of merchandize with which they were before -laden, or the persons who were mounted on them. In a quarter of an -hour everybody has found his place in the line of march. At the -halting-place there remains nothing but a few bones, gnawed clean, -and the charred traces of the improvised hearths. These marks of -human life in the desert often disappear as quickly as they were -produced; sometimes, however, they are preserved through climatic -accidents for a long time; and succeeding travellers are cheered by -falling in with these abandoned fireplaces. The black charred spot -seems to their eyes like a splendid _caravanserai_, and the thought -that here human beings have been, that here life once was active, -makes even the vast solitude of the desert more like home. - -Speaking of these spots where a fire has been kindled, I am reminded -of those vast burnt plains, often many days' march in extent, which -I met with in the desert between Persia and Khiva, and of which I -heard so many wonderful tales from the mouths of the nomads. During -the hot season of the year, when the scorching sun has dried shrubs -and grass till they have become like tinder, it often happens that -a spark, carelessly dropped, and fanned by the wind, will set the -steppe on fire. The flame, finding ever fresh fuel, spreads with -such fearful rapidity that a man on horseback can with difficulty -escape. It rolls over the scanty herbage like an overflowing stream, -and, when it meets with thicket and shrubs, it flares up with wild -wrath. Thus traversing large tracts of country in a short time, its -raging course can only be checked by a river or a lake. At night -such conflagrations must present a terrible appearance, when far and -wide the horizon is lit up with a sea of flame. Even the bravest -heart loses its courage at the appalling sight. The cowardly and -hesitating are soon destroyed, but one who has sufficient presence -of mind can save himself, if, while the flames are yet a great way -off, he kindle the grass in his neighbourhood. He thus lays waste a -space in which the approaching fire can find no sustenance, and in -this he himself takes refuge. Thus only with fire can man contend -against fire with success. - -This weapon is often used by one tribe against another, and the -desolation thus caused is terrible. It is often used by a runaway -couple to secure themselves against pursuit. As long as no wind -blows they can easily fly before the slowly-advancing fire; but -it often happens that the flames are hurried forward by the least -breath of wind, and the fugitives find a united death in the very -means they had taken to secure their safety. - -It is remarkable that the imposing aspects and most frequent natural -phenomena of the desert do not fail to impress even the nomads -who habitually witness them. As we were crossing the high plateau -of Kaflan Kir, which forms part of Ustyort, running towards the -north-east, the horizon was often adorned with the most beautiful -Fata Morgana. This phenomenon is undoubtedly to be seen in the -greatest perfection in the hot, but dry, atmosphere of the deserts -of Central Asia, and affords the most splendid optical illusions -which one can imagine. I was always enchanted with these pictures of -cities, towers, and castles dancing in the air, of vast caravans, -horsemen engaged in combat, and individual gigantic forms which -continually disappeared from one place to reappear in another. As -for my nomad companions, they regarded the neighbourhoods where -these phenomena are observed with no little awe. According to their -opinion these are ghosts of men and cities which formerly existed -there, and now at certain times roll about in the air. Nay, our -_Kervan bashi_ asserted that he also saw the same figures in the -same places, and that we ourselves, if we should be lost in the -desert, would after a term of years begin to hop about and dance in -the air over the spot where we had perished. - -These legends, which are continually to be heard among the nomads, -and relate to a supposed lost civilization in the desert, are not -far removed from the new European theory, which maintains that such -tracts of country have sunk into their present desolation, not -so much through the operation of natural laws as through changes -in their social state. As examples are cited the great Sahara of -Africa and the desert of central Arabia, where cultivable land is -not so much wanting as industrious hands. As regards these last -countries, the assertion is probably not without some truth, but -it certainly cannot be extended to the deserts of Central Asia. On -certain spots, as Mero, Mangishlak, Ghergen, and Otrar, there was -in the last century more cultivation than at present; but, taken as -the whole, these Asiatic steppes were always, as far back as the -memory of man goes, howling wildernesses. The vast tracts which -stretch for many days' journeys without one drop of drinkable water, -the expanses--many hundred miles in extent--of deep loose sand, the -extreme violence of the climate, and such like obstacles, defy even -modern art and science to cope with them. "God," said a central -Asiatic to me, "created Turkestan and its inhabitants in his wrath; -for as long as the bitter, saline taste of their springs exist, so -long will the hearts of the Turkomans be full of anger and malice." - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE TENT AND ITS INHABITANTS. - - -An able critic of my "Travels in Central Asia" wrote--"Mr. Vambéry -wandered because he has the wild spirit of dervishism strong within -him." On first reading this it struck me as a little too strong, -and I shall ever protest against such attribution of the title of -vagabond, however refined may be the terms in which it is couched. -Still I must candidly confess that the tent, the snail shell of -the nomad, if I may be allowed so to call it, has left on my -memory an ineffaceable impression. It certainly is a very curious -feeling which comes over one when he compares the light tent with -such seas of stone buildings as make up our European cities. The -vice of dervishism is, to be sure, contagious, but happily not for -everybody, so that there is no danger in accompanying me for a -little while to Central Asia, and glancing at the contrast there -presented to our fixed, stable mode of life. - -It is almost noonday. A Kirghiz family, which has packed house and -household furniture on the backs of a few camels, moves slowly over -the desert towards a spot indicated to them by the raised lance of -a distant horseman. The caravan rests, according to nomad notions -of rest, while thus on the march, to become lively and busy when -they settle themselves down to repose according to our ideas. -Nevertheless, the elder women seated on the bunches of camels (for -the younger ones travel on foot), grudge themselves repose even -then, and occupy their time in spinning a sort of yarn for sacks out -of the coarser camels' hair. Only the marriageable daughter of the -family enjoys the privilege of being completely at leisure on her -shambling beast. She is polishing her necklace of coins, Russian, -Ancient Bactrian, Mongolian, or Chinese, which hangs down to her -waist. So engrossed is she in her employment, that an European -numismatist might take her for a fellow connoisseur; nevertheless -not a movement of the young Kirghizes, who seek to distinguish -themselves by all manner of equestrian gymnastics, as they caracole -around the caravan, escapes her notice. - -At last the spot fixed on by the guide is reached. An inhabitant of -cities might imagine that now the greatest confusion would arise. -But no--everybody has his appointed office, everybody knows what he -has to do, everything has its fixed place. While the pater-familias -unsaddles his cooled horse and lets him loose on the pasture, the -younger lads collect, with frightful clamour, the sheep and the -camels, which are only too disposed to wander. They must stay to -be milked. Meanwhile the tent has been taken down. The old matron -seizes on the latticed framework and fixes it in its place, -spitting wildly right and left as she does so. Another makes fast -the bent rods which form the vaulting of the roof. A third sets on -the top of all a sort of round cover or lid, which serves the double -purpose of chimney and window. While they are covering the woodwork -with curtains of felt, the children inside have already hung up the -provision-sacks, and placed the enormous tripod on the crackling -fire. This is all done in a few moments. Magical is the erection, -and as magical is the disappearance of the nomad's habitation. -Still, however, the noise of the sheep and camels, of screaming -women and crying children, resounds about the tent. They form, -indeed, a strange chorus in the midst of the noonday silence of the -desert. Milking-time, the daily harvest of these pastoral tribes -is, however, the busiest time in the twenty-four hours. Especial -trouble is given by the greedy children, whose swollen bellies are -the result and evidence of an unlimited appetite for milk. The poor -women have much to suffer from the vicious or impatient disposition -of the beasts; but, although the men are standing by, the smallest -help is rigorously refused, as it would be held the greatest -disgrace for a man to take any part in work appointed to women. - -Once, when I had, in Ettrek, obtained by begging a small sack of -wheat, and was about to grind it in a handmill, the Turkomans around -me burst out into shouts of laughter. Shocked and surprised, I -asked the reason of their scornful mirth, when one approached me -in a friendly manner and said: "It is a shame for you to take in -hand woman's work. But Mollahs and Hadjis are of course deficient -in secular _savoir faire_, and one pardons them a great many such -mistakes." - -After the supply of milk has been collected, and all the bags of -skins (for vessels of wood or of earthenware are purely articles -of luxury) have been filled, the cattle, small and great, disperse -themselves over the wide plain. The noise gradually dies away. -The nomad retires into his tent, raises the lower end of the felt -curtain, and while the west wind, rustling through the fretted -wood-work, lulls him to sleep, the women outside set to work on a -half-finished piece of felt. It is certainly an interesting sight -to see how six, often more, of the daughters of the desert, in -rank and file, roll out under their firm footsteps the felt which -is wrapped up between two rush mats. An elderly lady leads this -industrial dance and gives the time. It is she who can always tell -in what place the stuff will be loose or uneven. The preparation of -the felt, without question the simplest fabric which the mind of -man has invented, is still in the same stage among these wandering -tribes as when first discovered. The most common colour is grey. -Particoloured felt is an article of luxury, and snowy white is only -used on the most solemn occasions. Carpets are only to be found -among the richer tribes, such as the Turkomans and the OEzbegs, as -they require more skill in their manufacture and a closer contact -with more advanced civilization. The inwoven patterns are for the -most part taken from European pocket-handkerchiefs and chintzes; -and I was always surprised at the skill with which the women copied -them, or, what is still more surprising, imitated them from memory -after having once seen them. - -While the poor women are fatiguing themselves with their laborious -occupation, their lord and master is accustomed to snore through his -noonday siesta. Soon the cattle return from their pasture ground and -collect around the tent. Scarcely does the afternoon begin to grow -cooler, than the migrating house is in a trice broken up, everything -replaced on the backs of the camels, and the whole party in full -march. This is already the second day of their journey, and yet -all, men and beasts, are as lively as if they had dwelt for years -on the spot, and, at length released from the talons of ennui, were -delighted at the prospects of a change. - -Long after sunset, while the endless waste of the desert is -gradually being over-canopied by the clear starry heaven, the -caravan still plods steadily, in order to rest during the colder -hours of the night under the shelter of their warm felts. Quickly -is their colossal _batterie de cuisine_ placed on the fire; still -more quickly is it emptied. No European can have any idea of the -voracious appetite of a nomad. - -The caravan has been scarcely an hour encamped before everybody has -supped and retired to rest; the older members of the family within -the tent, the younger ones in the open air, their flocks around -them. Only where a marriageable maiden lives is there any movement -to be found. Among the nomad tribes of Central Asia, Islamism has -not succeeded in carrying into effect its rigorous restrictions on -the social intercourse of the sexes. The harem is here entirely -unknown. The young nomad always knows by what star to direct his -course in order to find the tent of his adored on the trackless -desert. His appearance is seldom unexpected. The nomad young lady -has already divined from what quarter the hoof-tramp will sound -through the nightly stillness, and has already taken up an advanced -post in that direction. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the -conversation of the two children of the desert, in this their tender -rendezvous, is not quite in unison with our ideas of æsthetical -propriety; but poetry is to be found everywhere, nay, I might say, -is more at home in the desert than in these western countries. -Sometimes a whole company of loving couples come together, and on -such occasions the dialogue, which must be in rhyme and adorned with -the richest flowers of Tartar metaphor, seems as if it would never -come to an end. I was at first enchanted with listening to such -conversation; but how irritated I was when I had to pass the night -in the same tent with such amorous society, and in spite of all the -fatigue of the day could not find quiet slumbers to refresh me! - -The above is but a faint picture of the life of the nomads during -the more agreeable portion of the year. In winter, especially in the -more elevated regions, where severe cold prevails, this wandering -life loses everything which can give it the least tinge of poetry -in our eyes. Even the inhabitants of the cities of Central Asia -marvel that the nomads can support life in the bleak open country, -amid fearful storms and long weeks of snow. Indeed, with a cold of -30° Réaumur, it cannot be very pleasant to live in a tent; still -even this occasions no serious inconvenience to the hardy child of -Nature. Himself wrapped up in a double suit of clothes, he doubles -the felt hangings of his tent, which is pitched in a valley or some -other sheltered spot. Besides this the number of its inhabitants is -increased, and when the _saksaul_ (the root of a tree hard as stone -and covered with knobs) begins to give out its heat, which lasts for -hours, the want of a settled home is quite forgotten. The family -circle is drawn closer round the hearth. The daughter of the house -must continually hand round the skin of _kimis_. This favourite -beverage opens the heart and looses the tongue. When, furthermore, -a _bakhshi_ (troubadour) is present to enliven the winter evenings -with his lays, then even the howling of the tempest without serves -as music. - -When no extraordinary natural accidents, such as sand-storms or -snow-storms, break in upon his regular course of life, the nomad is -happy; indeed, I may say, as happy as any civilization in the world -could make him. As the nations of Central Asia have but very few -wants, poverty is rare among them, and where it occurs, is by no -means so depressing as with us. The lives of the inhabitants of the -desert would glide peacefully away, were it not for the tendency to -indulge in feuds and forays--a leading feature in their character. -War, everywhere a curse, there draws after it the most terrible -consequences which can be conceived. Without the smallest pretext -for such violence, a tribe which feels itself stronger often falls -upon the weaker ones. All who are able to bear arms conquer or die; -the women, children, and herds of the fallen are divided as booty -among their conquerors. Often does it happen that a family, which -in the evening lay down to rest in all the blessedness of security, -find themselves in the morning despoiled of parents, of freedom, and -of property, and dragged into captivity far apart from one another! - -Among the Turkomans near Khiva I saw many Kirghiz prisoners, who had -formerly belonged to well-to-do families. The unfortunate creatures, -who had been but a short time before rich and independent, and -cherished by parents, accommodated themselves to the change of their -fortunes as to some ordinary dispensation of nature. With what -honesty and diligence did they attach themselves to their masters' -interests! How they loved and caressed their masters' children! Yet -these same masters were they who had robbed them of their whole -property, murdered their father, and branded them for ever with the -opprobrious title of "Kul" (slave.) - -Buddhism, Christianity, Mohammedanism, have one after the other -attempted to force their way into the steppes of upper Asia. The -first and the last have succeeded to some extent in making good -their footing, but the nomads have, nevertheless, remained the -same as they were at the time of the conquests of the Arabs, or -of the campaigns of Alexander--the same as they were described by -Herodotus. I shall never forget the conversations about the state -of the world which I had with elderly Turkomans and Kirghizes. It -is true that one can picture to oneself beforehand a specimen of -ancient simplicity, but that is still something quite different -from seeing before you one of these still standing columns of a -civilization several millenniums old. - -The Central Asiatic still speaks of Rome (Rum, modern Turkey) as -he spoke in the days of the Cæsars; and when one listens to a -grey-beard as he depicts the might and the greatness of this land, -one might imagine that the invincible legions had only yesterday -combated the Parthians and that he was present as an auxiliary. -That his Rum (Turkey) is a state of but miserable proportions in -comparison with old Rome, is what he cannot believe. He has learned -to associate with that name glory and power. At the most, China may -be sometimes compared to Rome for might and resources; although the -legends that are told of this latter empire dwell rather on the -arts and the beauty than on the valour of the Chinese people. Russia -is regarded as the quintessence of all fraud and cunning, by which -means alone she has of late years contrived to effect her conquests. -As for England, it is well known that the late emir of Bokhara, on -the first occasion in which he came into contact with the British, -was quite indignant "that the Ingiliz, whose name had only risen to -notice within a few years, should dare to call themselves _Dowlet_ -(government) when addressing him." - -Extremely surprising to the stranger is the hospitality which is -to be found among the nomads of Central Asia. It is more abounding -than perhaps in any other portion of the east. Amongst the Turks, -Persians, and Arabs, there still linger faint memories of this -old duty, but our European tourists have had, I believe, ample -opportunity of satisfying themselves that all the washing of feet, -slaughter of sheep, and other good offices, are often only performed -in the hope of a rich _Bakhshish_, or _Pishkesh_, (as they say -in Persian.) It is true that the _Koran_ says, "Honour a guest, -even though he be an infidel;" but this doing honour is generally -the echo of orders issued from some consulate or embassy. Quite -otherwise in Central Asia. There hospitality is, I may say, almost -instinctive; for a nomad may be cruel, fierce, perfidious, but never -inhospitable. - -One of my fellow-beggars went, during my sojourn among the -Turkomans, on a round of begging visits, having first dressed -himself in his worst suit of rags. Having wandered about the -whole day he came at evening to a lonely tent, for the purpose of -lodging there for the night. On entering he was saluted in the -customary friendly manner; nevertheless he soon observed that the -master of the poverty-stricken establishment seemed to be in great -embarrassment, and moved hither and thither as if looking for -something. The beggar began to feel very uncomfortable when at last -his host approached him, and, deeply blushing, begged him to lend -him a few _krans_, in order that he might be able to provide the -necessary supper, inasmuch as he himself had nothing but dried fish, -and he wished to set something better before his guest. Of course -it was impossible to refuse such a request. My comrade opened the -purse which he carried under his rags, and when he had given his -host five _krans_, everything seemed to be satisfactorily arranged. -The meal was eaten amidst the most friendly conversation, and when -it was ended, the softest felt carpet was assigned to the stranger -as his couch, and in the morning he was dismissed with the customary -honours. - -"I was scarcely gone half an hour from the tent," so my friend -related his adventure subsequently to me, "when a Turkoman came -running towards me, and with violent threats demanded my purse. How -great was my astonishment when I recognised in the person of the -robber no other than my host of the previous night! I thought he -was joking, and began to address him in a friendly manner; but he -grew only more and more serious. So, in order to avoid unpleasant -consequences, there remained nothing for me but to hand over my -purse, a few leaves of tea, my comb, and my knife, in one word, -my whole property. Having so done, I was about to proceed on my -way, when he held me back, and opening my--that is to say now -his--purse, and taking out five _krans_, gave them to me with these -words:--'Take my debt of yesterday evening. We are now quits, and -you can go on your way.'" - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE COURT OF KHIVA. - - -The courts of oriental princes have been frequently and variously -described. Beginning with the shore of the Bosphorus, where Dolma -Bagtsche, Beshiktash and Serayburun furnish the first pictures in -the panorama, and ranging as far as the palaces of Pekin and Yedo, -we have read again and again of the love for ostentation and empty -splendour, the glitter of gold and diamonds of oriental life. But -to complete the series, a few sketches of life at the court of -Turkestan sovereigns are wanting, and the description of such may -not, therefore, be deemed superfluous. - -My readers must not expect either to be dazzled, or to have their -amazement and admiration excited, and yet it will repay the trouble -to accompany me through the tortuous streets of Khiva and the bazaar -with its vaulted roof to the Ark (the Royal Castle.) Like all the -residences of sovereigns in Central Asia, this castle is strangely -fortified and surrounded by a double wall. Through a narrow gate -we enter into the first court, which is crowded with the royal -body-guard and other soldiers and servants. Near the entrance two -cannons are planted, brought thither by the mighty Nadir, and -left behind on his hasty retreat. They are decorated with pretty -symmetrical ornaments, and seem to have been made at Delhi. After -having passed the second gate, we enter a more spacious court, with -a mean looking building on one side, not unlike an open coach-house; -it is here that the high officials pass the hours of office, the -Mehter (Minister of the Interior) presiding. To the left of this -building is a kind of guard-house, in which divers servants, -policemen and executioners live during the day time, awaiting the -commands of their royal master. A small gate leads between these two -buildings, to the residence of His Majesty of Khiva. On the outside -it resembles a poor mud-hut, like all the other houses in the town, -and is of course without windows, nor is any particular luxury to -be met with inside, except several large and valuable carpets, a -few sofas and round cushions, together with a considerable number -of chests--the entire furniture of this place--which serve in -some degree to remind us of the princely rank of the master. The -number of apartments is very small, and as every where the case, is -divided into the Harem, (the rooms set apart for the women,) and the -Selamdjay, (the reception hall.) - -Nowhere are any signs of splendour perceptible; the large train of -followers alone mark the distinction, the lacqueys are the sole -insignia of the ruler. Let us pass them in review before us. At the -head of the household is the Desturkhandji, (literally, the man who -spreads the table cloth,) whose peculiar office is to superintend -the royal table. He is present during dinner, clothed in full armour -and state dress, and on him devolves the inspection and control -of the entire number of servants. Next to him follows the Mehrem, -a kind of valet de chambre _in officio_, but in reality rather a -privy councillor, who shares in the business of the state besides -his immediate domestic affairs, and, conjointly with the former, -exercises the most powerful influence upon his royal master. Then -follows the rest of the servants, of whom each has his distinct -office. The Ashpez, or cook, prepares the food, whilst the Ashmehter -serves it. The Sherbetshi prepares tea, sherbet, and other drinks, -but he is expected to be skilled besides in the decoction of -wonder-working elixirs. The Payeke is entrusted with the tchilim -(pipe,) which at court is made of gold or silver, and must be -replenished with fresh water every time it is filled with tobacco. -This office does not exist in any other court in Central Asia, -tobacco being strictly forbidden by law. His Tartar Majesty has no -dressing room, it is true, but, nevertheless, several servants are -appointed to assist at the toilet. Whilst the Shilaptshi kneeling -holds the wash-hand basin, the Kumgandshi (the man who holds the -can or jug) pours the water from a silver or golden vessel, and -the Rumaldshi is ready, as soon as the two former have withdrawn, -to throw the towel to the prince, holding it with the tips of -his fingers. The Khan has an especial Sertarash (who shaves the -head,) who is expected to have nimble fingers and at the same time -a skilful hand for squeezing the skull, a favourite operation -throughout the east. Then the prince possesses a Ternaktshi, or nail -cutter, a Khadimdshi, whose duty it is to knead and pummel his back, -also to kneel upon him and make his limbs crack, whenever the Khan, -after long fatigue, wishes to refresh himself. Lastly, there is a -Töshektshi, or bed maker, whose office it is to spread out at night -the soft pieces of felt or the mattresses. The magnificent harness, -saddles and weapons are in charge of the Khaznadshi (treasurer,) -who, whenever the sovereign rides out in public, walks beside him. -The Djigadj, or keeper of the plumes, walks at the head of the train -of servants. - -In dress and food, the prince's household is little distinguished -from that of rich merchants or officials of rank. The king wears -the same heavy cap of sheep-skin, the same clumsy boots, stuffed -out with several yards of linen rags, the same thickly-wadded coats -of print or silk as his subjects, and, like them, endures in this -Siberian costume, under the oppressive heat of July, a state of -fearful perspiration. On the whole, the position of the Prince of -Kharezm is one little to be envied, nay, I feel inclined to say, -it is far more wretched than that of other Eastern princes. In a -country, where pillage and murder, anarchy and lawlessness, are -the rule, and not the exception, a sovereign has to maintain his -authority by inspiring his subjects with the utmost dread and -almost superstitious terror for his person; never with affection. -Even those nearest to him fear him for his unlimited power; and wife -and children, as well as relations, not unfrequently attempt his -life. At the same time, the sovereign is expected to be the model -of Islamitic virtue and OEzbeg manners and customs; every most -trifling, insignificant error of his Majesty, becomes the talk of -the town; and although nobody would venture to blame him for very -considerable offences, yet in the former case it is the influential -Mollahs who would feel affronted,--a result entirely opposed to the -interests of the sovereign. - -The Khan, like every orthodox Mussulman, is obliged to leave his -bed before sun-rise, and to be present at the morning prayer in -full assembly. It lasts rather more than half an hour, after which -he partakes of several dishes of tea, seasoned with fat and salt. -Not unfrequently some of the learned Mollahs are invited, in order -to enliven the breakfast, by explaining some sacred precept or -arguing upon some religious question, of which his highness rarely -of course understands anything. Profound discussions generally -invite sleep, and no sooner does his Majesty begin to snore aloud, -when the learned men take it as a signal to withdraw. This sleep -is called the morning doze, and lasts from two to three hours. -When it is over, the selam (reception) of the ministers and other -high dignitaries commences, and the Khan enters in full earnest -upon his duties as sovereign. Consultations are held as to the -maurauding expeditions to be undertaken, politics are discussed -in reference to the neighbouring state of Bokhara, the Yomut- -and Tchaudor-Turkomans, the Kasaks, and at present probably the -Russians, who are pushing their advances nearer and nearer;--or -the governors of the provinces and the tax-gatherers, who had been -sent out over the country, have to submit to the Khan and his -ministers their several accounts. Every farthing has to be paid over -with the most scrupulous accuracy, and woe to that man in whose -account the smallest error is detected; it may happen that he is -dismissed, leaving his head behind. And now, after having transacted -for several hours the ordinary business of the state, breakfast -is served, consisting for the greater part of rather light food, -that is to say, "light" for an OEzbeg digestion--the déjeuner à -la fourchette of his Majesty of Khiva sufficing in all probability -for several of our active working men at home. During this meal all -present have to stand round respectfully and look on, and after -having finished, he invites one or the other of his favourites -to sit down and play with him at chess,--an amusement which is -continued until the time for mid-day prayer. This lasts about an -hour. When it is over, his Majesty proceeds to the outer court, and -taking his seat on a kind of terrace, the arz (public audience) -takes place, to which every rank, every class is admitted,--men, -women, and children, either in the greatest négligé or even half -naked. All crowd round the entrance, where amidst noise and -shouting they wait for audience. Each in turn is admitted, but only -one person at a time, who is allowed to approach quite close to his -sovereign; to speak out freely and without reserve, to make entreaty -or complaint, nay, to engage even in the most violent altercation -with the Khan, the smallest sign from whom would suffice to deliver -his subject, without any reason whatever, into the hands of the -executioner. Thus the East is, and ever was from times immemorial, -the land of the most striking contradictions. The inexperienced may -interpret this as love of strict justice. I, however, see in it -nothing but a whimsical habit of demeanour, permitting one person -to defy the royal authority in the coarsest terms of speech, while -another forfeits his life for the smallest offence against the rules -of propriety. - -At the arz not only all great and important lawsuits are settled, -and sentences of death pronounced and executed; but even trifling -differences are not unfrequently adjusted, as for instance, a -quarrel between a husband and wife, or between one man and his -neighbour on account of some few pence or the stealing of a hen. No -complainant whatever can be refused a hearing; and although the Khan -may send him to the Kadi, yet he must first listen to whatever he -has to say. The afternoon prayer alone puts an end to this wearisome -occupation. Later in the day the prince takes his customary ride on -horseback outside the town, and usually returns just before sunset. -Evening prayers again are said in full assembly, and these ended, -the prince retires to take his supper. The servants, and all those -who do not live in the palace, withdraw, and the king remains alone -with his confidants. Supper is a luxurious meal, and lasts longer -than any other. Spirituous drinks are seldom taken by the sovereigns -of Khiva and Bokhara, although the other members of the royal family -and the grandees frequently transgress on this point, and indulge -in the practice to excess. After the supper, singers and musicians -make their appearance, or jugglers, with their various performances. -Singing is very popular in Khiva, and the native singers of this -place are the most renowned in Turkestan, and indeed throughout the -whole Mahomedan East of Asia. The instrument upon which they excel -is called girdshek, and bears a general resemblance to our violin. -It has a longer neck and three strings, one of wire and two of silk; -the bow, too, is like our bow. Then there are the tambur and dutara, -on which instruments the Bakhshi plays the accompaniment to his -songs, improvised in praise of some popular hero of the day; whereas -at the royal court they select for the most part ghaseles from Nevai -and the Persian poets. The young princes are instructed in music, -and it often happens that the Khan invites them to perform either -alone or with the troubadours at court. Particular merriment and -good humour, such as presides at the drinking-bouts at Teheran, or -at the banquets in the palaces on the Bosphorus, is not to be met -with at the court of OEzbeg princes; it is unknown here, or at -least such is not the custom. The national character of the Tartar -is chiefly marked by seriousness and firmness; to dance, jump, or -show high spirits, is in his eyes only worthy of women or children. -I have never seen an OEzbeg person of good manners indulge in -immoderate laughter. - -About two hours after sunset the Khan retires to the harem, or to -his sleeping apartment, and with it his daily labours as sovereign -are ended. The harem is here very different from those of the -Turkish or Persian court. The number of women is limited, the -fairy-like luxuriousness of life in a harem is entirely wanting, -strict chastity and modesty pervade it; and in this respect the -court of Khiva is eminently superior to all Eastern courts. The -present Khan has only two lawful wives, although the Koran allows -four. These are always chosen from among the royal family; and it -is an extremely rare thing for the daughter of a dignitary, who -does not belong to the family, to be raised to this rank. The Khan, -although possessing the same unlimited power over his wife as over -any of his subjects, treats her without severity, and on the whole -with tenderness, unless she be found guilty of any particular -offence. She possesses no titles or prerogatives whatever; her court -is distinguished in nothing from the other harems, but that she has -more female servants and slaves about her; the former consisting of -the wives or daughters of officials, the latter for the most part -of Persian and a few dark Arab women. The daughters of Iran are -far inferior to the OEzbeg women in personal beauty, and their -mistress has no cause to fear from either of them any rivalry. As -regards their intercourse with the outer world, the princesses -of Khiva are far more restricted than the wives of other Eastern -potentates. The rules of modesty require that they should pass the -greater part of the day in the harem, where comparatively little -time is lavished upon the embellishments of the toilet. And in fact, -the ladies of the harem have very little leisure for idleness, since -in accordance with the custom of the country it is desirable that -the greater part of the clothes, carpets, and other stuffs, for the -use of the prince, should be prepared by the hand of his wife. This -custom reminds one strongly of the patriarchal mode of life of which -Turkestan, in spite of its roughness, has preserved many remnants of -simple refinement. - -The princess of Khiva is permitted occasionally to visit the -neighbouring royal summer palaces and chateaux, never on horseback, -as is the general custom in Persia, but in a large carriage, painted -with gaudy colours, and completely covered and shut in with red -carpets and shawls. Before and behind the vehicle trot a couple -of horsemen, furnished with white staves. On her progress all -rise respectfully from their seats and salute her with a profound -bow. Nobody thinks of daring to cast a look of curiosity into the -interior of the carriage; not only would this be useless, so closely -is it covered, but such temerity would have to be atoned for by -death, whether the object be the wife of the sovereign or any -subordinate official. Whenever the Queen of Persia takes a ride on -horseback, the numerous ferrash (servants) who head the cavalcade -cut right and left with their sabres at the crowd, who disperse in -terror and confusion, in spite of their eager curiosity. Such a -proceeding, however, is not necessary with the grave OEzbegs; for -here life in the harem is not regulated with the same severity, and -it is well known that the less strictly its laws are administered, -the less frequently they are transgressed. - -During the summer the royal family inhabit the castles of Rafenek -and Tashhauz, near Khiva. Both were erected in the Persian style -by former princes, and are distinguished by possessing some -window-panes and small looking-glasses--the latter, especially, -being considered articles of great luxury in the eyes of the people -of Khiva. Tashhauz has not been built without taste. The chateau -stands in a large garden; it has several reservoirs, and resembles -the castle of Nigaristan, near the town gate, Shimran at Teheran. -The winter is spent in the town, but when here his OEzbeg highness -occupies a light tent which is pitched inside the walls; and -herein he shows no bad taste, for the round-shaped dwelling, made -of snow-white felt, with a cheerful fire burning brightly in the -middle, is not only quite as warm as any building of stone, but -there is something pleasant about it, and it makes a far less gloomy -impression than the windowless mud-huts of Turkestan. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -JOY AND SORROW. - - -Joy and sorrow are undoubtedly the mirror, in which not only is -the character of a people clearly reflected, but which likewise -offers the most faithful image of their manners and customs. In joy -and sorrow every sign of dissimulation vanishes, man shows himself -in his true colours, and the lights and shades of his temperament -become at once apparent; for, in any matter of real feeling, it is -vain to try to speak and act differently to the dictates of this -potent voice within us. And nowhere is a better opportunity offered -for studying the various features of joy and sorrow, than at a -birth, marriage, and death,--those three stages in the great family -of mankind. The main outlines are no doubt everywhere the same, but -in the colouring and composition a variety is produced, not found -even among civilized nations. Ethnography has frequently thrown -light on this subject in different parts of the world; but we must -confess that Central Asia in this respect is wrapt in considerable -obscurity. To attempt to dispel this darkness may therefore not be -deemed superfluous; and, the savage Polynesian and Central African -having resisted vainly the spirit of inquiry, we will in like manner -raise the veil from the rude and suspicious OEzbeg. It is a first -attempt, and consequently a feeble one. - - -1. BIRTH. - -As soon as a woman in Central Asia (I refer to a settled family), -about to become a mother, feels the first pangs of childbirth, she -sends for her neighbour, her nearest relations, a midwife, and a -nurse for the child. A new felt or carpet is spread out in the tent -or room, and upon this the woman is placed, with her legs doubled -under her. As the pains increase, her nearest relations squat round -her; and she, flinging both her arms round the neck of two of her -most intimate friends, the midwife seizes her by the thighs, and -moves her about, until she has been delivered of the child. She is -now placed upon a bed, the relations taking the mother under their -care, and the midwife having charge of the child. The former is -restored to strength by friction on the temples and pulse, whilst -the midwife sets about cutting out swaddling-clothes from a new -piece of linen, in which she wraps the infant, strictly observing -the various superstitious customs. Then taking the remainder of -the linen to the mother, she informs her of the sex and appearance -of her child; she also is the bearer of the happy tidings to the -father, from whom she receives a present on this occasion. In -fact, the kindik kesen (swaddling-clothes maker) plays a very -important part in the whole affair. For three days the child is -invisible to every one, during which time it is frequently smeared -over with butter, and, to prevent any redness in them, which is -considered extremely objectionable, the eyes are washed with salt -water. It is then clothed in a little shirt, and finally it is -laid upon a pillow of camel's hair, and exhibited. Now all the -friends and acquaintances pay their visits, and the husband offers -a present to his wife, who is anxious to hear from her guests their -prognostications as to the future of her child, which experienced -matrons draw from the limbs and movements of its little body. Thus -for instance, it is a bad sign, if it has entered the world with -the left foot or hand first; a small apple of the eye augurs that -her offspring will be a thief; a broad forehead denotes valour; a -restless kicking of the feet future wealth, and so forth. Every -one scrutinizes the infant with insignificant gestures; and well -might the fear of the evil eye make the mother uneasy, but that she -herself has tied the white magic-stone on the left arm of her child. - -After the chille (forty days) have elapsed, festivities begin. -In the case of a girl, not much is done; but if the child be a -boy, even the poorest make every effort to gather round them a -considerable number of guests, and to feast them as sumptuously as -possible. Grand banquets, horse-racing, wrestling and music, are the -order of the day; and finally, a special celebration in honour of -the birth, the so-called Altin Kabak, takes place, which consists -in hanging up a golden or silver ball on the top of a high tree, -and whosoever brings it down at the first shot, with either ball or -arrow, gains this prize, together with a certain number of sheep, -and often even camels and horses. - -During the first year the greatest care is taken to guard the -child against cats, evil spirits, and other dangerous influences, -after which time the above-mentioned white stone is replaced by a -round-shaped bone, and on his little cap are hung the argushtek (a -piece of wood, carved and dyed mysteriously), a nusha (amulet), -which must be written by the hand of some learned man, several -corals, the tooth of an hyæna, and, if circumstances permit, a small -bag with holy earth from the grave of Mohamed. All these things, -together, often make up a considerable weight, which presses very -heavily on the head of the poor little creature; but this is not -taken into consideration. On the contrary; the mother examines with -jealous care to see that not a single thing be found wanting, each -being looked upon as a certain means of protection against so many -dangers. - -In Central Asia, as throughout the whole East, children are allowed -but a very few years to devote merely to play. Girls are early -taught to spin, weave, sew, to make cheese, &c.; and boys are put on -horseback, and learn to ride as early as their fifth year, and are -employed as horsemen in sham fights, and as jockeys in horse races -in, and even before, their tenth year. It is only the more wealthy -parents who give their children in charge of a Mollah. When they -have learned to read, the Korantoy, or the festival of the Koran, -is celebrated, which is of the same nature as the Chatemdüyünü of -the Osmanlis, with this difference: that the latter takes place when -the lad has, for the first time, read through the sacred book of -Mohamed, and here, when he begins reading. - - -2. MARRIAGE. - -Although childhood is of short duration among the OEzbegs, yet a -youth does not receive the name of yighid (a mature youth) until -his eighteenth year, nor the girl that of kïz (virgin) before she -is sixteen years old. In the country the intercourse between the -two sexes is not in the least degree influenced by the Koran. Here, -as in Western countries, we see the "rosy play of love" represented -with all its joys and sorrows, all its fascination and enthusiasm. -At first I felt amazed that the tenderest of feelings should find -room in the heart of a man in Central Asia, accustomed as he is -from his earliest youth to robbery and murder, and hardened to the -tears of widows, orphans and slaves. But I had the opportunity of -convincing myself, that love is here more frequently the cause of -the most extraordinary adventures than in other Mahomedan countries. -The OEzbeg is passionately devoted to music and poetry, and hence -it is but natural that his heart should be susceptible to the -emotions of love. - -When two young people have formed a mutual attachment the secret -is entrusted to their parents, and if these make no objections, -the young man opens the transaction by despatching two female -ambassadors, Soutchi Khatin, to ask them formally for the hand of -their daughter. The parents, for the most part, have been previously -informed of the demand, and receiving the embassy with honour and -distinction, they express their satisfaction at the offer, but -refrain from giving any decisive answer. To pronounce a regular -straightforward "yes," is contrary to the rules of propriety, and -the young man has to interpret, from trivial allusions, whether his -suit will be granted or not. The next thing is to talk over the -kalim (marriage portion) which the man is ready or able to give -for his future wife. The question is always, how many times nine, -i.e., how many times nine sheep, cows, camels or horses, or how -many times nine ducats, as is the custom in a town, the father is -to receive for giving up his daughter. The less wealthy give twice -nine, the wealthier six times nine, and the Khan alone has to pay -nine times nine, for the purchase of his bride. The kalim having -been settled, the next question to be considered is one of great -importance, the eginbash (present in ornaments) to be presented by -the future husband. It consists of eight rings, yüzük, a semi-tiara -(sheghendjin), a tiara (shekergül), a bracelet (bilezik), ear-rings -(isirga), nose-rings (arabek), and ornaments for the neck (öngülük). -This whole set of ornaments must be presented complete, and not a -single article wanting; it is also previously settled, whether it is -to consist of gold or silver. No doubt a man in Central Asia has to -pay dearly for his wife. The negotiations are generally a protracted -business; and finally, when every thing is definitely settled, -neighbours and relations are invited to the fatiha toy (feast of -promise), which is celebrated for two days in the home of the future -bride, and two more in that of the future husband. The Mollah, or -some grey-beard, announces the new arrangement to the guests. He -tells them the exact purchase-price for the girl, and when the -wedding is to take place, and concludes his short address with a -fatiha, after which the festivities begin and are continued for four -days. In entertainments of this kind, called toy, all the guests are -assembled in one and the same apartment, but form different groups. -The upper part of the room is occupied by the elderly people; the -women range themselves along the right side of the wall and the -girls and lads sit down in some corner, generally near the musicians -and singers. The toy consists not merely in eating and drinking, -but there is also music and singing, and above all, horse-racing, -which latter forms the chief part of all festivities in Central -Asia. Prizes of considerable value are given, and young and old take -the most lively interest in the sport. The race-course varies from -one to three fersakh in length; on the former only two year olds -are admitted, on the latter full-grown strong horses. Two villages -are chosen, lying at this distance apart, and whilst the crowd are -assembling in one of them, a toy emini, steward, is appointed in -the other. It is his duty to see that a fair start is effected, -and that horse is proclaimed the winner, who first passes the goal -which is fixed at the entrance of the opposite village. The horses -are trained for several weeks for the race, and are ridden by young -boys, who wear on this occasion short and tight-fitting clothes, -very similar to those worn by jockeys in England. - -The interval between the fatiha toy and the marriage is fixed -according to the age of the "promessa." A week before the wedding, -the toyluk (food for the wedding) is sent by the man to the house -of his future wife; and consists of meat, flour, rice, fat, sugar -and fruit. Soon after, his mother and nearest female relations -arrive, who have been invited as guests for several weeks. Two days -before the beginning of the festival the future husband mounts his -horse, and, surrounded by his friends, all of whom, as well as their -horses, are decked out in the gayest colours, goes also to the home -of her parents, his father alone remaining behind, not for the sake -of taking care of the house, but in order to make all necessary -preparations for the due reception of the newly-married couple on -their return. - -Meanwhile, in the house of the future wife, where the first days -of the marriage-feast are celebrated, the greatest bustle and -activity prevails. The young girls have to do the cooking, and are -fully employed with their gigantic cauldrons. The quantity of food -brought together for an OEzbeg wedding is as enormous as the -appetite of the numerous guests. Whilst the young girls are busy at -cooking and baking, the young swains carry on a lively flirtation -with them. The galant homme, who is lucky enough to obtain from his -beloved a bone or some tit-bit out of the cauldron, regards the gift -as a signal sign of favour, but still more lucky is he who gets a -few sharp raps with the cooking ladle, the highest of all favours, -and appreciated far above the daintiest morsels. Men and women -gather round the fire-place in groups, laughing, talking, joking and -shrieking, whilst musicians play and sing, and children shout and -yell. These noises are mingled with the bleating of sheep, barking -of dogs, neighing of horses and braying of donkeys, while loud above -the general hubbub is heard the clown's stentorian voice in coarse -sallies of OEzbeg wit and humour. He is the very life of the whole -party. His gesticulations, the grimaces with which he accompanies -his jests, give rise to continual bursts of laughter. Now he mimics -this person or that, now he tells of some droll prank or merry -adventure, or whistles like a bird and mews like a cat, and thus he -has to continue without interruption, although from sheer exertion -the perspiration runs down his face in streams. - -It is a strange custom that, for the last few days before his -wedding, the young man is not allowed to leave his tent, the young -girl and her companions watching it, meanwhile, with looks of the -utmost curiosity. It is said that friends and relations sometimes -assist in bringing about a secret _tête-à-tête_, but not until after -the marriage ceremony is he permitted to mix with the company. -This ceremony takes place at the end of the second day, in the -presence of the whole assembly. Each party is represented by two -witnesses, to whom the Mollah puts the question, whether the two -young people mutually agree as to the marriage. He then proceeds at -once to perform the ceremony, when the witnesses of the young girl -put in their veto. They declare (with a feigned reluctance) their -unwillingness to give up the treasure entrusted to them, unless -the young man should present them with a certain sum of money, or -some other present. He finds the demand exorbitant, and now begins -a bargaining and haggling, which continues until both parties are -satisfied, when the solemn ceremony is at last performed. The -Mollah reads aloud the permission of the reis (religious chief,) -the witnesses attest on oath, and with significant gestures, the -marriage compact, a short prayer is read, and the ceremony is over. - -The bride now hands round fruit and a rich cake, and distributes -white kerchiefs, garments, or other presents among the Mollahs, -grey-beards, and above all, the young men who have acted as -witnesses. - -The bridegroom now makes his appearance, but is not permitted to -approach the company nearer than a few steps from the door! and -all having partaken of an enormous repast, the festivities in the -bride's home terminate. - -The elderly, as well as the married folk, now take their departure, -but the young people remain, and pack the bride and her marriage -portion on a sort of carriage, and thus accompanied by her female -companions and friends, she sets out for the home of her husband. -The journey, called bolush, is protracted as much as possible, and -often when the distance is short, one or two long circuits are -made, in order to have the opportunity of continuing the amusements -on the road. The bride sits in the first carriage with her future -sister-in-law, the young men accompany the procession on horseback, -and he who can manage to force his way first to the front, riding -full gallop, receives from her a handkerchief as the prize. The -others try to snatch it from him, he flies and is pursued, and -the chase does not cease till he has reached the carriage again. -The handkerchiefs thus gained are tied to the horse's head, and -preserved a long time as valuable trophies.[11] Whenever the -procession passes a village on the route, they are generally -stopped, and a toll is demanded. The sister-in-law sitting next -the bride distributes cake, and the passage is again free. Amidst -continued sport and chaff the bride arrives at the home of her -husband, and no sooner does she draw near it, than she wraps her -veil around her, changing her merry expression of face to one of -the utmost gravity. Her father-in-law lifts her from the carriage, -conducts her into the room, and leads her to a tent improvised with -curtains and carpets in a corner of the apartment. The husband -soon follows her, and for the second time raises her veil in the -presence of his father, who compliments his daughter-in-law on her -charming appearance, the first sight of which he has to requite with -presents. The young couple are left alone, but have to endure for -some time the jokes of the noisy crowd assembled outside the tent, -who are eager to exhibit on these occasions their slender store of -wit and humour. They disperse late at night, and at last all is -quiet. - - [11] In Hungary we find the same practice prevailing at the present - day, for the custom of tying coloured handkerchiefs to the heads of - the horses at marriage feasts most probably has its origin in this - ancient usage. - -Among the Turkomans and Kirghis it is customary for newly-married -people to be separated for a whole year, after they have lived -together for a few days, and although the husband is allowed to make -his appearance in the house of his wife, it must be only at night -and in the most clandestine manner. In the opinion of the nomads, -married life, in its beginning, is made all the more pleasant by -acting up to the proverb, "stolen kisses taste the sweetest," and -hence also the belief, that the first born child must always be -handsome and vigorous. - -The great national festival, called noruz (new year), of the -OEzbegs, has been transmitted to them by the Persians, and is -celebrated in Central Asia with the same pomp which distinguishes -it in Persia, with this only difference, that the OEzbegs have -an old and a new noruz. The latter, however, is of no especial -importance. There is no lack of amusing games, but it is very -remarkable that some have degenerated into the most pernicious -gambling. Playing cards (sokti) are introduced from Russia (without -the court cards), but have not yet come into general use. The -favourite game is the Ashik-game (Ashik--the anklebones of sheep), -which is played in the manner of European dice with the four -anklebones of a sheep, and with a degree of passionate excitement -of which one can form no idea. The upper part of the bone is called -tava, the lower altchi, and the two sides yantarap. The player -takes these four little bones into the palm of his hand, throws -them up and receives half of the stake, if two tava or two altchi, -and the whole of the stake, if all four tava or altchi turn up. The -advantage to be gained arises entirely from dexterity in throwing; -trickery is impossible, since the bones are frequently changed. -This game is equally popular with the dweller in settlements as -with the nomad; and although apparently a trivial amusement, it -not unfrequently happens that the Ashik player, in the heat of his -passion, stakes the whole of his possessions, nay, even his wife. -Mankind, in fact, are everywhere the same. The refined European -makes his offerings at rouge et noir upon the green table; the -OEzbeg on the sandy ground with four anklebones. - - -3. DEATH. - -Whenever a member of a family is on the point of death, his nearest -relations usually leave the house or tent. The Mollah, or the -elderly among the neighbours, surround the dying man, watching for -the last breath and repeating the customary prayers, while outside -the air is filled with wailing and lamentations. If he should have -been lying speechless for some time, some wool is moistened by his -friends, and water dropped into his mouth, for fear lest, deprived -of his speech, he might die of thirst. The rolling of the eyes and -the contraction of the nose are regarded as symptoms of death; and -no sooner has the dying man drawn his last breath than his jaws are -tied up, and the body is stripped and then covered over. The clothes -are destroyed, for even the poorest OEzbeg could not be persuaded -to put on anything worn by a dying man. - -The corpse is not allowed to be kept longer than twelve or fifteen -hours, in accordance with the custom among all Mahomedan nations. -It is not washed upon a board, but on a mat (buria), which is -immediately after burnt; and the relations and neighbours, nay, -often the whole population of the place, having wept and wailed -their fill, the body is taken to be buried. The settled inhabitants -of Central Asia possess cemeteries for their dead, but among the -nomads each dead body is buried singly in the desert; and if he has -been a man of influence and consideration, a large mound (tumulus) -is generally raised over his grave, in the construction of which all -the male members of the tribe are expected to take part. The more -honoured the person, the higher and larger the mound (yoska). The -surviving relations look upon it with pride; on certain festivals, -and on the anniversary of the death, food or other presents are -placed upon it for the benefit of the poor; and no sooner does the -nomad come in sight of it, however great the distance may be, than -he mutters a short prayer for the repose of the dead. - -Men that fall in battle are neither undressed nor washed. The blood -of a brave soldier being regarded as his greatest adornment, is -consequently not removed. - -The funeral feast begins immediately after the burial with a simple -repast, at which the iyis (bread baked in fat) is distributed among -rich and poor, and must be eaten by everybody. The feast is repeated -on the third, seventh, and fortieth day after the death took place, -besides which the anniversary is celebrated in like manner,--a duty -which even the poorest would not omit to perform, for fear lest, -by neglecting it, the departed might appear to them at night, and, -exhorting the survivors, complain that they had forgotten to invite -those of this world who are to pray for the welfare of his soul. - -Among the nomads, the funeral feast occupies a more important -part. Once every week, throughout the first year, a repast is -prepared on the day of the death, and daily, as mentioned already -in our "Travels among the Turkomans," the women sing the song of -lamentation at the hour in which the member of the family breathed -his last. With the latter, moreover, the memory of a dead person -is held in the highest regard, and peculiar respect is paid to his -grave for a long time after, if he has fallen in battle, or on some -marauding expedition. The shaft of his lance is planted upon it, -and decked with various-coloured pieces of stuff, ram's horns, a -horse's tail, or like mementos,--friends and members of the same -tribe contributing, as a matter of course, every time they pass it. -The "yoskas" are called by the name of those that repose beneath; -children play around, but, however playfully inclined, are careful -not to climb upon them. It is even said, that horses go to visit -the yoskas of their former masters, and are seen standing before -them, with heads bent downward in mourning; and young warriors -habitually look with veneration on these mounds, and draw from them -the inspiration to their greatest deeds of valour. - -Whenever we happened to meet one of these graves in our travels in -the steppes of Central Asia, each member of our caravan was obliged -to tear off a little piece of his clothes and fasten it to the -shaft, or to a bench, or all joined in a hymn sung in his praise, -Karavan bashi saying every time: "He who does not honour the dead -will never receive honour from the living." - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -HOUSE, FOOD, AND DRESS. - - -The house, or fixed dwelling, has never, up to the present day, -gained a firm footing among the nations in Central Asia, not even -in those parts where regular settlements have existed for several -hundred years. Part of the population build houses for themselves, -but they are generally looked upon as gloomy places, producing -feelings of melancholy, and the light, airy tent is in all cases -preferred. It is principally the OEzbeg people who build houses, -an art they have learnt from the original Persian settlers, and, -as they resemble in many points the inhabitants of Iran, the -architecture in Central Asia is in the early Iranic style, and at -the same time very similar to the new Persian. - -The first thing before building a _house_, is to level and prepare -the ground by stamping it down with a heavy pounder. Foundations -are only made to large buildings. The common-sized houses are made -with a mud flooring, two feet high, and upon this, after it has -dried hard, the walls are raised with a layer of rushes or wood -underneath, in order to keep them from the damp rising from the -ground. The walls are either "tam," _i.e._, of clay or stone, -or "akchub," _i.e._, of wooden laths, laid crossways, and the -interstices filled up with clay and unbaked tiles. The ceiling -consists of planks, closely fitting together; in the houses of the -poor these are left bare, and in those of the rich they have a -coating of plaster and lime. Small holes serve as windows; they are -open in summer, and in winter are pasted over with oiled paper. The -roof, similar to those in Persia, is like a terrace, and serves as -a sleeping place during the heat of the summer. Regular bricklayers -are seldom met with. Every man is his own architect, convinced -of possessing sufficient knowledge to build for himself a house -suitable to his wants; and the plumb-line being still unknown, it is -not to be wondered at that the walls are crooked and uneven, bulging -either in or out, and soon become dilapidated. - -The interior arrangement of a house is as follows: you enter by a -wide gate, which forms the chief entrance, into a covered passage, -called dalar. To the right of the gate are one or two rather large -apartments (mihmankhane), which serve as reception-rooms for guests, -and contain weapons as well as useful domestic utensils. Next to -these are two small rooms, used as store-rooms. To the left are -the stable and the shed for the carts and trucks, whilst a small -door at the back of the dalar, opposite the entrance, leads to the -inner apartments or harem. These are for the most part ayvans, that -is, rooms which are open on one or two sides, and generally look -out upon a garden. In towns they are used as favourite summer -apartments, and it is really pleasant to live in them, especially -during the night, with a peshekhane, a square tent made of gauze, -like mosquito-nets, over one's bed, as a protection against catching -cold, which is as dangerous in Central Asia as it is in Persia. In -the country the dwellings are scattered. The farmstead (havli), -which consists of several different parts, is always surrounded with -a high wall for protection, and looks like a small fortress. The -interior is very roomy; on one side are the buildings, always lower -than the wall, on the other the tents, the fixed dwellings being set -apart here also exclusively for animals and store-rooms. Sometimes -the inner space is so large that a small kitchen-garden has found -room within it. Outside, but near the walls, is a large reservoir, -the edges of which are bordered with plantains, and afford a most -agreeable resting-place. These trees flourish admirably in this part -of Asia, where they are found of an astonishing height and breadth, -and reach the great age of from 300 to 400 years. On hot summer days -they afford the most refreshing shade, and for hours the OEzbeg -is seen sleeping beneath the spreading branches. Not only does the -thick foliage protect him from the burning rays, but the breeze, -which always blows under the plantains, drives away tormenting -insects. - -The furnitures of a house are the same as in Persia, and consist of -carpets, coverlets of felt, large chests, painted red, for keeping -clothes, some cauldrons and other vessels for cooking, and holding -water. Splendour or luxury are entirely wanting, and even the modern -improvements in windows and doors, met with sometimes, come from -Persia, from whence some clever and expert slave has introduced -them into Central Asia. Nothing can find its way here from Europe, -it has always to pass through the channel of Turkish and Persian -civilization, And everything travels its customary snail's pace; the -Persian imitates European institutions second hand from the Turks, -and the nations in Central Asia adopt nothing but what reaches them -through the medium of Persia. - -The _food_ of the Tartars consists principally of meat. Bread, in -many parts of the country, although not unknown, is yet a rare -luxury. Mutton is the favourite meat; next to this goat's flesh, -beef, and horse flesh; camel's flesh is least valued. Occasionally, -the horse is declared to be "mekruh" by the religious, and is not -eaten, but in the country little notice is taken of it; and the -_Torama_, horse flesh boiled soft and mixed up with onions, carrots -and dumplings, is a very popular dish. It is worthy of remark, that -the water first used in boiling the horse flesh is poured away, -as far too strong and heavy for even Tartar digestion, and that -only the second infusion can be eaten as broth. In some parts of -Central Asia sausages are made of the entrails, and considered a -dainty dish; but I have nowhere found, that the delicate parts of -this animal are held in such high favour among the OEzbegs as is -asserted throughout Persia. Camel's flesh is hard and tough; it is -cut in small pieces, covered with paste, boiled, and then fried in -lard. This dish, called _Somsa_, is not quite tasteless, but to our -digestions like a weight of lead. - -The favourite national dish is the _Palau_, also called ash, which, -though related to the pilau of the Persians and the pilaf of the -Turks, by far surpasses both these in savour. I have lived on it for -a long time, and willingly impart to Europeans my knowledge of how -it is prepared. A few spoonfuls of fat are melted (in Central Asia -the fat of the tail is usually taken) in a vessel, and as soon as -it is quite hot, the meat, cut up into small pieces, is thrown in. -When these are in part fried, water is poured upon it to the depth -of about three fingers, and it is left slowly boiling until the meat -is soft; pepper and thinly-sliced carrots are then added, and on the -top of these ingredients is put a layer of rice, after it has been -freed from its mucilaginous parts. Some more water is added, and -as soon as it has been absorbed by the rice the fire is lessened, -and the pot, well-closed, is left over the red-hot coals, until the -rice, meat and carrots, are thoroughly cooked in the steam. - -After half an hour the lid is opened, and the food served in -such a way that the different layers lie separately in the dish, -first the rice, floating in fat, then the carrots and the meat at -the top, with which the meal is begun. This dish is excellent, -and indispensable alike on the royal table and in the hut of the -poorest. From here it was introduced among the Afghans; by them to -the Persians, who call it kabuli (kabul). The pilau, if I am not -mistaken, has its origin in Central Asia, and spread from thence far -and wide over Western Asia. - -Another national dish of the Tartars is _Tchörek_, a soup with small -dumplings in it, which are filled with spice and minced meat. I say -"a soup," and yet this dish alone suffices for a whole dinner, since -it is partaken of in such quantities that any other dish can be -easily dispensed with. It is known among the Osmanlis, by the name -of tatar börek. Thirdly, _Sheöle_, a porridge of rice mixed up with -meat and dried meat. Fourthly, bulamuk, a dish consisting simply of -flour, water and fat. Fifthly, _Mestava_, rice boiled in sour milk, -a dish exclusively for the summer, as the former is for the winter. -Besides these dishes there are the _Yarma_, corn bruised and boiled -in milk; _Godje_, a kind of porridge, made of the molcussorghum; -and _Mashava_, likewise a porridge of grits, eaten with fat, and -sometimes with oil. Heavy, strong and piquant dishes are generally -preferred, few sweets are eaten, sugar and honey being unknown, -and the many syrups (shires) prepared of grapes, melons, and other -fruits, are rarely used in cooking. Of bread only enough for the -day's consumption is baked, as is the custom everywhere in Asia. The -dough is not made into thin cakes, as in Persia, but into round -thick loaves, such as are used in the neighbourhood of Erzerum, and -are called lavash. There is also a sort of biscuit baked in fat, -eaten when travelling. - -Among the settled nations of Central Asia, tea is the favourite -drink, and among the nomads, especially the Kirghis tribe, it is -the _Kümis_. In summer they drink green tea, which thins the blood -and promotes digestion; but in winter a black tea (brick tea) of a -very harsh taste and an extraordinary stimulant; its effects are -for a long time unbearable, and must be very dangerous. Cooling -drinks are the _Airan_, sour milk mixed with water, and various -decoctions made of dried fruit. Coffee is entirely unknown; even in -Persia it is only met with in the southern province of Fars, and in -Irak among the higher classes. Wine and brandy are sometimes sold -secretly in the capitals, by Jews who manufacture both, but the -number of consumers is very small. The Islamitic laws are severe on -this point, and forbid, under pain of death, the use of spirituous -liquors, but they do not prevent the vice of intoxication. Those who -wish for stimulants use opium, teriak, or other narcotic poisons, -and thus, in order to obviate a small evil, the door is opened to a -much larger one, the gratification of which costs health and life. - -The wretched poverty among the inhabitants of Central Asia is shown -in nothing more strongly than in their _dress_, and the eye is with -difficulty accustomed to the simple cotton stuff, or silks of -glaring colours, in which every one is clothed, man and woman, young -and old. Cloth or other European manufactures are only exhibited on -extraordinary festive occasions, and are worn by wealthy or great -dignitaries, as a _ne plus ultra_ of luxury. At any other time, -whether winter or summer, a garment, the so-called _Aladja_, is -worn, and the only difference made in the various seasons is, that -they put in a thicker lining, of either linen, wool, or fur. The -cut of it is, perhaps, the most primitive among all the settled -nations of Asia. No one has any idea of dressing tastefully and -yet conveniently, or of setting off their figure to advantage, the -only object is to cover or rather envelope it, and the Persian is -perfectly right when he satirically says of his rude neighbours, -that the whole nation moves about wrapt up in bed clothes. The -_Tchapan_ (upper coat) is the chief article of a man's wardrobe; it -is not unlike our European dressing gowns, and cut out in Khiva so -as to fit the body pretty well; in Bokhara it is already so large -that two people can envelop themselves in it, and in Khokand it is -widest of all. It is a highly ludicrous sight to see a man trot -along in this smock-frock-like garment, full of folds, and puffing -out at every part, and though I can well understand the many folds -round the chest, forming as they do a receptacle for a whole set of -cooking utensils, and all the necessaries for travelling, and food -to last at least for two days, yet it will always be a mystery to -me why the sleeves are twice as long as the arms, and what is the -advantage of tucking them up and making an enormous roll or puff on -the top of the arm. Under the tchapan is worn in summer a _Yektey_ -(a thin under dress), and under this the shirt, which reaches down -to the ankles, and is distinguished from other shirts, worn in Asia, -by being open on the left shoulder instead of in front, very much -like a sack. At night the Turkestans have the strange habit, before -going to sleep, of drawing their arms out of their shirt sleeves, -and doubling themselves up. In winter an extra garment, _Tchekmen_, -of ample dimensions and made of coarse stuff, is added to this -costume. In some parts of the country, especially in Khiva, where -the cold is greater, thickly-wadded, clumsy trousers are worn. As -a covering for the head they wear in Khiva the telpek, a broad, -conical-shaped hat of fur, which is very heavy; throughout Bokhara -the turban is worn. It has a very picturesque appearance, with its -long loops hanging down on the left side, and the trim natty way in -which it is put on. In Khokand a small light cap used to be worn -until twenty years ago, not unlike our clergyman's scapula (skull -cap,) but since then it has yielded to Bokhariot civilisation, -and has been supplanted by the turban. As to boots, those made in -Bokhara and Khokand are the best. The leather is good, the shape -rather handsome, but for the ludicrously long and thin heel, the end -of which is scarcely broader than a nail's head. People of rank wear -a kind of stocking made of morocco leather (mest), and over these, -shoes, of which the best are made in Samarkand. - -With respect to the dress of the women, it seems as if they -were still more desirous than the men to avoid any approach to -ostentation, luxury or smartness. When in undress, the women wear -in summer a long shirt, reaching down to the ankles, the hind part -of which is made of coarse linen, and the front mostly of a light -coloured strong Russian print. The trousers are in like manner made -of linen down to the knee, and the lower part, which fits close to -the ankle, is made of print, or any other coloured stuff. The women -wear in winter, over the shirt, one or two thickly-wadded jackets, -fastened round the loins with a shawl. When abroad they put over -all this a long garment, not unlike a man's coat, in which the -woman muffles herself, holding it tightly together with both hands -across her chest. The feet are covered with clumsy boots. It is a -sorry sight to see a town woman of Central Asia walk about in this -wretched costume, with her whole attention engrossed by the effort -not to let the over-coat escape from her hands, since she would -be regarded as an impudent woman indeed, if she allowed her under -garments to be seen, and although the boldest stare cannot penetrate -the coarse veil of horse-hair, yet she has to be for ever on the -watch not to attract the looks of the passers by. - -In the country, women are allowed to move with less restraint. -Married women are seldom veiled, young girls never. The overcoat -is shorter, and is merely thrown across the shoulder, and the -broad shawl girded round the waist, with long ends fluttering to -the breeze, gives a certain picturesqueness to their appearance. -This indulgence, however, is only enjoyed in Khiva and Khokand; -in Bokhara, even in the country, the tyrannical laws of Islamitic -civilisation are executed with great severity, and it is rare to -meet with an exception. - -Among the men, various objects of ornament are seen, those which -hang from the _Koshbag_, such as good knives with silver or other -ornamented handles, gold-embroidered bags for tea, pepper and salt; -further, rings for the fingers, tesbih (rosaries,) seals sometimes, -but rarely, bracelets, gold and silver sheaths for amulets and -watches, which latter are especial articles of luxury, and only to -be found among the great. The objects of ornament among women I -have already mentioned when speaking of the customs at weddings. It -is useless to look for comfort or luxury either in the dwellings, -food, or clothing of the natives of Central Asia, every thing here -bears the impress of very ancient manners and customs, and every one -conforms to them willingly, not wishing for anything better. The -government, supported by the Mollahs, labours to keep up this status -quo of things, by declaring all foreign productions contraband, -and endeavouring to supplant them in the market, for fear the -inhabitants of Turkestan might become aware of their poverty, and -attribute it, not to the natural, but to the social circumstances -of their country. And yet such an endeavour is fruitless, railroads -and steam vessels bring their powerful veto, even in these rude -countries, to bear upon a whole nation's backwardness. The ships -which plough the Indian Ocean, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the -Lake of Aral, the Volga, and, at the present time, the Yaxartes -likewise, have considerably lessened the distance between Central -Asia and the west of Europe. The locomotives, which on the south run -as far as Lahore, on the north to Nishnei-Novgorod, and astonish -and perplex the eastern nations, are still, it is true, far from -the inland waters of the Oxus and Yaxartes; yet, nevertheless, they -exercise a considerable influence upon the communication of these -countries. The OEzbeg trader need only go as far as Orenburg on -the one, and Peshawur on the other side, and he has St. Petersburg, -Bombay, and the whole of Europe before him. Inaccessible as Central -Asia still is to all scientific, as well as commercial travellers, -yet within the last twenty-five years an essential material -advancement is apparent. We need only look over the custom-house -list of the English and Russian frontier towns, and we should be -surprised at the enormous increase of articles imported from Europe. -From 1840 to 1850 goods were transported across the Russian frontier -of nearly a million pounds sterling in value, and in the year 1860 -they amounted already to the value of two millions. Cotton and silk -stuffs have been more largely imported than any other goods, and -in spite of the detestation and horror felt towards the producer, -the productions of the west grow more and more in request, and are -well paid for. Cottons, handkerchiefs and cambrics, as is well -known, are the great forerunners of civilisation, the mute apostles -of western culture, who spread blessings in their path, even though -European arms and military tactics occasionally accompany their -footsteps. And, however much the condition of half savage nations -may be extolled for its happiness by foolish and weak-brained -enthusiasts, yet a practical observer must feel convinced that our -civilisation is preferable, and that it is a sacred duty on our part -to transplant it to every clime and country. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -FROM KHIVA To KUNGRAT AND BACK. - - -The young Mollah from Kungrat, who had joined our caravan in order -to reach Samarkand, was planning to go and take leave of his native -town and kindred whilst we were staying at Khiva; and great was his -joy when he learned that I was desirous of accompanying him thither, -partly from a wish to make a begging tour and collect all I could, -and partly for the sake of escaping the uncomfortable crowding in -hot, sultry Khiva. In his delight he promised me mountains of gold, -describing everything in the most glowing colours, to sustain me in -my resolve. I needed, however, no urging, too glad to meet with such -an opportunity; and two days after I was actually on my way to Yengi -Urgendj, from whence I hoped to reach the Oxus, where a half-laden -vessel was ready to take us on board for a moderate fare. - -The journey from Khiva to Kungrat is chiefly made by water in the -summer, and down the river at high water it never lasts longer than -five days; that is, during the very heat of summer, when the river -has reached its greatest height, owing to the melting of the snow -on the Hindukush and the tops of the Bedakhshan mountains. In the -autumn and spring, at low water, the voyage lasts longer, and in -winter it is entirely interrupted, the Oxus being in many parts, -although not wholly, covered with ice. - -The traveller can take ship, if so inclined, from the very walls -of Khiva, that is, on the canal Hazreti Pehlivan, but not without -making a great _détour_, since its mouth is to the south, near -Hezaresp, instead of being to the north. The same objection applies -to the second canal, Gazavat, which is at a considerable distance -from the town, and flows rather eastward than northward. For this -reason the traveller prefers to go to Yengi Urgendj, the first -manufacturing and commercial city in the Khanat, and then on to -Akhun Baba, the tomb of a saint, with a few scattered havlis -(farmsteads) near it, which is situated on the banks of the Oxus, -and is the first stage on the road. The distance is about eighteen -English miles, in a well cultivated and tolerably populous district, -the road leading through fields, gardens and meadows. Here are -found the finest mulberry trees in the greatest abundance, and -consequently the cultivation of silk is extremely flourishing; in -fact, this part of the country justly deserves to be called one of -the most beautiful in the whole Khanat. - -The heat was so fierce and intolerable on the banks of the Oxus, -that I could not help expressing some uneasiness to the boatmen, but -they comforted me by saying, that down stream this evil would be -remedied, by putting up a _Peshekhane_ (mosquito net), which would -not be in their way, the boat being steered only at either end. -The mosquito net was at once put up; it had the shape of a canopy, -and was to protect us in the day time from the sun, at night from -the dangerous mosquitoes; and the necessary fatiha (blessings) on -starting having been pronounced, we pushed off in company of four -boatmen and two other passengers. - -The voyage was at first very monotonous. The two men, one at the -upper end and one at the lower end of the boat, kept steering it to -those parts of the river where the water was yellowish and turbid, -the current being here the strongest, as they explained to us. The -rudders consisted of long poles, flattened at the end, and the two -steersmen generally remained seated down at their work, unless -special care and attention were required. They were relieved about -every two hours, when, less fatigued by their labour than scorched -by the sun, they would join us in our sheltered retreat, stretch -themselves out at full length, to our great annoyance, and soon be -heard snoring in chorus, until they had to return to their task. Of -our two fellow-travellers, happily only one was very loquacious; -and whenever my Tartar friend explained to me this or that point of -interest, he would interrupt him with his copious emendations, and -thus satisfy my curiosity by a full and detailed commentary. - -The banks of the Oxus present few features especially worthy of -interest, although far more than Boutenieff notices in his travels, -who, in his mission in 1858, took the same route from Kungrat to -Yengi Urgendj, up stream. On the right bank, opposite the place -where we embarked, is seen the great ruin, Shahbaz Veli (the sacred -hero), which is said to have been a strong fortress in ancient -times, and which was destroyed by the Kalmucks. In the history of -Khiva these people are regarded as the great destroyers of the -Khanat; and although it is true that at the time of their invasion -under Djengiz, the then flourishing Kharezm suffered terribly at -their hands, yet it is an exaggeration to assert, as tradition -does, that all the ruins are the sole work of their lust for -devastation. Farther on I met with another extensive ruin with the -remains of stone buildings, called Gaur Kaleszi (the fortress of -the Gaurs). Under the term "Gaur," I first understood the Gebers or -fire-worshippers, but soon I learned to my great astonishment, that -by this name are designated, throughout Central Asia, the Armenians -or rather the Nestorians, who possessed here large colonies, -extending from the Sea of Aral far into China, in pre-Islamitic -times down to the decline of the Mongol dominion. - -On the right bank extends for more than three leagues, from the -above-mentioned ruins down to the water's edge, a somewhat dense -forest (togay), called Khitabegi. The trees are not particularly -high, but the sun is nevertheless unable to penetrate and dry up -the marshes fed by the Oxus. Only in very few places is the forest -inhabited, and that by the Karakalpak tribe, who rear cattle. The -left bank is the really inhabited part; here the chain of Havlis -is scarcely interrupted, and here and there villages of some size -are seen lying close to the water, such as the OEzbeg village -Tashkale, which is situated on a high bank, and the smaller village -of Vezir, near which the canal Kilidjbay discharges, or rather forms -a basin, previous to losing itself beyond Yilali in the sand. - -To make tea, prepare palau, and either listen to or tell sacred -legends, was the alternate occupation of the day. Sometimes it -happened that all my companions, the steersmen alone excepted, fell -fast asleep, producing a pause, which was to me a most pleasant -change; and as I fixed my eyes upon the yellow, turbid waters of the -ancient Oxus, my imagination loved to revert to the clear mirror -of many a European river, whose waters are ploughed by hundreds -of ships, and whose verdant, smiling banks, are full of life and -activity. What a gigantic contrast! - -The Oxus is the typical representative of the country it -traverses,--wild and unruly in its course, like the temperament of -the Central Asiatics. Its shallows are as little marked as the good -and bad qualities in the Turkoman; daily it makes for itself new -channels similar to the nomad, whose restless spirit, wearied of -staying long in one spot, is ever craving for novelty and change. - -Early the second day we passed the town of Görlen at a short -distance from the shore. The proper landing place is a village near, -called Ishimdji, and opposite to it on the right bank is situated -the fort Rehimberdi Beg, which I mention merely because here begins -the mountain chain of Oveis Karayne, extending from south-east to -north.[12] At first sight it bears much resemblance, as well in -height as in its formation, to the Great Balkan in the desert, -between Khiva and Astrabad; but on a nearer approach its larger -circumference soon becomes apparent, and the luxuriant vegetation -and the woods with which several of its heights are clothed, present -a scene of agreeable surprise. On one of them is said to be the tomb -of Oveis Karayne, a celebrated place of pilgrimage in Khiva, and -in the distance we discovered several buildings, which Rehimberdi -Beg had erected for the convenience of the devotees. Further on is -the Munadjat daghi (mount of devotion), which is pointed out as -the resting place of a holy lady, called Amberene (Mother Ambra). -Holy women are not often met with in Sunnitic Islamism; there are, -however, a few of them in Central Asia, which may be taken as a -fresh proof that Islamism does not treat the fair sex with such -unnatural harshness as people in Europe are apt to imagine. As to -my lady Amberene, tradition tells us that, a Zuleikha in beauty, -a Fatima in virtue, she was hated and afterwards expelled by her -husband, solely because she professed the Mohammedan religion, -of which he was an arch-enemy. Driven from her princely abode in -Urgendj, she was obliged to take refuge in this wild spot, and -would have died of starvation but for a hind which appeared daily -at the entrance of her cave, waiting to be milked, and then again -disappeared. Who, in hearing this tale, is not reminded of the story -of Genoveva? The Parisians in those days were not better than the -OEzbegs of to-day; nor can we fail to be struck with the identity -that exists in fables of social and religious life, among nations -living widely separated from each other. - - [12] Oveis Karayne is the name of a faithful follower of Mohammed, - who out of love to the Prophet had all his teeth knocked out, the - latter having lost two of his front teeth in the battle at Ohud, - through a blow from the enemy's weapon. After Mohammed's death he - even intended to found an Order, with this self-mutilation as a - condition of membership; but his efforts proved unsuccessful. The - assertion, that he came to Khiva and died there, belongs rather to - the region of fiction. - -After leaving Görlen we went on for about four hours down stream, -and came to Yengï yap, an insignificant hamlet, surrounded by earth -walls, and about one hour and a half distant from the river. Two -hours later we reached the district of Khitayi, which begins where -the Yumalak, a conical hill, rises close to the left bank. On the -right the Oveis mountains approach nearer and nearer to the Oxus, -and soon we passed the prominent peak Yampuk, crowned with the ruins -of an old castle. Opposite Yumalak the mountain chain, Sheik Djeli, -which runs from east to west, forms a very narrow channel (here -called kisnak), much narrower than the Iron Gates on the Danube, -and often dangerous to navigation from the force and rapidity of -the current. The waters here roar, as if the Oxus, that unruly son -of the desert, were angry at being so imprisoned between the rocks. -The narrowest part is, however, very short; on the left bank the -mountains terminate abruptly, while on the right bank the high lands -gradually slope, and after having passed Tama, which lies on the -left, the country is everywhere flat. With the mountains disappeared -every romantic feature along the banks of the Oxus. After a voyage -of two days our eyes and imagination were fully satisfied, and -although the morning and evening hours had their charms, yet the -heat became intolerable in the day-time, and the mosquitoes and -flies at night--insects, in comparison with which the Golumbacz on -the Lower Danube are harmless and insignificant as butterflies. As -soon as the sun began to set, every one crept carefully under the -mosquito-net, made, of course, of linen, the air under which had -become so thoroughly poisoned by my fellow-travellers, that I felt -keenly not to be able to exchange it for the purer air outside. -Towards evening we reached the district of Mangit, which has a town -of the same name, about two hours' distance from the river, but not -visible from the boat on account of a small wood which intervenes. -Here we remained for some time moored along the bank, and having -comfortably cooked our dinner in the open air, instead of on the -narrow hearth in the boat, we continued our voyage. We reached -Basuyap, after another hour's journey, at night, much to the regret -of my friend, who had been anxious to pay a visit with me to a -very celebrated _Nogaï Ishan_, who resided there, in order to ask -his advice and blessing on the journey he had undertaken. These -_Nogaï_, who fled hither to escape the Russian authorities or the -conscription, are in Central Asia regarded as martyrs to freedom and -Islamism, and revered as such; but I have frequently met among them -the most consummate rascals, and thought that they had probably run -away from a fully merited chastisement. - -Early in the morning we passed Kiptchak, which is the second stage -on the journey, and lies on both sides of the Oxus. At this place -a rock rises from the water, which, extending across the river, -narrows the channel by more than half its width, and renders the -navigation so extremely dangerous, that it is never attempted, -except at broad daylight. At low water some of the points are -visible, and it is no uncommon thing to see children, a foot deep in -water, clambering upon them. - -Kiptchak itself is a place of considerable importance, inhabited by -an OEzbeg tribe of the same name, and possesses several mosques -and colleges. Of the latter, the college situated on the right -bank of the river was founded by Khodja Niaz, and is deservedly -celebrated for its rich endowments. Not far from this building, -which stands separately, is seen the ruin Tchilpik, on a hill rising -close to the water. Tradition asserts that in ancient times it was a -strong castle, and the residence of a Princess, who, having fallen -in love with one of her father's slaves, and dreading the anger of -her offended parent, fled hither for refuge with her lover. In order -to obtain water, they were obliged to pierce the hill downwards to -the river, and the subterranean passage exists at the present day. - -From Kiptshak up the stream begins the forest already mentioned, -which extends with few interruptions along the right bank of the -river to some distance beyond Kungrat. I could not see from the boat -how far its breadth stretched eastward, but I have been assured that -it is from eight to ten hours' journey. Its approach from the river -is intercepted by bogs and morasses, which render it only in a few -places accessible. In the less thickly-wooded parts graze numberless -herds of cattle, the property of the Karakalpaks, who find abundance -of game in the forest, but sometimes suffer greatly from the -numerous wild beasts, especially panthers, tigers, and lions, which -infest that district. From here to Görlen the stream has so many -shallows, that we were incessantly striking aground. The left bank -rises to an elevated plateau, which extends far in a north-westerly -direction, and is called Yilankir (the field of serpents) by the -natives. On the western frontier of the desert it forms a declivity -as steep as the Kaflankir, or the whole table-land of Ustyurt. The -population of this region consists of Jomut-Turkomans and Tchaudors; -the former lead a nomadic life near the river, and in the country -round Porsu and Yilali; the latter inhabit the skirts of the desert -and the several oases of the Ustyurt. Both tribes, as may well -be imagined, live in constant feud with each other,--a condition -as much to their disadvantage, as it is to the advantage of the -OEzbegs, the immediate neighbourhood of a strong and united nomad -people proving always most dangerous to the dwellers in settled -habitations. - -On the evening of the third day we stopped at Khodja Ili,[13] a town -about two hours' distance from the river. Most of the inhabitants -derive their origin from Khodja, and they are not a little proud of -comparing their ancestry with that of the other OEzbegs. The whole -district is thickly populated, and the left bank forms as far as -Nöks[14] an uninterrupted chain of wood and cultivated land. Here -is one of the most dangerous places in the Oxus, a waterfall, which -at the time of our voyage rushed down from the height of three feet -with the swiftness of an arrow and with a tremendous noise, which -is heard at the distance of more than a league. The natives call -it Kazankitken, _i.e._, the spot where the cauldrons went to the -bottom, since a vessel laden with these utensils is said to have -been lost here. Full fifteen minutes before reaching the waterfall -the boats are brought close to the shore, and carefully towed along. -From here down the stream the river has formed by inundations very -considerable lakes, which communicate with one another by small -natural canals, which seldom dry up entirely. The largest are: -Kuyruklu Köl and Sari Tchöngül. The former is said to extend for -several days' journey far towards the north-east; the latter is -smaller in circumference, but much deeper. - - [13] Khodja Ili.--The people of the Khodja, or descendants of the - prophets, a considerable number of whom inhabit this part of the - country. They have as much a purely OEzbeg physiognomy, as the - numerous Seids in Persia bear the stamp of an Iranic origin. The - former, however, enjoy considerably more privileges. - - [14] In the map to my "Travels in Central Asia," Nöks has by mistake - been confounded with Khodja Ili; the former also is full an hour - farther from Kungrat than is there stated. - -We passed Nöks on the fourth day. Even on the left bank we saw -cultivation gradually decreasing as we advanced; the river on both -sides is bordered with forests, and forms half-way to Kungrat a -broad and rather deep canal, called Ogüzkitken, which takes a -south-westerly direction and falls into the lake Shorkatchi. Efforts -have been made to cut off the latter from the large stream by -raising dykes, but in vain, and the immense extent of water renders -the navigation here exceedingly troublesome. The forest terminates -at the tomb of a saint, called Afakkhodja, and the district of -Kungrat begins, covered, as far as the eye can reach, with gardens, -fields and "havlis." The town itself did not become visible until -the evening of the fifth day, after we had passed the run of a -fortress built by the rebel Törebeg at the time of Mehemmed Emin, -and a whirlpool near it. - -Our stay in this most northerly town of the Khanat of Khiva was -of very short duration, since my young companion, having lost his -parents a year before, was not long in taking leave of the relative -who dwelt here, and himself urged a speedy return. The town has -a far more miserable appearance than those in the south, and is -chiefly known for its large fairs, to which the nomads of the -neighbourhood resort, offering for sale large quantities of cattle, -butter, carpets of felt, camels' hair and wool. A brisk trade is -also carried on in fish, especially dried fish, which are brought -from the sea of Aral, and sent afterwards from here all over the -Khanat. I must mention as a very remarkable fact, that I met here -with two Russians, who had turned Mahometans, and lived in the full -enjoyment of a comfortable dwelling-house, a flourishing farmstead, -and a numerous family. They were prisoners of the Perowsky Army, and -received their liberty from Mehemmed Emin Khan, under the condition -that they would adopt Islamism. One of them has been presented with -a Persian slave: the dark-brown daughter of Iran and the fair-haired -son of the north live very happily together, and although the latter -has several times had the opportunity of returning to his native -home, he has not been able to form the resolution of quitting his -adopted fatherland on the banks of the Oxus. - -In conclusion, I will state the scanty information I gathered here -about the further course of the Oxus from Kungrat to its embouchure -in the Sea of Aral. At two hours' distance from this town, going -down stream, the river divides into two great arms, which are little -distinguished from each other. The right one, which keeps the name -of Amu Derya, reaches the lake first, but in consequence of its -many ramifications it is too shallow, and at low water extremely -difficult to navigate. The left arm, which bears the name of Tarlik -(the strait)[15] is narrow, but of a certain depth throughout, -and is little used, simply on account of the great circuit it -makes on its way to the lake. The traffic on the Lower Oxus is -inconsiderable, and not to be compared with that which enlivens -the river between Tchihardjuy and Kungrat, where it forms the -principal commercial highway between Bokhara and Khiva. In autumn -it is chiefly fishing which takes the OEzbegs to the sea, and the -trade in dried sea-fish is in all three Khanats an important one. -It has become an almost indispensable article to the inhabitants -of the steppes, from their being too parsimonious to feed on meat, -in spite of their wealth in cattle, and therefore preferring, as -they do, dried fish as its substitute. In the spring, on the other -hand, it is the wild geese, large numbers of which are found around -the several mouths of the river, which tempt all those who are fond -of shooting to the shores of the Sea of Aral. At this season of the -year also most pilgrimages take place, undertaken by pious OEzbegs -to the tomb of Tokmak Baba, which is situated upon an island of the -same name, near these outlets. This saint is revered as the patron -of fishermen, and rests under a small mausoleum, in the inner cell -of which have been carefully preserved through remote ages his -clothes and cooking utensils, among which a cauldron is an object -of peculiar veneration. I was told, that even the Russians very -rarely land on this island, although access to it has been greatly -facilitated by steam-vessels, and that in case they do visit it, -they never touch these relics,--as if moved by involuntary feelings -of respect. - - [15] Not Taldyk, as Admiral Butakoff called it in his treatise, - read on the 11th of March, 1867, before the Geographical Society in - London, nor can I agree with him about the two extreme arms of the - Delta, of which he calls the eastern Yenghi, and the western Laudan. - It is possible that it may have been so formerly, in consequence of - the frequent changes of the water-course; but at present this is - no longer the case I learned from the most authentic source, that - the name of Laudan is given only to the dry bed of the Oxus, which, - beginning at Kiptchak, runs in a westerly direction past Köhne - Urgendj. Butakoff designates the middle branch by the name of Ulkun, - and here I must remark, that this word meaning "great," is always - added to the name of the chief stream. Ulkun, more correctly Ulken, - is consequently identical with my Amu Derya. - -In surveying the whole course of this remarkable river, from -its source on the Ser-i-kul (beginning of the sea) down to its -embouchure, we perceive firstly, that it is not, as Burnes asserts, -navigable throughout its entire length, but on the contrary, that -only from Kerki, or rather from Tchihardjuy down stream can it be -used for large and small craft. Upwards from these towns we meet -nothing but rafts, carrying fuel and timber, in which the slopes of -the Bedakhshan mountains abound, and supplying the scantily wooded -plains, but seldom used by families emigrating to the Lower Oxus. -Between Hezaresp and Eltchig, a part of the river which forms one -stage on the way to Bokhara, larger boats already are used from -and to Khiva, which carry goods and victuals; but the greatest -traffic is undoubtedly on that part of the river, which flows in -the Khanat of Khiva, where the river, with its many towns along -its banks, affords a favourite and cheap means, up as well as down -stream, for the transport of large freight, and is used among the -poorer classes even for personal inter-communication. Secondly, it -appears to me (I abstain from making any assertion, not possessing -sufficient knowledge on the subject), that the Oxus has scarcely -the capabilities of becoming the powerful artery for traffic and -communication in Central Asia, which politicians, when speaking of -the future of Turkestan, confidently expect. It never can become -of the same importance as the Yaxartes, whose waters at this very -moment are ploughed by Russian steamers, a conjecture sufficiently -warranted by the fact, that the Russians entered Turkestan with -their flotilla of the Sea of Aral, not by the Oxus, but by the -Yaxartes, a river far less favourable to their plans of occupation. -It has been urged, that the uninhabited shores of this last-named -river are of greater importance to the Court of St. Petersburg; -but this is a worthless argument, and rests solely on our want of -geographical knowledge with respect to Central Asia. - -With steamers on the Oxus, the Russians would not only have been -able to keep the Khanat of Khiva in check, to garrison the fortress -of Kungrat, Kiptshak and Hezaresp, but they would have had the power -of introducing with the greatest ease a strong _corps d'armée_ -by Karakul into Bokhara, and thus into the very heart of Central -Asia, had not the extraordinary physical difficulties of this -route rendered such a scheme impracticable. Moreover, of this the -Russians themselves became sufficiently convinced, when making their -very first appearance in Central Asia. Apart from the waterfall -at Khodja Ili, the dangerous cliffs near Kiptchak and the Kisnak -near Yampuk, the Oxus offers perhaps the greatest difficulties to -navigation in its numerous sandbanks, which in some parts extend -for many miles, and at the same time undergo such rapid changes -in consequence of the large quantity of sand the stream carries -along with it, that it is quite impossible to take observations, -and even the most experienced steersman can do no more than guess -the navigable channel by the colour, but can never indicate it with -confidence or certainty. Thirdly, to regulate this stream, which -at the beginning of the spring, and during the latter part of the -autumn, is almost two-thirds smaller than in summer, would be of -the greatest disadvantage to the inhabitants, since its numerous -arms and canals not only are necessary for the cultivation of their -fields, but supply with drinking water even the most distant parts -of the country, to say nothing of the rapid current rendering such -an undertaking extremely difficult. If the Khan of Khiva wanted to -declare war against some rebellious part of his country, he would -first of all cut off the canals and aqueducts, a stroke of policy -which would be felt most severely; and a government, which were to -shut the sluices in order to increase the water in the bed of the -Oxus, would commit an act equivalent to a declaration of hostilities -against the whole country at once. - -Not only has the Oxus extremely rapid currents, but it continually -deviates from its original channel. These deviations in the lower -part of the river begin after its bend near Hezaresp, and are far -more numerous than is generally supposed. Upon enquiring of the -inhabitants about them, they reckoned up more than eight on each -side, and although they may have included in this estimate former -canals, nevertheless its irregularity must be admitted. Taking this -view, there is very little difficulty in agreeing with Sir Henry -Rawlinson, who founded his assertion on a very valuable Persian -manuscript, that in former times the Sea of Aral had no existence -whatever. - -The journey from Kungrat to Khiva is generally made by land, since -it requires from eighteen to twenty days up stream. The transport -of freight is made by water. There are three roads by land; 1, -by Köhne Urgends, which is called the summer route, and avoids -the lakes, outlets and arms of the Oxus, which at that season of -the year are full to overflowing. This route is the longest, 56 -farsakh[16] in length; 2, by Khodja Ili, a distance of 40 farsakh, -which the traveller prefers in the winter, all the waters being -frozen; and 3, the road on the right bank of the Oxus by Shurakhan, -which makes several _détours_, and runs through a great many -sand-steppes. - - [16] Farsakh (_i. e._, +parasangês+ ), a Persian league, about - 18,000 feet in length. - -Our return journey had to be made with all possible speed, but -nevertheless we were obliged to take the long road by Köhne Urgendj. -We had the good fortune to join a party of travellers, of whom some -were going to Köhne Urgendj, others to Khiva. All were capitally -mounted, and even the horses placed at our disposal "lillah" (out of -pious benevolence) were young, vigorous animals, and, as we carried -no luggage except a few biscuits with a small store of provisions -for our journey, we rode briskly along in spite of the heat, which -even in the early morning made itself felt. Leaving the gate of -the town behind us, we rode across the well-cultivated district -of Kungrat, keeping always a north-westerly direction, and then -crossing a barren tract of country, came to a large stagnant water, -called _Atyolu_, which is marked out as the first stage, and is 7 -farsakh long. A bridge leads over a narrow part of it, and here the -road diverges in two parts, the one of which skirts a low mountain, -called Kazak Orge, and, crossing the great plateau of Ustyurt, goes -to Orenburg; the other leads to Köhne Urgendj. We took the latter -route, and passing through forests and sandy tracts, now and then -came in sight of some ruin on either side of the road, of which -two were pointed out as being worthy of notice;--Karagömbez (black -dome), near which a salt is found as clear and white as crystal, -and the finest in the Khanat, and Barsakilmez (he who goes does not -return), a dangerous spot, inhabited even at the present day by evil -spirits, and where many, who went there from curiosity, have lost -their lives. - -After a long ride of five hours we reached the second station, -called _Kabilbeg Havli_. It is an isolated farmstead, but, in -accordance with an old custom of the proprietors, we were received -and treated with great hospitality, and remembering that we had the -prospect of a long ride of eight hours from here to the next stage, -_Kiziltchagalan_, our kind host had not forgotten to provide us at -breakfast with meat and bread. It was still dark when we started. -Our companions were examining their weapons with the utmost care, -which made me fear that we might perhaps have to pass some hostile -tribe of the Turkomans; but they removed my uneasiness on this -point, cautioning me at the same time that we should have to travel -the whole day long in a thick forest, in which there were many -lions, panthers and wild boars, which sometimes have been known to -attack the traveller. They added, that although they never reached -the place of danger till broad daylight, yet they invariably moved -forward with the greatest circumspection, and, above all put great -confidence in their horses, which no sooner prick up their ears, or -begin to snort, than each and all seize their weapons. It is well -known that lions and panthers in a climate like that of Central Asia -are far less dangerous than their brethren in India and Africa, and -therefore I did not share the fears of my young Tartar companion; -on the contrary, I rather longed for adventure and the excitement -of the chase. The OEzbeg, however, like a true Asiatic, possesses -an excitable imagination; there was neither trace nor sound to -indicate that we were near the abode of the king of animals, and we -saw nothing but some herds of wild boars, who with a loud crash made -their way through the thick underwood, and an immense, nay, fabulous -number of Guinea-fowl and pheasants, of which we made rich spoil for -our evening halt. These birds are in this part of the country of a -much finer flavour than in Mazendran, the OEzbegs also understand -far better than the Persians to dress and cook them. Emerging -from the forest, we soon came in sight of the fortified place -Kiziltshagalan, which is inhabited by OEzbegs. We arrived there -in good time, and the following morning continued our road across a -district inhabited by Yomuts. - -Köhne Urgendj is considered the fourth station, although the journey -thither does not occupy above three hours. This ancient metropolis -of far-famed Kharezm, in Central Asia, is the poorest of all those -cities in Asia which have shared the same fate, and however much -its former splendour is extolled in word and writing, I could not -help feeling at the sight of its still existing ruins, that it had -been the centre of no higher than Tartar civilisation. The town of -the present day is small, dirty and insignificant, although it must -have been much larger in former times, to judge from the ruins that -lie scattered outside the wall. These ruins are not older than the -Islamitic era, and date from the reign of Shahi Kharezmian, an epoch -of a higher culture. The most remarkable object here is the mosque -of Törebeg Khanim (not Khan), of which I have already made mention -in my "Travels," and which is larger and more splendid than Hazreti -Pehlivan. The latter, nevertheless, has been considered hitherto -the finest monument in Khiva, and it must be admitted that with its -works in Kashi (glazed tiles), in which throughout the yellow colour -predominates, it is not inferior to any architectural monument -of the same kind in Turkestan. Further is seen the mausoleums of -Sheikh Sheref with a high azure dome, of Piriyar, the father of the -very celebrated Pehlivan, and of Sheikh Nedshm ed-din Kübera. The -latter has of late been restored from decay by the liberality of -Mehemmed Emin Khan. I was told that there are in the neighbourhood -several towers and walls built of stone, such as Puldshoydu (money -destroyed) which is distant three hours' journey. Whenever a storm -ploughs up the sand-hills there, coins and vessels of gold and -silver are discovered, and people who take the trouble of sifting -the sand, find frequently their labour amply requited. There is -also the Aysanem, or double kiosk of Aysanem and Shahsanem, the -famous pair of lovers, whose romantic fate forms the subject of a -collection of songs frequently sung by the native minstrels. The -name appears to be a stereotyped name for any two isolated ruins, -since there are Shahsanems to be found in other parts of Khiva and -Bokhara, as well as in the neighbourhood of Herat, and everywhere -the same legends are recorded of them with few variations. - -At Köhne Urgendj the road divides, both branches running at a small -distance from each other. The one less frequented runs by Porsu -and Yilali, and is taken by people who travel in large parties; -the proximity of the marauding tribes of the Tshaudors and Yomut -Turkomans, rendering the road, at least as far as Tashhauz, -very insecure. The second road, nearer the Oxus, runs with few -interruptions along its banks, a tract of country strewn with -farmsteads (Havlis), villages and hamlets. This road is generally -taken in summer, although it is the longer of the two, and also -more troublesome on account of the many ditches and canals for -irrigation. Whereas, a caravan must keep together as far as Tashhauz -on the former road, travellers on the latter may part company as -early as at Kiptchak, and each continue his way separately. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -MY TARTAR. - - -I cannot conceive it possible to imagine a greater contrast than an -Asiatic, and more particularly a Central Asiatic, who, as late as -two years ago, wrapt in his national garb of ample width, hanging -about him in loose folds, was feeding on the simple and primitive -fare of a nomadic people, and who, at the present moment, booted -and spurred, moves about in the closely-fitting costume of the -Hungarians, and is already accustomed to the food and manners of -the West; one, who, destined to lead the life of a Mollah, once -spent his time in the lonely cell of the Medresse Mehemmed Emin at -Khiva, absorbed either in prayer or in the doctrines of Islamism, -and who is now seen turning over the large folios in the library -of a European academy, acquainted with books on philosophy, or the -history of the world and religion, Greek and Latin literature, and -numberless authors besides; who scarcely ever had heard the name -of Europe, or had heard it mentioned only in terms of the utmost -abhorrence; who knew no other institutions, no other phases or -aspects of men and things, but those in his own wild Eastern world, -and recognised these alone as true and reasonable;--and who now is -reading the leading articles of European newspapers, discussing the -different politics of Western countries, and unhesitatingly making -the boldest comparisons between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. - -These are certainly clear and sharply-defined contrasts, and such -contrasts my friend the Mollah exhibits "_in propriâ personâ_,"--the -Hadji whom I brought with me from Central Asia, whom I met with -whilst on his way to Mekka, who became my companion and associate, -and who, instead of the holiest of holy cities, now lives with me -in the metropolis of Hungary. How I succeeded in inducing him to -form this resolution has been to many a matter of the liveliest -curiosity to know; nor were their enquiries less eager as to the -impression made upon him by my metamorphosis from the pious dervish -into the European traveller. One fundamental error ran through all -these enquiries,--namely, the strange belief that my change had -been as sudden as that of the chrysalis to the butterfly. It was, -on the contrary, extremely gradual, and its various phases are the -more interesting, since they illustrate in a striking manner the -difference between Eastern and Western life. The history of my -transformation, in fact, deserves to be given in detail. - -I first met my Tartar, as I mentioned before, in Khiva. A Mollah, -young and animated with a desire for travelling, he was in search of -a companion on his journey to Mekka, and in the full belief to find -in me a Turk and a Mohamedan, the most suitable fellow-traveller, -he at once attached himself to me with the utmost ardour and -devotion. During the early part of our acquaintance he saw in me -merely the learned Mollah, the wild zealot, whom he approached with -the greatest veneration, listening most attentively to every word -that fell from my lips. Such was the relation that existed between -us throughout our journey to Bokhara, Samarkand, and Karshi, as far -as the banks of the Oxus. Here I became more confidential towards -him: occasionally I put off somewhat the disguise of my affected -sanctity; we grew more and more intimate by degrees; our slender -store of provisions was put into one common bag, and as he was -thoroughly honest and true-hearted, his sincere and loyal friendship -became a great support and comfort to me on my solitary and perilous -journey. Only slowly, and with difficulty, could he accustom himself -to a real and mutual intimacy; and on our begging expeditions he -would take upon himself, as his own undisputed task, to collect the -heavy contributions, such as wood, flour, &c., whilst he left to me -the less onerous business of collecting the pence. In the evening -he made it his duty to prepare the supper, and, after having served -the rice on a piece of rag or a board, it was always a matter of -conscience with him not to touch it until I had twice helped myself -with my hands. I do not know whether veneration or conscience -inspired him with this excessive respect, but, be the cause what it -may, he invariably shrank from placing himself in a position of -equality. Not wishing to spoil his pleasure, I therefore let him do -exactly as he pleased. - -On our journey from the Oxus to Herat, my feigned devoutness visibly -decreased in exact proportion as the distance between me and fanatic -Bokhara kept increasing. Prayers, ablutions, pious meditations--all -became less frequent. My Tartar, no doubt, observed this, but it did -not seem to trouble him, and he accommodated himself ungrudgingly to -his master. His questions on religion were fewer, but he listened -instead with more eager attention to my descriptions and narratives -of the foreign land of the 'Frengi,' and the pictures I drew of -those marvellous countries of the West. Such lectures as these were -usually delivered during our night marches, when we were riding -alone in intimate converse, and at some distance from the caravan. -The pleasure I felt in being able to talk of my beloved West in a -barbarous country, surrounded as I was with dangers in so doing, was -not greater than my Tartar's astonishment when he heard that there -were towns more beautiful than Bokhara, and countries where it was -possible to travel without fear of robbers or of dying with thirst. -He was especially struck when I assured him that the 'Frengis,' so -far from being the savage, pitiless cannibals, such as they had -been represented to him, possessed heart and feeling, and that they -were infinitely superior to their reputed character in the East. -Under different circumstances he might have doubted the truth -of my assertions; but as I, the Efendi, his teacher and master, -assured him of these facts, he placed implicit belief in all I told -him. No wonder that I was pleased with his thirst for knowledge -and his loyalty, and that I in return became greatly attached to -my young Tartar. Moreover, he kept as much as possible aloof from -the other Central Asiatics, his countrymen, uniting himself more -closely to my society. As soon as I perceived--which I could not -fail to do before long--that something could be made of the young -man, I resolved not to let him leave me, but, if possible, to take -him with me to Europe. If such was my determination long before we -came to Herat, it was still further strengthened by the brilliant -proofs of his attachment and fidelity which he showed to me during -our residence in this town. Here, as is already known, my sufferings -and privations reached their climax. Totally without means, I had -not unfrequently to bear all the torments of hunger; and whenever, -at this advanced season of the year, the cold prevented my sleeping -during the night, it was my young Tartar who honestly shared with -me his poor thin rags, in order to procure for me a warmer covering -and a quiet sleep. During these six weeks that we spent in Herat we -suffered, indeed, greatly; but I tried to strengthen the courage -of my companion by assuring him that we should meet with certain -help in Persia. The idea that a pious Sunnite should fare well in -the heretical country of the Shiites, appeared to him sufficiently -droll; but the child-like innocence of his heart, and his unaffected -confidence in me, prevented his making any further conjectures. He -looked, like myself, with intense longing to the frontiers of Iran, -and the capital of Khorassan. - -At last we arrived in Meshed. The hearty friendship of the English -officer here, and his kindness towards me as well as my companion, -were at first a great puzzle to my Tartar. He knew Dolmage was -a Frengi;--what strange thoughts must have crossed his mind, in -his astonishment at seeing me, the pious Mohamedan, his "chef -spirituel," sit for hours in the company of an unbeliever, talking -with him in a foreign language, nay, eating with him out of one -and the same dish. The servants of the English officer, and indeed -every one in the town, repeatedly declared to him their opinion that -his master was a Frengi in disguise. He shuddered at the thought, -and although he heard these suspicions with feelings of anger and -indignation, yet he never questioned me on this point, and his -firm faith in me remained unshaken. Moreover, his attachment to me -naturally increased, from finding in me at all times a friend and -protector, especially on our journey to Teheran, when, on account of -his Tartar costume, he had frequently to encounter the ill-will of -the vindictive Shiites. On my part, again, it was, I consider, no -small risk, to travel for a whole month alone with this man, to pass -whole nights alone with him in desolate spots. Let one single evil -thought arise in his heart, and it would have been an easy matter -for him to kill me during my noon-day slumbers on the open road, -and, carrying with him my horses, weapons and money, to escape into -the desert, northward to the Turkomans. But I never harboured any -such suspicion. Fully confiding in him, I entrusted to his charge my -musket, sword and horse; when tired and fatigued I stretched myself -out upon the sand and slept soundly and securely, whilst he acted -as sentinel; for at the very beginning of our acquaintance I had -discovered that he had a true heart, and I cannot say that I have -ever once been mistaken in this respect. - -It was in Shahrud where he saw me for a second time embrace an -unbeliever. He was struck by it, and said: "My master, thou art -truly wise, in always associating with the Frengis; for these -Persians, although they believe in the Koran and in Mohammed, -are, by heaven! a hundred times worse than the unbelievers!" On -this occasion he expressed to me also, after having met a second -Englishman, his surprise at finding these Frengis, both "outwardly -and inwardly, such agreeable persons," and yet he found it difficult -to approach them. He would stare at them and scrutinize them for -hours, proving clearly that, although he had partly got rid of his -deeply-rooted prejudices, a certain degree of shyness and reserve -was still clinging to him. - -During the latter part of our march towards the Persian capital, -my joyous feelings occasionally woke within me some long-forgotten -song or melody. I began first to whistle, and then to sing, popular -airs of certain operas. Whistling is not practised in the East, and -regarded as extremely frivolous and indecorous; nevertheless, he -was greatly pleased with the charming melodies from the Troubadour, -Lucia, and others. He asked me with great naïveté, whether in Mekka -people recited the Koran with these accompaniments, and was greatly -astonished when I replied in the negative. - -It was at the post station of Ahuan for the first time he heard me -called by my European name. This name touched the tenderest fibres -of his heart, and no doubt he struggled long and painfully before -he found the courage to question me. I replied, that I would give -him an answer in Teheran, and this set him at rest for a time. On -my arrival in Teheran, I lodged with my old friends in the Turkish -embassy. The young Efendis, who represented the Sultan, were -fashionable European diplomatists, bearing the signs of Frengiism in -far stronger colours than myself. This lessened his suspicions; and -when I enlightened him on the modern civilization of his Sunnitic -brethren in the West, he gradually became aware of the immense gulf -between Stamboul and Bokhara. He was told of the continuous efforts -of the Osmanlis to assimilate themselves as much as possible to -the Western countries and their culture, and he could not help -following this example himself. If we take into account, that he saw -and heard nothing but what was good and excellent of the few Frengis -whom he had hitherto had the opportunity of knowing, it was natural -that his hatred and his prejudices should vanish day by day. - -In Teheran he made the acquaintance of a countryman of mine, Mr. -Szántó, who frequently came to see me, and with whom he was soon -on terms of intimacy. Szántó told him with no small joy, that he -and his master (he meant me) were the only Magyars in Persia. The -Magyars, moreover, the philologizing tailor added, are the kindred -of the Osmanlis,--a statement the Tartar felt surprised at, but -which did not exactly disquiet him, our long intercourse and -friendship reconciling him to all he saw and heard. And seeing in me -more affection and kindness than in the genuine Turk, the trifling -difference as to nationality troubled him very little. He roved -about cheerfully in Teheran, making himself acquainted with the -manners and language of the Persians, and was extremely glad, when, -after a residence of several weeks, we were saddling our horses once -more for our journey to Constantinople. - -Hitherto no other plan had been talked of, but that he was to -accompany me as far as Constantinople, and from thence go on to -Mekka by Alexandria. But soon I perceived that this original plan -no longer pleased him, and that he intended to do otherwise. -Our life in the Turkish embassy in Teheran, where everything was -arranged after the European manner, and our frequent intercourse -with other embassies, had shown him a part of Western life in a -very pleasant aspect, and awakened in him the desire to visit with -me these wonderful countries. Nor is it difficult to understand how -his original longing, to prostrate himself upon the grave of the -holy Prophet, receded more and more into the background. His sound -understanding was not long in penetrating this religious humbug; -and, having naturally a great love for adventure, he soon resolved, -instead of the illustrious Mekka, to go and visit Frengistan, a -country formerly thought of with dread and detestation. - -I pretended not to observe what was passing in his mind, and putting -him on shore at Constantinople, I was about to take leave of him, -after having amply provided him with money. The young Tartar looked -at me fixedly with tears in his eyes, and in spite of the sight of -the proud minaret, in spite of the crowd of orthodox worshippers who -surrounded him here on every side, he felt constrained to say to me, -in a voice trembling with emotion, and interrupted by frequent sobs: -"Efendi, do not leave me here behind alone. Thou hast brought me -from Turkestan into this strange land: I know here no one but thee. -I follow thee, gladly, whithersoever thou goest!"--"What, wilt thou -come with me to Frengistan?" I asked him; "from thence it is very -far to Mekka; there are no mosques and public baths, no Mussulman -food; how wilt thou live there?" For a moment he seemed perplexed; -but after a brief silence he replied: "The Frengis are such good and -kind people; I should like to see their country; and afterwards I -will return to Stamboul." I required no more. Fully understanding -the character of my Central Asiatic friend, I embarked with him -once more on the shore of the Bosphorus, and in three days he was -already upon a steamer on the Danube, surrounded by Europeans, and -on his way to the not far distant capital of Hungary. On board the -steamer I found him often absorbed in thought. Not yet venturing to -taste European food, he gazed at everything around him with a shy -timidity, but gradually he grew accustomed to the novelty of the -scene, and a few days later he promenaded the streets of Pesth in -Bokhara costume. During the first few days he could scarcely find -words, so full was he of amazement. Everything, indeed, appeared to -him like an enchantment. He admired all he saw, from the square-hewn -paving stones in the streets to the lofty buildings and towers; -and it can easily be imagined what singular, and at times comical, -remarks he made;--he, the son of the desert, in the midst of one -of the first cities in Europe. He was much struck with the quick -walking of people in the streets, and the rapid movements of the -vehicles; but, above all, the women arrested his attention; and he -could not understand how the Frengi, clever and sensible people -as they are, could allow their women-folk to appear in public in -such clumsy and uncouth attire, and without any protection. In the -day time I often saw him standing by the telegraph wires, listening -to the sounds that passed along them. At night he would stare at -the gas lamps, full of curiosity to discover whether it was the -iron that was burning. At the hotel, the luxury and magnificence -that surrounded him filled him with astonishment. Judging of every -person he met by his dress, he regarded every one as some mighty -lord or potentate, and frequently exclaimed: "Oh! this is a happy -country! Here seems to be not a single poor man!" He soon grew -accustomed to the looks of curiosity that followed him wherever he -went. His former dread of the Frengi had entirely disappeared; he -had a pleasant face for every one, and frequently entered eagerly -into conversation with the first person he met, forgetting, in his -characteristic manner, that no one could understand him; and he -would go on talking to his heart's content, without being in the -least disturbed by the surprise exhibited by those he was thus -addressing. - -I should most gladly have taken him on with me to London, had I -not deemed it better for him to leave him for the while behind -in Hungary. A friend of mine, who lived in the country, received -him kindly into his house; and when, after a year's absence, I -returned from England, I was not a little surprised to find my -young Tartar dressed in the Hungarian costume, and, instead -of the turban, with his hair nicely curled and trimmed, with a -rather droll air and demeanour, and a certain stiff gravity in -his manner. He had learned the Hungarian language in a very short -time; he was everywhere liked and heartily welcomed, and when, for -the first time, I saw him smartly dressed, and with gloves on his -hands, talking most courteously and earnestly to a lady in her -drawing-room, I could scarcely refrain from laughter. Two years ago -a Mollah of a Medresse, he is now grown into half a dandy:--in truth -what cannot be made of an Oriental? Being able to write as well as -speak Hungarian, my friends kindly procured him an appointment as -assistant-librarian in the Academy, which position he fills at the -present moment. When I question him about his new life, and talk -to him of the difference between Eastern and Western manners and -habits, I find that his past life floats like a dream across his -mind, which he cherishes only as a distant reminiscence, but which -he would not on any account exchange for his present existence. -He rarely feels any longing for his native home, and he loves our -Western civilisation for the following reasons. In the first place, -he is particularly pleased with the perfect security that society -affords to the individual, and the absence of any arbitrary tyranny -on the part of the Government. In Central Asia a man's bare life is -not safe on the roads from robbers; in the towns he is threatened -with constant danger from the barbarous decrees of the authorities. -The frequent cruel executions, the desolating civil wars in his -country, have never struck him until now, when he has become aware -how thousands of persons come in daily contact with each other, -without quarrels, fighting, or bloodshed ensuing--all consequences -of frequent occurrence in his native country. Secondly, the comfort -which Europeans enjoy, at once benefits and captivates him. He finds -the house of a simple citizen better appointed than the palace of -his sovereign. The cleanliness in dress and food, the reciprocal -offices of kindness and courtesies of society, are magnets which -attract him and make him forget his rude and uncivilised home. -Thirdly, it is a special delight to him to find that the various -differences of religion and nationality are scarcely ever felt here, -whilst in the East they form the strongest barriers between man and -man. With him at home the mere notion of visiting the country of the -Frengi would have been certain death, and now he lives in the very -heart of their land, not only without encountering hostility, but -actually received with cordiality and affection. - -With regard to his feelings on Islamism, his own speculations had -already in some degree enlightened him. He observed that the nearer -he approached the West, the more Mahometan fanaticism decreased, -and as he, in proportion with its decrease, drew nearer and nearer -to humanity and order, he could not help suspecting very soon that -Islamism, or at least the Islamism he knew and confessed, was the -declared enemy of civilisation and refinement of life, such as he -met with in Europe. He has never yet uttered a word of aversion or -reproach when referring to the doctrines of the Arabian prophet, -but his subtle and speculative theories sufficiently indicate that -a strong revolution has been wrought within him. Without wishing to -assign the cause of this great contrast between the East and the -West solely to the influence of Christianity, he has, nevertheless, -arrived so far in his conclusions as to comprehend that our western -culture and mode of life are incompatible with the teachings of -Mahomet. He has never yet distinctly expressed to me his preference -of either one or the other religion, and it will probably be long -before he will venture to give expression to any thought of the -kind. His allusions and fragmentary remarks, however, prove that his -mind is occupied with questions of this nature, and that the great -struggle with himself has begun. - -Such, indeed, is the history of every Mussulman, whether Tartar, -Arab, Persian, or Turk, as soon as he becomes thoroughly acquainted -with our western civilisation--a complete transformation but seldom -occurs. The highly important question, whether the civilisation of -the East or West is the better--whether the teaching of Christ or -of Mohammed is the true religion, will long remain undecided by -the nations of Asia;--nay, so long, I feel inclined to say, as the -rays of the sun produce with us a temperate, with them a burning, -heat; so long as distance separates the east and the west. Were it -possible to bring the doctrines of Christianity more into conformity -with their views, by setting aside those of the Incarnation and the -Trinity, and were these tenets, thus modified, put into the place -of the Koran, an opportunity might be presented of a small, but -only a very small, step in advance. I say advisedly a small step, -since Christianity, though sprung from an Eastern soil, has long -ago proved to be a plant which can only flourish in the West. And -who would deny that the Koran and Vedas, created as they are by -an Eastern mind and in the spirit of Eastern nations, are prized -and revered by them above everything besides? Their disappearance -would bring new and similar productions into existence. I venture -almost to assert that the Christian tenets would, after a time, -become transformed, on Eastern soil, into a sort of Koran or Vedas, -in order to be the typical embodiment of oriental sentiment, and -be recognised by orientals as their real and peculiar property. -Are not the Nestorians, Armenians, and other followers of the -Eastern Church, all disciples of Christianity? but as great as the -difference is between them and their co-religionists in Europe, so -little do they differ in their mode of thought, their feelings, and -views of life, from their Mohammedan fellow-countrymen in the East. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE ROUND OF LIFE IN BOKHARA. - - -"Hadji! Thou hast, I am sure, seen many countries--tell me now, -is there another city in the world in which it is so agreeable to -reside as Bokhara?" Such was the inquiry with which I was frequently -greeted in the Tartar capital, even by men who had already several -times visited India, Persia, and Turkey. My answer upon these -occasions it is not of course difficult to divine. Questions of a -nature so delicate are an embarrassment to the traveller when he -is in Paris, London, or St. Petersburg, just as much as when he -is in Constantinople, Teheran, or Bokhara. One encounters egotism -everywhere. - -Bokhara, the focus of Tartar civilization, possesses beyond a doubt -much to remind one of a capital, particularly when a man enters it -as a traveller, coming immediately from a journey of many weeks -through deserts and solitudes. As for the luxury of its dwellings, -its dresses, and manner of living, that hardly merits attention at -all when compared with what is to be seen in the cities of Western -Asia. Still it has its peculiarities, which prevent one wondering so -much that habit and partiality dispose the Bokhariot to be proud of -his native city. - -The houses, built of mud and wood, present, with their crooked -paintless walls, a gloomier appearance than the dwellings of other -Mohammedan cities. On entering the court through the low gateway, -one fancies oneself in a fortress. On all the sides there are high -walls, which serve as a protection, not so much against thieves as -against the amatory oglings of intriguing neighbours. In Bokhara, -the most shameless sink of iniquity that I know in the East, a -glance even from a distance is regarded as dishonouring! The -number of the separate apartments varies with the fortune of the -proprietor. The more important part of them comprises the harem, -styled here Enderun (the inner penetralia), the smaller room for -guests, and the hall for receptions. This last is the most spacious, -as well as the most ornamented apartment in the house, and, like -the other rooms, has a double ceiling, with a space between used as -a store-room. The floor is paved with bricks and stones, and has -only carpets round the sides near the walls. Rectangular stones, -which have been hollowed out, are placed in a corner--a comfortable -contrivance enabling the owner to perform the holy ablutions in the -room itself. This custom is met with in no other Mohammedan country. -The walls have no particular decorations; those, however, which are -nearest to Mekka are painted with flowers, vases, and arabesques -of different kinds. The windows are mere openings, each with a pair -of shutters. Glass is seen nowhere, and few take the trouble to use -paper smeared with fat as a substitute. Articles of furniture, still -rarities throughout the East, are here scarcely known by name; but -this need not excite surprise, for often have I heard Orientals who -have visited Europe exclaim: "Is not that a stupid custom among the -Frengi, that they so crowd their handsome, spacious rooms with such -a heap of tables, sofas, chairs, and other things, that they have -hardly place left to seat themselves in any comfort!" Of course -meaning on the ground. - -The expenditure upon the wardrobe is on a footing with the style of -each house and its arrangement. Cloth is rarely met with: it serves -for presents from the Khan to his officials of high rank. Different -qualities of the Aladja (cotton) are employed by all classes, from -king to dervish, for winter and summer. Although the Bokhariot -over-garment has the form of a night-dress extending down to the -ankles, still it is subject from time to time to little innovations -as to cut, sleeve, collar, and trimming, in accordance with the -fashion of the moment, which is as much respected in Bokhara as in -Paris. A dandy in the former city takes especial care to have his -turban folded according to the idea in force at the moment, as an -evidence of good taste. He sees particularly to his shawl, by which -he binds his trousers round the loins, and to his koshbag suspended -to that shawl. The koshbag is a piece of leather consisting of -several tongues, to which are fastened a knife or two, a small -tea-bag, a miswak (toothpick), and a leathern bag for copper money. -These articles constitute the indispensables of a Central Asiatic, -and by the quality and value of each is a judgment formed of the -character and breeding of the man. - -Whoever may wish to see the _haute volée_, the fashionable world of -Bokhara, should post himself on a Friday, between ten and twelve -o'clock in the forenoon, in the street leading from Deri Rigistan -to the Mesdjidi Kelan, or great mosque. At this time the Ameer, -followed by his grandees, in great state, betakes himself to his -Friday's devotions. All are in their best attire, upon their -best horses; for these, with their splendid housings, serve as -substitutes for carriages. The large, stiff, silken garments of -staring colours are in striking contrast with the high and spurred -boots. But what produces a particularly comic effect is the loose -and waddling gait which all pedestrians studiously put on. Reftari -khiraman (the waddling or trotting step), which Oriental poets find -so graceful, comparing it to the swaying movement of the cypress -when agitated by the zephyrs, and whose attainment is the subject of -careful study in Persia as well as Bokhara, to us Europeans seems -like the gait of a fatted goose floundering on his way home. But -this is no subject for me to jest upon, for our stiff, rapid pace is -just as displeasing to an Oriental eye, and it would not be very -polite to mention the comparison they make use of with respect to us. - -It does not excite less wonder on our part when we see the men in -Bokhara clad in wide garments of brilliant colour, whereas the women -wear only a dress that is tight to the shape, and of a dark hue. For -in this city, where the civilization has retained with the greatest -fidelity its antique stamp of Oriental Islamism, women, ever the -martyrs of Eastern legislation, come in for the worst share. - -In Turkey the contact with Christian elements has already introduced -many innovations, and the Yaschmak (veil) is rather treated as -part of the toilette than as the ensign of slavery. In Persia the -women are tolerably well muffled up, still they wear the Tchakshur -(pantaloons and stockings in one piece) of brilliant colouring and -silken texture, and the Rubend (a linen veil with network for the -eyes) is ornamented with a clasp of gold. In Bokhara, on the other -hand, there is not a trace of tolerance. The women wear nothing that -deserves to be named full dress or ornament. When in the streets, -they draw a covering over their heads, and are seen clad in dark -gowns of deep blue, with the empty sleeves hanging suspended to -their backs, so that observed from behind, the fair ones of Bokhara -may be mistaken for clothes wandering about. From the head down to -the bosom they wear a veil made of horsehair, of a texture which we -in Europe would regard as too bad and coarse for a sieve, and the -friction of which upon cheek or nose must be anything but agreeable. -Their _chaussures_ consist of coarse heavy boots, in which their -little feet are fixed, enveloped in a mass of leather. Such a -costume is not in itself attractive; but even so attired, they dare -not be seen too often in the streets. Ladies of ranks and good -character never venture to show themselves in any public place or -bazaar. Shopping is left to the men; and whenever any extraordinary -emergency obliges a lady to leave the house and to pay visits, it is -regarded as _bon ton_ for her to assume every possible appearance of -decrepitude, poverty, and age. - -To send forth a young lady in her eighteenth or twentieth year, -in all the superabundant energy of youth, supported upon a stick, -and thus muffled up, in the sole view that the assumption of the -characteristics of advanced life may spare her certain glances, may -be justly deemed the _ne plus ultra_ of tyranny and hypocrisy. These -erroneous notions of morality are to be met with, more or less, -everywhere in the East; but nowhere does one find such striking -examples of Oriental exaggeration as in that seat of ancient -Islamite civilization, Bokhara. In Constantinople, as well as other -cities of Turkey, there are certain Seir-yeri (promenades), where -ladies appear in public. In Teheran, Ispahan, and Shiraz, it is -the custom for the Hanims, _en grande toilette_, and mounted on -magnificent horses, to make excursions to the places of pilgrimage -situate in the environs of those cities. The tomb of the Said is the -place of rendezvous, and instead of prayers, reciprocal declarations -of love are not seldom made. In Bokhara, on the contrary, there -is not a shadow of all this. Never have I seen there a man in the -company of his wife. The husband slinks away from his other half, or -third, or fourth, as the case may be; and it is a notorious fact, -that when the wives of the Ameer pass by any place, all men are -expected to beat a hasty retreat. Under such circumstances it is -easy to see how society must constitute itself, and what shapes it -must assume. Where the two sexes are so separated, it can never put -on an appearance of gladness and geniality; all becomes compulsion -and hypocrisy; every genuine sentiment is crushed by these unnatural -laws which are imposed as God's ordinances, and as such expected to -be observed with the strictest obedience. - -To study that part of their lives which is before the public eye, -we must first pay a visit to the tea-booths, which are the resorts -of all classes. The Bokhariot, and the remark applies indeed -universally to all Central Asiatics, can never pass by a second or -third tea-booth without entering, unless his affairs are very urgent -indeed. As I before mentioned, every man carries with him his little -bag of tea: of this, on his entry, he gives a certain portion to -the landlord, whose business is rather to deal in hot water than in -tea. During day-time, and particularly in public places, the only -tea drunk is green tea, which is served without sugar, and with the -accompaniment of a relish or two, consisting of little cakes made of -flour and mutton suet; for the making of these Bokhara is famous. -As any attempt to cool tea by blowing upon it, however urgent on -account of its heat some such process may be, is regarded as highly -indecorous--nay, as an unpardonable offence--the Central Asiatic is -wont to make it revolve for this purpose in the cup itself until the -temperature is tolerable. To pass for a man _comme il faut_, one -must support the right elbow in the left hand, and gracefully give -a circular movement to the cup; no drop must be spilt, for such an -awkwardness would much damage a reputation for _savoir faire_. The -Bokhariot can thus chatter away hours and hours, amidst his fellow -tea-drinkers; for the meaningless conversations that are maintained -weary him as little as the cup after cup of tea which he swallows. -It is known to a second how much time is required for each kind of -tea to draw. Every time the tea-pot is emptied, the tea-leaves that -have been used are passed round: etiquette forbids any one to take -more than he can hold between finger and thumb, for it is regarded -by connoisseurs as the greatest dainty. - -They seek to find amusements of a higher kind in excursions to the -environs of the city. These are made sometimes to the tombs of the -saints; sometimes to the convents of certain Ishans (sheiks), in -the odour of sanctity; sometimes to the Tchiharbag Abdullah Khan, -situate near the Dervaze Imam. The visit to a Khanka, that is to a -dignitary of religion still instinct with life, is an act of more -importance and involving greater outlay than the pilgrimage to a -grave. The sainted men, whether departed or still living, have -equally their fixed days for levées and receptions. In the former -case the descendants of his Sanctity receive the tribute, in the -latter a man has the good fortune to have his purse emptied by the -holy hands themselves. On the occasion of these formal visits the -Ishans are tuned to a higher pitch than ordinary, and as the holy -eye distinguishes at once by the exterior of the visitor the amount -of the offering that is to be received, so does that measure serve -to fix with precision how long or how short the benediction is to -be cut. Scenes of this kind, in which I performed my part as a -spectator, or stood by, were always full of interest to me; and one, -over which I have had many a hearty laugh, has made an indelible -impression upon my mind. In the environs of Bokhara, I entered -the residence of a sheikh to ask for his blessing and a little -assistance in money. Upon the first point no difficulty was made, -but the second seemed to stagger him. At this moment a Turkoman was -announced as an applicant for a Fatiha. He was allowed to enter. -His holiness made his hocus-pocus with the greatest devotion. The -Turkoman sat there like an innocent lamb, and after being subjected -to the influences of the sanctifying breath, energetically -administered, he dived into his money-bag, from which he extracted -some pieces of coin, and, without counting them, transferred them -to the hand of him from whom he had received the benediction. I -noticed that the latter rubbed the money betwixt his fingers, and -was really astounded when he beckoned to me, and without once -looking at the number of pieces, handed them over to me in the -presence of the Turkoman. That was real liberality, the reader may -say. I thought so myself until coming to the bazaar and seeking to -make a purchase from a baker, one of the coins was rejected by him -as false. I tendered the others, and they were all pronounced to be -bad--valueless. The nomad, as crafty as he was superstitious, had -paid for the spurious ware with spurious money, and as his holiness -on his side had at once detected the cheat by the touch, he had no -scruple in making it over to me. - -On the occasion of their excursions to the environs of the city, -persons of wealth are in the habit of taking with them their -tea-things, and a servant to prepare tea. Those who are not so -well off have recourse to establishments that are to be found at -these places of resort. Visitors evince just as much desire to -hide themselves, where possible, in the booths, as they do to -avoid encamping close to the road. As it is the approved custom to -invite every passer-by, be he of what rank he may, to take some -refreshment of food or drink, each host entertains an apprehension, -not unjustified by experience, lest those whom he accosts, not -content with returning for answer the ordinary word expressive -of gratitude--khosh (well)--may actually close at once with the -invitation. Still, not to give it is everywhere regarded as a -mean sin. Conditional acceptance only is usual in some places. -These rules of hospitality so exaggerated, and at the same time so -specious, operate oppressively and unpleasantly, both on him that -takes and him that gives; and the confounded, I might almost say the -aghast, air of the host who is taken at his word always produced -upon me the drollest effect. - -The spectacle which these private parties of pleasure generally -afford is one of no great gladness, they rather seem to produce a -deadly-lively effect. The significant joke, the peal of laughter, -the loud cry are, it is true, none of them wanting on these -occasions; but where the crown of society, woman, is absent, all -is in vain, and never can life assume its real aspect of genuine -enjoyment. - -If I do not err, it is the Tchiharbag Abdullah Khan that still -preserves most of the characters of a public place of entertainment. -It is a spot well shaded by lofty trees; a canal flows through it, -to whose banks the pupils of the numerous colleges and the young -men belonging to the wealthier classes, resort generally on Friday -afternoons. The inevitable tea-kettle is here again in requisition, -and tea is the article for which the place is renowned; but not -the only one, for the combats of rams are here celebrated also. -The savageness with which these sturdy animals rush against each -other when irritated, the fearful shock of their two heads, -particularly when they struggle to push their antagonists back, -present a spectacle very attractive to the inhabitant, not only of -Bokhara, but of every part of Central Asia. What the bull-fight is -in Spain, and horse-racing in England, these combats of rams are -in Turkestan. The rams are trained to this sport, and it is really -surprising how these brutes support with obstinacy often as many as -one hundred charges. When they first make their appearance on the -avenue, the bystanders begin to wager as to the number of shocks -their chosen champion will support. Sometimes the weaker combatant -beats a retreat; but very often the battle only ends with the entire -discomfiture of one animal, consequent upon the cracking of his -skull. It is a cruel spectacle; still the cruelty does not seem so -great in the middle of Tartary as some of the sports in which so -many civilised nations of the West still find amusement. - - * * * * * - -Let me now attempt to portray in the following slight sketch the -external mode of living in Bokhara. In the morning--I mean by the -term before sunrise, as by religious compulsion every man is an -early riser--one encounters people, half-asleep, and half-awake, -and half-dressed, hurrying one by one to the mosques: any delay in -arriving not only entails reproach, but is considered as meriting -punishment. The stir made by these devotees in running through -the streets rouses the houseless dogs from their lairs in the -out-of-the-way corners or upon the heaps of dung. These famished, -horrid-looking animals--yet contrasted with their Stambouli -brethren, presenting a princely appearance--are crying proofs of the -miserly nature of the Bokhariots. The poor creatures first struggle -to rear their gaunt frames, mere skin and bone, from sleep; then -they rub their rough, hairless carcases, against the mouldering -walls, and this toilette at an end, they start upon their hunt for -a _dejeûner à la fourchette_, for the most part made up of a few -fleshless bones or carrion, but very often of kicks in the ribs -administered by some compassionating and charitable inhabitant of -Bokhara. At the same time as the dogs, awake the hardly-better -lodged Parias of the Tartar capital--I mean the wretched men -afflicted with incurable and contagious skin diseases, who sit at -the corners of the streets _en famille_, and house in miserable -tents. In Persia they are met with, remote from cities and villages, -on the high roads; but here, owing to the absence of sanitary -regulations, they are tolerated in the middle of the city. Their -lot is far the most terrible to which any son of earth can have to -submit, and unhappily they are long livers too. Whilst the mother -is clothing her other accursed offspring with a scanty covering of -rags, the father seats himself with the most disfigured one amongst -them by the roadside, in order to solicit charity and alms from -those who pass. Charity and alms to prolong such an existence! - -After the sun has looked long enough upon this miserable spectacle, -the city in all its parts begins slowly to assume animation. The -people return in crowds from the mosques; they are encountered -on their way by troops of asses laden with wood, corn, grass, -large pails of milk, and dishes of cream, pressing from all the -city gates, and forcing their way in varied confusion through the -narrow and crooked streets. Screams of alarm from the drivers, the -reciprocal cries issuing from those who buy and those who sell, mix -with that mighty hee-haw of the asses for which Bokhara is renowned. -To judge by the first impression, it might be supposed that the -different drivers would be obliged to fish out their wood from -milk, their grass from cream, charcoal from corn, silkworm-cocoons -from skimmed milk. But no, nothing is spilt, nothing thrown down; -the drivers are wont to flog each other through in right brotherly -fashion, till in the end all arrives in safety at its destination. - -At an hour after sunrise the Bokhariot is already seated with his -cup of Schirtschaj (milk-tea): this beverage is composed of tea -made from bricks of tea in the form of Kynaster, and abundantly -flavoured with milk, cream, or mutton fat. This favourite drink of -the Tartars, in which large quantities of bread are broken, would be -more rightly described as a soup; and although the treat was highly -commended to me, I had great difficulty in getting accustomed to it. - -After tea begins the day's work, and then one remarks particular -activity in the streets. Porters loaded with great bales hurry to -the bazaar. These goods belong to the retail dealers, who every -evening pack up their shop and transport it to their own house. And -then a long chain of two-humped camels that have no burdens are -being led into the Karavanserai, destined to convey the produce of -Central Asia in every direction. Here, again, stands a heavily-laden -caravan from Russia, accompanied on its way by the prying eyes of -the custom-house officials and their cohorts, for those long bales -contain valuable productions of the industry of the unbelievers, -and are destined accordingly to be doubly taxed. Merchants of -all religions and from all nations run after the caravan; the -newly-arrived wares find customers even before they are unpacked, -and at such moments Afghans, Persians, Tadjiks, and Hindoos, seem -to get more excited than is the case even with the heroes of the -Exchange in Paris, Vienna, or Frankfort-on-the-Maine. The Kirghis -camel-driver, fresh from the desert, is the quietest of all; he -is lost in astonishment, and knows not whether most to admire the -splendour of the mud huts, the colour of the dresses, or the crowds -swaying to and fro. But the greatest source of amusement to me was -to observe how the Bokhariot, in his quality of inhabitant of a -metropolis, jeers at these nomads; how he is constantly on the -alert to place the rudeness of the sons of the desert in relief by -contrasting it with his own refinement and civilisation. Whilst the -bazaar life, with all its alarm, tumult, shrieks, cries, hammering, -scolding, and knocking, is in full force, the youths greedy of -knowledge swarm about the numerous Medresse (colleges), there to -learn to extract from their useless studies lessons of a more -exalted kind of stupidity and a more grovelling hypocrisy. - -The greatest interest attaches to the primary school posted in the -very centre of the bazaar, and often in the immediate neighbourhood -of between ten and fifteen coppersmiths' workshops. The sight of -this public school, in which a Mollah, surrounded by several rows of -children, gives his lessons in reading, in spite of the noise, is -really comical. That, in a place where sturdy arms are brandishing -hammers, hardly a single word is audible, we may readily suppose. -Teachers and pupils are as red in the face as turkey-cocks from -crying out, and yet nothing but the wild movement of the jaw and the -swelling of the veins indicate that they are studying.[17] - - [17] Schools thus placed in the middle of the bazaar are also met - with in Persia: these are the cheapest schools for children, still - it is incredible that the Orientals should suffer such a stupid - practice to exist, and that they do not remove these establishments - for instruction to some less disturbed situation. - -In the afternoon (I speak here of summer-time, for of the winters -I have no personal experience), there is more tranquillity both -in bazaar and street. On the banks of the water reservoir and of -the canals, the true believers are engaged in performing the holy -ablutions. Whilst one man is washing his feet from their layer of -sweat and dirt, his neighbour uses the same water for his face, and -a third does not scruple to quench his thirst with it. Water that -consists of more than one hundred and twenty pints is, according -to the texts of Islam, blind; which means that filth and dirt lose -themselves therein, and the orthodox have the privilege to enjoy -every abomination as a thing pure in itself. After a service in the -mosques, all becomes again animated; it is the second summons to -work during the day, for a period by no means so long. The Mussulman -population soon begin their evening holiday, whilst Jews and Hindoos -still remain busy. The former, who are for the most part employed in -the handicraft of silk dyers, move stealthily and timidly through -the streets, their spirits broken by their long and heavy servitude; -the latter run about like men possessed, and their bold bearing -shows that their home is not far off, and the time not so remote -when they also had a government of their own. - -It is now within three hours of sunset. The élite of society betake -themselves to the Khanka (convent), to enjoy a treat, semi-religious -and semi-literary. It consists in the public reading of the Mesnevi, -which is declaimed at that time of the day by an experienced reader -in the vestibule of the Khanka. This masterpiece of Oriental poesy -presents in its contemplations of terrestrial existence much -elevation of thought. Versification, language, metaphors, are, in -reality, full of charm and beauty; but the audience in Bokhara -are incapable of understanding it, and their enthusiasm is all -affectation. I often had seated at my side on these occasions a -man who, in his excitement, would emit deep-drawn sighs, and even -bellow like a bull. I was quite amazed; and when I afterwards -made enquiry as to his character, I heard that he was one of the -meanest of misers, the proprietor of many houses, yet ready to -make obeisance for even the smallest copper coin. No one is at all -inclined to adopt the sentiment he hears there as the rule of his -life, and still it is regarded as becoming to be deeply impressed -by the beauty of the expression. Every one knows that the sighs and -exclamation of his neighbour proceed from no genuine emotion, and -still all vie in these demonstrations of extraordinary feeling. - -Even before the last beams of the setting sun have lost themselves -in the wide waste of sand on the west, the Tartar capital begins -to repose. As the coolness commences, the stifling clouds of dust -subside. Where canals or water-reservoirs are near at hand, they are -rendered available--the ground is watered and then swept. The men -seat themselves in the shade to wait for the Ezan (evening prayer); -that heard, an absolute stillness ensues, and soon all are seated -before the colossal dish of pilau, and after they have well loaded -their stomachs with this heavy and greasy meal, any desire they -may have felt to leave the house is quite extinguished. Two hours -after sunset all the thoroughfares are as silent as death. No echo -is heard in the darkness of the night but the heavy tread of the -night-watchman making his rounds. These men are charged to put in -force the strictest police regulations against thieves and seekers -of love adventures; they scruple not to arrest any man, however -honourable his position, if his foot crosses his threshold after the -beat of the tattoo has issued its order that all the world should -sleep. - -What in this mode of town life so pleases the Bokhariot--what makes -him give so marked a preference to his own capital--is not difficult -to divine. His mind has become familiarized with a simple mode of -living, in which, as yet, little luxury is to be found, and which, -in externals, admits not much perceptible distinction between -ranks and conditions of men. A universal acquiescence in the same -poverty, or to use a more appropriate expression, the absence of -different degrees of visible property, makes Bokhara, in the eye -of many Asiatics, a favourite residence. I once met a Persian in -Teheran who had been a slave in Bokhara fifteen years. And there, -in the middle of his fatherland, and surrounded by his relatives, -he sighed and pined for the Tartar capital. At the outset he was -delighted with the bazaars, filled with articles of European luxury; -he contemplated them with childish delight; but later he saw how -the wealthier alone made their purchases, and how all despised a -man like him, clad in a cotton dress, the costume of the poor. No -wonder his wish carried him again back to the spot where, at the -time unconscious of his happiness, he was permitted to share great -physical comfort, without a thorn in his eye or a pang in his heart. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -BOKHARA, THE HEAD QUARTERS OF MOHAMMEDANISM. - - "Bokhara, mirevi divanei - Laiki zen djiri zindankhanei." - - Thou wilt to Bokhara? O fool for thy pains, - Thither thou goest, to be put into chains. - - MESNEVI. - - -It has frequently been noticed by travellers in Central Asia, and -we have likewise remarked upon it, that Bokhara considers itself -the great pillar of Islamism, and the only pure fountain of the -Mohammedan religion. Nor is it the Bokhariots alone who take this -view, but all the rest of the Mohammedan world, in whatever region -or country, unite in looking up to and extolling the Turkestan -capital for possessing this exclusive privilege. The pilgrim from -Central Asia, whether travelling in Asia Minor, Arabia, or Egypt, is -received with marked veneration and respect, and is regarded as the -very embodiment of every Islamitic virtue. The western Mohammedan, -especially the Osmanli, deeply wounded by the innovations our -civilization has introduced into his native country, turns to his -kinsman and co-religionist from the far East, and gazing at him with -a look of extreme piety, finds comfort at the aspect of him, who -in his eyes still represents the religion of the Prophet, pure and -undefiled. Heaving a sigh, he exclaims: "Ha Bokharai Sherif!" (yes, -the noble Bokhara), which utterance is meant to express his whole -mind. - -The difference that exists between Eastern and western Mohammedanism -in Asia is indeed a remarkable phenomenon, and deserves a closer -examination. Upon my asking the Mollahs in Bokhara how it happened -that they were better Mohammedans than the people in Mekka and -Medina, where Mohammed had actually lived and taught, they answered: -that "the torch, although sending its light into the far distance, -is always dark at the foot,"--Mekka being meant by the foot of the -torch, and Bokhara the far distance. In an allegorical sense this -may be correct, but Europeans are not silenced by similes of that -sort; and, since the fact deserves attention, we will endeavour -to ascertain, first--the essential points of the difference in -question; and, secondly--the causes for it. Upon examining in -detail the various points of contrast between Eastern and Western -Mohammedanism, the chief characteristic feature is, no doubt, the -wild fanatic obstinacy with which the Mussulman, in the far East, -clings to every single point of the Koran and the traditions, -looking with terror and aversion, in the true spirit of the -Oriental, upon any innovation; and, in a word, directing all his -efforts to the preservation of his religion at that precise standard -which marked its existence in the happy period (Vakti Seadet) of -the Prophet and the first califs. This standard, however, is not -sufficiently apparent, since Islamism, in those countries, has -assumed a form such as a few eccentric interpreters among the -Sunnites desire, but which, so far as our knowledge extends, _has -never existed in reality_. - -Fanaticism, the chief cause of hypocrisy and impiety, has disfigured -every religion, so long as mankind, living in the infancy of -civilization, has been unable to perceive the pure light of the -true faith. All nations and all countries have given proof of its -existence, but nowhere does it appear in such glaring colours, or -wear such a disgusting aspect, as in the East. Here, religion, -in order to improve the mind, deals chiefly with the body; here, -in order to exercise moral influence, the devotee is occupied -with physical trifling, and, neglecting the inner man, as may be -supposed, every one strives for outward appearance and effect. In -Bokhara the principle reigns paramount: "Man must make a figure,--no -one cares for what he thinks." A man may be the greatest miscreant, -the most reprobate of human creatures; but let him fulfil the -outward duties of religion and he escapes all punishment in this as -well as in the next world. - -The very popular prayer of the thief Abdurrahman (Duai-duzd -Abdurrahman) illustrates most strikingly this opinion. It consists -of about fifteen to twenty sentences, and its substance is as -follows: "When the Prophet (the blessing of God be upon him!) -lived in Medina, he went one afternoon upon the terrace of his -house, in order to perform his devotions. He looked about with his -blessed eyes and saw in his part of the town a funeral procession -pass through the streets, followed only by a few persons, and the -coffin surrounded by a marvellous brilliancy, not unlike a sea of -rosy light. As soon as he had finished his prayer he hastened to -the spot, joined the funeral procession, and saw, to his great -amazement, that the shine did not leave the coffin, even when -let down into the grave. The Prophet could not recover from his -surprise; he went to the wife of the deceased, and asked what and -who her husband had been. 'Alas!' she answered, with tears, 'God be -merciful unto him, his death is a blessing to all, for throughout -his life he was a highwayman and murderer; and the tears of widows -and orphans he has caused to flow, are more than the water he has -drunk. He lived only to cause unhappiness to others. I have often -remonstrated with him, but in vain. He lived as a sinner, and as a -sinner he died!' 'What!' exclaimed the Prophet, with ever-increasing -astonishment, 'Did he possess no single good quality, has he never -shown repentance?' 'Alas, no!' she sobbed out; 'the only thing he -used to do every evening after his wicked daily work, was to read -over these few lines (and she showed the prayer), and then fell -asleep, and woke to sin anew on the morrow.' The Prophet looked -at the prayer, and recognising at once its marvellous efficacy, -he has left it behind to exercise the same virtue upon all -orthodox Mussulmen." The moral drawn from this narrative needs no -explanation; and it is easy to imagine how many Central Asiatics, -furnished with such a recipe, _à la Tetzel_, will commit the most -atrocious deeds, and retain withal the consciousness of being pious -and religious men. - -What strikes a European most of all, in seeing this principle of -outward formulas reduced to practice, are the laws of cleanliness, -which, in Central Asia, are observed with strict and scrupulous -exactness, although, as is well known, the most disgusting -filthiness is to be met with. By the Mohammedan law the body becomes -unclean after each evacuation, and requires an ablution, according -to circumstances, either a small (abdest) or a great one (gusl). -The same has to be observed with respect to the clothes, which are -subjected to a purification if touched by the smallest drop of -water.[18] The cleaning of the body is strictly performed amongst -all Mussulmen; nor, on the whole, is the law about the clothes lost -sight of; but I have never seen people in the West of Asia, as in -Bokhara, repeat their prayers stark-naked, from a religious scruple, -that their clothes might have been defiled without the eye having -detected it. It is extremely ridiculous, that in any religion, as is -the case in the Mohammedan, whole volumes should be written as to -the manner in which its followers are to cleanse their body after -each large or small evacuation. The law, for instance, commands the -istindjah (removal), istinkah (ablution), and istibra (drying), -_i.e._, a small clod of earth is first used for the local cleansing, -then water, at least twice, and finally a piece of linen, a yard in -length, in order to destroy every possible trace. In Turkey, Arabia, -and Persia, only one of these acts is performed,--the istinkah; but -in Central Asia all three are considered necessary; and in order to -prove the high standard of their piety, zealous Mohammedans carry -three or four such clods of earth, cut with a knife that is used for -no other purpose besides, in their turbans, to have a small store -at hand. This commandment is often carried out quite publicly in -the bazaars, from a desire to make parade of their conscientious -piety. I shall never forget the revolting scene, when I saw one -day a teacher give to his pupils, boys and girls, instructions -in the handling of the clod of earth, linen and so forth, by way -of experiment. It never occurs to any one that such a tenet is -disgraceful, nor does any body perceive that these extremes of -physical cleanliness lead directly to the extremes of moral impurity. - - [18] In the eyes of Eastern people, dogs and Europeans are classed - together, as making water against the wall. Throughout the East - people squat down during the action, for fear lest in a standing - position a drop might touch and thus pollute their clothes. - -The extreme severity with which the law of the Harem is executed in -Bokhara, is looked for in vain among the Western Mohammedans, or -even among the fanatic sect of the Wahabites. This law, so contrary -to nature, has necessarily been the cause of a certain vice equally -contrary to nature, and which, although it exists among Turks, Arabs -and Persians, is confined within a comparatively narrow limit, and -condemned as a "despicable sin" by the interpreters of the Koran as -well as by public opinion. In Central Asia, especially in Bokhara -and Khokand, this atrocious crime is carried to a frightful extent, -and the religious of these countries considering it a protection -against any transgression of the law of the Harem, and declaring it -to be _no_ sin, marriages _à la Tiberius_ have become quite popular; -nay, fathers feel not the smallest compunction in surrendering their -sons to a friend or acquaintance for a certain annual stipend. Our -pen refuses to describe this disgusting vice in its full extent; but -even the few hints we have thrown out are sufficient to show the -abyss of crime to which an exaggerated religious fanaticism degrades -mankind. - -It is just the same with the prohibition of spirituous liquors. -The Koran commands not only abstinence from wine, but from all -intoxicating drinks, for this reason, that a state of intoxication -would be attended by neglect of prayer, or of any other pious duty. -The Western Mohammedans interpret this commandment as referring only -to wine (sharab) in the strict sense of the word, and consider -drinking arak (brandy) already a much less offence; many, indeed, -are of opinion, that since it has not been expressly mentioned in -the Koran, it would not be regarded as a sin to drink it with water. -In Turkey and Persia brandy is as much in favour among the better -educated classes, as wodki in Russia; but in Bokhara both brandy -and wine are very rarely met with. Even those who do not confess -the Mohammedan religion, such as Jews and Hindoos, cannot drink it -except clandestinely, and the mere pronouncing the words sharab and -arak, is a sin in the eyes of the orthodox. With facts like these -one would expect the greatest sobriety among the people, but alas! -how terrible is the substitute hypocrisy has invented! - -The Central Asiatics make a distinction between fluid and solid -spirits. The former are strictly forbidden, whilst the latter, by -which all narcotics are understood, are looked upon as perfectly -innocent. The famous opium-eaters of Constantinople, who, at the -present day almost extinct, were seen daily, at the beginning of the -century, in the notorious square of Direkalti, and admired by all -passers-by--the various hashish-eaters in Egypt--the lovers of the -comparatively harmless teryak in Persia,--all these are as nothing -in comparison with the bengis[19] of Central Asia. - - [19] Beng is the name of the poison which is produced from the - canabis indica. - -In the first-named countries opium has a rival in "pater bacchus," -and holds, therefore, a divided empire; but in Turkestan, where the -"jolly god" is a stranger, it reigns paramount, and its destroying -power is fearful. The number of beng-eaters is greatest in Bokhara -and Khokand, and it is no exaggeration to say that three-fourths -of the learned and official world, or, in other words, the whole -intelligent class, are victims to this vice. The Government looks on -with perfect indifference, while hundreds, nay, thousands, commit -suicide. It never occurs to any one that a prohibition should be -made on this subject, but if a man were convicted of having tasted a -drop of wine, he would be beheaded without any further ado. - -These errors, together with many others of the same kind, must no -doubt be ascribed to an eccentric scrupulousness in observing the -existing laws. Strange as they are, they appear less surprising -when compared with those views and opinions which arose in Eastern -Mohammedanism in consequence of a different interpretation of those -traditional dogmas, which are not only rejected as erroneous, but -flatly condemned by the learned Mohammedans of the West. Among -these we are struck first of all with the religious orders or -pious fraternities, which are spread in an extraordinary manner -over Central Asia, and are subject to such strict regulations, -and conducted with a fervour which contrasts singularly with the -character of Eastern nations, especially the Central Asiatics. In -the Western Islamitic countries we meet with the various orders -of the Oveisi, Kadrie, Djelali, Mevlevi, Rufai, Bektashi, &c., -which, at all times treated with civility by the Ulemas, were -never able to attract within their magic circle more than a few -individuals of a heated imagination; whereas, on the contrary, the -Nakishbendi, Makhdumaazami, in Bokhara and Khokand, embody large -masses of the population, who are appointed, guided, and governed -by the officers of the order, representing the temporary supreme -chief. Every community, however small in numbers, comprises one -or more Ishans (priests of the order) beside the lawful Mollah, -Reis, &c.; and I have often felt astonished at witnessing the blind -obedience and respect paid to the members of the order as compared -with the former. It need scarcely be added, that these influential -Ishans stand frequently in the way of the Government, but it has -never ventured to offer them any check or resistance, regarding, -as they do, religious orders as inseparable from Islam. Mohammed -expressly stated, "_La Ruhbanitum fil Islam_"--"no monks in Islam." -Nevertheless the Khan, his ministers, even many Ulemas, in spite of -the latter, regarding the Ishan as powerful rivals, and hating them -accordingly, are in the habit of adopting the outward attributes of -one or the other order, out of deference to public opinion. - -The judicial procedure of Eastern Mohammedans is equally -remarkable. They entirely reject the Urf, _i.e._, the decision of -the judge, based upon his own judgment and convictions, in cases -where the Sheriat (the laws of the Koran) is insufficient; as also -the Kanun, _i.e._, laws framed by later legislators. The latter they -regard as heretical innovations, and they take the Sheriat, or the -code of laws emanating from the Koran, as their sole and infallible -guide. That the laws Mohammed framed twelve hundred years ago for -the social wants of the simple Arabs, should not suit every clime -and epoch, can be no matter of surprise. In Turkey and Persia the -necessity for reform has long been felt. The Governments of these -countries have tried in all cases to supply the deficiencies of -their primitive codes by supplemental additions, however much the -opinions of the Ulemas resisted such a step, naturally foreseeing -from it, as they did, the downfall of their power. In Turkestan, -not only the Mollahs, but the Government, and everybody in fact, -is highly indignant at the very idea of a supplement. In their -eyes the Koran is "as fine as a hair, as sharp as a sword, and -satisfies all possible wants of life;" whoever thought differently -would be treated as a wicked man and an infidel. People eat, drink -and dress, in strict conformity with the precepts of the Koran; -it is the standing rule, by which all taxes and toll-moneys are -levied, the standard, by which all wars are conducted, and the guide -for directing their relations with foreign powers! Upon the same -principle, any innovation in domestic life is strictly forbidden -as _sin_. England, Russia, and other modern states, of whom the -Koran makes no mention, cannot be recognised by the Tartar rulers -_de facto_; on the contrary, they consider it their duty to oppose -them as intruders by the law of the Djihad (the religious combat), -a policy which will, of course, as already sufficiently shown, lead -them to entire destruction. - -With regard to the Shiitish Persians, the Eastern Mohammedans stand -in a very different relation to them from their Western brethren. -This religious schism, as is well known, has often been the cause -of long and bloody wars,--under the pretext of a temporary quarrel. -Ever since the first dissensions took place between the dynasties -Akkoyunlu and Karakayunlu, Turks and Arabs have frequently been -opposed to the Persians in destructive and calamitous wars: deep -hatred and bitter resentment separated the two sects, and the -former succeeded in ejecting their Shiitish enemies from the bond -of Islamism. The Persian is looked upon as an heretical Mussulman, -but always as a Mussulman; he is admitted to the holy cities and all -places of pilgrimage, the orthodox Sunnite does not object to pray -with him in the same mosque, and in modern times the hatred between -the Osmanli and Persian has already so far diminished that the -latter is permitted by law to intermarry with the former. - -In Central Asia there exists no trace of anything of the kind. Here -the Persians are hated and persecuted as fiercely as on their first -appearance among the Shiitish sect. In the year 945 of the Hidjra, -they were declared outlaws and infidels by the fetwah of a certain -Mollah, Shemseddin Mohammed, a native of Samarkand, and living in -Herat at the time of the Sultan Husein Baikera. This fetwah has -done much injury to the poor inhabitants of Iran, for, although -the marauding Turkomans would have taken them prisoners without -any form of law, they would not have been sold in the market-place -of fanatical Bokhara, had not the brand of the Kafir qualified -them for it, only such men being saleable. Whatever cruelties were -practised on them, were all committed under the pretext of punishing -an unbeliever, and though Eastern Mohammedans try to vindicate the -Mollahs of Turkestan, by pointing out that the Persians recognize -one and the same Koran, and one and the same prophet, yet they -declare the fetwah to be just and proper, and protest against all -assertions to the contrary, of the West-Mohammedan learned men, as -ignorance and error. - -There are essential distinctions also in the ritual of the Eastern -and Western Mohammedans. I doubt very much whether, even at Bagdad -and Damascus, during the most brilliant period of Islamism, officers -(Reis) were daily traversing the streets, stopping everybody in the -midst of their daily occupations in order to hear them the prayer -Farz-i-Ayin, and punishing the ignorant on the spot. This is -actually being done in Bokhara at the present day. In the various -ceremonies of circumcision, marriage, and burial, the Central -Asiatics have several customs of their own, entirely heterogeneous -to western Islam; their daily prayers, which have to be repeated -five times, consist here of more Rikats (genuflexions) than in -other countries; and it is curious, at the Ezan (call to prayer), -the Turkestans most carefully avoid all tune or melody, and recite -it in a sort of howl. The manner in which the Ezan is cried in the -West, is here declared sinful, and the beautiful, melancholy notes, -which, in the silent hour of a moonlit-evening, are heard from the -slender minarets on the Bosphorus, fascinating every hearer, would -be listened to by the Bokhariot with feelings only of detestation. - -In addition to the above let us bear in mind the many mosques, -medressas, all filled to overflowing with worshippers, the -Karikhane, _i.e._ houses, where blind men recite the Koran the whole -day long, the numerous Khanka, where fanatics roar out their Zikr -day and night, and with which institutions every city is crowded; -then let us picture to ourselves the various gestures, the severely -earnest looks and the whole appearance of the Mollahs, Ishane, -Dervishes, Kalenters, and ascetics, one of wild fanaticism, and it -might perhaps be possible to form an idea of Bokhara, of this pillar -of Islam, these headquarters of an over-strained religious zeal, and -where the religion of the Arab Prophet has degenerated into a form, -such as the founder no doubt never wished his work should assume. -From here it has spread with the same tendencies over Afghanistan -to India, Kashmir, and the Chinese Tartary, and northwards as far -as Kazan. In all these places the spirit of Bokhara has taken firm -root, for Bokhara is their teacher, and neither Constantinople -nor Mekka, but Bokhara is looked up to as their sole guide. It is -here that our civilization will encounter more serious obstacles -than in Western Asia, and Russia most likely has already made this -experience with respect to the Nogai Tartars. It would be a matter -of regret, if the English Government should not as yet have felt -this to be the truth with her 40 millions of Mohammedan subjects in -India. The consequences would be sure and inevitable. - -So much at present for the difference between Eastern and Western -Mohammedanism, and without much research we shall find the principal -causes to be as follows: - -Firstly, Asia, the chief seat and fountain-head of religious -fanaticism, is found, the more we advance eastward, the more true to -its ancient type. As in general the inhabitants of India, Thibet, -and China are more eccentric, more religiously fanatical, or, in -other words, more Asiatic, than the followers of Islam, in the same -measure the Eastern Mohammedans are more zealous than their Western -co-religionists. - -Secondly, the same eccentric fanaticism, which the Central Asiatics -displayed when professing the doctrines of Zoroaster, has been the -cause why their conversion to Islam cost the Arabs so much time -and trouble. It took more than 200 years, before the religion of -Mohammed had completely supplanted the old faith. No sooner had -the conquerors left a town than the newly-converted inhabitants -returned to their old faith, and the town had to be re-conquered and -re-converted. But when the iron perseverance of the Arabs had at -last succeeded in making them Mohammedans, they attached themselves -to the new religion with the same fervour they had manifested in -the old. As early as the beginning of the rule of the Samanides, we -find in Transoxania men of high reputation, throughout Islam, for -their learning and their exemplary piety. Belkh had already then -acquired the name of Kubbetül Islam, the dome of Islam. The city and -neighbourhood of Bokhara were crowded with the tombs of saints and -learned men, and we can easily understand how it happened that these -Turkestani cities had in piety and learning become successful rivals -of Bagdad, the then centre of the Mohammedan world, where devotional -zeal was eclipsed by the splendour of worldly grandeur. - -After the extinction of the dynasty of the Samanides, but especially -during the Mongol conquests, no doubt all religious life suffered -a temporary check, but the edifice has never been shaken to its -foundations as in Bagdad, where Helagu, in destroying the phantom -caliphate of Motasimbillah, broke the chief strength of Islam and -scattered it to the winds. In Transoxania, on the other hand, its -energies were being silently strengthened and matured. Timur aimed -at making his native home the chief seat of Mohammedan learning, and -his work was continued, though in a different spirit, by the rulers -of the Sheibani dynasty. It can therefore excite no wonder that -Bokhara has been able to preserve to the present day, that precise -standard of religious asceticism which characterized Islam in the -middle ages. - -Thirdly, the great body of the Sunnites has been separated by the -schism of Persia practically, if not morally, into two distinct -parts, and the separation is certain to continue. The pilgrimages -to the holy cities of Arabia have by no means compensated for -the undoubtedly greater intercourse, which, in the times of the -caliphat, could be carried on without fear of disturbance from the -Eastern to the Western frontier of Islam. Sectarian animosity has -been purposely kept alive, and has rendered Persia a dangerous -country to any Sunnitish traveller. Whilst great political changes, -as well as constant intercourse with Christian Europe, combined to -bring the western Sunnites under the influence of foreign social -relations, the Eastern Sunnites, left entirely to themselves, had no -opportunity offered them of introducing either changes or reforms. -They looked with quite as much abhorrence as the Chinese and Hindoos -upon heretical Persia, the only country which afforded them the -means of communication with the West. - -The observation which I have offered, that the influences of -European Christianity have divided western from eastern Islam in -many cardinal aspects of faith, may lead many of our readers to -hope, that the ever-increasing communication and interchange of -ideas will gradually effect a total transformation in Asia, or, as -many sanguine travellers of modern times believe, that Asia will be -Europeanised. - -The question is naturally one of interest to every one who -wishes (and who does not wish it) for an improvement of the -social relations in Asia, and far too important for a mere -passing examination. Nevertheless, in order to obviate certain -misinterpretations or false constructions, we must remark, that the -above observation is not to be regarded as offering an infallible -test of Western Mohammedan advancement. We have to be careful, not -to mistake for precious metal the tinsel of European civilisation -and modes of thought, with which Young Turkey and Persia endeavour -to garnish their innate barbarism. I must confess the result of -European influence in these countries is hitherto alas! very small -and ineffectual. The inexperienced eye of a tourist is deceived by -their having partly adopted our dress and furniture, but all else is -now just as it was in olden times, and will probably continue so for -a very long time to come. - -It is taken for granted that our relations, as Europeans with Asia, -are those, as it were, between a son and his mother, the latter -possessing a certain amount of superstition, with which she finds -it difficult to part. From Asia we received our descent, mentally -and materially, as well as our education, but nobody would reproach -us with ingratitude or want of respect, if we reject the views and -opinions of "our aged parent," and for her own benefit occasionally -press upon her our ideas instead. I use purposely the expression -"press upon," for whatever has been adopted of European civilisation -in Asia up to the present day, has not been the result, either -of conviction or a liking for our social relations, but simply -that of fear. A forced love never lasts, and were we to base our -speculations as to the future of the whole of Asia upon the changes -hitherto effected in western Asia, they would inevitably prove -fallacious. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE SLAVE TRADE AND SLAVE LIFE IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -The last cannon-shot fired by the victorious champions of the Union -against their seceding brethren, although it has not entirely put an -end to the slave trade in the Western hemisphere, has nevertheless -dealt it a very severe blow. The flag of Great Britain in the waters -of Eastern Africa and the recent conquest of the whole Caucasus by -the Russians have, to a great extent, crippled the same abominable -traffic among the Mohammedans of Western Asia. The indolent, -enervated Orientals may still regard with bitter resentment and -rancour the efforts of Europe in the cause of humanity; but the sale -and purchase of human beings is everywhere practised with a certain -reserve arising from a sense of shame, or, to speak more correctly, -of fear of European eyes. This trade is now to be found unfettered -and unembarrassed only in Central Asia. Here, in the ancient seat of -Asiatic barbarism and ferocity, thousands every year fall victims -to this inhuman trade. These victims are not negroes, occupying the -lowest place in the human race, but belong to a nation celebrated -now, as of old, for its culture and civilisation. These not only -exchange freedom for slavery, but at the same time the comforts -of comparative civilisation for the miseries of semi-savage life, -and are torn from their smiling homes to pine away in the desert. -The lot of such captives is even harder than that of the negro. -Inasmuch as to this day Europeans have had very little information -with respect to the miserable state of things which prevails in the -distant regions of Central Asia, it may not be out of place if I -here recount my own experiences of them somewhat in detail. - -What the Portuguese slave traders and the Arabian ivory merchants -are in Central Africa, that are the Turkomans in the north-eastern -and north-western portions of Iran, indeed we may say in all Persia. -Wherever nomad tribes live in the immediate neighbourhood of a -civilised country, there will robbery and slavery unavoidably exist -to a greater or less extent. The poverty-stricken children of the -desert are endowed by nature with an insatiable lust for adventure, -and frames capable of supporting the most terrible privations and -fatigues. What the scanty soil of their native wilderness denies -them, they seek in the lands of their more favoured neighbours. -The intercourse between them, however, is seldom of a friendly -character. As the plundered and hardly used agriculturist cannot, -and dare not, pursue the well-mounted nomad across the pathless -deserts of sand, the latter, protected by the nature of the -country, can carry on his career of plunder and rapine without fear -of chastisement. In former times the cities on the borders of the -Great Sahara and of the Arabian desert were in the same plight. Even -at the present day the caravans in the latter country are exposed -to the greatest dangers. But Persia has to suffer from these evils -to a still greater extent, as the deserts which form her northern -boundary are the most extensive and the most savage in the world, -while their inhabitants are the most cruel and least civilised of -nomads. - -The wars of hoary antiquity between the Iranians and Turanians, sung -by the master singer of the Shah Nameh, "the Book of the Kings," -seem to have had their origin in acts of violence perpetrated by -the latter. It is true that the combatants of that period are -represented in the poem as belonging to one and the same race, -but we find that at the period of the expedition of Alexander the -people of northern Iran called on the great Macedonian to afford -them protection against their northern neighbours, whom they -described as terrible beings of inhuman aspect--probably they were -of the true Mongolian type, which differs widely from that of the -Iranians. Alexander built a great wall from the Caspian Sea to the -Kurdistan mountains. This immense work, however, did not come up -to the expectations of its founder. Like the Great wall of China, -built for a similar purpose, it could not permanently keep out -the barbarians. Their impetuous fury burst through such feeble -obstacles, and nothing could check their devastating, incursions -except the energetic rule of some exceptionally vigorous sovereign, -who instead of protecting his subjects by a stone wall, did so -with a well-disciplined army. This is the case at the present -day. The Turkomans and OEzbegs direct their forays according -to the peaceful or disturbed state of the adjacent provinces, or -the energy or indolence of their respective governors. During -the disorders which attended the establishment of the Kadjarish -dynasty, individual bands of Yomut Turkomans pushed their predatory -incursions as far as the neighbourhood of Ispahan, although the -greater number of them were serving under the banner of Aga -Mohammed Khan. At the same period the Tekkes pressed forward on -the north-east as far as Seistan. At the present day it is the -two provinces of Khorassan and Mazenderan which suffer most. The -Turkomans first of all inquire into the character and administration -of a newly appointed governor, and if they find in him signs of -cowardice or neglect of duty (which is often the case), they make -repeated incursions with terrible speed on the defenceless province -committed to his care. On the other hand, they hardly dare to show -themselves in those places where a vigorous and active officer is at -the head of affairs. At the time of my journey through Khorassan the -roads were so safe that travellers could go alone through districts -which were formerly so fraught with danger, that the largest and -best appointed caravans could pass there only when accompanied by a -body of troops and a battery of cannon. At that time the governor, -Sultan Murad Mirza, kept the nomads in check. Every movement of -theirs was reported to him by his spies, and, as soon as they showed -themselves, they were attacked in their own haunts, and received -severe punishment. In Astrabad, on the contrary, where a fool was -entrusted with the administration, the neighbourhood was so unsafe -that the Yomuts carried off Persians captive from the very gates of -the town. - -There are several tribes of Turkomans both on the edge and in the -interior of the desert, who consider the robbery of human beings -so indispensable a means of livelihood as to deem their existence -in the steppes impossible, if they were to be deprived of this -productive source of wealth. As other nations talk about "the -prospects of a good harvest," so they talk about "the prospects -of open roads to Iran." The time which elsewhere is employed in -ploughing, irrigating, and sowing the fields, is spent by them in -training their horses, burnishing their arms, and in mock combats. -Custom has raised their detestable occupation to the rank of a -recognised trade. It is looked upon as a Djihad, or religious war, -against the Shiite schismatics, who are declared to be no better -than infidels. As the heroes set out on their adventure they are -publicly dismissed with the blessings of the ministers of their -religion; and in case of any one of them paying with his life for -his enormities (which very seldom occurs), he is at home declared to -be a martyr, a mound of earth adorned with flags is heaped over his -remains, which are seldom left in the hands of the enemies, and the -devout make pilgrimages to the holy place, where they implore with -tears of contrition the intercession of the canonised robber. - -The terrible extent to which the most exposed provinces suffer from -these excursions is explained by the courage and resolution of the -Turkomans. No war, no devastation caused by the elements, can be -compared to the misery which their depredations occasion. Not only -is all trade and commerce on the highways crippled, but even the -husbandman must provide himself with a tower in which he can take -refuge, when suddenly attacked by them during his labours in the -fields. The smallest village is surrounded by a wall. Even these -measures do not suffice, for the robbers often come in large bands -and lay siege to such fortified places, and not seldom carry the -whole population, men, women, and children, into captivity with all -their moveable property. I have seen in Eastern Khorassan villages -whose inhabitants, although in the immediate vicinity of large -forests, pass the winter without fires, because none dare venture -out to cut wood beyond the walls. Others suffer hunger, as their -water-mills are outside the village. Travelling is, of course, -regarded as a most desperate venture, which no one undertakes save -in cases of the most urgent necessity, or under the protection of an -armed force. - -The readers of my book on Central Asia will have already formed -some idea how far this fear of captivity among the Turkomans is -well-founded. The lot of the negro, confined in the close hold of -a ship during his passage from Africa to America, is sufficiently -hard, yet it is not less hard to be bound behind the saddle of -a nomad with the feet tied under the belly of the horse, to be -insufficiently supplied with food and water, and to be thus -transported for days across the weary desert, far from one's dear -country and the bosom of one's family. These privations of savage -life in the tent of the rude nomad and under an inclement sky are -the harder for the Persian to bear, as at home he is accustomed to -cooked food and the comforts of civilised life. In addition to these -sufferings he is loaded with heavy chains, which are not removed -by night or by day. He is continually the object of the revilings, -curses, and blows of his tyrannical master. Indeed the first stage -of his slavery is the most grievous. - -At the present day the occupation of stealing men is followed by the -OEzbegs and Turkomans alone. Of the first race the inhabitants -of Khiva are to be especially noticed, but they only follow it -when in the course of their hostilities with the Turkomans they -are driven towards the frontiers of Iran. The Bokhariots have not -approached those frontiers since the commencement of this century, -and the inhabitants of Khokand may be said to have never come in -contact with them. Of the Turkomans, the Tekkes and the Yomuts are -most addicted to this traffic; the first seeking their victims in -Khorassan, Herat, and Seistan, and even along the western frontier -of Afghanistan; the latter along the southern shores of the Caspian -Sea. After these the Salors and the Sariks are to be mentioned, who, -broken in power and diminished in numbers, seldom, but then with so -much the greater fury, make their incursions. The Alielis and Karas -can only now and then get hold of a caravan of Hindus, Tadjiks, or -even Afghans, and these only on the road to Bokhara. The Tchaudors, -who dwell between the lower part of the course of the Oxus and the -Caspian Sea, since the Russians are no more marketable, nor indeed -easy to catch, have scarcely any field left them for exercising -their man-stealing propensities. - -The majority of the slaves in Central Asia are Shiite Persians, more -especially from the provinces mentioned above, though many from the -remaining provinces are also captured, either in war or during their -pilgrimage to Meshed. Besides them there are Sunnite Persians from -Khaf and Herat; the last are generally caught while cultivating -their fields, or while gathering the pistachio nuts. Djemshidis and -Hezares, who fall victims to their mutual feuds, are less often to -be met with, and still smaller is the number of Afghans and Hindus. -Nay, Osmanlis and Arabs, in spite of the high esteem in which they -are held, are sold as slaves, but, as far as I know, there are not -more than four or six of them. Jews alone, who have the reputation -of being sorcerers, are regarded with too much horror by the -inhabitants of Turkestan to be a marketable commodity. - -It is difficult to estimate the number thus carried year by year -into captivity, because, as I have explained above, it varies -according to the state of things in Persia. Nor is it easier to -estimate the number of those at present living in slavery in -Turkestan. Not all persons who fall into the hands of the Turkomans -are sent to the Khanats for sale. Taking into consideration the -distribution of property in Iran, we may reckon that about one-third -of those captured in Mazenderan and along the shores of the Caspian -are ransomed. This is a clear gain to the nomad robber, as he, in -the first place, saves the expense of keeping his merchandise for -a long time on hand; in the second place, he is not exposed to -the risk of the market, for should his captive prove physically -deficient in some important respect, he will not be able to sell -him at all. Still, however, the proportion of those who are thus -ransomed is not everywhere the same. The greater part of those -who fall into the hands of the robbers are poor men, who are most -exposed to this danger during their work out in the fields. These, -of course, can rarely be ransomed. But if, in the case of those who -are captured in Mazenderan, we may estimate those who are ransomed -at a third, we cannot assume the same of those who are seized in -the much poorer provinces of Khorassan and Seistan. I have heard, -out of the mouth of a slave dealer who had grown grey in his trade, -that from these districts scarcely a tenth part are ransomed, the -remaining nine-tenths being forwarded for sale in the markets of the -Khanats. The Turkoman never retains a slave for his own use, except -(1) when his captive is old or crippled, and yet not so much so but -that he works enough to earn his meagre sustenance; if he cannot, -he is at once mercilessly cut down; (2) infants who are brought -up as Turkomans to become the wildest of robbers; (3) when Cupid -makes some pretty brunette of an Iranian so dear to him that he -cannot make up his mind to part with her. This last case, however, -happens but seldom, as the Turkomans are notoriously the greatest -misers in the world. As, besides, they are wanting in that feeling -of delicacy for which the Circassian Huri-dealers are so renowned, -the harems of Khiva and Bokhara receive many flowers which have lost -their freshness in Turkoman hands. The only Persians who are to be -found among the inhabitants of the steppes are such as in their own -country would not be much better off, or else escaped criminals who -have to continue their former courses of misdoing, of murder and -robbery, in conjunction with the nomads. - -It is the ordinary practice of the men-stealers to keep their booty -by them not longer than two or three days. They are by that time -transferred to the slave broker, who by way of advance has already -furnished the robbers with money or provisions. These conscienceless -usurers derive the largest profit from the abominable traffic, -for the robbers are for the most part dissolute characters, who, -contrary to the usual practice of the nomads, gamble away, or -squander in vicious enjoyments, their money as soon as they get it. -Slave brokers are of two kinds. (1) Turkomans, who carry on the -commerce which exists between the inhabitants of the steppes and -the Khanats. They wait until they have got together thirty, forty, -or fifty slaves, and then travel in a caravan to Khiva or Bokhara. -In the meantime their human merchandise are let out for hire as day -labourers, in order to lighten the expense of their maintenance. -(2) Sunnite inhabitants of the Persian frontier. These men play a -very curious and ambiguous _rôle_, and are the most detestable of -all engaged in the whole business. On the one side they serve the -Persians as go-betweens, employed to find out such persons as are -kept in slavery in the steppes or in the Khanats; on the other they -are the most useful spies of the nomads, whom they furnish with the -best intelligence about a village or a caravan. Many, especially -such as live on the eastern frontier of Persia, have buildings for -the reception of slaves in Herat, Maymene, and Bokhara, and just -as once in the year they lead to the market a string of miserable -slaves of both sexes, so on their return they bring back with them a -number of captives redeemed through their mediation. From the family -of one of these unfortunate creatures, they take regularly three -times the ordinary amount of the ransom, and talk largely about the -difficulty of finding him, and of persuading his captor to accept -of the money, while all along they know the very place where he is, -and have probably already spoken about the price. It is amusing to -observe how these scamps change their sentiments, their religion, -and political opinions, according to circumstances. On their way -to Bokhara, while playing the part of slave holders, they act the -zealous Bokhariot, abuse the heretical Shiites, and exult in the -just measure dealt out to the Persian slaves. On their return to -Iran, when playing the part of slave ransomers, they are loud in -their abuse of the brutality and cruelty of the Bokhariots, shed -bitter tears over the misfortunes of the poor Persians, and are, in -one word, the softest-hearted creatures in the world. - -In the caravan in which I myself travelled from Bokhara to Herat, -there were two such slave brokers, who came from Khaf and Kain. Both -of them bore the title of Khodja, or descendant of the prophet, of -which they were not a little proud. The tenderness and care with -which they treated the liberated slaves in their charge was almost -unexampled. Yet these very men, as the leader of the caravan assured -me, had only a few months before led a train of miserable captives -into slavery. In the Khanats of Khiva and Bokhara the slave dealers, -called there Dogmafurush, form a regularly organised guild. It is -remarkable that as regards their nationality they are for the most -part Sarts, Tadjiks, and emancipated Persians, and not so often -OEzbegs or of any other tribe belonging to the Turko-Tartaric -race. The sale takes place either in the dealers' magazines, or in -some market-place outside the town, to which place the goods are -removed some days previous. The most important depôts are to be -found in the Khanat of Khiva, first of all at the capital, then in -Hezaresp, in Gazavat, in Görlen, and in Kohne. Besides these, every -place of any pretensions has a retail dealer, who is in connection -with the large wholesale dealers, or sells goods on commission. -In Bokhara is to be mentioned first of all Karakul, and next the -capital; besides these, Karshi and Tchihardjuy. It is to be observed -that, eastward from Samarcand, this abominable traffic declines more -and more, so that in the Khanat of Khokand there are no large slave -dealers, and the majority of the slaves to be found there are bought -in the territory of Bokhara. In the steppes lying to the north of -the Khanats, thanks to the spread of Russian sway, slaves are only -found as articles of luxury in the houses of the rich begs. - -The price of slaves in the markets of Central Asia, like that of -every commodity, varies according to the quantity at any one time on -sale, which in time of peace is less, in time of war greater. The -difference of price in male slaves of the same age depends for the -most part on their physical condition and their nationality. The -Turks of northern Persia are most preferred; first, because they -sooner learn to make themselves understood in the Turkish dialects -of Central Asia, which are akin to their own; secondly, because they -have robuster frames and are more accustomed to hard work than the -other inhabitants of Iran. The Afghans fetch the lowest price, not -only because they have the greatest dislike to hard work, but also -on account of their vindictive and revengeful character, which in -the case of a brutal master may lead to unpleasant consequences. As -for the female slaves, they do not by any means enjoy the position -which is occupied by the daughters of Circassia and Georgia in the -harems of Turkey and Persia. On the contrary, their position is -rather to be compared with that of the negresses in those countries. -It is very easy to explain why. In the first place, the daughters of -Turkestan correspond better to the ideas of beauty entertained by -OEzbegs and Tadjiks than the Iranian women, who with their olive -complexions and large noses, would never bear off the apple of Paris -from the fair, full-cheeked OEzbeg women. In the second place, in -consequence of their poverty the inhabitants of Central Asia do not -indulge in polygamy to such an extent as the Mohammedans of the -west. Besides this, the OEzbeg has generally too much aristocratic -pride to share his bed and board with a slave, whom he has bought -for money. In Bokhara it is true that we find instances to the -contrary, but that is only among the high functionaries of state, -and even they only take such women as have been brought as children -into the country. In the middle classes such _mésalliances_ are very -rare phenomena. Besides, marriage is much easier here than in other -Mohammedan countries. Hence female slaves are kept only as articles -of luxury in the harems of the great, or as domestic servants. - -As regards male slaves the case is quite different. This yearly -contingent of human arms has become for centuries necessary to the -support of the OEzbegs, who have a horror of steady agricultural -labour. Indeed without their slaves they could hardly obtain from -the ground enough to support life. The truth of this assertion -is shown by the fact, that the price of cereals in the Central -Asiatic markets is determined not simply by the rise and fall of -the waters of the Oxus, but also by the greater or smaller number -of slaves sold during the year. The use to which slaves are applied -is principally agriculture, and in the next place care of cattle; -and the larger the estate of an OEzbeg landlord, the larger the -number of slaves which he requires. In a land like Turkestan, where -the military element preponderates, and every free man, either from -instinct or from political necessity, lays hold of the sword rather -than the plough-tail, it is necessary that the arms, thus subtracted -from profitable labour and employed in murder and devastation, -should be replaced by others accustomed to labour. That this is so, -is best shown by the fact, that in those districts in which the -population are most addicted to war and robbery, there the number of -slaves is greatest. In this respect Khiva stands first of the three -Khanats, Bokhara second, and Khokand third. In Khiva the greater -part of the population is OEzbeg, and, as they are surrounded on -all sides by nomad tribes, they are continually engaged in war, -and anarchy prevails among them more often than in the two other -Khanats. In Bokhara, where the population is strongly mixed with -peaceable Tadjiks, things have been rendered more stable by an older -established and better organised government. In Khokand, which also -contains many Tadjiks, wars are infrequent, owing to the notorious -cowardice of its inhabitants, and when they do occur they are by no -means so destructive in their character. - -A small proportion of the slaves are employed as private servants -by the government officials (Sipahi) as also by the sovereigns -themselves. For such purposes, however, only such are used as were -brought in their earliest youth to Central Asia. These receive a -thoroughly OEzbeg education, and beyond the opprobrious title of -_kul_ (slave), bear few traces of the servile condition. Like the -Circassian slaves in Turkey, they often attain the highest posts -in the administration, as their innate Iranian quick-sightedness -enables them to supplant their OEzbeg competitors. Thus, many who -have now under their rule whole provinces, were brought into the -Khanat as slaves. In Bokhara, where the OEzbeg aristocratic is of -little moment by the side of the predominant Persian element, the -sovereigns often take slaves for their lawful wives. Such was the -mother of the present Emir, such is one of his wives, both of them -of Iranian origin. - -In the purchase of a male slave the first point looked to is a -strong and robust physical frame, but his value is increased if it -be found out later that he has a good character. The seller must -engage himself to take him back during the first three days in case -any hidden physical defect be found out; for, although the buyer at -the time of sale examines him carefully all over like a beast of -burden, makes him show the strength of his arms, chest, back, and -voice, he is still obliged to be on his guard against the tricks -of the broker. For instance, it is very difficult to ascertain -the age of such a Persian slave. As is the custom in Iran, the -Turkomans also dye the beards of their captives if they have any -grey hairs. It is thus possible to make a mistake of twenty, nay, -even of thirty years, and it sometimes happens that a slave who, -when bought, had a fresh, youthful appearance, and a coal black -beard, a few days afterwards turns out to be a grey-haired old man. -It is easier to practice such tricks, as the slave, subdued by fear -and harsh treatment, does not dare to make the least objection -to any assertion of his Turkoman master. This is especially the -case with slaves who belong to the Sunnite sect. As they profess -the religion of the Central Asiatic, they are not allowed to be -made slaves of by the commandments of their religion; but in -consequence of the threats of the dealer they deny their own faith. -The Central Asiatic, when he sees an Afghan or a Herati for sale, -knows that he has been compelled to renounce his faith, yet with -disgraceful hypocrisy considers it no sin to buy him and keep him -as a slave. I have myself seen in Khiva and Bokhara, even in houses -of Mollahs of great renown for learning and piety, Sunnite slaves, -and when I called them to account for conduct so inconsistent -with their profession, they answered, "At the time I bought him -he was a Shiite; that he is now a Sunnite is to be attributed to -the influence of the sacred soil of Turkestan." Thus is religion -employed to cheat religion. - -If we now pass on from the details of the slave trade to consider -the condition of the slave, we shall find that the hardest time -for him to bear is when he is first captured and trained by the -Turkoman or the broker; when the Iranian, justly proud of his -superior civilisation, is treated like one of the lower animals by -the coarse and brutal Turanian, whose very name is in Iran held in -derision. The Persian is from his childhood accustomed to the most -refined politeness, and to a flowery, elegant conversation; and must -of course suffer mentally a great deal when first introduced to -the savage manners and habits of Turkestan. His physical sufferings -are by no means so great. The majority of them, destined for -agricultural labour, generally gain the confidence and affection -of their master by their good behavior. If a slave has during a -year not incurred punishment, he is soon looked upon as a member of -the new family. Indeed, many receive, after a certain time, either -monthly wages, or else a share of the produce of the land or cattle -committed to their care. As the Iranian is in general more active -and frugal than his Turanian neighbour, the slaves in Turkestan, -in a remarkably short time, get together a little capital. This is -employed by most of them in ransoming themselves from slavery, which -they have the right to do after seven years' service. This term -is occasionally shortened as a reward for peculiar diligence, or -from great good nature on the part of the master; and the slave is -surprized by an azad (letter of freedom), in the same way that we -make a present to a faithful servant. Such a document is confirmed -by the kadi and the temporal magistrate, and he who is in possession -of it becomes at once master of his own actions. The act of -emancipation is everywhere accompanied by certain solemnities. Sheep -are slaughtered, guests invited; the freedman embraces one after -the other the male members of his master's family; and after he has -taken his place upon the same piece of felt carpet as his master, -his freedom is proclaimed. Among the Kirghiz it is the custom for -the master on such occasions to fasten a white bone to the girdle of -the freedman, which denotes that the latter is raised from the ranks -of the "black-boned" (subject people) to that of the "white-boned" -(nobility). - -So much for good-tempered and obedient slaves. Where the contrary -qualities show themselves, OEzbeg barbarity and cruelty make -themselves felt in all their force. It is enough to make one's -hair stand on end to read the list of punishments used to compel a -refractory slave to obedience. The master has legal right of life -and death over his slave. It very seldom happens, however, that he -actually kills him, as he thereby loses the whole of his purchase -money; but the miseries which he inflicts on him are worse than -death itself. Many are kept for years together on mere bread and -water in the midst of the lonely deserts; others, a few days before -their seven years have expired, are sold again--not, however, in the -Khanats, where, their character being already known, they would be -unsaleable. In such cases of imposition the victim is generally a -Kirghiz, unversed in the tricks of the slave trade. Thus the Persian -passes from the city into the northern desert, whence, even if -emancipated, he seldom, if ever, returns home. - -It is certainly striking that, out of the large number of slaves -of Persian origin who are continually brought into Central Asia, -only half of those who obtain their freedom go back to their -native country. Such as do return are induced to do so either by -the necessity of setting their family affairs in order, or by -extraordinary home-sickness. He who has lived eighteen years in -Turkestan will seldom change it for Iran. The slaves, as observed -before, are for the most part originally poor; and when they have -secured in Turkestan a certain means of gaining their livelihood, -or have got together some property, they in few cases think of -returning to their native land, where, on account of general habits -of industry and activity, existence is much harder to support; -where the necessaries of life are more expensive, and the luxury -and splendour of the wealthy excite many ungratified desires in -the breasts of the poor, which are not aroused in the midst of the -barbarous simplicity of the Khanats. Still, it is to be observed -that the emancipated slave can never get rid of the disgrace -implied in the word _kul_ (slave), however great may be the wealth -he may have accumulated, or however high the post to which he may -be promoted. Although he may be living in the utmost splendour and -magnificence, the kul can never hope to obtain the hand of a free -OEzbeg, the poorest of whom would reject his proposals with scorn. -I know an instance in which an OEzbeg refused his daughter to -a freedman, although the latter's suit was backed by the command -of the khan; he preferred rather to encounter the anger of his -sovereign than to call one who had once been a slave his son-in-law. -Even the khanezads[20] (children of slaves), who are not allowed -to be sold, are treated in the same manner, and can only marry the -daughters of other emancipated slaves, or sarts. Only in the fourth -generation is the disgrace attached to the word _kul_ somewhat -softened down, but by no means quite obliterated. In a country like -Central Asia, in which courage is looked upon as the highest virtue, -the slave is regarded as the _ne plus ultra_--a man who, for want of -a contempt of death, allows himself to be put in chains; and it is -this vice which is so difficult to be forgiven. This way of looking -at the subject is further strengthened by the boundless feeling of -aristocracy which distinguishes the Tartars, whether settled or -nomad, in which not even the wildest Tories or the proudest marquis -of the Faubourg St. Germain can surpass them--a feeling which is -entertained not only against the foreign Iranian, but even the -native Tadjiks, the eldest inhabitants of the land. - - [20] The sale of a khanezad is regarded as a disgraceful action, and - one who commits such an act is branded as a thief and a robber. - -It will be understood that it is only the moral stigma of slavery -which the freedman has to suffer from. In his civil rights he is as -well protected as any one else. Thus, as the Oriental is even more -a creature of habit than we are, I found it very easy to understand -how the Persian soon finds himself completely at home in Turkestan, -which country he once so despised and dreaded, and dwells -contentedly in a foreign land, only occasionally solacing himself -with a visit to his relations or to the shrine of some Shiite saint -in Iran. - -Unfortunately, it is the material comfort and prosperity of the -slave which the Central Asiatic, like other Mohammedans, alleges -in his defence, when we express our abhorrence of the disgraceful -traffic in human beings. As in Turkestan, so in Turkey we may -often hear this argument:--"The sons and daughters of the wild -Circassians were in their native land poor people, who in their free -mountains could hardly get bread enough to eat; here with us they -become rich government officials, pashas, nay, even princesses, -whose powerful influence affects the policy of government." They -further point out how kindly the slaves are treated in the houses -of persons of distinction, where they are put on the same footing -as the members of the family. But they forget that these cases are -exceptional, and that such good fortune depends for the most part on -the personal beauty of the favoured few. What becomes of the greater -number, whose charms are not such as to gain the favour of their -master? What shall we say of this majority, exposed as they are to -the oppression and cruelty of a tyrannical master, and constantly -employed in the hardest labour? - -Such things are of course not taken into account, any more than the -original cruelty of the slave merchant, who tears his victims from -their homes and their friends. On the banks of the Bosphorus, as on -those of the Oxus, few persons care to picture to their minds the -horrors of that first moment of separation. How many orphans, how -many widows, how many aged and helpless parents, are left behind to -wring their hands in sorrow for their bread-winner, who is carried -into captivity! It is impossible to count them, it is impossible to -describe the miserable condition of so many villages and districts -which are exposed to the terrible scourge of the slave trade. The -traveller in those regions stumbles at every step over the most -melancholy traces of the devastation which it causes. However -certain he may feel of the splendid destiny which awaits this or -that individual captive, he must still exclaim: "This is the most -execrable occupation that has ever defiled the hands of man, and -its suppression is the first and holiest duty which our western -civilisation has to perform for the cause of humanity!" - -The suppression of the slave trade in Central Asia is, moreover, -much easier than many might at first sight suppose. The root of -the evil is to be sought, not so much in the Turkomans as in the -inhabitants of the cities. All nomad tribes were and are ready for -such a trade, if they only find settled tribes who will buy their -captives of them. The Bedouins of the Arabian desert could never -addict themselves much to the traffic, inasmuch as the markets of -the surrounding cities were closed by the religion of Islam against -the sale of their booty. In the same way the Turkomans would soon -abandon the practice, if the sale of Persians, Afghans, &c., in the -Khanats were declared illegal. The Djemshidis, the Firuzkuhis, and -Hezares, afford the strongest proof of this. As the transport of -their captives to Bokhara is rendered unsafe by the intermediate -Turkoman tribes, while at the same time their sale is forbidden -in the Afghan town of Herat, they have either to suppress their -slave-trading propensities altogether, or come to a compromise with -the Turkomans, much to the advantage of the latter. - -Sultan Murad Mirza, an enlightened prince, and the governor of -Khorassan, once expressed to me his surprise that England, which -spends so many thousands in checking the slave trade in African -waters, can look on unconcernedly while the same trade in the middle -of Asia lays waste such a country, whose ancient civilisation was -of profit to Europe itself. In like manner I, too, cannot conceal -my astonishment at the apathy which Europe, and especially that -State whose flag is in the East ever the harbinger of the dawn of a -newer, a happier era, has displayed on this question. Sentimental -newspaper writers, in their political rhapsodies, may yet for a long -time take under their protection the feelings of independence of -many a savage Asiatic tribe, to whom freedom means nothing more than -anarchy, plunder, and murder. But the dreams of Rousseau have had -their day, and we can with the fullest confidence say, that whenever -Europe shows herself in the East, whether in the peaceful garb of -the missionary, or in the terrible panoply of her warlike power, -she brings only blessings in her train, and scatters the seeds of -a new order of things. The more light is poured from the West upon -the East, the sooner will the evil customs of the old world be -eradicated, and our brother men be made happier. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -PRODUCTIVE POWER OF THE THREE OASIS COUNTRIES OF TURKESTAN. - - -In arguing about the Russian conquest of Central Asia, we are wont -to say that the Court of St. Petersburg, in those far-reaching -schemes which she pursues towards the Hindu-Khush with so much toil, -at so heavy a cost, seeks some richer recompense than is to be found -on the shores of the Yaxartes and the Oxus. Well; it is true that -Russia's policy does not confine itself to the possession of the -plains of Bokhara, Khokand, and Khiva. But in the meantime let us -not undervalue the immediate gain of these conquests. It is right -that we should learn the comparative worth of the three Khanats, -the nature and extent of their produce, both as it is, and as with -proper management it might become. - -The very name of "oasis countries" contributes towards creating an -impression, that the inhabited part of Turkestan must be unimportant -as regards productive power; add to this the poverty and the -extremely primitive and simple mode of life of its inhabitants, and -it is not surprising that the great distance and the consequent -want of knowledge should have begotten and spread erroneous -notions. The natives themselves, as well as oriental travellers and -geographers, such as Idrisi, Ibni Haukal, Ebulfeda, and the learned -Prince Baber, fall into the opposite extreme, by representing -Turkestan as the richest country on the face of the globe, India -alone excepted. This opinion prevailed in former times,[21] not -only throughout Western Asia, but even very lately I have met with -it in several localities, and never felt more astonished than when -I heard the egotistic Persian eloquently praising the wealth of -Turkestan, a country he looks upon with deadly hatred and aversion. -As for ourselves, we will try to form as far as possible an -impartial estimate, although we must maintain at the outset, that -Turkestan by far surpasses the known parts of European and Asiatic -Turkey, Afghanistan and Persia, both in the wealth and variety of -its productions; nay, that it might be difficult to find in Europe, -flourishing as it is, and rich in every blessing, a territory that -would rival the oasis countries of Turkestan. - - [21] The plain of Sogdiana or the Zerefsha--valley between Bokhara - and Samarkand--is spoken of as an earthly paradise, and Hafiz calls - the towns of Bokhara and Samarkand the greatest treasure, and yet - surpassed by his beloved. - -The great variety of productions is to be ascribed essentially to -the climate of the countries bordering the Oxus and Yaxartes. It is -neither harsh, nor could it exactly be termed mild. On the average -it corresponds to the climate of Central Europe, though it must -be remarked, that the winter is far more severe on the shores of -the Sea of Aral and in the mountainous parts of Khokand, and the -summer, on the contrary, much warmer in those districts that lie to -the south, and often almost tropical in the immediate neighbourhood -of the great sandy deserts. The Oxus is frozen over every winter, -from Kerki and Tchardshuy to its mouth; in Kungrad, Khodja Ili, -and on the right bank, where the Karakalpaks dwell, the winter is -generally very severe; the snow lies often for weeks on the ground, -and tempestuous north winds (Ayamudjiz) are not unfrequent. Under -such conditions there can be no question of a mild climate, and yet -in Khiva I have found the heat unbearable as early as the beginning -of June, while in August, near Kerki and Belkh, it was more sultry -and oppressive, even in the shade, than is the case in really -tropical countries. This great variation in the climate produces -corresponding local differences in the vegetation of even a small -extent of country. Thus, for instance, the cotton of Yengi Üergendj -is far better than that in the more northern districts, and the -silk of Hezaresp is considered throughout the Khanat of Khiva to -be of first-rate quality. Görlen produces the finest rice, and the -finest fruit is found in the environs of Khiva, which lies farther -south. In Bokhara and in Khokand we see the same effects produced -by the climate, and hence the reason why each of the three Khanats -contains, on a comparatively small area, such various and manifold -productions, as are usually met with only in larger countries, which -lie between several zones.[22] - - [22] The difference in the harvest time in Turkestan best - illustrates the above remark. In Belkh, for instance, and in the - neighbourhood of Andkhuj, the harvest is at the beginning of June; - in Hezaresp, Khiva, and Karaköl, towards the end of June; in the - oasis-countries, in July; in Kungrat, and in the north of Khokand, - not before the beginning of August. - -The extraordinary productiveness of the soil is to be ascribed -partly to the "blessed" rivers, so-called by the natives, which -intersect the oasis-countries, and partly to the quality of the -soil. Of these rivers the Oxus is the most important. From its -fertilizing influence upon the land it may be compared to the Nile; -although, when used as drinking-water, the latter still surpasses it -in its pleasantness to the taste. Next comes the Zerefshan, whose -name, "Scatterer of Gold," sufficiently indicates the blessing it -scatters over its shores. Nor are the smaller rivers, such as the -Shehr Sebz and the tributaries of the Yaxartes, of less importance. -When we finally add, that the irrigation of the fields is carried -on with as much care, and much more ease, than in other parts of -Western Asia, we shall cease to marvel any longer at the rich -resources of the soil, however grand and important they may still -appear. - -I have already noticed in my "Travels in Central Asia" that the -irrigation is carried on--firstly, by natural canals, called _arna_, -which are formed by the irregular course of the Oxus; secondly, by -_yaps_, _i.e._, smaller artificial canals, by which every village -and colony is surrounded and intersected. In all places of any -importance there is a high official, called Mirab (prince or warden -of the water), who inspects the various aqueducts, and orders them -every spring to be freed from the accumulated sand. During the -winter the sluice-gates of all the principal "arnas" are closed as -a protection against the inundations which naturally follow the -breaking up of the ice. The cleaning of the canals takes place at -the beginning of April, and the great object in view is to make -them constantly deeper and narrower. The sand that is taken out is -heaped up on both sides of the bank, which have thus for miles the -appearance of intrenchments, and with their cooling shade protect -the precious water from the burning rays of the summer's sun. To the -general purposes of communication, however, these intrenched ditches -are very prejudicial, although of real advantage to agriculture. -Hence, the more expensive kahriz--subterranean canals--in Persia, -are far more advantageous, and, moreover, preserve the water purer -and cooler. The yaps and arnas in Central Asia form great obstacles -to the traveller. Bridges are either very bad or altogether wanting. -Let the reader imagine the trouble and the dreadful loss of time -incurred, when a caravan with its heavily-laden camels has to cross -from ten to fifteen of such embanked canals in one day's march. How -prejudicial it is to the rivers to have so much water drawn off, -we see clearly in the Oxus. Formerly it flowed, no doubt, into the -Caspian Sea, now its embouchure is in the Sea of Aral,[23] and this -great change in its watercourse must be ascribed, if not wholly, yet -in a great degree, to the evil of the many small canals. - - [23] Burnes (Travels in Bokhara, ch. ii. p. 188) doubts altogether - whether the Oxus had formerly a different watercourse, and, amongst - other reasons, supports his view by the opinion of the natives. No - one will feel surprised that I heard them assert the very contrary. - Among the Turkomans there exist numerous contradictory legends in - connection with the former watercourse of the Oxus. - -It is difficult to decide which of the three Khanats is the most -fertile, especially now, when since the death of the much-lamented -Conolly, nobody is able to furnish a succinct account of the nature -and resources of the soil. To judge from all I have seen in my -journey to Samarkand, and learned from my fellow-travellers, of -Khokand, the native home of most of them, I should feel inclined to -give the preference to the Khanat of Khiva in point of vegetation. -The two other Khanats have more land under cultivation, but -Khiva surpasses them by far in the quantity and quality of its -productions, with the exception, perhaps, of fruit, which Bokhara -furnishes in greater variety, and of finer flavour. Bokhara also -deserves the prize with respect to all mineral productions; but the -breeding of the finest cattle and horses is the exclusive property -of the nomads. - -The land is measured by _tanab_ (cord,--a tanab is equal to sixty -square yards), and in Khiva and Khokand consists of (1) _Mülk_, -freehold property, which is subject to the payment of taxes; (2) -_Khanlik_, arrear estates, _i.e._, such land which the Government -has either reclaimed and brought under cultivation, or which has -devolved upon it by confiscation and conquest. Of this land a third -of the net income is claimed by the State. (3) _Yarimdji_,[24] -all land that belongs to the medresse (schools), mosques, or any -religious institutions, and which is liable to a fourth of the net -income. The Khanlik estates in each district are under the control -of a certain number of officials, called _Müshürüb_, who at the same -time collect the taxes. Church property, on the contrary, is under -the management of the mutevalis, as in other Islamitic countries. - - [24] These were formerly let on the system of half-profit, as - indicated by the name. - -The quality of the land in general may be judged best by my stating, -that the richest soil under cultivation produces one hundred batman -(one batman is equal to twenty-four pounds) on a tanab, and that of -least productive quality never less than sixty batman. And taking -into consideration that the cultivation of the ground here, as -everywhere in Asia, is done in the most negligent manner, and is in -the highest degree primitive, a competent judge can easily form an -idea of the great fertility of the soil. - -It is impossible for me to say how many square miles of cultivated -land, or of land capable of cultivation, the three Khanats possess. -The frequent wars and unsettled times sufficiently explain the -numerous ruins of former flourishing colonies. Of the Khanat of -Khiva thus much at all events may be assumed, that the area of -territories laid waste and turned into deserts is larger than the -land at present under cultivation. With the exception of a few -single productions, with which the three Khanats carry on an export -trade among each other, and with Russia, only so much of the rest is -grown as is required for home consumption. There is no doubt that -not only might the quality of all present productions be essentially -improved, but also considerably multiplied. - -A short survey of the productions of the three Khanats will help to -explain and confirm in detail all I have hitherto stated. - - -1. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. - -Wheat and barley are the most important among the cereals grown in -the oasis countries of Turkestan. There are four kinds of wheat:-- - -1. _Bukhara budayi_ (Bokhara wheat) is considered the finest; it has -a long, thin, and reddish grain, with a greenish top. Of this sort -the delicious bread is baked, in the preparation of which the town -of Bokhara excels, and which is famed far and wide under the name of -_shirmaye_ (milk-marrow). - -2. _Tokmak bash_ (cuneiform top) has a round, thick grain; it is -very substantial, and most like our wheat. The best quality is found -in Khiva. - -3. _Kara süllü_ (black-haired) has a thin and dark-brown grain; it -is chiefly used as food for horses, not being of a particularly good -quality. - -4. Yazlik (summer-fruit) takes a very short time to grow; it is -exceedingly light, and, when used, is mixed with other kinds of -wheat. - -Barley is not so good in Central Asia as in Persia or Turkey. There -is, besides the usual sort, an inferior one, called _karakalpak_ in -Khiva, which is here used, as everywhere in the East, as food for -horses. The average prices of all cereals are exceedingly low, as -compared with the countries of western Asia. The price of a Khiva -batman of the best wheat varies from two to three tenge (one tenge, -seventy-five cent.), whilst barley costs often less than one tenge, -and seldom more. - -Rice is grown in enormous quantities, but it is far inferior to the -Herat or the excellent Shiraz rice, called tchampa and amberbuy -(amber perfume) in quality. It is more like the Egyptian, called in -Turkey dimyati (damietter), but would no doubt surpass the latter, -if cultivated with more care and attention. - -_Djügeri_ (holcus sorghum) is grown and consumed in far larger -quantities in the three Khanats than anywhere else in Asia. It -is eaten in a milky state, but when dry it is used as fodder, -principally for young colts, being less heating, and also more -nourishing, than barley, from the quantity of saccharine matter it -contains. Bread is made of it, either alone or mixed with wheat. - -_Mekke djügeri_ (Turkish wheat) never grows higher than a small -span's length. Two kinds of it are found, one with a yellowish, the -other with a red, small grain. It is never dried, and always either -eaten in its milky state or used as fodder. - -_Tari_ (groats) is an important article of consumption in Central -Asia, and is therefore much grown. There are several sorts. - -Besides the well-known kinds of pulse, such as peas (burtshak), -beans (lubie), lentils (jasmuk), &c., there are several others which -we do not know; as for instance, the _konak_, which has smaller but -thicker seeds, and a lower shrub than our lentil; _mash_, rather -larger than millet, of a brownish colour, and several others, which -are of no interest to the general reader. - -Of oil-plants, I must mention first of all the _kündshi_ sesame, -which thrives very well, and provides the Khanats amply with oil -for cooking and burning. Then there is the _zigir_, a plant similar -to millet, which bears on one stalk several fruits, which are -like apples, and the yellow seeds in which are not bigger than -poppy-seeds. This oil is fit in food, especially in pastry. Then -the _djigit_, the seeds of the cotton-capsule, the oil of which, -however, is not fit for food. _Kender_ (hemp), of which an inferior -sort of linen is made, and which also furnishes the very popular -narcotic, called beng. Lastly, indau, a small shrub, from the -greenish seeds of which a bitter oil, and of a disagreeable smell, -is made, which is used as a medicine for animals, and especially for -camels. - -Among the plants, which produce dye-drugs, the following are most -esteemed:--_ruyan_ or _boyak_, an excellent species of madder, -which thrives in all three Khanats, and is exported in considerable -quantities to Russia. In the year 1835 this article was very little -in request, and in the year 1860 as many as 24,523 Russian pud -(883,000 English pounds) were imported.[25] _Isbarak_ or _barak_, -whose small yellow flowers, when dried and powdered, give a fine -yellow colour. _Görtchük_, a plant resembling clover, with small -red flowers; the leaves, when boiled, give a fine black colour. -_Buzgundjh_, a plant with a fruit similar to gall-nuts, only grows -in southern Maymene, and in the Badkhiz mountains, north of Herat, -and is said to produce the finest red colour; it fetches a high -price in the place itself. - - [25] Mitchell. "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462. - -Although not belonging to the same class of plants, I must mention -here the _terendjebin_, a resinous and very sweet substance, -which grows on a thorn, called khari shutur (camel's thorn). The -_terendjebin_ shows itself suddenly and quite unexpectedly towards -the end of the summer during the night, and has to be collected at -once in the early morning, before it grows hot. It resembles a gum, -is of a greyish white colour, exceedingly sweet, and can be eaten in -its raw state; in Central Asia it is made into shire (syrup), but -in Persia it is used in the sugar-manufactures of Meshed and Yezd. - -As regards fruit, we find in the Khanats almost every species (with -the exception of fruits of the South) in great quantity, and of -excellent quality. A very considerable export trade is carried on -in it to Russia, and even to "rich" India. The Central Asiatic is -not a little proud of his superiority in this respect, in Asia the -glory and value of a country being determined by the quality of -its water, air, and fruit. Each of the three Khanats has in the -latter its spécialité; Khiva is distinguished for its melons and -apples, Bokhara for its grapes and peaches. It may be that some -parts of Persia and Turkey surpass Bokhara; but for melons, Khiva is -unrivalled, not only in Asia, but I feel inclined to say, throughout -the world. No European can form an idea of the sweet taste and -aromatic flavour of this delicious fruit. It melts in the mouth, -and, eaten with bread, is the most wholesome and refreshing food -that nature affords. - -The celebrated Nasrabadi melon alone, near Ispahan, reminds one, -though very feebly, of this fruit of Central Asia, unique in its -kind. There is a great variety of species. The principal summer -melons are the following:--1. _Zamtche_, which ripens earliest; it -is round, of a yellowish colour, and has a thin skin. 2. _Görbek_, -of a greenish colour, and with a white meat. 3. _Babasheikhi_ is -small, round, and with a white meat. 4. _Köktche._ 5. Shirin -_Petchek_, especially mellow and sweet, of a small round shape. -6. _Shekerpare._ 7. _Khitayi._ 8. _Koknabat._ 9. _Aknabat._ 10. -_Begzade._[26] The winter melons are not ripe until the beginning -of October, but they keep the whole winter, and are most palatable -in February. There are the following kinds:--1. _Karagulebi._ 2. -_Kizilgulabi._ 3. _Beshek._ 4. _Payandeki._ 5. _Saksaul_ Kavunu. -These are mostly exported to Russia. - - [26] I observe with pleasure, that of the seeds, which I brought - with me from Central Asia, several kinds have succeeded in Hungary. - These will undoubtedly be the best melons we have in Europe. - -The Oxus chiefly contributes to render the melons of Central Asia so -incomparably excellent, since the finest quality thrives only on its -banks. The melons of Bokhara are very indifferent, and in quality -even inferior to those of Khokand. - -Khanikoff mentions in his interesting work[27] ten different -kinds of grapes he found in Bokhara. In Khiva I met with the -following:--1. _Huseini_, with oblong seeds and a thin skin, very -sweet, and keeps throughout the winter. 2. _Meske_, with large -round seeds. 3. _Sultani._ 4. _Khalide_ are ripe first of any. 5. -_Shiborgani._ 6. _Taifi._ 7. _Khirmani._ 8. _Sayeke._ All these -different sorts of grapes grow on the level ground, and are either -made into shire (syrup) or dried for eating; wine being made only by -the Jews in Bokhara, and in a very small quantity. - - [27] "Bokhara, its Emir and its People." - -There are four sorts of apples grown, and that of Hezaresp may -boldly challenge the productions of our European horticulture. - -The mulberry, too, is larger, more varied, and sweeter than ours, -and to this superiority we must, perhaps, ascribe the fact, that the -silk of Central Asia is better than the Italian and French, and that -a certain disease among silk-worms, common with us for many years, -is there quite unknown. - -The rearing of silk-worms came originally from Chinese Tartary, -especially from Khoten, where, as M. Reinaud[28] correctly remarks, -it was introduced in the first century of our era from the interior -of China. Silk stuffs of native manufacture were known in Bokhara -in pre-Islamitic times, according to the testimony of a certain -Manuscript,[29] which treats of the ancient history of Bokhara. -It is no exaggeration to assert that the cultivation, spinning, -and dyeing of silk, is a still more primitive process in the -three Khanats than in China itself, where industrial progress, no -doubt, effected many changes, whilst here everything has remained -as it was years ago. The Khanat Bokhara supplies most of the raw -silk; it is produced in the capital, in Samarkand, and among the -Lebab-Turkomans. Much also comes from the Khanat of Khokand, in -the neighbourhood of Mergolan and Namengan. Khiva contributes but -little, and this little is inferior in quality to the productions -of the other Khanats, though, as competent judges have assured me, -it is far superior to the silk of Gilan and Mazendran, in Persia. -The manipulation, however, is very imperfectly performed. I was -struck with the manner of winding off the cocoons, which were placed -in a cauldron of boiling water and stirred with a broom, until a -certain number of threads unwind themselves, which are then wound -round the broom. The dyeing is almost exclusively in the hands of -the Jews, the weaving is done by the Tadjik and Mervi, who, in -accordance with the taste and fashion of the country, prepare only -stuffs of glaring colours. - - [28] "Relations Politiques et Commerciales de l'Empire Romain avec - l'Asie Orientale," p. 197. - - [29] Tarichi Narschachi. - -In former times, especially during the Arabian occupation, the silk -stuffs of Central Asia were celebrated throughout the East; but when -the cleverest of the artisans were transferred by the conquerors to -Damascus and Bagdad, the old art gradually disappeared, and is now -gone for ever, in spite of the efforts of Timur to transplant it -back from Transoxania. How great is the quantity of silk produced -here, is shown by the circumstance, that the greater part of the -cotton stuffs, called _aladja_, that are generally worn, are -strongly intermixed with silk; that not only the rich, but every man -of middle rank, possesses one or more garments, several table-cloths -and pocket-handkerchiefs made of silk; and that a considerable -export trade in silk is carried on, not only with Persia, India, and -Afghanistan, but to a large extent with Russia. - -The cotton in Central Asia promises to become an important article -for the future. It is cultivated in large quantities in the three -Khanats, furnishing the material for the upper and under garments of -every body, high and low, for their bed-clothes, and cloths of every -kind. The cotton in Turkestan is better than the Indian, Persian, -and Egyptian, and is said to equal the far-famed American cotton. -At present, however, Russia alone consumes this article in her -manufactures at Moskau, Wladimir, Tverskoy, &c., and in quantities -which increase annually in a surprising degree. The manufacturers -complain greatly of the clumsy management of the planters, -especially of the insufficient cleansing of the cotton from the -seeds, as well as of the dishonesty of the traders, who wet the -bales, or fill them with stones, to make them heavier. Nevertheless, -the cotton, which is imported from Khiva and Bokhara by Orenburg, is -almost indispensable to Russian industry. - -In Central Asia the cultivation of cotton is comparatively easy -and convenient, the cotton fields requiring no irrigation, and the -rain being considered, if anything, prejudicial even in the spring. -A hard, stony ground, called _Soga_, is always chosen, and is -ploughed once; on the whole, the cultivation of cotton is the least -troublesome of all field occupations. According to the statistical -dates of the Orenburg custom-house the greatest quantity of cotton -is produced in the Khanat of Bokhara; this statement, however, -rests upon an error, since the caravans of Khiva, when crossing the -Jaxartes, frequently join the Bokhariots, or they give themselves -out for Bokhariots; these latter standing on a much better footing -with the Russians, whilst the people of Khiva are in very ill favour -with them. I know from my own experience, and have convinced myself -by frequent inquiries, that not only is the cultivation of cotton -far more flourishing in Khiva, but its quality is far superior to -that in the two sister Khanats. The pod, here called gavadje, is -smaller than that of Bokhara; but the cotton is much finer and -whiter even than the guzei sefid, that is, the first quality of -Bokhariot cotton industry. The Central Asiatics themselves give the -preference to the Khiva production, a fact which tends to confirm -our opinion. In dyeing and weaving Bokhara stands pre-eminent, but -the stuffs from Khiva are better paid in her capital than her own -manufactures. They are exported to Afghanistan, India, and Northern -Persia, and are a highly-prized article even among the nomads. - -There is no doubt that the cotton of the oasis countries will -one day considerably increase in value. Several circumstances of -paramount and urgent necessity must combine to further this object. -Above all things, it is requisite that important improvements should -be introduced in the mode of cultivation; our European machines -should come in aid of the cleansing and packing, and the roads -should be rendered, as far as possible, secure. By these means the -cotton would not only be improved in quality, but, without any great -additional expense, the quantity might be considerably multiplied. -It is very probable that Central Asia may one day, although not -in the immediate future, be to Russia what New Carolina is to the -manufacturing towns of England at the present day. - -The immense increase in the exportation of cotton from Central -Asia is shown very clearly in the Blue Books of 1862 and 1865, in -the list which Mr. Saville Lumley, former secretary to the English -embassy at St. Petersburg, has contributed. According to this -official statement the Khanats exported to the value of-- - - | BOKHARA. | KHIVA. | KHOKAND. - | Roubles. | Roubles. | Roubles. - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | | | - 1840-1850 | 2,065,697 | 470,781 | 16,851 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - 1853 | 280,514 | 133,799 | - 1854 | 509,600 | 248,347 | The - 1855 | 513,023 | 185,683 | dates - 1856 | 501,225 | 36,050 | are - 1857 | 578,483 | 66,776 | wanting. - 1858 | 634,643 | 59,729 | - 1859 | 495,065 | 2,274 | - 1860 | 721,899 | 22,429 | 4,907 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | | | - Total... | 4,234,412 | 755,087 | 4,907 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - -From this list we see, that the exports of 1840-1850 did increase -more than double during the next ten years, and under favourable -political circumstances would, no doubt, continue to increase. - -We must add the remark, that although Bokhara shows in this list -throughout the largest figures, it does not by any means follow -that they are the result of its own exclusive production. Much -Khiva cotton has been included, as well as the cotton which the -Urgends traders carry to Orenburg on the Bokhara road. The Orenburg -custom-house furnishes the list, and all the cotton is entered under -the head of Bokhara. In like manner much Khokand cotton is mixed up -with it. The Khokand traders give themselves out for Bokhariots on -the frontier, on account of the frequent hostilities between their -tribe and the Russians. - - -2. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. - -We must mention first of all the domestic animals, and among these -the genus, sheep. Two species are usually distinguished: 1, the -_Kazak koy_ (the Kirghis sheep); and, 2, the _OEzbeg koy_ (the -OEzbeg sheep). The Kirghis sheep is preferred to the latter, for -its wool as well as its meat. Throughout Central Asia we meet with -the fat-tailed sheep. Of these it is said, that their masters are -obliged to fasten either cylinders or wheels under their broad, -thick tails, which they drag after them on the ground, in order to -render walking easier to them, or rather to enable them to walk at -all--a story which is by no means exaggerated, however incredible -it may appear. The so-called Bakkan koy, the fatted sheep, give -often from two to three batman of pure fat. The meat I found, in -point of taste and flavour, superior to any in all those parts of -Asia I am acquainted with. The highly celebrated Kivirdjik and -Karaman sheep in Turkey cannot be compared to them; and even the -south Persian sheep, of which the Persians are exceedingly proud, -are inferior to them. - -The wool is not of the same excellence, and is used less for -clothing (probably for want of knowledge in the preparation of it) -than for carpets, travelling-bags, horse-cloths, and similar other -coarse stuffs; it is little seen in the export trade. Black, curly -lamb-skins, on the other hand, form an important article of trade. -Its chief source is Bokhara, especially Karaköl; from here it is -exported all over Asia, and even to Europe, where it is known under -the name of Astrachan. The skin is drawn off the young lamb two or -three days after its birth, and then softened in barley meal and -salt. It is said, that washing it in the water of the Zerefshan -gives it the beautiful lustre; and in the month of July thousands -of them may be seen spread out for drying along its banks, between -Bokhara and Behaeddin. The skins are everywhere admired, but mostly -in request in Persia, where they are made into the fashionable hats -of the country. If we take into account, that a külah (a hat, for -which three or four skins are used) costs there as much as from -ten to fifteen ducats, we may feel assured that our Astrachan -of a considerably lower price is no Bokhara production. With the -nomads of Central Asia the breeding of sheep is a chief means of -maintenance, and we can easily form an idea of the innumerable -flocks of sheep which graze and rove upon the steppes. The Kirghis -send great quantities of sheep to the Khanats and to Russia, where -the importation is constantly on the increase. In the year 1835 -about 850,000, and in the year 1860 already 3,644,000 roubles' worth -of sheep were imported.[30] In addition to this enormous quantity of -sheep, raw sheep-skins to the value of 75,000, and wool to the value -of 86,000 silver roubles, passed the Russian frontier at Orenburg in -the same year. - - [30] Compare "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462. - -The _goat_ is, after the sheep, one of the most important of -domestic animals. Goats' flesh is not so palatable as that of sheep, -but it is here better than anywhere else in Asia. The wool of the -goat, according to Burnes, is far inferior to that of the Cashmir -goat, but tolerably good; and waterproof stuffs are made of it. - -_Horses_, of excellent breed, are found among the Turkomans, who -export the finest to Afghanistan, India and Persia. The Turkoman -horse, especially the Akhal and Yomut race,[31] is very little -inferior to the Arab horse in point of swiftness and endurance, as -well as in beauty of form. The OEzbeg horse, or the species met -with in Bokhara, Khiva, and Maymene, possesses more strength than -swiftness. - - [31] Compare "Travels in Central Asia," p. 420. - -The _camels_ of Central Asia, among which the breed of Bokhara and -the two-humped Kirghis are considered the best of their kind, are -surpassed in point of strength and swiftness only by the Arab, and -especially by the Hedshaz camel. The story that the camels can -preserve water pure and cool in their second stomach, and that -travellers, when suffering from thirst, drink it in their utmost -need, is perfectly unknown here; and on questioning the nomads on -the subject, they only laughed and seemed highly amused. These -animals are famous in Central Asia for their rare contentedness, -satisfied as they are with the very worst water, and most miserable -food, consisting of thistles and briars, and in spite of which -they hold on for days, loaded with the heaviest burdens. They are -at the same time entirely free from the spite and viciousness of -the Arabian camel. They are exported to Russia and Afghanistan; -less to Russia. Their hair is cut twice a year, and is used in the -manufacture of ropes and coarse stuffs. Cattle on the whole are not -very numerous, and in rather a poor condition. The finest cattle are -said to exist in Khokand, and among the Karakalpaks on the Oxus, -whose exclusive occupation is to rear them. Beef is, in Central -Asia, still more tough and unpalatable than in Persia or Turkey, -and the consumption of it is therefore limited to the poorest class -of the people. Butter and cheese are made of cow's milk, but in -comparatively small quantities. _Mules_ are not found in Central -Asia, from a religious superstition against disgracing the horse, -the noble animal, "par excellence;" but all the greater care is -bestowed upon the breeding of the ass, which undoubtedly is here -the finest and most excellent of all I have seen in Asia. The ass -is, in Bokhara, not only of a vigorous frame and high stature, but -of surprising nimbleness, and in long caravan marches can be relied -upon as much as the horse. The fowls are of the long-legged Chinese -breed. Geese are smaller than those in Europe; and there are several -species of ducks. Besides these, there are swans, partridges, -guinea-fowls and pheasants, of which the finest sort is found in -Khokand. - - -3. MINERAL KINGDOM. - -My readers will not feel surprised that we should have but a scanty -knowledge of the mineral riches in the three Khanats. Lehmann, and -other Russian travellers, who, furnished with sufficient geological -knowledge, might have made closer investigations, were thwarted in -their efforts at every step by the jealousy of the Tartar officials. -I incline, however, to the opinion of Burnes, that Central Asia -possesses either no precious metals or extremely few, and that the -gold dust in the Zerefshan is not the property of the country, -but washed down by the small rivers that rise in the Hindukhush. -According to a statement of the Central Asiatics, the mountainous -country round Samarkand and in Bedakhshan, the Oveis-Karayne -mountains on the left bank of the Oxus (in the Khanat of Khiva), -and the Great Balkan in the desert near the Caspian Sea, are rich -in metallic wealth. That gold mines really do exist near the upper -Oxus, is proved by a certain considerable quantity of gold annually -obtained from it, although the gold-washing is carried on in the -most primitive and negligent manner. - -The gold-washing, or more correctly the gold-fishing, is done with -camels' tails, of which several are hung up side by side between -two poles. People beat them about in the water for some time, or -they dip them into the river, and then hang them up. Those places -are always chosen where the water is troubled, and the work is -generally performed in June and July, the months in the year most -fit for the purpose. I doubt whether any gold-dust is exported; it -is not probable, since the smaller ornaments are made of native -metal, as the Persian goldsmith in Bokhara informed me. Silver is -found in Khiva in the above-mentioned mountains, and a considerable -quantity of this valuable metal was really gained during the reign -of Allahkuli-Khan, when the miners were worked for three years -under the management of a native of India, who had been educated -for this department. It is said that after the death of this prince -he either fled or was murdered. Since that time the mines have been -much neglected. I also heard some vague reports of the existence of -silver mines near Shehri Sebz. - -Of precious stones, we must mention first of all the rubies of -Bedakhshan, which were formerly of high repute in Asia, under the -name of Laali Bedakhshan; at the present day not many of them are -found. Cornelian exists in large quantities in the mountain-rivers -of Bedakhshan. It is very cheap, and is exported to Arabia, Persia, -and Turkey. Lapis lazuli, which is used in dyeing, is of small value -in Central Asia, and is exported to Russia and Persia. The turquoise -of Bedakhshan and Khokand is far inferior in colour to that of -Nishapur in Persia, and is purchased by none but the nomads and -Nogay silversmiths; it is of a green instead of a blue colour, and -liked far less than the latter.[32] - - [32] Compare Ritter, "Erdkunke," viii., 326. - -This sketch of the productions of the oasis countries in Central -Asia will have convinced my readers, and especially those who -are acquainted with Asiatic countries and their conditions, that -Turkestan cannot be numbered among the sterile countries. Called -by the natives "a jewel set in sand," from its own peculiar value -and the barrenness around it, Central Asia will certainly play an -important part one day among the countries of the far East, and -occupy a prominent position, as soon as the beneficent beams of our -European civilisation shall have dried up the stagnant pool of its -miserable social relations, and as soon as the grand results we -have gained for industry and agriculture shall there likewise have -received their acknowledgment. It is robbery, murder, and war, but -not the barrenness of nature, which convert the shores of the Oxus -and Jaxartes into a desert. In Bokhara, but especially in Khiva, -agriculture is almost exclusively in the hands of slaves, of which -there are in the latter Khanat more than 80,000. Their rude manners -have placed the sword in the hands of the inhabitants,--the plough -is considered degrading, and is entirely given over to slaves. -When will these Khanats learn to see that a great part of their -misfortunes, and the unsettled state of their political and social -relations, originate in the perversity of their nature and conduct? - -A government which endeavours to smooth existing relations deserves -our full acknowledgment and cordial wishes for success, although it -is premature to anticipate a complete change. Nor must we grudge it -the natural wealth of the country. Setting aside the moral influence -of such a Government, and its possible future political schemes, the -material gain is, on the whole, not large; nay, I maintain, that it -is small, when compared to the trouble and expense the occupation -and administration of such a province require--a province, the -communication with which must always be attended with endless -hardships and difficulties. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -ON THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF BOKHARA. - - -What I have to impart in this chapter on the ancient history of -Bokhara is taken out of a Persian MS., brought by the late Sir -Alexander Burnes from Bokhara, which bears the name of "Tarikhi -Narshakhi," the history of Narshakhi. The author, Mehemmed ben -Djafer el Narshakhi, wrote this highly interesting work in Bokhara, -in the year of the Hegirah, 332, under the government of Emir -Hamid the Samanide, in Arabic. Later, in the year 522, it was -translated into Persian, and augmented by quotations from a not less -interesting work, Khazain ul Ulum, "The Treasures of Wisdom," which -Ebul Hassan wrote at Nishapur. In consideration of its historical -value it is well worth the trouble (in a quite literal translation) -to give the whole. The distinguished orientalist, Monsieur de -Khanikoff, has already done this, and it will very probably be put -before the scientific world. We have here only selected that which -is suitable to the outline of our sketches, and for this reason -given an extract in a free translation, since this is less fatiguing -to the majority of readers, and more acceptable. - - -BOKHARA, _i.e._, ITS ENVIRONS. - -On the site of modern Bokhara there must have been in ancient days -a morass, which arose from the yearly flooding of the river that -comes from Samarkand. In summer, from the melting of the snow in the -existing mountains in the neighbourhood, this was much augmented. -This morass was dried up at a later period, and the fertile soil -soon attracted settlers from all sides. From these colonists a -prince was chosen, by name Aberzi, for their ruler. Bokhara itself -existed not then. There were simply numerous villages, of which -Beykem or Beykend (the village of the ruler) was the largest. -Tyranny soon dispersed this little colony. A part of it drew back to -northern Turkestan, founded the town Djemuket,[33] and soon enjoyed -a flourishing condition. Later they returned to the assistance of -their brethren whom they had left behind. Then Prince Shir Kishver, -"Lion of the Land," conquered the bad Aberzi, put him in a sack -full of thorns, and turned him round and round until he died. -Bokhara gradually flourished again. Shir Kishver ruled for twenty -years, and contributed much to the success of the colony, and his -followers pursued the same path, and the whole neighbourhood was -soon peopled and covered with villages. In what epoch the chronology -of this place falls, is hard to conjecture. It were a vain effort -to attempt to penetrate the table of the oldest history of Bokhara. -We prefer rather to give the interesting data of the MSS. on that -neighbourhood, and to begin with Bokhara, which from ancient days -was an important spot. - - [33] This is very probably the modern Chemket, in the new Russian - province of Turkestan. - - -BOKHARA, THE CAPITAL. - -What the source of our information relates with regard to the -religious importance of this spot, what pre-eminence its inhabitants -had, what distinction awaits them at the day of resurrection, &c., -will not much interest our readers. Siaush is stated to have been -the founder of the fortress, where he was slain in a public square, -before the Gate Guriun, by his own father-in-law. This place was -constantly held in honour by the fire-worshippers, and every one -took care to offer a cock there on Noruz (New Year's Day) before the -set of sun. This commemorative festival was celebrated everywhere. -Troubadours have long sung of it in their lays, though the story -relates to facts that happened three thousand years ago. Other -people affirm that Efrasiab was the founder. It may suffice to know -that the fortress long remained desolate and uninhabited until -Benden, or Bendun, the husband of Queen Khatun, rebuilt it, together -with a castle over the gate, on which he caused his own name to be -engraved in iron. In the year 600 Heg. this gate, together with the -iron slab, was still conspicuous; later all fell in ruins, and every -attempt to rebuild it was fruitless. After the opinion of the wise -men of the day it was at length rebuilt in the form of the Pleïades, -on seven pillars, and from that time all kings who inhabited it were -victorious, and, what is still more wonderful, none of them died, as -long as they continued to occupy it. This castle had two gates--the -Eastern or Gurian Gate, the western or Rigistan Gate--which were -connected by a road, and the castle contained the dwellings of -the chief officers, as well as the prison and treasury and divan. -After these events there was a time of desolation, and it was again -rebuilt by Arslan Khan, and enjoyed its former greatness, 534 Heg. -When Kharezm Shah took Bokhara he permitted governors appointed from -Sandjar to direct matters, and to destroy the citadel. Then, in 536 -Heg., it was again restored. Similar events it experienced many -times, till at last the Moguls, under Djengis Khan, reduced to ruins -Bokhara and the fortress. - -Of the palaces of Bokhara, the Seraï at the Rigistan must be -mentioned in the first place, in which square the lords of this -land, both in the pre-Islamite times and also later, were in the -habit of living. In regard to circumference, that which Emir Said, -the Samanide, caused to be built is the largest, and probably most -splendid palace, where all the high counsellors, with the governors, -are found in one and the same building. - -After this, we must name Seray Molian, or that palace which was -built on the canal of the same name. This is described as an -exceedingly charming dwelling-place, which was surrounded by the -most luxurious gardens, the most beautiful meadows and flower-beds, -brooks and fountains. The whole tract of country, from the gate -of the Rigistan to Deshtek (little field) was quite full of -beautifully-painted, sumptuous houses, with lovely lakes, and -shadowy trees which allowed no sun to penetrate; and the gardens -exuberant in fruits, as almonds, nuts, cherries, &c.[34] - - [34] Almonds and cherries are, now-a-days, not to be met with as a - product of Bokhara. - -The palace of Shemsabad is also worthy of notice, which the king, -Shems-ed-din, caused to be built near the gate Ibrahim, and which is -remarkable for its zoological garden, named Kuruk. This was a place -of four miles in circumference, surrounded with high walls, where -many dove-cotes, as well as wild animals, such as apes, gazelles, -foxes, wolves, boars(!), in half-tamed condition, are found. -After the death of Shems-ed-din, his brother, Khidr Khan, mounted -the throne; then his son, Ahmed Khan, who continually increased -the beauty of the palace; but when the latter was conquered and -conducted to Samarkand by Melek Shah, it was abandoned, and -fell into ruins. Besides these there were many country houses -in the neighbourhood, nearer to the town, which belonged to the -Keshkushans. By this name a certain people were indicated who came -out of the west to Bokhara, but were not Arabs, and possessed a -singularly good reputation. When Kuteibe, after the conquest -of Bokhara, required the half of the houses for the Arabs, the -Keshkushans formed the largest portion of those who gave up their -houses and settled out of the town. Of these country houses only two -or three remained to later periods, which bore the name of Köshki -Mogan (Kiosks of the fire-worshipping priests). There were many -temples in Bokhara known as those of the fire-worshippers, and the -Mogan were accustomed to maintain them with great care. The first -town wall which extended round Bokhara was built by the command -of the governor, Ebul Abbas, in 215 Heg., in consequence of the -inhabitants having complained that they had suffered so much from -the inroads of the Turks. In the year 235 Heg., it was repaired and -fortified, but later entirely ruined when the Mongol hordes laid -waste the city and environs of Bokhara. Besides the above, mosques -and other buildings are mentioned. We wish to spare our readers -these details. The past prosperity of Bokhara is sufficiently shown, -when we appeal to twelve canals or larger conduits which intersect -the vicinity in all directions. The fruitful and bounteous nature -of the soil has, in the East, become proverbial, and the great sums -which have been levied on the town and environs prove it. After the -fourth, i.e., the final conquest of Bokhara by Kuteibe, the Khalif -in Bagdad received 200,000, and the governor of Khorassan 10,000, -dirrhems. In the time of the Samanides Bokhara paid, in Kerminch -alone, more than a million dirrhems tribute, which is considered an -immense sum according to the tariff of that period. In pre-Islamite -times there was in Bokhara only barter. The first governor who -struck silver money was Kanankhor. The coin had on one side his -portrait, and was of pure silver: this lasted up to the time of -Abubekir. The old coinage became lessened, and was replaced by the -inferior mint at Kharezm. In the time of Harun al Raschid, Athref, -the governor, struck a new mint of six different kinds of metal, -which were named atrifi or azrifi. (I think that the word, common in -Persia, eshrefi--ducats, is not from the Arabic, but derived from -azrifi.) - -In industrial arts also, Bokhara has exceeded the other nations of -once famous Asia. The dress stuffs which were fabricated on the bank -of the Zerefshan were sought for in Arabia, Persia, Egypt, Turkey, -India itself. These were merely of three colours, white, red and -green; but its silken stuffs were strong and heavy, and were worn -for a long time as the favourite royal and princely robes in many -lands. Next to these were the large carpets and curtains, which -were woven in Bokhara. The former of these were so expensive that -the town of Bokhara could pay, with one single carpet, the tribute -to Bagdad. In the later devastations of Bokhara the clever artizans -were scattered, and with them their art fell to the ground. - - -THE ENVIRONS OF BOKHARA. - -Besides the chief city and its wonders, there are many places of the -environs described in the manuscript before me. Some of these exist -even now; others have passed nameless. - -_Kermineh._ In this many other towns are comprised, and this region -has produced many poets and poetesses. It is distant from Bokhara -fourteen farsangs only, and was named Dihi Khurdek (little town). - -_Nur_ is a larger place, where there are many mosques and -caravanserais, and it is the spot most frequented by pilgrims of -the whole neighbourhood. In Bokhara much is thought of this, for a -journey thither is esteemed as half a pilgrimage to Mecca. - -_Tavais_ (as the Arabians name it, for the proper name was Kud), -a considerable spot, which was celebrated for its markets. They -lasted commonly ten days, and were frequented yearly by more than -ten thousand persons, who came from Ferghana (Khokand) and from -all quarters. This circumstance made the inhabitants wealthy, and -they were famous for their riches. Tavais lies on the high road to -Samarkand, and is seven farsangs from Bokhara. - -_Ishkuhket_, a large and rich town, carries on an extensive -commerce in preparing kirbas (a kind of linen); has many mosques, -caravanserais, and is considered one of the loveliest towns of -Bokhara. - -_Zendine_ produces the best kirbas in Bokhara, which it exports to -Arabia, Fars, Kirman, and other distant lands, and which is used -everywhere by princes and great people for clothing. It is in high -estimation, and is purchased at the same price as the heaviest -stuffs. - -_Revane_ is a fortified spot, and was formerly the residence of the -kings, and it is said that it was built by Shapur. It is on the -Turkestan boundary, has a weekly market, at which much silken stuff -is sold. - -_Efshana_ is a well fortified spot, has a mosque built by Kuteibe, -and a weekly market. - -_Berkend_, a large old village, which the Emir Ismael, the Samanide, -bought, and divided the revenue between Dervishes and Seids. - -_Rametin_ is older than Bokhara, and was earlier inhabited by -princes. It is said to have been built by Efrasiab, who fortified -it also at a later period, when he was attacked by Kaykhosrev, who -sought vengeance on him for the death of his father, Siaush, and -son-in-law. In this place were the most celebrated temples of the -fire-worshippers in all Transamana. Efrasiab was, after two years, -seized and killed by Kaykhosrev, and his grave is found at the entry -of that fire-temple, which stands on that high hill which is now -visible close to the mountains of Khodscha Imam. These events are -reported to have taken place three hundred years ago. - -_Yerakh'sha_ is one of the Bokhara towns, and is celebrated for -its castle, which was built by Prince Gedek, one thousand years -since, and then lay long years in ruin. Later, Prince Hebek restored -a portion, and Benyat, the son of Tugshade, is said to have died -there. In the time of Islam, Emir Ismael, the Samanide, wished to -make a mosque of it, and offered the inhabitants 20,000 dirrhem as -a re-imbursement for the restoration, but they declined his offer. -In the time of Emir Hayder, the Samanide, there were yet some wooden -remains, which that person brought to Bokhara, and used for the -building of his castle. Yerakh'sha has yearly fifteen markets, of -which the last, which is held at the end of the year lasts twenty -days, and also is called the Noruz market (New Year's Day market), -which since that time (what time?) has become a Bokhara custom. Five -days after the Noruz market comes the Noruz Mogan (New Year's Day of -the priests of the fire-worshippers). - -_Beykend_ was considered a city, and its inhabitants are highly -indignant if any one call it a village. Were a Beykender in Bagdad -questioned as to his home, he would say Bokhara. It was once a -considerable spot, had many beautiful buildings and mosques, and -in the year 240 Heg. had yet many rabats (stone houses in the form -of a caraverserai). The number of these exceeded a thousand, all -inhabited by people who, in summer, dwelt at their own country -seats, but in winter spent the fruits of their industry in the town, -and thus were very gay. The Beykenders were also great merchants, -who carried on a trade to China and the Sea. The fortifications of -this town are older than Bokhara, and it gave Kuteibe much trouble -to take it. In earlier times each prince had here his castle. -Between Beykend and Farab is a tract of twelve farsangs, which goes -through a sandy desert. Arslan Khan had raised here a magnificent -building, and with much cost brought the Canal Djaramgam into this -vicinity. In the neighbourhood of Beykend there are many beds of -reeds and large lakes, which they call Barkent ferrakh or _Karakol_. -According to a credible statement these are about twenty farsangs in -extent, and abound in water-fowl and fish, beyond any other portion -of Khorassan. Here the Canal Djaramgam had not sufficient water, so -Arslan Khan wished to bring from these lakes a stream to Beykend, -which place lies on a slight elevation. They began to dig, but they -struck on an excessively hard rock, which rendered useless all their -hammering and hewing. Loads of fat and vinegar were employed for the -softening of the stone, but in vain, and the work was abandoned. - -_Farab_ has a large mosque, of which the walls and cupola are -built of tiles, without a particle of wood visible. It had its own -princes, who governed from Bokhara in a settled order, and, to a -certain degree, independently. - - -QUEEN KHATUN AND THE FOUR FIRST ARABIAN FIELD MARSHALS.[35] - - [35] Khatun means in Turkish, _woman_, of which word we wish to - avail ourselves instead of a name, as this is the practice in the - MS. before us. - -In the time of the Arabian occupation, or more properly speaking, in -that time when the first outposts of the Arabian adventurer pressed -to the distant East, there was in Bokhara a woman on the throne, -who, during the minority of her son Tugshade, held for fifteen years -the reins of government with both might and rectitude. Of this -woman, who is considered to be the Nushirvan (emblem of justice) of -Central Asia, it is reported that she went daily from her castle -on the Rigistan[36] on horseback, and, surrounded by all classes, -busied herself with state affairs. Towards the end of year 53 Heg., -the Arabians, under the leading of Abdullah-ben-Ziad, crossed the -Oxus, and took the once celebrated Peykend, through which victory -they came into possession of much treasure, and about 4,000 -prisoners. - - [36] _Rigistan_ means in old Persian, an open space, which is strewn - with sand (rig) and kept vacant. - -In the year 54, Heg., they attacked Bokhara with a strong army and -battering engines, and Khatun was cowed before the threatening -peril. One messenger was sent by her to the Arabian field-marshal -with presents, and instructions to obtain at least an armistice -for fourteen days; another was sent to the north-east to a Turkish -race, for quick aid. The stratagem was successful. The Arabs, -anticipating nothing, granted the armistice. Meanwhile the Turks -approached, and Khatun felt herself strong enough to attack the -besiegers and put them to flight. The defeat itself was not denied -by the Arabian historians: they only add, that the Mussulman army -took a rich booty in gold, silver, clothing stuffs, and weapons, in -which were the golden and jewelled boots of the queen, Khatun, the -worth of which was estimated at 200,000 drachmas. Abdullah-ben-Ziad -felled all the trees in the vicinity, and destroyed all the towns. -Khatun felt anxious for the fate of her land, and concluded peace -with the Arabians, which she bought, they say, for one million -drachmas. In the year 56, Heg., Said ben Osman was named governor -of Khorassan. He crossed the Oxus and fell on Bokhara. Khatun -wished to buy a peace for a similar sum to that which she gave -Abdullah ben Ziad. Despite of this offer, Said, who stood with -120,000 men in Kesch (Shehr Sebz) and Nakhsheb (Karschi), refused -compliance, gave battle, and after he had beaten the army of -Khatun, made peace. The queen was obliged to submit, and entered -the army of the Arab as a vassal.[37] The submissive State gave -eighty hostages, and Said ben Osman went to Samarkand, which he -also took, and thence, laden with rich treasures, returned back to -Medina. The report goes, that the hostages which Khatun gave to -the Arabian field-marshal were officers who doubted the legitimacy -of Tugshade, and plotted together against the queen. According to -agreement, they wanted merely to accompany the Arab army as long -as they remained in Bokhara, but Said wished to have them with him -as trophies of his victory when he entered Medina. This moved the -deceived Bokharians; and when they saw their ruin unavoidable, they -wished, at least, to die avenging themselves. They slew Said, and -then severally destroyed each other. In his turn, Muslim ben Ziad -was named ruler of Khorassan. He hastened quickly to his post, drew -together a considerable army, and fell on Bokhara, again become -faithless. Khatun quickly perceived that she, alone, was no match -for him, and sought everywhere help. She gave her hand to Terkhan, -Prince of Samarkand, to purchase protection for her country; also -the mighty Turkish prince, Bendun, was called in to aid. When all -the assistance had been promised, Khatun hastened to conclude a -truce: the Arabs consented; when Bendun appeared with 120,000 men, -and induced the reluctant queen to violate the truce. The Arabian -field-marshal was extremely incensed, and sent one of his officers, -by name Mehleb, to Khatun, to remind her of her blameable neglect -of duty. Mehleb took from each company a man with him, quitted -secretly the camp by night, with the intention to surprise, on some -point, the enemy's army. He was already arrived on the banks of -the river (Zerefshan), when some Arabs, thinking that the question -was a matter of booty, joined him. Their united force was not more -than 900 men. The enemy's cavalry discovered this, and at the first -onset cut down 400 of them. The rest fled quickly back, but were -followed, and towards daylight reached near to Khoten. The Turks -opened a bloody battle; Mehleb was surrounded on all sides, and -announced, by a powerful shout, his position to the nearest Arabian -camp. The signal was heard; Muslim knew the voice of Mehleb, heeded -it but little, and only Abdullah, who blamed the indifference of -the commander-in-chief, mounted his horse in order to assist his -brother, who was hard pressed. This approach gave courage to Mehleb -and his followers. The battle was renewed; Bendun fell, and the -Turks were put to flight with great loss. An immense booty fell -into the hands of the conquerors; and it is said that each horseman -received about 1,000 dirrhems. After this incident Khatun made -peace, and did homage to the Arabs. She also appeared in the camp, -and did homage again. She requested to see Abdullah, whose heroic -deeds had astonished the whole army. Muslim called him. He wore a -blue tunic with red girdle, and favourably impressed the Queen by -his noble appearance, and she made him great presents. The fourth -Arabian field-marshal was Kuteibe ben Muslim. He went to Khorassan, -under the Kaliphate of Hudjadj, conquered on his way the provinces -of Tocharistan, and crossed the Oxus, in 88 Heg. Peykend was -apprised of his approach, a strong walled fortress, the taking of -which cost him a hard struggle. The Arabs were forced to besiege it -fifty days, and suffered considerably. Since force could produce -no effect, he was obliged to employ stratagem, and caused it to be -undermined, and the fortress was thus surprised. He pardoned the -inhabitants, made peace with them, and leaving Varka ben Nasr-ullah -as governor, went to Bokhara. Intelligence soon reached him that the -Peykendis had killed the governor, whom he had left behind, and who, -as it proved, had provoked the revolt by his cruel deeds. Kuteibe -hastened back, plundered the city, destroyed it, killed all the men -able to bear arms. The rich and mighty Peykend, which maintained an -extensive commerce in teas from China and other goods, was utterly -destroyed. Some portions were restored later, but its prosperity was -gone for ever. They relate that the Arabs, among abundant treasures, -found a silver idol, which, with the robes, was worth 150 miskal. -Among things most worthy of remark, were two pearls, as large as -a pigeon's egg. These, according to the report of the Peykendis, -were brought into the temple by a bird. Kuteibe sent such things -to the Khalif Hudjadj as a present, who, in a letter of thanks, -expressed both his admiration for the objects, and the high spirit -of the sender. From hence he went to Vardun, (now Vardanzi) which -he spoiled, with all the other villages belonging to it. These -successful advances of the Arabian army terrified the small princes -of that neighbourhood, and they united, and attacked, with joint -forces, the invaders. As the Arab historian affirms, Kuteibe was -greatly distressed. He was also destitute of arms; and they say that -a lance was bought for 5 dirrhems, a helmet for 50, the cuirass for -900. Happily, the ruler of Samarkand, by cunning and deceit, had -withdrawn from the alliance to go over to the Arabs; and the Turkish -leader having obtained information that fresh auxiliary troops had -arrived in Kesh and Nakhsheb, retreated to Vardun; and Kuteibe -remained undisturbed in the possession of the conquered province in -Transoxiana. - - [37] Report says, that Said ben Osman and Khatun, who was a - celebrated beauty, loved each other; and even in later years the - popular ballads were extant which sung of this adventure. - - -TUGSHADE AND MOKANNA, THE VEILED PROPHET OF KHORASSAN. - -Tugshade, who, after the death of his mother, was chosen King of -Bokhara, had to thank Kuteibe, alone, for his throne, since he -supported him against his powerful neighbour, the Governor of -Vardun, who invaded Bokhara repeatedly, but was always driven back -by Kuteibe. This feeling of gratitude may have been the principal -cause that Tugshade went over to Islam, and distinguished himself -by his remarkable ardour in favour of the new opinions. He reigned -thirty-two years, not so much as an independent prince, but as the -vassal of Kuteibe, who found in him a mighty aid in propagating -by force the doctrine of Mohammed, which the inhabitants of -Bokhara were much disposed to reject. As the Arabian adventurers -made conversion to Islam the chief condition in submitting, the -Bokhariots, at each capture of their capital, acknowledged, in -appearances, Islam, but after the departure of their conquerors -returned to their beloved national religion, the Parsi. Kuteibe -wished to check this. He ordered, therefore, that the half of -the houses of the whole town should be given up to the Arabs. -The proselytes were placed, by these means, in the immediate -neighbourhood of men who continually watched them, and urged them to -the new doctrine. In the year 94 Heg., he permitted a large Mosque -to be built, in which all were to assemble for prayer on Fridays, -and in which the Koran should be read, in an emphatic manner, in -the Persian language. This mosque existed even in the time of our -author's writing, who besides adds that upon the doors figures of -animals were cut, (which, as is known in every place of Islam, to -say nothing of a mosque, is treated as a gross offence): the reason -of this, they say, was, that these animals were taken from an -earlier temple of the Fire-Worshippers, and retained afterwards. - -Tugshade reigned thirty-two years. After his death, Kuteibe, -his son, (whom he so named, from attachment to the Arabian -field-marshal), took the throne. At the commencement of his reign -he affected the Musulman, but, as it was soon apparent that he was -secretly attached to the old religion, he was executed by order of -Ebn Muslim, the ruler of Khorassan, and in his stead, Benyat, also a -son of Tugshade, was named Lord of Bokhara. Under both these latter -reigns, it happened that the Sefiddjamegan (the white-clothed), as -the followers of Mokanna, the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan, have been -called, raised, with the new doctrine, the standard of rebellion -against the Arabian conquerors. In like manner with Kuteibe, the -son of Tugshade, did the other son, Benyat, go over to the rebels, -and was put to death by order of the Khalif, 166 Heg. The family of -Tugshade held the throne of Bokhara till 301 Heg., when Ibn Ishak, -the son of Ibrahim, the son of Khalid, the son of Benyat, ceded his -rights to Emir Ismael, the Samanide. - -As to the history of Mokanna and the Sefiddjamegan, this movement -might have had, certainly, dangerous consequences for Islam in -Central Asia, if the authorities in Bokhara, and particularly the -Khalif Mehdi, had not used all proper precaution. Mokanna, (as -is related in the MS. lying before me), the veiled prophet of -Khorassan, whose real name was Hashim bin Hekim, was born in the -village of Geze, near Merw, and early occupied himself with many -kinds of knowledge, but especially with enchantments and secret arts. - -He was named Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet, on this account, -because he covered his head constantly with a veil, for he was -deformed in features, one-eyed, and, moreover, bald. He had, no -doubt, under Ibn Muslim a high military rank, as he there once came -out in his character of prophet; he was seized, sent to Bagdad, and -there put in prison. He escaped thence and came back to Merw, and -when he showed himself among his people, for the first time, he -demanded, "Know ye who I am?" They said unto him, that he was Hashim -bin Hekim. He replied, "You are in error. I am your God, and I am -the God of all people. I call myself what I will. I was earlier in -the world in the form of Adam, Ibrahim, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Ibn -Muslim, and now in the form in which you see me." "How is it, then," -they asked of him, "that these make themselves known as prophets, -but you wish to be God?" "They were too sensual, but I am through -and through spiritual, and have constantly possessed power to appear -in any form." He lived, then, in Merw, but his agents moved about -everywhere in order to gain followers, and his letters of mission -began thus:-- - -"In the name of the Merciful and Gracious God, I, Hashim, son of -Hekim, Lord of all lords. Praised be the One God, He who was before -in Adam, Noah, Ibrahim, Moses, Christ, Mohammed, Ibn Muslim; He -who was manifested before all these, namely, I Mokanna, lord of -might, brightness, truth,--rally round me and learn, for mine is the -lordship of the earth, mine the glory and power. Besides me there -is no god; he who is with me goes to Paradise; he who flies from me -goes to hell." - -Among his adherents an Arab, named Abdullah, principally -distinguished himself, and, in the vicinity of Kesh, misled very -many. At a later period the greater part of the villages around -Samarkand and Bokhara went over to him. The professors of the -new sect became from day to day stronger, and with their numbers -increased also both uproar and riot, and the alarm and cries of -the Musulmans. When the governor of Khorassan was informed of this -issue he wished to seize Mokanna; who then kept himself concealed a -long time, and though all the passes of the Oxus were guarded, he -succeeded in escaping over to the Transoxanian side, and effected a -retreat into a strong fortress on the mountain of Sam, near the town -of Kesh (the modern Shehr Sebz). The Khalif Mehdi also was struck -with terror at the intelligence. He sent first troops, and then -arms in person to Nishapur, for it had become a question whether -the partisans of Mokanna would not obtain the upper hand, and Islam -sink to the ground. At that time in the new sect robbery and murder -having been permitted, immense hordes out of Turkestan joined the -revolters, the Musulmans were hard pressed on all sides, their -villages plundered, their women and children carried away to prison. -In the year 159 Heg. the commandant of Bokhara went against them -with a considerable force, and the contest between the partisans of -Mokanna and the Mohamedans lasted in that country many years. The -Veiled Prophet moved not from his fortified position, his spiritual -influence was sufficient to stimulate his followers. - -The Arabian garrison of Bokhara, with the few which remained -true to Islam, soon felt itself too weak against the number and -fanaticism of their far superior enemy. Aid was sent from Bagdad -under the command of Djebrailo bin Yahya; and the well fortified -place, Narshakh, which was a residence of the Sefiddjamegan, was -first attacked. After a close and vain siege the walls could only -so far be damaged as to allow a ditch that was fifty yards long to -be filled with wood and naphtha: this they fired, and the cross -beams of the wall became consumed, and the whole mass without -support fell. With sword in hand the Mohamedans rushed into the -fortress, many were massacred, many yielded under the condition of -retreating with their arms. The fortress was evacuated, yet when -the Sefiddjamegan heard that their commanders were put to death in -a traitorous fashion, they themselves took up arms in the enemy's -camp. A fresh contest arose, in which the Arabs conquered, and the -supporters of Mokanna were partly destroyed, partly put to flight. -After Narshakh, Samarkand had to be forced, the inhabitants of -which, in great part, were known to belong to the new sect. The -sieges and battles of these places lasted more than two years -(because a great number of the Turks had joined the Samarkanders -without any result being obtained). - -Mokanna, the mysterious prophet, kept himself during this period -always in his fortress, attended by one hundred of the loveliest -women of Transoxiana. The interior of the castle was kept only for -these with himself and one male page; besides these was no earthly -eye permitted to penetrate into his sanctuary. They say that 50,000 -of his followers lay at the gate of the fortress, and earnestly -implored him to show but once his god-like splendour. He refused, -sent his page with the message:--"Say to my servants that Musa -(Moses) also wished to see my godhead, but the beams of my splendour -he could not support. My glance kills instantly the earth-born." -The enthusiastic adherents assured him that they would gladly offer -their lives as a sacrifice if this high enjoyment was allowed to -them. When he could not furthermore deny them, Mokanna consented to -their entreaty, and appointed them to come at a certain time before -the gate of the fortress, where he promised to show himself. On -the evening of the appointed day he ordered that his women should -be placed in a line, with looking-glasses in their hands, as the -beams of the setting sun were reflected in the looking-glasses, and -when everything was illuminated by that reflection, he ordered them -to open the doors. The splendour blinded the eyes of his devoted -adherents, who fell prostrate, and called out,--"God! enough for us -of thy glory, for if we see it more all will be destroyed!" They -lay long in the dust supplicating him, until at length he sent his -page with the message:--"God is pleased with you, and he has given -you for your use the good of all the world." - -Fourteen years long Mokanna is reported to have lived in this -fortress consuming his time with women in drinking and carousing. -The Arab field marshall, Said Hersi, had at last, after a hard -siege, driven him into straits. The outer part was taken, and -there was only the inaccessible citadel on a higher eminence. With -the extinction of his ascendant star Mokanna was abandoned by his -followers, and when he saw the inevitable ruin nigh he decided, in -order not to fall into the hands of his enemies, rather to destroy -himself with his women and treasures. He gave to the women at a last -carouse a strong dose of poison in wine, and challenged them to -empty a goblet with him. All drank but one, who poured the wine into -her bosom, and as an eye-witness, told later the whole catastrophe. -According to her, Mokanna, after all the women had fallen dead, cut -off the head of his faithful page, and, quite naked, burnt himself, -with his treasures, in a furnace, which had been heated for three -days. He announced before that he wished to go to heaven to call -the angels to his help. "I have long watched the furnace," said -the fortunate woman who escaped, "but he never came back in that -fashion." After the death of Mokanna there were many curious sects -and creeds, but they concealed themselves from the ever increasing -power of Islam. Under the Samanides the doctrine of Mohammed spread -more and more, and Transoxanian countries became soon famous for -their religious zeal. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE TURANIAN AND IRANIAN RACES OF CENTRAL -ASIA. - - -THE TURKS OF EASTERN ASIA.--PHYSIOGNOMY AND CUSTOMS. - -I think that there are few points upon the whole terrestrial globe, -which are of greater importance for our historical researches -than the oases of Central Asia. These in the primitive times were -inexhaustible floodgates for those warlike hordes, who often -inundated and conquered the most beautiful spots of Asia, streaming -towards the west in wild torrents, and even occasioning alarm among -Europeans. No people can be so interesting for us upon the subject -of Ethnography as the Turko-Tartars, who, under such various names -and forms, have appeared on the scene of the events of the world, -and have had such powerful influence over our own circumstances. Is -it not surprising that of all nations we are the least acquainted -with these? Huns, Avars, Utigurs, Kutrigurs, Khazars, and so many -others, float before our sight only in the mist of fable. The clash -of arms which sounded through them from the Yaxartes to the heart -of Gaul and Rome has long since ceased. In vain should we inquire -even into their origin, did we not find in the scanty dates of the -Western chronicles of that period some points of reliance. These -dates show us that between the Tartar tribes of that age and the -present inhabitants of Central Asia there did exist an analogy -of an unmistakeable character. We detect this in descriptions of -them--in the accounts of their manner of living--all evincing much -resemblance to the customs and physical condition of the present -inhabitants of Turkestan. A similar life to what Priscus describes -in the Court of the King of the Huns is met with to-day in the -tent of a nomadic chief. Attila is more original than Djingis or -Taimur, but as historical personages they resemble each other. -Energy and good fortune could now almost produce upon the borders -of the Oxus and Yaxartes one of those heroes, whose soldiers, like -an avalanche, carrying everything before them, would increase to -hundreds of thousands, and would appear as a new example of God's -scourge, if the powerful barriers of our civilisation, which has a -great influence in the East, did not stop the way. The people of -Central Asia, particularly the nomadic tribes, are, in the internal -relations of their existence, the same as they were two thousand -years ago. In these physiognomical signs we find already changes -from a mixture of Iranian and Semitic blood (chiefly after the -Arabian occupation). The features of the Mongolian-Kalmuck type -here and there approach the Caucasian race. The Tartar in Central -Asia is no longer what we see him represented by the Greek-Gothic -writers, for even in the times of Djingis he was no longer the -same. It is, therefore, of great interest to mark how this change -in physiognomical type continually decreases from the east to the -west--how this Deturkism, if I may so express myself, is perceptible -among the various races of Central Asia, and in what degree their -various gradations through social circumstances came, more or less, -in contact with foreign elements. This will especially be seen by a -cursory view of the Turkish nations of Central Asia from Inner China -to the Caspian Sea; but those Turks who stretch hence up to the -Adriatic, or to the banks of the Danube, are West Turks, and cannot -be included in the unity of race so much by physiognomical type as -by analogy of speech, characters, and customs. - -With the former, whose masses have retained compactly together the -unity of the race, in spite of all those ways in which the Central -Asiatics differ remarkably from one another--in spite of our -ethnographical names,--the distinction shows itself clearly in their -features and common physical type. Whatever views we may entertain -of the origin of the Turks, so much is certain, that they are -closely related to the Mongols; the relation being much closer than -those which subsist between the Indians and Persians in Iran. Much, -very much indeed, is to be done before we have investigated the -mutual relations of the whole Turko-Tartaric race, which stretches -from the Hindu Kush to the Polar Sea, from the interior of China to -the shores of the Danube. Our present sketch is only a weak attempt -at a small portion--general views upon all that personal experience -has presented to our observation; and it may here and there exhibit -somewhat of novelty. Through the extent known to us from East to -West, we divide the Turks into the following classes:-- - -1. Buruts, black or pure Kirghese. 2. Kirghis, properly Kazaks. 3. -Karakalpaks. 4. Turkomans. 5. OEzbegs. - - -BURUTS. - -These are pure, or black (Kirghis), and dwell on the eastern -boundary of Turkestan, namely, the valleys of the Thian-shan chain -of mountains, and inhabit several points on the shores of the Issik -Köl, close upon the frontier towns of Khokand. As I am told (I -have only seen a few of them), they are thick-set, but of powerful -stature, strong-boned, but remarkably agile, to which last quality -their warlike renown is attributed. By their physiognomy alone -are they to be distinguished from the Mongolians and Kalmucks: -the face is less flat, their cheeks less fleshy, their foreheads -somewhat higher, their eyes are less almond-shaped than those -of the latter. With regard to their colour, they can be little -distinguished from the neighbouring nomadic races; red or fair hair -and white complexion (by which type our European scholars would -claim relationship for this race with the Finlanders and other -north Altaic races) are rarely found; at least, my Khokand friends -assured me that among hundreds there were scarcely one or two.[38] -In all likelihood the Kiptchaks, of whom I have made mention in my -travelling journal at page 382, are no other than a division of the -Buruts, who are settled down in and around Khokand, and have caught, -both from Islam and from their social relationship with Turkestan, -far more than the rest of the Buruts, who, through their contact -with Kalmucks and Mongolians, now and then profess themselves more -or less Islam. Their language also contains many more Mongolian -words than the dialect of the Kiptchaks. From this most original -Turkish people we pass over to the second gradation, which is-- - - -THE KIRGHIS. - -Among the Kirghis or Kasak (as he calls himself), the character -of the Mongol Kalmuck type is no longer to be met with in such a -striking manner as among the Buruts, although he is hardly to be -distinguished from the latter in language and manner of life. In -colour, he nearly resembles the rest of the inhabitants of the -deserts of Central Asia. The women and youths, in general, have -a white and almost European complexion; still this becomes soon -altered, through the manner of living in the open air, in heat and -cold. The Kirghis are of thick-set and powerful frames, with large -bones; they have mostly short necks,--a real type of the Turanian, -opposed to the long-necked Iranian; not very large heads, of which -the crown is round, more pointed than flat. They have eyes less -almond-shaped, but awry and sparkling, prominent cheek-bones, pug -noses, a broad flat forehead, and a larger chin than the Buruts. -Their beards have little hair on the chin, only on both ends -of the upper lip; and it is remarkable, that they lament this -deficiency, and by no means find such delight in this physiognomical -characteristic as in the projecting cheek-bones, small eyes, &c., -which are esteemed by them as beauties.[39] - - [38] Klaproth, and Abel Remusat, in his "Researches on the Tartar - Languages," counts this stock with the Hindu-Gothic race, which - assertion is now considered by every one an error. Castren may, - without doubt, be right, if he in his investigations in south - Siberia finds relationship in a light-coloured Turkish stock; but - these are not Buruts. I believe that even the learned Mr. Schott is - deceived, when, following Chinese sources, he favours this opinion, - in his treatise, "Upon the Pure Kirghese." Berlin: 1863. It appears - that the Buruts are confounded with the Uisuns, who dwell further - north, are light-coloured, and probably are the remnant of a Finnish - stock. See "The Russians in Central Asia," by Mitchell, p. 64. - - [39] That many nomads censured this deficiency in projecting - cheek-bones in myself, as a disfigurement, I have already - mentioned. This need not astonish us; and it appears to me truly - remarkable, that Dr. Livingstone, in his book, "The Zambesi and its - Inhabitants," can assert that he has seen African women, from the - Makololo race, who, standing before the mirror, strove to lessen the - broad mouth, which is common among them, with the intention to make - themselves more beautiful. - -Since, as we have said, the type of the primitive race is no longer -so striking among them and universal as among the Buruts and -Kalmucks, so also we find their ideal of perfect beauty derived -only from their neighbours, with whom they gladly intermix; and -Lewschine[40] has rightly stated a fact, when he mentions the -preference they allow the Kalmuck women before their own. That from -their great extension through the northern desert lands of Central -Asia, perceptible shades may be met with in the external traits is -scarcely to be doubted;[41] but one easily comprehends that our -classification into great, little, and middle hordes, is unknown -to them; for, from the mutual tie of the manner of living, customs -and dispositions, they remain always the same, in spite of the many -subdivisions into branches, families and lines, which they, like the -Turkomans, gladly consider as decided separations. Whether on the -shores of the Emba or of the Sea of Aral, as well as in the environs -of the Balkhash and Alatau, there is little difference to be found -in the dialects spoken by them. Many tales and songs, many national -dishes, and national games, are, throughout the year, to be met with -in like manner; and although they may occur but seldom, still, love -of travelling and warlike disturbances have often brought together -the most distant races. - - [40] "Description of Kirghese Kazaks," by Alexis de Lewschine. - Paris: 1840; page 317. - - [41] _See_ the former work, page 300, chapter II. - -In their dress, the Kirghis are to be distinguished from the rest -of the nomadic tribes and settlers: in Central Asia, mostly by -their head-gear. The men wear, in summer, a felt hat (_kalpak_); in -winter, a cap (_tumak_), with fur covered with cloth, the back-flaps -of which protect the neck and ears. Besides these, they have still -a little fur cap (_koreysh_), which, however, is employed more for -in-door use. The women wear a _sheokele_, which is distinguished -from the Turkoman head-dress in that it is more conical, and allows -the veil to fall not before, but down the back to the loins. The -hair, also, is dressed in a different fashion. The young Turkoman -women plait the hair in two plaits; the Kirghis with eight thin -ones, four on either side. They cover their heads with a _letshek_, -in cloth, which covers head and neck. In negligé attire, the girls -twist red handkerchiefs round their heads, but the women white or -dark-coloured ones. The upper garments have the same tasteless form, -with many folds, as everywhere in Central Asia, only more of the -bright and glittering colours are liked; and in the north of Khokand -it is the custom for the young Kirghis to prepare for themselves a -garment from the raw hide of the fox-coloured horse, besides which -they let the horse's tail hang down from the neck as an ornament. -In their coverings for their feet, the only distinction is, that -the western have adopted the Russian form of boot; the eastern, on -the contrary, the Chinese; namely, with pointed, curved toes, and -slender, high heels. - -The religion is almost universally the Mohammedan; still, in a very -lax condition, which is the case with nearly all the nomadic tribes -in connexion with Islam.[42] Before and long after the Arabian -occupation of Central Asia, the Kirghis professed Shamanism, and it -is not to be wondered at, considering the little influence which the -teachers of Mohammed could maintain there, that much of the early -faith remains there now, and out of a whole tribe, which consists of -many hundred tents, there are often only one or two persons among -the chiefs who can read the Koran a little. - - [42] The Islam of faith was established, according to Fischer - ("History of Siberia," pages 86, &c., and elsewhere) towards the - middle of the sixteenth century, by one Kutshum. This date is - admitted by those in the north, as well as by the dwellers in South - Siberia, still in Turkestan that conversion is reported to have - taken place much earlier. - -The greater part of them are the bad students out of the schools -of the three Khanats, who for pay go into the army in the deserts. -The true proselyte zeal has long become extinct, and the able seek -employment in the town.[43] To keep a Mollah or an Akhond is besides -more fashionable, for it points out the affluent condition of a -party. To the nomadic tribes their material condition is of more -consequence; they look upon religion as a secondary object. They -call themselves Mohammedans, but prayers, fasts, and other religious -acts are little observed by them, and it will in consequence not -appear at all remarkable that superstition, that reminiscence of -the infancy of all people, still plays here an important part. -Chiromancy, astrology, casting out devils, breathing on the sick, -and other humbugs we will not mention, since we find them in -the educated Islamite countries, as Persia, Turkey, and even in -enlightened Europe. Of the superstitions of the Kirghis those -only are most interesting for us which relate especially to the -earlier faiths of these nomadic tribes, and furnish us thereby with -some ideas as to their earlier social relations. That sacrifices -were offered, the still existing oracle upon the shoulder-blades -and entrails proves. The first, called Keöze süyeghi, consists -in placing on the fire, clean and pure, the shoulder-blade of -a sheep just slaughtered, keeping it in the flames until it is -quite reduced to powder. It is then carefully laid down, and the -experienced person, who is generally a grey-beard, a Bakhshi, or a -Quack (Kam) studies the crevices of the burnt leg with the greatest -seriousness and a countenance full of importance.[44] When the -cracks run parallel with the broad end of the leg it signifies -good fortune, but if in the opposite direction a misfortune. The -latter, naturally, is seldom detailed. Still this is no wonder, -for when the civilized Greeks were cheated at Delphi and Dodona, -why should not this happen among the Kirghis deserts. To prophesy -from the position and twisting of the entrails is a rare knowledge, -in which the Kalmucks pretend to be particularly distinguished. -It is remarkable that this oracle is only consulted when they are -curious to know the sex of a child that is to be born. Fire also -must probably have been held in high honour, because it was not -allowed to spit on it. Ceremonies and dances are held around it, a -custom which exists in a wonderful manner in so many parts of Asia, -Africa, and Europe, and is still carried on in this district as well -as in Khiva and Khokand. To blow out a light is considered very ill -bred by the Kirghis in the whole of Central Asia; and finally from -the colour of burning oil, fat, &c., many prognostics are divined. -The superstition of the women is enormous, and really deserves the -trouble of a particular study. A girl, when only in her fourth year, -is possessed with it as completely as an elderly nomadic matron -who has passed her whole life in the lonely desert which developed -all her intellectual faculties in that direction. Each individual -part of the tent, each utensil, has some superstition in connexion -with it, which is strictly observed in pitching a tent, in milking, -cooking, spinning, and weaving, far more than the laws of Islam, -which are never particularly taken to heart. But the favourite -divination of these soothsayers is from fresh-spun thread. Four -stones are laid down, two white and two black; in the midst is a -thread, _strong twisted_, and the other end suddenly set free. If -the thread in its fall sink down to the black stones, it signifies -misfortune; to the white, the contrary. From the hand of the twister -no action is descried, for the oracle must be infallible. This is -called Tyik Yip, and is to be found everywhere in Central Asia. - - [43] Lewschine says the same in his above-named work upon the - Kirghis, page 358. - - [44] Dr. A. Bastian has found the oracle of the shoulder bone even - among the Buruts who profess Shamanism, and it is considered by the - Kirghis as a remnant of the same religion. See Ausland, No. 23, 1869. - -Of food which is peculiar to the Kirghis we will name Sürü, which -consists of smoke-dried flesh (horse or sheep's flesh) cut into -small pieces, roasted in fat. The preference for this arises from -its keeping for weeks carried about without spoiling. Ködje, -ordinary wheat, is cooked in water and eaten in sour milk. - -As national games of the Kirghis, we may mention tadjak-kisimo -(stocks). It consists in leaping over a rope held high. The winner -is applauded, the clumsy, on the contrary, are pressed between two -chairs, and exposed to the jeers of the company. Further, "eshek -yagiri" (wounded asses' back), in which in running they must leap -over three or four squatting play-fellows. - - -3. KARAKALPAKS. - -These form the third division in the race, and are essentially -different from the Kirghis in physiognomical expression, although -allied in language and customs. The Karakalpaks are distinguished -by a tall, vigorous growth and a more powerful frame than all the -tribes of Central Asia. They have a large head with flat full face, -large eyes, flat nose, slightly projecting cheek-bones, a coarse and -slightly pointed chin, remarkably long arms and broad hands. Taken -as a whole, their coarse features are in good harmony with their not -less clumsy forms, and the nickname of the neighbouring people - - Karakalpak. - Yüze yalpak. - Üzi yalpak. - -Karakalpak, (has a flat face, and is himself totally flat). -This sobriquet has not been uttered without reason. The complexion -approaches that of the OEzbegs, particularly that of the women, -who long retain their white complexion, and with their large eyes, -full face, and black hair, do not make an unpleasant impression. -In Central Asia they are highly renowned for their beauty. The men -have pretty thick, but never long beards. The Karakalpaks, who are -sometimes falsely ranked with the Kirghis, are at present only to -be met with in the Khanat of Khiva, to which they moved at the -beginning of this century. A man of this tribe relates to me that -they lived earlier on the banks of the Yaxartes, and certainly near -its mouth, whilst another portion abides in the neighbourhood of the -Kalmucks, probably in the government of the Semipalatinsk. - -The first part of this report does not seem to me to be a mere -invention, for Lewschine (in the above-cited work, p. 114), reports, -speaking of the ruins of Djemkend, that even in the last century -Karakalpaks had lived there. According to all probability they have -separated for a long time from the Kirghis, to whom they approach -nearest, and now they form, with respect to their physiognomy, the -transit point from the latter to the OEzbegs. In their dress they -draw nearer to the OEzbegs than the Kirghis. The men wear large -_telpek_ (fur caps) which fit low in the neck and cover ears and -brow; the women have a cape like a cloak round the throat, and are -delighted with red and green boots. The tent of the Karakalpaks -is much larger, and of stronger construction than that of the -rest of the nomadic tribes, and is guarded by a species of large -dog, only to be met with among this tribe. In their dwellings in -general they are distinct from the other nomadic tribes in dirt -and uncleanliness; they evince also in their food and clothing a -carelessness, which makes them abundantly ridiculed and disliked by -their neighbours. To their national dishes belongs the _torama_, -which consists of finely chopped meat, and is cooked with a large -quantity of onions (which vegetable is much liked there) and -mixed meal. _Kazan djappay_, meal baked in a pan in fat, which is -considered a dainty. Lastly, _baursak_, a meal which consists of a -four-cornered piece of pasty filled with meat. - -A favourite game is _kumalak_, resembling the game in Europe. It -is played with dried excrements of sheep. Many of them devote -themselves to games of chance. - - -4. THE TURKOMANS. - -These, which I designate as the fourth gradation of the Mongolian -Turkish race in their westerly extension, possess many of the -peculiarities of the Kirghis as well as of the Karakalpaks. The -pure Turkoman type, which is to be found among the Tekke and -Tchaudor, living in the heart of the desert, is denoted by a -middling stature, proportionately small head, oblong skull (which -is ascribed to the circumstance, that they are not placed at an -early period in a cradle, but in a swing, made of a linen cloth), -cheek-bones not high, somewhat snub noses, longish chin, feet bent -inwardly, probably the consequence of their continual riding on -horseback, and particularly by the bright, sparkling, fiery eyes, -which are remarkable in all sons of the desert, but especially in -the Turkomans. As regards colour, the blond prevails, and there -are even whole tribes, as, for example, the Kelte race among the -Görgen Yomuts, which are generally half blond. On the borders of -the desert, but particularly at the Persian frontiers we find -this principal trait already quite altered by the frequent and -considerable intermixture with the Iranian race, in which one sees -many men with thick black beards, and often without the least trace -of the Mongolian Turkish race. Indeed, the Göklens are those who, -with the exception of the formation of the eyes, most resemble the -majority of the Persians. - -Slave-dealing, which from immemorial times has been practised in -the northern provinces of Persia, has there, where the intermediate -trade with Persian slaves takes place, left many traces behind. -Still, only upon the borders, for those living in the interior -of the desert and occupying themselves more with the peaceable -occupation of keeping cattle than with alamans (foray) have, on -the average, preserved the marks of the pure Turkoman type. As the -nomads are generally more agile and quick than the settled tribes, -which is naturally to be attributed to the endless wanderings -of their adventurous existence; so the Turkomans are to be -distinguished in this peculiarity from all the dwellers in tents -in Central Asia. And their slender frames, hardened by a very poor -food, can outdo even the Arab in privations and endurance. Taken -as a whole, the Turkomans cultivate (spite of the type of a family -unity) a strange mixture of customs and habits, which are found -either here and there among the neighbouring nomads and OEzbegs, -or only among themselves. While their language approaches to the -Azerbaïdjan dialect, their customs have the pure Turko-Tartarian -stamp; and in their social relations, as well as in their warlike -existence and their abundant religious usages, they have more in -common with the Kiptchaks than with the Kirghis, Karakalpaks, and -OEzbegs, with whom they have lived in close connexion for so many -centuries. That they separated themselves early, very early, from -the greater part of the Turko-Tartarian nations, admits of no -question. There is no doubt, according to their own assertions, that -they moved first from the east to the north-west, namely, towards -the southern frontier of the former main horde, and thence towards -the south. This assertion is very probable, and as alleged proofs -of it, we may cite the small number who have remained behind on the -road as remnants, and are still now to be found. As such, are cited -the Turkomans to the north of Kermineh and Samarkand, who, in the -midst of kindred elements have remained true to their nationality. -Their emigration from Mangishlak, unquestionably the oldest abode of -the Turkomans, is indicated by the Central Asiatics themselves in -the following chronological order. As the oldest in their present -native country, we name the Salor and Sariks; after them come the -Yomuts, who, before the period of the Sefevides, stretched from the -north towards the south along the shores of the Caspian. It is said -that the Tekke, at the time of Taimur, were transplanted to Akhal in -small numbers, in order to paralyse the great strength of the Salor. -The Ersaris, towards the end of the last century, from Mangishlak -have settled upon the shores of the Oxus; whilst, finally, the -Tchaudors, of the more recent period of Mohammed Emin Khan (Khiva), -from the shores of the Aral and Caspian Seas, are shifted to the -opposite bank of the Oxus, although many of that tribe are to be -found in the old places. As the Turkoman's chief employment aims at -pillage, it is natural to expect that many of their customs should -harmonize with this. Their attire, although in its origin of the -Khiva fashion, is made shorter and closer, that they may be able -more easily to take hard exercise: the heavy fur cap is replaced by -a smaller one. Their drawers, which supply the place of trousers, -are very wide, and remind one of the national garb of the Hungarian -peasants. The curls of hair which hang down behind the ears far over -the shoulders of the young, are peculiar to this tribe. These are -allowed to grow by the young; during the first year of married life, -they are worn concealed in the cap, and only after its lapse cut -off. This ornament gives to the young cavalier a stately appearance -whilst riding, and he is not a little proud of it. The dress of -the women, also, has some peculiarities, to which belong the upper -garment, hanging down, long-armed, like the Hungarian jacket; the -head-gear, and the masses of silver ornaments,--as bracelets, -necklaces, amulets, etuis, &c. It is not unusual to meet among the -women perfect beauties, not inferior to the Georgians in growth and -regularity of features. Though the young girls in all nomadic tribes -are tolerably practised riders, the young Turkoman women stand -pre-eminent in this art. With regard to their religious zeal for -Islam, their proneness to superstition is the same as that of the -Kirghis; and as the readers of my "Travels" are more acquainted with -them, we will pass from them to the OEzbegs. - - -OEZBEGS. - -These may be considered the established and civilized inhabitants -of Central Asia, and they have retained only feeble traces of the -Mongolian-Turkish race, owing to considerable intermixture with -the ancient Persian elements, and also the great number of slaves, -who are brought there out of the present Iran. In their broad -faces, sound of voice, the sharp angle which the temples form, and -especially the eyes, we recall their Tartar origin. The OEzbegs -were always pointed out by the Tadjiks by the nickname of Yogunkelle -(thick skull), and really this part of their body is thicker and -coarser than that of the rest of their Turanian fellow races. -Besides the diversity that reigns among them in the three Khanats -and in Chinese Tartary, you may further observe that the dwellers -in villages generally possess more signs of the national type than -townsmen. For instance: OEzbegs of Khiva are to be recognised by -the broad, full face, low, flat forehead, large mouth; the OEzbegs -of Bokhara, by the somewhat more arched foreheads, more oval faces, -and long, pointed, oblong chin, and the great majority by black hair -and eyes. Also in colour there are some shades of resemblance. In -the neighbourhood of Kashgar and Aksu yellowish-brown to blackish -tint prevails; in Khokand, brown; in Khiva, white is the reigning -colour. Indeed, the OEzbegs are bastards of the Turanian race, -in the same manner as the Tadjik and Sarts (the aborigines of -the ancient Transoxiana, Sogdia, and Fergana[45]). Of the origin, -immigration, and settlement of the OEzbegs, we have but little -information, and that highly confused. Whilst some maintain that the -name of OEzbeg was the name of one of their most renowned princes, -who, in the time of Djingis, ruled over the whole desert; others -discover, in the etymology of the word OEzbeg (independent prince, -independent head), the signification of that actual independence -for which the tribe was distinguished, as it disengaged itself from -any ruler, and attempted, on its own account, its march of conquest -toward the west. The name becomes prominent with the family of -Sheibani, viz., with Ebul Kheir Khan, as founder, in the foreground; -for, although Taimur may belong to the same tribe, still the Turkish -state is more prominent than the OEzbeg. - - [45] "Gibbon;" edited by Dr. W. Smith. London, 1862, page 296. Here - it is justly remarked, "The OEzbegs are the most altered from - their primitive manners. 1st.,--by the profession of the Mohammedan - religion; and, 2nd.,--by the possession of the cities and harvests - of Great Bucharia. - -If I am not deceived, it appears to me, at least, that the OEzbegs -of to-day form a tribe, which, as a colony, highly inconsiderable -in numbers, only increased after it had received into its bosom -contingents of the various nomadic tribes passing from the north to -the south. This assertion is, perhaps, bold, still the following -circumstances render it not impossible. - -1st. The already indicated diversity which shows itself between the -OEzbegs of Turkestan from Komul to the Sea of Aral, whereby the -degree of resemblance which exists between the latter and those -nomadic tribes living in the vicinity is not to be mistaken, who, -induced by certain circumstances, in which riches and religion -play an important part, settled in towns, and are amalgamated with -OEzbegs. - -2nd. Many names of branches and families of the OEzbegs are common -amongst the rest of the tribes of Central Asia. Thus, for example, -we find the tribes Kungrat, Kiptchak, Naiman, Taz, Kandjigale, -Kanli, Djelair, by which the thirty-two chief divisions of the -OEzbegs are named, figuring also among the Kirghis. The Turkomans -and Karakalpaks can produce some, which, from the great importance -the nomadic tribes attach to family names, certainly would not be -the case if earlier mutual relations had not existed. We know little -of their origin, little in regard to the time of their settlement. -The opinion of Persian historians, that the OEzbeg power rose upon -the ruins of the Taimur dynasty is, indeed, correct, but forms no -guide to the OEzbegs themselves. The name only is apparent; but -who can tell us to which tribe that Turkish population professed -to belong, which at a period long anterior to Taimur, and before -Djingis, in the time of the Kharezmian princes, Sahi Charezmian, and -even further back in the thirteenth century, were established in -the three Khanats? In Khiva I often heard of the brilliant period -of ancient Ürgendj, namely, before the inroad of the Mongolians, -described as OEzbeg. Was this merely national vanity, or had the -Turks at that time at Khiva really called themselves OEzbegs? -Turks were already settled during the Arabian occupation, as may be -seen in the ancient history of Bokhara, although not directly in the -centre, certainly in the neighbourhood of the old Persian towns, -in the time of the Samanides; and it would be highly interesting -to know to which type they really belonged. In the customs of the -OEzbegs, also, much foreign admixture has been introduced chiefly -through Islam, and the restless manner of existence pursued by them; -but not nearly so much as with the Western Turks, who through the -foreign elements that they receive are already quite denationalized. -The OEzbegs are pious--one might say zealous--Musulmans. Nowhere -in Islam, Kashmir excepted, does the tendency to asceticism flourish -more than here: a third of the inhabitants of a town are Ishan, -Khalfa, Sofi, or aspirants to those holy titles, and nevertheless -the doctrine of Mohammed has little limited their customs in regard -to all this. In Khiva, and in some parts of Chinese Tartary, they -have remained truest to nomadic customs. They build houses, which -are used as stables and granaries; but for dwelling-places, they -prefer always the raised tent in the court-yard;--building durable -dwellings is scoffed at by the pure OEzbeg, and ridiculed as even -now usual only with the Sart (Persian aborigines). A general habit -is marked out in the proverb: "Sart baïsa tam salar--as soon as -the Sart becomes rich, he builds a house," in contradistinction -to the OEzbeg, who procures rather a horse or arms. Also in food -and clothing but few refinements have crept in, the chief towns -excepted. Whilst in the towns the Harem life is in full force, one -finds in the country all OEzbeg women unveiled, for, to the great -anger of the Mollah, they resist that restriction, to which their -nature is averse. Ceremonies at burials, weddings, births, contain -much of what is not only foreign to Islam, but even criminal. This -false step is a striking contrast with the otherwise enthusiastic -feelings of Central Asiatics. Not less does the rigid adherence to a -warlike existence, in which the OEzbegs are distinguished from the -rest of the established nations of Central and Western Asia, deserve -our attention. Agriculture and durable dwellings render people more -peaceable; but this is not the case with the OEzbegs, because they -excel so many nomadic tribes in bravery. - - -CHARACTER. - -However great the extent over which the diverse branches of -Turkish tribes may be found, however variously the influence of -strange elements may have acted upon their social relations, still -the features of a common type of character cannot be denied;--a -picture in which more traces of analogy are to be found than in -the physiognomy and other physical signs respectively. The Turk -is everywhere heavy and lethargic in his mental and corporeal -emotions, therefore firm and stedfast in his resolves; not, perhaps, -from any principle of life philosophy, but from apathy, and sincere -aversion to everything which would alter his adopted position. This -lends him an earnest and solemn aspect, which is so often extolled -by European travellers. As upon the shores of the Bosphorus the -Osmanli, in his _keïf_, can gaze for hours on the clear sky, while -he only makes as much movement as will blow the blue wreaths of -smoke from his pipe towards the yet bluer firmament; so the OEzbeg -or the Kirghis can sit for hours, motionless, in the narrow tent, -or in the immeasurably wide desert; for, while the former turns -his gaze upon the colours of the felt coverlet or carpet, already -seen thousands of times,--the latter looks on the waving, curling -quicksands, which are to amuse him. As those who go about briskly -and nimbly, or even gesticulate, are only compassionated by the -Osmanlis as living proofs of partial insanity and misfortune; so -each quick movement of the feet and hands is considered by the -OEzbegs as highly unseemly. Indeed, when I called out to one of -my Tartar fellow-travellers to save himself from some falling bales -of goods by a side-spring, he exclaimed, indignantly: "Am I, then, -a woman, that I should disgrace myself by springing and dancing!" -With this profound seriousness and marble-cold expression of -countenance, we find everywhere among the Turks a great inclination -to pomp and magnificence; but this does not degenerate into -frivolity or fanfaronades, as is the case with the Persians. In -Constantinople one often hears the proverb: "Intellect is peculiar -to Europe, riches to India, and splendour to the Ottoman." The -solemn processions (alay) of the sultan and of the great nobles are -alike celebrated in the East and the West, and the imposing exterior -which is exhibited on such occasions is nowhere to be found so -faithfully reflected as among their fellow tribes in Central Asia. -An OEzbeg or Turkoman, when upon his horse, or seated in his tent -at the head of his family, has the same proud bearing, the same -self-consciousness of greatness and power. He is quite convinced -that he is born to rule, and the foreign nations which surround -him to obey,--just in the same way as the Osmanli thinks with -regard to Bulgarians, Armenians, Kurds, and Arabians. His love for -independence is boundless, and is also the chief cause why he cannot -long remain under the chieftain whom he loves in many respects; -and he would rather command ten or twelve miserable highwaymen or -adventurers than stand at the head of a well-equipped, elegant -troop, who might, in common with himself, own a greater master. -Coinciding with these traits of character, is also the predilection -of the Turks for repose and inactivity; for, although diligence and -activity, according to our European notions, are not to be met with -anywhere in Asia, still, work is not so much abhorred, either by the -Iranian or Semitic nations, as by the Turks, who consider hunting -and war alone worthy of man. Upon them husbandry is only forcibly -imposed, and is considered ignominious. A wondrous prosperity has -never befallen Turkey. The peasant was always idle and careless; -the number of craftsmen limited. Officials had only wealth when the -Janitchars came back from their pillaging excursions, laden with -treasures. - -In Central Asia, agriculture is exclusively in the hands of the -Persian slaves; commerce and business with the Tadjiks, Hindoos, and -Jews; for even the OEzbegs, settled there for centuries, meditate -robbery and war, and if they can procure no foreign enemy they -attack each other mutually in bloody brother strife. - -As concerns intellectual capacity, I have found that the Turk is -everywhere far inferior to other Asiatic nations, namely, the -Iranian and Semitic; and that, through narrowness of mind, he loses -those prerogatives which his superiority in other respects would -acquire for him. This weakness is denoted by the word Türklük -(Turkdom), of which Kabalik (coarseness), and Yogunluk (thickness), -are synonyms. By Türklük, one understands also rudeness and -roughness in manners; and if here and there this defect is palliated -by the appellation, Sadelik (simplicity), still, for the most part, -they are subjoined to the Turkish name as insulting epithets. As -the Osmanli is over-reached by the Armenian, Greek, and Arab; so is -the OEzbeg baffled by the subtle and yielding Tadjik, and the no -less crafty and avaricious Hindoo. Whether this is to be ascribed -to a national defect or to an extreme nonchalance, it were hard to -determine; still, it is highly remarkable that the Turk in the far -east, as well as in the immediate vicinity of the civilised western -country, shuns meditation, and that nowhere are his attempts at wit -particularly brilliant. This disadvantage is partially the reason -that among the Turks more honesty, frankness and confidence, is to -be met with than among the remaining nations of Asia. - -Türklük, by which strangers understand the above-named fault, -is often used by the Turks themselves as a mark of plainness, -simplicity, and uprightness. The lights and shades of Türklük have -been at all times observable and discoursed on, whenever parallels -are drawn between the character of the Turks and of other nations, -especially the Persians. People praise the acuteness, the refined -manners of the latter; but still, he who wants to find a faithful -servant, an attached soldier, or an upright man, will always give -the preference to the Turks. Therefore, we find in earliest times -that foreign princes liked to use Turkish troops; they call them -into their country, and invest their officers with the highest -dignities; and as bravery, perseverance, and love of governing, is -more innate in them than in any other Asiatic people, it is very -easy to explain how they rise from simple mercenaries to governors; -and how they subjugated Iranian and Semitic peoples, from their -home up to the Adriatic, many of whom are still ruled by them. In -my opinion, it is not only superiority of physical powers which has -sustained the Turkish dynasties upon foreign thrones, and still -does so: this is also greatly ascribable to their superiority of -character. They are unpolished, and by nature wild, uncultivated, -but seldom cruel out of malice. They enrich themselves at the -cost of their subjects, but again divide generously the collected -treasures. They are severe towards their subordinates, but seldom -forget the duties that they have to fulfil towards the latter, as -patriarchal heads. In a word, in all deeds and works of the Turks -a sort of kindness is perceptible, which is, perhaps, more to be -ascribed to indolence and laisser-aller, than to a fixed purpose to -do good; but still it works as a virtue, whatever may be its origin. - -Finally will we mention hospitality, in which the Turks are better -versed than the Iranian and Semitic nations, and certainly for -very simple causes. As acknowledged, hospitality is observed in -proportion to the degree in which a nation advances from a nomadic -condition to a settled manner of living, and as Asia is generally -far more prominent in this virtue than Europe, so are the Turks, -the majority of whom are incarnate nomads, to be distinguished -from the rest of Asiatics, who, long settled there, rejoice in an -older civilisation. This must be considered a mere sketch of the -common character of the Turks. Concerning the gradation of different -races, we find the Buruts wilder, more savage than the remaining -nomadic fellow races.[46] They are more superstitious, but also less -malicious than, for example, the Kirghis and Turkomans, because, -without having wholly deserted Shamanism, they know but little of -Islam; and it is well known that the weaker a nomadic people's -ideas of that religion are, the fewer are its vices, and the more -tractable are they with strangers. The Kirghis, on the contrary, -are in the chief features of character less warlike, although they -can easily make up their minds to undertake a baranta (pillaging -expedition). They form the greater part of Turkish nomads, are for -the most part devoted to a wandering life; and whilst the Turkomans -are in many places to be met with in a half settled state, for -example, along the left shore of the Oxus, from Belkh as far as -Tchardjuy, and in Khiva, one can only find very few examples among -the Kirghis. They are easier to subjugate than other nomads, because -they, as already stated, are more peaceable and less brave, still -their colonization appears almost verging upon impossibility; at -least it will require a gigantic task of Russia, if such be her -design. The Karakalpaks, through their remarkable simplicity, are -often considered foolish and dull. They represent the idiot among -Central Asiatic nations, and many droll anecdotes are composed -at their cost. In bravery they are even inferior to the Kirghis; -they have seldom appeared as conquerors, and are seldom employed -by others even as mercenaries. As they occupy themselves chiefly -in breeding cattle, and like best to sojourn in woody regions, -they are called by the OEzbegs, ayik (bear). Still, activity, -benevolence and faithfulness, are everywhere adjudged to them. The -Turkomans are notorious among all the races of Central Asia as the -most restless adventurers, and rightly; for not only there, but -throughout the whole globe, hardly can a second nation be found of -such a rapacious nature, of such restless spirit and untameable -licentiousness as these children of the desert. To rob, to plunder, -to make slaves, is in the eye of the Turkoman an honourable -business, by which he has lived for centuries. He considers those -who think otherwise as stupid or mad, and yields in such a manner -to this passion that he often commences plundering his own tribe, -indeed, often his own family, in case he is baulked in foreign -forays. As a very weak apology, it may be argued that they inhabit -the wildest and most savage countries, where even keeping of cattle -gives only a scanty revenue: still the fruits of their detestable -trade hardly ever alleviate their pressing poverty, for they are -just as dirty niggards, as avaricious, and starve often in the -possession of riches as much as the poorest being. The OEzbegs -play the fashionable among their fellow-races in Turkestan. They -are not a little proud of the education which, through Islamitish -civilisation, they obtained, and, starting from this point -of superiority, wish to govern their nomadic brethren. Highly -praiseworthy with them is their tenacious adherence to so many good -points of their national character; which, in other places, is -too easily transformed and disgraced by Islam. With the OEzbeg, -there is, in spite of the hypocrisy and pretended holiness, which -endeavour to spread themselves by Mohamedanism, still always very -much honesty, uprightness, and Turkish open-heartedness, in which -qualities they are considerably to be distinguished from the -reprobate and vicious Tadjiks, and are truly worthy to govern the -latter. The OEzbeg is, as far as personal knowledge has shown to -me, the only Turk, from China to the Danube, who represents all the -best side of the national character of the Turks. - - [46] Radloff also confirms the same in his Report upon the Acad. - Imp. of Sciences of St. Petersb. See the bulletin of the society - named, vol. vi., p. 418. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -IRANIANS. - - -The Turanian people, but especially the already mentioned -Turko-Tartaric tribes, have made themselves renowned in antiquity -by their warlike disposition, and the wild untractable rudeness of -their habits; but the Iranians, in strong contrast with these, have -always been known for the delicacy of their habits and a brilliant -state of civilisation. The former have ever appeared among their -neighbours as spoilers, destroyers, and plunderers; the latter, on -the contrary, as civilisers, propagators of the arts, and milder -social relations. - -For it is not only the whole Mohamedan region which embraced -Persian civilisation, but even we Europeans have borrowed much -from these wonderful people, which, partly through the channel of -the ancient Greek and Byzantine culture, partly by a later contact -of the Western with the Eastern countries, as, for example, in -the Crusades, has naturally always reached us second hand. Iran -from time immemorial was the seat of civilisation, and in the -entire record of the civilisation of mankind we could in vain seek -for a nation which, notwithstanding grand political revolutions, -notwithstanding the copious foreign influx of the ancient spirit -of its civilisation, could preserve so long and faithfully the -character of its national existence as the Persian. There is a great -difference between the doctrine of Zoroaster and that of the Arabian -Prophet, and yet in the modern Persian almost all the features of -the former character may be discovered, which the Greek historians -trace out in the ancient Persian. In a hasty superficial glance -this will not strike the eye so easily, for, according to outward -appearance, it would be most difficult, amidst the agglomeration of -tribes in the Persia of to-day, to find out the genuine Iranian. Yet -a deeper insight would soon convince us of the truth of what has -been said, and we should see that the Iranian has not only borrowed -nothing in his customs and manner of thinking from the Semitic -and Turanian elements, which for more than a thousand years have -endangered his nationality, but has rather exerted over the latter a -powerful influence. The cradle of the Iranian nation, as asserted by -a modern ethnographer, namely, the learned Russian traveller, M. de -Khanikoff, in his Memoirs, "Sur l'Ethnographie de la Perse," is the -Eastern portion of modern Persia, and especially Southern Sigistan -or Sistan, and Khorassan, which stretches out to the north-east. -It is not only ethnography, but also history, which accords with -this assertion. As Sigistan, the native place of Rustem, and other -celebrated Iranian heroes of the classical age, is used as the -scene of action by the narrators of fiction at this day, whenever -they wish to describe something highly potent and ancient, so the -old _Belkh_ in Khorassan is declared to be the original source of -religion and polite education, and Merv is pointed out as the spot -where Adam received from the angel the first lesson in agriculture. -In a word, whatever refers to the early ages is to be met with in -the East, but never in the west. - -The Iranian race, on its dispersion, as has been already remarked -in a foregoing paragraph, took a direction from East to West; the -Turanian scattered from South to North, and in two directions, -one towards the North-East the other towards the North-West. The -emigration occurred in those very ancient ages, of which we can have -hardly the faintest conception; yet even here there are features of -a common type which guide us like glittering stars through a night -of uncertainty, and though the Iranian race has suffered much in -modern times from the Turko-Tartar tribes, so superior to themselves -in number, one can nevertheless detect in the groups lying scattered -around, the separate rings of the former chain; precisely also as -one recognises in the Western remnants, though in continual contact -with Turanian and Semitic elements, the avowed Mede, so in the -Eastern remnants one may recognise the primitive genuine Iranian. - -This preceding opinion formed from personal conviction, and every -one who carefully observes the Persian of modern Iran and Central -Asia must perceive the same, receives a further confirmation in the -learned investigations of our arrow-headed writings;[47] and it is -chiefly the Iranian catalogue of people in the arrow-headed writings -at Persepolis which enumerates all the nations of Iran, starting -from the centre of the empire, Persepolis, and continuing in a west -and eastern direction. Of course nothing positive will be perceived -in these with reference to higher or lower antiquity concerning -the physiognomical distinctions of one or another branch of the -families, but that a substantial difference existed already in the -early ages is hardly to be doubted. "The Semitic influences in the -west," says Fr. Spiegel, "began very early during the existence of -the Assyrian and Babylonian kingdom, and lasted through the whole -Achoemenian period. After the overthrow of the Achoemenian -kingdom occurred the amalgamation with Greeks as well as Semitics, -and so forth,"[48] As is rightly observed, for in the Southern -provinces of Farsistan, Laristan, and Luristan, where the contact of -the Iranian and Semitic elements from the earliest ages has remained -undisturbed, we find in the person of the modern Persian the same -physical characteristics that were described to us in these people -by Herodotus, and later Greek authors. The spare form, which is -more natural to the Western than to the Eastern, strongly reminds -one of the principal feature of the Arabian, who is represented by -Unsemitic tribes as _nahif_, haggard, and thin, whilst the Turk is -_kesif_, blunt, and stout, the genuine Persian _zarif_, noble, and -elegant. - - [47] Ritter, _West Asia_. Vol. ii. p. 86. - - [48] "The Ethnographical Position of the Iranian tribes." _Ausland_, - 1866, No. 36, p. 853. - -The Semitic elements have commenced in south and east Persia, from -Benderbushir until near to Kirmansah, and have especially left -behind with the inhabitants of the towns perceptible traces, which -strike the eye all the more when we compare the physiognomy and -stature of a Sigistanian with those of an Isfahanian. This is best -perceptible in the Ghebrs (fire worshippers), who sojourn among -the West Iranians, and are very different from them. As one misses -among them the predominating numbers of thin, slender forms, so -also one seldom meets with the narrow chin or the thin, small nose. -The Ghebr, in company with the Khafi, will certainly strike us less -than in the midst of a group of Isfahanians; and since the Ghebrs, -who are only sparingly scattered in the west of Persia, are to be -considered as the remnants of the primitive Iranian people, having -remained most pure from the mixture of foreign elements, one can -assert with certainty that the distinction of physiognomy between -East and West Iranian must always have existed. The Greek historians -of the Alexandrian campaign, who came in contact with the Eastern -as well as the Western nations of the then great Iranian kingdom, -have disregarded in their descriptions the ethnographical side of -the question, which is of the highest importance in our studies. In -the same way we gather but little information from the sculptures -which descend from the Sassanides. The figures on the bas reliefs -of Nakshi Rustem, Nakshi Redgeb, and, near at hand, of Kazerun, may -furnish faithful representations of the former Persian, but of the -nationality of the same there is no accurate account; and however -wide the opinion may extend with regard to stature and features, -these appear rather to belong to the West Iranian than to the East -Iranian, for the striking resemblance to the modern inhabitants of -West Iran must be apparent to the eye of every one. Recent European -travellers only cause us to observe the existing difference. - -So we find that Gareia Silva Figeroa,[49] who in 1627 visited -Persia on a diplomatic mission, already calls our attention to -the difference between the East and West Iranian, though without -entering into any details of the physical characteristics. Chardin, -who travelled through this country in 1664-1677, is more explicit, -for he says that the Ghebrs, in whom he perceives the remnant of -the ancient Persian, are of a disagreeable exterior, clumsy figure, -coarse skin, and dark complexion, and form a strong contrast to -the present inhabitants of West Iran, who have a mixture of the -Chirkassian and Georgian blood in their veins. This opinion is also -positively expressed by Peter Angelus (Labrosse), a contemporary of -the former, in his "Gazophylacium linguæ Persarum," published in -1684, under the article, "Georgians."[50] - - [49] Khanikoff's "Memoire sur l'Ethnographie de la Perse." Paris, - 1866, page 45. - - [50] Above cited work, page 47. - -Since, therefore, no doubt can remain about the distinction between -the East and West Iranians, we will bring the divergence to a -common point of view, and then represent the separate branches or -members of the two powerful races in such a way as we observed the -same on our journeys, not leaving unnoticed the observations of our -predecessors with reference to this subject. - - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - | _a._ WEST IRANIAN. | _b._ EAST IRANIAN. - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - | | - FIGURE. | In _surpassing numbers, though | Of a somewhat thick-set - | not slim, yet of a haggard and | figure; bones of a powerful - | thin form_; of a light, supple | and large construction, but - | movement, and graceful | also clumsy in movement, - | demeanour; but very rarely | although far less awkward than - | very thin or very fat, or | the Turanians. - | strikingly tall or very short. | - | | - HEAD. | Oval. narrow, and middling | Much less oval than _a_, - | high forehead, flattened at | almost to be called round; a - | the temples; _oblong_ skull | wider forehead, also larger - | and narrow chin. | jaw bones, and more _fleshy_ - | | cheeks; the chin, however, - | | oblong, and less pointed than - | | the Turanians. - | | - EYES. | Large, black, with long upper | Black, oblong cut, close and - | lid, and arched eyebrows. | thick eyebrows. - | | - NOSE. | Long, thin, often arched. | Less long, sometimes thick - | | at the _root_, but never so - | | stumpy and wide as the - | | Turanians. - | | - MOUTH. | Moderate-sized; perceptibly | Often wide and thick lips. - | thin compressed lips. | - | | - HAIR. | Black, of a thick and powerful | Black, of thick growth; beard - | growth; particularly long, | thicker, but less long than - | thin beard. | the West Iranian. - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - -In consequence of this diversity of the physical externals, there -is also a distinction not to be mistaken in the moral _properties_ -of these two races. The East Iranian, although far superior to the -Turks in vigour of mind and body, is far inferior to the Persian -of modern Iran; and it appears as if the stamp of the mental -superiority of the latter was imprinted in the symmetrical formation -of their limbs and elegance of their features. - - -EAST IRANIANS. - -We can form the following subdivisions or branches according to -the geographical position of their north-easterly extension? 1. -Sigistani or Khafi. 2. Tchihar Aymak. 3. Tadjik and Sart; each -of which counts many subdivisions or degrees. As in our progress -towards the west we lose, in the Turanian race, the Mongolian -character in physiognomy more and more, and find in the single -branches a continually increasing mixture of races; in the same -way we discover, also, that the East Iranians become less Iranian, -and more Turanian, the farther they remove from the mother land. -The relation that exists between the Burut and the pure-blooded -Anatolian, the same is to be found between the Sigistani and the -Tadjik of Kashgar. The latter may, indeed, be called the old -inhabitant of that region, yet no one will dispute that the Turanian -elements, surrounding him in such numbers, have strongly influenced -him. - - -1. SIGISTANI OR KHAFI; - -Or that Shiite population of East Iran which inhabit the eastern -part of Iran, from the southern borders of modern Khorassan to -beyond Bihrdjan. They are as frequently called Khafi as Sigistani, -as the principal mass occupy Khaf and its neighbourhood, Ruy, -Tebbes, and Bhirdjan; whilst the ancient, classical Sigistan, more -traversed in modern times by Afghans and hordes of Beloochees, -offers to the peaceable Persian but a very insecure retreat. -Judging by historical accounts of Merv, which, in the Vendidad, is -enumerated as the thirteenth locality under the name Mun, as the -third spot marked, one might easily conclude that the inhabitants -of modern Khorassan, especially of the northern part, might be -reckoned with the East Iranians. This was naturally more or less the -case before the Arabian occupation; but at this day the people of -Khorassan are so powerfully intermingled with Turco-Tartar elements, -that the genuine East Iranian type only begins on the other side of -the southern rocky chain, behind Shehri No. Without being furnished -with an especial ethnographical representation, the traveller -will easily perceive that the Khafi (we preserve the appellation -which is usual in the country), although brown in complexion, is -to be distinguished from the Isfahani; for example: in that his -complexion is more olive-brown, whilst that of the latter, tanned -by the sun, appears more of a dark brown. In the second place, the -afore-named difference in stature and features, but especially the -less fiery eye, will strike him. And in the third place, he will -miss, in intercourse, that sprightliness and activity which he meets -everywhere among the lively West Iranians under the same situation -of climate. It can hardly be doubted, that many will be surprised -that this relative difference should exist between such tribes as -those in question,--of common origin, language and religion, for -hundreds of years, nay, for thousands of years, of one and the same -political connection. This circumstance would be with difficulty -explained through an analagous case in other lands. We shall, -however, recognise the cause directly, when we take into nearer view -the following points:-- - -1st. The whole portion named of East Iran has been spared from all -times the influence of the Semitic as well as Turanian nations, -since the first extended themselves only toward the western side of -the desert; the last, on their march westward, only at intervals -passed from the high road, Merv, Nishabur, and Rei to the southern -slope of the Djagatay Hills. 2nd. East Iran herself, in an earlier -period, remained separated through the great desert, when the Shiite -sect, the chain of solid union, embraced the Persian population of -Iran; and, despite all the wildest sect-hatred, the traffic now is -as great with the Sunnite Afghans and Heratis as with their western -brethren. It is true that, despite all the fatigue of travel in the -desert, despite all fear of the Beloochees, caravans go annually -from Shiraz, Isfahan, over Yezd, Tebbes up to holy Meshed. Yet Khaf -and Bihrdjan, situated south-east, are never touched upon; and -then, as now, it was always the case. In the mutual intercourse of -nations, language assumes foreign elements easiest and preserves -them the longest. The Persian dialect of modern Iran is overloaded -with Arabian-Turkish words. Fars in the south, as well as Mazandran -in the north, is in this only a little distinctive. In East Iran, -nevertheless, the borrowed richness of language is certainly -less; and we find in much that Persian in which Firdusi, with a -premeditated rejection of Arabic, wrote his great epic. In what -concerns the use of old forms and words, the Persian of Bokhara -is of that character, and especially we may name the Tadjiks in -the first place; yet these last have too much lexicographical and -grammatical material borrowed from the Turks; and this circumstance -it is that has produced the conviction in our minds, that _in East -Iran the purest and oldest Persian is spoken_. - -As for the language, I should be inclined to cite the Khafi or the -Sigistani as the primitive tongue of all the Iranians, yet, in -regard to their ethnographical position in relation to the whole -Iranian race, I would not venture to attribute that position to -them in which the Buruts stand to the whole Turko-Tartar race. -What branch of the East Iranian families may be the primitive is -one of those questions to which no one could deny a high degree -of importance, yet is the reply much more difficult as to the -Turko-Tartar race. For the appearance of the latter on the stage of -historical events is comparatively fresh, whilst the former stepped -forward in a period of which we can hardly form a conception. We -must, therefore, again repeat that the Sigistani or Khafi are named -as the first among the East Iranians, only in consequence of their -geographical position, and not from induction on the more primitive -character of their branch. - - -TCHIHAR AYMAK.[51] - -These are the four people or races which, from the time of the -conquest of Herat, have been thus named by the Mongols. They consist -of the Timuri, Teimeni, Firuzkuhi, and Djemshidi. The whole are of -Iranian origin and Persian speech, and enough so to distinguish them -from the Hezareh,[52] who, though they speak Persian, yet show -their pure Mongolian type, their Turanian origin without a doubt. On -the spot itself there is but a confused understanding as to its name -Tchihar Aymak, because many appropriate to themselves the same, and -are again opposed by others. Our travellers have most contradictory -statements concerning these races, and especially this erroneous -idea, that the Hezareh are to be reckoned among the Tchihar Aymak, -who appeared at the Southern part of Central Asia, at a time when -the latter were already indicated by the name in question. - - [51] Aimak is a Mongolian word, and signifies a people. - - [52] Khanikoff seems to be in error when he considers the Hezareh, - as formerly OEzbegs; viz., as the Berlas tribe. "Memoire sur la - Patrie Meridionale de l'Asie Centrale." Paris, 1842, pp. 112, 138. - I must against this cite the following arguments:--1st. Their own - assertion,--that they were the remainder of the army of Djingis, - and, moreover, from the statement of Abul Fazl of a troop of Mangu - Khan. 2ndly. That a portion, now named the Gvbi Hezareh, which - retired into the hills in the neighbourhood of Herat, and has been - spared by the Persian elements, speaks a Mongolian dialect, as is - proved by _Von der Gabelenz_, in a periodical of the German Asiatic - Society,--vol. xx. p. 326.; and Baber affirms that in his time many - Hezareh spoke Mongolian. 3rd. There is nowhere among the OEzbegs - such a decided Mongolian type to be found as among the Hezareh, - which is the more striking, because the first remain near their old - home in more compact masses, while the latter have dwelt under a - foreign climate and foreign elements. - -During my abode of six weeks in the town and neighbourhood of Herat, -I devoted considerable attention to this question. My knowledge is -grounded, not so much on hearsay touching the race, as on their -physiognomical characteristics, which are incontestably the best -proof. The _Timuri_, or the Sunnite Persians of East Iran, dwell now -partly on the western boundary of Herat, as Gurian, Kuh'sun, &c., -and partly also in the villages and towns situated to the east of -Iran, from Turbet Sheikh Djam as far as Khaf. In the first-named -region they constitute exclusively an united population, in the -latter they are only to be found sporadic, for although two hundred -years ago the greater number were Sunnites, yet the sect-hatred -of the Shiites converted them partly by force, partly drove them -into the neighbouring Sunnite city of Herat. In consequence of -the frequent confusion of boundary, for Herat has endured in -ancient and modern times more than forty sieges, one can easily -imagine what an amalgamation has been produced by these continued -movements among the solitary branches which approach so nearly to -East Iran, and it is truly a wonder that the Timuri are still to be -distinguished from the Shiites of East Iran. - -The remarkable characteristics are first, that among them more -people are to be found short and thick-set than among the -Sigistanis; also as regards colour, the latter are, on an average, -of an olive brown, and with dark black hair, whilst among the former -a whiter complexion, with chestnut brown hair, is not uncommon. As I -have said, the united number of the Timuri on the East Iran boundary -amounts now in its fullest extent to one thousand families, because -the great majority dwell in Herat. - -The _Teimeni_ are hardly in any respect to be distinguished from the -latter dwelling in the Northern and Southern parts of the so-named -Djölghei Herat, from Kerrukh to Sebzewar: only a small part has -extended as far as Ferrah, and is named by the Afghans Parsivan -(Farszeban, speaking Persian). Since the Afghan rule has taken place -in the Western valleys of the Parapamisian mountains, many attempts -have been made to establish in the midst of the Persian population -Afghan colonies, yet until this day all have failed, for the discord -and strife which have wasted this neighbourhood for centuries still -continue; each member of the Tchihar Aymak knowing no greater enemy -than the Afghan. In consequence of this circumstance the Teimeni, -although an agricultural people, are of wild, warlike nature, and -there is no longer any trace of that spirit of wisdom, which in -the time of the descendants of Taimur, viz., Sultan Husein Mirza, -animated them. - -The Sunnite Persians of former times contended in poetry, learning, -and music, with the Shiite confederates in the west; at the present -time they are raw barbarians in comparison with the latter. - -_Firuzkuhi_ is the name of the little people that dwell on the steep -hill, north-east of Kale No, and from their inaccessible situation -afflict the whole neighbourhood with robbery and plunder. To the -traveller are narrated the most gloomy stories of Kale No on the -summit of the mountain, and the fortified places of Derzi Kutch -and Tchekseran are considered the same as the robber nests of the -Bakhtiari and Luri in the environs of Isfahan. As all dwellers in -mountains remain distinct from their nearest kindred in the valleys, -so is this the case also between the Firuzkuhi and the remaining -Aymaks, and one could almost name them the Gileki and Mazemderanis -of East Persia. On the first glance they appear to have much -resemblance with the Hezareh. It is even asserted that they came -forth from them, yet neither has their formation of the forehead and -of the chin, nor the complexion and figure of the body,--a decided -Turanian character; and although it might present a strong mixture, -yet does the Iranian element prevail, for, besides that they all -speak Persian, the names of their dwelling-places and khans are pure -Persian words. - -They inhabited those hills from immemorial time, and though Taimur -settled them by force in Mazenderan, they soon returned back to -their old hilly home, and have lived since that time in constant -warfare with their neighbours, partly supporting themselves from -their scanty breed of cattle and tillage; partly also from robbery -and plunder, which they perpetrate on the caravans upon the road to -Maymene, or upon the scattered tents of the Djemshidi. Their total -number hardly amounts to eight thousand families. - -The _Djemshidi_, the only tribe of the East Iranians living -exclusively in a nomadic state, inhabited from time immemorial the -shores of Murgab, whither they, according to their own statement, -settled out of Sigistan in the time of Djemshid, from whom they -derive their descent. This national myth cannot be considered -quite true, yet is it incontestable, that among all Iranians who -now inhabit Central Asia the Djemshidi have the most striking -resemblance with the Sigistani, which is so much the more to be -wondered at, because these for so long a time have led a settled -life, whilst those have led a nomadic; and the vast influence which -the difference of the two ways of life has on the development of -the body needs hardly be mentioned. Khanikoff thinks they approach -rather the Tadjiks; but I cannot coincide in this view, because, in -the first place, the Djemshidi is thinner; secondly, has a longer -face and a far more pointed chin than the Tadjik; and in the third -place, their language, as well in form as in copiousness, agrees -much more with the Persian dialect of East Iran than with that of -Central Asia. As to what concerns their method of life, they are -the only Iranians who, in every respect, have taken much from the -Turanians; that is to say, from the Salor and Sarik Turkomans living -in their neighbourhood; whilst the other half-nomadic Aymak used -a long Afghan tent, which here is named the Tent of Abraham, one -sees among the Djemshidi that round, conical tent of the Tartars -surrounded with felt and a reed matting; their clothing also and -food is Turkomanish; indeed, even in their occupation, they copy -these last. For when a flourishing position, that is, abundance of -horses and arms befalls them, they are just such fearful robbers -of mankind as the children of the desert. They enjoy also the -reputation of the best riders and warriors amongst all Aymak, and -abide, partly in service at Herat or Maymene, partly in league with -one or other of the Turkoman tribes, when the immediate question -among them is a large tchapao (razzia). In consequence of this -aforesaid connection they were transported to the banks of the Oxus -by force by Allah Kuli Khan, from Khiva, after he had conquered them -with the allied Sariks. They remained more than twelve years there; -a fruitful place, which was assigned to them as their new home, and -rendered them well to do. Yet the longing for the poorer, but old -home-like hills, was soon felt by them, and availing themselves of -the confusion which a war of the Khivians with the Turkomans called -forth, they packed up everything quickly and fled, without fearing -the danger of pursuit, across Hezaresp, Tchardjuy, Maymene, back -towards the town of Murgab. In their march one thousand Persian -slaves joined them, who, in consequence of their escape, obtained -their freedom; but, having reached Moorgab, were again taken in -a treacherous manner and sold in Bokhara. Although the Djemshidi -among all the Iranian races of the East, as well as of the West, -have most truly retained the warlike spirit of old Persia, yet -they are in proportion less rough in their customs and intercourse -with strangers than the neighbouring Turkomans, with whom they -have had relations for a long time; and, notwithstanding his wild -exterior, the Djemshidi, even in the lowest class, is polite in -word and manner:--the light and shade of the Iranian character are -not recognisable in him, and we must not be surprised if in the -customs of this nomadic people we meet with the most lively marks -of the pre-Islamite time. Islam with them has taken still less root -than among the other Turanian nomads, and the greater part of them -use it as a veil, under which lurk concealed many features of the -religion of Zoroaster; thus, for instance, fire among them is in -higher estimation than among the Tadjiks; the door of the tent is -always facing the East, and the idea of the good and evil spirit is -so universal that the lowest class of the people, especially the -women, when a sheep or goat is slaughtered, never neglect to throw -certain parts of the animal which are considered by other nomads as -delicacies, to the bad spirit as _kende_, "unclean;" and they are -only eaten by the dogs. It is worthy of remark, that among the ruins -of Martchah the same stories are in circulation, as among the Yomuts -of the old remnants of the ruins at Meshdi Misrian. Martchah was in -olden times the Kaaba of the whole region until the wicked Turkomans -appeared there, and destroyed the whole. - -This is all that I can say in respect to the Tchihar Aymaks. I can, -notwithstanding all inquiries, learn nothing of their name before -their last appellation. According to all probability they were -reckoned among the Tadjiks, yet now they are distinct from these -latter, and form the second gradation of the Iranian race in its -extension to the North-East. - - -TADJIKS. - -As the remnants of the Persian population of Central Asia are -called, whom we meet in their largest numbers in the Khanat of -Bokhara and in Bedakhshan. But there are, besides, many settled in -the cities of Khokand, Khiva, Chinese Tartary, and Afghanistan; -although here and there little deviation in their physiognomical -outward developments are observable, in consequence of the -different climacteric and social relations under which the Tadjiks -live. And thus, for example, the Tadjiks of Bokhara and the -Afghanistan towns have much more resemblance one with another than -the former with the Bedakhshanis, or the confederate races of -Chinese Tartary; notwithstanding, the leading features of one common -type are generally observable among them. They are usually of a -good middle height, broad, powerful frame of bones, and especially -wide shoulder bones. Their countenance, the Iranian type of which -immediately strikes the eye at first sight, is more oblong than that -of the Turks; but by the wide forehead, thick cheeks, thick nose, -and large mouth, we soon perceive that this most eastern branch of -the Iranian family has much that is heterogeneous, that is to say, -Turanian, in its stamp of countenance as well as in the formation of -body, and is in nowise to be regarded as the primitive type of the -Iranian race, as M. de Khanikoff imagines. - -According to the statements of the Vendidad and Greek historians, it -is no longer matter of doubt that the native country of the modern -Tadjik was in those celebrated regions of ancient times, Bactria -and Sogdiana,--the most ancient seat of Iranian civilisation, the -cradle of the religion of Zoroaster, and the source of the heroic -legends of Persia. We must own, that even in the most ancient times -they were inhabitants of this region, for the ancient Khorassan, -which stretched far into Chinese Tartary, was, as is proved by -topographical nomenclature, founded and occupied by Iranian -colonies. And who is there that does not perceive the continuous -stream of Scythian-Turkish elements which has overflowed Central -Asia, from the valleys of the Altaic Mountains, that _officina -gentium_, from 700 B.C. to 400 A.D.? - -No country which was situated along the chief route of these -migrations could remain unaffected by the intermingling of foreign -blood; and as the northern half of Persia, the modern district of -Maymene, Andchoi, and the western declivities of the Parapamisian -Mountains could preserve, but in a slight degree, the primitive -unity of race; so also was it equally impossible to the Iranians of -Transoxiana. The inhabitants only of the mountains of Bedakhshan, -namely, the Vakhani (in which name the learned writer of the -article, "Central Asia," in the _Quarterly Review_, July--September, -1866, believes that he has detected the origin of the Greek, -oxos+[53]), can have a greater claim, from their less accessible -homes, to unity of race; for all the Feizabadis[54] whom I have seen -have more indelible marks of the Iranian type than the Tadjiks: even -their very language is freer of Turanian words. And since one can -imagine that a people, though in strictest retirement, can preserve -for centuries its primitive type, the Vakhani alone, and not the -Tadjiks in general, must be considered the truest remnants of the -ancient East Iranian. - - [53] From Vah (the river Vah), as the Oxus is called in Bendehesh, - may also be derived the modern name, Vachan, Vacks-as-ird, and - Vas-ab. - - [54] During my sojourn in Kerki I lived with ten Feizabadis - (Feizabad is the capital of Bedakhshan) many days in one and the - same house. It was a deputation returning from Bokhara, where they - wished to raise the Emir to the place of their lately-banished - prince. - -As regards the appellation Tadjik, I have always found that those -concerning whom we are speaking never use it themselves willingly; -for, if this does not sound exactly in their ears as a term of -reproach, people are yet accustomed to understand by it that -expression of contempt with which the OEzbeg conquerors regard -the subdued aborigines. By the word Tadjik, the Tartar population -of Turkestan understand a man without warlike disposition, of a -covetous, avaricious nature;[55] with crafty and vaunting ideas; in -a word, everything that stands in opposition to OEzbeg frankness, -simplicity, and uprightness. These relations are, moreover, to be -found everywhere between Turanian conquerors and the subjugated -Iranians; for as the latter, in Persia, are far inferior to the -Turks in mental endowments, so is this also the case in Central -Asia. And Bokhara has only become the head quarters of Central -Asiatic civilisation, because here, from the earliest ages, existed -the overwhelming numbers of the Tadjik population; who, continuing -their previous exertions in mental culture from the pre-Islamite -times, notwithstanding the oppression of foreign power, have -civilised their conquerors. As in the earliest ages, after the -reception of the Islam faith, all the celebrities in the field of -religious knowledge and _belles lettres_ were mostly Tadjiks; so, -to-day, one still meets in Bokhara, Khokand, and Kashgar, the most -conspicuous Mollahs and most celebrated Ishans. At the court of -Bokhara, notwithstanding the OEzbeg origin of the prince, the -chief ministers are always Tadjiks; nay, even in the rude OEzbeg -government of Khiva, the Mehter (Secretary of State), as an officer -whose qualifications must be of the highest order, is chosen -invariably from the Persian population of the place. It is truly -wonderful how the Tadjiks, notwithstanding more than a century of -co-existence with the OEzbegs, are to be distinguished from the -latter, not only in their individual nature but in their habits. A -proverb says, "Look at the OEzbeg on horseback,--the Tadjik in his -house;" for, the same care that the one bestows on his steed, arms, -saddle and horse, the other spends on his house and attire. However -poor the Tadjik, he will yet pass for a man of more substance than -he is, and will always appear rich and great in public, although -sparing and abstemious in his family circle. Nor is his conversation -less choice: the courteous expressions, the compliments of which -he makes use, sound somewhat Tartarian, to ears accustomed to -Persian refinement; yet, in contrast with the OEzbeg, he is to be -considered an accomplished gentleman. Attuned by nature to peaceful -occupations, the Tadjiks are devoted everywhere considerably to -tillage, commerce, and industrial pursuits, as they hate war; and -if they are compelled to handle weapons, they are rarely valiant, -but frequently cruel. They are also defective in that national -feeling that strikes one so forcibly among the OEzbegs. This has -best shown itself in recent occurrences in Tashkend. In a letter -from General Kryjanovsky from the town above-named, (Ausland, -December 4th, 1866, H. 1159), we see that, among the diversified -population of that place, the Sarts were the first who drew near, in -a friendly fashion, to their conquerors, and certainly rendered very -readily considerable help in hard labours of pacification; and that -probably to the dislike of all the OEzbegs, who certainly took no -part in the pretended petition to the Russian Government. - - [55] Slaves prefer rather ten years in the house of an OEzbeg - than five years in the house of a Tadjik, because the last, who is - considered a man without conscience, makes use of them in every - possible way. - -The Tadjiks hold well together, but this is more from the mutual -support of one with another in an oppressed race than a special -effort for Tadjik public interest; and if they wish to distinguish -themselves, which is only the case in Bokhara, then they are in the -habit of showing with pride their Arabian descent. The emptiness of -this last vaunt Khanikoff has shown sufficiently. He derives the -word Tadjik from Tadj (crown), a head-dress, which the old fire -worshippers had, and the Ghebrs wear even now;--the name Tadjik -arose from it, by which the adherents of the teaching of Zoroaster -were called at that time--before Mohamedanism, or else it was a term -of their own adoption; for the word Tadji in Huzvari, and Tazi in -Persian, which signifies Arab, has with the first no connection. -It is remarkable that the word Tadjik is even found in Western -Asia. There are Armenians who call Turks as well as Arabs, _i.e._, -Mohamedans, _Tadjik_, but only among themselves privately. And it -seems to me to be constantly a nickname affixed by the oppression of -their tyrannic rulers. Since I have found this universal among the -Armenians of Asia Minor, it appears to me that they did not wish to -express by it only Mohamedans, but also the adherents of a strange -religion, and that this, according to all appearance, old word, -has been transmitted later to the Arabians by the old inhabitants -of Persia, with whom the Armenians, under the Sassanides, were in -contact. That the name Tadjik has been missing among both Arabic and -Persian authors of the first century, after the entrance of Islam, -but existed early in Central Asia, the Uïgur MS. (Kudatku Bilig the -lucky knowledge) best shows. This bears the date of 462 Heg., and -we find there the word Tadjik often quoted in opposition to Turk. -The above-named work, which Jaubert has mentioned in the _Asiatic -Journal_, 1825, is an Uïgur version, or rather _rifacimento_ of -the Chinese original. The Turks themselves have always called the -Transoxanian aborigines Sart, a word of which I know not the origin. -M. de Khanikoff mistakes when he supposes that this is only the case -in Khiva, for he must know that in the Russian Army the Persian -population of conquered Tashkend at a later period was enrolled -under the name of Sart, and they were so called in all Khokand. Also -the above-named General Krijanovsky speaks of Tadjik and Sart as of -two different races. As to this word Sart, the derivation of which -is wholly unknown to me, it is a term of which the famous Mir Ali -Shir, in the time of Sultan Husein Mirza Baïkera, makes use in a -treaty on the Persian and Turkish language. The latter, he always -calls the Sart tili (Sart language), and not the Tadjik tili. Sart -is hence legally used for the Turkish appellation of Tadjik. Here -and there OEzbegs busy themselves in making a distinction between -Sart and Tadjik; but I cannot agree with this view, although I will -not conceal the fact, that the Sarts seen in mass differ greatly in -some physiognomical peculiarities from the Tadjiks. They are, for -instance, more slender-built, have a longer face, and, moreover, a -higher forehead than the Tadjiks; but it must also be mentioned as a -qualification of the above, that they formed frequent alliances with -the free Persian slaves of Central Asia, which the Tadjiks never or -very seldom did. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -LITERATURE IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -Tartar muse! OEzbeg Melpomene! This will to many sound passing -strange! That poetry should exist in the oldest spots of rudeness -and barbarism--that persons in those regions where robbery, murder, -and spoliation rage most, should busy themselves with literature, -may to many seem strange; but yet such a notion would be incorrect. -The East was at all times the seat of poetic enthusiasm, and the -more the social relations retain the stamp of olden time, that is, -the nearer civilisation is to its infancy, the more general is the -inclination to poetry and fables, the more passionate the sound of -forced hyperboles and enthusiasm. - -That the dwellers in a Kirghis tent are more disposed to poetry -than the members of a polished society in Paris and London, must -surprise no one. Among us it is only over a certain age that poetry -indicates herself more or less; there are only certain individuals -that linger round the Castalian fountains. In Central Asia those -bowed down by age, as well as youthful lovers, passionately affect -poetry, the warrior equally with the shepherd, the priest as well -as the layman,--each one attempts the composition of poetry or -devises tales; and if this attempt is probably not successful in -every instance, still, nevertheless, the habit of even listening to -the compositions of others may be said to be universal. - -Since literature in the East is in close connection with religion, -we must then divide the literary productions of Central Asia at the -commencement into two parts. - -1st. The Literature of Islam or the Settled Nations. - -2nd. The Literature of the Nomadic or Wandering Tribes. - -This distinction dates from that time when, with the entrance of -Islam, foreign literary conceptions became universally diffused, -which, without retaining at the present time any special national -character, are in vogue among the different followers of Islam. -Poetry, for this is the essence of that literature, is always -the same now with Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Central Asiatics. -Vainly would one seek there the stamp of a national mint; it is -everywhere the same sprightly imagery of the poets; everywhere -the same metaphors, parables; everywhere the stereotyped image of -the rose and the nightingale, the thorn-resembling eyelashes, the -fuming vapors of rising sighs, &c. Everywhere the same muse of which -the learned M. de Khanikoff rightly says:--"That she comes forth -free and wild, like those plants of strange forms to be met with -in the calcined soil of southern Asia, covered with thistles and -thorns, incrusted with salt; they diffuse through a rugged bark, -here and there, aromatic, beneficent odours, and wave upon their -withered stems wreaths of flowers of elegant forms and brilliant -colours."--_Asiatic Journal_, vol. v., p. 297. Of this literature, -however, which is well known in western countries, through many -translations and learned treatises, we shall say nothing. We rather -pass over the religious literature of many eccentric devotees, -who, in zealous ardour towards God and the prophets, have written -volumes full of pompous expressions on the subject of their love -and resignation. These last productions in the three Khanats are -considered as the exclusive property of the Mollah and Ishan -world. The people listen very patiently to their recitals, but are -not enthusiastic, for the mystical current of thought in copious -language is beyond the reach of their understanding. What we wish to -say, then, of the literature of Central Asia is confined, to speak -correctly, to the Popular Poetry. Here we do still find something -original, here some types which deserve the real name of Turkestan, -and with these we wish to make our readers acquainted. The most -poetically attuned people are in the Khanat of Khiva. This part of -Central Asia had at the beginning of the twelfth century acquired -the reputation of a special eminence in music, tuneful voices, -distinguished poets and poetesses; indeed, it is hardly fifty years -ago that in the courts of the Kadjars, in Teheran, a Khivite -lute-player was in great honour. Bokhara, before the ascendancy of -the Turkish element, had only a few great poets, such as Rudeki and -Figani; but these must be rather classed in Persian literature. To -return to Khiva, I must remark that as it always surprised myself -when I heard a heavy-looking, coarsely-dressed OEzbeg, with wild, -sun-burnt features, sing one or another soft minor air; so, also, -with travellers in general, this feeling will be found to exist on -their entry among Turkomans and Kirghis. These people esteem music -and poetry as their highest pleasure. After a fortunate adventure -the marauder, however tired and hungry he may be, will listen in the -open street with real delight to the bakhshi (troubadour), who comes -to meet him. Returning home from a foray, or other heroic deed, the -young warriors are in the habit of amusing themselves throughout -the night with poetry and music. In the desert, where man is either -ignorant of the luxuries of life, or does without them, it is, -nevertheless, that the bakhshi is very seldom wanting, and besides, -that the latter are found in great numbers, going about to exercise -their art. The nomads have the habit of amusing themselves with -poetic games. - -As people regard in company the happy finding of a rhyme or cadence -as indispensable to education, the young nomad girl will also, say, -give the preference to him who would answer her question in a verse -with happy rhymes. The poetry of the OEzbegs consists first of -narratives, which either appeal to religious life or famous heroic -deeds. The first are composed by the Mullah world, or by the more -polished bakhshis, after Arabic or Persian sources, and adapted to -native taste,--the last are genuine Tartar compositions, in which -there are not wanting at times both glowing language and good -metaphors. These tales of heroic exploits, which are similar to our -romances, begin already to be of even greater extent, and are often -recited or sung many evenings together, and although Islam plays -here and there a conspicuous part, nevertheless those pieces are -preferred in which home-heroes figure on well-known historic fields. -Of these last-named compositions, one much esteemed in Central Asia -may serve as a specimen. It bears as its title - - -"AHMED AND YUSUF," - -And is the history of two sons of heroes, who, after their country's -fashion, even in early youth undertake a tchapao or razzia against -heretical Iran, in which the leading motive is not so much the -thirst for spoil as the chastisement of the unbelieving Shiites. -Just at the beginning Yusuf harangues his heroes ready for the foray -in the following fashion:-- - -"With the worthless fellow unite not, for he makes known the deepest -secret. Speak no secret words in bad spots, for thy deep hidden -mystery will become known. Better is the bare leaf than the faded -rose. Better is dry earth than worthless grass. Better is a staff -than a stupid fellow-traveller. For he makes known the direction -of thy route to the foe. Do not instruct the fool, because he will, -nevertheless, reach the grave of misery unconsciously. When you -enter at a good-for-nothing fellow's as a guest, he attacks you like -the little cur, and makes his vice known. Would that I could give -you the picture of a true hero! He draws his sword only for the -destruction of the unbelievers. Do not march against the enemy with -a coward, since he makes known the trodden track as well as his own -path. Yusuf Beg says, 'Such a time is come. This home-land is for us -no longer. Fools know not their own lair; they speak angrily, and -make their evil speech known.'" - -They march away. The report of their heroic deeds spreads far and -wide, and naturally reaches their home-land. Here governed only -petty princes, each of whom would take renowned warriors into his -service. The usual career of warfare proceeds, and Yusuf takes the -command, but only with the consent of his comrades. - -They draw out afresh for an expedition against Guzel Shah, the -Governor of Isfahan. The OEzbegs are overpowered by Persian -cunning. Both princes are taken and dragged in chains to Iran. This -misfortune rouses deep cries from the heart of Yusuf, and as he -could not turn for sympathy to his captors, he pours forth his wail -to the lofty hills that surround him, and exclaims:-- - -"Ye snow-bedecked, many coloured hills, what has befallen me; -have you seen it? I am become the slave of these unbelievers; my -tarrying behind, have you seen it? No one pities my tears, the -hills only throb at my tears. With lashes around my head, how must -I have stepped along the way; have you seen it? Heedless were my -attendants. Ah! I weep tears of blood! How captured with Ahmed Beg -came I here, have you seen it? I drink blood,--in this world too -heavy is my sorrow! Walking on foot, unbelievers on steeds; have -you seen it? Yusuf Beg says, 'I am inwardly consumed, my sorrow is -endless. Dragged with these bound hands at a horse's pleasure, have -you seen me?'" - -He is then thrown into prison, where he finds a fellow-sufferer in -the person of a Sunnite, who as enchanter and fortune-teller by -profession, had drawn on himself the displeasure of the Persian -monarch; and he also finds in the daughter of the gaoler, who -had become enamoured of him, a kind friend. Up to this point the -strifes, the mighty hero-deeds, the religious enthusiasm, are -constantly detailed. From this point love also mingles in the -strain. Yusuf Beg had left at home a sister and a lady love. The -former vainly waiting his return, cries bitterly, and in tears calls -on her maidens to loosen her hair; the latter, in his absence, -maintains her passionate regard, and sends the trained cranes of the -hero with a love-letter to him. It contains the following charge:-- - -"Oh, ye five cranes of Yusuf Beg! Rush out and draw near to N. -Strengthen yourselves and fly away over the hills! Seeing Yusuf Beg, -hasten back, that the hawk see not on the plains the tips of your -wings. I am deprived of half my heart. Come back, asking him of -his health! Hasten back! I was once the world-rose; flown hence is -the nightingale of my grove! Should my lover be living, then brush -with your lively wings early back. Should the red roses have become -withered; should his life have reached its end; should my lover be -dead, put on mourning, and weeping return! Calling on God, shake -then your wings. With ardour look forth to the heaven; burst out for -the town of Ürgendj. Break out and draw towards the town of N. Gain -true intelligence, and come back. Oh, hear Gul Assl's cry! Carry to -him my heart-sorrow! Oh, make a pilgrimage to his grave. Bring me a -little dust, and hasten back." - -The birds circle around the prison of their sorrowful master with -plaintive chirping. He remarks them, and sends back to his home the -following message:-- - -"Oh, ye cranes! Fly round me, right and left, in mazy sweep in air. -Go back,--say my greeting to my people! Oh, ye cranes! right and -left, looking round, go back.--say my greeting to my people! The -crane flies and rests high in the air. Tired are his wings with the -long way. Here in prison breaks out afresh my sorrow. Oh, greet, -then, my kinsmen! Kharezm town is my home. There stays my friend, -my beloved, my well-wisher, my dear one, my tender one. Oh, greet -her, my mother! my Kaaba! On the mountains of sorrow are pines high, -high. Oh, pray for me all of you, young and old. Mournful autumn -became my fate; before the life's blossoms had opened yet! Oh, greet -for me my poor little sister! She from early morn waiting for me -looks around. She is inwardly consumed by the torture of separation. -Looking on the path in the morning with dishevelled hair, she cries: -'He is not come!' Her whole soul for me is waste and empty,--my love -Gul Assl, for her I mourn. Oh, greet her! In one day, oh crane! -thou wilt reach from here to Kharezm. On the way thither go over -the seven mountains. Note this thou hast seen, Yusuf Beg; greet the -cowardly Begs for me." - -The birds depart, but the heroes languish yet long in prison. At -last they are condemned to die. But the miraculous power of the -Sunnee saints saves them. All the weapons employed become blunt. The -Persian tyrant remarks it, and summons the heroes to his presence. -As the chief condition of obtaining the wished-for freedom, Yusuf -must improvise in opposition to the court fool, Kökche, and in the -event of his overcoming the latter in poetic ability, then he is -to be restored to his home in full liberty. Yusuf improvises in -strikingly bold language. He sings not the praises of the tyrant, -but his own, while he says,-- - -"My people is a fine people. Winters there are continually -summers, gardeners tend the gardens, the trees give their fruits. -In white tents repose the aged, the youths hunt around them. In -cordial companionship live the youths, spending time in delight and -pleasure. Fast as the wind the steeds. In racing thy steeds lay -behind them. High soaring to heaven is the flight of the birds. In -scorn they carry off men. Should intelligence of me arrive in a day, -in a day also an army can come. Out of six pounds of thick cord are -the strings of their bows. Their princes rule in equity, partiality -is far from them. Hear me, Guzel Shah, thou unbeliever, should I -return to wage war on thee, then know that one wave of my arm kills -100,000 men. Of Isfahan are their swords. Their streets are united -bazaars, their fields like beds of tulips. With deers, hares, -falcons, the fields of my people are full. Their free inhabitants -are like Hatem,[56] their leaders are like Behram and Rustem in the -day of battle, heroes in the strife. I am a slave without power, the -unbeliever regards not this; without fate the fly dies not; let not -my tears flow in vain." - - [56] The oriental emblem for generosity. - -He conquers, goes laden with treasure to Ürgendj; and though he has -to undergo some hard struggles on the road, arrives happily home, -where his reception is described in many deeply-moving, highly -poetical images. After an interview with his beloved and his sister -they conduct him to Lalakhan, his mother, who in consequence of -mourning for him for several years, has almost lost her sight. -They bring her the joyful intelligence, which she disbelieves at -first, and says,--"My ardent desire has bent me low. Am I really -to see thee, my dear child? Sunk in sorrow, I only sighed, with -eyes tremulously searching for you. The whole world would I look -through could I really find thee, my child. Shall I mourn like the -nightingale? Shall I, like Mansur, succumb to sorrow? Shall I, like -Djerdjis, weep tears of blood? Am I again to find thee, oh my dear -child," &c. - -Yusuf Beg is led to her. He bides apart, and when he hears the cry -of his mother, his anguish bursts forth for their fatal separation -in yet more sorrowful words. By the voice his mother recognises him. -Overpowered by excessive joy, she yet welcomes him in the following -words:-- - -"Oh, thou seven years' sufferer in prison! Oh, thou balsam of my -wounded heart! My star of happiness brightens. Vanished is the night -of misery! Oh, prince of my people and land! Thou Rustem, thou hero -of the world! My Yusuf, my glorious son, my comfort, my life-power! -Thou crown of happiness, thou highest grace of my life! Lalakhan has -found her son, the All-powerful has shown mercy to her. Gone is all -pain from my breast, all sorrow. Yusuf, my son, is come!" - -Soon after this the marriage of the lovers takes place, his hero -blood suffers not the adventure-seeking chief to rest. He collects -an army, of which all the people of Central Asia form part. It is to -take vengeance on Guzel Shah. Fortune attends his arms. The Persian -is conquered; his old fellow-sufferer, Kamber, freed. He goes home -crowned with glory, and the conquered Guzel Shah must pay him the -following tribute. - - -DEMANDS OF YUSUF FROM GUZEL SHAH. - -"He shall give me the whole Kharads of the town, N.,--40,000 silk -stuffs embroidered with gold, and 40,000 khimhal (stronger silk -stuffs) shall he send. His tolls and taxes he shall collect; 40,000 -magnificent dresses shall he send; 40,000 chargers, with golden -saddles; 40,000 male and female camels; 40,000 young slaves with -golden girdles; 40,000 youths, with beautiful eyes, shall he send; -40,000 oxen (well bred) shall he send; 40,000 rhinoceri, bound in -chains, shall he send; 40,000 reins, well shod, with gold nails, and -40,000 grey falcons shall he send; 40,000 whips shall he send, the -nails of which shall be symmetrically arranged; lashes, worked in -silver, the handles with golden spangles; 40,000 iron greys, 40,000 -foxes, 40,000 noble steeds, with snake like tails, shall he send; -40,000 ambling nags, 40,000 roadsters, 40,000 peasants, as caravan -guides, shall he send; these, with black locks falling down right -and left, whose faces are covered with moles; 40,000 wonderfully -beautiful maidens, with golden girdles, shall he send; 40,000 caps, -60,000 turbans, shall he send. Also, 70,000 sheep and double horned -rams shall he send. Yusuf Beg says he shall have all ready quickly; -100,000 Russian thalers and 10 gold dishes shall he send." - -This was, in short, the material of an OEzbeg romance, of which -there is an innumerable quantity, and of domestic tales also; and -these are considered the most valuable portion of their literature. -Here and there, one finds an union of religion and valour. The -Heroes are taken out of the Islam world, as, for instance, in the -story of Zerkum Shah, where Ali conquers the last named heathen -prince of Persia, in wonderful engagements, which border upon -the imaginative, and may be compared to the poems of Ariosto and -Bojardi; finally, he converts him to Islam. There are also numerous -tales of Ebu Muslim, the old Field-Marshal of the Abassides, -and, later, the independent ruler of Khorassan and Kharezm. The -historical facts are pretty old, and yet each OEzbeg, in the great -desert which separates his home from Persia, points out many a -spot where the Arabian Field-Marshal encamped, fought, and enacted -supernatural deeds of valour. Finally, there are also the epics, in -which the old princes of the house of Shah Kharezmian are extolled. -In these, as well as in those which tell of Mohamed Emin, Khan of -Khiva, Mohamed Ali Khan of Khokand, we find many an image which -indicates the natural feeling and pride of the OEzbegs. - -Then follow, also, on these compositions, which are always -of greater length, short poems, which tell of love, morality, -heroism,--or contain special directions for handling of weapons, -dressing of horses, and the duties of a good warrior. These are, -for the greater part, productions of plain burghers, professional -Bakhshis, people who are unacquainted with reading and writing, and -leave their poetry to be written by others; or, finally, productions -by women and young girls, who break out into poetic effusions from -the fire kindled by passion. I brought with me a pretty collection, -written on soiled paper, in a bad hand, bound in rough leather, -which I found among the Turkomans at a Bakhshi's, who hid the -"Opus Curiosum" in the broad leg of his boots; and it has really -very strange things in it, sometimes not without beauty. We wish -to produce some specimens, under the names of the writers; some of -them appear to be anonymous. The first one, in the genuine Oriental -style, mourns the transitory condition of humanity and the vanity of -the world. - - -ALLAH YAR. - -1. To build castles in this world is a fruitless thing; finally, all -will become ruin, and building is really not worth the trouble. - -2. Day and night, for each poor wanderer to labour and strain -himself, is really not worth the trouble. - -3. Friends! For idle good in this empty world, to mourn and lament -oneself, is really not worth the trouble. - -4. To do homage to passion out of ostentation, to torment the poor -and the sick, is really not worth the trouble. - -5. To destroy the lands of Islam, and to draw the sword to -annihilate, is really not worth the trouble. - -6. With taxes, duties, with hundredfold griefs and sorrows to vex -Molla Khodja,--nay, the whole world, is really not worth the trouble. - -7. As you cannot, Allah Yar, stand the brunt of the world, why -plague yourself going up and down it? it is really not worth the -trouble. - - -REVNAK. - -1. I went to my love one evening, on foot, treading softly. In sweet -sleep lay the dear one. I embraced her softly, softly. - -2. I took a kiss from her lips and refreshed my soul by it. I -embraced her tender limbs, and kissed her once more,--softly, softly. - -3. I said, give me a kiss, then. What, are you not ashamed, said -she? Return whence you came, quickly,--treading softly, softly. - -4. I was obstinate, and would not go. She seized my arm and pushed -me out. At last, I saw no other chance, and sneaked off,--softly, -softly. - -5. I departed; could not endure separation, and came back. Oh, -merciless one, I implore thee, give me a kiss,--softly, softly. - -6. Too genial to suit European taste. - -7. Revnak says, as the whole world is full of jokes and sport, so -let no one blame me, and read this softly, softly. - - -MESHREF. - -1. My soul blazes in flame, yet my mistress comes not. What said -I,--Mistress! The beloved of my heart comes not. - -2. I am inwardly consumed for the love of this cypress-like beauty. -She is so cruel. Into her thoughts I enter not. - -3. I see in dreams her ringlets, and rise deeply saddened at noon. -From this lock of her hair my heart separates not. - -4. Medjnun and Leila, take a lesson from me in love; my charming -dear one heeds me not. - -5. The life of foolish Meshref seems coming to its end, and the sad -flirt heeds me not. - - -FUZULI. - -1. Hold fast to the leading strings of modesty, for nothing is -lovelier than modesty. Immodesty, mark this well, advances neither -in this nor that world. - -2. Oh! bird of my heart, flutter not in the air, but light on the -hand of a king. The too high-flying hawk is never employed in the -chase. - -3. Desire treasure only from God; he has many storehouses. Should -a drop only fall to thee for portion, this is amply sufficient: it -ends not. - -4. He, on whom the bird of happiness has rested, flies high, even -without wings. He, on whom a dark lot has fallen, can scarcely raise -his own hand. - -5. Be always humble: strive to obtain a contrite spirit. He who -suffers gold-hunger can never be satisfied. - -6. You, Fuzuli, live in this world only for friendship. Winter lives -in unfriendly hearts; never can it be summer there. - - -NESIMI. - -1. _Saturday._ I met my cypress-like charmer, and she made me -distracted. - -2. _Sunday._ I was frantic, and a wanderer, and fell down senseless. -I saw her face, and thought it was the shining moon. - -3. _Monday._ At last I told her my heart-secret. Her eyes are like -the narcissus, her cheeks resemble roses, her eyebrows are like a -bow. - -4. _Tuesday._ I became a huntsman, and went over the country -(walked), yet I myself became the chased, and fell a sacrifice to -the ever coy one. - -5. _Wednesday._ My beauty walked in the fields; the nightingale saw -her face and uttered wild cries. - -6. _Thursday._ I said to my loved one: Hearken, then, to my advice: -hide thy secret still from both good and bad. - -7. _Friday._ At last Nesimi saw her beauty, and drank to satiety of -the sherbet of her rosy lips. - -These, although through the poetic beauty of our European tastes -they may not prove quite agreeable, give yet sufficient evidence -that the inhabitants of Central Asia, apart from the roughness of -their social relations, despite their incessant wars and forays, -are not unskilled in the expression of traits of poetic feeling and -tender love. The higher classes, though they do not look on the -popular poetry with contempt, still wish to show traces of refined -taste, a higher education, and enjoy the works of the elder Persian -poets, or the books of Nevai, who stepped forward as the first of -the Tchagatay poets in that kind of accomplishment, by which all the -rest of the poets of the Islamitish polite world acquired renown. -Nevai is a scholar of the celebrated Sheikh Abdurrahman Djami, -during many years minister, field marshal, and governor of many -provinces. He is of rare genius in poetry, and of great fertility; -for he has produced more than thirty-two distinct works on poetry, -history, morals, logic; and though his works are thoroughly Persian -in spirit, and not pervaded with the spirit of Central Asia, yet the -merit of having reined and ennobled the Turkish dialect of Central -Asia cannot be taken from him. - -Here I give a few specimens. - - -NEVAI. - -1. Oh! heart, come, let us seek out a love; the cypress-growing one, -the silver-cheeked one, let us seek. - -2. As the darling of our eyes has looked for another friend, we also -have eyes; therefore, another let us seek. - -3. She greets the glance of men only with the dust of death. Why -stand longing here? Another beauty let us seek. - -4. Should I not find another like thee, who destroyest all the -world, then a lowly, modest, but tender one, I will seek. - -5. We will hasten through field and plain for the loved one; we will -search garden and meadows. Her will we seek. - -6. As the wish is good, it shall not remain unfulfilled. Among small -and great, through all as far as possible, we wish to seek. - -7. Oh! Nevai, from this passion you will never get freed. Come, -therefore, before the meeting. Patience and perseverance let us seek. - - -NEVAI. - -1. Absent from the loved one, the heart is like a land without a -king. A land without a king is like a body without a soul. - -2. Oh! Mussulman, what service is a body without a soul! It is like -black earth, which has no sweet smelling roses. - -3. Black earth, that has no sweet smelling roses, is like a dark -night, that has no bright moonbeams. - -4. A dark night, that has no bright moon, is like darkness without a -life-source. - -5. A darkness, that has no life-source, is like a hell, which has no -paradise-plains. - -6. Oh! Nevai, as the loved give so much pain, it is certain that -absence has its pangs, and the return no aid. - -His Tchihardivan is beautiful, in which he celebrates the various -ages of men, as also his adaptation of the well-known romances, -Ferhad and Shirin, Medjnun and Leila, Yusuf and Zuleikha, &c. Also -his versification of some stories out of the 1,001 Nights, among -which Prince Seif-ul-Muluk is the most successful. The following -will serve as a specimen of the latter. - - -_How Seif-ul-Muluk sets out from the town of Tchin, and journeys to -the sea._ - -1. Come, tale-teller, let us hear the story of the adverse fate that -befel the king's son? - -2. The tale-teller replied, "That is hard to do; for the sword of -sorrow cleaves the breast." - -3. The prince had everything prepared for his departure, and first -enquired about the town of Katine. - -4. Satisfactory information was soon received; all his effects -brought to the ship. - -5. The whole crew were on board, the officers stood prepared, and -the army equipped. - -6. Then the prince betook himself on board, and confided his person -to the "god's device" (the ship). - -7. The pilots led the way, followed by an endless host of ships. - -8. There sat the prince in sweet reverie, with smiling lips and a -heart free from sorrow. - -9. Six months he went across the sea, with pilot carefully watching -his way. - -10. Soon, Fate made him feel the sting of envy, and maliciously -opposed him. - -11. The sea became moved and girded on the blood-thirsty sword. - -12. She opened herself, and the deluge wildly burst forth,--a deluge -on all sides of streams of fire. - -13. Every moment she showed a fresh scene of horror--every instant -makes a thousand souls tremble. - -14. Wildly swelled the waves, and threatened with mighty floods: -with blood-thirsty jaws rush and roar the waters of the sea. - -15. Then dark fearful winds arise--the horizon veils itself in -pitchy darkness, and from the surface of the sea there sounds forth -wild lamentation. - -16. The day, bright with the sun, becomes a pitch-dark night. What a -fearful day! It is the image of the day of judgment. - -17. Wherever thou lookest no man is visible, not even the hand -before the eyes,--all, and over all, is water. - -18. The salt waves toss and roll incessantly, and raise the ships -with keels upward. - -19. Ever does the mighty sea rage and roar and mount with fury from -the deep abyss. - -20. Wild cries of creatures break out together, you would think it -was the day of Resurrection. - -21. In frightful hurly-burly one ship runs into the other; they -split, and sink to the bottom of the sea. - -22. The yards break, the planks fall in pieces, no possibility of -escape. - -23. Those hundred ships, said the tale-teller; that crew, those -possessions, - -24. All was wrecked on the sea coast, not a trace remained behind on -the surface of the waters." - -Wide as the territory of Turkestan-Proper extends, so far does -the literature of which we have tried to give a slight sketch in -the foregoing pages. And the further we betake ourselves from the -frontiers into the desert, so in like manner does Islam become -weaker, and here commences the change from Mohamedan civilisation -into the old Shamanism. Among the Kirghis, notwithstanding the -greater part of them profess Islam, one meets here and there with -a tale which was generated in the Khanats; this, however, is -looked upon as an exotic plant, and never preferred to the native. -The popular poetry that one finds among them forms the point of -transition from the currents of ideas of one society into another. -Indeed, only two days' distance from the borders of the Yaxartes, -or northward from the Sea of Aral, may a bakhshi prosper, provided -he can give in the best fashion tales or narratives of a purely -Kirghis character. The poetry of the wild inhabitants of the steppe -is more strange and odd than pretty. Here and there a happy image -occurs, at other times there are only broken exclamations and -solitary verses without the smallest connection. Since each person -is a poet, a tale cannot long preserve its originality, either they -add something new to it or cast the whole off, and few people can -keep themselves from annexing to their songs the momentary influence -of their fantasy. Of the love-lays of the Kirghis, Lewschine has -introduced a short poem, not without charm, in his book, p. 380:-- - -"Dost thou see this snow? The body of my loved one is whiter still." - -"Dost thou see the dropping blood of the slain lamb? Her cheeks are -redder still." - -"Dost thou see the trunk of this burnt tree? Her hair is blacker -still." - -"Dost thou know with what the mollahs of our Khan write? Her -eyebrows are blacker than their ink." - -"Dost thou see these glowing embers? Her eyes are brighter still." - -Another specimen which follows this consists of detached sentences -without any connection. - -"The hawk has pounced on the ducks--on a flight of ducks--on a great -flight!" - -"I am very ill, and hardly ever think of eating," or "yonder is a -tall pine-tree, the mist has fallen over it." - -"Yesterday she allowed me to enter her house. Formerly she would -come herself and caress me." - -These more or less may be found among all purely popular tales of -oriental people. There is even a trace of them in Hungarian, as for -example,-- - -"Three apples and a half, I invited thee, and thou camest not," or -"the crane flies high, singing beautifully, my loved one is angry, -for she will not speak to me," &c. - -A considerable number of tales or narratives of hero deeds exists -among nomadic tribes, partly in verse, partly in prose. In these the -spirit of the literature of the Turkish tribes of South Siberia is -more prominent than that of their Central Asiatic neighbours; and -I have heard many compositions of Kirghis Bakhshis, which I find -with little variation and dialectic differences faithfully conveyed -in the more recent work,--"Proofs of the Popular Literature of the -Turkish tribes of South Siberia," by Dr. Radloff. - -It leaves no doubt that as the learned A. Schiffner, in the myths -and tales of Dr. Radloff's collection, finds traces of a Buddhist -influence, so many of the irtegi (tales) of the modern Kirghis -have reached them from the further south, beyond Djungaria; for -Islam, coming from the south-west, could take no firm root over the -Yaxartes, and now that the mighty waves of Russian power roll down -from the north, will certainly prevail no further. This kind of -literature belonging rather to the Turks of South Siberia, we shall -conclude our present sketch by a tale of the Kirghis, which belongs -to this little horde, according to European opinion, but according -to inland appellation, to Mangishlak Kazagi, _i.e._, a Kirghis of -Mangishlak. It is from the book of Bronislas Zaleski, who, as a -Polish exile, dwelt nine years in the desert, and on his return, -1865, published under the title of "La Vie des Steppes Kirghizes." -Paris. Fol. 1865. - - -THE TALE OF KUGAUL.[57] - -Man is, in Heaven, helpless without God; on earth, powerless without -a horse. - - [57] I adopt the orthography of the original, although Kugaul - (hunter) Barzagai (master lion) instead of Buruzgay would be - preferable. - -There was once a Kirghis, named Buruzgay. He had great numbers of -sheep and horses, and nothing was wanting to him if God had not -denied him children. He was alone, consequently, in an advanced -state of life. He said not his daily prayer (namaz), nor kept the -enjoined feasts. One day, the sorrow of his childless condition -overcame him, and he determined to go to the Holy places, in the -hope that his prayers might obtain for him a son. He forged for -himself shoes of iron, and took a staff of iron in his hand, and so -betook himself on his way. He travelled and travelled ten years -long, and probably more. So long, so long did he travel, until his -iron shoes were quite worn out, and only the handle of his iron -staff remained. At last, he fell down on the ground, prostrate. -Great were his sufferings, for he could neither raise himself up nor -die. - -Lo! before him appeared a holy man, who perceived him lying on -the earth, had compassion on him, bent over him and enquired what -ailed him. Buruzgay could not utter a word. The holy man fell on -his knees, recited his prayer, (namaz) and prayed the Almighty to -loosen the tongue of the unhappy man. Hardly had he done this, when -Buruzgay began to feel his strength revive. He related his history, -and on what grounds he had abandoned his aoul. The holy man withdrew -a short distance, and continued in prayer until God said to him, -"Thou art well pleasing in my sight. I will accomplish thy wish. -But why dost thou interest thyself in Buruzgay? He pays no impost, -he says no prayer (namaz), he observes no fast. How shall I have -compassion on him?" "Lord," said the holy man, "in time to come he -will serve Thee devoutly, and will repeat his prayers; only do not -reject my intreaties. Grant my prayer and take me for an hostage." -Then God said, "Depart, faithful servant, thy prayers are granted. -Enquire of Buruzgay what is his desire. Will he have forty sons -and forty daughters, or only one son and one daughter especially -approved by me." - -The holy man returned to Buruzgay. He found him quite restored, and -on his knees; and he cried aloud with joy, "Oh, God, I have not -lied to Thee: Buruzgay, before my return, had begun to perform his -duty." He then told Buruzgay the words of God. "What shall I do with -forty sons and forty daughters? If the Almighty hear my prayers, he -will give me one son and one daughter." The holy man blessed him, -and conveyed back to the Lord his reply. Buruzgay found his iron -shoes as though unworn, and betook himself to his aoul. Approaching -it, he appeared to recognize his steppe and flocks. He viewed all -with heartfelt joy. Slowly and slowly regaining his recollection, -he perceived that nothing had changed since his departure. He -approached a shepherd, to enquire of him as to the owner of the -herds. The shepherds did not recognise him, he had so fallen away, -and become so changed through fasting and hardships, and his clothes -were worn out. "What is our master to thee," enquired the shepherds, -"go thy way." They went their way to their flocks. Buruzgay waited -until their return, and questioned them afresh. The shepherds drove -him away as a poor beggar (baygouche), without wishing to speak to -him, till at last he uttered his name. They immediately looked at -him attentively, recognised him, and told him that his wife, whom -he had left in the family way, was near her confinement, and they -were expecting guests in the aoul. Then, without waiting for his -reply, the shepherds ran off swifter than an arrow, and coming -to Buruzgay's wife, demanded the suyundji, (the customary gift -for good news). They received it, and informed the wife of the -arrival of her husband. She was highly delighted, and immediately -afterwards Buruzgay entered. A few days after his arrival, his wife -was delivered of two fine, strong children,--twins. One was a son, -the other was a daughter. Buruzgay was beside himself with joy, and -he kept constantly meditating on what names he should give these -children, with whom God had rejoiced his old age. Whilst he was -buried in thought, his former intercessor with Heaven, the holy -man, came to him, and said, "Thou wilt name thy son Kugaul, and thy -daughter Khanisbeg. And Buruzgay hearkened to the holy man, who -immediately left him. - -The children grew, and were beautiful. Four years passed away. The -twins began to learn shooting, with little bows prepared for them. -Kugaul easily learned to shoot, and ten years passed away. At this -time, it came to pass that a mighty Sultan gave a feast (Toy). -During the banquet, he gave notice that he wished a lofty mast to -be erected, with a piece of gold on the summit, and that whoever -could pierce with his arrow the gold piece, should be the husband -of his daughter. A host of competitors presented themselves. The -mast was very high; they shot in turns; none could pierce the gold -piece, and the renowned archers of the Steppe missed their aim. At -length, the last guest at the banquet missed also. The Sultan cried -out, "are these all the young people that there are in the Steppe? -Have none stayed away who will let fly an arrow for the hand of -the Sultan's daughter?" "Only one remains," they replied, "Kugaul, -son of Buruzgay; but he is only a little boy ten years old." "That -matters nothing," said the Sultan, "bring him here immediately." -They went into the aoul to seek him. He appeared on a broken-winded -horse, in old clothes, with a bow at his back. He had plenty of -beautiful clothes, and good horses, for his father was rich, and -denied him nothing, but he wished, before the rich, to appear poor -and humble. When the Sultan's wife saw him riding forward, she cried -out immediately, "This shall be my son-in-law, and none other among -those present." Arrived at the mast, Kugaul would not immediately -draw his bow. - -"You are many," said he; "I am alone, and young; and if I were to -hit successfully, I might, perhaps, not then receive the hand of -the Sultan's daughter. The Sultan assured him that he would give -him his daughter, but only on the condition that he should shoot -successfully. Kugaul prepared to pierce the gold piece. He took -aim, bent his bow so powerfully, that his lean, miserable horse, -sank beneath him. He struck him with his whip until he rose. Kugaul -took aim again, stretched the cord afresh. This time the horse -only bent the knee. The arrow went off and pierced the centre of -the golden piece. Kugaul, exhausted with the effort, dismounted, -unsaddled his horse, lay down on the ground, and, reclining his head -on the saddle, fell asleep. He slept there three days long in his -miserable attire, little as he was on a poor saddle. The Sultan had -fully intended not to give his daughter to such a wretched-looking -being. In vain Kugaul awaited the messengers. No one came, and he -thought of some means by which he could obtain his bride. Suddenly -a woman appeared before him from the Sultan's household, and -explained to him fully the position of circumstances. Kugaul said -to her, "Return to the Sultan, and tell him that I give him until -mid-day to-morrow for consideration. If he does not then give me his -daughter, and forty laden camels, and forty carpets, I will kill him -and exterminate his whole family." The woman took a fancy to Kugaul, -imagining him to be a great warrior (batyr), returned quickly to -the aoul of the Sultan, gave the Sultana an account of the meeting, -who rushed to her husband, saying, that Kugaul would become a great -hero (batyr), and if he should not keep his word, he would draw on -himself a disgrace darker than the earth. The Sultan's wife spoke -many similar speeches, until at last her husband resolved to marry -his daughter, and he gave Kugaul notice to that effect. Kugaul now -attired himself in splendid robes, mounted a magnificent courser, -and presented himself to the Sultan. The marriage was celebrated, -and after the accustomed wedding feast (toy) Kugaul conducted -his young wife home, and returned to his father's aoul. Forty -camels, laden with costly objects, and covered with forty carpets -followed him. This was the dower of the bride. When he reached -home, Kugaul's wife lowered her veil, according to the custom of -the Kirghis. But when they were in the presence of his father and -mother, Kugaul lifted it for the first time. Hardly had his parents -seen her countenance, when they presented her gifts of horses and -cattle. Then, because they had not guessed her favourite colours for -animals, the daughter-in-law did not fall at their knees to thank -them. The old Buruzgay was angry at this, and cried out, enraged, -"What an animal is this maiden! We have given her a host of presents -and she will not humble herself before us, nor give us even the -usual salute (selam)." She replied, "What are your presents to me? -I do not require them. You have not given me the very best. Behind -the house there is a chesnut mare, she sinks knee-deep in the sand; -she alone suits me. For she will produce a stallion, which will save -my Kugaul from many misfortunes, and become a true warrior's steed. -Give me this mare, she is the most valuable, and I prefer her to -all." "My daughter-in-law is, though young, prudent enough," said -Buruzgay. This pleased him, he became reconciled to her, gave her -the mare, and the young bride fell at the feet of her parents, and -gave the usual greeting. A beautiful tent was erected near the old -people, and the newly-married dwelt therein, and the wife of Kugaul -ordered her servants to attend to the chesnut mare as the apple of -their eye. They then dug a deep recess, covered it with grass, and -there the mare was protected and well fed. During the night a fire -was lighted around. Forty days passed and the mare brought forth a -colt, a little bay stallion. The servants ran immediately to apprise -the lady, and demanded a reward for the joyful intelligence. "Wait -another forty days," she answered; "take great care of the stallion, -give him plenty to eat and drink." The servants obeyed, and when -the appointed time was passed they returned to their mistress, -who informed them that from that moment they were all free, and -could go where they wished. As for the young colt, a silk noose of -forty fathoms was prepared,--they fed him on pure barley, milk, -and kishmish (a kind of dry raisin), and he grew up with Kugaul. -It happened at this time that the Khan (chief of the Kirghis) came -on a visit to the old Buruzgay, and when he saw Khanisbeg and the -wife of Kugaul they pleased him so much that he fell senseless to -the ground. They brought him back to life, and prepared food for -all. They all set to work to cut meat for mishbarmak (a Kirghis -dish). The Khan did the same, but whilst his hands were occupied -his eyes admired the beautiful women. He became inflamed with a -mighty passion, and could not turn his looks away from her face. -So absorbed was he that he did not even remark, that instead of -cutting meat he had cut his own finger, and did not discover this -for some minutes. Aware of it, he became so ashamed that he could -cut nothing,[58] and not to displease his host he made belief as -though he were tasting the dishes. He took leave quickly, and -returned home with a concealed longing in his heart. Hardly had he -reached it when he gathered his friends and relatives together, and -consulted with them on the means he should take to remove Kugaul, -and become possessed of his wife and his sister. Every body said -that he could not kill him, for he was far too great a hero. - - [58] This same episode occurs in the romance of Yusuf and Zuleikha, - where Zuleikha's friends at the banquet are so astonished at the - beauty of Yusuf that instead of paring the pomegranates before them - they cut off the skin with their fingers. - -But they devised another plan; they resolved to send Kugaul against -a hostile horde with the command to bring the Khan, who was there -ruling, alive or dead. This idea pleased the love-lorn Khan. People -assured him that the envoy could not return under ten years, and it -was indeed very probable that he might perish. They sent for Kugaul -immediately, and gave him the instructions. He returned home to his -aoul and related to his wife the commands he had received. "Not on -this account does he send thee," replied she, "I know the feelings -of his heart. When he was here he was seized with a passionate -longing for me and thy sister; he will have us and send thee away, -so that thou mayest die; but thou hast thine horse, thou canst not -fail, only return quickly." Kugaul departed, and only took with him -his servants and his horse, and travelled over many steppes, until -at last he reached the hostile border. Ten years, perhaps, more -or less, he travelled, I do not know exactly. At last his horse -stopped, Kugaul pressed him on, but the animal suddenly began to -speak with a human voice. "Compel me not to advance further, we are -near the enemy. Take off my bridle and saddle, I will go thither and -see how many they are in number." Kugaul obeyed his horse, which -began to roll on the ground, and by this means to increase his -strength more than by the best food. Then he rose, shook himself, -neighed, changed into a bird, and flew up into the clouds. Thus he -flew for three days. At last he returned and said, "There are more -enemies than hairs in my mane or tail. Consider well what thou dost. -Wilt thou fight or return?" Kugaul was not terrified. He left his -servants with the command that they should await him on that spot. -"If you hear of my fall," continued he, "bear the news to my wife -and my mother." He then offered an earnest prayer to God for help, -and departed. The enemy surrounded him, but he permitted not himself -to be conquered. His horse was a great help to him, for hardly did -one of the enemy take aim at him with his gun than he changed into -an eagle and flew far away with Kugaul towards the heaven. If he -were threatened with an arrow, the horse changed into a sparrow -and disappeared among the grass like a small ball. Kugaul fought -thus many days and at last slew and exterminated all the men of -this race, carried off the women, children, cattle, and possessions -with him, brought them to the place where he had left his servants, -commanded them to convey the booty home, and he himself rode forward -on his faithful steed. On and on he journeyed for a long time. One -evening, however, his horse would go no further, did nothing, and -stood petrified. Kugaul dismounted and lay down to sleep. Towards -the morning he awoke, approached his horse, and perceived that he -was shedding bitter tears. "What dost thou ail, my good horse," -inquired Kugaul, "why dost thou weep?" "Alas, why should I not -weep!" answered the horse. "this is the spot where once I trotted -in my silken halter. Here was also our aoul, and now there is not -a trace remaining of it, all is destroyed." And he began again to -weep. "Take off my saddle and bridle, let me take rest, and so -recruit my strength, and I will make enquiry as to the doer of all -this, and discover thy enemy." - -Kugaul took the saddle and bridle off the horse; he began to roll -afresh; and when he had regained strength he raised his head, took -a deep breath with his powerful nostrils. He bounded, changed into -a bird, and flew up into the air. He flew three days, without, -however, discovering anything, and was already on the point of -returning, when, on the opposite side, he discovered the aouls -of the Khan. Hither he directed his course; flew over the tents -and flocks, and saw everything. No one guessed that the bird was -Kugaul's horse, only the wife of the hero (Batyr) had a presentiment -that some one was coming to her, and nigh at hand, which idea she -communicated to her sister. The bird returned to Kugaul, related -what he had seen, that the Khan had carried off his wife and sister, -taken his flocks, compelled his father to collect tezek (a fuel -made of manure), his mother to tend the sheep. The horse began to -weep afresh. Kugaul prayed God to come to his assistance, so that -he might punish his insulting foe. He then commanded the horse to -convey him forthwith to his mother. He departed, and soon found her -in the steppe, occupied in tending the sheep. He threw himself into -her arms. "Why dost thou thus embrace me?" said the good old woman; -"can it be that thou art my son?" "If I am not thy son, am I not -worth as much as he?" "Oh, no; none in the steppe is worth as much -as my son." "Have you no news of him?" "I do not know where he is. -The Khan has despatched him against a hostile people; since that -time I have never heard talk of him. Only, to-day it appears to -me that I heard the noise of his horse's wings; but I do not know -whether it was reality or a trick of Satan." "And is it long since -thy Kugaul departed?" "Yes, yes; a long, long, very long time." "But -I am Kugaul himself. Dost thou not recognise me?" The old woman -looked at him more attentively, and she did not recognise him, and -said: "No, thou art not Kugaul; but if thou art his companion, or -if thou knowest anything of him, then speak. But do not deceive -me--do not torment me." "I am Kugaul," cried the son. "It was my -horse that flew over thy head this day." But the old woman was still -incredulous. He asked her if Kugaul had no birth-mark, and she -replied, that he had a black spot on his shoulder, big as a hand. He -then asked his mother to rub his shoulder (a common habit among the -Kirghis). "But," the old woman replied, "the sheep will run about in -all directions, and the Khan will beat me; for he often beats me. -Go, then, and let me manage my flocks." But he insisted and pressed, -and said, that if they wished to beat her, he would protect her. -At last the old woman consented. She took off the khalat (upper -garment) and the shirt, and proceeded to rub his shoulders. She -perceived the black spot large as a man's hand, threw herself on the -neck of the young man, and cried out, "Thou art Kugaul, thou art my -Kugaul;" and she wept for joy. "Did you not, then, recognise me, -mother?" said Kugaul. "Is it, then, so long a time that I have been? -And you, my poor dear mother, how altered you are! You have grown -old and grey, and your eyes are red with tears." And he embraced -her, weeping. "I knew not my child," replied his mother; "how long -you have been absent! But the Khan has attacked our aoul, carried -off thy wife and sister, and all our effects, and reduced thy -father and myself to be his slaves. I have been constantly expecting -thee; but I have lost all memory: I cannot tell how long a time has -passed. I know only that it is a long time, a very long time, that -thou hast left us." "Be tranquil, mother," said Kugaul; "the evil -days are terminating, and all begins anew to go right. God will aid -me. Return to the aoul; hasten to get in thy sheep, without paying -attention that it is yet early. If any one inquires about me, say -that I am not far off; but not a word more." He took leave of her, -and went his way. The old woman returned to the aoul, but she did -not walk as usual,--she ran; she, who could hardly before catch a -lamb, now chased three or four at once,--so much had her strength -improved. The Khan remarked it, and said to those around him: "That -old wife of Buruzgay must have received intelligence of her son." He -approached her, and questioned her about her son. "He is here,--he -is come," replied the old mother. "You will not be able henceforth -to make me suffer any more." She spoke boldly; for her interview -with her son had filled her heart with joy and hope. The Khan turned -pale with fright, and soon he perceived Kugaul, who, mounted on his -celebrated steed, advanced to him. Kugaul stopped at some distance, -then spoke, without descending from his horse. "You have deceived -me, you wished to get rid of me, to carry off my wife and sister. I -thought that you acted loyally with me, and went out at thy bidding -as a true man. But thou art only a hound, a perjured miscreant, -a robber. We must reckon. But what shall I gain by thy solitary -death. They would say, that Kugaul, the Batyr, has only killed the -Khan. Gather, then, thy army together." And the Khan begged of him -to grant him three days to assemble his people. Kugaul consented, -and departed. The Khan sent his orders into all the aouls of his -horde, and drew together a large armament of his people around him. -Kugaul prayed meanwhile to God. At the day appointed he came, and -said: "You are my Khan; I will not shoot first at you,--you begin." -The Khan shot: missed his aim. "I will not yet shoot at thee," said -Kugaul; "gather together thy best marksmen, and command them to -shoot against me; if they do not hit me, then I will shoot." The -best marksmen of the Khan stepped out of the ranks, and shot. Each -shot an arrow at Kugaul, but his horse transformed himself into an -eagle, then into a lark; protected him against all the shots, by -raising himself up in the clouds--and against all the arrows, by -crouching down in the grass of the steppe. They could not hit him. -Three days Kugaul permitted them thus to shoot against him. On the -fourth, he said to the Khan: "Well, since you are my master, you -have shot against me,--you and your servants, for three days. Now -comes my turn." "Do what you like," said the Khan. Kugaul placed the -best hunter, and then two archers, and the Khan himself in a line -behind them. He placed himself opposite to them, and, turning to -his horse, said: "My true steed, rest firm now, and change not thy -position, in order that I may, with a single arrow, kill all four." -The horse stayed still as a stone. Kugaul drew the string with all -his might: the arrow went through huntsman, archers, and the Khan -himself. When the people saw that the Khan was dead, they ran away -on all sides. Kugaul followed them. He reached, on horseback, now -this one, then that one, from the height of the clouds; and all that -he struck, died. At last he gave over his work of extermination. -He returned to his aoul, found there his parents, his wife, and -sister, and seized on the possessions of the Khan. Among the women -and children that the servants brought in, there was the daughter -of the Khan. Kugaul took her for his second wife. He married his -sister, Khanisbek, to a very rich Khan of a neighbouring tribe, and -he himself became also Khan. - -So ends the story. The old people say (added Mourzakay) that all -this is the exact truth, and that all the events happened in the -steppes. I did not see them; but we must believe what the old people -tell us. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -RIVALRY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND ENGLAND IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -It is three years ago since, in the closing chapter of my Travels -in Central Asia, I expressed my surprise and dissatisfaction at -the indifference of Englishmen towards Russian progress in those -regions. I then indicated not only the exact course of Russian -procedure on the Yaxartes, but also its steadily approaching -influence on British India. Abstaining purposely from all -far-reaching political reflections, I was as brief and concise -as possible, and could hardly have believed that the unassuming -remarks of a European, just returned home from Asia, would be found -worthy of closer consideration. Nevertheless, these few lines were -discussed and dwelt upon by almost every organ of the English and -Indian press, from the _Times_ to the _Bengal Hirkáru_. Only a very -small proportion of those various journals attached itself in any -measure to my ideas; the most of them, on the contrary, rejected my -good counsel; and without directly ridiculing my judgment, raised -from all sides a loud-sounding Hosannah over the happy change in -English politicians, who, being less short-sighted now than they -were thirty years back, discovered in the advance of the Russians -only a disagreeable event; nay, would even regard it with pleasure, -and cry success to their march southward over the snow-capped peaks -of the Hindu-Kush and the Himalayas. - -In these three years, however, a great change has taken place. -Far though I be from wishing as an ex-dervish to exult over the -fulfilment of my prophecies, still I cannot help referring to the -lines in which I happened to proclaim the progress of the Russian -arms. While I was in Central Asia the furthest out-posts of the -Cossacks lay at Kale-Rehim, thirty-two miles from Tashkend. Forts -1, 2, and 3, on the Yaxartes, if actually conquered, were not yet -wholly in safe keeping. On the north of Khokand, too,--on the -west of the Issikköl and the Narin, the Court of St. Petersburg -could show but few tokens of success. The Kirghis were embittered -and hostile to the strange intruders, and the OEzbeg tribes on -the northern frontier of Khokand would then have deemed a Russian -occupation equivalent to the destruction of the world; so much did -they hate and scout the Unbelievers. Three years have passed, and -what has happened in that time? Not only has Khodja-Ahmed-Yesevi, -that holiest patron of the Kirghis, become a Russian subject in -Hazreti-Turkestan; not only has Tashkend, the most important trading -town, the great mart of Central-Asiatic and Chinese trade with -Russia, been absorbed into the northern Colossus; not only does the -Russian flag wave from the citadel of Khodjend, the second town of -importance in Khokand; it may now be also seen on the small fortress -of Zamin, Oratepa, and Djissag. The dreaded Russ has set himself up -as lord-protector in the eastern Khanat of Turkestan: the Hazret, -the Khan, as also the Hazret or High Priest of Namengan, strive -for the favour of one who, but a year before, would have filled -their very dreams with mortal terror. Nay, not Khokand only, but -the Tadjik population also throughout Bokhara and Khiva, the great -number of freedmen and slaves in service, and even the wealthier -merchants from Mooltan and other parts of India, who once trembled -before the OEzbeg power, now whisper delightedly into each other's -ears that the Russians are slowly drawing nearer, and that OEzbeg -lordship and OEzbeg absolutism are coming to an end. - -For three years have these metamorphoses in the oasis-countries of -Turkestan been carried on with sure and steady hand from the banks -of the Neva. As an erewhile traveller, for whom those spots had been -full of interest from my youth up, I had already kept, albeit from -a distance, a watchful eye on all that went on amidst the plains -of the Yaxartes. I devoured alike the newspaper reports and the -scanty notices which my fellow pilgrims from Turkestan communicated -to me through their westward journeying brethren. That I took a -hearty interest in everything will surprise no one, little as the -utterances of the English press and the writings of British Indian -diplomatists during these occurrences claimed my full attention. To -the prophecies of the Dervish neither the one party nor the other -gave a thought. The note of satisfaction struck three years before -was kept up without a break. People were no longer content with the -bare assertion, that Russian progress in Central Asia was a thing to -welcome, but tried their utmost to show convincing grounds for that -assertion, in order to represent the success of the Muscovite arms -as tending more and more profitably for English interests. - -To solve this problem the more happily, to convince all thoughtful -Englishmen the more unanswerably of the profit to be gained from -Russian successes, the question was debated by a light which was -sure to be equally welcome to all the different classes. The -scientific world was informed by the learned President of the -Royal Geographical Society touching the excellent service rendered -to science at large by the trigonometrical, geographical, and -geological societies of Russia. Russian voyages of discovery were -exalted above everything; Russian scholars were deified; nay, it -was only lately that even Vice-Admiral Butakoff was presented -with the large gold medal for his discoveries on the Sea of Aral. -Social Reformers, on the contrary, were taught to compare Tartar -savagery with Russian civilisation. The picture which I myself drew -of Central Asia was contrasted with the young Russia of to-day: -the emancipation of slaves, the Russian endeavours after national -enlightenment, the great change in manners, the mighty strides by -which Russia was approaching England in civilised ideas, were all -brought into the foreground; and in every thread of this tissue was -expression given to the great usefulness of Russian supremacy in -Asia. The trading world was shown the advantage which must accrue -from safe means of communication, now that Russian arms are on -the point of smoothing a way through the inhospitable steppes of -Turkestan towards India. Some journals, indeed, were carried so -far away by their zeal as to point out to the honest workmen of -Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, &c., that only English wares -and English capital would travel to and fro along the new Russian -commercial road to Central Asia. Even the military class had a -friendly word whispered into its ear. To the sons of Mars it was -needful to represent a Russian invasion of India as a ridiculous -bugbear. From every stand-point, moral, physical, strategical, was -such an attempt proved to be an impossibility. How, indeed, could -Russia overcome the enormous difficulties of those parched steppes -that stretched week after week before her; how master the warlike -Afghans, or win through the dreaded Khyber Pass? And even if she -succeeded in that also, how roughly would she not be handled by -the British Lion, who would lie waiting leisurely for her in his -luxurious palankeen? Nay, even to the Church, that mightiest of -English levers, should a lullaby be chanted forth. People hinted -at a happy union between the Orthodox Church of Russia and that of -England. Dr. Norman Macleod is an authority; and his cry, "The Greek -Church is not yet lost," has aroused the hopes of many; and very -learned church dignitaries have looked forward with blissful smiles -to the moment when the three-fold Greek Cross shall rise from the -Neva up to the proud dome of St. Paul's in London, for the kiss of -brotherhood, and the two united churches shall become a powerful -weapon against Papal ideas. - -Independent pamphlets and thundering newspaper articles alternated -on the field of this question with the expositions above-named. -The warning voice of a small minority could not succeed in making -head against the Optimists, against those apostles of the new -political doctrine. Sir Henry Rawlinson, whose perfect conversance -with the circumstances of that region no one can dispute, a man -whose practical experience is at one with his theoretic insight, -has here and there in the _Quarterly Review_ pointed out the errors -of such speculations in solidly written essays; and though, as -doubting any ultimate design of Russia upon India, he protested -against all actual interference, merely blaming the indifference -above-mentioned; still his words passed unheeded of the multitude. -I might well say to myself that where such an authority carries no -weight, my present words could but travel a very short way. I was -therefore slow to speak; and yet, as I had studied this momentous -question in all its aspects, and examined it from many sides with -impartial eyes, I deemed it possible to show, not only to the -statesmen of England, but to those of all Europe, how fatally the -Cabinet of St. James errs in its way of looking at the matter; and -how this cherished indifference is not only hurtful to English -interests, but becomes a deadly weapon wherewith Great Britain -commits a suicide unheard of in history. - -How it happens that I, who by race am neither English nor Russian, -have taken so warm an interest in this matter, is mainly accounted -for by the fact of my regarding the collision of these two Colossi -in Asia less from the stand-point of their mutual rivalry, than -from that of the interests of Europe at large. Whether England or -Russia get the advantage, which of the two will become chief arbiter -of the old world's destinies, can never be to us an indifferent -matter; for widely as these two powers differ from each other in -their character as channels of Western civilisation, not less widely -do they diverge from one another in any future reckoning up of the -issues of their struggle. A passing glance, on the one hand, at the -Tartars, who have lived for two hundred years under Russian rule; on -the other, at the millions of British subjects in India, might teach -us a useful lesson from the past on this point. This, however, -may be reserved for later investigation. For the present we will -only affirm that the question of a rivalry between these two North -European powers in Central Asia concerns not only Englishmen and -Russians, but every European as well; nay, more, it deserves to be -studied with interest by every thoughtful person of our century.[59] - - [59] Up to this moment the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, alone of all - the Continental press, has brought out two special articles on - Central Asia. The first, without any acknowledged leaning, points - out the critical conditions of the approaching conflict; the second, - imbued with a Russian spirit, keeps time to the song of the English - optimists; for doing which I would not blame the writer, had he not - cited several passages from my book as his own property. - - -1. RUSSIAN CONQUESTS IN CENTRAL ASIA DURING THE LAST THREE YEARS. - -First of all we will recount the historical facts of the Russian -war of conquest during the last three years. Instead of going into -those details about the campaigns of Perovski, Tchernaieff, and -Romanovski, which were recorded partly in Mitchell's book, "The -Russians in Central Asia," partly in several solid treatises in -the _Quarterly_ and the _Edinburgh Review_, or into the slender -notices which have trickled out into publicity from the Russian -State-Cabinets, or those yet scantier notices which were revealed -by highly-paid English spies in Central Asia, we would cast only a -hurried glance at events, in order to acquaint the reader with the -latest posture of Russian arms in Central Asia. - -So successfully had the Russian operations been started in Central -Asia, that after a brilliant overthrow of the Kirghis, they -entered first on the conquest of Khokand, in order to gain firm -foothold in the three Khanats. In those eastern parts of the three -oasis-countries of Turkestan the social order has always been -relatively least, the religious culture weakest, and the antipathy -to warlike enterprises most strong. These were accompanied by -internal disorders, for while the Khodjas through their inroads -into Chinese territory on the east of the Khanat were always -encountering the risk of a collision with China, which in bygone -centuries did sometimes ensue, the greedy Ameers of Bokhara from -the west have continually laid the country waste with their wanton -lust of conquest. Before the capture of Ak-Meshdjid the nearing -columns of the mighty Russ on the north had but little place in the -bazaar-talk of Namengan and Khokand. At the time of the miscarriage -of Perovski's expedition Mehemed Ali Khan was seated on the throne. -He was beloved and honoured, and the dazzled masses were much too -wanting in ideas of conquest, to think seriously of self-defence -against the threatening foe on the north, or of Conolly's projected -alliance with Khiva. Not till after the death of Mehemed Ali ensued -the fall of Ak-Meshdjid, the first serious wound in the Khanat's -existence; and the Russian success was all the easier, because at -that time their fighting powers were crippled, on one side by -the fierce conflict between Kirghis and Kiptchaks in the interior -of the Khanat, and by the first attempt of Veli-Khan-Töre against -Kashgar on the other. The storming columns of the Russians against -the Khokandian fastnesses on either shore of the Yaxartes leave no -cause to complain of cowardice, although the thousands of Khokandian -warriors mentioned in the Russian accounts seem to rest on an -over-keen eyesight. - -After the capture of the last-named place, or, to speak more -correctly, after a systematic restoration of the chain of fortresses -along the Yaxartes, on whose waters the steamers of the Aral -flotilla could now move freely about, the Russian power advanced -with strides as gigantic as those with which Khokand, through the -continuous working of the causes above-mentioned, continually fell -away. The line of forts offered not only security against Turkestan, -but was also a powerful bulwark against the Kirghis, who, being -at length surrounded on all sides, could not so easily raise into -the saddle an _Ished_,[60] as the last anti-Russian chief styled -himself during the Crimean War. Thenceforth the work of occupation -was pursued by the court of St. Petersburg with its wonted energy; -and not till both the army corps, which were operating from the -Chinese frontier to the Issik-köl, from the Sea of Aral along the -Yaxartes, had drawn together southwards from the north-east and -the north-west at Aulia Ata, (_Holy Father_, an ancient place of -pilgrimage,) did Russian diplomacy deem it necessary to announce, -in a despatch signed by Prince Gortshakoff on the 21st November, -1864, that the government of the Tzar had at length obtained its -long-cherished desire to remove the boundary line of its possessions -from the ill-defined region of the Sandy Desert to the inhabited -portion of Turkestan; that the policy of aggression was now at -an end, and that its one single aim in the future would be to -demonstrate to the neighbouring Tartar states, with regard to their -independence, that Russia was far from being their foe, or indulging -in ideas of conquest, &c. &c. - - [60] _Ished_, which the Russians wrongly pronounce _Iset_, is a - usual contraction of "Eish Mehemmed," which signifies "Mohammed's - delight." - -That no Cabinet save the English placed any more faith in such -assurances than the Russian Minister himself, it is easy enough to -imagine. The tale of ever-recurring conquests from vanquished states -has long been notorious. We have instances thereof in every page -of the world's history, in every age in which some power has set -about enlarging itself. Just as the English are vainly apologising -for Lord Dalhousie's thirst for annexation, or absorption in India, -so are all Russian notes composed in a strain of overflowing -politeness. It is only the natural course of things; and the court -of St. Petersburg was right, could not indeed do otherwise, after -setting up a government in Turkestan, than follow the southern -course of the Yaxartes; and as the waste steppe formed at the -first no defensible frontier, neither could the thinly-peopled -neighbourhood of Tchemkend and Hazret furnish a better one. There -was need of a well-inhabited region, to provide against being -dependent merely on the means of communication from Orenburg and -Semipalatinsk. Therefore was Tashkend, rich and fertile Tashkend, -doomed to incorporation in Russian territory. - -It would be a profitless waste of time to quote as the main cause -of the Russian occupation of the last-named town, on the 25th June, -1865, the moving history of the petition of the Tashkend merchants, -of the numerous deputation that came beseechingly to the Russian -camp, to obtain the shelter of the two-headed Eagle, whom the -Central Asiatics call the _ajder_-kite, a bird not greatly beloved -of yore. Tashkend, which from time immemorial, lived at feud with -the masters of Khokand, was latterly very much enraged, because its -darling Khudayar was twice driven from his throne. To endamage the -dominant influence of the Khirgis by means of Russian supremacy, -was for it a welcome idea; but it is not at all likely that the -supremacy itself should have been generally desired. - -Russia has absorbed Tashkend, because she deemed it indispensable -as a firm base for further operations; not, however, with a view to -erecting therewith a bulwark against possessions already secured. -Still it was through Tashkend that the court of St. Petersburg had -embroiled itself in hostilities with the Khanat of Bokhara. The -Ameer, as we know, had earned for himself, through his campaign -of 1863, the nominal right of suzerainty over the western part of -Turkestan; and though after his departure everything fell back into -the old rut of Kiptchak lawlessness and party warfare, he still -thought to make good his right over all Khokand. He therefore wrote -the commandant of the newly-conquered town a threatening letter, -in which he summoned him to vacate the fortress. This, however, -gave small concern to the Russian general; and, hearing that -Colonel Struve, the famous astronomer, whom he had sent to Bokhara -for a friendly settlement of the affair, had been forthwith taken -prisoner, he burst forth on the 30th January, crossed the Yaxartes -at Tashkend with fourteen companies of foot, six squadrons of -Cossacks, and sixteen guns, with the purpose of going straight into -Bokhara and punishing the Ameer for the violation of his envoy. - -This design, however, miscarried. The Russians had to retire, -but did so in perfect order; and though countless hosts of -Bokharians swarmed round them on every side, yet their loss was -too insignificant to accord with the bombastic tales of triumph -which the Bokharians thereon trumpeted through all Islam, and which -even found their way to us through the Levantine press. General -Tchernaieff had excused himself on the plea that his hasty advance -was intended merely to baffle the movements of secret English -emissaries, who were striving with all possible zeal after an -Anglo-Bokharian alliance, and were also the main cause of his envoy, -Colonel Struve's imprisonment. In Petersburg, however, they could -not pardon his military failure: he was displaced from his high -command, and General Romanofski went out in his stead. The latter -moved forward with slow but all the more cautious steps. On the 12th -April a flock of fifteen thousand sheep, escorted by four thousand -Bokharian horsemen, was made prize of; and a month afterwards there -ensued, in the neighbourhood of Tchinaz, a fierce fight, called the -battle of Irdshar, in which the Tartars were utterly beaten. On the -25th May fell the small fort of Nau; and afterwards Khodshend, the -third town in the Khanat of Khokand, was taken by storm; but not -without a hard fight, in which the Russians left on the field a -hundred and thirty-three killed and wounded, the Tartars certainly -ten times that number. The battle, however, was well worth the -cost, for the fortifications of this place were better than those -of Tashkend or of any other town in the Khanat. This was the second -resting-point for the Russian arms on their march southward; and -though the "Russian Invalid," in an official report concerning -further projects, affirms that the conquest of that part of Bokhara -which is severed from the rest of their possessions by the steppes -could never become the goal of Russian operations, while for the -present it would be entirely profitless, yet progress has already -been made over Oratepe, through the small districts of Djam and -Yamin, as far as Djissag; whilst everywhere important garrisons have -been left behind. - -What has happened in the Khanat of Khokand itself during this -triumphal march of the Russians, is a point no less worthy of our -attention. The inhabitants, consisting of nomads,--OEzbeg, and -Tadjik or Sart,--were as much divided in their Russian likings and -dislikes, as they were different from each other in race, condition, -and pursuits. The warlike, powerful, and widely-courted Kiptchaks, -being ancient foes of the oft-encroaching Bokharians, who wanted -to force upon them the hated Khudayar Khan, immediately sided with -the Russians. Their friendship was for these latter an important -acquisition; and the friendly movement must have already begun, -when the north-eastern army-corps came in contact with them in its -forward struggle from Issikköl; for if this had not been the case, -the Russian advance on that line would certainly have been purchased -at heavier cost. - -The OEzbegs, as being _de jure_ the dominant race, had defended -themselves as well as they could; yet with their well-known lack of -courage, firmness, and endurance, they had but small success; and -when they began to reflect that Russian rule would probably be no -worse a misfortune than the incessant war with Bokhara, or their -internal disorders, they prepared to accommodate themselves to -inevitable fate. Only a few angry Ishans and Mollahs maintained an -unfounded dread of Bokhara; the descendants, for example, of Khodja -Ahmed Yesevi in Hazreti-Turkestan, who, however, in all likelihood -will soon go back to the bones of their sacred forefathers, as -the Russians assuredly will not hinder them from collecting pious -alms among their pilgrims. Moreover, to the wealthier merchants of -Tashkend, to the Sarts and Tadjiks, and a small number of Persian -slaves, the Russian occupation seemed welcome and advantageous; for -whilst the former expected considerable profit from the admission of -their native town into the Russian customs-circle, the latter hope -to be rescued from their oppressed condition through the downfall of -OEzbeg ascendancy. As we may see from the correspondence addressed -by General Krishanofski to a Moscow journal, it was these very -Sarts who gave the Russians most help. Their Aksakals, not those of -the OEzbegs, were the first to accept office under the Russians. -In public places they always appear by the side of the Russian -officers, harangue the people, and while Russian churches were -getting built, spread about a report that His Majesty, having been -converted by a vision in the night to Islam, was on the point of -making a pilgrimage to Hazreti-Turkestan. From the length of their -commercial intercourse with Russia, many of the Tadjiks, especially -the Tashkenders, are skilled in writing and speaking Russian; they -serve as interpreters and middle-men, and as many of them reach the -highest places in the _mehkeme_ (courts of justice) and other posts, -the main motive of their adherence is easy to apprehend. - -So far has it fared with the main line of operations in the Khanat -of Khokand. On adjacent points likewise, both eastern and western, -has the work of transformation stealthily begun. From Chinese -Tartary we learn, that ever since 1864 the Chinese garrisons have -been expelled, and replaced by a national government. First came -disorders among the Tunganis, presently followed by the deliverance -of Khoten, Yarkand, Aksoo, and Kashgar; and although these disorders -may have been caused at bottom by the traditional delight of -the Khokandie Khodjas in free plundering, still many of us are -positively assured that the court of St. Petersburg countenanced -all those revolutionary movements; aye, and that the Kiptchaks, -who are now masters of Kashgar, were helped to win it by Russian -arms. Such is the usual prelude to Russian interference. For a -time these independent towns are permitted to carry on feuds and -warfare against each other; but it is easy to foresee that their -enmity will come to appear dangerous to the peace of the yet distant -Russian frontier; and if haply the court of Pekin be in no hurry to -restore order, the Russians are very certain to forestal it on that -point ere long. The English press comforts itself with remarking, -that the insuperable barrier of the Kuen-Lun mountains renders -further progress towards Kashmir impossible; and that this Russian -diversion is only for the good of Central-Asiatic trade. For the -moment, however, we will put aside the discussion of this question, -preferring to glance at that part of Central Asia which inclines -westward from Khokand. Albeit engaged in war with Bokhara, Russia -has hitherto made no attack on the real territory of that State, -for Djissag is the lawful boundary between the former and Khokand. -About this well-known seat of the struggle with Bokhara, there is -only a diplomatic skirmish, which still goes on, under whose cover -the revolution of Shehr-i-Sebz holds its ground. For, even if the -Russian press denies for the thousandth time all interference, yet -the appearance of the Aksakal of Shehr-i-Sebz in Tashkend cannot -be regarded as unimportant. It is, at any rate, noticeable with -reference to the Russian plans in Khiva. The settled portion of -the Khanat proper has not yet been touched by Russian influence, -and only in the north, since the destruction of the fortress of -Khodja-Niyaz, on the Yaxartes, have some Cossack and Karakalpak -hordes, skirting the eastern shore of the Sea of Aral, been -converted into Russian subjects. - - -2. RUSSIA'S FUTURE POLICY. - -Our sketch of Russian progress in Central Asia furnishes its -own evidence of the way in which the policy of the court of St. -Petersburg will follow out its purpose in the immediate future. - -The most southern, therefore the most advanced, outposts rest on -Djissag. This word, in Central Asiatic, means a hot, burning spot, -and its position in the deep, cauldron-like valley of the Ak-Tau -hills entirely justifies the name. Owing to its utterly unwholesome -climate, and the great want of water, the population of this station -on the way to Khokand is but very small; and that the Russians have -selected it for a more abiding resting-place, I cannot believe, in -spite of the aforenamed asseverations of the "Russian Invalid," -and in spite of the contrary opinion of the learned writer of the -article, Central Asia, in the "Quarterly Review." Not only is it an -unhealthy and barely tenable post; but a lengthened stay here must -also be acknowledged as most impolitic. The gentlemen on the banks -of the Neva know well what Bokhara is in the eyes of all Central -Asia, I might even say of all Mohamedans. They know that on the -Zerefshan may be sought the special fount of religious ideas and -modes of thought, not only for the mass of Central Asiatics, but -for Indians, Afghans, Nogay Tartars, and other fanatics. In order -to achieve a grand stroke, the Ameer, who styles himself Prince -of all true believers, must be made to recognise the supremacy -of the white Tzar; the holy and honoured Bokhara, where the air -exhales the aromatic fragrance of the Fatiha and readings from the -Koran, must learn to reverence the might of the black unbelievers; -and the crowd of crazy fanatics, of religious enthusiasts, must -acknowledge that the influence of the saints who rest in her soil -is not strong enough to blunt the point of the Russian bayonet. The -fall of Bokhara will be a fearful example for the whole Islamite -world; the dust of her ruins will penetrate the farthest distance, -like a mighty warning-cry. For this must the court of St. Petersburg -assuredly be striving, and ready to strive. - -From this stand-point it is therefore most probable that the -greatest attention will henceforth be paid to the line of operations -from Tashkend, Khodjend, and Samarkand. The conquest of the whole -Khanat of Khokand may also follow in time, for that offers no -special difficulties; but the chief interest lies in the maintenance -and security of the roads of communication, on which the advancing -army, in concert with the strong garrisons in the now well-fortified -Tashkend and the northern forts, as also with the governments of -Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, will move along a road furnished with -an unbroken line of wells. The Ameer may have recourse to all -possible means of gaining the friendship of the Russians, in which -he has hitherto failed; he may send to Constantinople as many -Job's messengers as he will; he may despatch ever so many friendly -invitations to the Durbar of the Indian Viceroy: but all that will -do him no good. The town of Bokhara shall, with or without his -leave, be governed by an Ispravnik; for the Russians dare not and -cannot rest, until ancient Samarkand and Nakhsheb (Karshi), or the -whole right bank of the Oxus has been absorbed into the gigantic -possessions of the House of Romanoff. That this catastrophe, this -last hour of Transoxanian independence, will not be brought about -so easily as the heretofore successes in Central Asia, is manifest -enough. Already in my mind's eye do I behold a frantic troop of -Mollahs and Ishans, with thousands of students, roaming the Khanats -with holy rage, in order to preach the Djihad (religious war) among -the Afghans, Turkomans, Karakalpaks; and going through scenes of the -deepest, the devoutest anguish, in order to draw down the curse of -God on the foreign intruder. The death-struggle will be fierce but -profitless. So far as I know the Khivans and the Afghans, I deem the -notion of a general alliance with Bokhara to be quite impracticable; -for, if such was their inclination, they should have formed one long -ago. No egotism, no political combinations, but the greatest want -of principle alone, an utter recklessness of the future, will keep -them quiet until Hannibal stands before their gates. In vain shall -we look for any effort after a general league, either in Central -Asia, or even among any of the other Eastern nations. As the very -warlike Afghans could play their part with a force of disciplined -auxiliaries, so also might the Khan of Khiva join the Ameer's army -with twenty to thirty thousand horse. Yet this is what neither the -one nor the other will do. To unite them under one command might -be possible for a Timur or a Djinghiz; and even then the smallest -booty might stir up rancour and dissensions in their ranks. So, too, -the hundred thousand well-mounted Turkomans, who inhabit the broad -steppes from this side the Oxus to the Persian frontier, are utterly -useless for the rescuing of the Holy City. Their Ishans, indeed, if -summoned by their fellow-priests in noble Bokhara and by the Ameer, -might do their very best to stir up the wild sons of the desert to -a holy warfare: but I know the Turkomans too well not to be sure -that they will take part in the _Djihad_ only so long as the Ameer -can offer them good pay and the prospect of yet richer booty; and as -they sometimes owned in Afghan-Persian offices, it is most likely -that the Russian imperialists will soon turn them into excellent -brothers-in-arms of the Cossacks. Enthusiasm for the creed of the -Prophet existed, if I remember rightly, only for the first hundred, -indeed I might say only for the first fifty years. What Islam -afterwards accomplished in Anatolia, in the empire of Constantine, -in the islands of the Mediterranean, in Hungary, and in Germany, was -due to the impulse of a wild daring in quest of booty and treasures, -and a hankering after adventures. Where these leading incentives -failed, there was a failure in zeal; and I repeat that, although the -struggle will be a stern one, the speedy triumph of Russian arms in -Bokhara is open to not the slightest doubt. - -With the fall of the mightiest and most influential part of -Turkestan, will Khokand, of her own accord, exchange a protection -for the manifest sovereignty of the white Tzar. Khiva however, -undaunted by the example, will, to all seeming, take up the struggle -nevertheless. The conquest of Kharezm, moreover, though easier than -that of Khokand, is connected with remarkable difficulties. With the -exception of two towns, whose inhabitants are better known through -their commercial relations with Russia, the OEsbeg population -of this Khanat abhor the name of Russian. In courage, they stand -much higher than the men of Khokand and Bokhara, and, protected by -the formation of their native land, will cause much trouble to the -Russian troops from the way of fighting peculiar to the Turkoman -race. As for the view upheld by many geographers and travellers, -that the Oxus will form the main road of the expedition, I am bound -to meet it with the same denial as before. That river, on account of -its great irregularity and the fluid sea of sand borne down upon its -waves, is hard of passage for small vessels, not to speak of ships -of war. Not a year passes without its changing its bed several miles -in the shifting ground of the steppes; and if the Russians were not -quite convinced of this circumstance, the small steamers of the -Aral-Sea flotilla, built as they were for river navigation, would -have begun forcing their way inland by the Oxus, instead of the -Yaxartes. For although the smaller forts, such as Kungrad, Kiptchak, -and Maugit, which were built on the fortified heights by the left -bank of the river, might do harm to a flotilla passing near; yet, -owing to the sad state of the Khivan artillery, they are hardly -worth considering. Attempts to pass up the river, from its mouths to -Kungrad, where the stream is deepest and most regular, have already -been tried; still, the fact of their remaining merely attempts, -clearly shows that the navigation of the Deryai Amus (Oxus), if not -altogether impossible, is a hard problem nevertheless. - -These, however, are but secondary drawbacks, and in Khiva, as in -Bokhara, the white Tzar will be raised aloft upon the white carpet -of the Kharezmian princes, if not through the grey-beards of the -Tshagatay race, at any rate by his own bayonets and rifled guns. - -The conquest of the whole right bank of the Ganges once assured -to them, the strip of land from Issikköl to the Sea of Aral once -come into full possession of the Russians, and well provided with -excellent victualling-stores, then will the game of diplomacy -have begun in Afghanistan also. Among the Afghans the court of -St. Petersburg will not intervene so suddenly with arms in hand; -not because England's miscarriage in 1839 has made it cautious, -but because such a procedure is by no means customary with the -Russians. That, moreover, would be partly superfluous, partly beyond -the mark, amidst the now proverbial disunion of Dost Mohammed's -successors. Where brother rages against brother in deadliest feud, -where intrigues caused by greed and vanity are ever in full swing; -there the secret agent, the kind word, a few friendly lines of -writing, are much more profitable than a sudden assault with the -armed hand. Hitherto, in his brother-strife against Shere-Ali-Khan, -Abdurrahman-Khan has in no way entangled himself with Russian -agents, although he sought to frighten the English moonshee (agent), -by bringing some such conception to his notice. That he was greatly -inclined to such a step I have not the slightest doubt; but as yet -the Russians have given him no encouragement to take it. For if the -Afghan opponents of Shere-Ali-Khan, the Ameer accredited by England, -had received but the faintest wink from the Neva, they would never -have coquetted with Sir John Lawrence in Calcutta. Not only chiefs -and princes, but every Afghan warrior, nay, every shepherd on -the Hilmund, puts his trust in the idea of Russian trade; and I -have a hundred times over convinced myself how easily, indeed how -gladly, these people would embrace a Russian alliance against the -masters of Peshawar. Whether the fruits of such a friendship would -be wholesome, and conduce to the interests of Afghanistan, no one -takes into question. The Afghans, like all Asiatics, look only to -the interests of the moment, see only the harm which Afghans have -suffered in Kashmere and Sindh through English ascendancy, have a -lively remembrance of the last sojourn of the red-jackets in Kabul -and Kandahar; and though every one knows that the Kaffirs of Moscow -are very little better than the Feringhies, still, from an impulse -of revenge, they all desire and will prefer an alliance with the -North to a good understanding with England. - -Hence it is but a friendly regard, it is only a compact upheld not -by treaties, but by a strong force on the Oxus, which the Russians -can aim at for some time to come. - -The same kind of relation must be their object in Persia. Here -too, for the last ten years, has the court of St. Petersburg been -playing a lucky game. Since the appearance of Russian envoys at the -splendid court of the Sofies, in the time of Khardin, until now, -Russian influence has gone through many phases. At first scorned and -disregarded, the Russians have risen into the strongest and most -dangerous opponent of Iran. Whilst, in the days of Napoleon I., -England and France, to the profit and partial aggrandisement of the -Shah, vied with each other in turning to account their influence -at the court of Teheran, Russia, as "inter duos certantes tertius -gaudens," quietly smoothed her way to the conquest of the countries -beyond the Caucasus, to the profitable treaties of Gulistan and -Turkmanshay. And while the same Western Powers persevered in that -policy, the Colossus of the North took up such a position on the -Caucasus as well as the Caspian Sea, that its shadow stretched not -only over the northern rim of Iran, but far also into the country. -At the time of Sir Henry Rawlinson's embassy, English influence was -near being in the ascendant; but since then it has been continually -sinking; for however lavish of gold and greetings the English policy -might be in Malcolm's days, it showed itself just as cold and -indifferent from the time of Mac Neil downwards. Both the Shah and -his ministers seem urged on by necessity to accept the Russians as -their Mentor. It is not from any conviction of a happier future that -they have flung away from the fatherly embraces of the British Lion -into the arms of the Northern Bear; and the Shah must dance for good -or ill to the song which the latter growls out before him. - -If now, in accordance with the aforeshown position of the Russian -power and policy in Central Asia, we cast a glance on the frontier, -stretching for 13,000 versts wide, from the Japanese Sea to the -Circassian shore of the Black Sea, where Russia is always in contact -with so many peoples of different origin and different religion, -over whose future her aggressive policy hangs like the doomful sword -of a Damocles; we shall soon be driven to observe that, although -the southern outposts in Asia are on the Araxes, yet the only point -where, in their further advance, they impinge on a European power is -to be found in Central Asia. Separated twenty years ago from British -India's northern frontier by the great horde of the Khirgis and the -Khanats, the space at this moment left between Djissag and Peshawar, -although the difficult road over the Hindu-Kush lies midway, amounts -to no more than fifteen days' journey, and in reckoning by miles -to hardly a hundred and twenty geographical miles. For an army -the road, though difficult, is not insuperable, while it should be -tolerably easy for the development of political influence; and for -all England's readiness to see a mighty bulwark for her frontier in -the snow-crowned peaks of the Hindu-Kush, she forgets the ease with -which a Russian propaganda from the banks of the Oxus can smooth a -way hence towards the north of Sindh. From the moment, indeed, when -the Russian flag waves in Karshi, Kerki, and Tchardshuy, may England -regard this power as her nearest neighbour. - - -3. RUSSIA'S VIEWS ON INDIA; AND ENGLISH OPTIMISTS. - -Has Russia any serious views, then, on British India? Will she -attack the British Lion in his rich possessions? Does her ambition -really reach so far, that she would wield her mighty sceptre over -the whole continent of Asia, from the icy shores of the Arctic Sea -to Cape Comorin? These are questions of needful interest, not to -Englishmen only, but to all Europeans. On the bank of the Thames -as well as in Calcutta, statesmen have latterly answered them in -the negative; for their organs, official and unofficial, regard the -utmost danger of the meeting as a neighbourhood of frontiers, and -not an aggression; a neighbourhood which, so far from imperilling -English interests, will be altogether to their advantage. These -gentlemen are sadly at fault, for the spirit of Russia's traditional -policy,--her steadfast clinging to the schemes before indicated, -the unbounded ambition of the House of Romanoff, the immense -accumulation of means at their disposal for the accomplishment of -their designs,--place in surer prospect the fulfilment of any aim on -which they have once bent their gaze. Russia wants India first of -all in order to set so rich a pearl in the splendid diamond of her -Asiatic possessions; a pearl, for whose attainment she has so long, -at so heavy a cost, been levelling the way through the most barren -steppes in the world; next, in order to lend the greatest possible -force to her influence over the whole world of Islam (whose greatest -and most dangerous foe she has now become), because the masters of -India have reached, in Mohamedan eyes, the non-plus-ultra of might -and greatness; and lastly, by taming the British Lion on the other -side the Hindu-Kush, to work out with greater ease her designs on -the Bosphorus, in the Mediterranean, indeed all over Europe; since -no one can now doubt that the Eastern question may be solved more -easily beyond the Hindu-Kush than on the Bosphorus: for if, at the -time of the Crimean war, when Nana Sahib's brother was fêted at -Sevastopol, Russia had held her present position on the Yaxartes, -the plans of Tzar Nicholas on Constantinople would not have been so -easily buried under the ruins of the Malakhoff. - -These far-reaching designs may not, perhaps, be the work of the next -years, nor even of the Government of the peaceful and well-disposed -Alexander; yet who can assure us that after him no Nicholas, or -no yet sterner nature than his, may succeed to the throne, who -will thwart the desire of a Taimur or a Nadir to come forth as a -thoroughly Asiatic conqueror of the world? What a Russian autocrat -can do in the present condition of Russia, in the present social -position of his subjects, who, moreover, will long continue such, -every one knows, and the statesmen of England best of all. It is, -therefore, the more remarkable, that these gentlemen should think -to put the said eventualities so easily aside, and to contest the -question of a Russian invasion of India with arguments so very -shallow. They usually bring forward the unpassable glaciers of -Hindu-Kush and the Himalayas, and the swarms of hostile nomads which -would hem in a force advancing from the north on its way southward. -They console themselves with the great distance, which would bring -an invading army to the Indian frontier tired and exhausted, while -the English troops lying by, ready to strike at their ease, and -strong in military zeal and training, awaited the shock of war with -greediness. But do these gentlemen believe that Russia, in the -event of her really cherishing these sort of views, would dispatch -her invading armies thitherwards direct from Petersburg, Moscow, -or Archangel? What end is served by the South-Siberian forts? What -by Tashkend, Khodshend, and still more afterwards, by Bokhara and -Samarkand? What, too, by the Persian-Afghan alliance? What did the -Cossacks and the Russian troops of the line do in Gunib, and in the -rugged hills of Circassia? Were they exhausted when they reached -their journey's end? And the latter station is not so much farther -from the capital on the Neva, than Peshawar is from the cities -just named! And why are we to assume that Russia would choose only -the difficult road through Balkh to Kabul, and thence through the -Khyber Pass, and none other? Without mentioning that this could have -been so fatal to the English army of 1839, which fled in affright -and disorder, for the march thither cost no especial sacrifices; -the road through Herat and Kandahar, the proper caravan-course to -India through the Bolan Pass, is far more convenient. The latter, -fifty-four or five English miles in length, did indeed cost the -Bengal corps of the army of the Indus many days' toil; and yet we -read in a trustworthy English author that the passage of 24-pounder -howitzers and 18-pounder guns caused no particular trouble. Or -why should the Russians not force the Gomul or the Gulari Pass, -called also the middle road from Hindostan to Khorassan, which, -according to Burnes, serves the Lohani Afghans as their main road of -communication, and offers no especial difficulties? - -It is too hard, indeed, to scatter the sanguine views of the English -optimists with regard to the strength of their fancied bulwarks. -The way through Kabul would have to be taken only in case of -necessity; for the chief points by which Russia could quite easily -approach the Indian frontiers are Djhissag and Astrabad; from the -former in a southerly, from the latter in an easterly direction. -Both roads have often led armies, time out of mind, to the goal of -their desires; for both, though bordered by large deserts, pass -through well-peopled, even fertile districts, which can support many -thousands of marching men with ease. - -Indeed, even the chances of an eventual war are greatly -over-estimated by the English. True, that their present army in -India, numbering 70,000 picked British troops besides the strong -contingent of sepoys, is not to be compared with any of their former -fighting forces in those regions. To throw as strong a muster across -Afghanistan into the Punjaub, would certainly cost Russia some -trouble. Still we must not forget how stout a support an invading -army would find in a Persian-Afghan alliance, and in the great -discontent which prevails in the Punjaub, in Kashmir, in Bhotan, -and among the fanatic Mohamedans of India. The ever-broadening -network of Indian railways may do much to hasten and promote a -concentration; but the fountain-head of military support for India -being on the Thames or the islands of the Mediterranean, is not -much nearer than that of the Russians, especially if we consider -that more than three hundred vessels sailing down the Volga make -the transport to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea considerably -easier. By this road may a large army be brought in a short time to -Herat and Kandahar through the populous part of northern Persia; on -the one hand through Astrabad, Bujnurd, and Kabushan; on the other, -by the railway as yet only projected to Eneshed. This railroad the -Tzar wants to build for the relief of the pilgrimage to the tomb -of Imam Rizah; yet through all the Russian promises of subsidies -there gleam forth other and non-religious plans. Or would people in -England, besides the no longer doubtful possibility of a Russian -design upon India, measure the political constellations which the -said power has called into being on her behalf, in the field of -European diplomacy? The Russian-French alliance of a Napoleon I. -and an Alexander I., which left noticeable traces in Teheran, would -now be much easier to enter on than before, owing to the dominant -influence of France in Egypt and Syria, through the commencement of -the Suez Canal. And these things apart, will not the ever-increasing -_entente cordiale_ between Washington and St. Petersburg prove of -signal advantage for Russia's purposes? People scoff at the way in -which the Yankee cap entwines itself with the Russian knout; and -yet the banquets on the Neva, at which American brotherhood was -vigorously toasted, the journey of the Tzarovitch to New York, the -mighty show made by America in China and Japan, where she threatens -to turn the calm face of ocean into an American lake;--do not these -things furnish ample reason for discerning in the alliance between -Russia and America symptoms of the greatest danger for English -interests? Indeed, when the decisive moment comes for acting, -Russia will be able to avail herself of many ways and many means, -which, however little worthy of notice they may seem to English -statesmen, will be carefully pre-arranged without any noise. - -Nevertheless, we are willing to allow that the actual shock will -follow only in some very distant future. Gladly, too, will we bear -to be pointed at as a false prophet. But how is it that English -statesmen will proclaim as harmless the more and more manifest -advance of their northern rival; how disguise and palliate the -mischievous menace of that rival's aims? - -The body of English politicians friendly to Russia is wont, -whenever this question comes up for discussion, to reply that the -neighbourhood of a well-ordered State is more acceptable to them, -than several wild nomad tribes living in anarchy and plunder. -An Englishman once asked me, whether I would not prefer to sit -beside an elegantly-dressed fine gentleman, instead of a dirty and -uncouth boor. People may wish success with all their might to a -Muscovite neighbour; yet to me it is not at all clear, why those -gentlemen should wish for the neighbourhood of a sly and powerful -adversary in the room of an unpolished but essentially-powerless -foe. What happened once in America, in the north of Africa, and -even on Indian ground, between rising England on the one hand, -and waning Holland and Portugal on the other, has often been and -will yet often be repeated in the pages of history. As in ordinary -life two strong, selfish individuals, will but rarely thrive in -one same path; so does the same impossibility exist in the case -of two States;--a fact, of which the long war between France and -England for the superiority in India furnishes the best proof. -Even if she followed the best aims, how could Russia, backed as -she is by the gigantic power of the whole Asiatic continent;--she, -whose policy for the last hundred years, has led her through desert -regions with a perseverance so great, at a cost so lavish,--refuse -a hearing at once to her own designs and to the insinuations of her -abettors? Will she have sufficient self-control to forbear from -profiting by the happy occasion which plays into her hands the -Mohamedan population of India, more than thirty millions strong? The -last-named, being the most fanatical of all who profess Islam, are -filled with unspeakable hatred of the British rule. Their religious -zeal, fostered on one side by Bokhara, on the other by the Wahabies, -goes so far, that, in order to drain the cup of martyrdom, they -often murder a British officer walking harmlessly about the bazaar, -and even give themselves up to the headsman's axe.[61] In India, -where religious enthusiasm has ever found a most fruitful soil, -Islam has revealed itself in the oddest forms. The brotherhoods -introduced in the days of the Taimurides, are there more powerful -and important than elsewhere; and not Scoat alone, but every place -has an Akhond of its own to show, whose summons to a crusade would -be followed by thousands. In spite of the manifold blessings which -English rule has secured to the Mohamedans, it is they alone who -form the nest of revolutions; they alone who gave most support to -the rebellion in its last disorders; they alone who take chief -delight in conspiring for a Russian occupation, and proclaim in all -directions the advantages of Muscovite rule. - - [61] Query--Hangman's halter? (Trans.) - -Should we not also take this occasion to think of the Armenians, -who, scattered through Persia and India, form single links of the -chain wherewith the court of St. Petersburg conducts the electric -stream of its influence from the Neva to the Ganges; aye, even to -the shores of Java and Sumatra? The hard-working, wealthy Armenians, -who in their religious sentiments are inclined to be more catholic -than the Papist, more Russian, more orthodox than the Tzar himself, -will assuredly not recommend the Protestant church and Protestant -power to the natives of India, to the injury of supremely Christian -Russia. How many zealous subjects of British rule in Calcutta, -Bombay, and Madras, are not enrolled at Petersburg as yet more -zealous promoters of Russian interests! Every member of this church -in Asia is to be regarded as a secret agent of Muscovite policy; and -if the moment came for a decision, the English would be amazed to -see what kind of chrysalis emerged from this religious, moral, free -and industrious people. - -How, then, can England look on with indifference, to say nothing of -her desire to have as neighbour a great and certainly unfriendly -power, in a land where such inflammable elements are to be found? -Trade will spring up, I hear from all sides; yet, to all seeming, -the prospect of the commercial advantages, which British statesmen -behold in Russia's oncoming, and in the removal of anarchical -conditions in Central Asia, rests rather on a pretended hope than on -true conviction. Is it not strange, that a people, so practical in -its ways of thinking as the English, should for one moment entertain -the hope that some profit would arise for England out of the plans -which Russia has followed up for years with toil, and expense, and -self-sacrifice; that English goods will get the upper hand in the -markets of Central Asia, as soon as they have passed under the -Russian rule? Henry Davies, in his commercial report, may point to -the considerable figures which the export trade through Peshawar, -Karachie, and Ladak, to Central Asia, has to show; and yet he must -allow that this would be ten times larger, were it supported by -English influence beyond the frontier of northern India. And in -the same proportion will it diminish, in which the Russian eagle -spreads out his wings over those regions. To Lord William Hay's plan -for laying down a commercial road through Ladak, Yarkend, Issiköl, -and Semipalatinsk, the Petersburg cabinet has given its seeming -assent; yet, in fact, nobody wanted to support the plan, nor will -it occur to any Russian statesman to carry it out. The Chinese are -far superior not only to the Russians, but even to the English, -in mercantile zeal; and yet they trade along the great commercial -road from Pekin through South Siberia only to Maimatshin, while -from Kiachta the Chinese exports are forwarded, mainly through -Russian hands, to Petersburg and Europe. And how fared the Italian -silk merchants, who, under Russian protection, found their way to -Bokhara, but were there arrested and robbed of their goods and -possessions? One of them, Gavazzi, lets us feel very forcibly -in his report, that he could never place full faith in Russian -letters commendatory, in spite of all after applications from St. -Petersburg. The products of English manufacturing towns are wont -to drive Russian manufactures out of every market. The merchants -of Khiva and Bokhara still carry with them Russian articles from -Nijni-Novgorod and Orenburg, which they sell to Central Asiatics -under the name of _Ingilis mali_, or English wares; such being -always in most demand among the latter. People in England forget -that plain dealing will for some time yet be wanting to Russian -policy, and that, on the commercial roads which its arms have -opened out, it will throw, of a certainty, in the way of foreign -interests, obstacles of a like nature, if not indeed the same, as -one now meets with from Afghan rapacity, from OEzbeg lawlessness, -on the commercial roads to the Oxus. In the year 1864-5 America -alone disposed of more than fifteen million pounds' worth of linen -and cotton goods, which was naturally possible only under the free -institutions of England. Do the gentlemen in Calcutta expect any -similar dealings with the Russians? - -Ephemeral, alas! are the calculations formed by people in England on -behalf of Russia's future policy with reference to India. Just as -the fabric of security which the statesmen of Downing Street are now -building within their brains, can soon be shattered to the ground; -so the arguments for a future _entente cordiale_ are but slight -indeed. Instead of a bootless refutation, we would rather point out -former mistakes, would rather touch on the means by which the danger -of a direct collision,--that most perilous of all games for English -interests,--may yet be avoided. - - -4. RUSSIAN GAINS AND THE DISADVANTAGES OF ENGLISH POLICY. - -In order thoroughly to understand the misconceptions of English -politicians concerning their Russian rivals, it is necessary for us -to consider all the advantages which the latter always enjoyed, and -still enjoy, on the field of action. In Europe, we are wont to look -with amazement on Russia's gigantic empire in Asia; and yet nobody -thinks of the means which have rendered essential service towards -the acquisition of it. The Russians are Asiatics, not so much in -consequence of their descent as of their geographical position and -their social relations; and it is only because with the Asiatic -_laisser-aller_ they combine the steadfastness and resolution of -Europeans, that they have mostly been a match for the Asiatic -races. In their contact with Chinese, Tartars, Persians, Circassians -and Turks, they have always shown themselves as Chinese, Tartar, -Persian, and so forth, according to circumstances. An English -historian says, pretty correctly, if not without ill-will, that the -Russians moved forward like a tiger. "At first, creeping cautiously -and gliding stealthily through the dust, until the favourable -moment admits of its taking the fatal spring. With smiles of peace -and friendship, with soft smooth words on their emissaries' part, -have they often averted every fear, every precaution, until the -certain success of their schemes made all fears profitless, and -baffled every precaution. Blind, therefore, and ill-advised must -every government be, which can go to sleep over Russian advances -towards its frontiers, be those never so slow, or the interval -between the conqueror and the goal of his endeavours be never so -great!" As Asiatics, they are wont to hold out less rudely against -their neighbours in manners, customs, and modes of thought, than -the English, for whom, on account of their higher culture, such a -renunciation would be a great sacrifice, incompatible with their -efforts after civilisation. They seldom offend against the national -ways of thinking, and easily conform to them when their interests -require it. In England the Government has hitherto disdained to -place itself in direct correspondence with the Ameer of Bokhara, for -what the chief city in Zarif-Khan obtained up to this date from the -British cabinet was always enjoyed through the Governor-General -of India. In Russia they think differently; and even the haughty -Nicholas, that stern autocrat, who long shrank from calling the -French emperor "mon frère," behaves, in presence of the Tartar -princes of Central Asia, not as Emperor of all the Russias, but as a -Khan on the Neva. As a result of such procedure, we find the nations -all along the Russian frontier of Asia, whether nomad or settled, -Boodhist or Mohamedan, in such a state of intimacy at this moment, -if not of actual friendship, with the Russians, as happens nowhere -else in the foreign possessions of a European power. - -These advantages, however, of Asiatic modes of thought, which might -properly be specified as excessive slyness and craftiness, are, -even in political intercourse, far more profitable than the open -and upright language employed on principle by Englishmen from of -old. It is only Great Britain's foes in Europe, only the enviers of -her power, who can find fault with the English in India; and yet -whoever is sufficiently informed as to their political dealings with -native princes and neighbours on the border, whoever is thoroughly -conversant with Asiatic character, will, in the utter absence of -this very defect, discover the one great fault of English statesmen. - -From the largest province on the Amoor, to the smallest of the -possessions latest won by Russia on Asiatic ground, may we always -find one same procedure of intrigues and wiles,--a scattering of -the seeds of discord, bribery and corruption, through the vilest -means,--all serving as forerunners of invasion. Men come first -through commercial relations in contact with foreign elements; then -the slightest differences come to be readily employed as _casus -belli_; failing these, the ground will be undermined by emissaries, -the chiefs bribed by presents, or bemuddled with lavish draughts -of vodki (Russian brandy), and drawn on into the dangerous magic -circle. A well-founded cause of war and of invasion would nowhere be -easy to discover; and certainly the gigantic empire of the House of -Romanoff has been builded up more through the wiles of its Asiatic -statesmen than by the might of its arms. Moreover, in consequence -of the qualities lately named, Russia is more conversant with the -relations of Asiatic peoples, far better informed of all that is -passing in the border-states, than the English and other Europeans. -To the great watchfulness of her emissaries, to the unwearied zeal -of her diplomatists, is she indebted for the fact that her cabinet -is often more quickly and fully informed of the most private -doings of her neighbours, than the particular native government -itself. Passing over the fact that, in Petersburg, a company of -the cleverest men can make money out of their experiences through -the different parts of Asia, there is here and there a Kirghis, -a Buryat, a Circassian, or a Mongol, who, after being trained in -Russian learning and modes of thought, becomes a most serviceable -tool against the wholly or half-subjected land of his birth. - -In England we meet everywhere with the sharpest contrasts. - -Whoever is aware of the great ignorance of public opinion in England -about events in India, about the relations between those great -possessions and the neighbouring States; whoever in the course -of a year has noted down those absurd and ridiculous news, those -telegraphic despatches in the English papers, which reach Europe and -England through Bombay and Calcutta; whoever is aware of the very -small number of English statesmen who are so carefully informed on -Asiatic relations, that they can pass a sound judgement on questions -of Eastern policy;--such a one must surely be amazed at the way in -which Great Britain founded her foreign possessions, to say nothing -of her being able to hold them until now. - -And just as even those among the English public who have lived any -time in India have kept aloof from the natives, in accordance with -their national character, and are but seldom conversant with their -language and manners,--so, too, can the English Government entrust -to naturalized Levantines, and not to Englishmen, the Dragomanate, -that necessary organ of mutual intercourse, in such important -embassies as that, for instance, of Constantinople. While Russia, -France and Austria, have long had Oriental academies for diplomatic -beginners; in England, with her rich dower of colleges, schools, and -universities, no one has ever thought of such an institution. And so -again in the legislative body as well as in the ministry, where the -smallest questions often have a special advocate, there are but very -few men competent to discuss the important relations in Asia; and -even these, on account of the prevailing nepotism, are but seldom -allowed to turn their experiences to account. - -This indifference must surprise all foreigners. Still more amazed -will they be to hear men of the liberal party say: "What does -Asia concern us; what the swarm of barbarous races that cause us -more trouble than profit; what the wealth of India, whose income -has long ceased to cover her expenditure, to say nothing about -the costs of the conquest?" I have often heard remarks of this -kind from the most famous leaders of this party. The sincerity of -their confession defies questioning; and yet they have always left -me without an answer, when I have asked them how they would make -up for the loss of that political influence which springs from a -great colonial empire. People seem wholly to forget that a large -number of young Englishmen, of all ranks, are pursuing military -and political careers in India; they seem to be unaware how many -sons of clergymen and officers, to whom no sphere of action offers -itself within their island home, earn wealth in lucrative offices -on the Ganges and the Indus, with the view of spending at home -in a calm old age the outcome of their earlier years. They seem -to leave entirely out of their reckoning the enormous number of -merchants dwelling in their great Asiatic dominions amidst the most -extensive commercial interests, through whose hands English capital -multiplies by millions. Those liberals are very short-sighted, who -deem the possession of such a colony as India an indifferent or -superfluous matter. That they should wish to see the greatness of -their fatherland founded on the flourishing condition of inland -manufactures, and not on their dominion over foreign peoples, can no -longer be regarded as a view generally valid in England, now that -more than sixty millions pounds sterling are laid out in Indian -railway undertakings alone; for that neither manufacturing industry -nor the enterprising spirit of English merchants can succeed, to any -great extent, without the supporting hand of English rule, is amply -shown by the circumstances of British trade in Algiers, Central -Asia, and other non-British territories. - -It is faulty views like these which neutralise all the advantages -of English individualism in the presence of Russian policy, which -always acts with steadfast consistency. To these errors may be -ascribed the fact that Russia, having grown up into a powerful -rival in a space of time incredibly short, is treading so close on -the Achilles-heel of Great Britain. With the position she holds on -the Aral and the Caspian Seas, after conquering the whole of the -Caucasus, after her enormous successes in Central Asia, it would now -be useless to try and force back that giant power. What might with -no great trouble have been attained twenty years ago, it is now far -too late to attempt; but if England would avoid the usual lot of -commercial states,--the doom of Carthage, Venice, Genoa, Holland, -and Portugal,--there is but one way left to her: a policy of stern -watchfulness, a swift grasp of the measures still at her command. - - -5. ADVICE TO ENGLAND FOR THE PURPOSE OF AVERTING THE DANGER. - -To think of moving out in open hostility to the growing power of -Russia, were now, on England's part, just as great an error as the -strange inaction she has displayed for the last twenty-five years -amidst all the occurrences beyond the Hindu-Kush. Russia will -establish herself on the right bank of the Oxus, will absorb the -three Khanats, and perhaps Chinese Tartary, will make everything -OEzbeg to acknowledge her supremacy. That can no longer be -prevented; but thus far and no farther should Englishmen allow their -rivals to advance. - -All that lies between the Oxus and the Indus should remain neutral -territory. Through her physical conformation, through the warlike -character of her inhabitants, and specially through their great -aptitude for diplomacy, Afghanistan would be altogether suited to -form a military and political barrier against any possible collision -between the two giants. That country would cost the conqueror, -coming whether from North or South, a tenfold harder struggle than -did the Caucasus. Besides, the possession would not for a long while -make good the material advantage of an expensive war; and although -the continual disorders that prevail in the mountain-home of the -Afghans may be of no advantage to either neighbour, still the danger -is not so great as to justify any schemes of conquest on one side or -the other. - -How, then, in case Russia continues her policy of aggression, may -England secure the neutrality of Afghanistan? What must she do to -set up with her influence there a solid barrier, without coming -forward as a conqueror? - -That is the work of a skilled diplomatic intercourse, the work of an -uninterrupted alliance, carried on by agents, who, acquainted with -the Afghan character, and eschewing English modes of thought, can -conduct themselves as Asiatics. - -The same fault which Lord Auckland committed in 1839, by his active -interference in Afghan affairs, that fault and one far greater still -did his successors prove guilty of, through their utter withdrawal -from the scene, through their strange indifference in respect of the -concerns of the neighbouring State. The English resemble a child -which, after having once burnt itself at a fire, will not for a -long time venture to draw near its warmth. The catastrophe of the -Afghan campaign, the thirty millions sterling in costs, dwell even -now, after a quarter of a century, with such fearful vividness in -the eyes of every Briton, that he trembles at the very thought of -political influence beyond the Hindu-Kush. Have we not here two -sharply-opposed extremes? First, armed to the teeth in support of -the interests of a prince so little loved as Shah Sujah; and then, -after the annexation of the Punjab, scarce willing to give one more -thought to Kabul! And why should the frontier above Peshawar be so -dangerous a barrier for every Englishman and European? If several -thousands of Kakeries, Lohanies, Gilzies, and Yusufzies, yearly -pass over the northern frontier of Hindostan,--some for mercantile -purposes, others to graze their flocks,--why should British -travellers not be allowed to venture over the Hindu-Kush, let alone -a few hours' journey beyond Peshawar? Afghan merchants drive a -flourishing trade with Mooltan, Delhi, Lahore: why, from the English -side, may not one mercantile firm or another betake itself for the -same end to Kabul? - -In truth, this state of things has always astonished me; the more -so, when I heard that the officer whom Sir John Lawrence sent to -Kabul to offer welcome to Shere Ali Khan had to be always escorted -there by a strong detachment of troops, to guard himself from the -rage of a fanatic population. This is surely a mode of proceeding -at once wrong and ridiculous, for giving Asiatics a lesson in -European magnanimity and European love of justice. England, who -has long dealt with the Asiatics after this fashion, resembles a -person trying with all his might to make a blind man comprehend -the beauty of one of Raphael's cartoons. In this respect Russia is -far more practical. She knows that such proofs of magnanimity and -humanity are only ridiculed by the Orientals; that, so far from -taking the example to themselves, they misuse those proofs for their -own special ends; and, instead of wasting moral preachings on them, -England would act shrewdly by helping herself to the same weapons, -and treating Orientals in Oriental fashion. - -At the time when the martyrs Conolly and Stoddart were pining in -cruel imprisonment, out of which they were afterwards delivered -only by the headsman's axe, there happened to be in British -territory a number of Bokharians, Khokandies, and other Central -Asiatics, by whose arrest the lot of the English officers might -have been alleviated, and their deliverance from death assured. -In such cases Russia is wont to clear herself from the dilemma by -the law of retaliation. England acts differently. She would play -the high-minded part; and what has she gained by it? When I was in -Bokhara, I heard how this very act of British generosity had missed -its mark. England, said the Bokharians, dares not awaken the wrath -of the Ameer of Bokhara: her weakness commands this moderation. - -Do the gentlemen in Calcutta imagine that the Afghans think -otherwise? No; and they likewise say: protected by the might -and greatness of Islam, our indigo and spice merchants, our -camel-hirers, can venture unharmed on British ground; whilst not one -infidel soul dares show himself among us. - -The same unpardonable weakness did the Viceroy of India show in -1857, when he was sent by Lord Canning to Peshawar to conclude, -in conjunction with Edwardes, an offensive and defensive alliance -against Persia with the then reigning Dost Mohamed Khan. At that -time the Afghans were hard pressed; they wanted arms and money: the -grey-haired Barukzie chief, attended by his sons, betrayed this -fact in every word; and yet his demands were fulfilled in every -point, without his yielding in the least to any of England's leading -claims. Four thousand stand of arms, with bayonets, sabres, pouches, -and twelve lakhs of rupees a year, were promised him, so long as -England was at war with Persia. Of this large sum they received, -even after the conclusion of peace at Paris, a considerable -instalment; and yet the chief end of the negotiations at Kabul and -Kandahar--the appointment of a permanent English representative--was -not attained. Dost Mohamed Khan avowed, as Kaye tells us in his -"History of the Sepoy War," that he would not take on himself the -responsibility of such a step; that he could not protect English -agents against Afghan fanaticism; that every step of theirs might -compromise, &c., &c. I cannot comprehend how John Lawrence, one of -the few men acquainted with Eastern character, could yield to the -endearments of the grey Afghan wolf,--how he could believe those -false apprehensions. If even Dost Mahomed could say that an English -mission might tarry in peace at Kandahar, why could it not fare as -well in Kabul? The British commissioners were greatly in the wrong -if they doubted even for a moment the supreme power of the Afghan -ruler. With a very little more persistency, the English, who then -appeared as helpers in need, might have obtained not two but several -posts of embassy. The Afghans would soon have grown used to their -presence, and the diplomatic alliance, once made easy, would have -been maintained unbroken. - -In a semi-official article, which appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ -for January, 1867, Sir John Lawrence now strives to show how hard -and vain it is to enter into diplomatic intercourse with neighbours -so wild and turbulent as those who surround India on all sides. -Still, I cannot understand why the Viceroy should not take example -from Russia, who, with the same elements on her frontier, sends -envoy after envoy, knows how to obtain for them respect and safety, -and so keeps moving forward to her wished-for goal. Why does not -England pursue, in this case, the same policy which she once began -in China, Japan, and other Asiatic countries? It seems to me that -people are less convinced of the difficulty of carrying out such a -purpose, than of the extreme remoteness of the consequent gain. Or -are these gentlemen really unaware of the permanent support thus -rearable, not only for English interests in Afghanistan, but even -for the special welfare of the Afghans themselves? - -Sir Henry Rawlinson's diplomatic bearing in Kandahar, which enabled -him so long to maintain himself there with his suite in the most -difficult position, at a period the most critical, is a splendid -proof that even the rudest Asiatics are not unmanageable. And if the -said officer could accomplish so much in the threatening attitude -of a conqueror, what might not first have been attained through -political tact and friendly persuasion? - -The tangible results of uninterrupted diplomatic intercourse would, -if we mistake not, be:-- - -1st. A greater impulse given to trade; for, as English goods have -long enjoyed a good name in Central Asia, English products, imported -direct from England, could certainly drive similar but less-prized -Russian products out of the market. At present this is naturally -not the case: at this moment, in the bazaars of Kabul, Kandahar, -Herat, and other places, there is much more sold of many Russian -articles,--such as ironware and working tools, coarse cotton and -handkerchiefs,--than of English ones; solely because the former, -owing to the lower price at which they were first saleable, are -not raised by the additional payments to so high a figure as the -English goods, whose value, originally dear, is raised twofold in -the transit. Moreover, in Bokhara, here and there in Khiva and in -Karshi, Russian traders may be found who, secure in the energy of -their government, can of course advance their own interests better -than foreign mercantile agents. In vain should we seek for a better -apostle, a better pioneer for civilisation, than trade; in vain, -for a better teacher to turn men to our own ways of thinking, than -the silent bales of goods which are carried over from Europe; and -England, apart from her commercial interests, is bound, for the ends -of humanity also, to help forward trade in Central Asia. - -2. The Afghans, who, under the name of Ingilis or Feringhi, -have hitherto been acquainted with but one armed power, one -conquest-seeking neighbour, will easily, in the peaceful garb -of diplomatic intercourse, in well-meaning counsels, accept the -teaching of a better one. In the year 1808, when the Afghans had -little fear of an English invasion, the ambassador, Mountstuart -Elphinstone, with a numerous following, whose escort amounted -to only four hundred Anglo-Indian soldiers, was well received -throughout Afghanistan, for fear and mistrust had as yet taken no -root. Down to the beginning of this century the same state of things -might be found in all parts of the Ottoman Empire. European and -enemy were deemed identical things; but now, after our embassies and -consulates have pushed themselves, spite of the Porte's reluctance, -into many places, will Osmanlis and Arabs no longer cherish the -same sort of views? They have clearer notions about the generic -term, "Feringhi," and know for certain that Russia, for instance, -feels just as friendly to the Porte as England feels inimical; that -this government has one set of plans, the other another; and so -on. Without consulates such a result could not have been attained. -And so the Afghans, until they have been brought into nearer and -peaceful intercourse with the English, will never understand what -England or Russia may do for their weal or woes; whose friendship -will render them the more or the less service. - -3. The Afghans, most warlike of all Central Asiatics, might, -with the powerful support of English counsels, easily be raised -into a military power of some importance. What the _Instructeurs -Militaires_ of their day accomplished in the army of Sultan Mahmood -and Mehemed Ali Pasha; what English officers accomplished with the -troops of Abbas Mirza,--would be as nothing in comparison with -the consequences of a similar undertaking among the Afghans; out -of whom, so far as one may judge from the military bearing and -manoeuvring of a Kabul regiment drilled by Sepoy deserters, a -regular army will very easily be formed. Such a result may also -be attained with the fortresses of Herat and Kandahar, whose -fortifications, in the event of their coming under the charge of -a second Pottinger, would certainly prove a far harder prize for -Russian besiegers than if they were given over to the warlike skill -of Afghans alone. - -4. The prime gain, however, which we look for from a permanent -agency is, that England, being accurately informed of proceedings -in Central Asia, of the military and political movements of Russia, -will no longer be exposed to the danger of finding herself suddenly -surprised on one point or another, and, through the continual -uncertainty in which she wavers touching the true state of things, -of being disabled from taking the right precautions. At this moment, -the Viceroy maintains a few Moonshies without any official character -in Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat; Moonshies, that is, scribes, and -Mohamedans, who, being among other things well paid, are engaged to -furnish occasional news. Besides these, there are also spies, or -secret emissaries, despatched in this or that direction on special -conjunctures, who roam in the disguise of a merchant or a pilgrim -through Turkestan, and furnish tidings of political events. Letting -alone the fact that I regard both the former and the latter class as -alike unfit for such an office, because they never enter in their -memorandum-books anything but bazaar-reports and the politics of the -caravan, I may, as one who has lived whole years among Orientals, -be allowed to place the very smallest faith in those people. Do -persons in Calcutta consider what Mohamedan fanaticism is; are they -aware that no amount of gold will succeed in turning one Mussulman -to the account of the Feringhie against another Mussulman? To all -appearance these emissaries and spies will display the greatest -diligence, the most reckless loyalty, the most forward zeal; and -yet in the interior of Central Asia they will fulfil the commands -of their order by squatting on the self same carpet with those -religious comrades, with whom they repair to one common mosque. -On this point British statesmen will certainly not agree with me, -though that is the very reason why they are so little acquainted -with what goes on in Central Asia,--why the absurdest stories spread -through India into Europe,--and why they can regard the affairs of -the Khanats in the light which Russian diplomacy has kindled for -them. - -Far as I am from wanting to set up as a political advice-giver, -I find that these unpretending counsels point out the only means -whereby Afghanistan's neutrality can be secured, and herself erected -into a powerful barrier against Russia's further progress in Central -Asia. In view of so weighty a question as the possession of the -East Indies is for the greatness and continuance of English power, -it were too dangerous to seek a false protection in palliative -measures. Political errors, however trifling, form in time so many -links in one unbroken chain of disasters,--a chain which, presently, -the greatest struggles, the most clear-eyed statesmanship, may -trouble themselves to break in vain. - - -6. THE GENERAL INTERESTS OF THE QUESTION. - -It still remains to answer the one further question, why we cannot -look with indifference on the danger for English interests from -Russian ascendancy, and for what special reason it is that the -decline of England's power seems to us so detrimental, that we see -in Russia's undue influence a bar to the advance of the spirit of -our age. - -The answer is very simple: Russia was, is, and long will be -Asiatic. The cheering prospect that the overgrown body of Russian -power will, according to the laws of nature, necessarily break up -hereafter into two or more sections, and the danger that threatens -us be thereby lessened, is one which we cannot for a moment -entertain. We need only fix our eyes on the character of political -life in Russia, its social circumstances, the relation of the people -towards the upper castes of the governing circle, the general -state of popular culture, and the modes of popular thought, to see -how everything there is Asiatic, aye, wildly Asiatic in tendency; -and how little, in spite of the long struggle after European -civilisation, has yet been taken in, to speak comparatively, from -what we call European or Western life. Without repeating the -well-worn adage, "Scrape a Russian and you will lay bare a Tartar," -it is none the less impossible, whether from personal experience, -or the reports of later, and to Russia most friendly travellers, to -help acknowledging how much may yet be found, on the Neva and in -other large Russian towns, of that surface civilisation which many -Asiatic governments bring successfully to bear on short-sighted -Europe. No doubt this pretence of civilisation succeeds better in -Petersburg, wielded by a government containing a strong admixture -of Christian and European elements, than in Cairo, Constantinople, -and Teheran. The Russian noble, in appearance a finished European, -thoroughly versed in our language, manners and modes of thought, -will certainly cut a better figure than the semi-European Effendi -on the Bosphorus, or the Persian Mirza. A government which draws -towards itself, at a cost so heavy, so many scientific and artistic -forces, which has lately advanced with so much zeal in founding -schools, universities, scientific associations, which hires persons -in Europe to blazon forth the progress of Russian civilisation,--can -assuredly reap for itself greater credit than the Porte or the -Persian ministry, which, engaged in upholding their weakly -existence, cannot bestow so much attention on the needful pageantry. - -No wonder, then, if to a superficial glance Russia seems more -European, more imbued with the spirit of our civilisation, and can -easily win the sympathy of those who would love her with all their -might. But if once we try impartially to lift up the outer covering -and peep into the inside of the great Russian community, what shall -we behold? - -Great, indeed, is the disenchantment that awaits us at every step, -when we seek to discover in the majority of the Russian people those -traces of progress, which ought to exist according to the statements -of Russian hirelings in the European press. The Englishman who, -in 1865, in a pamphlet called "Russia, Central Asia, and British -India," sought to indoctrinate the English public with the same -idea, and, inferring the commencement of many reforms from the -bearing of such innovations as slave emancipation, placed such a -conversion in the foreground, though even Russian writers like -Herzen and Dolgorukoff are doubtful of it, would in all likelihood -have thought very differently, if he had drawn the parallel, not -between persons of intelligence, but between the Russian people and -the Asiatics. - -On that immense frontier where Russia touches Asia, we shall -everywhere find the Russians standing on a markedly lower level of -development, and in freedom of manners far behind those Asiatic -peoples to whom we would impart the advantages of our younger -European as compared with their old Asiatic civilisation. Alexander -Michie, a traveller from Pekin to Petersburg, and so great a friend -of Russia that he calls Siberia a second Paradise, and deems the -exiled Poles enviably fortunate, cannot, however, help proclaiming -aloud the superiority of the Chinese to the Russians, wherever -he finds the two holding intercourse with each other. And this -is the case not only in Maimadshin and Kiachta, but even among -the Mussulmans. The Russian, as a northerner, will display more -energy than the Asiatic _de pur sang_; but his remarkably dirty -exterior, his drunkenness, his religion bordering on fetishism, his -servility, his crass ignorance, his coarse, unpolished manners,--are -characteristics which make him show very poorly against the supple, -courtly, keen-sighted Eastern. Just as I have heard a cultivated -Moslem Tadjik in Bokhara speak with contempt of the uncivilised -Russians, whom he set above the Kirghis only, so in all likelihood -will every Chinaman, every Persian in Transcaucasia, and every -well-educated Tartar in Kazan, say the same. What can these nations, -then, learn from Russia? - -Can her forms of government awaken any envy in Asiatic races? The -corruptibility of the placemen, their tyrannical and arbitrary -conduct under Nicholas, the mass of more than fifty million peasants -who occupied the lowest of all positions beside the caste of -placemen and nobles,--all this really is not particularly alluring -for those among whom the wildest autocratic institutions are yet -combined with patriarchal mildness. - -Yes, it is hard, not only at present, but even in the distant -future, to discover in Russia's craving for conquests the prospect -of a profitable change in the social life of the Asiatic peoples, a -change in the direction of European ideas. If we ask ourselves what -has become of the Tartars, who for more than two hundred years have -dwelt under Russian protection; what of the great number of Siberian -tribes,--such as Bashkirs, Voguls, Tzeremisses, Votjaks,--which have -been or are on the point of being absorbed into the Russian nation, -must we not everywhere regard the Russianising as the chief result? - -Russianising is naturally a step from Asia towards Europe, as the -government of an Alexander II., so far as it has gone, may even -be called a turning-point: and yet who will blame us, if to this -wearisome process, whose results seem always doubtful, we prefer -the English scheme of civilisation, which has at this moment such -splendid and surprising results to show in India, and wherever else -it deals with Asiatics? - -That the peoples of broad India, of the land which has been the -cradle and the fountain-head of that Asiatic civilisation which we -show up and fight against as unfit to live, hold very persistently -to their old usages, to their own ways of thinking, no one will -dispute; and yet how great a change has come over India, even since -the beginning of the last century! Methinks, even the worst enemies -of Great Britain will be unable to deny that the caste-system of the -Hindoos and their many inhuman customs have suffered a mighty blow -from English influence. No one can deny that these wild Asiatics, -in spite of all their stiff-necked bearing, are advancing with -wonderful strides on the path of our civilisation. We find at this -moment in India a great number of people thoroughly convinced of -the blessed influence of their conqueror: numerous schools and -institutions spread the light of the new world abroad through all -classes of the population. Not only are there many well versed in -the English tongue; they also take an active part in our scientific -discussions, are enrolled as members of learned European societies, -and sometimes even take up the pen to emulate the writers of the -West. Rajah Radakant Deb Bahádur, Maharajah Kali Krishna Bahadur, -Baboo Rayendra Lala Mitra, a good many pundits (priests), and other -learned gentlemen, may be found on the list of French, German, and -Anglo-Asiatic societies, and are known in distinguished circles -by their works. Strong in their own sense of nationality, the -Hindoos are now better acquainted with their language, history and -philosophy, than ever they were in the days of their inland princes. -Societies are formed, as in England, for the extirpation of certain -prejudices, for doing away with so many shameful habits and customs, -for the advancement of social intercourse; and if we consider how -much the reading world increases day by day, how large a circle has -been procured from among the natives for such Hindustani papers as -the _Hirkara Bengála_ ("Bengal Messenger"), the _Suheili Panjábi_ -("Punjaub Star"), the _Audh Akbar_ ("Oudh News"), _Khairkah Panjábi_ -("Punjaub Wellwisher"), and how greatly the press is rising day by -day into a powerful factor of Europeanism, we shall be obliged to -own that England's subject races stand, in respect of culture, not -only above their yoke-fellows in Russia, but even above many of the -Russians themselves. - -If to the above-named unfitness of Russia for civilising India we -superadd the important circumstance that Russia, in thus absorbing -half the world, and blending many millions of Asiatics into her -own body, presents herself in an attitude of powerful menace, not -to Great Britain only, but to all Europe as well, we shall find -this immense predominance more hurtful to our own existence than -advantageous to the leading Tartar races of Asia. Russophobia, -we are told, is a foolish crotchet; and I am willing to think so -myself. Still, if we contemplate the mighty influence of the Russian -two-headed eagle in all parts of Asia; if we reflect, that through -its position on the Hindu Kush the court of St. Petersburg will -solve, in its own favour, the Eastern question on the Bosphorus, -it is hard to feel perfect peace of mind with regard to the future -destiny of our own hemisphere. The diplomacy of to-day, which pays -more homage to fashion than to good sense, makes merry enough with -Napoleon's prophecy regarding Cossack rule in Europe. But people -forget how much may be accomplished with our present means of -communication by a power which will extend from Kamshatka to the -Danube, or perhaps to the shore of the Adriatic,--from the icy zones -of the North Sea to the burning banks of the Irawaddy. Visionary as -it may seem to many, it is in nowise impossible that some hundred -thousands of Asia's wildest horsemen may readily follow the summons -of such a power into the midmost heart of Europe. In the beginning -of this century the possibility of such an inroad, à la Djinghis -Khan and Taimur, was shown by the Don Cossacks on the banks of -the Seine. And why might this not be repeated now-a-days, with -railroads and steamers at their disposal? Our European war-science -may overcome this savage power: no member of the House of Romanoff -could long play among us the part of a Djinghis or a Taimur. Yet -a struggle of that sort, however momentary, would evolve mournful -issues; and it is now a matter of pressing need to keep off the -approach of such an event, while measures of precaution are still -within our reach. - -Apart, however, from these far-reaching calculations, can any one -doubt that England's power and greatness are of more advantage than -Russian supremacy to the general interests of Europe? England has -many foes, or perhaps we should rather call them, enviers. Certain -voices in the continental press will always, under the sway of -passion, discover in her conduct selfishness, greed, and pride. -Enthusiasts will see the blindest materialism in every move; and -yet people must be blind and carried away by prejudice, not to see -the triumphs won by English greatness, English capital, and English -endurance, for our civilisation and our scientific researches. -Is it not England alone, whose powerful flag has opened Eastern -Asia to our trade? Who else but English travellers have been -driven by a daring spirit of inquiry into the farthest regions, -in order to enrich our geographical and ethnographical knowledge; -and what happens on the Thames, what in every other town of that -ever-stirring and busy island-realm? Do those haughty spirits -who are continually finding fault with English materialism, ever -consider that these brokers, in spite of their lively interest in -trade and money-making, still render the greatest service in the -advancement of science, in the enlightenment of the world? What -country is there, in which Government gives its millions so readily -for an institution like the British Museum; where a hundred thousand -pounds is laid out with so free a hand on the mere catalogue of a -library, as lately happened in London; where Government fits out -ships and expeditions in quest of an imperilled traveller, as they -have lately done in behalf of Livingstone? - -Yes; in spite of all her faults, from which no country is free, we -must allow that England, whether in consequence of the materialism -thus strongly censured, or of the thirst for power so often laid to -her charge, anyhow stands at the top of European civilisation. For -if France and Germany furnish indispensable aid in diffusing the -light of our higher civilisation, still, the chief agent is England -alone. With her flag emerges the day-dawn of a fairer era in every -zone, in every part of the world. What the enviers of Great Britain -tell us of her tyrannical behaviour, is mainly an untruth. It is not -at the writing-table and in easy arm-chairs, but in the countries -of the Asiatic world, that these sentimental fault-finders should -inform themselves about England's influence; and if they saw how -the march of our western civilisation drives out the vices of the -old Asiatic, how it seeks to upraise the downtrodden rights of man, -and freeing millions from the absolute sway of a single tyrant, -leads them on towards a better future, then assuredly they could not -remain indifferent to England's influence in foreign lands. - -And would it not be grievous, if Muscovite ascendancy should do harm -to such a State? The strong will of a free people governs on the -Thames; on the Neva the ambition of an Asiatic dynasty, a system of -government so framed that its capacity for reform in the future -remains doubtful, while its great perniciousness in the present is -all the more assured. - -Yes; only in Russia's approach towards India, that Achilles-heel -of British interests, may we discover the infallible sign of -serious danger for England. A greater struggle than that which the -British Lion had to encounter in the south with France, for the -establishment of its power on the Ganges, it has still to look for -in the north. The first-named foe, weaker in numbers and endurance, -had but a small fleet, and a sea at that time unnavigable behind -her back, and could easily be overcome. The last-named, on the -contrary, will be supported by an unbroken chain of fortresses, -garrisons, guarded roads; her weapons are a boundless ambition, the -blind devotion of millions of subjects, and the sympathy of rude -neighbour-states. Victory over such a power will be far less easy, -and the consequences of defeat far greater. - -Be on thy guard, therefore, Britannia! For if the star of thine -ancient fortune should now begin to wane, then will that verse-- - - "The nations not so blest as thee - Must in their turn to tyrants fall, - While thou shalt flourish great and free, - The dread and envy of them all," - ---have to remain unread in the different zones. - - - LEWIS & SON, Printers, Swan Buildings, Moorgate Street, London. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's note: - -Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. -Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as -printed. - -Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where -the missing quote should be placed. - -The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of Central Asia (1868), by -Arminius Vámbéry - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA (1868) *** - -***** This file should be named 43795-8.txt or 43795-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43795/ - -Produced by Albert László and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: Sketches of Central Asia (1868) - Additional chapters on my travels, adventures, and on the - ethnology of Central Asia - -Author: Arminius Vambery - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43795] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA (1868) *** - - - - -Produced by Albert Laszlo and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - -Text enclosed by + symbols is transliterated Greek (+parasanges+). - -Small capital text has been replaced with all capitals. - - - * * * * * - - - - -SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - - - - SKETCHES - OF - CENTRAL ASIA. - - ADDITIONAL CHAPTERS - ON - MY TRAVELS, ADVENTURES, - AND ON THE - ETHNOLOGY OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - BY - ARMINIUS VAMBERY, - PROFESSOR OF ORIENTAL LANGUAGES IN THE - UNIVERSITY OF PESTH - - PHILADELPHIA: - J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. - WM. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, - PALL MALL, LONDON. - - 1868. - - [_All rights reserved._] - - - - -Lewis and Son, Printers, Swan Buildings, Moorgate Street. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -In the reviews of my "Travels in "Central Asia," which have -issued from the European and American press, I have generally -been reproached with scantiness of details and scrappiness of -treatment;--in a word, with having said much less than I could have -said about my journey from the Bosphorus to Samarkand,--so rich in -varied adventures and experiences. - -Now, I will not deny that such a charge has not been quite unfairly -levelled against me. - -While I was writing my memoirs, during the first three months of -my stay in London, after my year-long wanderings in Asia, I had -very great trouble in accustoming myself to the idea of being -firmly settled down. I always kept fancying myself bound on the -morrow to pack up and extend my travels with the caravan: hence my -irresolution and hasty procedure. Moreover, I was quite a stranger -in the domain of travelling, and deemed it my duty now to keep -something back for mere decency; anon to leave out something else, -as of inferior interest. Hence many an episode was left untouched, -many a picture remained but a feeble sketch. - -To make up for this defect--if sparingness in words be really a -defect--I have written the following pages. They contain only -supplementary papers, partly about my own adventures, partly on the -manners and rare characteristics of the Central Asiatic peoples, -linked together in no particular connection. It would naturally have -been better to offer these pages in the place of the former volume; -and yet the slightest notice of a country so little known to us as -Turkestan, which political questions will soon bring into the front -of passing questions, will always have its uses; and "meglio tardi -che mai." - - A. V. - - PESTH, - _2nd December, 1867_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - CHAPTER I. - - Dervishes and Hadjis 1 - - - CHAPTER II. - - Recollections of my Dervish Life 22 - - - CHAPTER III. - - Amongst the Turkomans 44 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - The Caravan in the Desert 62 - - - CHAPTER V. - - The Tent and its Inhabitants 75 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - The Court of Khiva 87 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - Joy and Sorrow 98 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - House, Food, and Dress 114 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - From Khiva to Kungrat and back 127 - - - CHAPTER X. - - My Tartar 150 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - The Round of Life in Bokhara 166 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - Bokhara, the Head Quarters of Mohamedanism 186 - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - The Slave Trade and Slave Life in Central Asia 205 - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - Productive Power of the Three Oasis-Countries of Turkestan 231 - - - CHAPTER XV. - - On the Ancient History of Bokhara 257 - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - Ethnographical Sketch of the Turanian and Iranian Races - of Central Asia 282 - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - Iranians 313 - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - Literature in Central Asia 339 - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - Rivalry between Russia and England in Central Asia 379 - - - - -SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -DERVISHES AND HADJIS. - - -The dervish is the veritable personification of Eastern life. -Idleness, fanaticism, and slovenliness, are the features which in -him are regarded as virtues, and which everywhere are represented -by him as such. Idleness is excused by allusion to human impotence; -fanaticism explained as enthusiasm in religion; and slovenliness -justified by the uselessness of poor mortals in struggling against -fate. If the superiority of European civilization over that of the -East was not so clearly established, I should almost be tempted to -envy a dervish, who, clad in tatters and conversing in a corner -of some ruined building, shows, by the twinkling in his eye, the -happiness he enjoys. What a serenity is depicted in that face; -what a placidity in all his actions; what a complete contrast -there is between this picture and that presented by our European -civilization! In my disguise as a dervish it was chiefly this -unnatural composure which made me nervous, and in the imitation of -which I made, of course, the greatest mistakes. I shall never forget -one day at Herat, when, after reflecting on the happiness of the -early termination of the painful mask I had been wearing for so many -months, I suddenly jumped up from my seat, and in a somewhat excited -state began to pace up and down the old ruin which gave me shelter. -A few minutes afterwards I perceived that a crowd of passers by -had collected at the door, and that I was the object of general -astonishment. Seeing my mistake, I blushingly resumed my seat. Soon -afterwards several people came up to ask me what was the matter with -me, whether I was well, &c. The good people thought I was deranged; -for, to oriental notions, a man must be out of his senses if, -without necessity or a special object in view, he suddenly leaves -his seat to pace up and down a room. - -As the dervish represents the general character, so he does the -different peoples of the East. It is true, Mahomedanism enforces -the dogma: "El Islam milleti wahidun"--all Islamites are _one_ -nation; but the origin and home of the different sects are -easily recognised. Bektashi, Mewlewi, and Rufai, are principally -natives of Turkey; because Bektash, the enthusiastic founder of -the Janissaries, Moola Djelaleddin Rumi, the great poet of the -Mesnevi, lived, and are buried in Turkey; the Kadrie and Djelali -are most frequently met with in Arabia; the Oveisy, and Nurbakhshi -Nimetullah in Persia; the Khilali and Zahibi in India; and the -Nakishbendi and Sofi Islam in Central Asia.[1] The members of the -different fraternities are bound together by very close ties; -apprentices (Murid) and assistants (Khalfa) have to yield implicit -obedience to the chief (Pir), who has an unlimited power over -the life and property of his brethren. But these fraternities do -not in the least trouble themselves about secret political or -social objects, as is sometimes asserted in Europe by enthusiastic -travellers, who have even discovered Freemasons amongst the Bedouin -tribes of the Great Desert. The dervishes are the monks of Islamism; -and the spirit which created and sustains them is that of religious -fanaticism, and they differ from each other only by the manner in -which they demonstrate their enthusiasm. For instance; whilst one of -these religious orders commands constant pilgrimages to the tombs of -saints, the other lays down stringent rules for reflection on divine -infinity and the insignificance of our existence. A third compels -his votaries to occupy themselves day and night with repeating the -name of of God (Zikr) and hymns (Telkin); and it cannot surprise us -to learn that the greater number of a company which has continually -been calling out with all its might: "Ja hu! Ja hakk! La illahi -illa hu! are seized with _delirium tremens_. The orthodox call this -condition Medjzub; _i.e._, carried away by divine love, or to be -in ecstacy. A person to whom such a fortunate event happens, for -as such it is regarded, is envied by everybody; and as long as it -lasts, the sick and the maimed, and barren women, try to get in his -immediate presence, taking hold of his dress,--as touching it is -supposed to have healing powers. - - [1] Sofi Islam is a sect which originated about thirty years ago. - Its founder, a Tadjik from Belkh, was desirous of opposing the - ever-increasing influence of the Nakishbendi. In this fraternity - prevails the principle of communism and blood relationship. The Sofi - Islamites wear a cap trimmed with fur, and are most frequently met - with this side of the Oxus, as far as Herat, and also amongst the - Turkomans. - -What the dervishes are able to do during the ecstacy caused by -_Zikr_, I had once an opportunity of witnessing in Samarkand. In -Dehbid, close to the tomb of the Makhdun Aazam, one of these howling -companies had grouped themselves around the Pir (chief) of that -district. At first they contented themselves with repeating the -formula in a natural tone of voice, and almost in measured time. -The chief was lost in the deepest thought; all eyes and ears were -fixed upon him; and every motion of his hand, and every breath he -drew, was audible, and encouraged his followers to utter wilder and -louder ejaculations. At last he seemed to awake from his sleep-like -reflections, and as soon as he raised his head all the dervishes -jumped up from their seats like possessed beings. The circle was -broken, and the different members began to dance in undulating -motions; but hardly did the chief stand upon his feet than the -enthusiastic dancers became so terribly excited that I, who had -to imitate all their wild antics, became almost frightened. They -were flying about, constantly dancing, right and left, hither and -thither, some leaving the soft meadow and getting upon the rough -stones, constantly dancing, till the blood began to run freely from -their feet. Still they kept on their mad excitement, till most of -them fell fainting to the ground. - -In a country like the East, where such social relations exist, and -where we meet with such amusing extremes, the dervish or beggar, -though placed at the very bottom of the social scale, often enjoys -as much consideration as the prince who reigns over millions and -disposes of immense treasures. Man, an unresisting plaything in the -powerful hand of Fate, can, if Destiny wills it, be transported -from one extreme to the other, of which history furnishes us with -numerous instances; and as in fiction we see with pleasure the -two antipodes--the king, Shah-ue Keda, and the beggar, brought -into close propinquity--even so we often find a ragged and dirty -dervish, covered with vermin, sitting on the same carpet with a -magnificently-dressed prince, and engaged with him in familiar -conversation, nay, often drinking with him out of the same cup. -European travellers view such a _tete-a-tete_ with surprise, and -even sometimes with a feeling of amusement; but in the East it is -considered as quite natural. For, says the oriental moralist, the -king must see in the glaring contrast between him and his neighbour -the vanity of earthly splendour, and banish from his mind all -feeling of pride; while the dervish discovers beneath the pompous -dress of the prince a mere mortal man, and mindful of the vanity of -sublunary things, laughs at the farce of life. - -Though perfectly conscious of their relative position, these two -extremes exhibit, when they meet, an admirable degree of toleration -and indulgence. The dervish, who, when received in private, behaves -with the freedom and unconstraint of an intimate friend, never -forgets on public occasions that he is the poorest of the poor. The -man of rank suffers from him what to any other person would appear -insupportable. At Kerki, the governor of the province had a dervish -in his palace, who, in conformity with a precept of his order, had -the agreeable office of crying aloud uninterruptedly, from sunset -till break of day: Ya hu! ya hakk! La illa hu![2] and that with the -voice of a Stentor. As soon as darkness prevailed, and the busy hum -of public life had become silent, the melancholy and monotonous -exclamations became more and more audible, not only in the palace -itself, but to a considerable extent around it. That his devotions -disturbed many in their sleep, may be easily imagined. Nevertheless, -the governor, notwithstanding the entreaties of his own family, -did not venture to make any objection to this proceeding, and the -dervish continued his vociferations every night as long as he -sojourned in Kerki. As I lodged in the vicinity of the palace, I -enjoyed my share of this nightly concert; and as the voice of the -enthusiastic bawler became towards the approach of dawn weaker and -weaker, I was enabled to calculate from it the distance of daybreak -without stepping out of the dark cell in which I lay. - - [2] Yes, it is he! it is the righteous one! there is no God but he; - are the usual forms of prayer which occur in the Zikr. - -We may say, however, that we nowadays very seldom meet with a -dervish in the strict sense of the word; that is, a man who, -renouncing from inward conviction earthly goods and worldly -comforts, is desirous only of obtaining experience of life and -devoting himself to the practice of religious duties: such a man, -in a word, as the poet Saadi is represented to have been. Those who -embrace this vocation are either unprincipled and lazy fellows, -or professed beggars, who, under the cloak of poverty, collect -treasures, and when they are sufficiently enriched often adopt some -lucrative trade. This is particularly the case in Persia. So long -as Fortune is favourable to them they lead a life of ostentatious -magnificence, and forget how transitory all is in this world. But -should he be overtaken by adversity, then he retires to some modest -corner, rails at the vain pursuits of men, and, inflated with pride, -cries out: Men dervish em; I am a dervish. - -The dervishes of India, and particularly those of Cashmere, are -throughout the East pre-eminent among their Mahometan brethren for -cunning, secret arts, forms of exorcism, &c. These fellows impose -most impudently on the credulity of the people in Persia and Central -Asia, and even men of wit and understanding sometimes fall into -their snares; for, wherever such a Cashmere dervish appears, gifted -as he generally is with a noble figure, striking features, bright -eloquent eyes, and long dark flowing hair, he is sure of success. - -The Mahometans of India and the adjoining eastern countries have -always been celebrated in the Islamite world for their supernatural -gifts. As soon as such a travelling saint arrives in a Mahometan -country, he is entreated to cure dangerous maladies, to exorcise -ghosts, or to point out where hidden treasures are buried; for, -although those arts are forbidden by the Koran, they appear -everywhere as the most zealous Mahometans. Count Gobineau, in his -work, "Trois Ans dans l'Asie," tells us of an excellent trick, which -an alchemist from Cashmere played a gold-seeking prince in Teheran. -A similar trick was played on the brother of the reigning Khan of -Khiva, who, wanting to have all his saddles and bridles converted -into gold, was cheated in a most ridiculous manner. But they are -sometimes so devoid of conscience as to rob the poorest man of his -last penny. In Teheran, a Hadji, lately arrived from Central Asia, -told me, with tears in his eyes, the following story. As, said he, -I had heard much in Meshed of the frequent robberies that occurred -on the road to Teheran, I and my companion were anxious to know -what would be the best way to conceal our little capital, which -was to defray our expenses to the holy grave of the Prophet. This -money was the savings of five hard years, and thou knowest how -difficult it is to travel without money in this land of heretics. -Next to us in the caravanserai at Meshed there lodged a pious Ishan -(sheikh) from Cashmere; to him we communicated our fears, and were -delighted when he offered, by means of a certain form of prayer, -to secure our money against all attacks of robbers. He invited us -to follow him to the mosque of Iman Riza: there he bade us perform -the usual ablutions. We then placed our money in his lap, and after -he had breathed on it several times he put it with his own hands -into our purses, wrapped them up in seven sheets of paper, and -then strictly enjoined us not to open them till, on our arrival at -Teheran, we had performed our devotions three times in the mosque. -It is now six weeks since we left Meshed; and imagine our fright, -when yesterday, after the third prayer, we opened our purses and -found in them, instead of our dear ducats, nothing but heavy reddish -sand. The poor fellows uttered bitter complaints and seemed almost -to have lost their wits. The cunning rogue from Cashmere had, while -pronouncing the blessing, changed the money without being perceived -by the simple Tartars, who continued their journey to Teheran in the -perfect persuasion of the efficacy of the ceremony,--a persuasion -which they now found had cost them dear. - -It is the same with dervishism as with all the other oriental -institutions, customs and manners; the more we penetrate towards the -East, the greater is the purity with which they have been preserved. -In Persia the dervishes play a much more important part than in -Turkey; and in Central Asia, isolated as it has been from the rest -of the world for centuries, this fraternity is still in full vigour, -and exercises a great influence upon society. In my "Travels," I -have frequently alluded to the position occupied by the _Ishan_ -or secular priests in Central Asia. Their influence may be called -a fortunate one, contrasted with the fearful tyranny existing in -those countries. This is the reason why every one occupies himself -with religion; every one tries to pass himself off as a worker of -miracles (Ehli Keramet); or, if he fails in that, he endeavours -to be recognised as a saint (veli ullah ....) Those who make the -interpretation of the sacred writings their business are great -rivals of the _Ishans_, who, by the mysticism by which they surround -themselves, enjoy a large share of popular esteem. The native of -Central Asia, like the wildest child of Arabia, is more easily -imposed upon by magic formulas and similar hocus-pocus than by -books. He may dispense with the services of a Mollah, but he cannot -do without a _Ishan_, whose blessing (_fatiha_) or breath (_nefes_) -is required when he sets out on one of his predatory expeditions, -and upon which he looks as a talismanic power, when moving about his -herds, his tent, or the wilds of the desert. - -After the Ishans, the most interesting class are the mendicant -dervishes (_Kalenter_),[3] which the Kirguese and Turkomans call -Kuddush[4] or Divani (insane). In the whole of the great deserts -which stretch from the eastern boundaries of China to the Caspian -Sea, it is only these people, in their ragged dress, who are able -to move unmolested. They do not take any notice of the differences -of tribe or family, and the mighty words, _Yaghi_ or _Il_ (friend -or enemy) have to them no meaning. In travelling along they join -whomsoever they meet, be it a peaceful caravan or band of _robbers_. -The dervishes who travel through Kirguese or Turkoman steppes are -generally this class of people, who form a strong inclination to -do nothing, follow a trade which throughout the East is considered -respectable, viz., that of a mendicant. All they have to acquire -is a few prayers and a certain power of mimicry, with which the -chiromantic feats are performed; and I have never seen a nomad who -has not been moved when he found himself in the close presence of -one of those long-haired, bare-headed, and bare-footed dervishes, -who, with his fiery eyes, stared hard at the son of the desert, and -whilst shaking his Keshkul[5] howled a wild "_Ja hu!_" - - [3] Kalentor is a corruption of the old Persian Kelanter the - greater. In eastern Persia the title is still given to the judges of - villages. - - [4] Kuddus is derived from Kud, to become mad. Thus, the Arabs call - the dervishes Medjnun, _i.e._, insane. - - [5] Keshkul is a vessel formed of half a cocoa nut,--the _vade - mecum_ of the dervishes,--in which he plunges all the food he has - collected by begging, whether dry or fluid, sweet or sour. Such a - dish of _tutti frutti_ would but ill suit our gastronomers; and yet - how delicious it tasted to me after a long day's march. - -The arrival of one of these fakirs in a lonely group of tents -is regarded as a joyful event, or almost a festival; it is of -especial importance in the eyes of the women; and the time of his -arrival is differently interpreted. Early in the morning signifies -the happy birth of a camel or a horse; at noon a quarrel between -husband and wife; and in the evening a good prospect of marriage to -the marriageable daughters. The dervish is generally taken in hand -by the women, and is well supplied with the best things the tent -contains, in hopes that he may be tempted to produce from beneath -his battered dress some glass beads, or other talisman. Alms, which -amongst the nomads seldom consist of money, are rarely denied him; -and he often receives an old carpet, a few handfuls of camel hair or -wool, or an old garment. He may also stop with the family for days, -and move about with it without his presence becoming a burden. If -the dervish possesses musical talent, _i.e._, able to sing a few -songs and accompany himself on the two stringed instrument called -dutara, he is made much of, and has the greatest difficulty in -getting away from the hospitable host. - -It is very seldom that dervishes are insulted or ill-treated; -this, however, is said to be the case amongst the Turkomans, whose -rapacity knows no bounds, and prompts them to commit incredible acts -of cruelty. A dervish from Bokhara, of robust figure and dark curly -hair, whom I met at Maymene, told me that a Tekke-Turkoman, prompted -by the thirty ducats which his athletic figure promised to fetch -in the slave market, made him a prisoner to sell him a few days -afterwards. "I pretended," my colleague continued, "to be quite -unconcerned, and repeated the _Zikr_ whilst shaking my iron chains. -The time was fast approaching when I was to be taken to the market, -when suddenly the wife of the robber of my liberty and person was -taken ill, and prevented him from starting. He seemed to see in -this the finger of God, and began to be pensive, when his favourite -horse, refusing to eat his food, showed signs of illness." This was -enough. The robber was so frightened that he removed the chains of -his prisoner, and returned to him the things he had robbed him of, -begging him to leave his tent as soon as possible. Whilst a Turkoman -impatiently awaited the departure of the ominous beggar, the latter -fumbled about his dress, and pretended that he had lost a comb which -his chief had given him as a talisman on the road, and without which -he could not go a single step. The nomad returned in great haste to -the place where the plunder had been kept, and as the comb did not -turn up he became still more frightened, and promised the dervish -the price of twenty combs if he would only take a single step beyond -the boundary of his tent. The cunning bush-rite saw he was master -of the situation; he pretended to be inconsolable about the lost -property, and declared that he now would have to remain for years in -the tent. Imagine the confusion of the deceived and superstitious -robber! Like a madman he ran about asking his neighbour for advice. -Formal negotiations were now commenced with the dervish, to whom, -finally, a horse, a dress, and ten ducats were presented, to make up -for the loss of the comb, and on condition that he should leave a -tent whose proprietor will probably think twice before he ventures -again upon molesting a travelling dervish. - -Besides the dervishes who, as physicians, miracle-working saints, -or harmless vagabonds, are wandering about in Central Asia, there -is a class called "_Khanka neshin_," or convent dwellers, who -always wish to appear as the poorest, and are without doubt the -most contemptible fellows in the world. Generally speaking they are -opium eaters, who by their excessive filth, skeleton-like body, and -frightfully distorted features, present a most repulsive appearance. -The worst is that they do not confine themselves to practising this -fearful vice themselves, but with a singular persistency endeavour -to make converts amongst all classes; and, supported by the want of -spirituous drinks, they succeed but too frequently in their wicked -attempts. What surprised me most was that these wretched people were -regarded as eminently religious, of whom it was thought that from -their love to God and the Prophet they had become mad, and stupefied -themselves in order that in their excited state they might be nearer -the Beings whom they loved so well. - -Speaking of dervishes we may mention a class of hypocrites who, -under the pretence of carrying out sacred vows, indulge in their -desire to travel, and after their return assume, under the title -of Hadji (Pilgrims) authority and a good social position. The Koran -says, "_Hidji ala beiti min isti Itaatun sebila_"--Wander to my -house (_Kaaba_) if circumstances permit. These "circumstances" are -reduced to the following seven conditions by the commentators. The -pilgrimage must be undertaken, 1st,--With sufficient money for -travelling expenses; 2nd,--In bodily health; 3rd,--In an unmarried -state; 4th,--Without leaving debts behind; 5th,--In times of peace; -6th,--Overland and without danger; and, 7th,--By persons who have -reached the age of puberty. That our good Tartars ill-observe these -conditions will be evident to all who have some idea about the -countries situated between Oxus and Yaxartes. In Persia people go to -Kerbela, Meshed or Mekka, only when sufficient funds enable them to -do it comfortably. In Central Asia, on the contrary, it is always -the poorest class who undertakes pilgrimages. A certain taste for -adventure, coupled with religious enthusiasm, are the two motives -which prompt the inhabitants of Central Asia to start from the -remote east for the tomb of their Prophet. True, they do not suffer -any material losses, for a beggar's bag is a money bag; but they -frequently lose what is most precious to them--their life; as every -year at least one-third of the pilgrims from Turkestan die from -exposure to the climate. - -This sacred or profane desire to travel braves all danger; this -vague thought of tearing himself away from his family, and friends, -and countrymen, to see the wide world, surrounds the Hadji with a -certain poetry. I have lived weeks with my companions, and yet it -always interested me to behold them, palm staff in hand, as a sacred -memento of Arabia, vigorously making their way through the deep sand -or mud. They were returning happily to their homes; but how many -did I meet who only commenced their long and tedious journey? and -yet they were equally happy. On my road from Samarkand to Teheran -I had as a companion a native of Chinese Tartary, who, in total -ignorance of the route he had to take, asked me every evening, even -when we were yet at Meshed, whether we should see to-morrow, or at -the farthest after to-morrow, the minarets of Mekka. The poor fellow -had no idea how much he would have to endure before he reached -his destination. However, this should not surprise us when we -remember that during the time of the crusades so many honest Teutons -undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and after two or three -days' journey hoped to behold the walls of Jerusalem.[6] - - [6] See Noesselt's "Geschichte fuer Tochter schulen," who also states - that many pilgrims, ignorant of the road, allowed themselves to be - led by a frightened goose which ran before them. - -The routes to Arabia adopted by the pious Tartars are the following, -viz.:--1. Yarkend, Kilian, Tibet, Kashmir.[7] 2. Through Southern -Siberia, Kazan and Constantinople. 3. Through Afghanistan and -India to Djedda. 4. Through Persia, Bagdad, and Damascus. None of -these routes is a comfortable one, and the amount of danger to be -incurred is very much dependent upon the season of the year and -the political state of the countries through which they pass. The -travellers form themselves in larger or smaller companies, and -elect a chief (_Tchaush_) from amongst themselves, who also fills -amongst them the office of _Imam_, (the person who first says the -prayers to be repeated by the rest,) and who enjoys a considerable -superiority over his companions. A visit to the Kaaba and the tomb -of the Prophet (which may be paid at any season) is not so much the -culminating point of the whole pilgrimage as the ascent of Mount -Arafat. This can be made only once a year, viz., on the Kurban -festival, (10th Zil Hidje,) which is nothing more or less than -the sacrifice of Abraham and Isaac dramatized. All those who have -taken part in this festival and have joined in the cry, "Lebeik -Allah!"--Command, Oh God," (in allusion to Abraham's implicit -obedience,) are regarded as genuine Hadjis. This cry of "Lebeik! -Lebeik!" uttered at the most solemn moment of the whole pilgrimage, -seems also to have the deepest impression upon the pilgrim himself. -My travelling companions, whenever they became excited or were in -a happy mood of mind, always alluded to it; and the stillness of -the Tartar deserts was often broken by this _memento_ of the stony -districts of Arabia. - - [7] From Yarkend to Kilian on the boundary line are three days' - journey, from there, by way of Tagarma and Kadun, to Tibet, twenty - days, and thence to Kashmir fifteen days. - -However painful and heartrending separation from home may be when -so long and dangerous a journey has to be undertaken, the joy which -the Hadjis experienced on their return fully counterbalances it. -Friends and relations, informed of his near arrival, go out to meet -them several days in advance. Hymns are sung, and tears of joy are -shed when the Hadji makes his entry into his native place. Every -one wants to embrace him, to touch him, for the atmosphere of holy -places still surrounds him, the dust of Mekka and Medina still -covers his garments. In Central Asia the Hadji is held in much -greater esteem than in any other Mohammedan country. It has cost -him much to obtain his dignity, but he is amply repaid. Respected -and supported by his fellow citizens he is better protected against -the tyranny of the Government than any other citizen. The title of -a "Hadji" is a patent of nobility, which, during his lifetime, he -parades on his seal, after death on his tombstone. - -The Hadjis, of course such as are not mere beggars, often transact, -during their pious pilgrimage, a little commercial business. "_Hem -tidjared hem ziaret._"--"Commerce and pilgrimage together" are not -allowed by their religion; but nobody seems to suffer any pricks of -conscience in taking to his co-religionist in Arabia a few articles -from distant Turkomania. The products of Bokhara and other holy -places of Central Asia are in high esteem amongst the people of -Arabia; besides, every one wishes to show a Hadji some favour, and -is easily induced to pay double the value for any article offered. -This small trade is carried on between the easternmost point of -Islamitic Asia to the Galata bridge of Constantinople. Amongst the -crowd of that famous capital one often sees a Tartar, whose features -contrast as strangely with the rest of the population as the -colours of the thin silk kerchief differ from those of our European -manufacture. Fine ladies seldom become purchasers of such articles, -but old matrons are frequently seen, inspired by feelings of piety, -paying a good price for them, pressing them repeatedly to their -faces and forehead while repeating a loud "_Allahum u Sella_," and -continuing their walk. - -That the successful sale of the exported articles leads to the -importation of similar merchandize needs no confirmation. No Hadji -leaves the holy places without making some purchases. At Mekka -he lays in a stock of scents, dates, rosaries and combs, but -especially water from the sacred well called Zemzem.[8] In Jamba -and Djedda are bought European goods; these go by the name of -Mali Istambul--"Stamboul Goods;" as the unbelieving Franks must -not obtain credit for anything, and they consist of penknives, -scissors, needles, thimbles, &c. Aleppo and Damascus enjoy the -reputation of supplying the best misvak, a fibrous root, used as -tooth brushes by all pious Moslems. In Bagdad are bought a hirka, -made of camel's hair, and of superior quality at this place, as it -is this kind of garment which the Prophet is said to have worn next -his skin. Finally, in Persia, ink, powder and pens made of canes are -purchased. In Central Asia all these articles are great curiosities, -and they are paid for handsomely, partly from necessity, partly from -religious motives. - - [8] Zemzem is the name of a famous well on the road, of miraculous - power, the water of which is exported in small vessels to all - Islamite countries, as a single drop of it taken just at the moment - of death frees from 500 years of purgatory. The origin of the well - is ascribed to Ismail, who, after being left behind by Hagar, - stamped his little foot and made the well spring up. - -Generally speaking a caravan of Hadjis, I mean one whose character -has been well inquired into, are the best travelling companions -one can have in Central Asia, or rather in the whole of the east, -provided one can manage to agree with them. With regard to the -travelling necessaries the Hadji is well supplied, and it was -always surprising to me to see how a man who had only one poor -donkey he could call his own, could make a display of a separate -tea-service[9] (a la Tartar,) Pilou-apparatus, and carpet when -arrived at the station at which we halted. Nobody is more clever -than a Hadji in negotiating, be the people he has to deal with -believers or unbelievers, nomads or agricultural tribes. A Hadji -may be converted into anything, he being thoroughly penetrated by -the principle "_Si fueris Romae_." Instead of being cast down and -gloomy, as his ragged exterior would lead us to suppose, he is of a -merry disposition, and during the long marches the greatest saint -and miracle-worker occasionally indulges in a profane joke. The -comicality of these generally serious faces has often made me forget -the privations which I was myself undergoing. - - [9] The tea service consists of a can-like vessel made of copper, - and is, next to the Koran, the most indispensable _vade mecum_ - of every travelling Tartar. Even the poorest beggar carries it, - suspended by the handle, about with him. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -RECOLLECTIONS OF MY DERVISH LIFE. - - -On the evening of the 27th of March, 1863, my excellent friend, the -Turkish ambassador in Teheran, gave me a farewell supper, at which -all declared--to inspire me, of course with fear, and divert me -from my adventurous undertaking,--that I was for the last time in -my life to enjoy European food in the European manner. The handsome -dining room at the residence of the ambassador was brilliantly -lighted, the choicest viands were served, and the choicest wines -handed round; for the intention was clear,--to give me a strong dose -of reminiscences of European comforts on the difficult expedition -before me. My friends were for ever scrutinizing my features, to -discover whether my outward appearance might not betray some trace -of inward excitement. But they were very much mistaken. I had -ensconced myself comfortably in the velvet arm chair, which had -been brought thither from the distant land of the Franks; the wine -had tinged my face with the same colour as the fez which covered -my head. A pious dervish and wine--what a frightful antithesis! -To-night, however, I must transgress, the penance will be a long -one, whether or no.... - -Twenty-four hours later, in the evening of the 28th of March, I -was in the midst of my company of beggars on the road to Lar, in a -half-dilapidated mud hut, called Dagaru. The rain was pouring in -torrents. We had been pretty well wetted through during our day's -march, so that all were anxious for shelter and a dry roof; and, -the space being narrow, fate brought me the very first evening into -the closest contact with my travelling companions. Their tattered -garments, never very sweet-scented, and now thoroughly soaked with -the rain, gave out the strangest evaporations; and no wonder if, -under such circumstances, I had no great desire to take my share out -of the large wooden bowl, from which the starved Hadjis, splashing -about with their fists, were eating their supper. Moreover, hunger -tormented me less than fatigue and my wet, ragged garments, to -which I was as yet unaccustomed. Rolled up like a ball, I tried to -get to sleep; but this also was impossible, packed together as we -were in such close quarters. Now I felt the hand, now the head of -one of my neighbours, falling upon me; then my opposite companion -stretched out his foot, to scratch me behind the ears. It required -the patience of Job to defend myself against these unpleasant -civilities; and yet I might have had some sleep, but for the loud -snoring of the Tartars, and above all the loud moaning of a Persian -muleteer, who was sadly troubled with the gout. - -Finding that all endeavours to close my eyes remained unsuccessful, -I rose and sat upright in the midst of this mass of people, who were -lying about in the most utter confusion. The rain kept falling, and, -as I looked out into the dark and gloomy night, my thoughts returned -to the difference in my position only twenty-four hours before, and -the sumptuous farewell supper at the splendid Turkish embassy. The -whole scene appeared to me not unlike a dramatic representation -of "King and Beggar," in which I acted the chief part. The bitter -feeling of reality, however, made little impression. I myself was -the author of this sudden metamorphosis, and I had prepared my fate -for myself. - -The hard task of self-control lasted but a few days. As far as all -outward peculiarities were concerned, I soon became familiar with -the habitual as well as physical attributes of dervishism, such as -dirt, &c. I gave my better garments, which I had brought with me -from Teheran, to a weak and sickly Hadji, an act of kindness which -gained all hearts. My new uniform consisted of a felt jacket, which -I wore next my skin without any shirt, and of a _djubbe_ (upper -garment),[10] composed of innumerable pieces of stuff, and fastened -with a cord round the loins. My feet were enveloped in rags, and -an immense turban covered my head, serving as a parasol by day and -pillow by night. I had also, in conformity with the rest of the -Hadjis, hung round me a voluminous Koran in a bag, which resembled a -cartridge pouch; and, viewing myself thus, "_en pleine parade_," I -had reason proudly to exclaim: "Yes, indeed, I am born a beggar!" - - [10] It is called _Hirkai dervishan_ (the dervish cloak), which - even those dervishes that are most comfortably off are obliged - to wear over their otherwise good garments. It is the symbol of - poverty, and is often composed of countless small pieces of new - patchwork, cut round the edge in points of unequal length; and, - while it is sewn together on the outside with thick packing thread - and large stitches, the lining often consists of silk or some other - valuable material. It is the _ne plus ultra_ of hypocrisy; but long - before the Romans the wise men of the East have said, _Mundus vult - decipi--ergo decipiatur_. - -The outer or material part of the _incognito_ was thus easily -assumed, but the moral part presented more serious difficulties -than I expected. Although I had had the opportunity, for some years -past, of studying the contrast between European and Asiatic modes -of life, and the critical position in which I found myself made it -incumbent upon me ever to be strictly on my guard, nevertheless, I -could not avoid committing many glaring mistakes. The difference -between Eastern and Western society does not consist merely in -language, physiognomy, and dress. We Europeans eat, drink, sleep, -sit, and stand, nay, I feel inclined to say, laugh, weep, sigh, -and gesticulate otherwise than Eastern people. These things are -visible trifles, but in reality difficult ones, and yet they are as -nothing when compared with the effort required to disguise one's -feelings. When travelling, people are naturally of a more eager -and excitable temperament than in everyday life, and therefore it -costs the European an unspeakable effort to conceal his curiosity, -admiration, or any kind of emotion, when brought into intercourse -with the indolent orientals, who are for ever indifferent to all -and everything around them. Besides, the object of my travelling -was merely to travel, whilst that of my friends was to reach their -distant homes. My individual person excited their interest only -during the first moments of our acquaintance, while to me they were -each a continual study; and it certainly can never have entered the -head of any one of them that, whenever we laughed and joked most -intimately together my mind would just then be doubly occupied. -No one but he who is practically acquainted with the East, can -have any idea of the difficulty of entering into all these marked -differences. I had been pretty well schooled by a four years' -residence at Constantinople; yet there I played merely the part of -an amateur, whilst here I dared not deviate even a hair's breadth -from reality. Nay, I will make no secret of the fact, that during -the first few days the struggle, though short, was severe, and that -repentance and remorse seized me at every fresh difficulty. However, -my mind, being stimulated by vanity, was in that state of excitement -when everything had to give way before the irresistible impulse of -its ardour; and, supported in its triumph by a sound constitution, -it was enabled to bear easily whatever might happen. - -I shudder even now when I think back of the fatigue I underwent -during the first few days, and how much I suffered from the wet and -cold, the uncleanliness--which makes one's hair stand on end--and -the never-ending, harassing worry with the fanatic Shiites, during -our long and tedious day-marches in Mazendran, a part of the world -of historical reputation for its bad roads. Sometimes it rained -from early in the morning until late in the evening, and, whilst -not a thread of my tattered garments remained dry, I was moreover -obliged to wade for hours knee-deep in mud. The narrow mountain-path -has become hollow by the wear of centuries, and in many places -it resembles a muddy brook, winding along between huge fragments -of pointed rock that have fallen from the heights above. It is a -sheer impossibility to remain in the saddle; and, in order to avoid -danger, the best course is to tread slowly and cautiously, sounding -the hollows with one's foot. No one will doubt that, under such -circumstances, we arrived at the station at nightfall thoroughly -exhausted and fatigued. Fire and shelter are the chief objects of -desire, for which the eye looks longingly around. They both exist -in Mazendran; but we, the Sunnitic beggars, had preferred, for the -sake of quiet, to pass the night undisturbed and far from any human -dwelling. A fire was kindled, to dry ourselves and our clothes, when -the elder of our Tartar fellow-travellers observed, that such a -proceeding would be prejudicial to health; and, indeed, they always -preferred to dry themselves in another and more singular fashion. -It is well known that, throughout the East, horse dung is dried and -then ground into powder, to serve as stabling for the horses by -night. During the day it is exposed to the sun, either spread out or -made into conical-shaped heaps; and I was not a little astonished -to see how my companions, divesting themselves entirely of their -apparel, buried their soaked bodies up to the neck in such like -_poudre de sante_. I need not add, that contact with this _poudre_, -so well known as strong and stinging, cannot be very agreeable; but -its effects are only felt during the first quarter of an hour, and I -can assert, from my subsequent personal experience, that such a bed -induces a most sweet and refreshing sleep, however it may offend the -European eye and sense of refinement. - -In spite of the drawbacks, I should have felt quite contented with -my lot had it not been that, besides these fatigues common to all, -an extra share was allotted to me, being a stranger in the company. -As such, it was my duty to affect the qualities of modesty and -devotion, to show myself not only friendly, but submissive, to all; -and to endeavour to conciliate the affection of old and young, by -professing an obliging disposition, and a readiness to perform any -kind of small service. At first these offers were declined by most -of them, since they did not wish to offend in me the character -of "efendi," having made my acquaintance as such. However, it -was my duty in no case to yield, but on the contrary, to strive -continually to make myself useful to one or the other. Besides the -minor services I performed on the march, I had to try to be helpful -to every one at the station, either by preparing tea and baking -bread, or by looking after the riding horses, or by packing and -unpacking. Some of my companions were obliging to me in return for -my attention, but others, who soon had forgotten my former position, -treated me like an old fellow-traveller. Services were demanded -and performed without the smallest ceremony; and I could not help -laughing heartily, when a Hadji from Khokand once coolly handed me -his shirt for me to free it from the many "uninvited guests," he -being fully occupied in like manner on another part of his costume. - -It was to be foreseen that in this way an _entente cordiale_ would -speedily ripen between us. The more I accommodated myself to my -present position, forgetting the past, the quicker also disappeared -the barrier between me and the other Hadjis. The society of others -exercises a powerful influence upon us, uniting as it does the -most opposite elements; and after I had lived for a whole month as -dervish, all appeared to me not only natural and endurable, but the -charm of novelty in the life around me had actually effaced Teheran, -Stamboul, and Europe, from my memory; and the continual excitement -in which I lived had produced in me a state of mind which was -extraordinary, it is true, but never disagreeable. - -One feeling alone disquieted me: this was the fear of discovery, or, -rather, of its consequences,--the terrible death of torture which -Tartar cruelty and offended Mahometan fanaticism would have invented -for my punishment. Already during the first days of my residence -with the Turkomans I became aware that, in assuming my incognito, I -was playing a dangerous game; and, but for the unlimited confidence -I placed in the fidelity of my companions, and my own preparations, -this spectre would have haunted me every moment of my existence. -During the greater part of the day, society, occupation, and events -of various interest prevented the intrusion of these suspicions; but -at night, when everything around was hushed in silence, and I sat -alone in a solitary corner of my tent, or in the waste and barren -desert, I became absorbed in thought. Fear appeared before me in its -blackest guise and most terrible aspect; nor would it leave me for a -long, long time, however much I attempted to dispel it by sophistry -or light-heartedness. Oh, this terrible Megaera! How she tormented -me, how she tortured me, at those very moments when, seeking repose, -I was about to lose myself in contemplation on the grandeur of -nature and the wonderful constitution of man. In the long struggle -between us, fear was finally subdued; but it is this very struggle, -which I now blush to remember; for it is marvellous what efforts are -required to grow familiar with the constant and visible prospect -of death, and how great the anxiety in seeing only a doubtful -foundation for the hope of one's further existence. - -No one, I am sure, will blame me for acting with precaution, nay, -at first, with scrupulous precaution; but often it degenerated into -ridiculous extremes. I was, for instance, conscious of my habit -of gesticulating with the hands when speaking,--a habit peculiar -to many Europeans, but strictly forbidden in Central Asia;--and, -fearing lest I might commit this mistake, I adopted a coercive -remedy. I pretended to suffer from pains in the arms, and strapping -them down to the body, they soon lost the habit of involuntary -movement. In like manner I seldom ventured to make a hearty meal -late in the evening, for fear of being troubled with heavy dreams, -which might cause me to speak some foreign, European language. I -laugh now at my pusillanimity, for I might have remembered that -the Tartars, being unacquainted with European languages, would not -have noticed it; and yet I rather bore in mind the words of my -companions, who observed one morning with great _naivete_, that my -snoring sounded differently from that of the Turkestanis, whereupon -another interrupted and informed him: "Yes; thus people snore in -Constantinople." - -It may be objected, that as so many of my actions might cause remark -or offence when in company with others, I must at all events have -shaken off this restraint when alone. But alas! Even then I was the -slave of precaution; and is it not striking, or rather ridiculous, -that at night, when in the boundless desert and at a considerable -distance from the caravan, I did not venture to eat the unleavened -bread, mixed up with ashes and sand, or take a draught of stinking -water without accompanying it with the customary Mahometan formula -of blessing! I might have thought to myself, no one sees you, -all around are asleep; but no! the distant sand hills appeared -to me like so many spies, who were watching whether I was saying -the Bismillah, and whether I had broken the bread in the proper -ritualistic manner. Thus it happened when in Khiva, that, when -sleeping alone in a dark cell, bolted and barred, I started up from -my couch at the call to prayer, and began the troublesome labour of -the thirteen Rikaat. When at the sixth or eighth, I had a great mind -to leave off, thinking I was safely out of sight. But no! it struck -me, that perhaps the eyes of a spy might be watching me through the -crevice in the door, and conscientiously I performed my unpleasant -duty. - -Only time, the universal panacaea, could remedy this evil. Although -my moral sufferings were considerably more painful than the physical -ones, time and habit came to my aid, and gained me here also the -victory, and after having lived happily through four months, my -mind had grown as hardened to any fear or terror as my body to dirt -and uncleanliness. The epoch of indifference succeeded, and with it -I began to feel the true charms of my adventure. I was attracted -above all by the unlimited freedom of our life as vagrants, the -total absence of trouble as to food and clothing, the gratuitous -manner in which the dervish had everything provided for him, and, -in addition, the mental superiority which he exercises over the -people at large. No wonder, then, that I lost no opportunity in -amply profiting by the advantages of my position. My companions -admitted that I possessed eminent talents for the life of a dervish, -and whenever the question rose how to get money from hard-hearted -villagers, or to beg and collect a larger store of victuals, I -was always entrusted with that part of the business. I one day -brilliantly justified the confidence thus placed in me, in an -encampment of Tchandor Turkomans. These, the wildest of all nomad -people, had the reputation of being exceedingly wicked, and Hadjis, -Tshans and Dervishes habitually avoided going near their tents. -Having been told of this I set out on my way, accompanied by three -companions who were known as famous singers, and taking with me a -goodly store of holy dust, Zemzem water, tooth-picks, combs and the -like gifts, presented by pilgrims. Some received me rather coldly, -but yet the son of the desert, however wild he may be, cannot resist -the words or the mimics of a dervish's strategy, and not only did -I receive ample presents in the shape of wheat, rice, cheese and -pieces of felt, but I succeeded in persuading one of the men to -load his own ass with this harvest, and take it to our astonished -caravan. - -Success leads to boldness. No wonder, then, that after several -successful expeditions, I assumed a demeanour in which many will -trace a certain degree of impudence. And, indeed, I can hardly -refute this accusation entirely, but how was I to have done -otherwise? No European can realize to himself what it is to stand, -a disguised Frenghi, (this word of terror to orientals,) face to -face with such a tyrant as the Khan of Khiva, and to have to bestow -upon him the customary benediction. If this man were to discover the -dangerous trick, this man with the sallow face and sinister look, -as he sits there surrounded by his satellites--such an idea is only -endurable to a mind steeled to the highest pitch of resolution. At -my first audience I appeared really with a step so firm and gesture -so bold, as if my presence were to bestow felicity upon the Khan. -All looked at me with astonishment, for submissiveness is befitting -to the pious and saints. However, they thought such was the custom -in Turkey, and I heard no remark made about it. - -Such bold measures, however, were seldom necessary, and, in its -ordinary routine, the life of a dervish has often given me moments -of the greatest happiness. Without feeling any inclination to -imitate the Russian Count D----, who, wearied of the artificial -life of Europeans, withdrew into one of the valleys of Kashmir, -turning beggar-dervish, I must confess that a peculiar feeling -of enjoyment came over me when, basking in the warm rays of the -autumnal sun, either in some ruin or other solitary spot, I could, -in true oriental manner, absorb myself in vacant reflection. It -is inexpressibly pleasurable to be rocked in the soft cradle of -oriental repose and indifference, when one is without money or -profession, free from care and excitement. To us Europeans such an -enjoyment of course can only be of very short duration, for if our -thoughts turn at such moments toward the distant, ever-active, and -stirring west, the great contrast between these two worlds must at -once strike the eye, and instinctively we feel attracted towards -the latter. European activity and Asiatic repose are the two great -subjects which occupy the mind, but we have only to cast our look -upon the ruins scattered around us to see which of the two follows -the right philosophy of life. Here everything is on the road to -ruin and servitude, there everything leads to prosperity and the -sovereignty of the world. - -These varied scenes of life, in which I moved during my incognito, -were far from being devoid of attractions, as many a prejudiced -European might imagine, although they naturally could fascinate but -for a time. I was truly frightened one day, when the Khan of Khiva -proposed to me seriously to marry and settle in Khiva, since persons -of such extensive travelling as myself were far from disagreeable -to him. The idea of spending my whole life in Turkestan, with an -OEzbeg wife for my partner, was horrible, and I should certainly -have thrown up my plans if I had been obliged to accept the offer; -but, as it is, I shall certainly never repent having spent a few -months in an adventure which ended happily. I say never, for even -the remembrance of all I experienced is indescribably sweet, and -even now, when already more than three years have elapsed since my -return, I find every circumstance as fresh in my memory, the whole -scene as near and vivid, as if I had arrived with my caravan only -last night, and were obliged to start off again on the morrow, -and load my ass for the journey; as often as I think back on my -fellow-travellers, the most pleasant feelings are re-awakened in -remembrance of that intimate and hearty friendship which existed -between us. We chatted, laughed, and bantered with each other on -our long day's march, as if we could not wish for a more enjoyable -existence; it was above all my merry humour which greatly pleased -them, and my jokes and puns afforded to them an endless source of -amusement when we were alone, for in public we all of us wore the -long, stony faces suited to the gravity of our character as holy -men. What would they say if they could see me now in the midst -of so many unbelievers, and dressed in a garment so ridiculous -in their eyes, the forked garment, as they designate European -trousers?--_me_, in whom they and the rest of the world believed to -see a true specimen of a western Mahometan Mollah! I must confess -that although the pleasant episodes of my incognito are even now -frequently the cause of cheerful moments of recollection, the sad -hours of suffering and extremity of danger loom like black clouds on -the horizon of the present. Their gloomy shadows remind me vividly -of past terrors, and even now, whenever I start up in my sleep, -haunted by oppressive dreams, it was very often His Majesty, the -Khan of Bokhara, or the frightful tortures of thirst, or a fanatic -group of Mollahs, who, hastening hither from Central Asia on the -wings of Morpheus, honoured me with a visit. How happy do I feel on -awaking, to find myself in Europe, in my dear native country, in my -peaceful home! - -I have often been in critical, nay, extremely critical situations, -but on the whole only a few episodes have left behind on me such -an impression as never will be effaced, and which, from being -associated with the most imminent danger to my life, will never be -forgotten by me as long as I live. - - -I. - -The evening in the Khalata desert, when, after having endured for -two days the torments of thirst, I felt, with the last drop of -water, my vital energies gradually ebbing away. Around me were lying -many of my fellow-travellers, suffering, probably, as acutely as -myself, to judge from their wild, haggard looks, and rigid features. -Raising my heavy head with the greatest effort, I met the glance of -those near me. They all seemed to be looking at me with expressions -of bitter resentment, for during the afternoon I had heard the old -ascetic, Kari Messud, repeat several times, "We are, alas! the -propitiatory victims for some great evil-doer who is amongst us in -our caravan." Possibly not one of them referred to me, but I felt, -nevertheless, full of anxiety. Meanwhile the hour of evening prayer -was approaching. Only a few could join in it. The sun was fast -setting, and, as the last rays lit up the unhappy group of sufferers -in that vast desert, I could not help casting a look towards -the spot, where from the horizon he sent his last beams towards -me,--that spot, which we call the west, the beloved west, which I -had little hope to live to see the next morning again; and with -unspeakable sadness I clung to the word 'west;' my half-exhausted -senses revived anew, for with the word returned the thought of -Europe, of my beloved home, my early departure from this world, the -hard struggles of my past life, the wreck of all my aspirations, of -all my pleasant hopes. My heart nearly broke with the burden of this -great sorrow; I longed to weep, but could not. This moment is one of -imperishable memory; the terror of that scene has impressed itself -indelibly on my mind, and whenever my thoughts turn towards the -Khalata desert it will rise and haunt me like a phantom. - - -II. - -The next occasion was during my audience with the emir of Bokhara, -in the palace of Samarkand. This prince, who had been represented -to me as a person of doubtful character, had been severely examining -my countenance as I sat by his side, in order to discover in me -a Frenghi in disguise. The readers of my travels are already -acquainted with a part of the conversation that took place between -us. I hoped to gain him over to our interests, but it cost me a -giant's effort not to betray by my countenance, and especially my -eyes, the excitement within me; and, although I shook and trembled -in every nerve, I was obliged to suppress even the slightest symptom -of fear. An old adept in the part I played, I effectually succeeded -in preventing a blush, or any change of colour, but I did not feel -confident about the result. Let the reader realise my position, when -the emir, after an audience of a quarter of an hour, called to him -one of his servants, cautiously whispered something in his ear, and, -motioning to me with a serious expression of countenance, ordered me -to follow his attendant. - -I rose quickly from my seat. The servant led me through room after -room, and court after court, whilst the uncertainty of my fate -filled me with alarm; and, as oppression of heart breeds none other -but images of terror, I fancied that this ominous walk was leading -me to the torture-chamber, and to that dreadful death which so often -had presented itself to my imagination. After some time we came to -a dark room, where my guide ordered me to sit down and wait for his -return. I remained standing, but in what state of mind my readers -may readily imagine. Perhaps I should have felt less terror could I -only have known what my death was to be, but this uncertainty was -like the torture of hell, and I shall never forget it as long as I -live. With a feverish impatience I counted the minutes, until the -door should open again.... A few more seconds of torture and the -servant appeared. I fixed my eyes upon him, and perceived by the -light that entered through the doorway that he did not bring with -him the dreaded instruments of the executioner, but carried under -his arm, instead, a carefully folded-up bundle. This contained -a dress of honour, presented to me by the emir, as well as the -'viaticum' for my long pilgrim road. - - -III. - -The third instance occurred to me when waiting for the arrival of -the Herat caravan on the banks of the Oxus, during the hot days -of August, in the company of the Lebab Turkomans. I dwelt in the -court of a deserted mosque, and in the evenings the Turkomans -usually brought with them one of their collections of songs or -ballads, from which I had to read to them aloud, and it gave me -especial pleasure to witness the undivided attention with which they -listened to the deeds of some popular hero, while the silence of -the night air around us was only broken by the hollow murmur of the -rolling waters of the Oxus. One evening our reading lasted till -near midnight. I felt rather tired, and, unmindful of the advice -I had often received, not to sleep in the immediate proximity of -ruined buildings, I stretched myself out beside a wall, and soon -fell sound asleep. After about an hour I was suddenly awakened -by an indescribably violent pain in my foot, and jumping up and -screaming aloud, I felt as if hundreds of poisoned needles were -shooting through my leg, and concentrating in one small point near -the big toe of my right foot. My screams awakened the eldest of -the Turkomans, who slept near me, and without questioning me, he -exclaimed, "Poor Hadji, a scorpion has bitten thee, and that during -the unlucky period of the Saratan (the dog days!) May God help -thee!" With these words he seized my foot, and bound it up round -the ancle with such violence as if he were going to cut it in two, -then searching in all haste with his lips for the wounded spot, he -sucked with such force that I felt it all through my body. Another -soon took his place, and two more bandages having been applied they -left me with these words of comfort, that, if it be the will of -Allah, between now and the hour of the next morning prayer, it would -be seen whether I should be released from pain, or freed from the -follies of this world of vanity. - -Although I felt completely maddened by the itching, pricking and -burning, which kept increasing more and more in violence, yet I -remembered the legend of the scorpions of Belkh, well known for -their venomous nature even in ancient times. The reasonable -apprehension of death rendered the pain still more unbearable, -and that, after many hours of suffering, I really did surrender -all hopes of recovery, was shown by the fact that, forgetting my -incognito, I began to pour out my lament in expressions and sounds -which, as the Tartars afterwards told me, appeared to them extremely -droll, since they are in the habit of using them when shouting for -joy. It is remarkable that the pain spread in a few minutes from the -toe to the top of the head, but only on the right side, and kept -flowing up and down me like a stream of fire. No words can describe -the torment I had to undergo the hour after midnight. Loathing any -longer to live, I was about to dash my head to pieces by beating it -upon the ground, but my companions observed my intention and tied -me fast to a tree. Thus I lay for hours, half fainting, whilst the -cold sweat of death was running down me, and my eyes turned fixedly -towards the stars. The Pleiades were gradually sinking in the west, -and whilst awaiting in perfect consciousness the voice that calls to -prayer, or rather the break of morning, a gentle sleep fell upon me, -from which I was soon roused by the monotonous la illah il Allah. - -No sooner was I fully awake when I was sensible of a faint -diminution of the pain. The pricking and burning disappeared more -and more, in the same way as it had come, and the sun had not yet -risen a lance's height over the horizon when I was able, though -weak and exhausted, to rise to my feet. My companions assured me -that the devil, having entered my body through the bite of the -scorpion, had been scared away by the morning prayer, a fact I dared -not of course discredit. But that terrible night will for ever -remain engraven on my memory. - -It is these three events which were the critical moments in my -adventures in Central Asia. As to the rest, the many curious eyes -that scrutinised me, the various suspicions I laboured under, as -well as the unspeakable fatigues of travelling in the guise of a -beggar, all these privations and obstacles have left behind but -few sad remembrances. The fascinations in seeing those strange -countries, for which my eyes were longing from the earliest days -of my youth, possessed in itself a charm at once animating and -invigorating, for, except in the few cases just mentioned, I felt -always particularly cheerful and happy. This much is certain, that -I often miss, in my present civilised European life, the bodily and -mental activity of those days, and who knows but that I may, in -after years, wish that time to return, when, enveloped in tatters -and without shelter, but vigorous and high in spirits, I wandered -through the steppes of Central Asia. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -FROM MY JOURNAL. - -AMONGST THE TURKOMANS. - - - _13th April._ - -Struck with astonishment and surprise at the strange, social -relations, amongst which I was to-day living for the first time, I -was sitting in the early morning hours upon one and the same carpet -with Khandjan, my hospitable host, listening with eager attention -to his descriptions of Turkoman life and manners. He was one of the -most influential chiefs amongst the nomads, by nature an upright -man, and anxious to make me acquainted with the faults as well as -the merits of his countrymen; for being firmly convinced of my -Turkish and semi-official character, he hoped to gain, through my -position with the Sultan, on whom the whole Sunnitish world relies, -assistance against Russians and Persians. He spoke with zeal, -without betraying it outwardly; and after having given me his first -lesson he rose, to show me, as he said, his house and court-yard, -or in our phraseology, to make me acquainted with the ladies of the -family. This is a very especial mark of distinction among Asiatic -nations; however, a man supposed to be an agent of the Sultan, well -deserves such an attention; and accordingly I endeavoured, by my -attitude in sitting, my whole mien and carriage, to show myself -worthy of it. - -After a few minutes I heard a strange clattering and clinking, the -curtain of the tent was raised, and there entered a whole crowd of -women, girls and children, who, headed by a corpulent and tolerably -old matron, walked towards the place where I was sitting. They -were evidently as much struck as myself by the scene; looking -timidly around, the young women cast down their eyes, whilst the -children clung with evident signs of fear to the clothes of their -parents. Khandjan introduced the matron to me as his mother. She -was about sixty years old, in the primitive costume of a long, red -silk garment, and wearing across her chest, to the right and left, -several large as well as small silver sheaths, in which as many -talismans of great virtue were preserved; some even were inlaid with -precious stones, as were also a considerable number of armlets, -necklaces and anklets,--the heirlooms of the family through several -generations, and, to judge from their appearance, bearing the traces -of high antiquity. The other women and children were likewise -arrayed in ornaments of a similar kind, varying, however, with the -wearer's rank and position in the favour of their lord and master. -The clothes themselves are often torn and dirty, and are looked upon -as quite a matter of secondary importance; but a Turkoman lady is -not fashionably dressed, unless she carries about her person one or -two pounds of silver in ornaments. - -The old lady was the first to extend her wrinkled hands for the -customary greeting, the others followed, and, after the young -girls and children had embraced me,--for such is the rule of the -_bon ton_,--all squatted down around me in a semicircle and began -to question me about my health, welfare, and happy arrival. Each -one addressed me three or four times on the same subject. I had to -return just as many answers; and not in Europe alone does it happen -that a circle of ladies may perplex and embarrass an inexperienced -Solomon: even in the desert of Central Asia the like may occur. -Everywhere among the nomad people of the Mahomedan East the women -lose more and more their moral and physical attributes, the older -they grow. During my first interview I was obliged to reply to the -most delicate questions of the younger portion; whilst the elder -ones conversed on religion, politics, and the domestic relations of -the neighbouring tribes. I had to guard against exhibiting surprise -at the manner of either of them; the younger women I succeeded in -inspiring with awe for my strict virtue as a Mollah, and the elderly -ones received an ample share of blessings. Several men, neighbours -and relatives, arrived during this visit, but they caused no -disturbance or discomposure among the ladies, who enjoy, as I have -often had the opportunity of observing, a certain respect, although -they are exclusively the working class of the community. And indeed -the Turkoman women deserve such, for nowhere in the East have I met -with their equals in exemplary virtue, devotion to their families, -and indefatigable industry. - -This visit lasted nearly an hour, and towards the end of it I had -to write several talismans, in return for which the women presented -me with sundry small gifts, their own handwork. The old lady came -several times afterwards to visit me; once I even accompanied her -to the tumulus which is raised over the remains of her husband, in -order to pray for the soul of the departed. The good understanding -between us two struck even the nomads: however, at present the -reason for it is sufficiently clear to me. In the first instance -a certain foreign look in my appearance, as well as the halo of -piety which surrounded me, had attracted her, at the same time -that I was ever ready to lend a patient ear to her conversations; -listening attentively to her discourses on the short-comings of the -Persian female slaves in her household, on the want of skill in the -women of the present day, in weaving carpets, preparing felt, &c., -interspersing now and then an observation of my own, as if I had -been accustomed to these subjects from my youth and took an especial -interest in all the details of a nomad household. - -And, after all, this is the philosophy of life that should guide -a traveller everywhere, if he wishes to learn anything. Here, for -instance, a pliant demeanour proved of considerable use, since -the affection of the old matron towards me contributed in a great -measure to render my residence amongst the Turkomans agreeable,--a -people, amongst whom not even an Asiatic stranger can move freely, -still less an European. - - * * * * * - - _16th April._ - -I entered the tent of Khandjan after the morning prayer and found -here a whole company, listening with the greatest attention to -the narrative of a young Turkoman, who was covered with dust and -dirt, and whose face bore evident traces of excitement and severe -hardships. He was describing in a low voice, but in lively colours, -a marauding excursion against the Persians of the evening before, -in which he had taken part. Whilst he was speaking, the women, -servants and slaves (what must have been the thoughts of these -latter), squatted down around the circle of listeners, and many a -curse was hurled at the slaves, the clanking of the chains on their -feet interrupting for a time the general quiet. It struck me as -remarkable, that, in proportion as the speaker warmed in describing -the obstinate resistance of the unfortunate people, who were fallen -on unawares, the indignation of the audience increased at the -audacity of the Persians, not to have at once quietly submitted to -being plundered. - -No sooner was the narration of this great feat of arms at an end -when all rose to their feet to have a look at the spoils, the -sight of which excites in the Turkoman's breast a mixed feeling -of envy and pleasure. I followed them likewise, and a terrible -picture presented itself to my eyes. Lying down in the middle of -the tent were two Persians, looking deadly pale and covered with -clotted blood, dirt and dust. A man was busily engaged in putting -their broken limbs into fetters, when one of them gave a loud, wild -shriek, the rings of the chains being too small for him. The cruel -Turkoman was about to fasten them forcibly round his ancles. In a -corner sat two young children on the ground, pale and trembling, -and looking with sorrowful eyes towards the tortured Persian. -The unhappy man was their father; they longed to weep, but dared -not;--one look of the robber, at whom they stole a glance now and -then, with their teeth chattering, was sufficient to suppress their -tears. In another corner a girl, from fifteen to sixteen years old, -was crouching, her hair dishevelled and in confusion, her garments -torn and almost entirely covered with blood. She groaned and sobbed, -covering her face with her hands. Some Turkoman woman, moved either -by compassion or curiosity, asked her what ailed her, and where -she was wounded. "I am not wounded," she exclaimed, in a plaintive -voice, deeply touching. "This blood is the blood of my mother, my -only one, and the best and kindest of mothers. Oh! ana djan, ana -djan (dear mother)!" Thus she lamented, striking her head against -the trellised wood-work of the tent, so that it almost tumbled -down. They offered her a draught of water, and her tongue became -loosened, and she told them how she (of course a valuable prize) had -been lifted into the saddle beside the robber, but that her mother, -tied to the stirrups, had been obliged to run along on foot. After -an hour's running in this manner, she grew so tired that she sank -down exhausted every moment. The Turkoman tried to increase her -strength by lashing her with his whip, but this was of no avail; -and as he did not want to remain behind from his troop he grew in a -rage, drew his sword, and in a second struck off her head. The blood -spirting up, had covered the daughter, horseman and horse; and, -looking at the red spots upon her clothes, the poor girl wept loud -and bitterly. - -Whilst this was going on in the interior of the tent, outside the -various members of the robbers' family were busy inspecting the -booty he had brought home. The elder women seized greedily upon one -or another utensil for domestic use, whilst the children, who were -jumping about merrily, were trying on the different garments,--now -one, now another, and producing shouts of laughter. - -Here all was triumph and merriment; not far from it a picture of the -deepest grief and misery. And yet no one is struck by the contrast; -every one thinks it very natural that the Turkoman should enrich -himself with robbery and pillage. - -And these terrible social relations exist within scarcely a -fortnight's distance from Europe, travelling by St. Petersburg, -Nishnei Novogorod, and Astrakhan! - - * * * * * - - _18th April._ - -Eliaskuli, who dwelt in the fourth tent from mine on the banks of -the Goergen, was a "retired" Turkoman, who, up to his thirtieth year, -had carried on the usual profession of kidnapping and pillaging, and -had now retired from business, in order, as he said, to spend the -rest of this futile, ridiculous life (fani duenya) here below in the -pious exercise of the law; as far as I know, however, it is because -several shot wounds of the "hellish" weapons at Ashurada prevented -him from carrying on any longer his infamous trade. He was in hopes -I might invoke upon his wicked head every blessing of heaven by my -prayers, and to this effect he narrated to me, with many details, -how the Russians, after having declared a religious war, had once -landed here, and attacked and set fire to all the tents that stood -on the banks of the Goergen. This religious war was in fact nothing -else than that the Russians wanted to release some countrymen of -theirs, whom these robbers had carried off prisoners, but the fight -lasted more than a whole day. He added, that although the Russians, -being too cowardly to come near, shot only from a distance, yet the -valiant Gazis (religious combatants) could not resist their devilish -arts, that he too received at that time some death wounds, and was -a whole day without giving a sign of life, until at last his Pir -(spiritual chief) called him back into existence. - -This same Eliaskuli offered to accompany me to-day to the Ova of -the Ana Khan, who is the chief of the Yarali tribe, and dwells on -the upper Goergen, close to the Persian frontier. From curiosity, -perhaps, or some other motive, he wished to make my acquaintance. -Our road lay for some time along the left bank of the river, but -soon we were obliged to make a considerable circuit, in order to -avoid the large marshes and morasses. Unacquainted as the people -around me were with my motives for travelling, I laid myself open -to suspicion, no doubt; but the experience of a few days calmed my -fears for the security of my position, and indeed all misgivings -vanished, when I saw how the people, whenever we were passing some -tent on our route, came towards me with milk, cheese and other -presents, asking for my blessing. Thus I rode on in high spirits, -troubled at nothing but the heavy Turkoman felt cap, on the top -of which in addition several yards of linen were folded round in -the shape of a turban, and the heavy musket on my back, which for -propriety's sake I was obliged to carry, in spite of my character as -Mollah. Eliaskuli sometimes remained behind for full half an hour, -but I continued my way alone, meeting now and then a few marauding -stragglers, who, returning home empty from some unsuccessful foray, -measured me with sinister looks from head to foot. Some saluted me, -others only asked, "Whose guest art thou, Mollah?" in order to judge -from my personality whether it was feasible to plunder me or not; -but no sooner did I reply "Kelte Khandjan Bay," when they rode on in -evident displeasure, muttering in their beard an abrupt "Aman bol," -(farewell.) - -Towards evening we arrived at the tents, together with Khandjan, -who, having taken a different road, had joined us on the way. Ana -Khan, the patriarchal chief, a man about sixty years of age, was -seated on the green slope of a hill, surrounded by his grandchildren -and little children, (it is only in the east that one meets with -people, thus related to one another, of the same age,) watching -them with looks of pleasure, as also the flocks of sheep and herds -of camels who were returning home from their rich pasturage. Our -reception was short, but friendly. Walking before us, he conducted -us into the ready prepared tent, where I was appointed to the seat -of honour; the proper conversation, however, not beginning until the -very last remnants of the sheep, killed expressly for the occasion, -had disappeared from the table. Ana Khan spoke little, but he -listened attentively to my description of Turkish life and Russo -Turkish relations. The next morning, however, he grew rather more -talkative, and he began by treating us with the narrative of an act -of hospitality on his part towards an English iltshi (ambassador) -on his way to Khiva. I guessed at once that this must have been -the mission of Mr. William T. Thomson, who was sent thither by his -government to adjust the differences between Persia and the Khan of -Khiva. Ana Khan, in describing the arms, trinkets and person of the -Frenghi ambassador, laid such particular stress upon the resemblance -of his features to mine, that the cause of his curiosity was at once -evident, as well as his reason for wishing me to visit him. Looking -significantly and with glowing eyes at his countrymen, as if to -persuade them of the keenness of his perceptions, he came close up -to me, and gently tapping me on the shoulder, said, "Efendi! the -Tura (rule) of the Sultan of Rum is held in high honour amongst us; -first, he is the prince of all the Sunnites; secondly, Turkomans -and Osmanlis are blood-relations, and thou art our honoured guest, -although thou hast brought us no presents." In this remark I read -much, but inferred still more from it. My incognito, then, as -dervish, did not always meet with implicit belief. The majority, -however, especially the Mollahs, trusted in me, and single sceptics -did not by any means cause me disquiet. - -I observed, moreover, that Khandjan did not share the views of Ana -Khan, the subject was never again broached, and I enjoyed the full -hospitality of the suspicious chieftain. - - * * * * * - - _20th April._ - -In distant Mergolan, in the Khanat of Khokand, religious zeal -recommends the frequent collection of money among the people, to -support the high schools at Medina, which town possesses a large -number of such institutions. Here, at the fountain-head of Islamism, -ardent students crowd together, eager interpreters of the Koran, -who, under the protecting AEgis of their pious occupation, are -supported in luxurious idleness by all the Mahometan countries -far and near. Stipends arrive here from distant Fez and Morocco; -the chiefs of the Algerine tribes send their annual gifts; Tunis, -Tripolis and Egypt as well as other smaller Mahommedan states, -send hither their tribute. Turkey vies with Persia in the support -of these pupils. The Tartar, living under Russian protection, the -native of India, subject to English dominion, all give freely to the -high schools of Medina. And yet all this is not deemed sufficient; -even the poor inhabitants of the oasis in Turkestan are asked to -contribute their mite. - -It was at the time of my travels in Central Asia, that Khodja -Buzurk, the much-revered saint in those parts, had collected, no -doubt by dint of immense assiduity, 400 ducats for Medina. Mollah -Esad, the confidential friend of His Holiness, was commissioned -to take the sum to its destination. Although in Central Asia the -possession of money, the great source of danger for its possessor, -is always kept secret, yet the above-mentioned Mollah made no -mystery of the object of his journey, in the hope of enlarging his -fund. Bokhara, Khiva and other towns he visited had contributed to -increase it, and in the belief of meeting with equal success among -the Turkomans, he entered upon his journey through the desert, -relying upon his letters of recommendation to several of the nomad -learned men. - -He reached Goemueshtepe without any mishap, but with the news of his -arrival there spread simultaneously that of the contents of his -travelling bag. The Turkomans were told at the same time that the -money was destined for a pious object, but this did not trouble -them. Each man endeavoured to catch him before he became the guest -of any one, for until a traveller enjoys the rights of hospitality -he is completely unprotected among the nomads; he may be plundered, -killed, sold into captivity,--there is no one to call the offender -to account. The host alone it is, whose vengeance is dreaded; -whosoever is taken under his protection is looked upon as a member -of his family, and is tolerably secure from attack. - -With these facts our Khokand Mollah must have been acquainted, and -nevertheless he trusted to the mere lustre of his religious zeal. -One morning, having gone a short distance from the caravan, he was -fallen upon by two Turkoman men, and plundered of all his money. No -entreaties on his part, no appeal to the holiness of his mission, -no threats of terrible and condign punishment, nothing was of any -avail; they stripped him even of his clothes, and left him nothing -but his old books and papers. Thus he returned to the caravan, -stunned and half naked. This happened about a fortnight before -my arrival, during which time the delinquents were found out and -summoned before the religious tribunal. In my position, as Mollah -from Constantinople, I had the good luck to be honoured with a seat -in court, and the scene at which I was present, and in which I took -an active part, will long remain vivid in my recollection. We, that -is to say, the learned men, had assembled in a field, where we were -sitting in the open air, forming a semi-circle, and holding large -volumes in our hands, surrounded by a great crowd, who were eager -with curiosity. The robbers made their appearance accompanied by -their families and the chief of their tribe, without betraying the -least embarrassment, just as if they had come for the settlement of -some honest transaction. When questioned, who has taken the money? -the culprit answered in the haughtiest tone, "I have taken it." I -felt sure from the very beginning that a restitution of money would -never be made. Most of the council having exhausted their talents -of rhetoric by endless quotations from the Koran, it was my turn to -try and impress the hero, and I did so by pointing out to him the -wickedness of his deed. "What wickedness!" the Turkoman exclaimed, -"is robbery punished in thy country? This is strange indeed! I -should have thought that the Sultan, the Lord of the Universe, was a -man of more sense. If robbery is not permitted amongst you, how do -thy people live?" - -Another Mollah threatened him with the Sheriat (religious precepts,) -and depicted in glowing colours the punishments of hell, which the -Turkoman had to expect in another world. "What Sheriat?" he replied, -"each man his own! Thou, Mollah, possessest laws and precepts in thy -tongue, which thou twistest as thou likest, I possess my Sheriat in -my good sword, which I brandish whenever my arm commands!" After -long and fruitless exhortations, and equally long consultations -amongst the grey-beards, our sitting was closed without any success -on our part. The Turkoman went away with his money, which he spent -in furnishing himself with new weapons, instead of its being sent -to Medina towards the support of her students. Mollah Esad returned -with a sad heart to Khokand, having learnt from bitter experience -that the Turkomans, although calling themselves orthodox, are the -blackest Kafirs on the face of the earth. - - * * * * * - - _6th May._ - -Oraz Djan, a young, daring and wild looking Turkoman, of about -eighteen years old, who had taken part in marauding excursions -ever since he was twelve, was a daily guest in our tent at Etrek, -in order to listen to the Pir (spiritual chief) of the kidnapping -robbers, in his discourses on religion and moral philosophy. It -happened one day, that Omer Akhond, a Mollah from the neighbourhood, -was present, a man celebrated for his great knowledge, and still -better known as the owner of a particularly excellent horse. The -animal was spoken of, and every one was loud in the praise of its -high qualities, when young Oraz, catching fire on hearing this, -called out half in earnest, half in joke, "Akhond, I will give thee -three asses and a Persian for thy horse. It is a pity that it should -rest in the stable, whilst the Persians so freely wander in their -fields. But, if thou dost not consent, then mark my words, in a -few days it will be stolen from thee!" The Mollah and Pir rebuked -him severely, but he laughed aloud wildly, and the conversation -continued as before. - -Scarcely four days had passed when the Mollah entered our tent one -morning with tears in his eyes, and looking very sad. "My horse -has been stolen from me," he exclaimed with a sigh, "thou alone, -Kulkhan, canst restore it to me. Let me entreat thee, by the love of -the Tshiharyar (the four first chiefs,) do thy utmost!" "This is the -work of the Haramzade (Bastard) Oraz," muttered Kulkhan, "you will -see, I shall tear his black soul from out of his dirty body." - -At the time of evening prayer our amiable Oraz was, as usual, among -the rest of our orthodox friends, who assembled on the terrace-like -height, where stands the mosque of the desert, and certainly no one -would have guessed, from his devotional expression at his prayers, -that this very day he had been robbing a father of the church. When -after the Namaz all formed the customary circle (Khalka,) Oraz -did not fail to come. Kulkhan at once addressed him with, "Young -fellow! The horse of the Mollah has been stolen, thou knowest -where it is; to-morrow morning he must be again in his stable, do -you hear me?" This address caused the young robber not the least -embarrassment. Playing with one hand in the sand, and with the -other pushing on one side his heavy fur hat, he replied, "I have -the horse, but I shall not return it; he who wants it must fetch -it." These words, I thought, would have roused the indignation of -every one present, but not a trace of it was seen in the features of -one of the company. Kulkhan went on speaking to him in his former -quiet tone of voice, but the robber insisted on refusing to restore -the horse, and when some of the grey-beards began to use threats, -he, too, caught fire, and having turned to his spiritual chief -with "Hast thou done better with the mare of the Hadji?" rose and -left the company; and for some time was heard singing aloud the -refrain of the poem Koerogli, in the still evening air, thus proving -sufficiently his joy at the victory he had gained. - -A considerable time was spent in consultation after he was gone. No -one ventured to attack him, since his tribe, according to custom, -would have taken him under their protection, in spite of his -abominable conduct, and they were too powerful to risk an attack. -Spiritual aid, therefore, had to be called in, and that it should -have taken immediate effect is not to be marvelled at. - -According to the _Deb_ no greater punishment can befal a living -man, than to be accused before the shade of his departed father -or ancestor. This is done by planting a lance upon the top of the -grave, and fastening to it a couple of blood-stained rags, if murder -has been committed, and for any other crime a broken bow. Such an -appeal unites the Turkomans as one man against the offender and his -tribe, and how deep an effect it has on the mind of the culprit, -I saw on this occasion, for no sooner did Oraz perceive the lance -fixed upon the high Yoska of his grandfather, when in the silence of -the following night he led the horse back to the tent of the Mollah, -and tied it to its former place. This act of restitution, as he -himself told me, will pain him for a long time to come. But it is -better to lie in the black earth than to have disturbed the repose -of one's ancestors. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE CARAVAN IN THE DESERT. - - -"The _Chil menzili Turkestan_, or the Forty Stations across the -desert of Turkestan," I often heard my friends say, "are far more -troublesome and much more difficult to get over than the _Chil -menzili Arabistan_, or the Forty Stations on the Pilgrims' route -from Damascus to Mecca. On this last one finds every day fresh -cisterns, which furnish drinkable water for thousands; the pilgrim -is sure to get fresh bread, a good dish of pilaw or meat, cool -shade, and all the comforts he longs for after the exhausting -day's march. But on the former route, man has done nothing for the -support of the poor traveller. He is in constant danger of dying -from thirst, of being murdered, of being sold as a slave, of being -robbed, or of being buried alive under the burning sand-storm. -Well-filled water-skins and flour sacks, the best horses and arms, -often become useless, and there is nothing left to one but to strive -to get forward as fast as possible, while invoking the name of -Allah." - -The readers of my "Travels in Central Asia," may be supposed to -have some idea of the awfully imposing journey from Persia to -the oasis-lands of Turkestan. I may here furnish a few additional -particulars about the experience of our caravan. I have several -times been blamed for being too concise to be graphic, and this -charge, I confess, is not altogether undeserved. I propose here to -make up for my faults of omission. - -During the first three days' march, the impressive, endless silence -of the desert--a silence as of the grave--cast a most powerful -spell over my soul. Often did I stare vacantly for hours, my eyes -fixed on the distance before me, and as my companions believed me -to be sunk in religious meditations, I was very seldom disturbed. -I only half observed how, during the march, certain members of -our caravan nodded in sleep on the backs of their camels, and by -their ludicrous movements and sudden starts afforded our company -exquisite amusement. Any one overcome with sleep would lay hold of -the high pummel of the saddle with both his hands, but this did not -prevent him from either, with a forward lurch, knocking his chin -with such force that all his teeth chattered, or, by a backward -one, threatening to fall with a summersault to the ground. Indeed -this last often happened, arousing the hearty laughter of the whole -party. The fallen became the hero of the day, and had to support the -most galling fire of jokes on his awkwardness. - -The most inexhaustible fountain of cheerfulness was a young -Turkoman, named Niyazbirdi, who possessed no less liveliness of -spirits than agility of body, and by every word and movement -contrived to draw laughter from the most venerable of the Mollahs. -Although he was owner of several laden camels, he was, nevertheless, -for the most part, accustomed to go on foot; and running now right, -now left, he alarmed by cries or gestures any group of wild asses -that showed themselves along our route. Once, indeed, he succeeded -in getting hold of a young wild ass, which, through fatigue, had -loitered behind the rest. The young shy creature was led along by a -rope, and was the occasion of really droll scenes, when its lucky -captor gave a prize of three spoonfuls of sheeps-tail fat to any one -who dared to mount it. Three spoonfuls of mutton fat is a tempting -prize for Hadjis in the desert, so that many were seduced by the -prospect of gaining it. Nevertheless, they could make nothing of -this uncivilized brother of Balaam's charger, for the unfortunate -Hadjis had no sooner seated themselves on its back than they were -stretched sprawling in the sand. - -Only after a march of several hours is general weariness to be -remarked. All eyes are then turned towards the _Kervan bashi_, -whose gaze at such a time wanders in every direction to spy out -a suitable halting place, that is to say, one which will afford -most plentiful fodder for the camels. No sooner has he found such, -than he himself hastens towards it, while the younger members of -the caravan disperse themselves to right and left to collect dried -roots, or scrub, or other fuel. Dismounting, unpacking, and settling -down, is the work of a few moments. The hope of much-desired rest -restores the exhausted strength. With speed the ropes are slackened, -with speed the heaviest bales of merchandize are piled up in little -heaps, in whose shade the wearied traveller is accustomed to stretch -himself. Scarcely have the hungry camels betaken themselves to -their pasture-ground when a solemn stillness fills the caravan. -This stillness is, I may say, a sort of intoxication, for every one -revels in the enjoyment of rest and refreshment. - -The picture of a newly-encamped caravan in the summer months, and on -the steppes of Central Asia, is a truly interesting one. While the -camels, in the distance but still in sight, graze greedily, or crush -the juicy thistles, the travellers, even the poorest among them, -sit with their tea-cups in their hands and eagerly sip the costly -beverage. It is nothing more than a greenish warm water, innocent of -sugar, and often decidedly turbid; still human art has discovered no -food, has invented no nectar, which is so grateful, so refreshing -in the desert, as this unpretending drink. I have still a vivid -recollection of its wonder-working effects. As I sipped the first -drops a soft fire filled my veins, a fire which enlivened without -intoxicating. The later draughts affected both heart and head; the -eye became peculiarly bright and began to gleam. In such moments I -felt an indescribable rapture and sense of comfort. My companions -sank in sleep; I could keep myself awake and dream with open eyes. - -After the tea has restored their strength the caravan becomes -gradually busier and noisier. They eat in groups or circles which -are here called _kosh_, which represent the several houses of the -wandering town. Everywhere there is something to be done, and -everywhere it is the younger men who are doing it, while their -elders are smoking. Here they are baking bread. A Hadji in rags is -actively kneading the black dough with dirty hands. He has been so -engaged for half an hour, and still his hands are not clean, for -_one_ mass of dough cannot absorb the accumulations of several days. -There they are cooking. In order to know what is being cooked, it is -not necessary to look round. The smell of mutton-fat, but especially -the aroma, somewhat too piquant, of camel or horse-cutlets, tells -its own tale. Nor have the dishes when cooked anything inviting to -the eye. But in the desert a man does not disturb himself about such -trifles. An enormous appetite covers a multitude of faults, and -hunger is notoriously the best of sauces. - -Nor are amusements wanting in the caravan-camp when the halt is -somewhat prolonged. The most popular recreation is shooting at a -mark, in which the prize is always a certain quantity of powder -and shot. This sort of diversion was very seldom possible in our -caravan, as on account of our small numbers we were in continual -danger, and had therefore to make ourselves heard as little as -possible. My comrades were accustomed to pass their leisure time in -reading the Koran, in performance of other religious exercise, in -sleeping, or in attending to their toilet. I say "toilet," but it -is to be hoped that no one will here understand the word to imply a -boudoir, delicate perfumes, or artistical aids. The Turkomans are -accustomed to pluck out the hair of the beard with small pincers. As -to the toilet of the Hadjis, and, indeed, my own, it is so simple -and so prosaic as to be scarcely worth alluding to. The necessary -requisites were sand, fire, and ants. The manner of application I -leave as a riddle for the reader to solve. - -Certainly, of all the nations of Asia, the Tartar seems to fit in -most appropriately with the bizarre picture of desert life. Full -of superstition, and a blind fatalist, he can easily support the -constant dread of danger. Dirt, poverty and privations, he is -accustomed to, even at home. No wonder, then, that he sits content -in clothes which have not been changed for months, and with a crust -of dirt on his face. This inner peace of mind could never become a -matter of indifference to me. At evening prayers, in which the whole -company took part, this peace of mind struck me most forcibly. They -thanked God for the benefits they enjoyed. On such occasions the -whole caravan formed itself into a single line, at whose head stood -an imam, who turned towards the setting sun and led the prayers. -The solemnity of the moment was increased by the stillness which -prevailed far and wide; and if the rays of the sinking sun lit up -the faces of my companions, so wild yet withal so well satisfied, -they seemed to be in the possession of all earthly good, and had -nothing left them to wish. Often I could not help thinking what -would these people feel if they found themselves leaning against the -comfortable cushions of a first-class railway carriage, or amid the -luxuries of a well-appointed hotel. How distant, how far distant are -the blessings of civilization from these countries! - -So much for the life of the caravan by day. By night the desert is -more romantic, but at the same time more dangerous. As the power -of sight is now limited, the circle of safety is contracted to -the most immediate neighbourhood; and both during the march and -in the encampment every one tries to keep as close as possible to -his fellows. By day the caravan consisted of but one long chain; -by night this is broken up into six or eight smaller ones, which, -marching close together, form a compact square, of which the outmost -lines are occupied by the stoutest and boldest. By moonlight the -shadow of the camels as they stalk along produces a curious and -impressive effect. During the dark starless night everything is full -of horror, and to go one step distant from the side of the caravan -is equivalent to leaving the home circle to plunge into a desolate -solitude. In the halt by day each one occupies whichever place may -please him best. At night, on the contrary, a compact camp is formed -under the direction of the _Kervan bashi_. The bales of goods are -heaped up in the middle; around them lie the men; while without, as -a wall of defence, the camels are laid, tightly packed together, in -a circle. I say laid, for these wonderful animals squat down at the -word of command, remain the whole night motionless in their place, -and, like children, do not get up the next morning until they are -told to do so. They are placed with their heads pointing outward -and their tails inward, for they perceive the presence of any enemy -from far, and give the alarm by a dull rattle in the throat, so that -even in their hours of repose they do duty as sentinels. Those who -sleep within the _rayon_ find themselves in immediate contact with -these beasts, and, as is well known, they have not the pleasantest -smell. It often happens that the saline fodder and water which these -animals feed upon produce palpable consequences for such as sleep -in their immediate neighbourhood. I myself often woke up with such -frescoes. But no one takes any notice of such things, for who could -be angry with these animals, who, although ugly in appearance, are -so patient, so temperate, so good-tempered, and so useful? - -It is no wonder that the wanderers over the desert praise the camel -as surpassing all other beasts of the field, and even love it with -an almost adoring affection. Nourished on a few thorns and thistles, -which other quadrupeds reject, it traverses the wastes for weeks, -nay, often for months together. In these dreary, desolate regions, -the existence of man depends upon that of the camel. It is, besides, -so patient and so obedient that a child can with one "_tshukh_" -make a whole herd of these tall strong beasts kneel down, and with -a "_berrr_" get up again. How much could I not read in their large -dark blue eyes! When the march is too long or the sand too deep, -they are accustomed to express their discomfort and weariness. -This is especially when they are being laden, if too heavy bales -are piled upon their backs. Bending under the burden, they turn -their heads round towards their master; in their eyes gleam tears, -and their groans, so deep, so piteous, seem to say, "Man, have -compassion upon us!" - -Except during a particular season of the year, when through the -operation of the laws of nature it is in a half-intoxicated, -half-stupefied condition, the camel has always a striking impression -of seriousness. It is impossible not to recognise in its features -the Chaldee-aramaean type, and in whatever portions of the earth he -may be found at the present day, his original home is unquestionably -Mesopotamia and the Arabian desert. The Turkomans disturb this -serious expression of countenance by the barbarous manner in which -they arrange the leading-rope through the bored nose. With the -string hanging down to the chest, the camel resembles an European -dandy armed with his lorgnon. Both of them hold their heads high in -the air, and both are alike led by the nose. - -As the word of command to encamp is enlivening and acceptable, so -grievous, so disturbing, is the signal for getting ready to start. -The _Kervan bashi_ is the first to rouse himself. At his call -or sign all prepare for the journey. Even the poor camels in the -pastures understand it, and often hasten without being driven to -the caravan; nay, what is more extraordinary, they place themselves -close to the bales of merchandize with which they were before -laden, or the persons who were mounted on them. In a quarter of an -hour everybody has found his place in the line of march. At the -halting-place there remains nothing but a few bones, gnawed clean, -and the charred traces of the improvised hearths. These marks of -human life in the desert often disappear as quickly as they were -produced; sometimes, however, they are preserved through climatic -accidents for a long time; and succeeding travellers are cheered by -falling in with these abandoned fireplaces. The black charred spot -seems to their eyes like a splendid _caravanserai_, and the thought -that here human beings have been, that here life once was active, -makes even the vast solitude of the desert more like home. - -Speaking of these spots where a fire has been kindled, I am reminded -of those vast burnt plains, often many days' march in extent, which -I met with in the desert between Persia and Khiva, and of which I -heard so many wonderful tales from the mouths of the nomads. During -the hot season of the year, when the scorching sun has dried shrubs -and grass till they have become like tinder, it often happens that -a spark, carelessly dropped, and fanned by the wind, will set the -steppe on fire. The flame, finding ever fresh fuel, spreads with -such fearful rapidity that a man on horseback can with difficulty -escape. It rolls over the scanty herbage like an overflowing stream, -and, when it meets with thicket and shrubs, it flares up with wild -wrath. Thus traversing large tracts of country in a short time, its -raging course can only be checked by a river or a lake. At night -such conflagrations must present a terrible appearance, when far and -wide the horizon is lit up with a sea of flame. Even the bravest -heart loses its courage at the appalling sight. The cowardly and -hesitating are soon destroyed, but one who has sufficient presence -of mind can save himself, if, while the flames are yet a great way -off, he kindle the grass in his neighbourhood. He thus lays waste a -space in which the approaching fire can find no sustenance, and in -this he himself takes refuge. Thus only with fire can man contend -against fire with success. - -This weapon is often used by one tribe against another, and the -desolation thus caused is terrible. It is often used by a runaway -couple to secure themselves against pursuit. As long as no wind -blows they can easily fly before the slowly-advancing fire; but -it often happens that the flames are hurried forward by the least -breath of wind, and the fugitives find a united death in the very -means they had taken to secure their safety. - -It is remarkable that the imposing aspects and most frequent natural -phenomena of the desert do not fail to impress even the nomads -who habitually witness them. As we were crossing the high plateau -of Kaflan Kir, which forms part of Ustyort, running towards the -north-east, the horizon was often adorned with the most beautiful -Fata Morgana. This phenomenon is undoubtedly to be seen in the -greatest perfection in the hot, but dry, atmosphere of the deserts -of Central Asia, and affords the most splendid optical illusions -which one can imagine. I was always enchanted with these pictures of -cities, towers, and castles dancing in the air, of vast caravans, -horsemen engaged in combat, and individual gigantic forms which -continually disappeared from one place to reappear in another. As -for my nomad companions, they regarded the neighbourhoods where -these phenomena are observed with no little awe. According to their -opinion these are ghosts of men and cities which formerly existed -there, and now at certain times roll about in the air. Nay, our -_Kervan bashi_ asserted that he also saw the same figures in the -same places, and that we ourselves, if we should be lost in the -desert, would after a term of years begin to hop about and dance in -the air over the spot where we had perished. - -These legends, which are continually to be heard among the nomads, -and relate to a supposed lost civilization in the desert, are not -far removed from the new European theory, which maintains that such -tracts of country have sunk into their present desolation, not -so much through the operation of natural laws as through changes -in their social state. As examples are cited the great Sahara of -Africa and the desert of central Arabia, where cultivable land is -not so much wanting as industrious hands. As regards these last -countries, the assertion is probably not without some truth, but -it certainly cannot be extended to the deserts of Central Asia. On -certain spots, as Mero, Mangishlak, Ghergen, and Otrar, there was -in the last century more cultivation than at present; but, taken as -the whole, these Asiatic steppes were always, as far back as the -memory of man goes, howling wildernesses. The vast tracts which -stretch for many days' journeys without one drop of drinkable water, -the expanses--many hundred miles in extent--of deep loose sand, the -extreme violence of the climate, and such like obstacles, defy even -modern art and science to cope with them. "God," said a central -Asiatic to me, "created Turkestan and its inhabitants in his wrath; -for as long as the bitter, saline taste of their springs exist, so -long will the hearts of the Turkomans be full of anger and malice." - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE TENT AND ITS INHABITANTS. - - -An able critic of my "Travels in Central Asia" wrote--"Mr. Vambery -wandered because he has the wild spirit of dervishism strong within -him." On first reading this it struck me as a little too strong, -and I shall ever protest against such attribution of the title of -vagabond, however refined may be the terms in which it is couched. -Still I must candidly confess that the tent, the snail shell of -the nomad, if I may be allowed so to call it, has left on my -memory an ineffaceable impression. It certainly is a very curious -feeling which comes over one when he compares the light tent with -such seas of stone buildings as make up our European cities. The -vice of dervishism is, to be sure, contagious, but happily not for -everybody, so that there is no danger in accompanying me for a -little while to Central Asia, and glancing at the contrast there -presented to our fixed, stable mode of life. - -It is almost noonday. A Kirghiz family, which has packed house and -household furniture on the backs of a few camels, moves slowly over -the desert towards a spot indicated to them by the raised lance of -a distant horseman. The caravan rests, according to nomad notions -of rest, while thus on the march, to become lively and busy when -they settle themselves down to repose according to our ideas. -Nevertheless, the elder women seated on the bunches of camels (for -the younger ones travel on foot), grudge themselves repose even -then, and occupy their time in spinning a sort of yarn for sacks out -of the coarser camels' hair. Only the marriageable daughter of the -family enjoys the privilege of being completely at leisure on her -shambling beast. She is polishing her necklace of coins, Russian, -Ancient Bactrian, Mongolian, or Chinese, which hangs down to her -waist. So engrossed is she in her employment, that an European -numismatist might take her for a fellow connoisseur; nevertheless -not a movement of the young Kirghizes, who seek to distinguish -themselves by all manner of equestrian gymnastics, as they caracole -around the caravan, escapes her notice. - -At last the spot fixed on by the guide is reached. An inhabitant of -cities might imagine that now the greatest confusion would arise. -But no--everybody has his appointed office, everybody knows what he -has to do, everything has its fixed place. While the pater-familias -unsaddles his cooled horse and lets him loose on the pasture, the -younger lads collect, with frightful clamour, the sheep and the -camels, which are only too disposed to wander. They must stay to -be milked. Meanwhile the tent has been taken down. The old matron -seizes on the latticed framework and fixes it in its place, -spitting wildly right and left as she does so. Another makes fast -the bent rods which form the vaulting of the roof. A third sets on -the top of all a sort of round cover or lid, which serves the double -purpose of chimney and window. While they are covering the woodwork -with curtains of felt, the children inside have already hung up the -provision-sacks, and placed the enormous tripod on the crackling -fire. This is all done in a few moments. Magical is the erection, -and as magical is the disappearance of the nomad's habitation. -Still, however, the noise of the sheep and camels, of screaming -women and crying children, resounds about the tent. They form, -indeed, a strange chorus in the midst of the noonday silence of the -desert. Milking-time, the daily harvest of these pastoral tribes -is, however, the busiest time in the twenty-four hours. Especial -trouble is given by the greedy children, whose swollen bellies are -the result and evidence of an unlimited appetite for milk. The poor -women have much to suffer from the vicious or impatient disposition -of the beasts; but, although the men are standing by, the smallest -help is rigorously refused, as it would be held the greatest -disgrace for a man to take any part in work appointed to women. - -Once, when I had, in Ettrek, obtained by begging a small sack of -wheat, and was about to grind it in a handmill, the Turkomans around -me burst out into shouts of laughter. Shocked and surprised, I -asked the reason of their scornful mirth, when one approached me -in a friendly manner and said: "It is a shame for you to take in -hand woman's work. But Mollahs and Hadjis are of course deficient -in secular _savoir faire_, and one pardons them a great many such -mistakes." - -After the supply of milk has been collected, and all the bags of -skins (for vessels of wood or of earthenware are purely articles -of luxury) have been filled, the cattle, small and great, disperse -themselves over the wide plain. The noise gradually dies away. -The nomad retires into his tent, raises the lower end of the felt -curtain, and while the west wind, rustling through the fretted -wood-work, lulls him to sleep, the women outside set to work on a -half-finished piece of felt. It is certainly an interesting sight -to see how six, often more, of the daughters of the desert, in -rank and file, roll out under their firm footsteps the felt which -is wrapped up between two rush mats. An elderly lady leads this -industrial dance and gives the time. It is she who can always tell -in what place the stuff will be loose or uneven. The preparation of -the felt, without question the simplest fabric which the mind of -man has invented, is still in the same stage among these wandering -tribes as when first discovered. The most common colour is grey. -Particoloured felt is an article of luxury, and snowy white is only -used on the most solemn occasions. Carpets are only to be found -among the richer tribes, such as the Turkomans and the OEzbegs, as -they require more skill in their manufacture and a closer contact -with more advanced civilization. The inwoven patterns are for the -most part taken from European pocket-handkerchiefs and chintzes; -and I was always surprised at the skill with which the women copied -them, or, what is still more surprising, imitated them from memory -after having once seen them. - -While the poor women are fatiguing themselves with their laborious -occupation, their lord and master is accustomed to snore through his -noonday siesta. Soon the cattle return from their pasture ground and -collect around the tent. Scarcely does the afternoon begin to grow -cooler, than the migrating house is in a trice broken up, everything -replaced on the backs of the camels, and the whole party in full -march. This is already the second day of their journey, and yet -all, men and beasts, are as lively as if they had dwelt for years -on the spot, and, at length released from the talons of ennui, were -delighted at the prospects of a change. - -Long after sunset, while the endless waste of the desert is -gradually being over-canopied by the clear starry heaven, the -caravan still plods steadily, in order to rest during the colder -hours of the night under the shelter of their warm felts. Quickly -is their colossal _batterie de cuisine_ placed on the fire; still -more quickly is it emptied. No European can have any idea of the -voracious appetite of a nomad. - -The caravan has been scarcely an hour encamped before everybody has -supped and retired to rest; the older members of the family within -the tent, the younger ones in the open air, their flocks around -them. Only where a marriageable maiden lives is there any movement -to be found. Among the nomad tribes of Central Asia, Islamism has -not succeeded in carrying into effect its rigorous restrictions on -the social intercourse of the sexes. The harem is here entirely -unknown. The young nomad always knows by what star to direct his -course in order to find the tent of his adored on the trackless -desert. His appearance is seldom unexpected. The nomad young lady -has already divined from what quarter the hoof-tramp will sound -through the nightly stillness, and has already taken up an advanced -post in that direction. It is scarcely necessary to observe that the -conversation of the two children of the desert, in this their tender -rendezvous, is not quite in unison with our ideas of aesthetical -propriety; but poetry is to be found everywhere, nay, I might say, -is more at home in the desert than in these western countries. -Sometimes a whole company of loving couples come together, and on -such occasions the dialogue, which must be in rhyme and adorned with -the richest flowers of Tartar metaphor, seems as if it would never -come to an end. I was at first enchanted with listening to such -conversation; but how irritated I was when I had to pass the night -in the same tent with such amorous society, and in spite of all the -fatigue of the day could not find quiet slumbers to refresh me! - -The above is but a faint picture of the life of the nomads during -the more agreeable portion of the year. In winter, especially in the -more elevated regions, where severe cold prevails, this wandering -life loses everything which can give it the least tinge of poetry -in our eyes. Even the inhabitants of the cities of Central Asia -marvel that the nomads can support life in the bleak open country, -amid fearful storms and long weeks of snow. Indeed, with a cold of -30 deg. Reaumur, it cannot be very pleasant to live in a tent; still -even this occasions no serious inconvenience to the hardy child of -Nature. Himself wrapped up in a double suit of clothes, he doubles -the felt hangings of his tent, which is pitched in a valley or some -other sheltered spot. Besides this the number of its inhabitants is -increased, and when the _saksaul_ (the root of a tree hard as stone -and covered with knobs) begins to give out its heat, which lasts for -hours, the want of a settled home is quite forgotten. The family -circle is drawn closer round the hearth. The daughter of the house -must continually hand round the skin of _kimis_. This favourite -beverage opens the heart and looses the tongue. When, furthermore, -a _bakhshi_ (troubadour) is present to enliven the winter evenings -with his lays, then even the howling of the tempest without serves -as music. - -When no extraordinary natural accidents, such as sand-storms or -snow-storms, break in upon his regular course of life, the nomad is -happy; indeed, I may say, as happy as any civilization in the world -could make him. As the nations of Central Asia have but very few -wants, poverty is rare among them, and where it occurs, is by no -means so depressing as with us. The lives of the inhabitants of the -desert would glide peacefully away, were it not for the tendency to -indulge in feuds and forays--a leading feature in their character. -War, everywhere a curse, there draws after it the most terrible -consequences which can be conceived. Without the smallest pretext -for such violence, a tribe which feels itself stronger often falls -upon the weaker ones. All who are able to bear arms conquer or die; -the women, children, and herds of the fallen are divided as booty -among their conquerors. Often does it happen that a family, which -in the evening lay down to rest in all the blessedness of security, -find themselves in the morning despoiled of parents, of freedom, and -of property, and dragged into captivity far apart from one another! - -Among the Turkomans near Khiva I saw many Kirghiz prisoners, who had -formerly belonged to well-to-do families. The unfortunate creatures, -who had been but a short time before rich and independent, and -cherished by parents, accommodated themselves to the change of their -fortunes as to some ordinary dispensation of nature. With what -honesty and diligence did they attach themselves to their masters' -interests! How they loved and caressed their masters' children! Yet -these same masters were they who had robbed them of their whole -property, murdered their father, and branded them for ever with the -opprobrious title of "Kul" (slave.) - -Buddhism, Christianity, Mohammedanism, have one after the other -attempted to force their way into the steppes of upper Asia. The -first and the last have succeeded to some extent in making good -their footing, but the nomads have, nevertheless, remained the -same as they were at the time of the conquests of the Arabs, or -of the campaigns of Alexander--the same as they were described by -Herodotus. I shall never forget the conversations about the state -of the world which I had with elderly Turkomans and Kirghizes. It -is true that one can picture to oneself beforehand a specimen of -ancient simplicity, but that is still something quite different -from seeing before you one of these still standing columns of a -civilization several millenniums old. - -The Central Asiatic still speaks of Rome (Rum, modern Turkey) as -he spoke in the days of the Caesars; and when one listens to a -grey-beard as he depicts the might and the greatness of this land, -one might imagine that the invincible legions had only yesterday -combated the Parthians and that he was present as an auxiliary. -That his Rum (Turkey) is a state of but miserable proportions in -comparison with old Rome, is what he cannot believe. He has learned -to associate with that name glory and power. At the most, China may -be sometimes compared to Rome for might and resources; although the -legends that are told of this latter empire dwell rather on the -arts and the beauty than on the valour of the Chinese people. Russia -is regarded as the quintessence of all fraud and cunning, by which -means alone she has of late years contrived to effect her conquests. -As for England, it is well known that the late emir of Bokhara, on -the first occasion in which he came into contact with the British, -was quite indignant "that the Ingiliz, whose name had only risen to -notice within a few years, should dare to call themselves _Dowlet_ -(government) when addressing him." - -Extremely surprising to the stranger is the hospitality which is -to be found among the nomads of Central Asia. It is more abounding -than perhaps in any other portion of the east. Amongst the Turks, -Persians, and Arabs, there still linger faint memories of this -old duty, but our European tourists have had, I believe, ample -opportunity of satisfying themselves that all the washing of feet, -slaughter of sheep, and other good offices, are often only performed -in the hope of a rich _Bakhshish_, or _Pishkesh_, (as they say -in Persian.) It is true that the _Koran_ says, "Honour a guest, -even though he be an infidel;" but this doing honour is generally -the echo of orders issued from some consulate or embassy. Quite -otherwise in Central Asia. There hospitality is, I may say, almost -instinctive; for a nomad may be cruel, fierce, perfidious, but never -inhospitable. - -One of my fellow-beggars went, during my sojourn among the -Turkomans, on a round of begging visits, having first dressed -himself in his worst suit of rags. Having wandered about the -whole day he came at evening to a lonely tent, for the purpose of -lodging there for the night. On entering he was saluted in the -customary friendly manner; nevertheless he soon observed that the -master of the poverty-stricken establishment seemed to be in great -embarrassment, and moved hither and thither as if looking for -something. The beggar began to feel very uncomfortable when at last -his host approached him, and, deeply blushing, begged him to lend -him a few _krans_, in order that he might be able to provide the -necessary supper, inasmuch as he himself had nothing but dried fish, -and he wished to set something better before his guest. Of course -it was impossible to refuse such a request. My comrade opened the -purse which he carried under his rags, and when he had given his -host five _krans_, everything seemed to be satisfactorily arranged. -The meal was eaten amidst the most friendly conversation, and when -it was ended, the softest felt carpet was assigned to the stranger -as his couch, and in the morning he was dismissed with the customary -honours. - -"I was scarcely gone half an hour from the tent," so my friend -related his adventure subsequently to me, "when a Turkoman came -running towards me, and with violent threats demanded my purse. How -great was my astonishment when I recognised in the person of the -robber no other than my host of the previous night! I thought he -was joking, and began to address him in a friendly manner; but he -grew only more and more serious. So, in order to avoid unpleasant -consequences, there remained nothing for me but to hand over my -purse, a few leaves of tea, my comb, and my knife, in one word, -my whole property. Having so done, I was about to proceed on my -way, when he held me back, and opening my--that is to say now -his--purse, and taking out five _krans_, gave them to me with these -words:--'Take my debt of yesterday evening. We are now quits, and -you can go on your way.'" - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE COURT OF KHIVA. - - -The courts of oriental princes have been frequently and variously -described. Beginning with the shore of the Bosphorus, where Dolma -Bagtsche, Beshiktash and Serayburun furnish the first pictures in -the panorama, and ranging as far as the palaces of Pekin and Yedo, -we have read again and again of the love for ostentation and empty -splendour, the glitter of gold and diamonds of oriental life. But -to complete the series, a few sketches of life at the court of -Turkestan sovereigns are wanting, and the description of such may -not, therefore, be deemed superfluous. - -My readers must not expect either to be dazzled, or to have their -amazement and admiration excited, and yet it will repay the trouble -to accompany me through the tortuous streets of Khiva and the bazaar -with its vaulted roof to the Ark (the Royal Castle.) Like all the -residences of sovereigns in Central Asia, this castle is strangely -fortified and surrounded by a double wall. Through a narrow gate -we enter into the first court, which is crowded with the royal -body-guard and other soldiers and servants. Near the entrance two -cannons are planted, brought thither by the mighty Nadir, and -left behind on his hasty retreat. They are decorated with pretty -symmetrical ornaments, and seem to have been made at Delhi. After -having passed the second gate, we enter a more spacious court, with -a mean looking building on one side, not unlike an open coach-house; -it is here that the high officials pass the hours of office, the -Mehter (Minister of the Interior) presiding. To the left of this -building is a kind of guard-house, in which divers servants, -policemen and executioners live during the day time, awaiting the -commands of their royal master. A small gate leads between these two -buildings, to the residence of His Majesty of Khiva. On the outside -it resembles a poor mud-hut, like all the other houses in the town, -and is of course without windows, nor is any particular luxury to -be met with inside, except several large and valuable carpets, a -few sofas and round cushions, together with a considerable number -of chests--the entire furniture of this place--which serve in -some degree to remind us of the princely rank of the master. The -number of apartments is very small, and as every where the case, is -divided into the Harem, (the rooms set apart for the women,) and the -Selamdjay, (the reception hall.) - -Nowhere are any signs of splendour perceptible; the large train of -followers alone mark the distinction, the lacqueys are the sole -insignia of the ruler. Let us pass them in review before us. At the -head of the household is the Desturkhandji, (literally, the man who -spreads the table cloth,) whose peculiar office is to superintend -the royal table. He is present during dinner, clothed in full armour -and state dress, and on him devolves the inspection and control -of the entire number of servants. Next to him follows the Mehrem, -a kind of valet de chambre _in officio_, but in reality rather a -privy councillor, who shares in the business of the state besides -his immediate domestic affairs, and, conjointly with the former, -exercises the most powerful influence upon his royal master. Then -follows the rest of the servants, of whom each has his distinct -office. The Ashpez, or cook, prepares the food, whilst the Ashmehter -serves it. The Sherbetshi prepares tea, sherbet, and other drinks, -but he is expected to be skilled besides in the decoction of -wonder-working elixirs. The Payeke is entrusted with the tchilim -(pipe,) which at court is made of gold or silver, and must be -replenished with fresh water every time it is filled with tobacco. -This office does not exist in any other court in Central Asia, -tobacco being strictly forbidden by law. His Tartar Majesty has no -dressing room, it is true, but, nevertheless, several servants are -appointed to assist at the toilet. Whilst the Shilaptshi kneeling -holds the wash-hand basin, the Kumgandshi (the man who holds the -can or jug) pours the water from a silver or golden vessel, and -the Rumaldshi is ready, as soon as the two former have withdrawn, -to throw the towel to the prince, holding it with the tips of -his fingers. The Khan has an especial Sertarash (who shaves the -head,) who is expected to have nimble fingers and at the same time -a skilful hand for squeezing the skull, a favourite operation -throughout the east. Then the prince possesses a Ternaktshi, or nail -cutter, a Khadimdshi, whose duty it is to knead and pummel his back, -also to kneel upon him and make his limbs crack, whenever the Khan, -after long fatigue, wishes to refresh himself. Lastly, there is a -Toeshektshi, or bed maker, whose office it is to spread out at night -the soft pieces of felt or the mattresses. The magnificent harness, -saddles and weapons are in charge of the Khaznadshi (treasurer,) -who, whenever the sovereign rides out in public, walks beside him. -The Djigadj, or keeper of the plumes, walks at the head of the train -of servants. - -In dress and food, the prince's household is little distinguished -from that of rich merchants or officials of rank. The king wears -the same heavy cap of sheep-skin, the same clumsy boots, stuffed -out with several yards of linen rags, the same thickly-wadded coats -of print or silk as his subjects, and, like them, endures in this -Siberian costume, under the oppressive heat of July, a state of -fearful perspiration. On the whole, the position of the Prince of -Kharezm is one little to be envied, nay, I feel inclined to say, -it is far more wretched than that of other Eastern princes. In a -country, where pillage and murder, anarchy and lawlessness, are -the rule, and not the exception, a sovereign has to maintain his -authority by inspiring his subjects with the utmost dread and -almost superstitious terror for his person; never with affection. -Even those nearest to him fear him for his unlimited power; and wife -and children, as well as relations, not unfrequently attempt his -life. At the same time, the sovereign is expected to be the model -of Islamitic virtue and OEzbeg manners and customs; every most -trifling, insignificant error of his Majesty, becomes the talk of -the town; and although nobody would venture to blame him for very -considerable offences, yet in the former case it is the influential -Mollahs who would feel affronted,--a result entirely opposed to the -interests of the sovereign. - -The Khan, like every orthodox Mussulman, is obliged to leave his -bed before sun-rise, and to be present at the morning prayer in -full assembly. It lasts rather more than half an hour, after which -he partakes of several dishes of tea, seasoned with fat and salt. -Not unfrequently some of the learned Mollahs are invited, in order -to enliven the breakfast, by explaining some sacred precept or -arguing upon some religious question, of which his highness rarely -of course understands anything. Profound discussions generally -invite sleep, and no sooner does his Majesty begin to snore aloud, -when the learned men take it as a signal to withdraw. This sleep -is called the morning doze, and lasts from two to three hours. -When it is over, the selam (reception) of the ministers and other -high dignitaries commences, and the Khan enters in full earnest -upon his duties as sovereign. Consultations are held as to the -maurauding expeditions to be undertaken, politics are discussed -in reference to the neighbouring state of Bokhara, the Yomut- -and Tchaudor-Turkomans, the Kasaks, and at present probably the -Russians, who are pushing their advances nearer and nearer;--or -the governors of the provinces and the tax-gatherers, who had been -sent out over the country, have to submit to the Khan and his -ministers their several accounts. Every farthing has to be paid over -with the most scrupulous accuracy, and woe to that man in whose -account the smallest error is detected; it may happen that he is -dismissed, leaving his head behind. And now, after having transacted -for several hours the ordinary business of the state, breakfast -is served, consisting for the greater part of rather light food, -that is to say, "light" for an OEzbeg digestion--the dejeuner a -la fourchette of his Majesty of Khiva sufficing in all probability -for several of our active working men at home. During this meal all -present have to stand round respectfully and look on, and after -having finished, he invites one or the other of his favourites -to sit down and play with him at chess,--an amusement which is -continued until the time for mid-day prayer. This lasts about an -hour. When it is over, his Majesty proceeds to the outer court, and -taking his seat on a kind of terrace, the arz (public audience) -takes place, to which every rank, every class is admitted,--men, -women, and children, either in the greatest neglige or even half -naked. All crowd round the entrance, where amidst noise and -shouting they wait for audience. Each in turn is admitted, but only -one person at a time, who is allowed to approach quite close to his -sovereign; to speak out freely and without reserve, to make entreaty -or complaint, nay, to engage even in the most violent altercation -with the Khan, the smallest sign from whom would suffice to deliver -his subject, without any reason whatever, into the hands of the -executioner. Thus the East is, and ever was from times immemorial, -the land of the most striking contradictions. The inexperienced may -interpret this as love of strict justice. I, however, see in it -nothing but a whimsical habit of demeanour, permitting one person -to defy the royal authority in the coarsest terms of speech, while -another forfeits his life for the smallest offence against the rules -of propriety. - -At the arz not only all great and important lawsuits are settled, -and sentences of death pronounced and executed; but even trifling -differences are not unfrequently adjusted, as for instance, a -quarrel between a husband and wife, or between one man and his -neighbour on account of some few pence or the stealing of a hen. No -complainant whatever can be refused a hearing; and although the Khan -may send him to the Kadi, yet he must first listen to whatever he -has to say. The afternoon prayer alone puts an end to this wearisome -occupation. Later in the day the prince takes his customary ride on -horseback outside the town, and usually returns just before sunset. -Evening prayers again are said in full assembly, and these ended, -the prince retires to take his supper. The servants, and all those -who do not live in the palace, withdraw, and the king remains alone -with his confidants. Supper is a luxurious meal, and lasts longer -than any other. Spirituous drinks are seldom taken by the sovereigns -of Khiva and Bokhara, although the other members of the royal family -and the grandees frequently transgress on this point, and indulge -in the practice to excess. After the supper, singers and musicians -make their appearance, or jugglers, with their various performances. -Singing is very popular in Khiva, and the native singers of this -place are the most renowned in Turkestan, and indeed throughout the -whole Mahomedan East of Asia. The instrument upon which they excel -is called girdshek, and bears a general resemblance to our violin. -It has a longer neck and three strings, one of wire and two of silk; -the bow, too, is like our bow. Then there are the tambur and dutara, -on which instruments the Bakhshi plays the accompaniment to his -songs, improvised in praise of some popular hero of the day; whereas -at the royal court they select for the most part ghaseles from Nevai -and the Persian poets. The young princes are instructed in music, -and it often happens that the Khan invites them to perform either -alone or with the troubadours at court. Particular merriment and -good humour, such as presides at the drinking-bouts at Teheran, or -at the banquets in the palaces on the Bosphorus, is not to be met -with at the court of OEzbeg princes; it is unknown here, or at -least such is not the custom. The national character of the Tartar -is chiefly marked by seriousness and firmness; to dance, jump, or -show high spirits, is in his eyes only worthy of women or children. -I have never seen an OEzbeg person of good manners indulge in -immoderate laughter. - -About two hours after sunset the Khan retires to the harem, or to -his sleeping apartment, and with it his daily labours as sovereign -are ended. The harem is here very different from those of the -Turkish or Persian court. The number of women is limited, the -fairy-like luxuriousness of life in a harem is entirely wanting, -strict chastity and modesty pervade it; and in this respect the -court of Khiva is eminently superior to all Eastern courts. The -present Khan has only two lawful wives, although the Koran allows -four. These are always chosen from among the royal family; and it -is an extremely rare thing for the daughter of a dignitary, who -does not belong to the family, to be raised to this rank. The Khan, -although possessing the same unlimited power over his wife as over -any of his subjects, treats her without severity, and on the whole -with tenderness, unless she be found guilty of any particular -offence. She possesses no titles or prerogatives whatever; her court -is distinguished in nothing from the other harems, but that she has -more female servants and slaves about her; the former consisting of -the wives or daughters of officials, the latter for the most part -of Persian and a few dark Arab women. The daughters of Iran are -far inferior to the OEzbeg women in personal beauty, and their -mistress has no cause to fear from either of them any rivalry. As -regards their intercourse with the outer world, the princesses -of Khiva are far more restricted than the wives of other Eastern -potentates. The rules of modesty require that they should pass the -greater part of the day in the harem, where comparatively little -time is lavished upon the embellishments of the toilet. And in fact, -the ladies of the harem have very little leisure for idleness, since -in accordance with the custom of the country it is desirable that -the greater part of the clothes, carpets, and other stuffs, for the -use of the prince, should be prepared by the hand of his wife. This -custom reminds one strongly of the patriarchal mode of life of which -Turkestan, in spite of its roughness, has preserved many remnants of -simple refinement. - -The princess of Khiva is permitted occasionally to visit the -neighbouring royal summer palaces and chateaux, never on horseback, -as is the general custom in Persia, but in a large carriage, painted -with gaudy colours, and completely covered and shut in with red -carpets and shawls. Before and behind the vehicle trot a couple -of horsemen, furnished with white staves. On her progress all -rise respectfully from their seats and salute her with a profound -bow. Nobody thinks of daring to cast a look of curiosity into the -interior of the carriage; not only would this be useless, so closely -is it covered, but such temerity would have to be atoned for by -death, whether the object be the wife of the sovereign or any -subordinate official. Whenever the Queen of Persia takes a ride on -horseback, the numerous ferrash (servants) who head the cavalcade -cut right and left with their sabres at the crowd, who disperse in -terror and confusion, in spite of their eager curiosity. Such a -proceeding, however, is not necessary with the grave OEzbegs; for -here life in the harem is not regulated with the same severity, and -it is well known that the less strictly its laws are administered, -the less frequently they are transgressed. - -During the summer the royal family inhabit the castles of Rafenek -and Tashhauz, near Khiva. Both were erected in the Persian style -by former princes, and are distinguished by possessing some -window-panes and small looking-glasses--the latter, especially, -being considered articles of great luxury in the eyes of the people -of Khiva. Tashhauz has not been built without taste. The chateau -stands in a large garden; it has several reservoirs, and resembles -the castle of Nigaristan, near the town gate, Shimran at Teheran. -The winter is spent in the town, but when here his OEzbeg highness -occupies a light tent which is pitched inside the walls; and -herein he shows no bad taste, for the round-shaped dwelling, made -of snow-white felt, with a cheerful fire burning brightly in the -middle, is not only quite as warm as any building of stone, but -there is something pleasant about it, and it makes a far less gloomy -impression than the windowless mud-huts of Turkestan. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -JOY AND SORROW. - - -Joy and sorrow are undoubtedly the mirror, in which not only is -the character of a people clearly reflected, but which likewise -offers the most faithful image of their manners and customs. In joy -and sorrow every sign of dissimulation vanishes, man shows himself -in his true colours, and the lights and shades of his temperament -become at once apparent; for, in any matter of real feeling, it is -vain to try to speak and act differently to the dictates of this -potent voice within us. And nowhere is a better opportunity offered -for studying the various features of joy and sorrow, than at a -birth, marriage, and death,--those three stages in the great family -of mankind. The main outlines are no doubt everywhere the same, but -in the colouring and composition a variety is produced, not found -even among civilized nations. Ethnography has frequently thrown -light on this subject in different parts of the world; but we must -confess that Central Asia in this respect is wrapt in considerable -obscurity. To attempt to dispel this darkness may therefore not be -deemed superfluous; and, the savage Polynesian and Central African -having resisted vainly the spirit of inquiry, we will in like manner -raise the veil from the rude and suspicious OEzbeg. It is a first -attempt, and consequently a feeble one. - - -1. BIRTH. - -As soon as a woman in Central Asia (I refer to a settled family), -about to become a mother, feels the first pangs of childbirth, she -sends for her neighbour, her nearest relations, a midwife, and a -nurse for the child. A new felt or carpet is spread out in the tent -or room, and upon this the woman is placed, with her legs doubled -under her. As the pains increase, her nearest relations squat round -her; and she, flinging both her arms round the neck of two of her -most intimate friends, the midwife seizes her by the thighs, and -moves her about, until she has been delivered of the child. She is -now placed upon a bed, the relations taking the mother under their -care, and the midwife having charge of the child. The former is -restored to strength by friction on the temples and pulse, whilst -the midwife sets about cutting out swaddling-clothes from a new -piece of linen, in which she wraps the infant, strictly observing -the various superstitious customs. Then taking the remainder of -the linen to the mother, she informs her of the sex and appearance -of her child; she also is the bearer of the happy tidings to the -father, from whom she receives a present on this occasion. In -fact, the kindik kesen (swaddling-clothes maker) plays a very -important part in the whole affair. For three days the child is -invisible to every one, during which time it is frequently smeared -over with butter, and, to prevent any redness in them, which is -considered extremely objectionable, the eyes are washed with salt -water. It is then clothed in a little shirt, and finally it is -laid upon a pillow of camel's hair, and exhibited. Now all the -friends and acquaintances pay their visits, and the husband offers -a present to his wife, who is anxious to hear from her guests their -prognostications as to the future of her child, which experienced -matrons draw from the limbs and movements of its little body. Thus -for instance, it is a bad sign, if it has entered the world with -the left foot or hand first; a small apple of the eye augurs that -her offspring will be a thief; a broad forehead denotes valour; a -restless kicking of the feet future wealth, and so forth. Every -one scrutinizes the infant with insignificant gestures; and well -might the fear of the evil eye make the mother uneasy, but that she -herself has tied the white magic-stone on the left arm of her child. - -After the chille (forty days) have elapsed, festivities begin. -In the case of a girl, not much is done; but if the child be a -boy, even the poorest make every effort to gather round them a -considerable number of guests, and to feast them as sumptuously as -possible. Grand banquets, horse-racing, wrestling and music, are the -order of the day; and finally, a special celebration in honour of -the birth, the so-called Altin Kabak, takes place, which consists -in hanging up a golden or silver ball on the top of a high tree, -and whosoever brings it down at the first shot, with either ball or -arrow, gains this prize, together with a certain number of sheep, -and often even camels and horses. - -During the first year the greatest care is taken to guard the -child against cats, evil spirits, and other dangerous influences, -after which time the above-mentioned white stone is replaced by a -round-shaped bone, and on his little cap are hung the argushtek (a -piece of wood, carved and dyed mysteriously), a nusha (amulet), -which must be written by the hand of some learned man, several -corals, the tooth of an hyaena, and, if circumstances permit, a small -bag with holy earth from the grave of Mohamed. All these things, -together, often make up a considerable weight, which presses very -heavily on the head of the poor little creature; but this is not -taken into consideration. On the contrary; the mother examines with -jealous care to see that not a single thing be found wanting, each -being looked upon as a certain means of protection against so many -dangers. - -In Central Asia, as throughout the whole East, children are allowed -but a very few years to devote merely to play. Girls are early -taught to spin, weave, sew, to make cheese, &c.; and boys are put on -horseback, and learn to ride as early as their fifth year, and are -employed as horsemen in sham fights, and as jockeys in horse races -in, and even before, their tenth year. It is only the more wealthy -parents who give their children in charge of a Mollah. When they -have learned to read, the Korantoy, or the festival of the Koran, -is celebrated, which is of the same nature as the Chatemdueyuenue of -the Osmanlis, with this difference: that the latter takes place when -the lad has, for the first time, read through the sacred book of -Mohamed, and here, when he begins reading. - - -2. MARRIAGE. - -Although childhood is of short duration among the OEzbegs, yet a -youth does not receive the name of yighid (a mature youth) until -his eighteenth year, nor the girl that of kiz (virgin) before she -is sixteen years old. In the country the intercourse between the -two sexes is not in the least degree influenced by the Koran. Here, -as in Western countries, we see the "rosy play of love" represented -with all its joys and sorrows, all its fascination and enthusiasm. -At first I felt amazed that the tenderest of feelings should find -room in the heart of a man in Central Asia, accustomed as he is -from his earliest youth to robbery and murder, and hardened to the -tears of widows, orphans and slaves. But I had the opportunity of -convincing myself, that love is here more frequently the cause of -the most extraordinary adventures than in other Mahomedan countries. -The OEzbeg is passionately devoted to music and poetry, and hence -it is but natural that his heart should be susceptible to the -emotions of love. - -When two young people have formed a mutual attachment the secret -is entrusted to their parents, and if these make no objections, -the young man opens the transaction by despatching two female -ambassadors, Soutchi Khatin, to ask them formally for the hand of -their daughter. The parents, for the most part, have been previously -informed of the demand, and receiving the embassy with honour and -distinction, they express their satisfaction at the offer, but -refrain from giving any decisive answer. To pronounce a regular -straightforward "yes," is contrary to the rules of propriety, and -the young man has to interpret, from trivial allusions, whether his -suit will be granted or not. The next thing is to talk over the -kalim (marriage portion) which the man is ready or able to give -for his future wife. The question is always, how many times nine, -i.e., how many times nine sheep, cows, camels or horses, or how -many times nine ducats, as is the custom in a town, the father is -to receive for giving up his daughter. The less wealthy give twice -nine, the wealthier six times nine, and the Khan alone has to pay -nine times nine, for the purchase of his bride. The kalim having -been settled, the next question to be considered is one of great -importance, the eginbash (present in ornaments) to be presented by -the future husband. It consists of eight rings, yuezuek, a semi-tiara -(sheghendjin), a tiara (shekerguel), a bracelet (bilezik), ear-rings -(isirga), nose-rings (arabek), and ornaments for the neck (oengueluek). -This whole set of ornaments must be presented complete, and not a -single article wanting; it is also previously settled, whether it is -to consist of gold or silver. No doubt a man in Central Asia has to -pay dearly for his wife. The negotiations are generally a protracted -business; and finally, when every thing is definitely settled, -neighbours and relations are invited to the fatiha toy (feast of -promise), which is celebrated for two days in the home of the future -bride, and two more in that of the future husband. The Mollah, or -some grey-beard, announces the new arrangement to the guests. He -tells them the exact purchase-price for the girl, and when the -wedding is to take place, and concludes his short address with a -fatiha, after which the festivities begin and are continued for four -days. In entertainments of this kind, called toy, all the guests are -assembled in one and the same apartment, but form different groups. -The upper part of the room is occupied by the elderly people; the -women range themselves along the right side of the wall and the -girls and lads sit down in some corner, generally near the musicians -and singers. The toy consists not merely in eating and drinking, -but there is also music and singing, and above all, horse-racing, -which latter forms the chief part of all festivities in Central -Asia. Prizes of considerable value are given, and young and old take -the most lively interest in the sport. The race-course varies from -one to three fersakh in length; on the former only two year olds -are admitted, on the latter full-grown strong horses. Two villages -are chosen, lying at this distance apart, and whilst the crowd are -assembling in one of them, a toy emini, steward, is appointed in -the other. It is his duty to see that a fair start is effected, -and that horse is proclaimed the winner, who first passes the goal -which is fixed at the entrance of the opposite village. The horses -are trained for several weeks for the race, and are ridden by young -boys, who wear on this occasion short and tight-fitting clothes, -very similar to those worn by jockeys in England. - -The interval between the fatiha toy and the marriage is fixed -according to the age of the "promessa." A week before the wedding, -the toyluk (food for the wedding) is sent by the man to the house -of his future wife; and consists of meat, flour, rice, fat, sugar -and fruit. Soon after, his mother and nearest female relations -arrive, who have been invited as guests for several weeks. Two days -before the beginning of the festival the future husband mounts his -horse, and, surrounded by his friends, all of whom, as well as their -horses, are decked out in the gayest colours, goes also to the home -of her parents, his father alone remaining behind, not for the sake -of taking care of the house, but in order to make all necessary -preparations for the due reception of the newly-married couple on -their return. - -Meanwhile, in the house of the future wife, where the first days -of the marriage-feast are celebrated, the greatest bustle and -activity prevails. The young girls have to do the cooking, and are -fully employed with their gigantic cauldrons. The quantity of food -brought together for an OEzbeg wedding is as enormous as the -appetite of the numerous guests. Whilst the young girls are busy at -cooking and baking, the young swains carry on a lively flirtation -with them. The galant homme, who is lucky enough to obtain from his -beloved a bone or some tit-bit out of the cauldron, regards the gift -as a signal sign of favour, but still more lucky is he who gets a -few sharp raps with the cooking ladle, the highest of all favours, -and appreciated far above the daintiest morsels. Men and women -gather round the fire-place in groups, laughing, talking, joking and -shrieking, whilst musicians play and sing, and children shout and -yell. These noises are mingled with the bleating of sheep, barking -of dogs, neighing of horses and braying of donkeys, while loud above -the general hubbub is heard the clown's stentorian voice in coarse -sallies of OEzbeg wit and humour. He is the very life of the whole -party. His gesticulations, the grimaces with which he accompanies -his jests, give rise to continual bursts of laughter. Now he mimics -this person or that, now he tells of some droll prank or merry -adventure, or whistles like a bird and mews like a cat, and thus he -has to continue without interruption, although from sheer exertion -the perspiration runs down his face in streams. - -It is a strange custom that, for the last few days before his -wedding, the young man is not allowed to leave his tent, the young -girl and her companions watching it, meanwhile, with looks of the -utmost curiosity. It is said that friends and relations sometimes -assist in bringing about a secret _tete-a-tete_, but not until after -the marriage ceremony is he permitted to mix with the company. -This ceremony takes place at the end of the second day, in the -presence of the whole assembly. Each party is represented by two -witnesses, to whom the Mollah puts the question, whether the two -young people mutually agree as to the marriage. He then proceeds at -once to perform the ceremony, when the witnesses of the young girl -put in their veto. They declare (with a feigned reluctance) their -unwillingness to give up the treasure entrusted to them, unless -the young man should present them with a certain sum of money, or -some other present. He finds the demand exorbitant, and now begins -a bargaining and haggling, which continues until both parties are -satisfied, when the solemn ceremony is at last performed. The -Mollah reads aloud the permission of the reis (religious chief,) -the witnesses attest on oath, and with significant gestures, the -marriage compact, a short prayer is read, and the ceremony is over. - -The bride now hands round fruit and a rich cake, and distributes -white kerchiefs, garments, or other presents among the Mollahs, -grey-beards, and above all, the young men who have acted as -witnesses. - -The bridegroom now makes his appearance, but is not permitted to -approach the company nearer than a few steps from the door! and -all having partaken of an enormous repast, the festivities in the -bride's home terminate. - -The elderly, as well as the married folk, now take their departure, -but the young people remain, and pack the bride and her marriage -portion on a sort of carriage, and thus accompanied by her female -companions and friends, she sets out for the home of her husband. -The journey, called bolush, is protracted as much as possible, and -often when the distance is short, one or two long circuits are -made, in order to have the opportunity of continuing the amusements -on the road. The bride sits in the first carriage with her future -sister-in-law, the young men accompany the procession on horseback, -and he who can manage to force his way first to the front, riding -full gallop, receives from her a handkerchief as the prize. The -others try to snatch it from him, he flies and is pursued, and -the chase does not cease till he has reached the carriage again. -The handkerchiefs thus gained are tied to the horse's head, and -preserved a long time as valuable trophies.[11] Whenever the -procession passes a village on the route, they are generally -stopped, and a toll is demanded. The sister-in-law sitting next -the bride distributes cake, and the passage is again free. Amidst -continued sport and chaff the bride arrives at the home of her -husband, and no sooner does she draw near it, than she wraps her -veil around her, changing her merry expression of face to one of -the utmost gravity. Her father-in-law lifts her from the carriage, -conducts her into the room, and leads her to a tent improvised with -curtains and carpets in a corner of the apartment. The husband -soon follows her, and for the second time raises her veil in the -presence of his father, who compliments his daughter-in-law on her -charming appearance, the first sight of which he has to requite with -presents. The young couple are left alone, but have to endure for -some time the jokes of the noisy crowd assembled outside the tent, -who are eager to exhibit on these occasions their slender store of -wit and humour. They disperse late at night, and at last all is -quiet. - - [11] In Hungary we find the same practice prevailing at the present - day, for the custom of tying coloured handkerchiefs to the heads of - the horses at marriage feasts most probably has its origin in this - ancient usage. - -Among the Turkomans and Kirghis it is customary for newly-married -people to be separated for a whole year, after they have lived -together for a few days, and although the husband is allowed to make -his appearance in the house of his wife, it must be only at night -and in the most clandestine manner. In the opinion of the nomads, -married life, in its beginning, is made all the more pleasant by -acting up to the proverb, "stolen kisses taste the sweetest," and -hence also the belief, that the first born child must always be -handsome and vigorous. - -The great national festival, called noruz (new year), of the -OEzbegs, has been transmitted to them by the Persians, and is -celebrated in Central Asia with the same pomp which distinguishes -it in Persia, with this only difference, that the OEzbegs have -an old and a new noruz. The latter, however, is of no especial -importance. There is no lack of amusing games, but it is very -remarkable that some have degenerated into the most pernicious -gambling. Playing cards (sokti) are introduced from Russia (without -the court cards), but have not yet come into general use. The -favourite game is the Ashik-game (Ashik--the anklebones of sheep), -which is played in the manner of European dice with the four -anklebones of a sheep, and with a degree of passionate excitement -of which one can form no idea. The upper part of the bone is called -tava, the lower altchi, and the two sides yantarap. The player -takes these four little bones into the palm of his hand, throws -them up and receives half of the stake, if two tava or two altchi, -and the whole of the stake, if all four tava or altchi turn up. The -advantage to be gained arises entirely from dexterity in throwing; -trickery is impossible, since the bones are frequently changed. -This game is equally popular with the dweller in settlements as -with the nomad; and although apparently a trivial amusement, it -not unfrequently happens that the Ashik player, in the heat of his -passion, stakes the whole of his possessions, nay, even his wife. -Mankind, in fact, are everywhere the same. The refined European -makes his offerings at rouge et noir upon the green table; the -OEzbeg on the sandy ground with four anklebones. - - -3. DEATH. - -Whenever a member of a family is on the point of death, his nearest -relations usually leave the house or tent. The Mollah, or the -elderly among the neighbours, surround the dying man, watching for -the last breath and repeating the customary prayers, while outside -the air is filled with wailing and lamentations. If he should have -been lying speechless for some time, some wool is moistened by his -friends, and water dropped into his mouth, for fear lest, deprived -of his speech, he might die of thirst. The rolling of the eyes and -the contraction of the nose are regarded as symptoms of death; and -no sooner has the dying man drawn his last breath than his jaws are -tied up, and the body is stripped and then covered over. The clothes -are destroyed, for even the poorest OEzbeg could not be persuaded -to put on anything worn by a dying man. - -The corpse is not allowed to be kept longer than twelve or fifteen -hours, in accordance with the custom among all Mahomedan nations. -It is not washed upon a board, but on a mat (buria), which is -immediately after burnt; and the relations and neighbours, nay, -often the whole population of the place, having wept and wailed -their fill, the body is taken to be buried. The settled inhabitants -of Central Asia possess cemeteries for their dead, but among the -nomads each dead body is buried singly in the desert; and if he has -been a man of influence and consideration, a large mound (tumulus) -is generally raised over his grave, in the construction of which all -the male members of the tribe are expected to take part. The more -honoured the person, the higher and larger the mound (yoska). The -surviving relations look upon it with pride; on certain festivals, -and on the anniversary of the death, food or other presents are -placed upon it for the benefit of the poor; and no sooner does the -nomad come in sight of it, however great the distance may be, than -he mutters a short prayer for the repose of the dead. - -Men that fall in battle are neither undressed nor washed. The blood -of a brave soldier being regarded as his greatest adornment, is -consequently not removed. - -The funeral feast begins immediately after the burial with a simple -repast, at which the iyis (bread baked in fat) is distributed among -rich and poor, and must be eaten by everybody. The feast is repeated -on the third, seventh, and fortieth day after the death took place, -besides which the anniversary is celebrated in like manner,--a duty -which even the poorest would not omit to perform, for fear lest, -by neglecting it, the departed might appear to them at night, and, -exhorting the survivors, complain that they had forgotten to invite -those of this world who are to pray for the welfare of his soul. - -Among the nomads, the funeral feast occupies a more important -part. Once every week, throughout the first year, a repast is -prepared on the day of the death, and daily, as mentioned already -in our "Travels among the Turkomans," the women sing the song of -lamentation at the hour in which the member of the family breathed -his last. With the latter, moreover, the memory of a dead person -is held in the highest regard, and peculiar respect is paid to his -grave for a long time after, if he has fallen in battle, or on some -marauding expedition. The shaft of his lance is planted upon it, -and decked with various-coloured pieces of stuff, ram's horns, a -horse's tail, or like mementos,--friends and members of the same -tribe contributing, as a matter of course, every time they pass it. -The "yoskas" are called by the name of those that repose beneath; -children play around, but, however playfully inclined, are careful -not to climb upon them. It is even said, that horses go to visit -the yoskas of their former masters, and are seen standing before -them, with heads bent downward in mourning; and young warriors -habitually look with veneration on these mounds, and draw from them -the inspiration to their greatest deeds of valour. - -Whenever we happened to meet one of these graves in our travels in -the steppes of Central Asia, each member of our caravan was obliged -to tear off a little piece of his clothes and fasten it to the -shaft, or to a bench, or all joined in a hymn sung in his praise, -Karavan bashi saying every time: "He who does not honour the dead -will never receive honour from the living." - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -HOUSE, FOOD, AND DRESS. - - -The house, or fixed dwelling, has never, up to the present day, -gained a firm footing among the nations in Central Asia, not even -in those parts where regular settlements have existed for several -hundred years. Part of the population build houses for themselves, -but they are generally looked upon as gloomy places, producing -feelings of melancholy, and the light, airy tent is in all cases -preferred. It is principally the OEzbeg people who build houses, -an art they have learnt from the original Persian settlers, and, -as they resemble in many points the inhabitants of Iran, the -architecture in Central Asia is in the early Iranic style, and at -the same time very similar to the new Persian. - -The first thing before building a _house_, is to level and prepare -the ground by stamping it down with a heavy pounder. Foundations -are only made to large buildings. The common-sized houses are made -with a mud flooring, two feet high, and upon this, after it has -dried hard, the walls are raised with a layer of rushes or wood -underneath, in order to keep them from the damp rising from the -ground. The walls are either "tam," _i.e._, of clay or stone, -or "akchub," _i.e._, of wooden laths, laid crossways, and the -interstices filled up with clay and unbaked tiles. The ceiling -consists of planks, closely fitting together; in the houses of the -poor these are left bare, and in those of the rich they have a -coating of plaster and lime. Small holes serve as windows; they are -open in summer, and in winter are pasted over with oiled paper. The -roof, similar to those in Persia, is like a terrace, and serves as -a sleeping place during the heat of the summer. Regular bricklayers -are seldom met with. Every man is his own architect, convinced -of possessing sufficient knowledge to build for himself a house -suitable to his wants; and the plumb-line being still unknown, it is -not to be wondered at that the walls are crooked and uneven, bulging -either in or out, and soon become dilapidated. - -The interior arrangement of a house is as follows: you enter by a -wide gate, which forms the chief entrance, into a covered passage, -called dalar. To the right of the gate are one or two rather large -apartments (mihmankhane), which serve as reception-rooms for guests, -and contain weapons as well as useful domestic utensils. Next to -these are two small rooms, used as store-rooms. To the left are -the stable and the shed for the carts and trucks, whilst a small -door at the back of the dalar, opposite the entrance, leads to the -inner apartments or harem. These are for the most part ayvans, that -is, rooms which are open on one or two sides, and generally look -out upon a garden. In towns they are used as favourite summer -apartments, and it is really pleasant to live in them, especially -during the night, with a peshekhane, a square tent made of gauze, -like mosquito-nets, over one's bed, as a protection against catching -cold, which is as dangerous in Central Asia as it is in Persia. In -the country the dwellings are scattered. The farmstead (havli), -which consists of several different parts, is always surrounded with -a high wall for protection, and looks like a small fortress. The -interior is very roomy; on one side are the buildings, always lower -than the wall, on the other the tents, the fixed dwellings being set -apart here also exclusively for animals and store-rooms. Sometimes -the inner space is so large that a small kitchen-garden has found -room within it. Outside, but near the walls, is a large reservoir, -the edges of which are bordered with plantains, and afford a most -agreeable resting-place. These trees flourish admirably in this part -of Asia, where they are found of an astonishing height and breadth, -and reach the great age of from 300 to 400 years. On hot summer days -they afford the most refreshing shade, and for hours the OEzbeg -is seen sleeping beneath the spreading branches. Not only does the -thick foliage protect him from the burning rays, but the breeze, -which always blows under the plantains, drives away tormenting -insects. - -The furnitures of a house are the same as in Persia, and consist of -carpets, coverlets of felt, large chests, painted red, for keeping -clothes, some cauldrons and other vessels for cooking, and holding -water. Splendour or luxury are entirely wanting, and even the modern -improvements in windows and doors, met with sometimes, come from -Persia, from whence some clever and expert slave has introduced -them into Central Asia. Nothing can find its way here from Europe, -it has always to pass through the channel of Turkish and Persian -civilization, And everything travels its customary snail's pace; the -Persian imitates European institutions second hand from the Turks, -and the nations in Central Asia adopt nothing but what reaches them -through the medium of Persia. - -The _food_ of the Tartars consists principally of meat. Bread, in -many parts of the country, although not unknown, is yet a rare -luxury. Mutton is the favourite meat; next to this goat's flesh, -beef, and horse flesh; camel's flesh is least valued. Occasionally, -the horse is declared to be "mekruh" by the religious, and is not -eaten, but in the country little notice is taken of it; and the -_Torama_, horse flesh boiled soft and mixed up with onions, carrots -and dumplings, is a very popular dish. It is worthy of remark, that -the water first used in boiling the horse flesh is poured away, -as far too strong and heavy for even Tartar digestion, and that -only the second infusion can be eaten as broth. In some parts of -Central Asia sausages are made of the entrails, and considered a -dainty dish; but I have nowhere found, that the delicate parts of -this animal are held in such high favour among the OEzbegs as is -asserted throughout Persia. Camel's flesh is hard and tough; it is -cut in small pieces, covered with paste, boiled, and then fried in -lard. This dish, called _Somsa_, is not quite tasteless, but to our -digestions like a weight of lead. - -The favourite national dish is the _Palau_, also called ash, which, -though related to the pilau of the Persians and the pilaf of the -Turks, by far surpasses both these in savour. I have lived on it for -a long time, and willingly impart to Europeans my knowledge of how -it is prepared. A few spoonfuls of fat are melted (in Central Asia -the fat of the tail is usually taken) in a vessel, and as soon as -it is quite hot, the meat, cut up into small pieces, is thrown in. -When these are in part fried, water is poured upon it to the depth -of about three fingers, and it is left slowly boiling until the meat -is soft; pepper and thinly-sliced carrots are then added, and on the -top of these ingredients is put a layer of rice, after it has been -freed from its mucilaginous parts. Some more water is added, and -as soon as it has been absorbed by the rice the fire is lessened, -and the pot, well-closed, is left over the red-hot coals, until the -rice, meat and carrots, are thoroughly cooked in the steam. - -After half an hour the lid is opened, and the food served in -such a way that the different layers lie separately in the dish, -first the rice, floating in fat, then the carrots and the meat at -the top, with which the meal is begun. This dish is excellent, -and indispensable alike on the royal table and in the hut of the -poorest. From here it was introduced among the Afghans; by them to -the Persians, who call it kabuli (kabul). The pilau, if I am not -mistaken, has its origin in Central Asia, and spread from thence far -and wide over Western Asia. - -Another national dish of the Tartars is _Tchoerek_, a soup with small -dumplings in it, which are filled with spice and minced meat. I say -"a soup," and yet this dish alone suffices for a whole dinner, since -it is partaken of in such quantities that any other dish can be -easily dispensed with. It is known among the Osmanlis, by the name -of tatar boerek. Thirdly, _Sheoele_, a porridge of rice mixed up with -meat and dried meat. Fourthly, bulamuk, a dish consisting simply of -flour, water and fat. Fifthly, _Mestava_, rice boiled in sour milk, -a dish exclusively for the summer, as the former is for the winter. -Besides these dishes there are the _Yarma_, corn bruised and boiled -in milk; _Godje_, a kind of porridge, made of the molcussorghum; -and _Mashava_, likewise a porridge of grits, eaten with fat, and -sometimes with oil. Heavy, strong and piquant dishes are generally -preferred, few sweets are eaten, sugar and honey being unknown, -and the many syrups (shires) prepared of grapes, melons, and other -fruits, are rarely used in cooking. Of bread only enough for the -day's consumption is baked, as is the custom everywhere in Asia. The -dough is not made into thin cakes, as in Persia, but into round -thick loaves, such as are used in the neighbourhood of Erzerum, and -are called lavash. There is also a sort of biscuit baked in fat, -eaten when travelling. - -Among the settled nations of Central Asia, tea is the favourite -drink, and among the nomads, especially the Kirghis tribe, it is -the _Kuemis_. In summer they drink green tea, which thins the blood -and promotes digestion; but in winter a black tea (brick tea) of a -very harsh taste and an extraordinary stimulant; its effects are -for a long time unbearable, and must be very dangerous. Cooling -drinks are the _Airan_, sour milk mixed with water, and various -decoctions made of dried fruit. Coffee is entirely unknown; even in -Persia it is only met with in the southern province of Fars, and in -Irak among the higher classes. Wine and brandy are sometimes sold -secretly in the capitals, by Jews who manufacture both, but the -number of consumers is very small. The Islamitic laws are severe on -this point, and forbid, under pain of death, the use of spirituous -liquors, but they do not prevent the vice of intoxication. Those who -wish for stimulants use opium, teriak, or other narcotic poisons, -and thus, in order to obviate a small evil, the door is opened to a -much larger one, the gratification of which costs health and life. - -The wretched poverty among the inhabitants of Central Asia is shown -in nothing more strongly than in their _dress_, and the eye is with -difficulty accustomed to the simple cotton stuff, or silks of -glaring colours, in which every one is clothed, man and woman, young -and old. Cloth or other European manufactures are only exhibited on -extraordinary festive occasions, and are worn by wealthy or great -dignitaries, as a _ne plus ultra_ of luxury. At any other time, -whether winter or summer, a garment, the so-called _Aladja_, is -worn, and the only difference made in the various seasons is, that -they put in a thicker lining, of either linen, wool, or fur. The -cut of it is, perhaps, the most primitive among all the settled -nations of Asia. No one has any idea of dressing tastefully and -yet conveniently, or of setting off their figure to advantage, the -only object is to cover or rather envelope it, and the Persian is -perfectly right when he satirically says of his rude neighbours, -that the whole nation moves about wrapt up in bed clothes. The -_Tchapan_ (upper coat) is the chief article of a man's wardrobe; it -is not unlike our European dressing gowns, and cut out in Khiva so -as to fit the body pretty well; in Bokhara it is already so large -that two people can envelop themselves in it, and in Khokand it is -widest of all. It is a highly ludicrous sight to see a man trot -along in this smock-frock-like garment, full of folds, and puffing -out at every part, and though I can well understand the many folds -round the chest, forming as they do a receptacle for a whole set of -cooking utensils, and all the necessaries for travelling, and food -to last at least for two days, yet it will always be a mystery to -me why the sleeves are twice as long as the arms, and what is the -advantage of tucking them up and making an enormous roll or puff on -the top of the arm. Under the tchapan is worn in summer a _Yektey_ -(a thin under dress), and under this the shirt, which reaches down -to the ankles, and is distinguished from other shirts, worn in Asia, -by being open on the left shoulder instead of in front, very much -like a sack. At night the Turkestans have the strange habit, before -going to sleep, of drawing their arms out of their shirt sleeves, -and doubling themselves up. In winter an extra garment, _Tchekmen_, -of ample dimensions and made of coarse stuff, is added to this -costume. In some parts of the country, especially in Khiva, where -the cold is greater, thickly-wadded, clumsy trousers are worn. As -a covering for the head they wear in Khiva the telpek, a broad, -conical-shaped hat of fur, which is very heavy; throughout Bokhara -the turban is worn. It has a very picturesque appearance, with its -long loops hanging down on the left side, and the trim natty way in -which it is put on. In Khokand a small light cap used to be worn -until twenty years ago, not unlike our clergyman's scapula (skull -cap,) but since then it has yielded to Bokhariot civilisation, -and has been supplanted by the turban. As to boots, those made in -Bokhara and Khokand are the best. The leather is good, the shape -rather handsome, but for the ludicrously long and thin heel, the end -of which is scarcely broader than a nail's head. People of rank wear -a kind of stocking made of morocco leather (mest), and over these, -shoes, of which the best are made in Samarkand. - -With respect to the dress of the women, it seems as if they -were still more desirous than the men to avoid any approach to -ostentation, luxury or smartness. When in undress, the women wear -in summer a long shirt, reaching down to the ankles, the hind part -of which is made of coarse linen, and the front mostly of a light -coloured strong Russian print. The trousers are in like manner made -of linen down to the knee, and the lower part, which fits close to -the ankle, is made of print, or any other coloured stuff. The women -wear in winter, over the shirt, one or two thickly-wadded jackets, -fastened round the loins with a shawl. When abroad they put over -all this a long garment, not unlike a man's coat, in which the -woman muffles herself, holding it tightly together with both hands -across her chest. The feet are covered with clumsy boots. It is a -sorry sight to see a town woman of Central Asia walk about in this -wretched costume, with her whole attention engrossed by the effort -not to let the over-coat escape from her hands, since she would -be regarded as an impudent woman indeed, if she allowed her under -garments to be seen, and although the boldest stare cannot penetrate -the coarse veil of horse-hair, yet she has to be for ever on the -watch not to attract the looks of the passers by. - -In the country, women are allowed to move with less restraint. -Married women are seldom veiled, young girls never. The overcoat -is shorter, and is merely thrown across the shoulder, and the -broad shawl girded round the waist, with long ends fluttering to -the breeze, gives a certain picturesqueness to their appearance. -This indulgence, however, is only enjoyed in Khiva and Khokand; -in Bokhara, even in the country, the tyrannical laws of Islamitic -civilisation are executed with great severity, and it is rare to -meet with an exception. - -Among the men, various objects of ornament are seen, those which -hang from the _Koshbag_, such as good knives with silver or other -ornamented handles, gold-embroidered bags for tea, pepper and salt; -further, rings for the fingers, tesbih (rosaries,) seals sometimes, -but rarely, bracelets, gold and silver sheaths for amulets and -watches, which latter are especial articles of luxury, and only to -be found among the great. The objects of ornament among women I -have already mentioned when speaking of the customs at weddings. It -is useless to look for comfort or luxury either in the dwellings, -food, or clothing of the natives of Central Asia, every thing here -bears the impress of very ancient manners and customs, and every one -conforms to them willingly, not wishing for anything better. The -government, supported by the Mollahs, labours to keep up this status -quo of things, by declaring all foreign productions contraband, -and endeavouring to supplant them in the market, for fear the -inhabitants of Turkestan might become aware of their poverty, and -attribute it, not to the natural, but to the social circumstances -of their country. And yet such an endeavour is fruitless, railroads -and steam vessels bring their powerful veto, even in these rude -countries, to bear upon a whole nation's backwardness. The ships -which plough the Indian Ocean, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the -Lake of Aral, the Volga, and, at the present time, the Yaxartes -likewise, have considerably lessened the distance between Central -Asia and the west of Europe. The locomotives, which on the south run -as far as Lahore, on the north to Nishnei-Novgorod, and astonish -and perplex the eastern nations, are still, it is true, far from -the inland waters of the Oxus and Yaxartes; yet, nevertheless, they -exercise a considerable influence upon the communication of these -countries. The OEzbeg trader need only go as far as Orenburg on -the one, and Peshawur on the other side, and he has St. Petersburg, -Bombay, and the whole of Europe before him. Inaccessible as Central -Asia still is to all scientific, as well as commercial travellers, -yet within the last twenty-five years an essential material -advancement is apparent. We need only look over the custom-house -list of the English and Russian frontier towns, and we should be -surprised at the enormous increase of articles imported from Europe. -From 1840 to 1850 goods were transported across the Russian frontier -of nearly a million pounds sterling in value, and in the year 1860 -they amounted already to the value of two millions. Cotton and silk -stuffs have been more largely imported than any other goods, and -in spite of the detestation and horror felt towards the producer, -the productions of the west grow more and more in request, and are -well paid for. Cottons, handkerchiefs and cambrics, as is well -known, are the great forerunners of civilisation, the mute apostles -of western culture, who spread blessings in their path, even though -European arms and military tactics occasionally accompany their -footsteps. And, however much the condition of half savage nations -may be extolled for its happiness by foolish and weak-brained -enthusiasts, yet a practical observer must feel convinced that our -civilisation is preferable, and that it is a sacred duty on our part -to transplant it to every clime and country. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -FROM KHIVA To KUNGRAT AND BACK. - - -The young Mollah from Kungrat, who had joined our caravan in order -to reach Samarkand, was planning to go and take leave of his native -town and kindred whilst we were staying at Khiva; and great was his -joy when he learned that I was desirous of accompanying him thither, -partly from a wish to make a begging tour and collect all I could, -and partly for the sake of escaping the uncomfortable crowding in -hot, sultry Khiva. In his delight he promised me mountains of gold, -describing everything in the most glowing colours, to sustain me in -my resolve. I needed, however, no urging, too glad to meet with such -an opportunity; and two days after I was actually on my way to Yengi -Urgendj, from whence I hoped to reach the Oxus, where a half-laden -vessel was ready to take us on board for a moderate fare. - -The journey from Khiva to Kungrat is chiefly made by water in the -summer, and down the river at high water it never lasts longer than -five days; that is, during the very heat of summer, when the river -has reached its greatest height, owing to the melting of the snow -on the Hindukush and the tops of the Bedakhshan mountains. In the -autumn and spring, at low water, the voyage lasts longer, and in -winter it is entirely interrupted, the Oxus being in many parts, -although not wholly, covered with ice. - -The traveller can take ship, if so inclined, from the very walls -of Khiva, that is, on the canal Hazreti Pehlivan, but not without -making a great _detour_, since its mouth is to the south, near -Hezaresp, instead of being to the north. The same objection applies -to the second canal, Gazavat, which is at a considerable distance -from the town, and flows rather eastward than northward. For this -reason the traveller prefers to go to Yengi Urgendj, the first -manufacturing and commercial city in the Khanat, and then on to -Akhun Baba, the tomb of a saint, with a few scattered havlis -(farmsteads) near it, which is situated on the banks of the Oxus, -and is the first stage on the road. The distance is about eighteen -English miles, in a well cultivated and tolerably populous district, -the road leading through fields, gardens and meadows. Here are -found the finest mulberry trees in the greatest abundance, and -consequently the cultivation of silk is extremely flourishing; in -fact, this part of the country justly deserves to be called one of -the most beautiful in the whole Khanat. - -The heat was so fierce and intolerable on the banks of the Oxus, -that I could not help expressing some uneasiness to the boatmen, but -they comforted me by saying, that down stream this evil would be -remedied, by putting up a _Peshekhane_ (mosquito net), which would -not be in their way, the boat being steered only at either end. -The mosquito net was at once put up; it had the shape of a canopy, -and was to protect us in the day time from the sun, at night from -the dangerous mosquitoes; and the necessary fatiha (blessings) on -starting having been pronounced, we pushed off in company of four -boatmen and two other passengers. - -The voyage was at first very monotonous. The two men, one at the -upper end and one at the lower end of the boat, kept steering it to -those parts of the river where the water was yellowish and turbid, -the current being here the strongest, as they explained to us. The -rudders consisted of long poles, flattened at the end, and the two -steersmen generally remained seated down at their work, unless -special care and attention were required. They were relieved about -every two hours, when, less fatigued by their labour than scorched -by the sun, they would join us in our sheltered retreat, stretch -themselves out at full length, to our great annoyance, and soon be -heard snoring in chorus, until they had to return to their task. Of -our two fellow-travellers, happily only one was very loquacious; -and whenever my Tartar friend explained to me this or that point of -interest, he would interrupt him with his copious emendations, and -thus satisfy my curiosity by a full and detailed commentary. - -The banks of the Oxus present few features especially worthy of -interest, although far more than Boutenieff notices in his travels, -who, in his mission in 1858, took the same route from Kungrat to -Yengi Urgendj, up stream. On the right bank, opposite the place -where we embarked, is seen the great ruin, Shahbaz Veli (the sacred -hero), which is said to have been a strong fortress in ancient -times, and which was destroyed by the Kalmucks. In the history of -Khiva these people are regarded as the great destroyers of the -Khanat; and although it is true that at the time of their invasion -under Djengiz, the then flourishing Kharezm suffered terribly at -their hands, yet it is an exaggeration to assert, as tradition -does, that all the ruins are the sole work of their lust for -devastation. Farther on I met with another extensive ruin with the -remains of stone buildings, called Gaur Kaleszi (the fortress of -the Gaurs). Under the term "Gaur," I first understood the Gebers or -fire-worshippers, but soon I learned to my great astonishment, that -by this name are designated, throughout Central Asia, the Armenians -or rather the Nestorians, who possessed here large colonies, -extending from the Sea of Aral far into China, in pre-Islamitic -times down to the decline of the Mongol dominion. - -On the right bank extends for more than three leagues, from the -above-mentioned ruins down to the water's edge, a somewhat dense -forest (togay), called Khitabegi. The trees are not particularly -high, but the sun is nevertheless unable to penetrate and dry up -the marshes fed by the Oxus. Only in very few places is the forest -inhabited, and that by the Karakalpak tribe, who rear cattle. The -left bank is the really inhabited part; here the chain of Havlis -is scarcely interrupted, and here and there villages of some size -are seen lying close to the water, such as the OEzbeg village -Tashkale, which is situated on a high bank, and the smaller village -of Vezir, near which the canal Kilidjbay discharges, or rather forms -a basin, previous to losing itself beyond Yilali in the sand. - -To make tea, prepare palau, and either listen to or tell sacred -legends, was the alternate occupation of the day. Sometimes it -happened that all my companions, the steersmen alone excepted, fell -fast asleep, producing a pause, which was to me a most pleasant -change; and as I fixed my eyes upon the yellow, turbid waters of the -ancient Oxus, my imagination loved to revert to the clear mirror -of many a European river, whose waters are ploughed by hundreds -of ships, and whose verdant, smiling banks, are full of life and -activity. What a gigantic contrast! - -The Oxus is the typical representative of the country it -traverses,--wild and unruly in its course, like the temperament of -the Central Asiatics. Its shallows are as little marked as the good -and bad qualities in the Turkoman; daily it makes for itself new -channels similar to the nomad, whose restless spirit, wearied of -staying long in one spot, is ever craving for novelty and change. - -Early the second day we passed the town of Goerlen at a short -distance from the shore. The proper landing place is a village near, -called Ishimdji, and opposite to it on the right bank is situated -the fort Rehimberdi Beg, which I mention merely because here begins -the mountain chain of Oveis Karayne, extending from south-east to -north.[12] At first sight it bears much resemblance, as well in -height as in its formation, to the Great Balkan in the desert, -between Khiva and Astrabad; but on a nearer approach its larger -circumference soon becomes apparent, and the luxuriant vegetation -and the woods with which several of its heights are clothed, present -a scene of agreeable surprise. On one of them is said to be the tomb -of Oveis Karayne, a celebrated place of pilgrimage in Khiva, and -in the distance we discovered several buildings, which Rehimberdi -Beg had erected for the convenience of the devotees. Further on is -the Munadjat daghi (mount of devotion), which is pointed out as -the resting place of a holy lady, called Amberene (Mother Ambra). -Holy women are not often met with in Sunnitic Islamism; there are, -however, a few of them in Central Asia, which may be taken as a -fresh proof that Islamism does not treat the fair sex with such -unnatural harshness as people in Europe are apt to imagine. As to -my lady Amberene, tradition tells us that, a Zuleikha in beauty, -a Fatima in virtue, she was hated and afterwards expelled by her -husband, solely because she professed the Mohammedan religion, -of which he was an arch-enemy. Driven from her princely abode in -Urgendj, she was obliged to take refuge in this wild spot, and -would have died of starvation but for a hind which appeared daily -at the entrance of her cave, waiting to be milked, and then again -disappeared. Who, in hearing this tale, is not reminded of the story -of Genoveva? The Parisians in those days were not better than the -OEzbegs of to-day; nor can we fail to be struck with the identity -that exists in fables of social and religious life, among nations -living widely separated from each other. - - [12] Oveis Karayne is the name of a faithful follower of Mohammed, - who out of love to the Prophet had all his teeth knocked out, the - latter having lost two of his front teeth in the battle at Ohud, - through a blow from the enemy's weapon. After Mohammed's death he - even intended to found an Order, with this self-mutilation as a - condition of membership; but his efforts proved unsuccessful. The - assertion, that he came to Khiva and died there, belongs rather to - the region of fiction. - -After leaving Goerlen we went on for about four hours down stream, -and came to Yengi yap, an insignificant hamlet, surrounded by earth -walls, and about one hour and a half distant from the river. Two -hours later we reached the district of Khitayi, which begins where -the Yumalak, a conical hill, rises close to the left bank. On the -right the Oveis mountains approach nearer and nearer to the Oxus, -and soon we passed the prominent peak Yampuk, crowned with the ruins -of an old castle. Opposite Yumalak the mountain chain, Sheik Djeli, -which runs from east to west, forms a very narrow channel (here -called kisnak), much narrower than the Iron Gates on the Danube, -and often dangerous to navigation from the force and rapidity of -the current. The waters here roar, as if the Oxus, that unruly son -of the desert, were angry at being so imprisoned between the rocks. -The narrowest part is, however, very short; on the left bank the -mountains terminate abruptly, while on the right bank the high lands -gradually slope, and after having passed Tama, which lies on the -left, the country is everywhere flat. With the mountains disappeared -every romantic feature along the banks of the Oxus. After a voyage -of two days our eyes and imagination were fully satisfied, and -although the morning and evening hours had their charms, yet the -heat became intolerable in the day-time, and the mosquitoes and -flies at night--insects, in comparison with which the Golumbacz on -the Lower Danube are harmless and insignificant as butterflies. As -soon as the sun began to set, every one crept carefully under the -mosquito-net, made, of course, of linen, the air under which had -become so thoroughly poisoned by my fellow-travellers, that I felt -keenly not to be able to exchange it for the purer air outside. -Towards evening we reached the district of Mangit, which has a town -of the same name, about two hours' distance from the river, but not -visible from the boat on account of a small wood which intervenes. -Here we remained for some time moored along the bank, and having -comfortably cooked our dinner in the open air, instead of on the -narrow hearth in the boat, we continued our voyage. We reached -Basuyap, after another hour's journey, at night, much to the regret -of my friend, who had been anxious to pay a visit with me to a -very celebrated _Nogai Ishan_, who resided there, in order to ask -his advice and blessing on the journey he had undertaken. These -_Nogai_, who fled hither to escape the Russian authorities or the -conscription, are in Central Asia regarded as martyrs to freedom and -Islamism, and revered as such; but I have frequently met among them -the most consummate rascals, and thought that they had probably run -away from a fully merited chastisement. - -Early in the morning we passed Kiptchak, which is the second stage -on the journey, and lies on both sides of the Oxus. At this place -a rock rises from the water, which, extending across the river, -narrows the channel by more than half its width, and renders the -navigation so extremely dangerous, that it is never attempted, -except at broad daylight. At low water some of the points are -visible, and it is no uncommon thing to see children, a foot deep in -water, clambering upon them. - -Kiptchak itself is a place of considerable importance, inhabited by -an OEzbeg tribe of the same name, and possesses several mosques -and colleges. Of the latter, the college situated on the right -bank of the river was founded by Khodja Niaz, and is deservedly -celebrated for its rich endowments. Not far from this building, -which stands separately, is seen the ruin Tchilpik, on a hill rising -close to the water. Tradition asserts that in ancient times it was a -strong castle, and the residence of a Princess, who, having fallen -in love with one of her father's slaves, and dreading the anger of -her offended parent, fled hither for refuge with her lover. In order -to obtain water, they were obliged to pierce the hill downwards to -the river, and the subterranean passage exists at the present day. - -From Kiptshak up the stream begins the forest already mentioned, -which extends with few interruptions along the right bank of the -river to some distance beyond Kungrat. I could not see from the boat -how far its breadth stretched eastward, but I have been assured that -it is from eight to ten hours' journey. Its approach from the river -is intercepted by bogs and morasses, which render it only in a few -places accessible. In the less thickly-wooded parts graze numberless -herds of cattle, the property of the Karakalpaks, who find abundance -of game in the forest, but sometimes suffer greatly from the -numerous wild beasts, especially panthers, tigers, and lions, which -infest that district. From here to Goerlen the stream has so many -shallows, that we were incessantly striking aground. The left bank -rises to an elevated plateau, which extends far in a north-westerly -direction, and is called Yilankir (the field of serpents) by the -natives. On the western frontier of the desert it forms a declivity -as steep as the Kaflankir, or the whole table-land of Ustyurt. The -population of this region consists of Jomut-Turkomans and Tchaudors; -the former lead a nomadic life near the river, and in the country -round Porsu and Yilali; the latter inhabit the skirts of the desert -and the several oases of the Ustyurt. Both tribes, as may well -be imagined, live in constant feud with each other,--a condition -as much to their disadvantage, as it is to the advantage of the -OEzbegs, the immediate neighbourhood of a strong and united nomad -people proving always most dangerous to the dwellers in settled -habitations. - -On the evening of the third day we stopped at Khodja Ili,[13] a town -about two hours' distance from the river. Most of the inhabitants -derive their origin from Khodja, and they are not a little proud of -comparing their ancestry with that of the other OEzbegs. The whole -district is thickly populated, and the left bank forms as far as -Noeks[14] an uninterrupted chain of wood and cultivated land. Here -is one of the most dangerous places in the Oxus, a waterfall, which -at the time of our voyage rushed down from the height of three feet -with the swiftness of an arrow and with a tremendous noise, which -is heard at the distance of more than a league. The natives call -it Kazankitken, _i.e._, the spot where the cauldrons went to the -bottom, since a vessel laden with these utensils is said to have -been lost here. Full fifteen minutes before reaching the waterfall -the boats are brought close to the shore, and carefully towed along. -From here down the stream the river has formed by inundations very -considerable lakes, which communicate with one another by small -natural canals, which seldom dry up entirely. The largest are: -Kuyruklu Koel and Sari Tchoenguel. The former is said to extend for -several days' journey far towards the north-east; the latter is -smaller in circumference, but much deeper. - - [13] Khodja Ili.--The people of the Khodja, or descendants of the - prophets, a considerable number of whom inhabit this part of the - country. They have as much a purely OEzbeg physiognomy, as the - numerous Seids in Persia bear the stamp of an Iranic origin. The - former, however, enjoy considerably more privileges. - - [14] In the map to my "Travels in Central Asia," Noeks has by mistake - been confounded with Khodja Ili; the former also is full an hour - farther from Kungrat than is there stated. - -We passed Noeks on the fourth day. Even on the left bank we saw -cultivation gradually decreasing as we advanced; the river on both -sides is bordered with forests, and forms half-way to Kungrat a -broad and rather deep canal, called Oguezkitken, which takes a -south-westerly direction and falls into the lake Shorkatchi. Efforts -have been made to cut off the latter from the large stream by -raising dykes, but in vain, and the immense extent of water renders -the navigation here exceedingly troublesome. The forest terminates -at the tomb of a saint, called Afakkhodja, and the district of -Kungrat begins, covered, as far as the eye can reach, with gardens, -fields and "havlis." The town itself did not become visible until -the evening of the fifth day, after we had passed the run of a -fortress built by the rebel Toerebeg at the time of Mehemmed Emin, -and a whirlpool near it. - -Our stay in this most northerly town of the Khanat of Khiva was -of very short duration, since my young companion, having lost his -parents a year before, was not long in taking leave of the relative -who dwelt here, and himself urged a speedy return. The town has -a far more miserable appearance than those in the south, and is -chiefly known for its large fairs, to which the nomads of the -neighbourhood resort, offering for sale large quantities of cattle, -butter, carpets of felt, camels' hair and wool. A brisk trade is -also carried on in fish, especially dried fish, which are brought -from the sea of Aral, and sent afterwards from here all over the -Khanat. I must mention as a very remarkable fact, that I met here -with two Russians, who had turned Mahometans, and lived in the full -enjoyment of a comfortable dwelling-house, a flourishing farmstead, -and a numerous family. They were prisoners of the Perowsky Army, and -received their liberty from Mehemmed Emin Khan, under the condition -that they would adopt Islamism. One of them has been presented with -a Persian slave: the dark-brown daughter of Iran and the fair-haired -son of the north live very happily together, and although the latter -has several times had the opportunity of returning to his native -home, he has not been able to form the resolution of quitting his -adopted fatherland on the banks of the Oxus. - -In conclusion, I will state the scanty information I gathered here -about the further course of the Oxus from Kungrat to its embouchure -in the Sea of Aral. At two hours' distance from this town, going -down stream, the river divides into two great arms, which are little -distinguished from each other. The right one, which keeps the name -of Amu Derya, reaches the lake first, but in consequence of its -many ramifications it is too shallow, and at low water extremely -difficult to navigate. The left arm, which bears the name of Tarlik -(the strait)[15] is narrow, but of a certain depth throughout, -and is little used, simply on account of the great circuit it -makes on its way to the lake. The traffic on the Lower Oxus is -inconsiderable, and not to be compared with that which enlivens -the river between Tchihardjuy and Kungrat, where it forms the -principal commercial highway between Bokhara and Khiva. In autumn -it is chiefly fishing which takes the OEzbegs to the sea, and the -trade in dried sea-fish is in all three Khanats an important one. -It has become an almost indispensable article to the inhabitants -of the steppes, from their being too parsimonious to feed on meat, -in spite of their wealth in cattle, and therefore preferring, as -they do, dried fish as its substitute. In the spring, on the other -hand, it is the wild geese, large numbers of which are found around -the several mouths of the river, which tempt all those who are fond -of shooting to the shores of the Sea of Aral. At this season of the -year also most pilgrimages take place, undertaken by pious OEzbegs -to the tomb of Tokmak Baba, which is situated upon an island of the -same name, near these outlets. This saint is revered as the patron -of fishermen, and rests under a small mausoleum, in the inner cell -of which have been carefully preserved through remote ages his -clothes and cooking utensils, among which a cauldron is an object -of peculiar veneration. I was told, that even the Russians very -rarely land on this island, although access to it has been greatly -facilitated by steam-vessels, and that in case they do visit it, -they never touch these relics,--as if moved by involuntary feelings -of respect. - - [15] Not Taldyk, as Admiral Butakoff called it in his treatise, - read on the 11th of March, 1867, before the Geographical Society in - London, nor can I agree with him about the two extreme arms of the - Delta, of which he calls the eastern Yenghi, and the western Laudan. - It is possible that it may have been so formerly, in consequence of - the frequent changes of the water-course; but at present this is - no longer the case I learned from the most authentic source, that - the name of Laudan is given only to the dry bed of the Oxus, which, - beginning at Kiptchak, runs in a westerly direction past Koehne - Urgendj. Butakoff designates the middle branch by the name of Ulkun, - and here I must remark, that this word meaning "great," is always - added to the name of the chief stream. Ulkun, more correctly Ulken, - is consequently identical with my Amu Derya. - -In surveying the whole course of this remarkable river, from -its source on the Ser-i-kul (beginning of the sea) down to its -embouchure, we perceive firstly, that it is not, as Burnes asserts, -navigable throughout its entire length, but on the contrary, that -only from Kerki, or rather from Tchihardjuy down stream can it be -used for large and small craft. Upwards from these towns we meet -nothing but rafts, carrying fuel and timber, in which the slopes of -the Bedakhshan mountains abound, and supplying the scantily wooded -plains, but seldom used by families emigrating to the Lower Oxus. -Between Hezaresp and Eltchig, a part of the river which forms one -stage on the way to Bokhara, larger boats already are used from -and to Khiva, which carry goods and victuals; but the greatest -traffic is undoubtedly on that part of the river, which flows in -the Khanat of Khiva, where the river, with its many towns along -its banks, affords a favourite and cheap means, up as well as down -stream, for the transport of large freight, and is used among the -poorer classes even for personal inter-communication. Secondly, it -appears to me (I abstain from making any assertion, not possessing -sufficient knowledge on the subject), that the Oxus has scarcely -the capabilities of becoming the powerful artery for traffic and -communication in Central Asia, which politicians, when speaking of -the future of Turkestan, confidently expect. It never can become -of the same importance as the Yaxartes, whose waters at this very -moment are ploughed by Russian steamers, a conjecture sufficiently -warranted by the fact, that the Russians entered Turkestan with -their flotilla of the Sea of Aral, not by the Oxus, but by the -Yaxartes, a river far less favourable to their plans of occupation. -It has been urged, that the uninhabited shores of this last-named -river are of greater importance to the Court of St. Petersburg; -but this is a worthless argument, and rests solely on our want of -geographical knowledge with respect to Central Asia. - -With steamers on the Oxus, the Russians would not only have been -able to keep the Khanat of Khiva in check, to garrison the fortress -of Kungrat, Kiptshak and Hezaresp, but they would have had the power -of introducing with the greatest ease a strong _corps d'armee_ -by Karakul into Bokhara, and thus into the very heart of Central -Asia, had not the extraordinary physical difficulties of this -route rendered such a scheme impracticable. Moreover, of this the -Russians themselves became sufficiently convinced, when making their -very first appearance in Central Asia. Apart from the waterfall -at Khodja Ili, the dangerous cliffs near Kiptchak and the Kisnak -near Yampuk, the Oxus offers perhaps the greatest difficulties to -navigation in its numerous sandbanks, which in some parts extend -for many miles, and at the same time undergo such rapid changes -in consequence of the large quantity of sand the stream carries -along with it, that it is quite impossible to take observations, -and even the most experienced steersman can do no more than guess -the navigable channel by the colour, but can never indicate it with -confidence or certainty. Thirdly, to regulate this stream, which -at the beginning of the spring, and during the latter part of the -autumn, is almost two-thirds smaller than in summer, would be of -the greatest disadvantage to the inhabitants, since its numerous -arms and canals not only are necessary for the cultivation of their -fields, but supply with drinking water even the most distant parts -of the country, to say nothing of the rapid current rendering such -an undertaking extremely difficult. If the Khan of Khiva wanted to -declare war against some rebellious part of his country, he would -first of all cut off the canals and aqueducts, a stroke of policy -which would be felt most severely; and a government, which were to -shut the sluices in order to increase the water in the bed of the -Oxus, would commit an act equivalent to a declaration of hostilities -against the whole country at once. - -Not only has the Oxus extremely rapid currents, but it continually -deviates from its original channel. These deviations in the lower -part of the river begin after its bend near Hezaresp, and are far -more numerous than is generally supposed. Upon enquiring of the -inhabitants about them, they reckoned up more than eight on each -side, and although they may have included in this estimate former -canals, nevertheless its irregularity must be admitted. Taking this -view, there is very little difficulty in agreeing with Sir Henry -Rawlinson, who founded his assertion on a very valuable Persian -manuscript, that in former times the Sea of Aral had no existence -whatever. - -The journey from Kungrat to Khiva is generally made by land, since -it requires from eighteen to twenty days up stream. The transport -of freight is made by water. There are three roads by land; 1, -by Koehne Urgends, which is called the summer route, and avoids -the lakes, outlets and arms of the Oxus, which at that season of -the year are full to overflowing. This route is the longest, 56 -farsakh[16] in length; 2, by Khodja Ili, a distance of 40 farsakh, -which the traveller prefers in the winter, all the waters being -frozen; and 3, the road on the right bank of the Oxus by Shurakhan, -which makes several _detours_, and runs through a great many -sand-steppes. - - [16] Farsakh (_i. e._, +parasanges+ ), a Persian league, about - 18,000 feet in length. - -Our return journey had to be made with all possible speed, but -nevertheless we were obliged to take the long road by Koehne Urgendj. -We had the good fortune to join a party of travellers, of whom some -were going to Koehne Urgendj, others to Khiva. All were capitally -mounted, and even the horses placed at our disposal "lillah" (out of -pious benevolence) were young, vigorous animals, and, as we carried -no luggage except a few biscuits with a small store of provisions -for our journey, we rode briskly along in spite of the heat, which -even in the early morning made itself felt. Leaving the gate of -the town behind us, we rode across the well-cultivated district -of Kungrat, keeping always a north-westerly direction, and then -crossing a barren tract of country, came to a large stagnant water, -called _Atyolu_, which is marked out as the first stage, and is 7 -farsakh long. A bridge leads over a narrow part of it, and here the -road diverges in two parts, the one of which skirts a low mountain, -called Kazak Orge, and, crossing the great plateau of Ustyurt, goes -to Orenburg; the other leads to Koehne Urgendj. We took the latter -route, and passing through forests and sandy tracts, now and then -came in sight of some ruin on either side of the road, of which -two were pointed out as being worthy of notice;--Karagoembez (black -dome), near which a salt is found as clear and white as crystal, -and the finest in the Khanat, and Barsakilmez (he who goes does not -return), a dangerous spot, inhabited even at the present day by evil -spirits, and where many, who went there from curiosity, have lost -their lives. - -After a long ride of five hours we reached the second station, -called _Kabilbeg Havli_. It is an isolated farmstead, but, in -accordance with an old custom of the proprietors, we were received -and treated with great hospitality, and remembering that we had the -prospect of a long ride of eight hours from here to the next stage, -_Kiziltchagalan_, our kind host had not forgotten to provide us at -breakfast with meat and bread. It was still dark when we started. -Our companions were examining their weapons with the utmost care, -which made me fear that we might perhaps have to pass some hostile -tribe of the Turkomans; but they removed my uneasiness on this -point, cautioning me at the same time that we should have to travel -the whole day long in a thick forest, in which there were many -lions, panthers and wild boars, which sometimes have been known to -attack the traveller. They added, that although they never reached -the place of danger till broad daylight, yet they invariably moved -forward with the greatest circumspection, and, above all put great -confidence in their horses, which no sooner prick up their ears, or -begin to snort, than each and all seize their weapons. It is well -known that lions and panthers in a climate like that of Central Asia -are far less dangerous than their brethren in India and Africa, and -therefore I did not share the fears of my young Tartar companion; -on the contrary, I rather longed for adventure and the excitement -of the chase. The OEzbeg, however, like a true Asiatic, possesses -an excitable imagination; there was neither trace nor sound to -indicate that we were near the abode of the king of animals, and we -saw nothing but some herds of wild boars, who with a loud crash made -their way through the thick underwood, and an immense, nay, fabulous -number of Guinea-fowl and pheasants, of which we made rich spoil for -our evening halt. These birds are in this part of the country of a -much finer flavour than in Mazendran, the OEzbegs also understand -far better than the Persians to dress and cook them. Emerging -from the forest, we soon came in sight of the fortified place -Kiziltshagalan, which is inhabited by OEzbegs. We arrived there -in good time, and the following morning continued our road across a -district inhabited by Yomuts. - -Koehne Urgendj is considered the fourth station, although the journey -thither does not occupy above three hours. This ancient metropolis -of far-famed Kharezm, in Central Asia, is the poorest of all those -cities in Asia which have shared the same fate, and however much -its former splendour is extolled in word and writing, I could not -help feeling at the sight of its still existing ruins, that it had -been the centre of no higher than Tartar civilisation. The town of -the present day is small, dirty and insignificant, although it must -have been much larger in former times, to judge from the ruins that -lie scattered outside the wall. These ruins are not older than the -Islamitic era, and date from the reign of Shahi Kharezmian, an epoch -of a higher culture. The most remarkable object here is the mosque -of Toerebeg Khanim (not Khan), of which I have already made mention -in my "Travels," and which is larger and more splendid than Hazreti -Pehlivan. The latter, nevertheless, has been considered hitherto -the finest monument in Khiva, and it must be admitted that with its -works in Kashi (glazed tiles), in which throughout the yellow colour -predominates, it is not inferior to any architectural monument -of the same kind in Turkestan. Further is seen the mausoleums of -Sheikh Sheref with a high azure dome, of Piriyar, the father of the -very celebrated Pehlivan, and of Sheikh Nedshm ed-din Kuebera. The -latter has of late been restored from decay by the liberality of -Mehemmed Emin Khan. I was told that there are in the neighbourhood -several towers and walls built of stone, such as Puldshoydu (money -destroyed) which is distant three hours' journey. Whenever a storm -ploughs up the sand-hills there, coins and vessels of gold and -silver are discovered, and people who take the trouble of sifting -the sand, find frequently their labour amply requited. There is -also the Aysanem, or double kiosk of Aysanem and Shahsanem, the -famous pair of lovers, whose romantic fate forms the subject of a -collection of songs frequently sung by the native minstrels. The -name appears to be a stereotyped name for any two isolated ruins, -since there are Shahsanems to be found in other parts of Khiva and -Bokhara, as well as in the neighbourhood of Herat, and everywhere -the same legends are recorded of them with few variations. - -At Koehne Urgendj the road divides, both branches running at a small -distance from each other. The one less frequented runs by Porsu -and Yilali, and is taken by people who travel in large parties; -the proximity of the marauding tribes of the Tshaudors and Yomut -Turkomans, rendering the road, at least as far as Tashhauz, -very insecure. The second road, nearer the Oxus, runs with few -interruptions along its banks, a tract of country strewn with -farmsteads (Havlis), villages and hamlets. This road is generally -taken in summer, although it is the longer of the two, and also -more troublesome on account of the many ditches and canals for -irrigation. Whereas, a caravan must keep together as far as Tashhauz -on the former road, travellers on the latter may part company as -early as at Kiptchak, and each continue his way separately. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -MY TARTAR. - - -I cannot conceive it possible to imagine a greater contrast than an -Asiatic, and more particularly a Central Asiatic, who, as late as -two years ago, wrapt in his national garb of ample width, hanging -about him in loose folds, was feeding on the simple and primitive -fare of a nomadic people, and who, at the present moment, booted -and spurred, moves about in the closely-fitting costume of the -Hungarians, and is already accustomed to the food and manners of -the West; one, who, destined to lead the life of a Mollah, once -spent his time in the lonely cell of the Medresse Mehemmed Emin at -Khiva, absorbed either in prayer or in the doctrines of Islamism, -and who is now seen turning over the large folios in the library -of a European academy, acquainted with books on philosophy, or the -history of the world and religion, Greek and Latin literature, and -numberless authors besides; who scarcely ever had heard the name -of Europe, or had heard it mentioned only in terms of the utmost -abhorrence; who knew no other institutions, no other phases or -aspects of men and things, but those in his own wild Eastern world, -and recognised these alone as true and reasonable;--and who now is -reading the leading articles of European newspapers, discussing the -different politics of Western countries, and unhesitatingly making -the boldest comparisons between the Eastern and Western hemispheres. - -These are certainly clear and sharply-defined contrasts, and such -contrasts my friend the Mollah exhibits "_in propria persona_,"--the -Hadji whom I brought with me from Central Asia, whom I met with -whilst on his way to Mekka, who became my companion and associate, -and who, instead of the holiest of holy cities, now lives with me -in the metropolis of Hungary. How I succeeded in inducing him to -form this resolution has been to many a matter of the liveliest -curiosity to know; nor were their enquiries less eager as to the -impression made upon him by my metamorphosis from the pious dervish -into the European traveller. One fundamental error ran through all -these enquiries,--namely, the strange belief that my change had -been as sudden as that of the chrysalis to the butterfly. It was, -on the contrary, extremely gradual, and its various phases are the -more interesting, since they illustrate in a striking manner the -difference between Eastern and Western life. The history of my -transformation, in fact, deserves to be given in detail. - -I first met my Tartar, as I mentioned before, in Khiva. A Mollah, -young and animated with a desire for travelling, he was in search of -a companion on his journey to Mekka, and in the full belief to find -in me a Turk and a Mohamedan, the most suitable fellow-traveller, -he at once attached himself to me with the utmost ardour and -devotion. During the early part of our acquaintance he saw in me -merely the learned Mollah, the wild zealot, whom he approached with -the greatest veneration, listening most attentively to every word -that fell from my lips. Such was the relation that existed between -us throughout our journey to Bokhara, Samarkand, and Karshi, as far -as the banks of the Oxus. Here I became more confidential towards -him: occasionally I put off somewhat the disguise of my affected -sanctity; we grew more and more intimate by degrees; our slender -store of provisions was put into one common bag, and as he was -thoroughly honest and true-hearted, his sincere and loyal friendship -became a great support and comfort to me on my solitary and perilous -journey. Only slowly, and with difficulty, could he accustom himself -to a real and mutual intimacy; and on our begging expeditions he -would take upon himself, as his own undisputed task, to collect the -heavy contributions, such as wood, flour, &c., whilst he left to me -the less onerous business of collecting the pence. In the evening -he made it his duty to prepare the supper, and, after having served -the rice on a piece of rag or a board, it was always a matter of -conscience with him not to touch it until I had twice helped myself -with my hands. I do not know whether veneration or conscience -inspired him with this excessive respect, but, be the cause what it -may, he invariably shrank from placing himself in a position of -equality. Not wishing to spoil his pleasure, I therefore let him do -exactly as he pleased. - -On our journey from the Oxus to Herat, my feigned devoutness visibly -decreased in exact proportion as the distance between me and fanatic -Bokhara kept increasing. Prayers, ablutions, pious meditations--all -became less frequent. My Tartar, no doubt, observed this, but it did -not seem to trouble him, and he accommodated himself ungrudgingly to -his master. His questions on religion were fewer, but he listened -instead with more eager attention to my descriptions and narratives -of the foreign land of the 'Frengi,' and the pictures I drew of -those marvellous countries of the West. Such lectures as these were -usually delivered during our night marches, when we were riding -alone in intimate converse, and at some distance from the caravan. -The pleasure I felt in being able to talk of my beloved West in a -barbarous country, surrounded as I was with dangers in so doing, was -not greater than my Tartar's astonishment when he heard that there -were towns more beautiful than Bokhara, and countries where it was -possible to travel without fear of robbers or of dying with thirst. -He was especially struck when I assured him that the 'Frengis,' so -far from being the savage, pitiless cannibals, such as they had -been represented to him, possessed heart and feeling, and that they -were infinitely superior to their reputed character in the East. -Under different circumstances he might have doubted the truth -of my assertions; but as I, the Efendi, his teacher and master, -assured him of these facts, he placed implicit belief in all I told -him. No wonder that I was pleased with his thirst for knowledge -and his loyalty, and that I in return became greatly attached to -my young Tartar. Moreover, he kept as much as possible aloof from -the other Central Asiatics, his countrymen, uniting himself more -closely to my society. As soon as I perceived--which I could not -fail to do before long--that something could be made of the young -man, I resolved not to let him leave me, but, if possible, to take -him with me to Europe. If such was my determination long before we -came to Herat, it was still further strengthened by the brilliant -proofs of his attachment and fidelity which he showed to me during -our residence in this town. Here, as is already known, my sufferings -and privations reached their climax. Totally without means, I had -not unfrequently to bear all the torments of hunger; and whenever, -at this advanced season of the year, the cold prevented my sleeping -during the night, it was my young Tartar who honestly shared with -me his poor thin rags, in order to procure for me a warmer covering -and a quiet sleep. During these six weeks that we spent in Herat we -suffered, indeed, greatly; but I tried to strengthen the courage -of my companion by assuring him that we should meet with certain -help in Persia. The idea that a pious Sunnite should fare well in -the heretical country of the Shiites, appeared to him sufficiently -droll; but the child-like innocence of his heart, and his unaffected -confidence in me, prevented his making any further conjectures. He -looked, like myself, with intense longing to the frontiers of Iran, -and the capital of Khorassan. - -At last we arrived in Meshed. The hearty friendship of the English -officer here, and his kindness towards me as well as my companion, -were at first a great puzzle to my Tartar. He knew Dolmage was -a Frengi;--what strange thoughts must have crossed his mind, in -his astonishment at seeing me, the pious Mohamedan, his "chef -spirituel," sit for hours in the company of an unbeliever, talking -with him in a foreign language, nay, eating with him out of one -and the same dish. The servants of the English officer, and indeed -every one in the town, repeatedly declared to him their opinion that -his master was a Frengi in disguise. He shuddered at the thought, -and although he heard these suspicions with feelings of anger and -indignation, yet he never questioned me on this point, and his -firm faith in me remained unshaken. Moreover, his attachment to me -naturally increased, from finding in me at all times a friend and -protector, especially on our journey to Teheran, when, on account of -his Tartar costume, he had frequently to encounter the ill-will of -the vindictive Shiites. On my part, again, it was, I consider, no -small risk, to travel for a whole month alone with this man, to pass -whole nights alone with him in desolate spots. Let one single evil -thought arise in his heart, and it would have been an easy matter -for him to kill me during my noon-day slumbers on the open road, -and, carrying with him my horses, weapons and money, to escape into -the desert, northward to the Turkomans. But I never harboured any -such suspicion. Fully confiding in him, I entrusted to his charge my -musket, sword and horse; when tired and fatigued I stretched myself -out upon the sand and slept soundly and securely, whilst he acted -as sentinel; for at the very beginning of our acquaintance I had -discovered that he had a true heart, and I cannot say that I have -ever once been mistaken in this respect. - -It was in Shahrud where he saw me for a second time embrace an -unbeliever. He was struck by it, and said: "My master, thou art -truly wise, in always associating with the Frengis; for these -Persians, although they believe in the Koran and in Mohammed, -are, by heaven! a hundred times worse than the unbelievers!" On -this occasion he expressed to me also, after having met a second -Englishman, his surprise at finding these Frengis, both "outwardly -and inwardly, such agreeable persons," and yet he found it difficult -to approach them. He would stare at them and scrutinize them for -hours, proving clearly that, although he had partly got rid of his -deeply-rooted prejudices, a certain degree of shyness and reserve -was still clinging to him. - -During the latter part of our march towards the Persian capital, -my joyous feelings occasionally woke within me some long-forgotten -song or melody. I began first to whistle, and then to sing, popular -airs of certain operas. Whistling is not practised in the East, and -regarded as extremely frivolous and indecorous; nevertheless, he -was greatly pleased with the charming melodies from the Troubadour, -Lucia, and others. He asked me with great naivete, whether in Mekka -people recited the Koran with these accompaniments, and was greatly -astonished when I replied in the negative. - -It was at the post station of Ahuan for the first time he heard me -called by my European name. This name touched the tenderest fibres -of his heart, and no doubt he struggled long and painfully before -he found the courage to question me. I replied, that I would give -him an answer in Teheran, and this set him at rest for a time. On -my arrival in Teheran, I lodged with my old friends in the Turkish -embassy. The young Efendis, who represented the Sultan, were -fashionable European diplomatists, bearing the signs of Frengiism in -far stronger colours than myself. This lessened his suspicions; and -when I enlightened him on the modern civilization of his Sunnitic -brethren in the West, he gradually became aware of the immense gulf -between Stamboul and Bokhara. He was told of the continuous efforts -of the Osmanlis to assimilate themselves as much as possible to -the Western countries and their culture, and he could not help -following this example himself. If we take into account, that he saw -and heard nothing but what was good and excellent of the few Frengis -whom he had hitherto had the opportunity of knowing, it was natural -that his hatred and his prejudices should vanish day by day. - -In Teheran he made the acquaintance of a countryman of mine, Mr. -Szanto, who frequently came to see me, and with whom he was soon -on terms of intimacy. Szanto told him with no small joy, that he -and his master (he meant me) were the only Magyars in Persia. The -Magyars, moreover, the philologizing tailor added, are the kindred -of the Osmanlis,--a statement the Tartar felt surprised at, but -which did not exactly disquiet him, our long intercourse and -friendship reconciling him to all he saw and heard. And seeing in me -more affection and kindness than in the genuine Turk, the trifling -difference as to nationality troubled him very little. He roved -about cheerfully in Teheran, making himself acquainted with the -manners and language of the Persians, and was extremely glad, when, -after a residence of several weeks, we were saddling our horses once -more for our journey to Constantinople. - -Hitherto no other plan had been talked of, but that he was to -accompany me as far as Constantinople, and from thence go on to -Mekka by Alexandria. But soon I perceived that this original plan -no longer pleased him, and that he intended to do otherwise. -Our life in the Turkish embassy in Teheran, where everything was -arranged after the European manner, and our frequent intercourse -with other embassies, had shown him a part of Western life in a -very pleasant aspect, and awakened in him the desire to visit with -me these wonderful countries. Nor is it difficult to understand how -his original longing, to prostrate himself upon the grave of the -holy Prophet, receded more and more into the background. His sound -understanding was not long in penetrating this religious humbug; -and, having naturally a great love for adventure, he soon resolved, -instead of the illustrious Mekka, to go and visit Frengistan, a -country formerly thought of with dread and detestation. - -I pretended not to observe what was passing in his mind, and putting -him on shore at Constantinople, I was about to take leave of him, -after having amply provided him with money. The young Tartar looked -at me fixedly with tears in his eyes, and in spite of the sight of -the proud minaret, in spite of the crowd of orthodox worshippers who -surrounded him here on every side, he felt constrained to say to me, -in a voice trembling with emotion, and interrupted by frequent sobs: -"Efendi, do not leave me here behind alone. Thou hast brought me -from Turkestan into this strange land: I know here no one but thee. -I follow thee, gladly, whithersoever thou goest!"--"What, wilt thou -come with me to Frengistan?" I asked him; "from thence it is very -far to Mekka; there are no mosques and public baths, no Mussulman -food; how wilt thou live there?" For a moment he seemed perplexed; -but after a brief silence he replied: "The Frengis are such good and -kind people; I should like to see their country; and afterwards I -will return to Stamboul." I required no more. Fully understanding -the character of my Central Asiatic friend, I embarked with him -once more on the shore of the Bosphorus, and in three days he was -already upon a steamer on the Danube, surrounded by Europeans, and -on his way to the not far distant capital of Hungary. On board the -steamer I found him often absorbed in thought. Not yet venturing to -taste European food, he gazed at everything around him with a shy -timidity, but gradually he grew accustomed to the novelty of the -scene, and a few days later he promenaded the streets of Pesth in -Bokhara costume. During the first few days he could scarcely find -words, so full was he of amazement. Everything, indeed, appeared to -him like an enchantment. He admired all he saw, from the square-hewn -paving stones in the streets to the lofty buildings and towers; -and it can easily be imagined what singular, and at times comical, -remarks he made;--he, the son of the desert, in the midst of one -of the first cities in Europe. He was much struck with the quick -walking of people in the streets, and the rapid movements of the -vehicles; but, above all, the women arrested his attention; and he -could not understand how the Frengi, clever and sensible people -as they are, could allow their women-folk to appear in public in -such clumsy and uncouth attire, and without any protection. In the -day time I often saw him standing by the telegraph wires, listening -to the sounds that passed along them. At night he would stare at -the gas lamps, full of curiosity to discover whether it was the -iron that was burning. At the hotel, the luxury and magnificence -that surrounded him filled him with astonishment. Judging of every -person he met by his dress, he regarded every one as some mighty -lord or potentate, and frequently exclaimed: "Oh! this is a happy -country! Here seems to be not a single poor man!" He soon grew -accustomed to the looks of curiosity that followed him wherever he -went. His former dread of the Frengi had entirely disappeared; he -had a pleasant face for every one, and frequently entered eagerly -into conversation with the first person he met, forgetting, in his -characteristic manner, that no one could understand him; and he -would go on talking to his heart's content, without being in the -least disturbed by the surprise exhibited by those he was thus -addressing. - -I should most gladly have taken him on with me to London, had I -not deemed it better for him to leave him for the while behind -in Hungary. A friend of mine, who lived in the country, received -him kindly into his house; and when, after a year's absence, I -returned from England, I was not a little surprised to find my -young Tartar dressed in the Hungarian costume, and, instead -of the turban, with his hair nicely curled and trimmed, with a -rather droll air and demeanour, and a certain stiff gravity in -his manner. He had learned the Hungarian language in a very short -time; he was everywhere liked and heartily welcomed, and when, for -the first time, I saw him smartly dressed, and with gloves on his -hands, talking most courteously and earnestly to a lady in her -drawing-room, I could scarcely refrain from laughter. Two years ago -a Mollah of a Medresse, he is now grown into half a dandy:--in truth -what cannot be made of an Oriental? Being able to write as well as -speak Hungarian, my friends kindly procured him an appointment as -assistant-librarian in the Academy, which position he fills at the -present moment. When I question him about his new life, and talk -to him of the difference between Eastern and Western manners and -habits, I find that his past life floats like a dream across his -mind, which he cherishes only as a distant reminiscence, but which -he would not on any account exchange for his present existence. -He rarely feels any longing for his native home, and he loves our -Western civilisation for the following reasons. In the first place, -he is particularly pleased with the perfect security that society -affords to the individual, and the absence of any arbitrary tyranny -on the part of the Government. In Central Asia a man's bare life is -not safe on the roads from robbers; in the towns he is threatened -with constant danger from the barbarous decrees of the authorities. -The frequent cruel executions, the desolating civil wars in his -country, have never struck him until now, when he has become aware -how thousands of persons come in daily contact with each other, -without quarrels, fighting, or bloodshed ensuing--all consequences -of frequent occurrence in his native country. Secondly, the comfort -which Europeans enjoy, at once benefits and captivates him. He finds -the house of a simple citizen better appointed than the palace of -his sovereign. The cleanliness in dress and food, the reciprocal -offices of kindness and courtesies of society, are magnets which -attract him and make him forget his rude and uncivilised home. -Thirdly, it is a special delight to him to find that the various -differences of religion and nationality are scarcely ever felt here, -whilst in the East they form the strongest barriers between man and -man. With him at home the mere notion of visiting the country of the -Frengi would have been certain death, and now he lives in the very -heart of their land, not only without encountering hostility, but -actually received with cordiality and affection. - -With regard to his feelings on Islamism, his own speculations had -already in some degree enlightened him. He observed that the nearer -he approached the West, the more Mahometan fanaticism decreased, -and as he, in proportion with its decrease, drew nearer and nearer -to humanity and order, he could not help suspecting very soon that -Islamism, or at least the Islamism he knew and confessed, was the -declared enemy of civilisation and refinement of life, such as he -met with in Europe. He has never yet uttered a word of aversion or -reproach when referring to the doctrines of the Arabian prophet, -but his subtle and speculative theories sufficiently indicate that -a strong revolution has been wrought within him. Without wishing to -assign the cause of this great contrast between the East and the -West solely to the influence of Christianity, he has, nevertheless, -arrived so far in his conclusions as to comprehend that our western -culture and mode of life are incompatible with the teachings of -Mahomet. He has never yet distinctly expressed to me his preference -of either one or the other religion, and it will probably be long -before he will venture to give expression to any thought of the -kind. His allusions and fragmentary remarks, however, prove that his -mind is occupied with questions of this nature, and that the great -struggle with himself has begun. - -Such, indeed, is the history of every Mussulman, whether Tartar, -Arab, Persian, or Turk, as soon as he becomes thoroughly acquainted -with our western civilisation--a complete transformation but seldom -occurs. The highly important question, whether the civilisation of -the East or West is the better--whether the teaching of Christ or -of Mohammed is the true religion, will long remain undecided by -the nations of Asia;--nay, so long, I feel inclined to say, as the -rays of the sun produce with us a temperate, with them a burning, -heat; so long as distance separates the east and the west. Were it -possible to bring the doctrines of Christianity more into conformity -with their views, by setting aside those of the Incarnation and the -Trinity, and were these tenets, thus modified, put into the place -of the Koran, an opportunity might be presented of a small, but -only a very small, step in advance. I say advisedly a small step, -since Christianity, though sprung from an Eastern soil, has long -ago proved to be a plant which can only flourish in the West. And -who would deny that the Koran and Vedas, created as they are by -an Eastern mind and in the spirit of Eastern nations, are prized -and revered by them above everything besides? Their disappearance -would bring new and similar productions into existence. I venture -almost to assert that the Christian tenets would, after a time, -become transformed, on Eastern soil, into a sort of Koran or Vedas, -in order to be the typical embodiment of oriental sentiment, and -be recognised by orientals as their real and peculiar property. -Are not the Nestorians, Armenians, and other followers of the -Eastern Church, all disciples of Christianity? but as great as the -difference is between them and their co-religionists in Europe, so -little do they differ in their mode of thought, their feelings, and -views of life, from their Mohammedan fellow-countrymen in the East. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE ROUND OF LIFE IN BOKHARA. - - -"Hadji! Thou hast, I am sure, seen many countries--tell me now, -is there another city in the world in which it is so agreeable to -reside as Bokhara?" Such was the inquiry with which I was frequently -greeted in the Tartar capital, even by men who had already several -times visited India, Persia, and Turkey. My answer upon these -occasions it is not of course difficult to divine. Questions of a -nature so delicate are an embarrassment to the traveller when he -is in Paris, London, or St. Petersburg, just as much as when he -is in Constantinople, Teheran, or Bokhara. One encounters egotism -everywhere. - -Bokhara, the focus of Tartar civilization, possesses beyond a doubt -much to remind one of a capital, particularly when a man enters it -as a traveller, coming immediately from a journey of many weeks -through deserts and solitudes. As for the luxury of its dwellings, -its dresses, and manner of living, that hardly merits attention at -all when compared with what is to be seen in the cities of Western -Asia. Still it has its peculiarities, which prevent one wondering so -much that habit and partiality dispose the Bokhariot to be proud of -his native city. - -The houses, built of mud and wood, present, with their crooked -paintless walls, a gloomier appearance than the dwellings of other -Mohammedan cities. On entering the court through the low gateway, -one fancies oneself in a fortress. On all the sides there are high -walls, which serve as a protection, not so much against thieves as -against the amatory oglings of intriguing neighbours. In Bokhara, -the most shameless sink of iniquity that I know in the East, a -glance even from a distance is regarded as dishonouring! The -number of the separate apartments varies with the fortune of the -proprietor. The more important part of them comprises the harem, -styled here Enderun (the inner penetralia), the smaller room for -guests, and the hall for receptions. This last is the most spacious, -as well as the most ornamented apartment in the house, and, like -the other rooms, has a double ceiling, with a space between used as -a store-room. The floor is paved with bricks and stones, and has -only carpets round the sides near the walls. Rectangular stones, -which have been hollowed out, are placed in a corner--a comfortable -contrivance enabling the owner to perform the holy ablutions in the -room itself. This custom is met with in no other Mohammedan country. -The walls have no particular decorations; those, however, which are -nearest to Mekka are painted with flowers, vases, and arabesques -of different kinds. The windows are mere openings, each with a pair -of shutters. Glass is seen nowhere, and few take the trouble to use -paper smeared with fat as a substitute. Articles of furniture, still -rarities throughout the East, are here scarcely known by name; but -this need not excite surprise, for often have I heard Orientals who -have visited Europe exclaim: "Is not that a stupid custom among the -Frengi, that they so crowd their handsome, spacious rooms with such -a heap of tables, sofas, chairs, and other things, that they have -hardly place left to seat themselves in any comfort!" Of course -meaning on the ground. - -The expenditure upon the wardrobe is on a footing with the style of -each house and its arrangement. Cloth is rarely met with: it serves -for presents from the Khan to his officials of high rank. Different -qualities of the Aladja (cotton) are employed by all classes, from -king to dervish, for winter and summer. Although the Bokhariot -over-garment has the form of a night-dress extending down to the -ankles, still it is subject from time to time to little innovations -as to cut, sleeve, collar, and trimming, in accordance with the -fashion of the moment, which is as much respected in Bokhara as in -Paris. A dandy in the former city takes especial care to have his -turban folded according to the idea in force at the moment, as an -evidence of good taste. He sees particularly to his shawl, by which -he binds his trousers round the loins, and to his koshbag suspended -to that shawl. The koshbag is a piece of leather consisting of -several tongues, to which are fastened a knife or two, a small -tea-bag, a miswak (toothpick), and a leathern bag for copper money. -These articles constitute the indispensables of a Central Asiatic, -and by the quality and value of each is a judgment formed of the -character and breeding of the man. - -Whoever may wish to see the _haute volee_, the fashionable world of -Bokhara, should post himself on a Friday, between ten and twelve -o'clock in the forenoon, in the street leading from Deri Rigistan -to the Mesdjidi Kelan, or great mosque. At this time the Ameer, -followed by his grandees, in great state, betakes himself to his -Friday's devotions. All are in their best attire, upon their -best horses; for these, with their splendid housings, serve as -substitutes for carriages. The large, stiff, silken garments of -staring colours are in striking contrast with the high and spurred -boots. But what produces a particularly comic effect is the loose -and waddling gait which all pedestrians studiously put on. Reftari -khiraman (the waddling or trotting step), which Oriental poets find -so graceful, comparing it to the swaying movement of the cypress -when agitated by the zephyrs, and whose attainment is the subject of -careful study in Persia as well as Bokhara, to us Europeans seems -like the gait of a fatted goose floundering on his way home. But -this is no subject for me to jest upon, for our stiff, rapid pace is -just as displeasing to an Oriental eye, and it would not be very -polite to mention the comparison they make use of with respect to us. - -It does not excite less wonder on our part when we see the men in -Bokhara clad in wide garments of brilliant colour, whereas the women -wear only a dress that is tight to the shape, and of a dark hue. For -in this city, where the civilization has retained with the greatest -fidelity its antique stamp of Oriental Islamism, women, ever the -martyrs of Eastern legislation, come in for the worst share. - -In Turkey the contact with Christian elements has already introduced -many innovations, and the Yaschmak (veil) is rather treated as -part of the toilette than as the ensign of slavery. In Persia the -women are tolerably well muffled up, still they wear the Tchakshur -(pantaloons and stockings in one piece) of brilliant colouring and -silken texture, and the Rubend (a linen veil with network for the -eyes) is ornamented with a clasp of gold. In Bokhara, on the other -hand, there is not a trace of tolerance. The women wear nothing that -deserves to be named full dress or ornament. When in the streets, -they draw a covering over their heads, and are seen clad in dark -gowns of deep blue, with the empty sleeves hanging suspended to -their backs, so that observed from behind, the fair ones of Bokhara -may be mistaken for clothes wandering about. From the head down to -the bosom they wear a veil made of horsehair, of a texture which we -in Europe would regard as too bad and coarse for a sieve, and the -friction of which upon cheek or nose must be anything but agreeable. -Their _chaussures_ consist of coarse heavy boots, in which their -little feet are fixed, enveloped in a mass of leather. Such a -costume is not in itself attractive; but even so attired, they dare -not be seen too often in the streets. Ladies of ranks and good -character never venture to show themselves in any public place or -bazaar. Shopping is left to the men; and whenever any extraordinary -emergency obliges a lady to leave the house and to pay visits, it is -regarded as _bon ton_ for her to assume every possible appearance of -decrepitude, poverty, and age. - -To send forth a young lady in her eighteenth or twentieth year, -in all the superabundant energy of youth, supported upon a stick, -and thus muffled up, in the sole view that the assumption of the -characteristics of advanced life may spare her certain glances, may -be justly deemed the _ne plus ultra_ of tyranny and hypocrisy. These -erroneous notions of morality are to be met with, more or less, -everywhere in the East; but nowhere does one find such striking -examples of Oriental exaggeration as in that seat of ancient -Islamite civilization, Bokhara. In Constantinople, as well as other -cities of Turkey, there are certain Seir-yeri (promenades), where -ladies appear in public. In Teheran, Ispahan, and Shiraz, it is -the custom for the Hanims, _en grande toilette_, and mounted on -magnificent horses, to make excursions to the places of pilgrimage -situate in the environs of those cities. The tomb of the Said is the -place of rendezvous, and instead of prayers, reciprocal declarations -of love are not seldom made. In Bokhara, on the contrary, there -is not a shadow of all this. Never have I seen there a man in the -company of his wife. The husband slinks away from his other half, or -third, or fourth, as the case may be; and it is a notorious fact, -that when the wives of the Ameer pass by any place, all men are -expected to beat a hasty retreat. Under such circumstances it is -easy to see how society must constitute itself, and what shapes it -must assume. Where the two sexes are so separated, it can never put -on an appearance of gladness and geniality; all becomes compulsion -and hypocrisy; every genuine sentiment is crushed by these unnatural -laws which are imposed as God's ordinances, and as such expected to -be observed with the strictest obedience. - -To study that part of their lives which is before the public eye, -we must first pay a visit to the tea-booths, which are the resorts -of all classes. The Bokhariot, and the remark applies indeed -universally to all Central Asiatics, can never pass by a second or -third tea-booth without entering, unless his affairs are very urgent -indeed. As I before mentioned, every man carries with him his little -bag of tea: of this, on his entry, he gives a certain portion to -the landlord, whose business is rather to deal in hot water than in -tea. During day-time, and particularly in public places, the only -tea drunk is green tea, which is served without sugar, and with the -accompaniment of a relish or two, consisting of little cakes made of -flour and mutton suet; for the making of these Bokhara is famous. -As any attempt to cool tea by blowing upon it, however urgent on -account of its heat some such process may be, is regarded as highly -indecorous--nay, as an unpardonable offence--the Central Asiatic is -wont to make it revolve for this purpose in the cup itself until the -temperature is tolerable. To pass for a man _comme il faut_, one -must support the right elbow in the left hand, and gracefully give -a circular movement to the cup; no drop must be spilt, for such an -awkwardness would much damage a reputation for _savoir faire_. The -Bokhariot can thus chatter away hours and hours, amidst his fellow -tea-drinkers; for the meaningless conversations that are maintained -weary him as little as the cup after cup of tea which he swallows. -It is known to a second how much time is required for each kind of -tea to draw. Every time the tea-pot is emptied, the tea-leaves that -have been used are passed round: etiquette forbids any one to take -more than he can hold between finger and thumb, for it is regarded -by connoisseurs as the greatest dainty. - -They seek to find amusements of a higher kind in excursions to the -environs of the city. These are made sometimes to the tombs of the -saints; sometimes to the convents of certain Ishans (sheiks), in -the odour of sanctity; sometimes to the Tchiharbag Abdullah Khan, -situate near the Dervaze Imam. The visit to a Khanka, that is to a -dignitary of religion still instinct with life, is an act of more -importance and involving greater outlay than the pilgrimage to a -grave. The sainted men, whether departed or still living, have -equally their fixed days for levees and receptions. In the former -case the descendants of his Sanctity receive the tribute, in the -latter a man has the good fortune to have his purse emptied by the -holy hands themselves. On the occasion of these formal visits the -Ishans are tuned to a higher pitch than ordinary, and as the holy -eye distinguishes at once by the exterior of the visitor the amount -of the offering that is to be received, so does that measure serve -to fix with precision how long or how short the benediction is to -be cut. Scenes of this kind, in which I performed my part as a -spectator, or stood by, were always full of interest to me; and one, -over which I have had many a hearty laugh, has made an indelible -impression upon my mind. In the environs of Bokhara, I entered -the residence of a sheikh to ask for his blessing and a little -assistance in money. Upon the first point no difficulty was made, -but the second seemed to stagger him. At this moment a Turkoman was -announced as an applicant for a Fatiha. He was allowed to enter. -His holiness made his hocus-pocus with the greatest devotion. The -Turkoman sat there like an innocent lamb, and after being subjected -to the influences of the sanctifying breath, energetically -administered, he dived into his money-bag, from which he extracted -some pieces of coin, and, without counting them, transferred them -to the hand of him from whom he had received the benediction. I -noticed that the latter rubbed the money betwixt his fingers, and -was really astounded when he beckoned to me, and without once -looking at the number of pieces, handed them over to me in the -presence of the Turkoman. That was real liberality, the reader may -say. I thought so myself until coming to the bazaar and seeking to -make a purchase from a baker, one of the coins was rejected by him -as false. I tendered the others, and they were all pronounced to be -bad--valueless. The nomad, as crafty as he was superstitious, had -paid for the spurious ware with spurious money, and as his holiness -on his side had at once detected the cheat by the touch, he had no -scruple in making it over to me. - -On the occasion of their excursions to the environs of the city, -persons of wealth are in the habit of taking with them their -tea-things, and a servant to prepare tea. Those who are not so -well off have recourse to establishments that are to be found at -these places of resort. Visitors evince just as much desire to -hide themselves, where possible, in the booths, as they do to -avoid encamping close to the road. As it is the approved custom to -invite every passer-by, be he of what rank he may, to take some -refreshment of food or drink, each host entertains an apprehension, -not unjustified by experience, lest those whom he accosts, not -content with returning for answer the ordinary word expressive -of gratitude--khosh (well)--may actually close at once with the -invitation. Still, not to give it is everywhere regarded as a -mean sin. Conditional acceptance only is usual in some places. -These rules of hospitality so exaggerated, and at the same time so -specious, operate oppressively and unpleasantly, both on him that -takes and him that gives; and the confounded, I might almost say the -aghast, air of the host who is taken at his word always produced -upon me the drollest effect. - -The spectacle which these private parties of pleasure generally -afford is one of no great gladness, they rather seem to produce a -deadly-lively effect. The significant joke, the peal of laughter, -the loud cry are, it is true, none of them wanting on these -occasions; but where the crown of society, woman, is absent, all -is in vain, and never can life assume its real aspect of genuine -enjoyment. - -If I do not err, it is the Tchiharbag Abdullah Khan that still -preserves most of the characters of a public place of entertainment. -It is a spot well shaded by lofty trees; a canal flows through it, -to whose banks the pupils of the numerous colleges and the young -men belonging to the wealthier classes, resort generally on Friday -afternoons. The inevitable tea-kettle is here again in requisition, -and tea is the article for which the place is renowned; but not -the only one, for the combats of rams are here celebrated also. -The savageness with which these sturdy animals rush against each -other when irritated, the fearful shock of their two heads, -particularly when they struggle to push their antagonists back, -present a spectacle very attractive to the inhabitant, not only of -Bokhara, but of every part of Central Asia. What the bull-fight is -in Spain, and horse-racing in England, these combats of rams are -in Turkestan. The rams are trained to this sport, and it is really -surprising how these brutes support with obstinacy often as many as -one hundred charges. When they first make their appearance on the -avenue, the bystanders begin to wager as to the number of shocks -their chosen champion will support. Sometimes the weaker combatant -beats a retreat; but very often the battle only ends with the entire -discomfiture of one animal, consequent upon the cracking of his -skull. It is a cruel spectacle; still the cruelty does not seem so -great in the middle of Tartary as some of the sports in which so -many civilised nations of the West still find amusement. - - * * * * * - -Let me now attempt to portray in the following slight sketch the -external mode of living in Bokhara. In the morning--I mean by the -term before sunrise, as by religious compulsion every man is an -early riser--one encounters people, half-asleep, and half-awake, -and half-dressed, hurrying one by one to the mosques: any delay in -arriving not only entails reproach, but is considered as meriting -punishment. The stir made by these devotees in running through -the streets rouses the houseless dogs from their lairs in the -out-of-the-way corners or upon the heaps of dung. These famished, -horrid-looking animals--yet contrasted with their Stambouli -brethren, presenting a princely appearance--are crying proofs of the -miserly nature of the Bokhariots. The poor creatures first struggle -to rear their gaunt frames, mere skin and bone, from sleep; then -they rub their rough, hairless carcases, against the mouldering -walls, and this toilette at an end, they start upon their hunt for -a _dejeuner a la fourchette_, for the most part made up of a few -fleshless bones or carrion, but very often of kicks in the ribs -administered by some compassionating and charitable inhabitant of -Bokhara. At the same time as the dogs, awake the hardly-better -lodged Parias of the Tartar capital--I mean the wretched men -afflicted with incurable and contagious skin diseases, who sit at -the corners of the streets _en famille_, and house in miserable -tents. In Persia they are met with, remote from cities and villages, -on the high roads; but here, owing to the absence of sanitary -regulations, they are tolerated in the middle of the city. Their -lot is far the most terrible to which any son of earth can have to -submit, and unhappily they are long livers too. Whilst the mother -is clothing her other accursed offspring with a scanty covering of -rags, the father seats himself with the most disfigured one amongst -them by the roadside, in order to solicit charity and alms from -those who pass. Charity and alms to prolong such an existence! - -After the sun has looked long enough upon this miserable spectacle, -the city in all its parts begins slowly to assume animation. The -people return in crowds from the mosques; they are encountered -on their way by troops of asses laden with wood, corn, grass, -large pails of milk, and dishes of cream, pressing from all the -city gates, and forcing their way in varied confusion through the -narrow and crooked streets. Screams of alarm from the drivers, the -reciprocal cries issuing from those who buy and those who sell, mix -with that mighty hee-haw of the asses for which Bokhara is renowned. -To judge by the first impression, it might be supposed that the -different drivers would be obliged to fish out their wood from -milk, their grass from cream, charcoal from corn, silkworm-cocoons -from skimmed milk. But no, nothing is spilt, nothing thrown down; -the drivers are wont to flog each other through in right brotherly -fashion, till in the end all arrives in safety at its destination. - -At an hour after sunrise the Bokhariot is already seated with his -cup of Schirtschaj (milk-tea): this beverage is composed of tea -made from bricks of tea in the form of Kynaster, and abundantly -flavoured with milk, cream, or mutton fat. This favourite drink of -the Tartars, in which large quantities of bread are broken, would be -more rightly described as a soup; and although the treat was highly -commended to me, I had great difficulty in getting accustomed to it. - -After tea begins the day's work, and then one remarks particular -activity in the streets. Porters loaded with great bales hurry to -the bazaar. These goods belong to the retail dealers, who every -evening pack up their shop and transport it to their own house. And -then a long chain of two-humped camels that have no burdens are -being led into the Karavanserai, destined to convey the produce of -Central Asia in every direction. Here, again, stands a heavily-laden -caravan from Russia, accompanied on its way by the prying eyes of -the custom-house officials and their cohorts, for those long bales -contain valuable productions of the industry of the unbelievers, -and are destined accordingly to be doubly taxed. Merchants of -all religions and from all nations run after the caravan; the -newly-arrived wares find customers even before they are unpacked, -and at such moments Afghans, Persians, Tadjiks, and Hindoos, seem -to get more excited than is the case even with the heroes of the -Exchange in Paris, Vienna, or Frankfort-on-the-Maine. The Kirghis -camel-driver, fresh from the desert, is the quietest of all; he -is lost in astonishment, and knows not whether most to admire the -splendour of the mud huts, the colour of the dresses, or the crowds -swaying to and fro. But the greatest source of amusement to me was -to observe how the Bokhariot, in his quality of inhabitant of a -metropolis, jeers at these nomads; how he is constantly on the -alert to place the rudeness of the sons of the desert in relief by -contrasting it with his own refinement and civilisation. Whilst the -bazaar life, with all its alarm, tumult, shrieks, cries, hammering, -scolding, and knocking, is in full force, the youths greedy of -knowledge swarm about the numerous Medresse (colleges), there to -learn to extract from their useless studies lessons of a more -exalted kind of stupidity and a more grovelling hypocrisy. - -The greatest interest attaches to the primary school posted in the -very centre of the bazaar, and often in the immediate neighbourhood -of between ten and fifteen coppersmiths' workshops. The sight of -this public school, in which a Mollah, surrounded by several rows of -children, gives his lessons in reading, in spite of the noise, is -really comical. That, in a place where sturdy arms are brandishing -hammers, hardly a single word is audible, we may readily suppose. -Teachers and pupils are as red in the face as turkey-cocks from -crying out, and yet nothing but the wild movement of the jaw and the -swelling of the veins indicate that they are studying.[17] - - [17] Schools thus placed in the middle of the bazaar are also met - with in Persia: these are the cheapest schools for children, still - it is incredible that the Orientals should suffer such a stupid - practice to exist, and that they do not remove these establishments - for instruction to some less disturbed situation. - -In the afternoon (I speak here of summer-time, for of the winters -I have no personal experience), there is more tranquillity both -in bazaar and street. On the banks of the water reservoir and of -the canals, the true believers are engaged in performing the holy -ablutions. Whilst one man is washing his feet from their layer of -sweat and dirt, his neighbour uses the same water for his face, and -a third does not scruple to quench his thirst with it. Water that -consists of more than one hundred and twenty pints is, according -to the texts of Islam, blind; which means that filth and dirt lose -themselves therein, and the orthodox have the privilege to enjoy -every abomination as a thing pure in itself. After a service in the -mosques, all becomes again animated; it is the second summons to -work during the day, for a period by no means so long. The Mussulman -population soon begin their evening holiday, whilst Jews and Hindoos -still remain busy. The former, who are for the most part employed in -the handicraft of silk dyers, move stealthily and timidly through -the streets, their spirits broken by their long and heavy servitude; -the latter run about like men possessed, and their bold bearing -shows that their home is not far off, and the time not so remote -when they also had a government of their own. - -It is now within three hours of sunset. The elite of society betake -themselves to the Khanka (convent), to enjoy a treat, semi-religious -and semi-literary. It consists in the public reading of the Mesnevi, -which is declaimed at that time of the day by an experienced reader -in the vestibule of the Khanka. This masterpiece of Oriental poesy -presents in its contemplations of terrestrial existence much -elevation of thought. Versification, language, metaphors, are, in -reality, full of charm and beauty; but the audience in Bokhara -are incapable of understanding it, and their enthusiasm is all -affectation. I often had seated at my side on these occasions a -man who, in his excitement, would emit deep-drawn sighs, and even -bellow like a bull. I was quite amazed; and when I afterwards -made enquiry as to his character, I heard that he was one of the -meanest of misers, the proprietor of many houses, yet ready to -make obeisance for even the smallest copper coin. No one is at all -inclined to adopt the sentiment he hears there as the rule of his -life, and still it is regarded as becoming to be deeply impressed -by the beauty of the expression. Every one knows that the sighs and -exclamation of his neighbour proceed from no genuine emotion, and -still all vie in these demonstrations of extraordinary feeling. - -Even before the last beams of the setting sun have lost themselves -in the wide waste of sand on the west, the Tartar capital begins -to repose. As the coolness commences, the stifling clouds of dust -subside. Where canals or water-reservoirs are near at hand, they are -rendered available--the ground is watered and then swept. The men -seat themselves in the shade to wait for the Ezan (evening prayer); -that heard, an absolute stillness ensues, and soon all are seated -before the colossal dish of pilau, and after they have well loaded -their stomachs with this heavy and greasy meal, any desire they -may have felt to leave the house is quite extinguished. Two hours -after sunset all the thoroughfares are as silent as death. No echo -is heard in the darkness of the night but the heavy tread of the -night-watchman making his rounds. These men are charged to put in -force the strictest police regulations against thieves and seekers -of love adventures; they scruple not to arrest any man, however -honourable his position, if his foot crosses his threshold after the -beat of the tattoo has issued its order that all the world should -sleep. - -What in this mode of town life so pleases the Bokhariot--what makes -him give so marked a preference to his own capital--is not difficult -to divine. His mind has become familiarized with a simple mode of -living, in which, as yet, little luxury is to be found, and which, -in externals, admits not much perceptible distinction between -ranks and conditions of men. A universal acquiescence in the same -poverty, or to use a more appropriate expression, the absence of -different degrees of visible property, makes Bokhara, in the eye -of many Asiatics, a favourite residence. I once met a Persian in -Teheran who had been a slave in Bokhara fifteen years. And there, -in the middle of his fatherland, and surrounded by his relatives, -he sighed and pined for the Tartar capital. At the outset he was -delighted with the bazaars, filled with articles of European luxury; -he contemplated them with childish delight; but later he saw how -the wealthier alone made their purchases, and how all despised a -man like him, clad in a cotton dress, the costume of the poor. No -wonder his wish carried him again back to the spot where, at the -time unconscious of his happiness, he was permitted to share great -physical comfort, without a thorn in his eye or a pang in his heart. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -BOKHARA, THE HEAD QUARTERS OF MOHAMMEDANISM. - - "Bokhara, mirevi divanei - Laiki zen djiri zindankhanei." - - Thou wilt to Bokhara? O fool for thy pains, - Thither thou goest, to be put into chains. - - MESNEVI. - - -It has frequently been noticed by travellers in Central Asia, and -we have likewise remarked upon it, that Bokhara considers itself -the great pillar of Islamism, and the only pure fountain of the -Mohammedan religion. Nor is it the Bokhariots alone who take this -view, but all the rest of the Mohammedan world, in whatever region -or country, unite in looking up to and extolling the Turkestan -capital for possessing this exclusive privilege. The pilgrim from -Central Asia, whether travelling in Asia Minor, Arabia, or Egypt, is -received with marked veneration and respect, and is regarded as the -very embodiment of every Islamitic virtue. The western Mohammedan, -especially the Osmanli, deeply wounded by the innovations our -civilization has introduced into his native country, turns to his -kinsman and co-religionist from the far East, and gazing at him with -a look of extreme piety, finds comfort at the aspect of him, who -in his eyes still represents the religion of the Prophet, pure and -undefiled. Heaving a sigh, he exclaims: "Ha Bokharai Sherif!" (yes, -the noble Bokhara), which utterance is meant to express his whole -mind. - -The difference that exists between Eastern and western Mohammedanism -in Asia is indeed a remarkable phenomenon, and deserves a closer -examination. Upon my asking the Mollahs in Bokhara how it happened -that they were better Mohammedans than the people in Mekka and -Medina, where Mohammed had actually lived and taught, they answered: -that "the torch, although sending its light into the far distance, -is always dark at the foot,"--Mekka being meant by the foot of the -torch, and Bokhara the far distance. In an allegorical sense this -may be correct, but Europeans are not silenced by similes of that -sort; and, since the fact deserves attention, we will endeavour -to ascertain, first--the essential points of the difference in -question; and, secondly--the causes for it. Upon examining in -detail the various points of contrast between Eastern and Western -Mohammedanism, the chief characteristic feature is, no doubt, the -wild fanatic obstinacy with which the Mussulman, in the far East, -clings to every single point of the Koran and the traditions, -looking with terror and aversion, in the true spirit of the -Oriental, upon any innovation; and, in a word, directing all his -efforts to the preservation of his religion at that precise standard -which marked its existence in the happy period (Vakti Seadet) of -the Prophet and the first califs. This standard, however, is not -sufficiently apparent, since Islamism, in those countries, has -assumed a form such as a few eccentric interpreters among the -Sunnites desire, but which, so far as our knowledge extends, _has -never existed in reality_. - -Fanaticism, the chief cause of hypocrisy and impiety, has disfigured -every religion, so long as mankind, living in the infancy of -civilization, has been unable to perceive the pure light of the -true faith. All nations and all countries have given proof of its -existence, but nowhere does it appear in such glaring colours, or -wear such a disgusting aspect, as in the East. Here, religion, -in order to improve the mind, deals chiefly with the body; here, -in order to exercise moral influence, the devotee is occupied -with physical trifling, and, neglecting the inner man, as may be -supposed, every one strives for outward appearance and effect. In -Bokhara the principle reigns paramount: "Man must make a figure,--no -one cares for what he thinks." A man may be the greatest miscreant, -the most reprobate of human creatures; but let him fulfil the -outward duties of religion and he escapes all punishment in this as -well as in the next world. - -The very popular prayer of the thief Abdurrahman (Duai-duzd -Abdurrahman) illustrates most strikingly this opinion. It consists -of about fifteen to twenty sentences, and its substance is as -follows: "When the Prophet (the blessing of God be upon him!) -lived in Medina, he went one afternoon upon the terrace of his -house, in order to perform his devotions. He looked about with his -blessed eyes and saw in his part of the town a funeral procession -pass through the streets, followed only by a few persons, and the -coffin surrounded by a marvellous brilliancy, not unlike a sea of -rosy light. As soon as he had finished his prayer he hastened to -the spot, joined the funeral procession, and saw, to his great -amazement, that the shine did not leave the coffin, even when -let down into the grave. The Prophet could not recover from his -surprise; he went to the wife of the deceased, and asked what and -who her husband had been. 'Alas!' she answered, with tears, 'God be -merciful unto him, his death is a blessing to all, for throughout -his life he was a highwayman and murderer; and the tears of widows -and orphans he has caused to flow, are more than the water he has -drunk. He lived only to cause unhappiness to others. I have often -remonstrated with him, but in vain. He lived as a sinner, and as a -sinner he died!' 'What!' exclaimed the Prophet, with ever-increasing -astonishment, 'Did he possess no single good quality, has he never -shown repentance?' 'Alas, no!' she sobbed out; 'the only thing he -used to do every evening after his wicked daily work, was to read -over these few lines (and she showed the prayer), and then fell -asleep, and woke to sin anew on the morrow.' The Prophet looked -at the prayer, and recognising at once its marvellous efficacy, -he has left it behind to exercise the same virtue upon all -orthodox Mussulmen." The moral drawn from this narrative needs no -explanation; and it is easy to imagine how many Central Asiatics, -furnished with such a recipe, _a la Tetzel_, will commit the most -atrocious deeds, and retain withal the consciousness of being pious -and religious men. - -What strikes a European most of all, in seeing this principle of -outward formulas reduced to practice, are the laws of cleanliness, -which, in Central Asia, are observed with strict and scrupulous -exactness, although, as is well known, the most disgusting -filthiness is to be met with. By the Mohammedan law the body becomes -unclean after each evacuation, and requires an ablution, according -to circumstances, either a small (abdest) or a great one (gusl). -The same has to be observed with respect to the clothes, which are -subjected to a purification if touched by the smallest drop of -water.[18] The cleaning of the body is strictly performed amongst -all Mussulmen; nor, on the whole, is the law about the clothes lost -sight of; but I have never seen people in the West of Asia, as in -Bokhara, repeat their prayers stark-naked, from a religious scruple, -that their clothes might have been defiled without the eye having -detected it. It is extremely ridiculous, that in any religion, as is -the case in the Mohammedan, whole volumes should be written as to -the manner in which its followers are to cleanse their body after -each large or small evacuation. The law, for instance, commands the -istindjah (removal), istinkah (ablution), and istibra (drying), -_i.e._, a small clod of earth is first used for the local cleansing, -then water, at least twice, and finally a piece of linen, a yard in -length, in order to destroy every possible trace. In Turkey, Arabia, -and Persia, only one of these acts is performed,--the istinkah; but -in Central Asia all three are considered necessary; and in order to -prove the high standard of their piety, zealous Mohammedans carry -three or four such clods of earth, cut with a knife that is used for -no other purpose besides, in their turbans, to have a small store -at hand. This commandment is often carried out quite publicly in -the bazaars, from a desire to make parade of their conscientious -piety. I shall never forget the revolting scene, when I saw one -day a teacher give to his pupils, boys and girls, instructions -in the handling of the clod of earth, linen and so forth, by way -of experiment. It never occurs to any one that such a tenet is -disgraceful, nor does any body perceive that these extremes of -physical cleanliness lead directly to the extremes of moral impurity. - - [18] In the eyes of Eastern people, dogs and Europeans are classed - together, as making water against the wall. Throughout the East - people squat down during the action, for fear lest in a standing - position a drop might touch and thus pollute their clothes. - -The extreme severity with which the law of the Harem is executed in -Bokhara, is looked for in vain among the Western Mohammedans, or -even among the fanatic sect of the Wahabites. This law, so contrary -to nature, has necessarily been the cause of a certain vice equally -contrary to nature, and which, although it exists among Turks, Arabs -and Persians, is confined within a comparatively narrow limit, and -condemned as a "despicable sin" by the interpreters of the Koran as -well as by public opinion. In Central Asia, especially in Bokhara -and Khokand, this atrocious crime is carried to a frightful extent, -and the religious of these countries considering it a protection -against any transgression of the law of the Harem, and declaring it -to be _no_ sin, marriages _a la Tiberius_ have become quite popular; -nay, fathers feel not the smallest compunction in surrendering their -sons to a friend or acquaintance for a certain annual stipend. Our -pen refuses to describe this disgusting vice in its full extent; but -even the few hints we have thrown out are sufficient to show the -abyss of crime to which an exaggerated religious fanaticism degrades -mankind. - -It is just the same with the prohibition of spirituous liquors. -The Koran commands not only abstinence from wine, but from all -intoxicating drinks, for this reason, that a state of intoxication -would be attended by neglect of prayer, or of any other pious duty. -The Western Mohammedans interpret this commandment as referring only -to wine (sharab) in the strict sense of the word, and consider -drinking arak (brandy) already a much less offence; many, indeed, -are of opinion, that since it has not been expressly mentioned in -the Koran, it would not be regarded as a sin to drink it with water. -In Turkey and Persia brandy is as much in favour among the better -educated classes, as wodki in Russia; but in Bokhara both brandy -and wine are very rarely met with. Even those who do not confess -the Mohammedan religion, such as Jews and Hindoos, cannot drink it -except clandestinely, and the mere pronouncing the words sharab and -arak, is a sin in the eyes of the orthodox. With facts like these -one would expect the greatest sobriety among the people, but alas! -how terrible is the substitute hypocrisy has invented! - -The Central Asiatics make a distinction between fluid and solid -spirits. The former are strictly forbidden, whilst the latter, by -which all narcotics are understood, are looked upon as perfectly -innocent. The famous opium-eaters of Constantinople, who, at the -present day almost extinct, were seen daily, at the beginning of the -century, in the notorious square of Direkalti, and admired by all -passers-by--the various hashish-eaters in Egypt--the lovers of the -comparatively harmless teryak in Persia,--all these are as nothing -in comparison with the bengis[19] of Central Asia. - - [19] Beng is the name of the poison which is produced from the - canabis indica. - -In the first-named countries opium has a rival in "pater bacchus," -and holds, therefore, a divided empire; but in Turkestan, where the -"jolly god" is a stranger, it reigns paramount, and its destroying -power is fearful. The number of beng-eaters is greatest in Bokhara -and Khokand, and it is no exaggeration to say that three-fourths -of the learned and official world, or, in other words, the whole -intelligent class, are victims to this vice. The Government looks on -with perfect indifference, while hundreds, nay, thousands, commit -suicide. It never occurs to any one that a prohibition should be -made on this subject, but if a man were convicted of having tasted a -drop of wine, he would be beheaded without any further ado. - -These errors, together with many others of the same kind, must no -doubt be ascribed to an eccentric scrupulousness in observing the -existing laws. Strange as they are, they appear less surprising -when compared with those views and opinions which arose in Eastern -Mohammedanism in consequence of a different interpretation of those -traditional dogmas, which are not only rejected as erroneous, but -flatly condemned by the learned Mohammedans of the West. Among -these we are struck first of all with the religious orders or -pious fraternities, which are spread in an extraordinary manner -over Central Asia, and are subject to such strict regulations, -and conducted with a fervour which contrasts singularly with the -character of Eastern nations, especially the Central Asiatics. In -the Western Islamitic countries we meet with the various orders -of the Oveisi, Kadrie, Djelali, Mevlevi, Rufai, Bektashi, &c., -which, at all times treated with civility by the Ulemas, were -never able to attract within their magic circle more than a few -individuals of a heated imagination; whereas, on the contrary, the -Nakishbendi, Makhdumaazami, in Bokhara and Khokand, embody large -masses of the population, who are appointed, guided, and governed -by the officers of the order, representing the temporary supreme -chief. Every community, however small in numbers, comprises one -or more Ishans (priests of the order) beside the lawful Mollah, -Reis, &c.; and I have often felt astonished at witnessing the blind -obedience and respect paid to the members of the order as compared -with the former. It need scarcely be added, that these influential -Ishans stand frequently in the way of the Government, but it has -never ventured to offer them any check or resistance, regarding, -as they do, religious orders as inseparable from Islam. Mohammed -expressly stated, "_La Ruhbanitum fil Islam_"--"no monks in Islam." -Nevertheless the Khan, his ministers, even many Ulemas, in spite of -the latter, regarding the Ishan as powerful rivals, and hating them -accordingly, are in the habit of adopting the outward attributes of -one or the other order, out of deference to public opinion. - -The judicial procedure of Eastern Mohammedans is equally -remarkable. They entirely reject the Urf, _i.e._, the decision of -the judge, based upon his own judgment and convictions, in cases -where the Sheriat (the laws of the Koran) is insufficient; as also -the Kanun, _i.e._, laws framed by later legislators. The latter they -regard as heretical innovations, and they take the Sheriat, or the -code of laws emanating from the Koran, as their sole and infallible -guide. That the laws Mohammed framed twelve hundred years ago for -the social wants of the simple Arabs, should not suit every clime -and epoch, can be no matter of surprise. In Turkey and Persia the -necessity for reform has long been felt. The Governments of these -countries have tried in all cases to supply the deficiencies of -their primitive codes by supplemental additions, however much the -opinions of the Ulemas resisted such a step, naturally foreseeing -from it, as they did, the downfall of their power. In Turkestan, -not only the Mollahs, but the Government, and everybody in fact, -is highly indignant at the very idea of a supplement. In their -eyes the Koran is "as fine as a hair, as sharp as a sword, and -satisfies all possible wants of life;" whoever thought differently -would be treated as a wicked man and an infidel. People eat, drink -and dress, in strict conformity with the precepts of the Koran; -it is the standing rule, by which all taxes and toll-moneys are -levied, the standard, by which all wars are conducted, and the guide -for directing their relations with foreign powers! Upon the same -principle, any innovation in domestic life is strictly forbidden -as _sin_. England, Russia, and other modern states, of whom the -Koran makes no mention, cannot be recognised by the Tartar rulers -_de facto_; on the contrary, they consider it their duty to oppose -them as intruders by the law of the Djihad (the religious combat), -a policy which will, of course, as already sufficiently shown, lead -them to entire destruction. - -With regard to the Shiitish Persians, the Eastern Mohammedans stand -in a very different relation to them from their Western brethren. -This religious schism, as is well known, has often been the cause -of long and bloody wars,--under the pretext of a temporary quarrel. -Ever since the first dissensions took place between the dynasties -Akkoyunlu and Karakayunlu, Turks and Arabs have frequently been -opposed to the Persians in destructive and calamitous wars: deep -hatred and bitter resentment separated the two sects, and the -former succeeded in ejecting their Shiitish enemies from the bond -of Islamism. The Persian is looked upon as an heretical Mussulman, -but always as a Mussulman; he is admitted to the holy cities and all -places of pilgrimage, the orthodox Sunnite does not object to pray -with him in the same mosque, and in modern times the hatred between -the Osmanli and Persian has already so far diminished that the -latter is permitted by law to intermarry with the former. - -In Central Asia there exists no trace of anything of the kind. Here -the Persians are hated and persecuted as fiercely as on their first -appearance among the Shiitish sect. In the year 945 of the Hidjra, -they were declared outlaws and infidels by the fetwah of a certain -Mollah, Shemseddin Mohammed, a native of Samarkand, and living in -Herat at the time of the Sultan Husein Baikera. This fetwah has -done much injury to the poor inhabitants of Iran, for, although -the marauding Turkomans would have taken them prisoners without -any form of law, they would not have been sold in the market-place -of fanatical Bokhara, had not the brand of the Kafir qualified -them for it, only such men being saleable. Whatever cruelties were -practised on them, were all committed under the pretext of punishing -an unbeliever, and though Eastern Mohammedans try to vindicate the -Mollahs of Turkestan, by pointing out that the Persians recognize -one and the same Koran, and one and the same prophet, yet they -declare the fetwah to be just and proper, and protest against all -assertions to the contrary, of the West-Mohammedan learned men, as -ignorance and error. - -There are essential distinctions also in the ritual of the Eastern -and Western Mohammedans. I doubt very much whether, even at Bagdad -and Damascus, during the most brilliant period of Islamism, officers -(Reis) were daily traversing the streets, stopping everybody in the -midst of their daily occupations in order to hear them the prayer -Farz-i-Ayin, and punishing the ignorant on the spot. This is -actually being done in Bokhara at the present day. In the various -ceremonies of circumcision, marriage, and burial, the Central -Asiatics have several customs of their own, entirely heterogeneous -to western Islam; their daily prayers, which have to be repeated -five times, consist here of more Rikats (genuflexions) than in -other countries; and it is curious, at the Ezan (call to prayer), -the Turkestans most carefully avoid all tune or melody, and recite -it in a sort of howl. The manner in which the Ezan is cried in the -West, is here declared sinful, and the beautiful, melancholy notes, -which, in the silent hour of a moonlit-evening, are heard from the -slender minarets on the Bosphorus, fascinating every hearer, would -be listened to by the Bokhariot with feelings only of detestation. - -In addition to the above let us bear in mind the many mosques, -medressas, all filled to overflowing with worshippers, the -Karikhane, _i.e._ houses, where blind men recite the Koran the whole -day long, the numerous Khanka, where fanatics roar out their Zikr -day and night, and with which institutions every city is crowded; -then let us picture to ourselves the various gestures, the severely -earnest looks and the whole appearance of the Mollahs, Ishane, -Dervishes, Kalenters, and ascetics, one of wild fanaticism, and it -might perhaps be possible to form an idea of Bokhara, of this pillar -of Islam, these headquarters of an over-strained religious zeal, and -where the religion of the Arab Prophet has degenerated into a form, -such as the founder no doubt never wished his work should assume. -From here it has spread with the same tendencies over Afghanistan -to India, Kashmir, and the Chinese Tartary, and northwards as far -as Kazan. In all these places the spirit of Bokhara has taken firm -root, for Bokhara is their teacher, and neither Constantinople -nor Mekka, but Bokhara is looked up to as their sole guide. It is -here that our civilization will encounter more serious obstacles -than in Western Asia, and Russia most likely has already made this -experience with respect to the Nogai Tartars. It would be a matter -of regret, if the English Government should not as yet have felt -this to be the truth with her 40 millions of Mohammedan subjects in -India. The consequences would be sure and inevitable. - -So much at present for the difference between Eastern and Western -Mohammedanism, and without much research we shall find the principal -causes to be as follows: - -Firstly, Asia, the chief seat and fountain-head of religious -fanaticism, is found, the more we advance eastward, the more true to -its ancient type. As in general the inhabitants of India, Thibet, -and China are more eccentric, more religiously fanatical, or, in -other words, more Asiatic, than the followers of Islam, in the same -measure the Eastern Mohammedans are more zealous than their Western -co-religionists. - -Secondly, the same eccentric fanaticism, which the Central Asiatics -displayed when professing the doctrines of Zoroaster, has been the -cause why their conversion to Islam cost the Arabs so much time -and trouble. It took more than 200 years, before the religion of -Mohammed had completely supplanted the old faith. No sooner had -the conquerors left a town than the newly-converted inhabitants -returned to their old faith, and the town had to be re-conquered and -re-converted. But when the iron perseverance of the Arabs had at -last succeeded in making them Mohammedans, they attached themselves -to the new religion with the same fervour they had manifested in -the old. As early as the beginning of the rule of the Samanides, we -find in Transoxania men of high reputation, throughout Islam, for -their learning and their exemplary piety. Belkh had already then -acquired the name of Kubbetuel Islam, the dome of Islam. The city and -neighbourhood of Bokhara were crowded with the tombs of saints and -learned men, and we can easily understand how it happened that these -Turkestani cities had in piety and learning become successful rivals -of Bagdad, the then centre of the Mohammedan world, where devotional -zeal was eclipsed by the splendour of worldly grandeur. - -After the extinction of the dynasty of the Samanides, but especially -during the Mongol conquests, no doubt all religious life suffered -a temporary check, but the edifice has never been shaken to its -foundations as in Bagdad, where Helagu, in destroying the phantom -caliphate of Motasimbillah, broke the chief strength of Islam and -scattered it to the winds. In Transoxania, on the other hand, its -energies were being silently strengthened and matured. Timur aimed -at making his native home the chief seat of Mohammedan learning, and -his work was continued, though in a different spirit, by the rulers -of the Sheibani dynasty. It can therefore excite no wonder that -Bokhara has been able to preserve to the present day, that precise -standard of religious asceticism which characterized Islam in the -middle ages. - -Thirdly, the great body of the Sunnites has been separated by the -schism of Persia practically, if not morally, into two distinct -parts, and the separation is certain to continue. The pilgrimages -to the holy cities of Arabia have by no means compensated for -the undoubtedly greater intercourse, which, in the times of the -caliphat, could be carried on without fear of disturbance from the -Eastern to the Western frontier of Islam. Sectarian animosity has -been purposely kept alive, and has rendered Persia a dangerous -country to any Sunnitish traveller. Whilst great political changes, -as well as constant intercourse with Christian Europe, combined to -bring the western Sunnites under the influence of foreign social -relations, the Eastern Sunnites, left entirely to themselves, had no -opportunity offered them of introducing either changes or reforms. -They looked with quite as much abhorrence as the Chinese and Hindoos -upon heretical Persia, the only country which afforded them the -means of communication with the West. - -The observation which I have offered, that the influences of -European Christianity have divided western from eastern Islam in -many cardinal aspects of faith, may lead many of our readers to -hope, that the ever-increasing communication and interchange of -ideas will gradually effect a total transformation in Asia, or, as -many sanguine travellers of modern times believe, that Asia will be -Europeanised. - -The question is naturally one of interest to every one who -wishes (and who does not wish it) for an improvement of the -social relations in Asia, and far too important for a mere -passing examination. Nevertheless, in order to obviate certain -misinterpretations or false constructions, we must remark, that the -above observation is not to be regarded as offering an infallible -test of Western Mohammedan advancement. We have to be careful, not -to mistake for precious metal the tinsel of European civilisation -and modes of thought, with which Young Turkey and Persia endeavour -to garnish their innate barbarism. I must confess the result of -European influence in these countries is hitherto alas! very small -and ineffectual. The inexperienced eye of a tourist is deceived by -their having partly adopted our dress and furniture, but all else is -now just as it was in olden times, and will probably continue so for -a very long time to come. - -It is taken for granted that our relations, as Europeans with Asia, -are those, as it were, between a son and his mother, the latter -possessing a certain amount of superstition, with which she finds -it difficult to part. From Asia we received our descent, mentally -and materially, as well as our education, but nobody would reproach -us with ingratitude or want of respect, if we reject the views and -opinions of "our aged parent," and for her own benefit occasionally -press upon her our ideas instead. I use purposely the expression -"press upon," for whatever has been adopted of European civilisation -in Asia up to the present day, has not been the result, either -of conviction or a liking for our social relations, but simply -that of fear. A forced love never lasts, and were we to base our -speculations as to the future of the whole of Asia upon the changes -hitherto effected in western Asia, they would inevitably prove -fallacious. - - - - -CHAPTER XIII. - -THE SLAVE TRADE AND SLAVE LIFE IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -The last cannon-shot fired by the victorious champions of the Union -against their seceding brethren, although it has not entirely put an -end to the slave trade in the Western hemisphere, has nevertheless -dealt it a very severe blow. The flag of Great Britain in the waters -of Eastern Africa and the recent conquest of the whole Caucasus by -the Russians have, to a great extent, crippled the same abominable -traffic among the Mohammedans of Western Asia. The indolent, -enervated Orientals may still regard with bitter resentment and -rancour the efforts of Europe in the cause of humanity; but the sale -and purchase of human beings is everywhere practised with a certain -reserve arising from a sense of shame, or, to speak more correctly, -of fear of European eyes. This trade is now to be found unfettered -and unembarrassed only in Central Asia. Here, in the ancient seat of -Asiatic barbarism and ferocity, thousands every year fall victims -to this inhuman trade. These victims are not negroes, occupying the -lowest place in the human race, but belong to a nation celebrated -now, as of old, for its culture and civilisation. These not only -exchange freedom for slavery, but at the same time the comforts -of comparative civilisation for the miseries of semi-savage life, -and are torn from their smiling homes to pine away in the desert. -The lot of such captives is even harder than that of the negro. -Inasmuch as to this day Europeans have had very little information -with respect to the miserable state of things which prevails in the -distant regions of Central Asia, it may not be out of place if I -here recount my own experiences of them somewhat in detail. - -What the Portuguese slave traders and the Arabian ivory merchants -are in Central Africa, that are the Turkomans in the north-eastern -and north-western portions of Iran, indeed we may say in all Persia. -Wherever nomad tribes live in the immediate neighbourhood of a -civilised country, there will robbery and slavery unavoidably exist -to a greater or less extent. The poverty-stricken children of the -desert are endowed by nature with an insatiable lust for adventure, -and frames capable of supporting the most terrible privations and -fatigues. What the scanty soil of their native wilderness denies -them, they seek in the lands of their more favoured neighbours. -The intercourse between them, however, is seldom of a friendly -character. As the plundered and hardly used agriculturist cannot, -and dare not, pursue the well-mounted nomad across the pathless -deserts of sand, the latter, protected by the nature of the -country, can carry on his career of plunder and rapine without fear -of chastisement. In former times the cities on the borders of the -Great Sahara and of the Arabian desert were in the same plight. Even -at the present day the caravans in the latter country are exposed -to the greatest dangers. But Persia has to suffer from these evils -to a still greater extent, as the deserts which form her northern -boundary are the most extensive and the most savage in the world, -while their inhabitants are the most cruel and least civilised of -nomads. - -The wars of hoary antiquity between the Iranians and Turanians, sung -by the master singer of the Shah Nameh, "the Book of the Kings," -seem to have had their origin in acts of violence perpetrated by -the latter. It is true that the combatants of that period are -represented in the poem as belonging to one and the same race, -but we find that at the period of the expedition of Alexander the -people of northern Iran called on the great Macedonian to afford -them protection against their northern neighbours, whom they -described as terrible beings of inhuman aspect--probably they were -of the true Mongolian type, which differs widely from that of the -Iranians. Alexander built a great wall from the Caspian Sea to the -Kurdistan mountains. This immense work, however, did not come up -to the expectations of its founder. Like the Great wall of China, -built for a similar purpose, it could not permanently keep out -the barbarians. Their impetuous fury burst through such feeble -obstacles, and nothing could check their devastating, incursions -except the energetic rule of some exceptionally vigorous sovereign, -who instead of protecting his subjects by a stone wall, did so -with a well-disciplined army. This is the case at the present -day. The Turkomans and OEzbegs direct their forays according -to the peaceful or disturbed state of the adjacent provinces, or -the energy or indolence of their respective governors. During -the disorders which attended the establishment of the Kadjarish -dynasty, individual bands of Yomut Turkomans pushed their predatory -incursions as far as the neighbourhood of Ispahan, although the -greater number of them were serving under the banner of Aga -Mohammed Khan. At the same period the Tekkes pressed forward on -the north-east as far as Seistan. At the present day it is the -two provinces of Khorassan and Mazenderan which suffer most. The -Turkomans first of all inquire into the character and administration -of a newly appointed governor, and if they find in him signs of -cowardice or neglect of duty (which is often the case), they make -repeated incursions with terrible speed on the defenceless province -committed to his care. On the other hand, they hardly dare to show -themselves in those places where a vigorous and active officer is at -the head of affairs. At the time of my journey through Khorassan the -roads were so safe that travellers could go alone through districts -which were formerly so fraught with danger, that the largest and -best appointed caravans could pass there only when accompanied by a -body of troops and a battery of cannon. At that time the governor, -Sultan Murad Mirza, kept the nomads in check. Every movement of -theirs was reported to him by his spies, and, as soon as they showed -themselves, they were attacked in their own haunts, and received -severe punishment. In Astrabad, on the contrary, where a fool was -entrusted with the administration, the neighbourhood was so unsafe -that the Yomuts carried off Persians captive from the very gates of -the town. - -There are several tribes of Turkomans both on the edge and in the -interior of the desert, who consider the robbery of human beings -so indispensable a means of livelihood as to deem their existence -in the steppes impossible, if they were to be deprived of this -productive source of wealth. As other nations talk about "the -prospects of a good harvest," so they talk about "the prospects -of open roads to Iran." The time which elsewhere is employed in -ploughing, irrigating, and sowing the fields, is spent by them in -training their horses, burnishing their arms, and in mock combats. -Custom has raised their detestable occupation to the rank of a -recognised trade. It is looked upon as a Djihad, or religious war, -against the Shiite schismatics, who are declared to be no better -than infidels. As the heroes set out on their adventure they are -publicly dismissed with the blessings of the ministers of their -religion; and in case of any one of them paying with his life for -his enormities (which very seldom occurs), he is at home declared to -be a martyr, a mound of earth adorned with flags is heaped over his -remains, which are seldom left in the hands of the enemies, and the -devout make pilgrimages to the holy place, where they implore with -tears of contrition the intercession of the canonised robber. - -The terrible extent to which the most exposed provinces suffer from -these excursions is explained by the courage and resolution of the -Turkomans. No war, no devastation caused by the elements, can be -compared to the misery which their depredations occasion. Not only -is all trade and commerce on the highways crippled, but even the -husbandman must provide himself with a tower in which he can take -refuge, when suddenly attacked by them during his labours in the -fields. The smallest village is surrounded by a wall. Even these -measures do not suffice, for the robbers often come in large bands -and lay siege to such fortified places, and not seldom carry the -whole population, men, women, and children, into captivity with all -their moveable property. I have seen in Eastern Khorassan villages -whose inhabitants, although in the immediate vicinity of large -forests, pass the winter without fires, because none dare venture -out to cut wood beyond the walls. Others suffer hunger, as their -water-mills are outside the village. Travelling is, of course, -regarded as a most desperate venture, which no one undertakes save -in cases of the most urgent necessity, or under the protection of an -armed force. - -The readers of my book on Central Asia will have already formed -some idea how far this fear of captivity among the Turkomans is -well-founded. The lot of the negro, confined in the close hold of -a ship during his passage from Africa to America, is sufficiently -hard, yet it is not less hard to be bound behind the saddle of -a nomad with the feet tied under the belly of the horse, to be -insufficiently supplied with food and water, and to be thus -transported for days across the weary desert, far from one's dear -country and the bosom of one's family. These privations of savage -life in the tent of the rude nomad and under an inclement sky are -the harder for the Persian to bear, as at home he is accustomed to -cooked food and the comforts of civilised life. In addition to these -sufferings he is loaded with heavy chains, which are not removed -by night or by day. He is continually the object of the revilings, -curses, and blows of his tyrannical master. Indeed the first stage -of his slavery is the most grievous. - -At the present day the occupation of stealing men is followed by the -OEzbegs and Turkomans alone. Of the first race the inhabitants -of Khiva are to be especially noticed, but they only follow it -when in the course of their hostilities with the Turkomans they -are driven towards the frontiers of Iran. The Bokhariots have not -approached those frontiers since the commencement of this century, -and the inhabitants of Khokand may be said to have never come in -contact with them. Of the Turkomans, the Tekkes and the Yomuts are -most addicted to this traffic; the first seeking their victims in -Khorassan, Herat, and Seistan, and even along the western frontier -of Afghanistan; the latter along the southern shores of the Caspian -Sea. After these the Salors and the Sariks are to be mentioned, who, -broken in power and diminished in numbers, seldom, but then with so -much the greater fury, make their incursions. The Alielis and Karas -can only now and then get hold of a caravan of Hindus, Tadjiks, or -even Afghans, and these only on the road to Bokhara. The Tchaudors, -who dwell between the lower part of the course of the Oxus and the -Caspian Sea, since the Russians are no more marketable, nor indeed -easy to catch, have scarcely any field left them for exercising -their man-stealing propensities. - -The majority of the slaves in Central Asia are Shiite Persians, more -especially from the provinces mentioned above, though many from the -remaining provinces are also captured, either in war or during their -pilgrimage to Meshed. Besides them there are Sunnite Persians from -Khaf and Herat; the last are generally caught while cultivating -their fields, or while gathering the pistachio nuts. Djemshidis and -Hezares, who fall victims to their mutual feuds, are less often to -be met with, and still smaller is the number of Afghans and Hindus. -Nay, Osmanlis and Arabs, in spite of the high esteem in which they -are held, are sold as slaves, but, as far as I know, there are not -more than four or six of them. Jews alone, who have the reputation -of being sorcerers, are regarded with too much horror by the -inhabitants of Turkestan to be a marketable commodity. - -It is difficult to estimate the number thus carried year by year -into captivity, because, as I have explained above, it varies -according to the state of things in Persia. Nor is it easier to -estimate the number of those at present living in slavery in -Turkestan. Not all persons who fall into the hands of the Turkomans -are sent to the Khanats for sale. Taking into consideration the -distribution of property in Iran, we may reckon that about one-third -of those captured in Mazenderan and along the shores of the Caspian -are ransomed. This is a clear gain to the nomad robber, as he, in -the first place, saves the expense of keeping his merchandise for -a long time on hand; in the second place, he is not exposed to -the risk of the market, for should his captive prove physically -deficient in some important respect, he will not be able to sell -him at all. Still, however, the proportion of those who are thus -ransomed is not everywhere the same. The greater part of those -who fall into the hands of the robbers are poor men, who are most -exposed to this danger during their work out in the fields. These, -of course, can rarely be ransomed. But if, in the case of those who -are captured in Mazenderan, we may estimate those who are ransomed -at a third, we cannot assume the same of those who are seized in -the much poorer provinces of Khorassan and Seistan. I have heard, -out of the mouth of a slave dealer who had grown grey in his trade, -that from these districts scarcely a tenth part are ransomed, the -remaining nine-tenths being forwarded for sale in the markets of the -Khanats. The Turkoman never retains a slave for his own use, except -(1) when his captive is old or crippled, and yet not so much so but -that he works enough to earn his meagre sustenance; if he cannot, -he is at once mercilessly cut down; (2) infants who are brought -up as Turkomans to become the wildest of robbers; (3) when Cupid -makes some pretty brunette of an Iranian so dear to him that he -cannot make up his mind to part with her. This last case, however, -happens but seldom, as the Turkomans are notoriously the greatest -misers in the world. As, besides, they are wanting in that feeling -of delicacy for which the Circassian Huri-dealers are so renowned, -the harems of Khiva and Bokhara receive many flowers which have lost -their freshness in Turkoman hands. The only Persians who are to be -found among the inhabitants of the steppes are such as in their own -country would not be much better off, or else escaped criminals who -have to continue their former courses of misdoing, of murder and -robbery, in conjunction with the nomads. - -It is the ordinary practice of the men-stealers to keep their booty -by them not longer than two or three days. They are by that time -transferred to the slave broker, who by way of advance has already -furnished the robbers with money or provisions. These conscienceless -usurers derive the largest profit from the abominable traffic, -for the robbers are for the most part dissolute characters, who, -contrary to the usual practice of the nomads, gamble away, or -squander in vicious enjoyments, their money as soon as they get it. -Slave brokers are of two kinds. (1) Turkomans, who carry on the -commerce which exists between the inhabitants of the steppes and -the Khanats. They wait until they have got together thirty, forty, -or fifty slaves, and then travel in a caravan to Khiva or Bokhara. -In the meantime their human merchandise are let out for hire as day -labourers, in order to lighten the expense of their maintenance. -(2) Sunnite inhabitants of the Persian frontier. These men play a -very curious and ambiguous _role_, and are the most detestable of -all engaged in the whole business. On the one side they serve the -Persians as go-betweens, employed to find out such persons as are -kept in slavery in the steppes or in the Khanats; on the other they -are the most useful spies of the nomads, whom they furnish with the -best intelligence about a village or a caravan. Many, especially -such as live on the eastern frontier of Persia, have buildings for -the reception of slaves in Herat, Maymene, and Bokhara, and just -as once in the year they lead to the market a string of miserable -slaves of both sexes, so on their return they bring back with them a -number of captives redeemed through their mediation. From the family -of one of these unfortunate creatures, they take regularly three -times the ordinary amount of the ransom, and talk largely about the -difficulty of finding him, and of persuading his captor to accept -of the money, while all along they know the very place where he is, -and have probably already spoken about the price. It is amusing to -observe how these scamps change their sentiments, their religion, -and political opinions, according to circumstances. On their way -to Bokhara, while playing the part of slave holders, they act the -zealous Bokhariot, abuse the heretical Shiites, and exult in the -just measure dealt out to the Persian slaves. On their return to -Iran, when playing the part of slave ransomers, they are loud in -their abuse of the brutality and cruelty of the Bokhariots, shed -bitter tears over the misfortunes of the poor Persians, and are, in -one word, the softest-hearted creatures in the world. - -In the caravan in which I myself travelled from Bokhara to Herat, -there were two such slave brokers, who came from Khaf and Kain. Both -of them bore the title of Khodja, or descendant of the prophet, of -which they were not a little proud. The tenderness and care with -which they treated the liberated slaves in their charge was almost -unexampled. Yet these very men, as the leader of the caravan assured -me, had only a few months before led a train of miserable captives -into slavery. In the Khanats of Khiva and Bokhara the slave dealers, -called there Dogmafurush, form a regularly organised guild. It is -remarkable that as regards their nationality they are for the most -part Sarts, Tadjiks, and emancipated Persians, and not so often -OEzbegs or of any other tribe belonging to the Turko-Tartaric -race. The sale takes place either in the dealers' magazines, or in -some market-place outside the town, to which place the goods are -removed some days previous. The most important depots are to be -found in the Khanat of Khiva, first of all at the capital, then in -Hezaresp, in Gazavat, in Goerlen, and in Kohne. Besides these, every -place of any pretensions has a retail dealer, who is in connection -with the large wholesale dealers, or sells goods on commission. -In Bokhara is to be mentioned first of all Karakul, and next the -capital; besides these, Karshi and Tchihardjuy. It is to be observed -that, eastward from Samarcand, this abominable traffic declines more -and more, so that in the Khanat of Khokand there are no large slave -dealers, and the majority of the slaves to be found there are bought -in the territory of Bokhara. In the steppes lying to the north of -the Khanats, thanks to the spread of Russian sway, slaves are only -found as articles of luxury in the houses of the rich begs. - -The price of slaves in the markets of Central Asia, like that of -every commodity, varies according to the quantity at any one time on -sale, which in time of peace is less, in time of war greater. The -difference of price in male slaves of the same age depends for the -most part on their physical condition and their nationality. The -Turks of northern Persia are most preferred; first, because they -sooner learn to make themselves understood in the Turkish dialects -of Central Asia, which are akin to their own; secondly, because they -have robuster frames and are more accustomed to hard work than the -other inhabitants of Iran. The Afghans fetch the lowest price, not -only because they have the greatest dislike to hard work, but also -on account of their vindictive and revengeful character, which in -the case of a brutal master may lead to unpleasant consequences. As -for the female slaves, they do not by any means enjoy the position -which is occupied by the daughters of Circassia and Georgia in the -harems of Turkey and Persia. On the contrary, their position is -rather to be compared with that of the negresses in those countries. -It is very easy to explain why. In the first place, the daughters of -Turkestan correspond better to the ideas of beauty entertained by -OEzbegs and Tadjiks than the Iranian women, who with their olive -complexions and large noses, would never bear off the apple of Paris -from the fair, full-cheeked OEzbeg women. In the second place, in -consequence of their poverty the inhabitants of Central Asia do not -indulge in polygamy to such an extent as the Mohammedans of the -west. Besides this, the OEzbeg has generally too much aristocratic -pride to share his bed and board with a slave, whom he has bought -for money. In Bokhara it is true that we find instances to the -contrary, but that is only among the high functionaries of state, -and even they only take such women as have been brought as children -into the country. In the middle classes such _mesalliances_ are very -rare phenomena. Besides, marriage is much easier here than in other -Mohammedan countries. Hence female slaves are kept only as articles -of luxury in the harems of the great, or as domestic servants. - -As regards male slaves the case is quite different. This yearly -contingent of human arms has become for centuries necessary to the -support of the OEzbegs, who have a horror of steady agricultural -labour. Indeed without their slaves they could hardly obtain from -the ground enough to support life. The truth of this assertion -is shown by the fact, that the price of cereals in the Central -Asiatic markets is determined not simply by the rise and fall of -the waters of the Oxus, but also by the greater or smaller number -of slaves sold during the year. The use to which slaves are applied -is principally agriculture, and in the next place care of cattle; -and the larger the estate of an OEzbeg landlord, the larger the -number of slaves which he requires. In a land like Turkestan, where -the military element preponderates, and every free man, either from -instinct or from political necessity, lays hold of the sword rather -than the plough-tail, it is necessary that the arms, thus subtracted -from profitable labour and employed in murder and devastation, -should be replaced by others accustomed to labour. That this is so, -is best shown by the fact, that in those districts in which the -population are most addicted to war and robbery, there the number of -slaves is greatest. In this respect Khiva stands first of the three -Khanats, Bokhara second, and Khokand third. In Khiva the greater -part of the population is OEzbeg, and, as they are surrounded on -all sides by nomad tribes, they are continually engaged in war, -and anarchy prevails among them more often than in the two other -Khanats. In Bokhara, where the population is strongly mixed with -peaceable Tadjiks, things have been rendered more stable by an older -established and better organised government. In Khokand, which also -contains many Tadjiks, wars are infrequent, owing to the notorious -cowardice of its inhabitants, and when they do occur they are by no -means so destructive in their character. - -A small proportion of the slaves are employed as private servants -by the government officials (Sipahi) as also by the sovereigns -themselves. For such purposes, however, only such are used as were -brought in their earliest youth to Central Asia. These receive a -thoroughly OEzbeg education, and beyond the opprobrious title of -_kul_ (slave), bear few traces of the servile condition. Like the -Circassian slaves in Turkey, they often attain the highest posts -in the administration, as their innate Iranian quick-sightedness -enables them to supplant their OEzbeg competitors. Thus, many who -have now under their rule whole provinces, were brought into the -Khanat as slaves. In Bokhara, where the OEzbeg aristocratic is of -little moment by the side of the predominant Persian element, the -sovereigns often take slaves for their lawful wives. Such was the -mother of the present Emir, such is one of his wives, both of them -of Iranian origin. - -In the purchase of a male slave the first point looked to is a -strong and robust physical frame, but his value is increased if it -be found out later that he has a good character. The seller must -engage himself to take him back during the first three days in case -any hidden physical defect be found out; for, although the buyer at -the time of sale examines him carefully all over like a beast of -burden, makes him show the strength of his arms, chest, back, and -voice, he is still obliged to be on his guard against the tricks -of the broker. For instance, it is very difficult to ascertain -the age of such a Persian slave. As is the custom in Iran, the -Turkomans also dye the beards of their captives if they have any -grey hairs. It is thus possible to make a mistake of twenty, nay, -even of thirty years, and it sometimes happens that a slave who, -when bought, had a fresh, youthful appearance, and a coal black -beard, a few days afterwards turns out to be a grey-haired old man. -It is easier to practice such tricks, as the slave, subdued by fear -and harsh treatment, does not dare to make the least objection -to any assertion of his Turkoman master. This is especially the -case with slaves who belong to the Sunnite sect. As they profess -the religion of the Central Asiatic, they are not allowed to be -made slaves of by the commandments of their religion; but in -consequence of the threats of the dealer they deny their own faith. -The Central Asiatic, when he sees an Afghan or a Herati for sale, -knows that he has been compelled to renounce his faith, yet with -disgraceful hypocrisy considers it no sin to buy him and keep him -as a slave. I have myself seen in Khiva and Bokhara, even in houses -of Mollahs of great renown for learning and piety, Sunnite slaves, -and when I called them to account for conduct so inconsistent -with their profession, they answered, "At the time I bought him -he was a Shiite; that he is now a Sunnite is to be attributed to -the influence of the sacred soil of Turkestan." Thus is religion -employed to cheat religion. - -If we now pass on from the details of the slave trade to consider -the condition of the slave, we shall find that the hardest time -for him to bear is when he is first captured and trained by the -Turkoman or the broker; when the Iranian, justly proud of his -superior civilisation, is treated like one of the lower animals by -the coarse and brutal Turanian, whose very name is in Iran held in -derision. The Persian is from his childhood accustomed to the most -refined politeness, and to a flowery, elegant conversation; and must -of course suffer mentally a great deal when first introduced to -the savage manners and habits of Turkestan. His physical sufferings -are by no means so great. The majority of them, destined for -agricultural labour, generally gain the confidence and affection -of their master by their good behavior. If a slave has during a -year not incurred punishment, he is soon looked upon as a member of -the new family. Indeed, many receive, after a certain time, either -monthly wages, or else a share of the produce of the land or cattle -committed to their care. As the Iranian is in general more active -and frugal than his Turanian neighbour, the slaves in Turkestan, -in a remarkably short time, get together a little capital. This is -employed by most of them in ransoming themselves from slavery, which -they have the right to do after seven years' service. This term -is occasionally shortened as a reward for peculiar diligence, or -from great good nature on the part of the master; and the slave is -surprized by an azad (letter of freedom), in the same way that we -make a present to a faithful servant. Such a document is confirmed -by the kadi and the temporal magistrate, and he who is in possession -of it becomes at once master of his own actions. The act of -emancipation is everywhere accompanied by certain solemnities. Sheep -are slaughtered, guests invited; the freedman embraces one after -the other the male members of his master's family; and after he has -taken his place upon the same piece of felt carpet as his master, -his freedom is proclaimed. Among the Kirghiz it is the custom for -the master on such occasions to fasten a white bone to the girdle of -the freedman, which denotes that the latter is raised from the ranks -of the "black-boned" (subject people) to that of the "white-boned" -(nobility). - -So much for good-tempered and obedient slaves. Where the contrary -qualities show themselves, OEzbeg barbarity and cruelty make -themselves felt in all their force. It is enough to make one's -hair stand on end to read the list of punishments used to compel a -refractory slave to obedience. The master has legal right of life -and death over his slave. It very seldom happens, however, that he -actually kills him, as he thereby loses the whole of his purchase -money; but the miseries which he inflicts on him are worse than -death itself. Many are kept for years together on mere bread and -water in the midst of the lonely deserts; others, a few days before -their seven years have expired, are sold again--not, however, in the -Khanats, where, their character being already known, they would be -unsaleable. In such cases of imposition the victim is generally a -Kirghiz, unversed in the tricks of the slave trade. Thus the Persian -passes from the city into the northern desert, whence, even if -emancipated, he seldom, if ever, returns home. - -It is certainly striking that, out of the large number of slaves -of Persian origin who are continually brought into Central Asia, -only half of those who obtain their freedom go back to their -native country. Such as do return are induced to do so either by -the necessity of setting their family affairs in order, or by -extraordinary home-sickness. He who has lived eighteen years in -Turkestan will seldom change it for Iran. The slaves, as observed -before, are for the most part originally poor; and when they have -secured in Turkestan a certain means of gaining their livelihood, -or have got together some property, they in few cases think of -returning to their native land, where, on account of general habits -of industry and activity, existence is much harder to support; -where the necessaries of life are more expensive, and the luxury -and splendour of the wealthy excite many ungratified desires in -the breasts of the poor, which are not aroused in the midst of the -barbarous simplicity of the Khanats. Still, it is to be observed -that the emancipated slave can never get rid of the disgrace -implied in the word _kul_ (slave), however great may be the wealth -he may have accumulated, or however high the post to which he may -be promoted. Although he may be living in the utmost splendour and -magnificence, the kul can never hope to obtain the hand of a free -OEzbeg, the poorest of whom would reject his proposals with scorn. -I know an instance in which an OEzbeg refused his daughter to -a freedman, although the latter's suit was backed by the command -of the khan; he preferred rather to encounter the anger of his -sovereign than to call one who had once been a slave his son-in-law. -Even the khanezads[20] (children of slaves), who are not allowed -to be sold, are treated in the same manner, and can only marry the -daughters of other emancipated slaves, or sarts. Only in the fourth -generation is the disgrace attached to the word _kul_ somewhat -softened down, but by no means quite obliterated. In a country like -Central Asia, in which courage is looked upon as the highest virtue, -the slave is regarded as the _ne plus ultra_--a man who, for want of -a contempt of death, allows himself to be put in chains; and it is -this vice which is so difficult to be forgiven. This way of looking -at the subject is further strengthened by the boundless feeling of -aristocracy which distinguishes the Tartars, whether settled or -nomad, in which not even the wildest Tories or the proudest marquis -of the Faubourg St. Germain can surpass them--a feeling which is -entertained not only against the foreign Iranian, but even the -native Tadjiks, the eldest inhabitants of the land. - - [20] The sale of a khanezad is regarded as a disgraceful action, and - one who commits such an act is branded as a thief and a robber. - -It will be understood that it is only the moral stigma of slavery -which the freedman has to suffer from. In his civil rights he is as -well protected as any one else. Thus, as the Oriental is even more -a creature of habit than we are, I found it very easy to understand -how the Persian soon finds himself completely at home in Turkestan, -which country he once so despised and dreaded, and dwells -contentedly in a foreign land, only occasionally solacing himself -with a visit to his relations or to the shrine of some Shiite saint -in Iran. - -Unfortunately, it is the material comfort and prosperity of the -slave which the Central Asiatic, like other Mohammedans, alleges -in his defence, when we express our abhorrence of the disgraceful -traffic in human beings. As in Turkestan, so in Turkey we may -often hear this argument:--"The sons and daughters of the wild -Circassians were in their native land poor people, who in their free -mountains could hardly get bread enough to eat; here with us they -become rich government officials, pashas, nay, even princesses, -whose powerful influence affects the policy of government." They -further point out how kindly the slaves are treated in the houses -of persons of distinction, where they are put on the same footing -as the members of the family. But they forget that these cases are -exceptional, and that such good fortune depends for the most part on -the personal beauty of the favoured few. What becomes of the greater -number, whose charms are not such as to gain the favour of their -master? What shall we say of this majority, exposed as they are to -the oppression and cruelty of a tyrannical master, and constantly -employed in the hardest labour? - -Such things are of course not taken into account, any more than the -original cruelty of the slave merchant, who tears his victims from -their homes and their friends. On the banks of the Bosphorus, as on -those of the Oxus, few persons care to picture to their minds the -horrors of that first moment of separation. How many orphans, how -many widows, how many aged and helpless parents, are left behind to -wring their hands in sorrow for their bread-winner, who is carried -into captivity! It is impossible to count them, it is impossible to -describe the miserable condition of so many villages and districts -which are exposed to the terrible scourge of the slave trade. The -traveller in those regions stumbles at every step over the most -melancholy traces of the devastation which it causes. However -certain he may feel of the splendid destiny which awaits this or -that individual captive, he must still exclaim: "This is the most -execrable occupation that has ever defiled the hands of man, and -its suppression is the first and holiest duty which our western -civilisation has to perform for the cause of humanity!" - -The suppression of the slave trade in Central Asia is, moreover, -much easier than many might at first sight suppose. The root of -the evil is to be sought, not so much in the Turkomans as in the -inhabitants of the cities. All nomad tribes were and are ready for -such a trade, if they only find settled tribes who will buy their -captives of them. The Bedouins of the Arabian desert could never -addict themselves much to the traffic, inasmuch as the markets of -the surrounding cities were closed by the religion of Islam against -the sale of their booty. In the same way the Turkomans would soon -abandon the practice, if the sale of Persians, Afghans, &c., in the -Khanats were declared illegal. The Djemshidis, the Firuzkuhis, and -Hezares, afford the strongest proof of this. As the transport of -their captives to Bokhara is rendered unsafe by the intermediate -Turkoman tribes, while at the same time their sale is forbidden -in the Afghan town of Herat, they have either to suppress their -slave-trading propensities altogether, or come to a compromise with -the Turkomans, much to the advantage of the latter. - -Sultan Murad Mirza, an enlightened prince, and the governor of -Khorassan, once expressed to me his surprise that England, which -spends so many thousands in checking the slave trade in African -waters, can look on unconcernedly while the same trade in the middle -of Asia lays waste such a country, whose ancient civilisation was -of profit to Europe itself. In like manner I, too, cannot conceal -my astonishment at the apathy which Europe, and especially that -State whose flag is in the East ever the harbinger of the dawn of a -newer, a happier era, has displayed on this question. Sentimental -newspaper writers, in their political rhapsodies, may yet for a long -time take under their protection the feelings of independence of -many a savage Asiatic tribe, to whom freedom means nothing more than -anarchy, plunder, and murder. But the dreams of Rousseau have had -their day, and we can with the fullest confidence say, that whenever -Europe shows herself in the East, whether in the peaceful garb of -the missionary, or in the terrible panoply of her warlike power, -she brings only blessings in her train, and scatters the seeds of -a new order of things. The more light is poured from the West upon -the East, the sooner will the evil customs of the old world be -eradicated, and our brother men be made happier. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV. - -PRODUCTIVE POWER OF THE THREE OASIS COUNTRIES OF TURKESTAN. - - -In arguing about the Russian conquest of Central Asia, we are wont -to say that the Court of St. Petersburg, in those far-reaching -schemes which she pursues towards the Hindu-Khush with so much toil, -at so heavy a cost, seeks some richer recompense than is to be found -on the shores of the Yaxartes and the Oxus. Well; it is true that -Russia's policy does not confine itself to the possession of the -plains of Bokhara, Khokand, and Khiva. But in the meantime let us -not undervalue the immediate gain of these conquests. It is right -that we should learn the comparative worth of the three Khanats, -the nature and extent of their produce, both as it is, and as with -proper management it might become. - -The very name of "oasis countries" contributes towards creating an -impression, that the inhabited part of Turkestan must be unimportant -as regards productive power; add to this the poverty and the -extremely primitive and simple mode of life of its inhabitants, and -it is not surprising that the great distance and the consequent -want of knowledge should have begotten and spread erroneous -notions. The natives themselves, as well as oriental travellers and -geographers, such as Idrisi, Ibni Haukal, Ebulfeda, and the learned -Prince Baber, fall into the opposite extreme, by representing -Turkestan as the richest country on the face of the globe, India -alone excepted. This opinion prevailed in former times,[21] not -only throughout Western Asia, but even very lately I have met with -it in several localities, and never felt more astonished than when -I heard the egotistic Persian eloquently praising the wealth of -Turkestan, a country he looks upon with deadly hatred and aversion. -As for ourselves, we will try to form as far as possible an -impartial estimate, although we must maintain at the outset, that -Turkestan by far surpasses the known parts of European and Asiatic -Turkey, Afghanistan and Persia, both in the wealth and variety of -its productions; nay, that it might be difficult to find in Europe, -flourishing as it is, and rich in every blessing, a territory that -would rival the oasis countries of Turkestan. - - [21] The plain of Sogdiana or the Zerefsha--valley between Bokhara - and Samarkand--is spoken of as an earthly paradise, and Hafiz calls - the towns of Bokhara and Samarkand the greatest treasure, and yet - surpassed by his beloved. - -The great variety of productions is to be ascribed essentially to -the climate of the countries bordering the Oxus and Yaxartes. It is -neither harsh, nor could it exactly be termed mild. On the average -it corresponds to the climate of Central Europe, though it must -be remarked, that the winter is far more severe on the shores of -the Sea of Aral and in the mountainous parts of Khokand, and the -summer, on the contrary, much warmer in those districts that lie to -the south, and often almost tropical in the immediate neighbourhood -of the great sandy deserts. The Oxus is frozen over every winter, -from Kerki and Tchardshuy to its mouth; in Kungrad, Khodja Ili, -and on the right bank, where the Karakalpaks dwell, the winter is -generally very severe; the snow lies often for weeks on the ground, -and tempestuous north winds (Ayamudjiz) are not unfrequent. Under -such conditions there can be no question of a mild climate, and yet -in Khiva I have found the heat unbearable as early as the beginning -of June, while in August, near Kerki and Belkh, it was more sultry -and oppressive, even in the shade, than is the case in really -tropical countries. This great variation in the climate produces -corresponding local differences in the vegetation of even a small -extent of country. Thus, for instance, the cotton of Yengi Ueergendj -is far better than that in the more northern districts, and the -silk of Hezaresp is considered throughout the Khanat of Khiva to -be of first-rate quality. Goerlen produces the finest rice, and the -finest fruit is found in the environs of Khiva, which lies farther -south. In Bokhara and in Khokand we see the same effects produced -by the climate, and hence the reason why each of the three Khanats -contains, on a comparatively small area, such various and manifold -productions, as are usually met with only in larger countries, which -lie between several zones.[22] - - [22] The difference in the harvest time in Turkestan best - illustrates the above remark. In Belkh, for instance, and in the - neighbourhood of Andkhuj, the harvest is at the beginning of June; - in Hezaresp, Khiva, and Karakoel, towards the end of June; in the - oasis-countries, in July; in Kungrat, and in the north of Khokand, - not before the beginning of August. - -The extraordinary productiveness of the soil is to be ascribed -partly to the "blessed" rivers, so-called by the natives, which -intersect the oasis-countries, and partly to the quality of the -soil. Of these rivers the Oxus is the most important. From its -fertilizing influence upon the land it may be compared to the Nile; -although, when used as drinking-water, the latter still surpasses it -in its pleasantness to the taste. Next comes the Zerefshan, whose -name, "Scatterer of Gold," sufficiently indicates the blessing it -scatters over its shores. Nor are the smaller rivers, such as the -Shehr Sebz and the tributaries of the Yaxartes, of less importance. -When we finally add, that the irrigation of the fields is carried -on with as much care, and much more ease, than in other parts of -Western Asia, we shall cease to marvel any longer at the rich -resources of the soil, however grand and important they may still -appear. - -I have already noticed in my "Travels in Central Asia" that the -irrigation is carried on--firstly, by natural canals, called _arna_, -which are formed by the irregular course of the Oxus; secondly, by -_yaps_, _i.e._, smaller artificial canals, by which every village -and colony is surrounded and intersected. In all places of any -importance there is a high official, called Mirab (prince or warden -of the water), who inspects the various aqueducts, and orders them -every spring to be freed from the accumulated sand. During the -winter the sluice-gates of all the principal "arnas" are closed as -a protection against the inundations which naturally follow the -breaking up of the ice. The cleaning of the canals takes place at -the beginning of April, and the great object in view is to make -them constantly deeper and narrower. The sand that is taken out is -heaped up on both sides of the bank, which have thus for miles the -appearance of intrenchments, and with their cooling shade protect -the precious water from the burning rays of the summer's sun. To the -general purposes of communication, however, these intrenched ditches -are very prejudicial, although of real advantage to agriculture. -Hence, the more expensive kahriz--subterranean canals--in Persia, -are far more advantageous, and, moreover, preserve the water purer -and cooler. The yaps and arnas in Central Asia form great obstacles -to the traveller. Bridges are either very bad or altogether wanting. -Let the reader imagine the trouble and the dreadful loss of time -incurred, when a caravan with its heavily-laden camels has to cross -from ten to fifteen of such embanked canals in one day's march. How -prejudicial it is to the rivers to have so much water drawn off, -we see clearly in the Oxus. Formerly it flowed, no doubt, into the -Caspian Sea, now its embouchure is in the Sea of Aral,[23] and this -great change in its watercourse must be ascribed, if not wholly, yet -in a great degree, to the evil of the many small canals. - - [23] Burnes (Travels in Bokhara, ch. ii. p. 188) doubts altogether - whether the Oxus had formerly a different watercourse, and, amongst - other reasons, supports his view by the opinion of the natives. No - one will feel surprised that I heard them assert the very contrary. - Among the Turkomans there exist numerous contradictory legends in - connection with the former watercourse of the Oxus. - -It is difficult to decide which of the three Khanats is the most -fertile, especially now, when since the death of the much-lamented -Conolly, nobody is able to furnish a succinct account of the nature -and resources of the soil. To judge from all I have seen in my -journey to Samarkand, and learned from my fellow-travellers, of -Khokand, the native home of most of them, I should feel inclined to -give the preference to the Khanat of Khiva in point of vegetation. -The two other Khanats have more land under cultivation, but -Khiva surpasses them by far in the quantity and quality of its -productions, with the exception, perhaps, of fruit, which Bokhara -furnishes in greater variety, and of finer flavour. Bokhara also -deserves the prize with respect to all mineral productions; but the -breeding of the finest cattle and horses is the exclusive property -of the nomads. - -The land is measured by _tanab_ (cord,--a tanab is equal to sixty -square yards), and in Khiva and Khokand consists of (1) _Muelk_, -freehold property, which is subject to the payment of taxes; (2) -_Khanlik_, arrear estates, _i.e._, such land which the Government -has either reclaimed and brought under cultivation, or which has -devolved upon it by confiscation and conquest. Of this land a third -of the net income is claimed by the State. (3) _Yarimdji_,[24] -all land that belongs to the medresse (schools), mosques, or any -religious institutions, and which is liable to a fourth of the net -income. The Khanlik estates in each district are under the control -of a certain number of officials, called _Mueshuerueb_, who at the same -time collect the taxes. Church property, on the contrary, is under -the management of the mutevalis, as in other Islamitic countries. - - [24] These were formerly let on the system of half-profit, as - indicated by the name. - -The quality of the land in general may be judged best by my stating, -that the richest soil under cultivation produces one hundred batman -(one batman is equal to twenty-four pounds) on a tanab, and that of -least productive quality never less than sixty batman. And taking -into consideration that the cultivation of the ground here, as -everywhere in Asia, is done in the most negligent manner, and is in -the highest degree primitive, a competent judge can easily form an -idea of the great fertility of the soil. - -It is impossible for me to say how many square miles of cultivated -land, or of land capable of cultivation, the three Khanats possess. -The frequent wars and unsettled times sufficiently explain the -numerous ruins of former flourishing colonies. Of the Khanat of -Khiva thus much at all events may be assumed, that the area of -territories laid waste and turned into deserts is larger than the -land at present under cultivation. With the exception of a few -single productions, with which the three Khanats carry on an export -trade among each other, and with Russia, only so much of the rest is -grown as is required for home consumption. There is no doubt that -not only might the quality of all present productions be essentially -improved, but also considerably multiplied. - -A short survey of the productions of the three Khanats will help to -explain and confirm in detail all I have hitherto stated. - - -1. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. - -Wheat and barley are the most important among the cereals grown in -the oasis countries of Turkestan. There are four kinds of wheat:-- - -1. _Bukhara budayi_ (Bokhara wheat) is considered the finest; it has -a long, thin, and reddish grain, with a greenish top. Of this sort -the delicious bread is baked, in the preparation of which the town -of Bokhara excels, and which is famed far and wide under the name of -_shirmaye_ (milk-marrow). - -2. _Tokmak bash_ (cuneiform top) has a round, thick grain; it is -very substantial, and most like our wheat. The best quality is found -in Khiva. - -3. _Kara suellue_ (black-haired) has a thin and dark-brown grain; it -is chiefly used as food for horses, not being of a particularly good -quality. - -4. Yazlik (summer-fruit) takes a very short time to grow; it is -exceedingly light, and, when used, is mixed with other kinds of -wheat. - -Barley is not so good in Central Asia as in Persia or Turkey. There -is, besides the usual sort, an inferior one, called _karakalpak_ in -Khiva, which is here used, as everywhere in the East, as food for -horses. The average prices of all cereals are exceedingly low, as -compared with the countries of western Asia. The price of a Khiva -batman of the best wheat varies from two to three tenge (one tenge, -seventy-five cent.), whilst barley costs often less than one tenge, -and seldom more. - -Rice is grown in enormous quantities, but it is far inferior to the -Herat or the excellent Shiraz rice, called tchampa and amberbuy -(amber perfume) in quality. It is more like the Egyptian, called in -Turkey dimyati (damietter), but would no doubt surpass the latter, -if cultivated with more care and attention. - -_Djuegeri_ (holcus sorghum) is grown and consumed in far larger -quantities in the three Khanats than anywhere else in Asia. It -is eaten in a milky state, but when dry it is used as fodder, -principally for young colts, being less heating, and also more -nourishing, than barley, from the quantity of saccharine matter it -contains. Bread is made of it, either alone or mixed with wheat. - -_Mekke djuegeri_ (Turkish wheat) never grows higher than a small -span's length. Two kinds of it are found, one with a yellowish, the -other with a red, small grain. It is never dried, and always either -eaten in its milky state or used as fodder. - -_Tari_ (groats) is an important article of consumption in Central -Asia, and is therefore much grown. There are several sorts. - -Besides the well-known kinds of pulse, such as peas (burtshak), -beans (lubie), lentils (jasmuk), &c., there are several others which -we do not know; as for instance, the _konak_, which has smaller but -thicker seeds, and a lower shrub than our lentil; _mash_, rather -larger than millet, of a brownish colour, and several others, which -are of no interest to the general reader. - -Of oil-plants, I must mention first of all the _kuendshi_ sesame, -which thrives very well, and provides the Khanats amply with oil -for cooking and burning. Then there is the _zigir_, a plant similar -to millet, which bears on one stalk several fruits, which are -like apples, and the yellow seeds in which are not bigger than -poppy-seeds. This oil is fit in food, especially in pastry. Then -the _djigit_, the seeds of the cotton-capsule, the oil of which, -however, is not fit for food. _Kender_ (hemp), of which an inferior -sort of linen is made, and which also furnishes the very popular -narcotic, called beng. Lastly, indau, a small shrub, from the -greenish seeds of which a bitter oil, and of a disagreeable smell, -is made, which is used as a medicine for animals, and especially for -camels. - -Among the plants, which produce dye-drugs, the following are most -esteemed:--_ruyan_ or _boyak_, an excellent species of madder, -which thrives in all three Khanats, and is exported in considerable -quantities to Russia. In the year 1835 this article was very little -in request, and in the year 1860 as many as 24,523 Russian pud -(883,000 English pounds) were imported.[25] _Isbarak_ or _barak_, -whose small yellow flowers, when dried and powdered, give a fine -yellow colour. _Goertchuek_, a plant resembling clover, with small -red flowers; the leaves, when boiled, give a fine black colour. -_Buzgundjh_, a plant with a fruit similar to gall-nuts, only grows -in southern Maymene, and in the Badkhiz mountains, north of Herat, -and is said to produce the finest red colour; it fetches a high -price in the place itself. - - [25] Mitchell. "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462. - -Although not belonging to the same class of plants, I must mention -here the _terendjebin_, a resinous and very sweet substance, -which grows on a thorn, called khari shutur (camel's thorn). The -_terendjebin_ shows itself suddenly and quite unexpectedly towards -the end of the summer during the night, and has to be collected at -once in the early morning, before it grows hot. It resembles a gum, -is of a greyish white colour, exceedingly sweet, and can be eaten in -its raw state; in Central Asia it is made into shire (syrup), but -in Persia it is used in the sugar-manufactures of Meshed and Yezd. - -As regards fruit, we find in the Khanats almost every species (with -the exception of fruits of the South) in great quantity, and of -excellent quality. A very considerable export trade is carried on -in it to Russia, and even to "rich" India. The Central Asiatic is -not a little proud of his superiority in this respect, in Asia the -glory and value of a country being determined by the quality of -its water, air, and fruit. Each of the three Khanats has in the -latter its specialite; Khiva is distinguished for its melons and -apples, Bokhara for its grapes and peaches. It may be that some -parts of Persia and Turkey surpass Bokhara; but for melons, Khiva is -unrivalled, not only in Asia, but I feel inclined to say, throughout -the world. No European can form an idea of the sweet taste and -aromatic flavour of this delicious fruit. It melts in the mouth, -and, eaten with bread, is the most wholesome and refreshing food -that nature affords. - -The celebrated Nasrabadi melon alone, near Ispahan, reminds one, -though very feebly, of this fruit of Central Asia, unique in its -kind. There is a great variety of species. The principal summer -melons are the following:--1. _Zamtche_, which ripens earliest; it -is round, of a yellowish colour, and has a thin skin. 2. _Goerbek_, -of a greenish colour, and with a white meat. 3. _Babasheikhi_ is -small, round, and with a white meat. 4. _Koektche._ 5. Shirin -_Petchek_, especially mellow and sweet, of a small round shape. -6. _Shekerpare._ 7. _Khitayi._ 8. _Koknabat._ 9. _Aknabat._ 10. -_Begzade._[26] The winter melons are not ripe until the beginning -of October, but they keep the whole winter, and are most palatable -in February. There are the following kinds:--1. _Karagulebi._ 2. -_Kizilgulabi._ 3. _Beshek._ 4. _Payandeki._ 5. _Saksaul_ Kavunu. -These are mostly exported to Russia. - - [26] I observe with pleasure, that of the seeds, which I brought - with me from Central Asia, several kinds have succeeded in Hungary. - These will undoubtedly be the best melons we have in Europe. - -The Oxus chiefly contributes to render the melons of Central Asia so -incomparably excellent, since the finest quality thrives only on its -banks. The melons of Bokhara are very indifferent, and in quality -even inferior to those of Khokand. - -Khanikoff mentions in his interesting work[27] ten different -kinds of grapes he found in Bokhara. In Khiva I met with the -following:--1. _Huseini_, with oblong seeds and a thin skin, very -sweet, and keeps throughout the winter. 2. _Meske_, with large -round seeds. 3. _Sultani._ 4. _Khalide_ are ripe first of any. 5. -_Shiborgani._ 6. _Taifi._ 7. _Khirmani._ 8. _Sayeke._ All these -different sorts of grapes grow on the level ground, and are either -made into shire (syrup) or dried for eating; wine being made only by -the Jews in Bokhara, and in a very small quantity. - - [27] "Bokhara, its Emir and its People." - -There are four sorts of apples grown, and that of Hezaresp may -boldly challenge the productions of our European horticulture. - -The mulberry, too, is larger, more varied, and sweeter than ours, -and to this superiority we must, perhaps, ascribe the fact, that the -silk of Central Asia is better than the Italian and French, and that -a certain disease among silk-worms, common with us for many years, -is there quite unknown. - -The rearing of silk-worms came originally from Chinese Tartary, -especially from Khoten, where, as M. Reinaud[28] correctly remarks, -it was introduced in the first century of our era from the interior -of China. Silk stuffs of native manufacture were known in Bokhara -in pre-Islamitic times, according to the testimony of a certain -Manuscript,[29] which treats of the ancient history of Bokhara. -It is no exaggeration to assert that the cultivation, spinning, -and dyeing of silk, is a still more primitive process in the -three Khanats than in China itself, where industrial progress, no -doubt, effected many changes, whilst here everything has remained -as it was years ago. The Khanat Bokhara supplies most of the raw -silk; it is produced in the capital, in Samarkand, and among the -Lebab-Turkomans. Much also comes from the Khanat of Khokand, in -the neighbourhood of Mergolan and Namengan. Khiva contributes but -little, and this little is inferior in quality to the productions -of the other Khanats, though, as competent judges have assured me, -it is far superior to the silk of Gilan and Mazendran, in Persia. -The manipulation, however, is very imperfectly performed. I was -struck with the manner of winding off the cocoons, which were placed -in a cauldron of boiling water and stirred with a broom, until a -certain number of threads unwind themselves, which are then wound -round the broom. The dyeing is almost exclusively in the hands of -the Jews, the weaving is done by the Tadjik and Mervi, who, in -accordance with the taste and fashion of the country, prepare only -stuffs of glaring colours. - - [28] "Relations Politiques et Commerciales de l'Empire Romain avec - l'Asie Orientale," p. 197. - - [29] Tarichi Narschachi. - -In former times, especially during the Arabian occupation, the silk -stuffs of Central Asia were celebrated throughout the East; but when -the cleverest of the artisans were transferred by the conquerors to -Damascus and Bagdad, the old art gradually disappeared, and is now -gone for ever, in spite of the efforts of Timur to transplant it -back from Transoxania. How great is the quantity of silk produced -here, is shown by the circumstance, that the greater part of the -cotton stuffs, called _aladja_, that are generally worn, are -strongly intermixed with silk; that not only the rich, but every man -of middle rank, possesses one or more garments, several table-cloths -and pocket-handkerchiefs made of silk; and that a considerable -export trade in silk is carried on, not only with Persia, India, and -Afghanistan, but to a large extent with Russia. - -The cotton in Central Asia promises to become an important article -for the future. It is cultivated in large quantities in the three -Khanats, furnishing the material for the upper and under garments of -every body, high and low, for their bed-clothes, and cloths of every -kind. The cotton in Turkestan is better than the Indian, Persian, -and Egyptian, and is said to equal the far-famed American cotton. -At present, however, Russia alone consumes this article in her -manufactures at Moskau, Wladimir, Tverskoy, &c., and in quantities -which increase annually in a surprising degree. The manufacturers -complain greatly of the clumsy management of the planters, -especially of the insufficient cleansing of the cotton from the -seeds, as well as of the dishonesty of the traders, who wet the -bales, or fill them with stones, to make them heavier. Nevertheless, -the cotton, which is imported from Khiva and Bokhara by Orenburg, is -almost indispensable to Russian industry. - -In Central Asia the cultivation of cotton is comparatively easy -and convenient, the cotton fields requiring no irrigation, and the -rain being considered, if anything, prejudicial even in the spring. -A hard, stony ground, called _Soga_, is always chosen, and is -ploughed once; on the whole, the cultivation of cotton is the least -troublesome of all field occupations. According to the statistical -dates of the Orenburg custom-house the greatest quantity of cotton -is produced in the Khanat of Bokhara; this statement, however, -rests upon an error, since the caravans of Khiva, when crossing the -Jaxartes, frequently join the Bokhariots, or they give themselves -out for Bokhariots; these latter standing on a much better footing -with the Russians, whilst the people of Khiva are in very ill favour -with them. I know from my own experience, and have convinced myself -by frequent inquiries, that not only is the cultivation of cotton -far more flourishing in Khiva, but its quality is far superior to -that in the two sister Khanats. The pod, here called gavadje, is -smaller than that of Bokhara; but the cotton is much finer and -whiter even than the guzei sefid, that is, the first quality of -Bokhariot cotton industry. The Central Asiatics themselves give the -preference to the Khiva production, a fact which tends to confirm -our opinion. In dyeing and weaving Bokhara stands pre-eminent, but -the stuffs from Khiva are better paid in her capital than her own -manufactures. They are exported to Afghanistan, India, and Northern -Persia, and are a highly-prized article even among the nomads. - -There is no doubt that the cotton of the oasis countries will -one day considerably increase in value. Several circumstances of -paramount and urgent necessity must combine to further this object. -Above all things, it is requisite that important improvements should -be introduced in the mode of cultivation; our European machines -should come in aid of the cleansing and packing, and the roads -should be rendered, as far as possible, secure. By these means the -cotton would not only be improved in quality, but, without any great -additional expense, the quantity might be considerably multiplied. -It is very probable that Central Asia may one day, although not -in the immediate future, be to Russia what New Carolina is to the -manufacturing towns of England at the present day. - -The immense increase in the exportation of cotton from Central -Asia is shown very clearly in the Blue Books of 1862 and 1865, in -the list which Mr. Saville Lumley, former secretary to the English -embassy at St. Petersburg, has contributed. According to this -official statement the Khanats exported to the value of-- - - | BOKHARA. | KHIVA. | KHOKAND. - | Roubles. | Roubles. | Roubles. - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | | | - 1840-1850 | 2,065,697 | 470,781 | 16,851 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - 1853 | 280,514 | 133,799 | - 1854 | 509,600 | 248,347 | The - 1855 | 513,023 | 185,683 | dates - 1856 | 501,225 | 36,050 | are - 1857 | 578,483 | 66,776 | wanting. - 1858 | 634,643 | 59,729 | - 1859 | 495,065 | 2,274 | - 1860 | 721,899 | 22,429 | 4,907 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - | | | - Total... | 4,234,412 | 755,087 | 4,907 - | | | - -----------+-----------+-----------+--------- - -From this list we see, that the exports of 1840-1850 did increase -more than double during the next ten years, and under favourable -political circumstances would, no doubt, continue to increase. - -We must add the remark, that although Bokhara shows in this list -throughout the largest figures, it does not by any means follow -that they are the result of its own exclusive production. Much -Khiva cotton has been included, as well as the cotton which the -Urgends traders carry to Orenburg on the Bokhara road. The Orenburg -custom-house furnishes the list, and all the cotton is entered under -the head of Bokhara. In like manner much Khokand cotton is mixed up -with it. The Khokand traders give themselves out for Bokhariots on -the frontier, on account of the frequent hostilities between their -tribe and the Russians. - - -2. THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. - -We must mention first of all the domestic animals, and among these -the genus, sheep. Two species are usually distinguished: 1, the -_Kazak koy_ (the Kirghis sheep); and, 2, the _OEzbeg koy_ (the -OEzbeg sheep). The Kirghis sheep is preferred to the latter, for -its wool as well as its meat. Throughout Central Asia we meet with -the fat-tailed sheep. Of these it is said, that their masters are -obliged to fasten either cylinders or wheels under their broad, -thick tails, which they drag after them on the ground, in order to -render walking easier to them, or rather to enable them to walk at -all--a story which is by no means exaggerated, however incredible -it may appear. The so-called Bakkan koy, the fatted sheep, give -often from two to three batman of pure fat. The meat I found, in -point of taste and flavour, superior to any in all those parts of -Asia I am acquainted with. The highly celebrated Kivirdjik and -Karaman sheep in Turkey cannot be compared to them; and even the -south Persian sheep, of which the Persians are exceedingly proud, -are inferior to them. - -The wool is not of the same excellence, and is used less for -clothing (probably for want of knowledge in the preparation of it) -than for carpets, travelling-bags, horse-cloths, and similar other -coarse stuffs; it is little seen in the export trade. Black, curly -lamb-skins, on the other hand, form an important article of trade. -Its chief source is Bokhara, especially Karakoel; from here it is -exported all over Asia, and even to Europe, where it is known under -the name of Astrachan. The skin is drawn off the young lamb two or -three days after its birth, and then softened in barley meal and -salt. It is said, that washing it in the water of the Zerefshan -gives it the beautiful lustre; and in the month of July thousands -of them may be seen spread out for drying along its banks, between -Bokhara and Behaeddin. The skins are everywhere admired, but mostly -in request in Persia, where they are made into the fashionable hats -of the country. If we take into account, that a kuelah (a hat, for -which three or four skins are used) costs there as much as from -ten to fifteen ducats, we may feel assured that our Astrachan -of a considerably lower price is no Bokhara production. With the -nomads of Central Asia the breeding of sheep is a chief means of -maintenance, and we can easily form an idea of the innumerable -flocks of sheep which graze and rove upon the steppes. The Kirghis -send great quantities of sheep to the Khanats and to Russia, where -the importation is constantly on the increase. In the year 1835 -about 850,000, and in the year 1860 already 3,644,000 roubles' worth -of sheep were imported.[30] In addition to this enormous quantity of -sheep, raw sheep-skins to the value of 75,000, and wool to the value -of 86,000 silver roubles, passed the Russian frontier at Orenburg in -the same year. - - [30] Compare "The Russians in Central Asia," p. 462. - -The _goat_ is, after the sheep, one of the most important of -domestic animals. Goats' flesh is not so palatable as that of sheep, -but it is here better than anywhere else in Asia. The wool of the -goat, according to Burnes, is far inferior to that of the Cashmir -goat, but tolerably good; and waterproof stuffs are made of it. - -_Horses_, of excellent breed, are found among the Turkomans, who -export the finest to Afghanistan, India and Persia. The Turkoman -horse, especially the Akhal and Yomut race,[31] is very little -inferior to the Arab horse in point of swiftness and endurance, as -well as in beauty of form. The OEzbeg horse, or the species met -with in Bokhara, Khiva, and Maymene, possesses more strength than -swiftness. - - [31] Compare "Travels in Central Asia," p. 420. - -The _camels_ of Central Asia, among which the breed of Bokhara and -the two-humped Kirghis are considered the best of their kind, are -surpassed in point of strength and swiftness only by the Arab, and -especially by the Hedshaz camel. The story that the camels can -preserve water pure and cool in their second stomach, and that -travellers, when suffering from thirst, drink it in their utmost -need, is perfectly unknown here; and on questioning the nomads on -the subject, they only laughed and seemed highly amused. These -animals are famous in Central Asia for their rare contentedness, -satisfied as they are with the very worst water, and most miserable -food, consisting of thistles and briars, and in spite of which -they hold on for days, loaded with the heaviest burdens. They are -at the same time entirely free from the spite and viciousness of -the Arabian camel. They are exported to Russia and Afghanistan; -less to Russia. Their hair is cut twice a year, and is used in the -manufacture of ropes and coarse stuffs. Cattle on the whole are not -very numerous, and in rather a poor condition. The finest cattle are -said to exist in Khokand, and among the Karakalpaks on the Oxus, -whose exclusive occupation is to rear them. Beef is, in Central -Asia, still more tough and unpalatable than in Persia or Turkey, -and the consumption of it is therefore limited to the poorest class -of the people. Butter and cheese are made of cow's milk, but in -comparatively small quantities. _Mules_ are not found in Central -Asia, from a religious superstition against disgracing the horse, -the noble animal, "par excellence;" but all the greater care is -bestowed upon the breeding of the ass, which undoubtedly is here -the finest and most excellent of all I have seen in Asia. The ass -is, in Bokhara, not only of a vigorous frame and high stature, but -of surprising nimbleness, and in long caravan marches can be relied -upon as much as the horse. The fowls are of the long-legged Chinese -breed. Geese are smaller than those in Europe; and there are several -species of ducks. Besides these, there are swans, partridges, -guinea-fowls and pheasants, of which the finest sort is found in -Khokand. - - -3. MINERAL KINGDOM. - -My readers will not feel surprised that we should have but a scanty -knowledge of the mineral riches in the three Khanats. Lehmann, and -other Russian travellers, who, furnished with sufficient geological -knowledge, might have made closer investigations, were thwarted in -their efforts at every step by the jealousy of the Tartar officials. -I incline, however, to the opinion of Burnes, that Central Asia -possesses either no precious metals or extremely few, and that the -gold dust in the Zerefshan is not the property of the country, -but washed down by the small rivers that rise in the Hindukhush. -According to a statement of the Central Asiatics, the mountainous -country round Samarkand and in Bedakhshan, the Oveis-Karayne -mountains on the left bank of the Oxus (in the Khanat of Khiva), -and the Great Balkan in the desert near the Caspian Sea, are rich -in metallic wealth. That gold mines really do exist near the upper -Oxus, is proved by a certain considerable quantity of gold annually -obtained from it, although the gold-washing is carried on in the -most primitive and negligent manner. - -The gold-washing, or more correctly the gold-fishing, is done with -camels' tails, of which several are hung up side by side between -two poles. People beat them about in the water for some time, or -they dip them into the river, and then hang them up. Those places -are always chosen where the water is troubled, and the work is -generally performed in June and July, the months in the year most -fit for the purpose. I doubt whether any gold-dust is exported; it -is not probable, since the smaller ornaments are made of native -metal, as the Persian goldsmith in Bokhara informed me. Silver is -found in Khiva in the above-mentioned mountains, and a considerable -quantity of this valuable metal was really gained during the reign -of Allahkuli-Khan, when the miners were worked for three years -under the management of a native of India, who had been educated -for this department. It is said that after the death of this prince -he either fled or was murdered. Since that time the mines have been -much neglected. I also heard some vague reports of the existence of -silver mines near Shehri Sebz. - -Of precious stones, we must mention first of all the rubies of -Bedakhshan, which were formerly of high repute in Asia, under the -name of Laali Bedakhshan; at the present day not many of them are -found. Cornelian exists in large quantities in the mountain-rivers -of Bedakhshan. It is very cheap, and is exported to Arabia, Persia, -and Turkey. Lapis lazuli, which is used in dyeing, is of small value -in Central Asia, and is exported to Russia and Persia. The turquoise -of Bedakhshan and Khokand is far inferior in colour to that of -Nishapur in Persia, and is purchased by none but the nomads and -Nogay silversmiths; it is of a green instead of a blue colour, and -liked far less than the latter.[32] - - [32] Compare Ritter, "Erdkunke," viii., 326. - -This sketch of the productions of the oasis countries in Central -Asia will have convinced my readers, and especially those who -are acquainted with Asiatic countries and their conditions, that -Turkestan cannot be numbered among the sterile countries. Called -by the natives "a jewel set in sand," from its own peculiar value -and the barrenness around it, Central Asia will certainly play an -important part one day among the countries of the far East, and -occupy a prominent position, as soon as the beneficent beams of our -European civilisation shall have dried up the stagnant pool of its -miserable social relations, and as soon as the grand results we -have gained for industry and agriculture shall there likewise have -received their acknowledgment. It is robbery, murder, and war, but -not the barrenness of nature, which convert the shores of the Oxus -and Jaxartes into a desert. In Bokhara, but especially in Khiva, -agriculture is almost exclusively in the hands of slaves, of which -there are in the latter Khanat more than 80,000. Their rude manners -have placed the sword in the hands of the inhabitants,--the plough -is considered degrading, and is entirely given over to slaves. -When will these Khanats learn to see that a great part of their -misfortunes, and the unsettled state of their political and social -relations, originate in the perversity of their nature and conduct? - -A government which endeavours to smooth existing relations deserves -our full acknowledgment and cordial wishes for success, although it -is premature to anticipate a complete change. Nor must we grudge it -the natural wealth of the country. Setting aside the moral influence -of such a Government, and its possible future political schemes, the -material gain is, on the whole, not large; nay, I maintain, that it -is small, when compared to the trouble and expense the occupation -and administration of such a province require--a province, the -communication with which must always be attended with endless -hardships and difficulties. - - - - -CHAPTER XV. - -ON THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF BOKHARA. - - -What I have to impart in this chapter on the ancient history of -Bokhara is taken out of a Persian MS., brought by the late Sir -Alexander Burnes from Bokhara, which bears the name of "Tarikhi -Narshakhi," the history of Narshakhi. The author, Mehemmed ben -Djafer el Narshakhi, wrote this highly interesting work in Bokhara, -in the year of the Hegirah, 332, under the government of Emir -Hamid the Samanide, in Arabic. Later, in the year 522, it was -translated into Persian, and augmented by quotations from a not less -interesting work, Khazain ul Ulum, "The Treasures of Wisdom," which -Ebul Hassan wrote at Nishapur. In consideration of its historical -value it is well worth the trouble (in a quite literal translation) -to give the whole. The distinguished orientalist, Monsieur de -Khanikoff, has already done this, and it will very probably be put -before the scientific world. We have here only selected that which -is suitable to the outline of our sketches, and for this reason -given an extract in a free translation, since this is less fatiguing -to the majority of readers, and more acceptable. - - -BOKHARA, _i.e._, ITS ENVIRONS. - -On the site of modern Bokhara there must have been in ancient days -a morass, which arose from the yearly flooding of the river that -comes from Samarkand. In summer, from the melting of the snow in the -existing mountains in the neighbourhood, this was much augmented. -This morass was dried up at a later period, and the fertile soil -soon attracted settlers from all sides. From these colonists a -prince was chosen, by name Aberzi, for their ruler. Bokhara itself -existed not then. There were simply numerous villages, of which -Beykem or Beykend (the village of the ruler) was the largest. -Tyranny soon dispersed this little colony. A part of it drew back to -northern Turkestan, founded the town Djemuket,[33] and soon enjoyed -a flourishing condition. Later they returned to the assistance of -their brethren whom they had left behind. Then Prince Shir Kishver, -"Lion of the Land," conquered the bad Aberzi, put him in a sack -full of thorns, and turned him round and round until he died. -Bokhara gradually flourished again. Shir Kishver ruled for twenty -years, and contributed much to the success of the colony, and his -followers pursued the same path, and the whole neighbourhood was -soon peopled and covered with villages. In what epoch the chronology -of this place falls, is hard to conjecture. It were a vain effort -to attempt to penetrate the table of the oldest history of Bokhara. -We prefer rather to give the interesting data of the MSS. on that -neighbourhood, and to begin with Bokhara, which from ancient days -was an important spot. - - [33] This is very probably the modern Chemket, in the new Russian - province of Turkestan. - - -BOKHARA, THE CAPITAL. - -What the source of our information relates with regard to the -religious importance of this spot, what pre-eminence its inhabitants -had, what distinction awaits them at the day of resurrection, &c., -will not much interest our readers. Siaush is stated to have been -the founder of the fortress, where he was slain in a public square, -before the Gate Guriun, by his own father-in-law. This place was -constantly held in honour by the fire-worshippers, and every one -took care to offer a cock there on Noruz (New Year's Day) before the -set of sun. This commemorative festival was celebrated everywhere. -Troubadours have long sung of it in their lays, though the story -relates to facts that happened three thousand years ago. Other -people affirm that Efrasiab was the founder. It may suffice to know -that the fortress long remained desolate and uninhabited until -Benden, or Bendun, the husband of Queen Khatun, rebuilt it, together -with a castle over the gate, on which he caused his own name to be -engraved in iron. In the year 600 Heg. this gate, together with the -iron slab, was still conspicuous; later all fell in ruins, and every -attempt to rebuild it was fruitless. After the opinion of the wise -men of the day it was at length rebuilt in the form of the Pleiades, -on seven pillars, and from that time all kings who inhabited it were -victorious, and, what is still more wonderful, none of them died, as -long as they continued to occupy it. This castle had two gates--the -Eastern or Gurian Gate, the western or Rigistan Gate--which were -connected by a road, and the castle contained the dwellings of -the chief officers, as well as the prison and treasury and divan. -After these events there was a time of desolation, and it was again -rebuilt by Arslan Khan, and enjoyed its former greatness, 534 Heg. -When Kharezm Shah took Bokhara he permitted governors appointed from -Sandjar to direct matters, and to destroy the citadel. Then, in 536 -Heg., it was again restored. Similar events it experienced many -times, till at last the Moguls, under Djengis Khan, reduced to ruins -Bokhara and the fortress. - -Of the palaces of Bokhara, the Serai at the Rigistan must be -mentioned in the first place, in which square the lords of this -land, both in the pre-Islamite times and also later, were in the -habit of living. In regard to circumference, that which Emir Said, -the Samanide, caused to be built is the largest, and probably most -splendid palace, where all the high counsellors, with the governors, -are found in one and the same building. - -After this, we must name Seray Molian, or that palace which was -built on the canal of the same name. This is described as an -exceedingly charming dwelling-place, which was surrounded by the -most luxurious gardens, the most beautiful meadows and flower-beds, -brooks and fountains. The whole tract of country, from the gate -of the Rigistan to Deshtek (little field) was quite full of -beautifully-painted, sumptuous houses, with lovely lakes, and -shadowy trees which allowed no sun to penetrate; and the gardens -exuberant in fruits, as almonds, nuts, cherries, &c.[34] - - [34] Almonds and cherries are, now-a-days, not to be met with as a - product of Bokhara. - -The palace of Shemsabad is also worthy of notice, which the king, -Shems-ed-din, caused to be built near the gate Ibrahim, and which is -remarkable for its zoological garden, named Kuruk. This was a place -of four miles in circumference, surrounded with high walls, where -many dove-cotes, as well as wild animals, such as apes, gazelles, -foxes, wolves, boars(!), in half-tamed condition, are found. -After the death of Shems-ed-din, his brother, Khidr Khan, mounted -the throne; then his son, Ahmed Khan, who continually increased -the beauty of the palace; but when the latter was conquered and -conducted to Samarkand by Melek Shah, it was abandoned, and -fell into ruins. Besides these there were many country houses -in the neighbourhood, nearer to the town, which belonged to the -Keshkushans. By this name a certain people were indicated who came -out of the west to Bokhara, but were not Arabs, and possessed a -singularly good reputation. When Kuteibe, after the conquest -of Bokhara, required the half of the houses for the Arabs, the -Keshkushans formed the largest portion of those who gave up their -houses and settled out of the town. Of these country houses only two -or three remained to later periods, which bore the name of Koeshki -Mogan (Kiosks of the fire-worshipping priests). There were many -temples in Bokhara known as those of the fire-worshippers, and the -Mogan were accustomed to maintain them with great care. The first -town wall which extended round Bokhara was built by the command -of the governor, Ebul Abbas, in 215 Heg., in consequence of the -inhabitants having complained that they had suffered so much from -the inroads of the Turks. In the year 235 Heg., it was repaired and -fortified, but later entirely ruined when the Mongol hordes laid -waste the city and environs of Bokhara. Besides the above, mosques -and other buildings are mentioned. We wish to spare our readers -these details. The past prosperity of Bokhara is sufficiently shown, -when we appeal to twelve canals or larger conduits which intersect -the vicinity in all directions. The fruitful and bounteous nature -of the soil has, in the East, become proverbial, and the great sums -which have been levied on the town and environs prove it. After the -fourth, i.e., the final conquest of Bokhara by Kuteibe, the Khalif -in Bagdad received 200,000, and the governor of Khorassan 10,000, -dirrhems. In the time of the Samanides Bokhara paid, in Kerminch -alone, more than a million dirrhems tribute, which is considered an -immense sum according to the tariff of that period. In pre-Islamite -times there was in Bokhara only barter. The first governor who -struck silver money was Kanankhor. The coin had on one side his -portrait, and was of pure silver: this lasted up to the time of -Abubekir. The old coinage became lessened, and was replaced by the -inferior mint at Kharezm. In the time of Harun al Raschid, Athref, -the governor, struck a new mint of six different kinds of metal, -which were named atrifi or azrifi. (I think that the word, common in -Persia, eshrefi--ducats, is not from the Arabic, but derived from -azrifi.) - -In industrial arts also, Bokhara has exceeded the other nations of -once famous Asia. The dress stuffs which were fabricated on the bank -of the Zerefshan were sought for in Arabia, Persia, Egypt, Turkey, -India itself. These were merely of three colours, white, red and -green; but its silken stuffs were strong and heavy, and were worn -for a long time as the favourite royal and princely robes in many -lands. Next to these were the large carpets and curtains, which -were woven in Bokhara. The former of these were so expensive that -the town of Bokhara could pay, with one single carpet, the tribute -to Bagdad. In the later devastations of Bokhara the clever artizans -were scattered, and with them their art fell to the ground. - - -THE ENVIRONS OF BOKHARA. - -Besides the chief city and its wonders, there are many places of the -environs described in the manuscript before me. Some of these exist -even now; others have passed nameless. - -_Kermineh._ In this many other towns are comprised, and this region -has produced many poets and poetesses. It is distant from Bokhara -fourteen farsangs only, and was named Dihi Khurdek (little town). - -_Nur_ is a larger place, where there are many mosques and -caravanserais, and it is the spot most frequented by pilgrims of -the whole neighbourhood. In Bokhara much is thought of this, for a -journey thither is esteemed as half a pilgrimage to Mecca. - -_Tavais_ (as the Arabians name it, for the proper name was Kud), -a considerable spot, which was celebrated for its markets. They -lasted commonly ten days, and were frequented yearly by more than -ten thousand persons, who came from Ferghana (Khokand) and from -all quarters. This circumstance made the inhabitants wealthy, and -they were famous for their riches. Tavais lies on the high road to -Samarkand, and is seven farsangs from Bokhara. - -_Ishkuhket_, a large and rich town, carries on an extensive -commerce in preparing kirbas (a kind of linen); has many mosques, -caravanserais, and is considered one of the loveliest towns of -Bokhara. - -_Zendine_ produces the best kirbas in Bokhara, which it exports to -Arabia, Fars, Kirman, and other distant lands, and which is used -everywhere by princes and great people for clothing. It is in high -estimation, and is purchased at the same price as the heaviest -stuffs. - -_Revane_ is a fortified spot, and was formerly the residence of the -kings, and it is said that it was built by Shapur. It is on the -Turkestan boundary, has a weekly market, at which much silken stuff -is sold. - -_Efshana_ is a well fortified spot, has a mosque built by Kuteibe, -and a weekly market. - -_Berkend_, a large old village, which the Emir Ismael, the Samanide, -bought, and divided the revenue between Dervishes and Seids. - -_Rametin_ is older than Bokhara, and was earlier inhabited by -princes. It is said to have been built by Efrasiab, who fortified -it also at a later period, when he was attacked by Kaykhosrev, who -sought vengeance on him for the death of his father, Siaush, and -son-in-law. In this place were the most celebrated temples of the -fire-worshippers in all Transamana. Efrasiab was, after two years, -seized and killed by Kaykhosrev, and his grave is found at the entry -of that fire-temple, which stands on that high hill which is now -visible close to the mountains of Khodscha Imam. These events are -reported to have taken place three hundred years ago. - -_Yerakh'sha_ is one of the Bokhara towns, and is celebrated for -its castle, which was built by Prince Gedek, one thousand years -since, and then lay long years in ruin. Later, Prince Hebek restored -a portion, and Benyat, the son of Tugshade, is said to have died -there. In the time of Islam, Emir Ismael, the Samanide, wished to -make a mosque of it, and offered the inhabitants 20,000 dirrhem as -a re-imbursement for the restoration, but they declined his offer. -In the time of Emir Hayder, the Samanide, there were yet some wooden -remains, which that person brought to Bokhara, and used for the -building of his castle. Yerakh'sha has yearly fifteen markets, of -which the last, which is held at the end of the year lasts twenty -days, and also is called the Noruz market (New Year's Day market), -which since that time (what time?) has become a Bokhara custom. Five -days after the Noruz market comes the Noruz Mogan (New Year's Day of -the priests of the fire-worshippers). - -_Beykend_ was considered a city, and its inhabitants are highly -indignant if any one call it a village. Were a Beykender in Bagdad -questioned as to his home, he would say Bokhara. It was once a -considerable spot, had many beautiful buildings and mosques, and -in the year 240 Heg. had yet many rabats (stone houses in the form -of a caraverserai). The number of these exceeded a thousand, all -inhabited by people who, in summer, dwelt at their own country -seats, but in winter spent the fruits of their industry in the town, -and thus were very gay. The Beykenders were also great merchants, -who carried on a trade to China and the Sea. The fortifications of -this town are older than Bokhara, and it gave Kuteibe much trouble -to take it. In earlier times each prince had here his castle. -Between Beykend and Farab is a tract of twelve farsangs, which goes -through a sandy desert. Arslan Khan had raised here a magnificent -building, and with much cost brought the Canal Djaramgam into this -vicinity. In the neighbourhood of Beykend there are many beds of -reeds and large lakes, which they call Barkent ferrakh or _Karakol_. -According to a credible statement these are about twenty farsangs in -extent, and abound in water-fowl and fish, beyond any other portion -of Khorassan. Here the Canal Djaramgam had not sufficient water, so -Arslan Khan wished to bring from these lakes a stream to Beykend, -which place lies on a slight elevation. They began to dig, but they -struck on an excessively hard rock, which rendered useless all their -hammering and hewing. Loads of fat and vinegar were employed for the -softening of the stone, but in vain, and the work was abandoned. - -_Farab_ has a large mosque, of which the walls and cupola are -built of tiles, without a particle of wood visible. It had its own -princes, who governed from Bokhara in a settled order, and, to a -certain degree, independently. - - -QUEEN KHATUN AND THE FOUR FIRST ARABIAN FIELD MARSHALS.[35] - - [35] Khatun means in Turkish, _woman_, of which word we wish to - avail ourselves instead of a name, as this is the practice in the - MS. before us. - -In the time of the Arabian occupation, or more properly speaking, in -that time when the first outposts of the Arabian adventurer pressed -to the distant East, there was in Bokhara a woman on the throne, -who, during the minority of her son Tugshade, held for fifteen years -the reins of government with both might and rectitude. Of this -woman, who is considered to be the Nushirvan (emblem of justice) of -Central Asia, it is reported that she went daily from her castle -on the Rigistan[36] on horseback, and, surrounded by all classes, -busied herself with state affairs. Towards the end of year 53 Heg., -the Arabians, under the leading of Abdullah-ben-Ziad, crossed the -Oxus, and took the once celebrated Peykend, through which victory -they came into possession of much treasure, and about 4,000 -prisoners. - - [36] _Rigistan_ means in old Persian, an open space, which is strewn - with sand (rig) and kept vacant. - -In the year 54, Heg., they attacked Bokhara with a strong army and -battering engines, and Khatun was cowed before the threatening -peril. One messenger was sent by her to the Arabian field-marshal -with presents, and instructions to obtain at least an armistice -for fourteen days; another was sent to the north-east to a Turkish -race, for quick aid. The stratagem was successful. The Arabs, -anticipating nothing, granted the armistice. Meanwhile the Turks -approached, and Khatun felt herself strong enough to attack the -besiegers and put them to flight. The defeat itself was not denied -by the Arabian historians: they only add, that the Mussulman army -took a rich booty in gold, silver, clothing stuffs, and weapons, in -which were the golden and jewelled boots of the queen, Khatun, the -worth of which was estimated at 200,000 drachmas. Abdullah-ben-Ziad -felled all the trees in the vicinity, and destroyed all the towns. -Khatun felt anxious for the fate of her land, and concluded peace -with the Arabians, which she bought, they say, for one million -drachmas. In the year 56, Heg., Said ben Osman was named governor -of Khorassan. He crossed the Oxus and fell on Bokhara. Khatun -wished to buy a peace for a similar sum to that which she gave -Abdullah ben Ziad. Despite of this offer, Said, who stood with -120,000 men in Kesch (Shehr Sebz) and Nakhsheb (Karschi), refused -compliance, gave battle, and after he had beaten the army of -Khatun, made peace. The queen was obliged to submit, and entered -the army of the Arab as a vassal.[37] The submissive State gave -eighty hostages, and Said ben Osman went to Samarkand, which he -also took, and thence, laden with rich treasures, returned back to -Medina. The report goes, that the hostages which Khatun gave to -the Arabian field-marshal were officers who doubted the legitimacy -of Tugshade, and plotted together against the queen. According to -agreement, they wanted merely to accompany the Arab army as long -as they remained in Bokhara, but Said wished to have them with him -as trophies of his victory when he entered Medina. This moved the -deceived Bokharians; and when they saw their ruin unavoidable, they -wished, at least, to die avenging themselves. They slew Said, and -then severally destroyed each other. In his turn, Muslim ben Ziad -was named ruler of Khorassan. He hastened quickly to his post, drew -together a considerable army, and fell on Bokhara, again become -faithless. Khatun quickly perceived that she, alone, was no match -for him, and sought everywhere help. She gave her hand to Terkhan, -Prince of Samarkand, to purchase protection for her country; also -the mighty Turkish prince, Bendun, was called in to aid. When all -the assistance had been promised, Khatun hastened to conclude a -truce: the Arabs consented; when Bendun appeared with 120,000 men, -and induced the reluctant queen to violate the truce. The Arabian -field-marshal was extremely incensed, and sent one of his officers, -by name Mehleb, to Khatun, to remind her of her blameable neglect -of duty. Mehleb took from each company a man with him, quitted -secretly the camp by night, with the intention to surprise, on some -point, the enemy's army. He was already arrived on the banks of -the river (Zerefshan), when some Arabs, thinking that the question -was a matter of booty, joined him. Their united force was not more -than 900 men. The enemy's cavalry discovered this, and at the first -onset cut down 400 of them. The rest fled quickly back, but were -followed, and towards daylight reached near to Khoten. The Turks -opened a bloody battle; Mehleb was surrounded on all sides, and -announced, by a powerful shout, his position to the nearest Arabian -camp. The signal was heard; Muslim knew the voice of Mehleb, heeded -it but little, and only Abdullah, who blamed the indifference of -the commander-in-chief, mounted his horse in order to assist his -brother, who was hard pressed. This approach gave courage to Mehleb -and his followers. The battle was renewed; Bendun fell, and the -Turks were put to flight with great loss. An immense booty fell -into the hands of the conquerors; and it is said that each horseman -received about 1,000 dirrhems. After this incident Khatun made -peace, and did homage to the Arabs. She also appeared in the camp, -and did homage again. She requested to see Abdullah, whose heroic -deeds had astonished the whole army. Muslim called him. He wore a -blue tunic with red girdle, and favourably impressed the Queen by -his noble appearance, and she made him great presents. The fourth -Arabian field-marshal was Kuteibe ben Muslim. He went to Khorassan, -under the Kaliphate of Hudjadj, conquered on his way the provinces -of Tocharistan, and crossed the Oxus, in 88 Heg. Peykend was -apprised of his approach, a strong walled fortress, the taking of -which cost him a hard struggle. The Arabs were forced to besiege it -fifty days, and suffered considerably. Since force could produce -no effect, he was obliged to employ stratagem, and caused it to be -undermined, and the fortress was thus surprised. He pardoned the -inhabitants, made peace with them, and leaving Varka ben Nasr-ullah -as governor, went to Bokhara. Intelligence soon reached him that the -Peykendis had killed the governor, whom he had left behind, and who, -as it proved, had provoked the revolt by his cruel deeds. Kuteibe -hastened back, plundered the city, destroyed it, killed all the men -able to bear arms. The rich and mighty Peykend, which maintained an -extensive commerce in teas from China and other goods, was utterly -destroyed. Some portions were restored later, but its prosperity was -gone for ever. They relate that the Arabs, among abundant treasures, -found a silver idol, which, with the robes, was worth 150 miskal. -Among things most worthy of remark, were two pearls, as large as -a pigeon's egg. These, according to the report of the Peykendis, -were brought into the temple by a bird. Kuteibe sent such things -to the Khalif Hudjadj as a present, who, in a letter of thanks, -expressed both his admiration for the objects, and the high spirit -of the sender. From hence he went to Vardun, (now Vardanzi) which -he spoiled, with all the other villages belonging to it. These -successful advances of the Arabian army terrified the small princes -of that neighbourhood, and they united, and attacked, with joint -forces, the invaders. As the Arab historian affirms, Kuteibe was -greatly distressed. He was also destitute of arms; and they say that -a lance was bought for 5 dirrhems, a helmet for 50, the cuirass for -900. Happily, the ruler of Samarkand, by cunning and deceit, had -withdrawn from the alliance to go over to the Arabs; and the Turkish -leader having obtained information that fresh auxiliary troops had -arrived in Kesh and Nakhsheb, retreated to Vardun; and Kuteibe -remained undisturbed in the possession of the conquered province in -Transoxiana. - - [37] Report says, that Said ben Osman and Khatun, who was a - celebrated beauty, loved each other; and even in later years the - popular ballads were extant which sung of this adventure. - - -TUGSHADE AND MOKANNA, THE VEILED PROPHET OF KHORASSAN. - -Tugshade, who, after the death of his mother, was chosen King of -Bokhara, had to thank Kuteibe, alone, for his throne, since he -supported him against his powerful neighbour, the Governor of -Vardun, who invaded Bokhara repeatedly, but was always driven back -by Kuteibe. This feeling of gratitude may have been the principal -cause that Tugshade went over to Islam, and distinguished himself -by his remarkable ardour in favour of the new opinions. He reigned -thirty-two years, not so much as an independent prince, but as the -vassal of Kuteibe, who found in him a mighty aid in propagating -by force the doctrine of Mohammed, which the inhabitants of -Bokhara were much disposed to reject. As the Arabian adventurers -made conversion to Islam the chief condition in submitting, the -Bokhariots, at each capture of their capital, acknowledged, in -appearances, Islam, but after the departure of their conquerors -returned to their beloved national religion, the Parsi. Kuteibe -wished to check this. He ordered, therefore, that the half of -the houses of the whole town should be given up to the Arabs. -The proselytes were placed, by these means, in the immediate -neighbourhood of men who continually watched them, and urged them to -the new doctrine. In the year 94 Heg., he permitted a large Mosque -to be built, in which all were to assemble for prayer on Fridays, -and in which the Koran should be read, in an emphatic manner, in -the Persian language. This mosque existed even in the time of our -author's writing, who besides adds that upon the doors figures of -animals were cut, (which, as is known in every place of Islam, to -say nothing of a mosque, is treated as a gross offence): the reason -of this, they say, was, that these animals were taken from an -earlier temple of the Fire-Worshippers, and retained afterwards. - -Tugshade reigned thirty-two years. After his death, Kuteibe, -his son, (whom he so named, from attachment to the Arabian -field-marshal), took the throne. At the commencement of his reign -he affected the Musulman, but, as it was soon apparent that he was -secretly attached to the old religion, he was executed by order of -Ebn Muslim, the ruler of Khorassan, and in his stead, Benyat, also a -son of Tugshade, was named Lord of Bokhara. Under both these latter -reigns, it happened that the Sefiddjamegan (the white-clothed), as -the followers of Mokanna, the Veiled Prophet of Khorassan, have been -called, raised, with the new doctrine, the standard of rebellion -against the Arabian conquerors. In like manner with Kuteibe, the -son of Tugshade, did the other son, Benyat, go over to the rebels, -and was put to death by order of the Khalif, 166 Heg. The family of -Tugshade held the throne of Bokhara till 301 Heg., when Ibn Ishak, -the son of Ibrahim, the son of Khalid, the son of Benyat, ceded his -rights to Emir Ismael, the Samanide. - -As to the history of Mokanna and the Sefiddjamegan, this movement -might have had, certainly, dangerous consequences for Islam in -Central Asia, if the authorities in Bokhara, and particularly the -Khalif Mehdi, had not used all proper precaution. Mokanna, (as -is related in the MS. lying before me), the veiled prophet of -Khorassan, whose real name was Hashim bin Hekim, was born in the -village of Geze, near Merw, and early occupied himself with many -kinds of knowledge, but especially with enchantments and secret arts. - -He was named Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet, on this account, -because he covered his head constantly with a veil, for he was -deformed in features, one-eyed, and, moreover, bald. He had, no -doubt, under Ibn Muslim a high military rank, as he there once came -out in his character of prophet; he was seized, sent to Bagdad, and -there put in prison. He escaped thence and came back to Merw, and -when he showed himself among his people, for the first time, he -demanded, "Know ye who I am?" They said unto him, that he was Hashim -bin Hekim. He replied, "You are in error. I am your God, and I am -the God of all people. I call myself what I will. I was earlier in -the world in the form of Adam, Ibrahim, Moses, Jesus, Mohammed, Ibn -Muslim, and now in the form in which you see me." "How is it, then," -they asked of him, "that these make themselves known as prophets, -but you wish to be God?" "They were too sensual, but I am through -and through spiritual, and have constantly possessed power to appear -in any form." He lived, then, in Merw, but his agents moved about -everywhere in order to gain followers, and his letters of mission -began thus:-- - -"In the name of the Merciful and Gracious God, I, Hashim, son of -Hekim, Lord of all lords. Praised be the One God, He who was before -in Adam, Noah, Ibrahim, Moses, Christ, Mohammed, Ibn Muslim; He -who was manifested before all these, namely, I Mokanna, lord of -might, brightness, truth,--rally round me and learn, for mine is the -lordship of the earth, mine the glory and power. Besides me there -is no god; he who is with me goes to Paradise; he who flies from me -goes to hell." - -Among his adherents an Arab, named Abdullah, principally -distinguished himself, and, in the vicinity of Kesh, misled very -many. At a later period the greater part of the villages around -Samarkand and Bokhara went over to him. The professors of the -new sect became from day to day stronger, and with their numbers -increased also both uproar and riot, and the alarm and cries of -the Musulmans. When the governor of Khorassan was informed of this -issue he wished to seize Mokanna; who then kept himself concealed a -long time, and though all the passes of the Oxus were guarded, he -succeeded in escaping over to the Transoxanian side, and effected a -retreat into a strong fortress on the mountain of Sam, near the town -of Kesh (the modern Shehr Sebz). The Khalif Mehdi also was struck -with terror at the intelligence. He sent first troops, and then -arms in person to Nishapur, for it had become a question whether -the partisans of Mokanna would not obtain the upper hand, and Islam -sink to the ground. At that time in the new sect robbery and murder -having been permitted, immense hordes out of Turkestan joined the -revolters, the Musulmans were hard pressed on all sides, their -villages plundered, their women and children carried away to prison. -In the year 159 Heg. the commandant of Bokhara went against them -with a considerable force, and the contest between the partisans of -Mokanna and the Mohamedans lasted in that country many years. The -Veiled Prophet moved not from his fortified position, his spiritual -influence was sufficient to stimulate his followers. - -The Arabian garrison of Bokhara, with the few which remained -true to Islam, soon felt itself too weak against the number and -fanaticism of their far superior enemy. Aid was sent from Bagdad -under the command of Djebrailo bin Yahya; and the well fortified -place, Narshakh, which was a residence of the Sefiddjamegan, was -first attacked. After a close and vain siege the walls could only -so far be damaged as to allow a ditch that was fifty yards long to -be filled with wood and naphtha: this they fired, and the cross -beams of the wall became consumed, and the whole mass without -support fell. With sword in hand the Mohamedans rushed into the -fortress, many were massacred, many yielded under the condition of -retreating with their arms. The fortress was evacuated, yet when -the Sefiddjamegan heard that their commanders were put to death in -a traitorous fashion, they themselves took up arms in the enemy's -camp. A fresh contest arose, in which the Arabs conquered, and the -supporters of Mokanna were partly destroyed, partly put to flight. -After Narshakh, Samarkand had to be forced, the inhabitants of -which, in great part, were known to belong to the new sect. The -sieges and battles of these places lasted more than two years -(because a great number of the Turks had joined the Samarkanders -without any result being obtained). - -Mokanna, the mysterious prophet, kept himself during this period -always in his fortress, attended by one hundred of the loveliest -women of Transoxiana. The interior of the castle was kept only for -these with himself and one male page; besides these was no earthly -eye permitted to penetrate into his sanctuary. They say that 50,000 -of his followers lay at the gate of the fortress, and earnestly -implored him to show but once his god-like splendour. He refused, -sent his page with the message:--"Say to my servants that Musa -(Moses) also wished to see my godhead, but the beams of my splendour -he could not support. My glance kills instantly the earth-born." -The enthusiastic adherents assured him that they would gladly offer -their lives as a sacrifice if this high enjoyment was allowed to -them. When he could not furthermore deny them, Mokanna consented to -their entreaty, and appointed them to come at a certain time before -the gate of the fortress, where he promised to show himself. On -the evening of the appointed day he ordered that his women should -be placed in a line, with looking-glasses in their hands, as the -beams of the setting sun were reflected in the looking-glasses, and -when everything was illuminated by that reflection, he ordered them -to open the doors. The splendour blinded the eyes of his devoted -adherents, who fell prostrate, and called out,--"God! enough for us -of thy glory, for if we see it more all will be destroyed!" They -lay long in the dust supplicating him, until at length he sent his -page with the message:--"God is pleased with you, and he has given -you for your use the good of all the world." - -Fourteen years long Mokanna is reported to have lived in this -fortress consuming his time with women in drinking and carousing. -The Arab field marshall, Said Hersi, had at last, after a hard -siege, driven him into straits. The outer part was taken, and -there was only the inaccessible citadel on a higher eminence. With -the extinction of his ascendant star Mokanna was abandoned by his -followers, and when he saw the inevitable ruin nigh he decided, in -order not to fall into the hands of his enemies, rather to destroy -himself with his women and treasures. He gave to the women at a last -carouse a strong dose of poison in wine, and challenged them to -empty a goblet with him. All drank but one, who poured the wine into -her bosom, and as an eye-witness, told later the whole catastrophe. -According to her, Mokanna, after all the women had fallen dead, cut -off the head of his faithful page, and, quite naked, burnt himself, -with his treasures, in a furnace, which had been heated for three -days. He announced before that he wished to go to heaven to call -the angels to his help. "I have long watched the furnace," said -the fortunate woman who escaped, "but he never came back in that -fashion." After the death of Mokanna there were many curious sects -and creeds, but they concealed themselves from the ever increasing -power of Islam. Under the Samanides the doctrine of Mohammed spread -more and more, and Transoxanian countries became soon famous for -their religious zeal. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI. - -ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE TURANIAN AND IRANIAN RACES OF CENTRAL -ASIA. - - -THE TURKS OF EASTERN ASIA.--PHYSIOGNOMY AND CUSTOMS. - -I think that there are few points upon the whole terrestrial globe, -which are of greater importance for our historical researches -than the oases of Central Asia. These in the primitive times were -inexhaustible floodgates for those warlike hordes, who often -inundated and conquered the most beautiful spots of Asia, streaming -towards the west in wild torrents, and even occasioning alarm among -Europeans. No people can be so interesting for us upon the subject -of Ethnography as the Turko-Tartars, who, under such various names -and forms, have appeared on the scene of the events of the world, -and have had such powerful influence over our own circumstances. Is -it not surprising that of all nations we are the least acquainted -with these? Huns, Avars, Utigurs, Kutrigurs, Khazars, and so many -others, float before our sight only in the mist of fable. The clash -of arms which sounded through them from the Yaxartes to the heart -of Gaul and Rome has long since ceased. In vain should we inquire -even into their origin, did we not find in the scanty dates of the -Western chronicles of that period some points of reliance. These -dates show us that between the Tartar tribes of that age and the -present inhabitants of Central Asia there did exist an analogy -of an unmistakeable character. We detect this in descriptions of -them--in the accounts of their manner of living--all evincing much -resemblance to the customs and physical condition of the present -inhabitants of Turkestan. A similar life to what Priscus describes -in the Court of the King of the Huns is met with to-day in the -tent of a nomadic chief. Attila is more original than Djingis or -Taimur, but as historical personages they resemble each other. -Energy and good fortune could now almost produce upon the borders -of the Oxus and Yaxartes one of those heroes, whose soldiers, like -an avalanche, carrying everything before them, would increase to -hundreds of thousands, and would appear as a new example of God's -scourge, if the powerful barriers of our civilisation, which has a -great influence in the East, did not stop the way. The people of -Central Asia, particularly the nomadic tribes, are, in the internal -relations of their existence, the same as they were two thousand -years ago. In these physiognomical signs we find already changes -from a mixture of Iranian and Semitic blood (chiefly after the -Arabian occupation). The features of the Mongolian-Kalmuck type -here and there approach the Caucasian race. The Tartar in Central -Asia is no longer what we see him represented by the Greek-Gothic -writers, for even in the times of Djingis he was no longer the -same. It is, therefore, of great interest to mark how this change -in physiognomical type continually decreases from the east to the -west--how this Deturkism, if I may so express myself, is perceptible -among the various races of Central Asia, and in what degree their -various gradations through social circumstances came, more or less, -in contact with foreign elements. This will especially be seen by a -cursory view of the Turkish nations of Central Asia from Inner China -to the Caspian Sea; but those Turks who stretch hence up to the -Adriatic, or to the banks of the Danube, are West Turks, and cannot -be included in the unity of race so much by physiognomical type as -by analogy of speech, characters, and customs. - -With the former, whose masses have retained compactly together the -unity of the race, in spite of all those ways in which the Central -Asiatics differ remarkably from one another--in spite of our -ethnographical names,--the distinction shows itself clearly in their -features and common physical type. Whatever views we may entertain -of the origin of the Turks, so much is certain, that they are -closely related to the Mongols; the relation being much closer than -those which subsist between the Indians and Persians in Iran. Much, -very much indeed, is to be done before we have investigated the -mutual relations of the whole Turko-Tartaric race, which stretches -from the Hindu Kush to the Polar Sea, from the interior of China to -the shores of the Danube. Our present sketch is only a weak attempt -at a small portion--general views upon all that personal experience -has presented to our observation; and it may here and there exhibit -somewhat of novelty. Through the extent known to us from East to -West, we divide the Turks into the following classes:-- - -1. Buruts, black or pure Kirghese. 2. Kirghis, properly Kazaks. 3. -Karakalpaks. 4. Turkomans. 5. OEzbegs. - - -BURUTS. - -These are pure, or black (Kirghis), and dwell on the eastern -boundary of Turkestan, namely, the valleys of the Thian-shan chain -of mountains, and inhabit several points on the shores of the Issik -Koel, close upon the frontier towns of Khokand. As I am told (I -have only seen a few of them), they are thick-set, but of powerful -stature, strong-boned, but remarkably agile, to which last quality -their warlike renown is attributed. By their physiognomy alone -are they to be distinguished from the Mongolians and Kalmucks: -the face is less flat, their cheeks less fleshy, their foreheads -somewhat higher, their eyes are less almond-shaped than those -of the latter. With regard to their colour, they can be little -distinguished from the neighbouring nomadic races; red or fair hair -and white complexion (by which type our European scholars would -claim relationship for this race with the Finlanders and other -north Altaic races) are rarely found; at least, my Khokand friends -assured me that among hundreds there were scarcely one or two.[38] -In all likelihood the Kiptchaks, of whom I have made mention in my -travelling journal at page 382, are no other than a division of the -Buruts, who are settled down in and around Khokand, and have caught, -both from Islam and from their social relationship with Turkestan, -far more than the rest of the Buruts, who, through their contact -with Kalmucks and Mongolians, now and then profess themselves more -or less Islam. Their language also contains many more Mongolian -words than the dialect of the Kiptchaks. From this most original -Turkish people we pass over to the second gradation, which is-- - - -THE KIRGHIS. - -Among the Kirghis or Kasak (as he calls himself), the character -of the Mongol Kalmuck type is no longer to be met with in such a -striking manner as among the Buruts, although he is hardly to be -distinguished from the latter in language and manner of life. In -colour, he nearly resembles the rest of the inhabitants of the -deserts of Central Asia. The women and youths, in general, have -a white and almost European complexion; still this becomes soon -altered, through the manner of living in the open air, in heat and -cold. The Kirghis are of thick-set and powerful frames, with large -bones; they have mostly short necks,--a real type of the Turanian, -opposed to the long-necked Iranian; not very large heads, of which -the crown is round, more pointed than flat. They have eyes less -almond-shaped, but awry and sparkling, prominent cheek-bones, pug -noses, a broad flat forehead, and a larger chin than the Buruts. -Their beards have little hair on the chin, only on both ends -of the upper lip; and it is remarkable, that they lament this -deficiency, and by no means find such delight in this physiognomical -characteristic as in the projecting cheek-bones, small eyes, &c., -which are esteemed by them as beauties.[39] - - [38] Klaproth, and Abel Remusat, in his "Researches on the Tartar - Languages," counts this stock with the Hindu-Gothic race, which - assertion is now considered by every one an error. Castren may, - without doubt, be right, if he in his investigations in south - Siberia finds relationship in a light-coloured Turkish stock; but - these are not Buruts. I believe that even the learned Mr. Schott is - deceived, when, following Chinese sources, he favours this opinion, - in his treatise, "Upon the Pure Kirghese." Berlin: 1863. It appears - that the Buruts are confounded with the Uisuns, who dwell further - north, are light-coloured, and probably are the remnant of a Finnish - stock. See "The Russians in Central Asia," by Mitchell, p. 64. - - [39] That many nomads censured this deficiency in projecting - cheek-bones in myself, as a disfigurement, I have already - mentioned. This need not astonish us; and it appears to me truly - remarkable, that Dr. Livingstone, in his book, "The Zambesi and its - Inhabitants," can assert that he has seen African women, from the - Makololo race, who, standing before the mirror, strove to lessen the - broad mouth, which is common among them, with the intention to make - themselves more beautiful. - -Since, as we have said, the type of the primitive race is no longer -so striking among them and universal as among the Buruts and -Kalmucks, so also we find their ideal of perfect beauty derived -only from their neighbours, with whom they gladly intermix; and -Lewschine[40] has rightly stated a fact, when he mentions the -preference they allow the Kalmuck women before their own. That from -their great extension through the northern desert lands of Central -Asia, perceptible shades may be met with in the external traits is -scarcely to be doubted;[41] but one easily comprehends that our -classification into great, little, and middle hordes, is unknown -to them; for, from the mutual tie of the manner of living, customs -and dispositions, they remain always the same, in spite of the many -subdivisions into branches, families and lines, which they, like the -Turkomans, gladly consider as decided separations. Whether on the -shores of the Emba or of the Sea of Aral, as well as in the environs -of the Balkhash and Alatau, there is little difference to be found -in the dialects spoken by them. Many tales and songs, many national -dishes, and national games, are, throughout the year, to be met with -in like manner; and although they may occur but seldom, still, love -of travelling and warlike disturbances have often brought together -the most distant races. - - [40] "Description of Kirghese Kazaks," by Alexis de Lewschine. - Paris: 1840; page 317. - - [41] _See_ the former work, page 300, chapter II. - -In their dress, the Kirghis are to be distinguished from the rest -of the nomadic tribes and settlers: in Central Asia, mostly by -their head-gear. The men wear, in summer, a felt hat (_kalpak_); in -winter, a cap (_tumak_), with fur covered with cloth, the back-flaps -of which protect the neck and ears. Besides these, they have still -a little fur cap (_koreysh_), which, however, is employed more for -in-door use. The women wear a _sheokele_, which is distinguished -from the Turkoman head-dress in that it is more conical, and allows -the veil to fall not before, but down the back to the loins. The -hair, also, is dressed in a different fashion. The young Turkoman -women plait the hair in two plaits; the Kirghis with eight thin -ones, four on either side. They cover their heads with a _letshek_, -in cloth, which covers head and neck. In neglige attire, the girls -twist red handkerchiefs round their heads, but the women white or -dark-coloured ones. The upper garments have the same tasteless form, -with many folds, as everywhere in Central Asia, only more of the -bright and glittering colours are liked; and in the north of Khokand -it is the custom for the young Kirghis to prepare for themselves a -garment from the raw hide of the fox-coloured horse, besides which -they let the horse's tail hang down from the neck as an ornament. -In their coverings for their feet, the only distinction is, that -the western have adopted the Russian form of boot; the eastern, on -the contrary, the Chinese; namely, with pointed, curved toes, and -slender, high heels. - -The religion is almost universally the Mohammedan; still, in a very -lax condition, which is the case with nearly all the nomadic tribes -in connexion with Islam.[42] Before and long after the Arabian -occupation of Central Asia, the Kirghis professed Shamanism, and it -is not to be wondered at, considering the little influence which the -teachers of Mohammed could maintain there, that much of the early -faith remains there now, and out of a whole tribe, which consists of -many hundred tents, there are often only one or two persons among -the chiefs who can read the Koran a little. - - [42] The Islam of faith was established, according to Fischer - ("History of Siberia," pages 86, &c., and elsewhere) towards the - middle of the sixteenth century, by one Kutshum. This date is - admitted by those in the north, as well as by the dwellers in South - Siberia, still in Turkestan that conversion is reported to have - taken place much earlier. - -The greater part of them are the bad students out of the schools -of the three Khanats, who for pay go into the army in the deserts. -The true proselyte zeal has long become extinct, and the able seek -employment in the town.[43] To keep a Mollah or an Akhond is besides -more fashionable, for it points out the affluent condition of a -party. To the nomadic tribes their material condition is of more -consequence; they look upon religion as a secondary object. They -call themselves Mohammedans, but prayers, fasts, and other religious -acts are little observed by them, and it will in consequence not -appear at all remarkable that superstition, that reminiscence of -the infancy of all people, still plays here an important part. -Chiromancy, astrology, casting out devils, breathing on the sick, -and other humbugs we will not mention, since we find them in -the educated Islamite countries, as Persia, Turkey, and even in -enlightened Europe. Of the superstitions of the Kirghis those -only are most interesting for us which relate especially to the -earlier faiths of these nomadic tribes, and furnish us thereby with -some ideas as to their earlier social relations. That sacrifices -were offered, the still existing oracle upon the shoulder-blades -and entrails proves. The first, called Keoeze sueyeghi, consists -in placing on the fire, clean and pure, the shoulder-blade of -a sheep just slaughtered, keeping it in the flames until it is -quite reduced to powder. It is then carefully laid down, and the -experienced person, who is generally a grey-beard, a Bakhshi, or a -Quack (Kam) studies the crevices of the burnt leg with the greatest -seriousness and a countenance full of importance.[44] When the -cracks run parallel with the broad end of the leg it signifies -good fortune, but if in the opposite direction a misfortune. The -latter, naturally, is seldom detailed. Still this is no wonder, -for when the civilized Greeks were cheated at Delphi and Dodona, -why should not this happen among the Kirghis deserts. To prophesy -from the position and twisting of the entrails is a rare knowledge, -in which the Kalmucks pretend to be particularly distinguished. -It is remarkable that this oracle is only consulted when they are -curious to know the sex of a child that is to be born. Fire also -must probably have been held in high honour, because it was not -allowed to spit on it. Ceremonies and dances are held around it, a -custom which exists in a wonderful manner in so many parts of Asia, -Africa, and Europe, and is still carried on in this district as well -as in Khiva and Khokand. To blow out a light is considered very ill -bred by the Kirghis in the whole of Central Asia; and finally from -the colour of burning oil, fat, &c., many prognostics are divined. -The superstition of the women is enormous, and really deserves the -trouble of a particular study. A girl, when only in her fourth year, -is possessed with it as completely as an elderly nomadic matron -who has passed her whole life in the lonely desert which developed -all her intellectual faculties in that direction. Each individual -part of the tent, each utensil, has some superstition in connexion -with it, which is strictly observed in pitching a tent, in milking, -cooking, spinning, and weaving, far more than the laws of Islam, -which are never particularly taken to heart. But the favourite -divination of these soothsayers is from fresh-spun thread. Four -stones are laid down, two white and two black; in the midst is a -thread, _strong twisted_, and the other end suddenly set free. If -the thread in its fall sink down to the black stones, it signifies -misfortune; to the white, the contrary. From the hand of the twister -no action is descried, for the oracle must be infallible. This is -called Tyik Yip, and is to be found everywhere in Central Asia. - - [43] Lewschine says the same in his above-named work upon the - Kirghis, page 358. - - [44] Dr. A. Bastian has found the oracle of the shoulder bone even - among the Buruts who profess Shamanism, and it is considered by the - Kirghis as a remnant of the same religion. See Ausland, No. 23, 1869. - -Of food which is peculiar to the Kirghis we will name Suerue, which -consists of smoke-dried flesh (horse or sheep's flesh) cut into -small pieces, roasted in fat. The preference for this arises from -its keeping for weeks carried about without spoiling. Koedje, -ordinary wheat, is cooked in water and eaten in sour milk. - -As national games of the Kirghis, we may mention tadjak-kisimo -(stocks). It consists in leaping over a rope held high. The winner -is applauded, the clumsy, on the contrary, are pressed between two -chairs, and exposed to the jeers of the company. Further, "eshek -yagiri" (wounded asses' back), in which in running they must leap -over three or four squatting play-fellows. - - -3. KARAKALPAKS. - -These form the third division in the race, and are essentially -different from the Kirghis in physiognomical expression, although -allied in language and customs. The Karakalpaks are distinguished -by a tall, vigorous growth and a more powerful frame than all the -tribes of Central Asia. They have a large head with flat full face, -large eyes, flat nose, slightly projecting cheek-bones, a coarse and -slightly pointed chin, remarkably long arms and broad hands. Taken -as a whole, their coarse features are in good harmony with their not -less clumsy forms, and the nickname of the neighbouring people - - Karakalpak. - Yueze yalpak. - Uezi yalpak. - -Karakalpak, (has a flat face, and is himself totally flat). -This sobriquet has not been uttered without reason. The complexion -approaches that of the OEzbegs, particularly that of the women, -who long retain their white complexion, and with their large eyes, -full face, and black hair, do not make an unpleasant impression. -In Central Asia they are highly renowned for their beauty. The men -have pretty thick, but never long beards. The Karakalpaks, who are -sometimes falsely ranked with the Kirghis, are at present only to -be met with in the Khanat of Khiva, to which they moved at the -beginning of this century. A man of this tribe relates to me that -they lived earlier on the banks of the Yaxartes, and certainly near -its mouth, whilst another portion abides in the neighbourhood of the -Kalmucks, probably in the government of the Semipalatinsk. - -The first part of this report does not seem to me to be a mere -invention, for Lewschine (in the above-cited work, p. 114), reports, -speaking of the ruins of Djemkend, that even in the last century -Karakalpaks had lived there. According to all probability they have -separated for a long time from the Kirghis, to whom they approach -nearest, and now they form, with respect to their physiognomy, the -transit point from the latter to the OEzbegs. In their dress they -draw nearer to the OEzbegs than the Kirghis. The men wear large -_telpek_ (fur caps) which fit low in the neck and cover ears and -brow; the women have a cape like a cloak round the throat, and are -delighted with red and green boots. The tent of the Karakalpaks -is much larger, and of stronger construction than that of the -rest of the nomadic tribes, and is guarded by a species of large -dog, only to be met with among this tribe. In their dwellings in -general they are distinct from the other nomadic tribes in dirt -and uncleanliness; they evince also in their food and clothing a -carelessness, which makes them abundantly ridiculed and disliked by -their neighbours. To their national dishes belongs the _torama_, -which consists of finely chopped meat, and is cooked with a large -quantity of onions (which vegetable is much liked there) and -mixed meal. _Kazan djappay_, meal baked in a pan in fat, which is -considered a dainty. Lastly, _baursak_, a meal which consists of a -four-cornered piece of pasty filled with meat. - -A favourite game is _kumalak_, resembling the game in Europe. It -is played with dried excrements of sheep. Many of them devote -themselves to games of chance. - - -4. THE TURKOMANS. - -These, which I designate as the fourth gradation of the Mongolian -Turkish race in their westerly extension, possess many of the -peculiarities of the Kirghis as well as of the Karakalpaks. The -pure Turkoman type, which is to be found among the Tekke and -Tchaudor, living in the heart of the desert, is denoted by a -middling stature, proportionately small head, oblong skull (which -is ascribed to the circumstance, that they are not placed at an -early period in a cradle, but in a swing, made of a linen cloth), -cheek-bones not high, somewhat snub noses, longish chin, feet bent -inwardly, probably the consequence of their continual riding on -horseback, and particularly by the bright, sparkling, fiery eyes, -which are remarkable in all sons of the desert, but especially in -the Turkomans. As regards colour, the blond prevails, and there -are even whole tribes, as, for example, the Kelte race among the -Goergen Yomuts, which are generally half blond. On the borders of -the desert, but particularly at the Persian frontiers we find -this principal trait already quite altered by the frequent and -considerable intermixture with the Iranian race, in which one sees -many men with thick black beards, and often without the least trace -of the Mongolian Turkish race. Indeed, the Goeklens are those who, -with the exception of the formation of the eyes, most resemble the -majority of the Persians. - -Slave-dealing, which from immemorial times has been practised in -the northern provinces of Persia, has there, where the intermediate -trade with Persian slaves takes place, left many traces behind. -Still, only upon the borders, for those living in the interior -of the desert and occupying themselves more with the peaceable -occupation of keeping cattle than with alamans (foray) have, on -the average, preserved the marks of the pure Turkoman type. As the -nomads are generally more agile and quick than the settled tribes, -which is naturally to be attributed to the endless wanderings -of their adventurous existence; so the Turkomans are to be -distinguished in this peculiarity from all the dwellers in tents -in Central Asia. And their slender frames, hardened by a very poor -food, can outdo even the Arab in privations and endurance. Taken -as a whole, the Turkomans cultivate (spite of the type of a family -unity) a strange mixture of customs and habits, which are found -either here and there among the neighbouring nomads and OEzbegs, -or only among themselves. While their language approaches to the -Azerbaidjan dialect, their customs have the pure Turko-Tartarian -stamp; and in their social relations, as well as in their warlike -existence and their abundant religious usages, they have more in -common with the Kiptchaks than with the Kirghis, Karakalpaks, and -OEzbegs, with whom they have lived in close connexion for so many -centuries. That they separated themselves early, very early, from -the greater part of the Turko-Tartarian nations, admits of no -question. There is no doubt, according to their own assertions, that -they moved first from the east to the north-west, namely, towards -the southern frontier of the former main horde, and thence towards -the south. This assertion is very probable, and as alleged proofs -of it, we may cite the small number who have remained behind on the -road as remnants, and are still now to be found. As such, are cited -the Turkomans to the north of Kermineh and Samarkand, who, in the -midst of kindred elements have remained true to their nationality. -Their emigration from Mangishlak, unquestionably the oldest abode of -the Turkomans, is indicated by the Central Asiatics themselves in -the following chronological order. As the oldest in their present -native country, we name the Salor and Sariks; after them come the -Yomuts, who, before the period of the Sefevides, stretched from the -north towards the south along the shores of the Caspian. It is said -that the Tekke, at the time of Taimur, were transplanted to Akhal in -small numbers, in order to paralyse the great strength of the Salor. -The Ersaris, towards the end of the last century, from Mangishlak -have settled upon the shores of the Oxus; whilst, finally, the -Tchaudors, of the more recent period of Mohammed Emin Khan (Khiva), -from the shores of the Aral and Caspian Seas, are shifted to the -opposite bank of the Oxus, although many of that tribe are to be -found in the old places. As the Turkoman's chief employment aims at -pillage, it is natural to expect that many of their customs should -harmonize with this. Their attire, although in its origin of the -Khiva fashion, is made shorter and closer, that they may be able -more easily to take hard exercise: the heavy fur cap is replaced by -a smaller one. Their drawers, which supply the place of trousers, -are very wide, and remind one of the national garb of the Hungarian -peasants. The curls of hair which hang down behind the ears far over -the shoulders of the young, are peculiar to this tribe. These are -allowed to grow by the young; during the first year of married life, -they are worn concealed in the cap, and only after its lapse cut -off. This ornament gives to the young cavalier a stately appearance -whilst riding, and he is not a little proud of it. The dress of -the women, also, has some peculiarities, to which belong the upper -garment, hanging down, long-armed, like the Hungarian jacket; the -head-gear, and the masses of silver ornaments,--as bracelets, -necklaces, amulets, etuis, &c. It is not unusual to meet among the -women perfect beauties, not inferior to the Georgians in growth and -regularity of features. Though the young girls in all nomadic tribes -are tolerably practised riders, the young Turkoman women stand -pre-eminent in this art. With regard to their religious zeal for -Islam, their proneness to superstition is the same as that of the -Kirghis; and as the readers of my "Travels" are more acquainted with -them, we will pass from them to the OEzbegs. - - -OEZBEGS. - -These may be considered the established and civilized inhabitants -of Central Asia, and they have retained only feeble traces of the -Mongolian-Turkish race, owing to considerable intermixture with -the ancient Persian elements, and also the great number of slaves, -who are brought there out of the present Iran. In their broad -faces, sound of voice, the sharp angle which the temples form, and -especially the eyes, we recall their Tartar origin. The OEzbegs -were always pointed out by the Tadjiks by the nickname of Yogunkelle -(thick skull), and really this part of their body is thicker and -coarser than that of the rest of their Turanian fellow races. -Besides the diversity that reigns among them in the three Khanats -and in Chinese Tartary, you may further observe that the dwellers -in villages generally possess more signs of the national type than -townsmen. For instance: OEzbegs of Khiva are to be recognised by -the broad, full face, low, flat forehead, large mouth; the OEzbegs -of Bokhara, by the somewhat more arched foreheads, more oval faces, -and long, pointed, oblong chin, and the great majority by black hair -and eyes. Also in colour there are some shades of resemblance. In -the neighbourhood of Kashgar and Aksu yellowish-brown to blackish -tint prevails; in Khokand, brown; in Khiva, white is the reigning -colour. Indeed, the OEzbegs are bastards of the Turanian race, -in the same manner as the Tadjik and Sarts (the aborigines of -the ancient Transoxiana, Sogdia, and Fergana[45]). Of the origin, -immigration, and settlement of the OEzbegs, we have but little -information, and that highly confused. Whilst some maintain that the -name of OEzbeg was the name of one of their most renowned princes, -who, in the time of Djingis, ruled over the whole desert; others -discover, in the etymology of the word OEzbeg (independent prince, -independent head), the signification of that actual independence -for which the tribe was distinguished, as it disengaged itself from -any ruler, and attempted, on its own account, its march of conquest -toward the west. The name becomes prominent with the family of -Sheibani, viz., with Ebul Kheir Khan, as founder, in the foreground; -for, although Taimur may belong to the same tribe, still the Turkish -state is more prominent than the OEzbeg. - - [45] "Gibbon;" edited by Dr. W. Smith. London, 1862, page 296. Here - it is justly remarked, "The OEzbegs are the most altered from - their primitive manners. 1st.,--by the profession of the Mohammedan - religion; and, 2nd.,--by the possession of the cities and harvests - of Great Bucharia. - -If I am not deceived, it appears to me, at least, that the OEzbegs -of to-day form a tribe, which, as a colony, highly inconsiderable -in numbers, only increased after it had received into its bosom -contingents of the various nomadic tribes passing from the north to -the south. This assertion is, perhaps, bold, still the following -circumstances render it not impossible. - -1st. The already indicated diversity which shows itself between the -OEzbegs of Turkestan from Komul to the Sea of Aral, whereby the -degree of resemblance which exists between the latter and those -nomadic tribes living in the vicinity is not to be mistaken, who, -induced by certain circumstances, in which riches and religion -play an important part, settled in towns, and are amalgamated with -OEzbegs. - -2nd. Many names of branches and families of the OEzbegs are common -amongst the rest of the tribes of Central Asia. Thus, for example, -we find the tribes Kungrat, Kiptchak, Naiman, Taz, Kandjigale, -Kanli, Djelair, by which the thirty-two chief divisions of the -OEzbegs are named, figuring also among the Kirghis. The Turkomans -and Karakalpaks can produce some, which, from the great importance -the nomadic tribes attach to family names, certainly would not be -the case if earlier mutual relations had not existed. We know little -of their origin, little in regard to the time of their settlement. -The opinion of Persian historians, that the OEzbeg power rose upon -the ruins of the Taimur dynasty is, indeed, correct, but forms no -guide to the OEzbegs themselves. The name only is apparent; but -who can tell us to which tribe that Turkish population professed -to belong, which at a period long anterior to Taimur, and before -Djingis, in the time of the Kharezmian princes, Sahi Charezmian, and -even further back in the thirteenth century, were established in -the three Khanats? In Khiva I often heard of the brilliant period -of ancient Uergendj, namely, before the inroad of the Mongolians, -described as OEzbeg. Was this merely national vanity, or had the -Turks at that time at Khiva really called themselves OEzbegs? -Turks were already settled during the Arabian occupation, as may be -seen in the ancient history of Bokhara, although not directly in the -centre, certainly in the neighbourhood of the old Persian towns, -in the time of the Samanides; and it would be highly interesting -to know to which type they really belonged. In the customs of the -OEzbegs, also, much foreign admixture has been introduced chiefly -through Islam, and the restless manner of existence pursued by them; -but not nearly so much as with the Western Turks, who through the -foreign elements that they receive are already quite denationalized. -The OEzbegs are pious--one might say zealous--Musulmans. Nowhere -in Islam, Kashmir excepted, does the tendency to asceticism flourish -more than here: a third of the inhabitants of a town are Ishan, -Khalfa, Sofi, or aspirants to those holy titles, and nevertheless -the doctrine of Mohammed has little limited their customs in regard -to all this. In Khiva, and in some parts of Chinese Tartary, they -have remained truest to nomadic customs. They build houses, which -are used as stables and granaries; but for dwelling-places, they -prefer always the raised tent in the court-yard;--building durable -dwellings is scoffed at by the pure OEzbeg, and ridiculed as even -now usual only with the Sart (Persian aborigines). A general habit -is marked out in the proverb: "Sart baisa tam salar--as soon as -the Sart becomes rich, he builds a house," in contradistinction -to the OEzbeg, who procures rather a horse or arms. Also in food -and clothing but few refinements have crept in, the chief towns -excepted. Whilst in the towns the Harem life is in full force, one -finds in the country all OEzbeg women unveiled, for, to the great -anger of the Mollah, they resist that restriction, to which their -nature is averse. Ceremonies at burials, weddings, births, contain -much of what is not only foreign to Islam, but even criminal. This -false step is a striking contrast with the otherwise enthusiastic -feelings of Central Asiatics. Not less does the rigid adherence to a -warlike existence, in which the OEzbegs are distinguished from the -rest of the established nations of Central and Western Asia, deserve -our attention. Agriculture and durable dwellings render people more -peaceable; but this is not the case with the OEzbegs, because they -excel so many nomadic tribes in bravery. - - -CHARACTER. - -However great the extent over which the diverse branches of -Turkish tribes may be found, however variously the influence of -strange elements may have acted upon their social relations, still -the features of a common type of character cannot be denied;--a -picture in which more traces of analogy are to be found than in -the physiognomy and other physical signs respectively. The Turk -is everywhere heavy and lethargic in his mental and corporeal -emotions, therefore firm and stedfast in his resolves; not, perhaps, -from any principle of life philosophy, but from apathy, and sincere -aversion to everything which would alter his adopted position. This -lends him an earnest and solemn aspect, which is so often extolled -by European travellers. As upon the shores of the Bosphorus the -Osmanli, in his _keif_, can gaze for hours on the clear sky, while -he only makes as much movement as will blow the blue wreaths of -smoke from his pipe towards the yet bluer firmament; so the OEzbeg -or the Kirghis can sit for hours, motionless, in the narrow tent, -or in the immeasurably wide desert; for, while the former turns -his gaze upon the colours of the felt coverlet or carpet, already -seen thousands of times,--the latter looks on the waving, curling -quicksands, which are to amuse him. As those who go about briskly -and nimbly, or even gesticulate, are only compassionated by the -Osmanlis as living proofs of partial insanity and misfortune; so -each quick movement of the feet and hands is considered by the -OEzbegs as highly unseemly. Indeed, when I called out to one of -my Tartar fellow-travellers to save himself from some falling bales -of goods by a side-spring, he exclaimed, indignantly: "Am I, then, -a woman, that I should disgrace myself by springing and dancing!" -With this profound seriousness and marble-cold expression of -countenance, we find everywhere among the Turks a great inclination -to pomp and magnificence; but this does not degenerate into -frivolity or fanfaronades, as is the case with the Persians. In -Constantinople one often hears the proverb: "Intellect is peculiar -to Europe, riches to India, and splendour to the Ottoman." The -solemn processions (alay) of the sultan and of the great nobles are -alike celebrated in the East and the West, and the imposing exterior -which is exhibited on such occasions is nowhere to be found so -faithfully reflected as among their fellow tribes in Central Asia. -An OEzbeg or Turkoman, when upon his horse, or seated in his tent -at the head of his family, has the same proud bearing, the same -self-consciousness of greatness and power. He is quite convinced -that he is born to rule, and the foreign nations which surround -him to obey,--just in the same way as the Osmanli thinks with -regard to Bulgarians, Armenians, Kurds, and Arabians. His love for -independence is boundless, and is also the chief cause why he cannot -long remain under the chieftain whom he loves in many respects; -and he would rather command ten or twelve miserable highwaymen or -adventurers than stand at the head of a well-equipped, elegant -troop, who might, in common with himself, own a greater master. -Coinciding with these traits of character, is also the predilection -of the Turks for repose and inactivity; for, although diligence and -activity, according to our European notions, are not to be met with -anywhere in Asia, still, work is not so much abhorred, either by the -Iranian or Semitic nations, as by the Turks, who consider hunting -and war alone worthy of man. Upon them husbandry is only forcibly -imposed, and is considered ignominious. A wondrous prosperity has -never befallen Turkey. The peasant was always idle and careless; -the number of craftsmen limited. Officials had only wealth when the -Janitchars came back from their pillaging excursions, laden with -treasures. - -In Central Asia, agriculture is exclusively in the hands of the -Persian slaves; commerce and business with the Tadjiks, Hindoos, and -Jews; for even the OEzbegs, settled there for centuries, meditate -robbery and war, and if they can procure no foreign enemy they -attack each other mutually in bloody brother strife. - -As concerns intellectual capacity, I have found that the Turk is -everywhere far inferior to other Asiatic nations, namely, the -Iranian and Semitic; and that, through narrowness of mind, he loses -those prerogatives which his superiority in other respects would -acquire for him. This weakness is denoted by the word Tuerkluek -(Turkdom), of which Kabalik (coarseness), and Yogunluk (thickness), -are synonyms. By Tuerkluek, one understands also rudeness and -roughness in manners; and if here and there this defect is palliated -by the appellation, Sadelik (simplicity), still, for the most part, -they are subjoined to the Turkish name as insulting epithets. As -the Osmanli is over-reached by the Armenian, Greek, and Arab; so is -the OEzbeg baffled by the subtle and yielding Tadjik, and the no -less crafty and avaricious Hindoo. Whether this is to be ascribed -to a national defect or to an extreme nonchalance, it were hard to -determine; still, it is highly remarkable that the Turk in the far -east, as well as in the immediate vicinity of the civilised western -country, shuns meditation, and that nowhere are his attempts at wit -particularly brilliant. This disadvantage is partially the reason -that among the Turks more honesty, frankness and confidence, is to -be met with than among the remaining nations of Asia. - -Tuerkluek, by which strangers understand the above-named fault, -is often used by the Turks themselves as a mark of plainness, -simplicity, and uprightness. The lights and shades of Tuerkluek have -been at all times observable and discoursed on, whenever parallels -are drawn between the character of the Turks and of other nations, -especially the Persians. People praise the acuteness, the refined -manners of the latter; but still, he who wants to find a faithful -servant, an attached soldier, or an upright man, will always give -the preference to the Turks. Therefore, we find in earliest times -that foreign princes liked to use Turkish troops; they call them -into their country, and invest their officers with the highest -dignities; and as bravery, perseverance, and love of governing, is -more innate in them than in any other Asiatic people, it is very -easy to explain how they rise from simple mercenaries to governors; -and how they subjugated Iranian and Semitic peoples, from their -home up to the Adriatic, many of whom are still ruled by them. In -my opinion, it is not only superiority of physical powers which has -sustained the Turkish dynasties upon foreign thrones, and still -does so: this is also greatly ascribable to their superiority of -character. They are unpolished, and by nature wild, uncultivated, -but seldom cruel out of malice. They enrich themselves at the -cost of their subjects, but again divide generously the collected -treasures. They are severe towards their subordinates, but seldom -forget the duties that they have to fulfil towards the latter, as -patriarchal heads. In a word, in all deeds and works of the Turks -a sort of kindness is perceptible, which is, perhaps, more to be -ascribed to indolence and laisser-aller, than to a fixed purpose to -do good; but still it works as a virtue, whatever may be its origin. - -Finally will we mention hospitality, in which the Turks are better -versed than the Iranian and Semitic nations, and certainly for -very simple causes. As acknowledged, hospitality is observed in -proportion to the degree in which a nation advances from a nomadic -condition to a settled manner of living, and as Asia is generally -far more prominent in this virtue than Europe, so are the Turks, -the majority of whom are incarnate nomads, to be distinguished -from the rest of Asiatics, who, long settled there, rejoice in an -older civilisation. This must be considered a mere sketch of the -common character of the Turks. Concerning the gradation of different -races, we find the Buruts wilder, more savage than the remaining -nomadic fellow races.[46] They are more superstitious, but also less -malicious than, for example, the Kirghis and Turkomans, because, -without having wholly deserted Shamanism, they know but little of -Islam; and it is well known that the weaker a nomadic people's -ideas of that religion are, the fewer are its vices, and the more -tractable are they with strangers. The Kirghis, on the contrary, -are in the chief features of character less warlike, although they -can easily make up their minds to undertake a baranta (pillaging -expedition). They form the greater part of Turkish nomads, are for -the most part devoted to a wandering life; and whilst the Turkomans -are in many places to be met with in a half settled state, for -example, along the left shore of the Oxus, from Belkh as far as -Tchardjuy, and in Khiva, one can only find very few examples among -the Kirghis. They are easier to subjugate than other nomads, because -they, as already stated, are more peaceable and less brave, still -their colonization appears almost verging upon impossibility; at -least it will require a gigantic task of Russia, if such be her -design. The Karakalpaks, through their remarkable simplicity, are -often considered foolish and dull. They represent the idiot among -Central Asiatic nations, and many droll anecdotes are composed -at their cost. In bravery they are even inferior to the Kirghis; -they have seldom appeared as conquerors, and are seldom employed -by others even as mercenaries. As they occupy themselves chiefly -in breeding cattle, and like best to sojourn in woody regions, -they are called by the OEzbegs, ayik (bear). Still, activity, -benevolence and faithfulness, are everywhere adjudged to them. The -Turkomans are notorious among all the races of Central Asia as the -most restless adventurers, and rightly; for not only there, but -throughout the whole globe, hardly can a second nation be found of -such a rapacious nature, of such restless spirit and untameable -licentiousness as these children of the desert. To rob, to plunder, -to make slaves, is in the eye of the Turkoman an honourable -business, by which he has lived for centuries. He considers those -who think otherwise as stupid or mad, and yields in such a manner -to this passion that he often commences plundering his own tribe, -indeed, often his own family, in case he is baulked in foreign -forays. As a very weak apology, it may be argued that they inhabit -the wildest and most savage countries, where even keeping of cattle -gives only a scanty revenue: still the fruits of their detestable -trade hardly ever alleviate their pressing poverty, for they are -just as dirty niggards, as avaricious, and starve often in the -possession of riches as much as the poorest being. The OEzbegs -play the fashionable among their fellow-races in Turkestan. They -are not a little proud of the education which, through Islamitish -civilisation, they obtained, and, starting from this point -of superiority, wish to govern their nomadic brethren. Highly -praiseworthy with them is their tenacious adherence to so many good -points of their national character; which, in other places, is -too easily transformed and disgraced by Islam. With the OEzbeg, -there is, in spite of the hypocrisy and pretended holiness, which -endeavour to spread themselves by Mohamedanism, still always very -much honesty, uprightness, and Turkish open-heartedness, in which -qualities they are considerably to be distinguished from the -reprobate and vicious Tadjiks, and are truly worthy to govern the -latter. The OEzbeg is, as far as personal knowledge has shown to -me, the only Turk, from China to the Danube, who represents all the -best side of the national character of the Turks. - - [46] Radloff also confirms the same in his Report upon the Acad. - Imp. of Sciences of St. Petersb. See the bulletin of the society - named, vol. vi., p. 418. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII. - -IRANIANS. - - -The Turanian people, but especially the already mentioned -Turko-Tartaric tribes, have made themselves renowned in antiquity -by their warlike disposition, and the wild untractable rudeness of -their habits; but the Iranians, in strong contrast with these, have -always been known for the delicacy of their habits and a brilliant -state of civilisation. The former have ever appeared among their -neighbours as spoilers, destroyers, and plunderers; the latter, on -the contrary, as civilisers, propagators of the arts, and milder -social relations. - -For it is not only the whole Mohamedan region which embraced -Persian civilisation, but even we Europeans have borrowed much -from these wonderful people, which, partly through the channel of -the ancient Greek and Byzantine culture, partly by a later contact -of the Western with the Eastern countries, as, for example, in -the Crusades, has naturally always reached us second hand. Iran -from time immemorial was the seat of civilisation, and in the -entire record of the civilisation of mankind we could in vain seek -for a nation which, notwithstanding grand political revolutions, -notwithstanding the copious foreign influx of the ancient spirit -of its civilisation, could preserve so long and faithfully the -character of its national existence as the Persian. There is a great -difference between the doctrine of Zoroaster and that of the Arabian -Prophet, and yet in the modern Persian almost all the features of -the former character may be discovered, which the Greek historians -trace out in the ancient Persian. In a hasty superficial glance -this will not strike the eye so easily, for, according to outward -appearance, it would be most difficult, amidst the agglomeration of -tribes in the Persia of to-day, to find out the genuine Iranian. Yet -a deeper insight would soon convince us of the truth of what has -been said, and we should see that the Iranian has not only borrowed -nothing in his customs and manner of thinking from the Semitic -and Turanian elements, which for more than a thousand years have -endangered his nationality, but has rather exerted over the latter a -powerful influence. The cradle of the Iranian nation, as asserted by -a modern ethnographer, namely, the learned Russian traveller, M. de -Khanikoff, in his Memoirs, "Sur l'Ethnographie de la Perse," is the -Eastern portion of modern Persia, and especially Southern Sigistan -or Sistan, and Khorassan, which stretches out to the north-east. -It is not only ethnography, but also history, which accords with -this assertion. As Sigistan, the native place of Rustem, and other -celebrated Iranian heroes of the classical age, is used as the -scene of action by the narrators of fiction at this day, whenever -they wish to describe something highly potent and ancient, so the -old _Belkh_ in Khorassan is declared to be the original source of -religion and polite education, and Merv is pointed out as the spot -where Adam received from the angel the first lesson in agriculture. -In a word, whatever refers to the early ages is to be met with in -the East, but never in the west. - -The Iranian race, on its dispersion, as has been already remarked -in a foregoing paragraph, took a direction from East to West; the -Turanian scattered from South to North, and in two directions, -one towards the North-East the other towards the North-West. The -emigration occurred in those very ancient ages, of which we can have -hardly the faintest conception; yet even here there are features of -a common type which guide us like glittering stars through a night -of uncertainty, and though the Iranian race has suffered much in -modern times from the Turko-Tartar tribes, so superior to themselves -in number, one can nevertheless detect in the groups lying scattered -around, the separate rings of the former chain; precisely also as -one recognises in the Western remnants, though in continual contact -with Turanian and Semitic elements, the avowed Mede, so in the -Eastern remnants one may recognise the primitive genuine Iranian. - -This preceding opinion formed from personal conviction, and every -one who carefully observes the Persian of modern Iran and Central -Asia must perceive the same, receives a further confirmation in the -learned investigations of our arrow-headed writings;[47] and it is -chiefly the Iranian catalogue of people in the arrow-headed writings -at Persepolis which enumerates all the nations of Iran, starting -from the centre of the empire, Persepolis, and continuing in a west -and eastern direction. Of course nothing positive will be perceived -in these with reference to higher or lower antiquity concerning -the physiognomical distinctions of one or another branch of the -families, but that a substantial difference existed already in the -early ages is hardly to be doubted. "The Semitic influences in the -west," says Fr. Spiegel, "began very early during the existence of -the Assyrian and Babylonian kingdom, and lasted through the whole -Achoemenian period. After the overthrow of the Achoemenian -kingdom occurred the amalgamation with Greeks as well as Semitics, -and so forth,"[48] As is rightly observed, for in the Southern -provinces of Farsistan, Laristan, and Luristan, where the contact of -the Iranian and Semitic elements from the earliest ages has remained -undisturbed, we find in the person of the modern Persian the same -physical characteristics that were described to us in these people -by Herodotus, and later Greek authors. The spare form, which is -more natural to the Western than to the Eastern, strongly reminds -one of the principal feature of the Arabian, who is represented by -Unsemitic tribes as _nahif_, haggard, and thin, whilst the Turk is -_kesif_, blunt, and stout, the genuine Persian _zarif_, noble, and -elegant. - - [47] Ritter, _West Asia_. Vol. ii. p. 86. - - [48] "The Ethnographical Position of the Iranian tribes." _Ausland_, - 1866, No. 36, p. 853. - -The Semitic elements have commenced in south and east Persia, from -Benderbushir until near to Kirmansah, and have especially left -behind with the inhabitants of the towns perceptible traces, which -strike the eye all the more when we compare the physiognomy and -stature of a Sigistanian with those of an Isfahanian. This is best -perceptible in the Ghebrs (fire worshippers), who sojourn among -the West Iranians, and are very different from them. As one misses -among them the predominating numbers of thin, slender forms, so -also one seldom meets with the narrow chin or the thin, small nose. -The Ghebr, in company with the Khafi, will certainly strike us less -than in the midst of a group of Isfahanians; and since the Ghebrs, -who are only sparingly scattered in the west of Persia, are to be -considered as the remnants of the primitive Iranian people, having -remained most pure from the mixture of foreign elements, one can -assert with certainty that the distinction of physiognomy between -East and West Iranian must always have existed. The Greek historians -of the Alexandrian campaign, who came in contact with the Eastern -as well as the Western nations of the then great Iranian kingdom, -have disregarded in their descriptions the ethnographical side of -the question, which is of the highest importance in our studies. In -the same way we gather but little information from the sculptures -which descend from the Sassanides. The figures on the bas reliefs -of Nakshi Rustem, Nakshi Redgeb, and, near at hand, of Kazerun, may -furnish faithful representations of the former Persian, but of the -nationality of the same there is no accurate account; and however -wide the opinion may extend with regard to stature and features, -these appear rather to belong to the West Iranian than to the East -Iranian, for the striking resemblance to the modern inhabitants of -West Iran must be apparent to the eye of every one. Recent European -travellers only cause us to observe the existing difference. - -So we find that Gareia Silva Figeroa,[49] who in 1627 visited -Persia on a diplomatic mission, already calls our attention to -the difference between the East and West Iranian, though without -entering into any details of the physical characteristics. Chardin, -who travelled through this country in 1664-1677, is more explicit, -for he says that the Ghebrs, in whom he perceives the remnant of -the ancient Persian, are of a disagreeable exterior, clumsy figure, -coarse skin, and dark complexion, and form a strong contrast to -the present inhabitants of West Iran, who have a mixture of the -Chirkassian and Georgian blood in their veins. This opinion is also -positively expressed by Peter Angelus (Labrosse), a contemporary of -the former, in his "Gazophylacium linguae Persarum," published in -1684, under the article, "Georgians."[50] - - [49] Khanikoff's "Memoire sur l'Ethnographie de la Perse." Paris, - 1866, page 45. - - [50] Above cited work, page 47. - -Since, therefore, no doubt can remain about the distinction between -the East and West Iranians, we will bring the divergence to a -common point of view, and then represent the separate branches or -members of the two powerful races in such a way as we observed the -same on our journeys, not leaving unnoticed the observations of our -predecessors with reference to this subject. - - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - | _a._ WEST IRANIAN. | _b._ EAST IRANIAN. - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - | | - FIGURE. | In _surpassing numbers, though | Of a somewhat thick-set - | not slim, yet of a haggard and | figure; bones of a powerful - | thin form_; of a light, supple | and large construction, but - | movement, and graceful | also clumsy in movement, - | demeanour; but very rarely | although far less awkward than - | very thin or very fat, or | the Turanians. - | strikingly tall or very short. | - | | - HEAD. | Oval. narrow, and middling | Much less oval than _a_, - | high forehead, flattened at | almost to be called round; a - | the temples; _oblong_ skull | wider forehead, also larger - | and narrow chin. | jaw bones, and more _fleshy_ - | | cheeks; the chin, however, - | | oblong, and less pointed than - | | the Turanians. - | | - EYES. | Large, black, with long upper | Black, oblong cut, close and - | lid, and arched eyebrows. | thick eyebrows. - | | - NOSE. | Long, thin, often arched. | Less long, sometimes thick - | | at the _root_, but never so - | | stumpy and wide as the - | | Turanians. - | | - MOUTH. | Moderate-sized; perceptibly | Often wide and thick lips. - | thin compressed lips. | - | | - HAIR. | Black, of a thick and powerful | Black, of thick growth; beard - | growth; particularly long, | thicker, but less long than - | thin beard. | the West Iranian. - --------+--------------------------------+-------------------------------- - -In consequence of this diversity of the physical externals, there -is also a distinction not to be mistaken in the moral _properties_ -of these two races. The East Iranian, although far superior to the -Turks in vigour of mind and body, is far inferior to the Persian -of modern Iran; and it appears as if the stamp of the mental -superiority of the latter was imprinted in the symmetrical formation -of their limbs and elegance of their features. - - -EAST IRANIANS. - -We can form the following subdivisions or branches according to -the geographical position of their north-easterly extension? 1. -Sigistani or Khafi. 2. Tchihar Aymak. 3. Tadjik and Sart; each -of which counts many subdivisions or degrees. As in our progress -towards the west we lose, in the Turanian race, the Mongolian -character in physiognomy more and more, and find in the single -branches a continually increasing mixture of races; in the same -way we discover, also, that the East Iranians become less Iranian, -and more Turanian, the farther they remove from the mother land. -The relation that exists between the Burut and the pure-blooded -Anatolian, the same is to be found between the Sigistani and the -Tadjik of Kashgar. The latter may, indeed, be called the old -inhabitant of that region, yet no one will dispute that the Turanian -elements, surrounding him in such numbers, have strongly influenced -him. - - -1. SIGISTANI OR KHAFI; - -Or that Shiite population of East Iran which inhabit the eastern -part of Iran, from the southern borders of modern Khorassan to -beyond Bihrdjan. They are as frequently called Khafi as Sigistani, -as the principal mass occupy Khaf and its neighbourhood, Ruy, -Tebbes, and Bhirdjan; whilst the ancient, classical Sigistan, more -traversed in modern times by Afghans and hordes of Beloochees, -offers to the peaceable Persian but a very insecure retreat. -Judging by historical accounts of Merv, which, in the Vendidad, is -enumerated as the thirteenth locality under the name Mun, as the -third spot marked, one might easily conclude that the inhabitants -of modern Khorassan, especially of the northern part, might be -reckoned with the East Iranians. This was naturally more or less the -case before the Arabian occupation; but at this day the people of -Khorassan are so powerfully intermingled with Turco-Tartar elements, -that the genuine East Iranian type only begins on the other side of -the southern rocky chain, behind Shehri No. Without being furnished -with an especial ethnographical representation, the traveller -will easily perceive that the Khafi (we preserve the appellation -which is usual in the country), although brown in complexion, is -to be distinguished from the Isfahani; for example: in that his -complexion is more olive-brown, whilst that of the latter, tanned -by the sun, appears more of a dark brown. In the second place, the -afore-named difference in stature and features, but especially the -less fiery eye, will strike him. And in the third place, he will -miss, in intercourse, that sprightliness and activity which he meets -everywhere among the lively West Iranians under the same situation -of climate. It can hardly be doubted, that many will be surprised -that this relative difference should exist between such tribes as -those in question,--of common origin, language and religion, for -hundreds of years, nay, for thousands of years, of one and the same -political connection. This circumstance would be with difficulty -explained through an analagous case in other lands. We shall, -however, recognise the cause directly, when we take into nearer view -the following points:-- - -1st. The whole portion named of East Iran has been spared from all -times the influence of the Semitic as well as Turanian nations, -since the first extended themselves only toward the western side of -the desert; the last, on their march westward, only at intervals -passed from the high road, Merv, Nishabur, and Rei to the southern -slope of the Djagatay Hills. 2nd. East Iran herself, in an earlier -period, remained separated through the great desert, when the Shiite -sect, the chain of solid union, embraced the Persian population of -Iran; and, despite all the wildest sect-hatred, the traffic now is -as great with the Sunnite Afghans and Heratis as with their western -brethren. It is true that, despite all the fatigue of travel in the -desert, despite all fear of the Beloochees, caravans go annually -from Shiraz, Isfahan, over Yezd, Tebbes up to holy Meshed. Yet Khaf -and Bihrdjan, situated south-east, are never touched upon; and -then, as now, it was always the case. In the mutual intercourse of -nations, language assumes foreign elements easiest and preserves -them the longest. The Persian dialect of modern Iran is overloaded -with Arabian-Turkish words. Fars in the south, as well as Mazandran -in the north, is in this only a little distinctive. In East Iran, -nevertheless, the borrowed richness of language is certainly -less; and we find in much that Persian in which Firdusi, with a -premeditated rejection of Arabic, wrote his great epic. In what -concerns the use of old forms and words, the Persian of Bokhara -is of that character, and especially we may name the Tadjiks in -the first place; yet these last have too much lexicographical and -grammatical material borrowed from the Turks; and this circumstance -it is that has produced the conviction in our minds, that _in East -Iran the purest and oldest Persian is spoken_. - -As for the language, I should be inclined to cite the Khafi or the -Sigistani as the primitive tongue of all the Iranians, yet, in -regard to their ethnographical position in relation to the whole -Iranian race, I would not venture to attribute that position to -them in which the Buruts stand to the whole Turko-Tartar race. -What branch of the East Iranian families may be the primitive is -one of those questions to which no one could deny a high degree -of importance, yet is the reply much more difficult as to the -Turko-Tartar race. For the appearance of the latter on the stage of -historical events is comparatively fresh, whilst the former stepped -forward in a period of which we can hardly form a conception. We -must, therefore, again repeat that the Sigistani or Khafi are named -as the first among the East Iranians, only in consequence of their -geographical position, and not from induction on the more primitive -character of their branch. - - -TCHIHAR AYMAK.[51] - -These are the four people or races which, from the time of the -conquest of Herat, have been thus named by the Mongols. They consist -of the Timuri, Teimeni, Firuzkuhi, and Djemshidi. The whole are of -Iranian origin and Persian speech, and enough so to distinguish them -from the Hezareh,[52] who, though they speak Persian, yet show -their pure Mongolian type, their Turanian origin without a doubt. On -the spot itself there is but a confused understanding as to its name -Tchihar Aymak, because many appropriate to themselves the same, and -are again opposed by others. Our travellers have most contradictory -statements concerning these races, and especially this erroneous -idea, that the Hezareh are to be reckoned among the Tchihar Aymak, -who appeared at the Southern part of Central Asia, at a time when -the latter were already indicated by the name in question. - - [51] Aimak is a Mongolian word, and signifies a people. - - [52] Khanikoff seems to be in error when he considers the Hezareh, - as formerly OEzbegs; viz., as the Berlas tribe. "Memoire sur la - Patrie Meridionale de l'Asie Centrale." Paris, 1842, pp. 112, 138. - I must against this cite the following arguments:--1st. Their own - assertion,--that they were the remainder of the army of Djingis, - and, moreover, from the statement of Abul Fazl of a troop of Mangu - Khan. 2ndly. That a portion, now named the Gvbi Hezareh, which - retired into the hills in the neighbourhood of Herat, and has been - spared by the Persian elements, speaks a Mongolian dialect, as is - proved by _Von der Gabelenz_, in a periodical of the German Asiatic - Society,--vol. xx. p. 326.; and Baber affirms that in his time many - Hezareh spoke Mongolian. 3rd. There is nowhere among the OEzbegs - such a decided Mongolian type to be found as among the Hezareh, - which is the more striking, because the first remain near their old - home in more compact masses, while the latter have dwelt under a - foreign climate and foreign elements. - -During my abode of six weeks in the town and neighbourhood of Herat, -I devoted considerable attention to this question. My knowledge is -grounded, not so much on hearsay touching the race, as on their -physiognomical characteristics, which are incontestably the best -proof. The _Timuri_, or the Sunnite Persians of East Iran, dwell now -partly on the western boundary of Herat, as Gurian, Kuh'sun, &c., -and partly also in the villages and towns situated to the east of -Iran, from Turbet Sheikh Djam as far as Khaf. In the first-named -region they constitute exclusively an united population, in the -latter they are only to be found sporadic, for although two hundred -years ago the greater number were Sunnites, yet the sect-hatred -of the Shiites converted them partly by force, partly drove them -into the neighbouring Sunnite city of Herat. In consequence of -the frequent confusion of boundary, for Herat has endured in -ancient and modern times more than forty sieges, one can easily -imagine what an amalgamation has been produced by these continued -movements among the solitary branches which approach so nearly to -East Iran, and it is truly a wonder that the Timuri are still to be -distinguished from the Shiites of East Iran. - -The remarkable characteristics are first, that among them more -people are to be found short and thick-set than among the -Sigistanis; also as regards colour, the latter are, on an average, -of an olive brown, and with dark black hair, whilst among the former -a whiter complexion, with chestnut brown hair, is not uncommon. As I -have said, the united number of the Timuri on the East Iran boundary -amounts now in its fullest extent to one thousand families, because -the great majority dwell in Herat. - -The _Teimeni_ are hardly in any respect to be distinguished from the -latter dwelling in the Northern and Southern parts of the so-named -Djoelghei Herat, from Kerrukh to Sebzewar: only a small part has -extended as far as Ferrah, and is named by the Afghans Parsivan -(Farszeban, speaking Persian). Since the Afghan rule has taken place -in the Western valleys of the Parapamisian mountains, many attempts -have been made to establish in the midst of the Persian population -Afghan colonies, yet until this day all have failed, for the discord -and strife which have wasted this neighbourhood for centuries still -continue; each member of the Tchihar Aymak knowing no greater enemy -than the Afghan. In consequence of this circumstance the Teimeni, -although an agricultural people, are of wild, warlike nature, and -there is no longer any trace of that spirit of wisdom, which in -the time of the descendants of Taimur, viz., Sultan Husein Mirza, -animated them. - -The Sunnite Persians of former times contended in poetry, learning, -and music, with the Shiite confederates in the west; at the present -time they are raw barbarians in comparison with the latter. - -_Firuzkuhi_ is the name of the little people that dwell on the steep -hill, north-east of Kale No, and from their inaccessible situation -afflict the whole neighbourhood with robbery and plunder. To the -traveller are narrated the most gloomy stories of Kale No on the -summit of the mountain, and the fortified places of Derzi Kutch -and Tchekseran are considered the same as the robber nests of the -Bakhtiari and Luri in the environs of Isfahan. As all dwellers in -mountains remain distinct from their nearest kindred in the valleys, -so is this the case also between the Firuzkuhi and the remaining -Aymaks, and one could almost name them the Gileki and Mazemderanis -of East Persia. On the first glance they appear to have much -resemblance with the Hezareh. It is even asserted that they came -forth from them, yet neither has their formation of the forehead and -of the chin, nor the complexion and figure of the body,--a decided -Turanian character; and although it might present a strong mixture, -yet does the Iranian element prevail, for, besides that they all -speak Persian, the names of their dwelling-places and khans are pure -Persian words. - -They inhabited those hills from immemorial time, and though Taimur -settled them by force in Mazenderan, they soon returned back to -their old hilly home, and have lived since that time in constant -warfare with their neighbours, partly supporting themselves from -their scanty breed of cattle and tillage; partly also from robbery -and plunder, which they perpetrate on the caravans upon the road to -Maymene, or upon the scattered tents of the Djemshidi. Their total -number hardly amounts to eight thousand families. - -The _Djemshidi_, the only tribe of the East Iranians living -exclusively in a nomadic state, inhabited from time immemorial the -shores of Murgab, whither they, according to their own statement, -settled out of Sigistan in the time of Djemshid, from whom they -derive their descent. This national myth cannot be considered -quite true, yet is it incontestable, that among all Iranians who -now inhabit Central Asia the Djemshidi have the most striking -resemblance with the Sigistani, which is so much the more to be -wondered at, because these for so long a time have led a settled -life, whilst those have led a nomadic; and the vast influence which -the difference of the two ways of life has on the development of -the body needs hardly be mentioned. Khanikoff thinks they approach -rather the Tadjiks; but I cannot coincide in this view, because, in -the first place, the Djemshidi is thinner; secondly, has a longer -face and a far more pointed chin than the Tadjik; and in the third -place, their language, as well in form as in copiousness, agrees -much more with the Persian dialect of East Iran than with that of -Central Asia. As to what concerns their method of life, they are -the only Iranians who, in every respect, have taken much from the -Turanians; that is to say, from the Salor and Sarik Turkomans living -in their neighbourhood; whilst the other half-nomadic Aymak used -a long Afghan tent, which here is named the Tent of Abraham, one -sees among the Djemshidi that round, conical tent of the Tartars -surrounded with felt and a reed matting; their clothing also and -food is Turkomanish; indeed, even in their occupation, they copy -these last. For when a flourishing position, that is, abundance of -horses and arms befalls them, they are just such fearful robbers -of mankind as the children of the desert. They enjoy also the -reputation of the best riders and warriors amongst all Aymak, and -abide, partly in service at Herat or Maymene, partly in league with -one or other of the Turkoman tribes, when the immediate question -among them is a large tchapao (razzia). In consequence of this -aforesaid connection they were transported to the banks of the Oxus -by force by Allah Kuli Khan, from Khiva, after he had conquered them -with the allied Sariks. They remained more than twelve years there; -a fruitful place, which was assigned to them as their new home, and -rendered them well to do. Yet the longing for the poorer, but old -home-like hills, was soon felt by them, and availing themselves of -the confusion which a war of the Khivians with the Turkomans called -forth, they packed up everything quickly and fled, without fearing -the danger of pursuit, across Hezaresp, Tchardjuy, Maymene, back -towards the town of Murgab. In their march one thousand Persian -slaves joined them, who, in consequence of their escape, obtained -their freedom; but, having reached Moorgab, were again taken in -a treacherous manner and sold in Bokhara. Although the Djemshidi -among all the Iranian races of the East, as well as of the West, -have most truly retained the warlike spirit of old Persia, yet -they are in proportion less rough in their customs and intercourse -with strangers than the neighbouring Turkomans, with whom they -have had relations for a long time; and, notwithstanding his wild -exterior, the Djemshidi, even in the lowest class, is polite in -word and manner:--the light and shade of the Iranian character are -not recognisable in him, and we must not be surprised if in the -customs of this nomadic people we meet with the most lively marks -of the pre-Islamite time. Islam with them has taken still less root -than among the other Turanian nomads, and the greater part of them -use it as a veil, under which lurk concealed many features of the -religion of Zoroaster; thus, for instance, fire among them is in -higher estimation than among the Tadjiks; the door of the tent is -always facing the East, and the idea of the good and evil spirit is -so universal that the lowest class of the people, especially the -women, when a sheep or goat is slaughtered, never neglect to throw -certain parts of the animal which are considered by other nomads as -delicacies, to the bad spirit as _kende_, "unclean;" and they are -only eaten by the dogs. It is worthy of remark, that among the ruins -of Martchah the same stories are in circulation, as among the Yomuts -of the old remnants of the ruins at Meshdi Misrian. Martchah was in -olden times the Kaaba of the whole region until the wicked Turkomans -appeared there, and destroyed the whole. - -This is all that I can say in respect to the Tchihar Aymaks. I can, -notwithstanding all inquiries, learn nothing of their name before -their last appellation. According to all probability they were -reckoned among the Tadjiks, yet now they are distinct from these -latter, and form the second gradation of the Iranian race in its -extension to the North-East. - - -TADJIKS. - -As the remnants of the Persian population of Central Asia are -called, whom we meet in their largest numbers in the Khanat of -Bokhara and in Bedakhshan. But there are, besides, many settled in -the cities of Khokand, Khiva, Chinese Tartary, and Afghanistan; -although here and there little deviation in their physiognomical -outward developments are observable, in consequence of the -different climacteric and social relations under which the Tadjiks -live. And thus, for example, the Tadjiks of Bokhara and the -Afghanistan towns have much more resemblance one with another than -the former with the Bedakhshanis, or the confederate races of -Chinese Tartary; notwithstanding, the leading features of one common -type are generally observable among them. They are usually of a -good middle height, broad, powerful frame of bones, and especially -wide shoulder bones. Their countenance, the Iranian type of which -immediately strikes the eye at first sight, is more oblong than that -of the Turks; but by the wide forehead, thick cheeks, thick nose, -and large mouth, we soon perceive that this most eastern branch of -the Iranian family has much that is heterogeneous, that is to say, -Turanian, in its stamp of countenance as well as in the formation of -body, and is in nowise to be regarded as the primitive type of the -Iranian race, as M. de Khanikoff imagines. - -According to the statements of the Vendidad and Greek historians, it -is no longer matter of doubt that the native country of the modern -Tadjik was in those celebrated regions of ancient times, Bactria -and Sogdiana,--the most ancient seat of Iranian civilisation, the -cradle of the religion of Zoroaster, and the source of the heroic -legends of Persia. We must own, that even in the most ancient times -they were inhabitants of this region, for the ancient Khorassan, -which stretched far into Chinese Tartary, was, as is proved by -topographical nomenclature, founded and occupied by Iranian -colonies. And who is there that does not perceive the continuous -stream of Scythian-Turkish elements which has overflowed Central -Asia, from the valleys of the Altaic Mountains, that _officina -gentium_, from 700 B.C. to 400 A.D.? - -No country which was situated along the chief route of these -migrations could remain unaffected by the intermingling of foreign -blood; and as the northern half of Persia, the modern district of -Maymene, Andchoi, and the western declivities of the Parapamisian -Mountains could preserve, but in a slight degree, the primitive -unity of race; so also was it equally impossible to the Iranians of -Transoxiana. The inhabitants only of the mountains of Bedakhshan, -namely, the Vakhani (in which name the learned writer of the -article, "Central Asia," in the _Quarterly Review_, July--September, -1866, believes that he has detected the origin of the Greek, -oxos+[53]), can have a greater claim, from their less accessible -homes, to unity of race; for all the Feizabadis[54] whom I have seen -have more indelible marks of the Iranian type than the Tadjiks: even -their very language is freer of Turanian words. And since one can -imagine that a people, though in strictest retirement, can preserve -for centuries its primitive type, the Vakhani alone, and not the -Tadjiks in general, must be considered the truest remnants of the -ancient East Iranian. - - [53] From Vah (the river Vah), as the Oxus is called in Bendehesh, - may also be derived the modern name, Vachan, Vacks-as-ird, and - Vas-ab. - - [54] During my sojourn in Kerki I lived with ten Feizabadis - (Feizabad is the capital of Bedakhshan) many days in one and the - same house. It was a deputation returning from Bokhara, where they - wished to raise the Emir to the place of their lately-banished - prince. - -As regards the appellation Tadjik, I have always found that those -concerning whom we are speaking never use it themselves willingly; -for, if this does not sound exactly in their ears as a term of -reproach, people are yet accustomed to understand by it that -expression of contempt with which the OEzbeg conquerors regard -the subdued aborigines. By the word Tadjik, the Tartar population -of Turkestan understand a man without warlike disposition, of a -covetous, avaricious nature;[55] with crafty and vaunting ideas; in -a word, everything that stands in opposition to OEzbeg frankness, -simplicity, and uprightness. These relations are, moreover, to be -found everywhere between Turanian conquerors and the subjugated -Iranians; for as the latter, in Persia, are far inferior to the -Turks in mental endowments, so is this also the case in Central -Asia. And Bokhara has only become the head quarters of Central -Asiatic civilisation, because here, from the earliest ages, existed -the overwhelming numbers of the Tadjik population; who, continuing -their previous exertions in mental culture from the pre-Islamite -times, notwithstanding the oppression of foreign power, have -civilised their conquerors. As in the earliest ages, after the -reception of the Islam faith, all the celebrities in the field of -religious knowledge and _belles lettres_ were mostly Tadjiks; so, -to-day, one still meets in Bokhara, Khokand, and Kashgar, the most -conspicuous Mollahs and most celebrated Ishans. At the court of -Bokhara, notwithstanding the OEzbeg origin of the prince, the -chief ministers are always Tadjiks; nay, even in the rude OEzbeg -government of Khiva, the Mehter (Secretary of State), as an officer -whose qualifications must be of the highest order, is chosen -invariably from the Persian population of the place. It is truly -wonderful how the Tadjiks, notwithstanding more than a century of -co-existence with the OEzbegs, are to be distinguished from the -latter, not only in their individual nature but in their habits. A -proverb says, "Look at the OEzbeg on horseback,--the Tadjik in his -house;" for, the same care that the one bestows on his steed, arms, -saddle and horse, the other spends on his house and attire. However -poor the Tadjik, he will yet pass for a man of more substance than -he is, and will always appear rich and great in public, although -sparing and abstemious in his family circle. Nor is his conversation -less choice: the courteous expressions, the compliments of which -he makes use, sound somewhat Tartarian, to ears accustomed to -Persian refinement; yet, in contrast with the OEzbeg, he is to be -considered an accomplished gentleman. Attuned by nature to peaceful -occupations, the Tadjiks are devoted everywhere considerably to -tillage, commerce, and industrial pursuits, as they hate war; and -if they are compelled to handle weapons, they are rarely valiant, -but frequently cruel. They are also defective in that national -feeling that strikes one so forcibly among the OEzbegs. This has -best shown itself in recent occurrences in Tashkend. In a letter -from General Kryjanovsky from the town above-named, (Ausland, -December 4th, 1866, H. 1159), we see that, among the diversified -population of that place, the Sarts were the first who drew near, in -a friendly fashion, to their conquerors, and certainly rendered very -readily considerable help in hard labours of pacification; and that -probably to the dislike of all the OEzbegs, who certainly took no -part in the pretended petition to the Russian Government. - - [55] Slaves prefer rather ten years in the house of an OEzbeg - than five years in the house of a Tadjik, because the last, who is - considered a man without conscience, makes use of them in every - possible way. - -The Tadjiks hold well together, but this is more from the mutual -support of one with another in an oppressed race than a special -effort for Tadjik public interest; and if they wish to distinguish -themselves, which is only the case in Bokhara, then they are in the -habit of showing with pride their Arabian descent. The emptiness of -this last vaunt Khanikoff has shown sufficiently. He derives the -word Tadjik from Tadj (crown), a head-dress, which the old fire -worshippers had, and the Ghebrs wear even now;--the name Tadjik -arose from it, by which the adherents of the teaching of Zoroaster -were called at that time--before Mohamedanism, or else it was a term -of their own adoption; for the word Tadji in Huzvari, and Tazi in -Persian, which signifies Arab, has with the first no connection. -It is remarkable that the word Tadjik is even found in Western -Asia. There are Armenians who call Turks as well as Arabs, _i.e._, -Mohamedans, _Tadjik_, but only among themselves privately. And it -seems to me to be constantly a nickname affixed by the oppression of -their tyrannic rulers. Since I have found this universal among the -Armenians of Asia Minor, it appears to me that they did not wish to -express by it only Mohamedans, but also the adherents of a strange -religion, and that this, according to all appearance, old word, -has been transmitted later to the Arabians by the old inhabitants -of Persia, with whom the Armenians, under the Sassanides, were in -contact. That the name Tadjik has been missing among both Arabic and -Persian authors of the first century, after the entrance of Islam, -but existed early in Central Asia, the Uigur MS. (Kudatku Bilig the -lucky knowledge) best shows. This bears the date of 462 Heg., and -we find there the word Tadjik often quoted in opposition to Turk. -The above-named work, which Jaubert has mentioned in the _Asiatic -Journal_, 1825, is an Uigur version, or rather _rifacimento_ of -the Chinese original. The Turks themselves have always called the -Transoxanian aborigines Sart, a word of which I know not the origin. -M. de Khanikoff mistakes when he supposes that this is only the case -in Khiva, for he must know that in the Russian Army the Persian -population of conquered Tashkend at a later period was enrolled -under the name of Sart, and they were so called in all Khokand. Also -the above-named General Krijanovsky speaks of Tadjik and Sart as of -two different races. As to this word Sart, the derivation of which -is wholly unknown to me, it is a term of which the famous Mir Ali -Shir, in the time of Sultan Husein Mirza Baikera, makes use in a -treaty on the Persian and Turkish language. The latter, he always -calls the Sart tili (Sart language), and not the Tadjik tili. Sart -is hence legally used for the Turkish appellation of Tadjik. Here -and there OEzbegs busy themselves in making a distinction between -Sart and Tadjik; but I cannot agree with this view, although I will -not conceal the fact, that the Sarts seen in mass differ greatly in -some physiognomical peculiarities from the Tadjiks. They are, for -instance, more slender-built, have a longer face, and, moreover, a -higher forehead than the Tadjiks; but it must also be mentioned as a -qualification of the above, that they formed frequent alliances with -the free Persian slaves of Central Asia, which the Tadjiks never or -very seldom did. - - - - -CHAPTER XVIII. - -LITERATURE IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -Tartar muse! OEzbeg Melpomene! This will to many sound passing -strange! That poetry should exist in the oldest spots of rudeness -and barbarism--that persons in those regions where robbery, murder, -and spoliation rage most, should busy themselves with literature, -may to many seem strange; but yet such a notion would be incorrect. -The East was at all times the seat of poetic enthusiasm, and the -more the social relations retain the stamp of olden time, that is, -the nearer civilisation is to its infancy, the more general is the -inclination to poetry and fables, the more passionate the sound of -forced hyperboles and enthusiasm. - -That the dwellers in a Kirghis tent are more disposed to poetry -than the members of a polished society in Paris and London, must -surprise no one. Among us it is only over a certain age that poetry -indicates herself more or less; there are only certain individuals -that linger round the Castalian fountains. In Central Asia those -bowed down by age, as well as youthful lovers, passionately affect -poetry, the warrior equally with the shepherd, the priest as well -as the layman,--each one attempts the composition of poetry or -devises tales; and if this attempt is probably not successful in -every instance, still, nevertheless, the habit of even listening to -the compositions of others may be said to be universal. - -Since literature in the East is in close connection with religion, -we must then divide the literary productions of Central Asia at the -commencement into two parts. - -1st. The Literature of Islam or the Settled Nations. - -2nd. The Literature of the Nomadic or Wandering Tribes. - -This distinction dates from that time when, with the entrance of -Islam, foreign literary conceptions became universally diffused, -which, without retaining at the present time any special national -character, are in vogue among the different followers of Islam. -Poetry, for this is the essence of that literature, is always -the same now with Arabs, Turks, Persians, and Central Asiatics. -Vainly would one seek there the stamp of a national mint; it is -everywhere the same sprightly imagery of the poets; everywhere -the same metaphors, parables; everywhere the stereotyped image of -the rose and the nightingale, the thorn-resembling eyelashes, the -fuming vapors of rising sighs, &c. Everywhere the same muse of which -the learned M. de Khanikoff rightly says:--"That she comes forth -free and wild, like those plants of strange forms to be met with -in the calcined soil of southern Asia, covered with thistles and -thorns, incrusted with salt; they diffuse through a rugged bark, -here and there, aromatic, beneficent odours, and wave upon their -withered stems wreaths of flowers of elegant forms and brilliant -colours."--_Asiatic Journal_, vol. v., p. 297. Of this literature, -however, which is well known in western countries, through many -translations and learned treatises, we shall say nothing. We rather -pass over the religious literature of many eccentric devotees, -who, in zealous ardour towards God and the prophets, have written -volumes full of pompous expressions on the subject of their love -and resignation. These last productions in the three Khanats are -considered as the exclusive property of the Mollah and Ishan -world. The people listen very patiently to their recitals, but are -not enthusiastic, for the mystical current of thought in copious -language is beyond the reach of their understanding. What we wish to -say, then, of the literature of Central Asia is confined, to speak -correctly, to the Popular Poetry. Here we do still find something -original, here some types which deserve the real name of Turkestan, -and with these we wish to make our readers acquainted. The most -poetically attuned people are in the Khanat of Khiva. This part of -Central Asia had at the beginning of the twelfth century acquired -the reputation of a special eminence in music, tuneful voices, -distinguished poets and poetesses; indeed, it is hardly fifty years -ago that in the courts of the Kadjars, in Teheran, a Khivite -lute-player was in great honour. Bokhara, before the ascendancy of -the Turkish element, had only a few great poets, such as Rudeki and -Figani; but these must be rather classed in Persian literature. To -return to Khiva, I must remark that as it always surprised myself -when I heard a heavy-looking, coarsely-dressed OEzbeg, with wild, -sun-burnt features, sing one or another soft minor air; so, also, -with travellers in general, this feeling will be found to exist on -their entry among Turkomans and Kirghis. These people esteem music -and poetry as their highest pleasure. After a fortunate adventure -the marauder, however tired and hungry he may be, will listen in the -open street with real delight to the bakhshi (troubadour), who comes -to meet him. Returning home from a foray, or other heroic deed, the -young warriors are in the habit of amusing themselves throughout -the night with poetry and music. In the desert, where man is either -ignorant of the luxuries of life, or does without them, it is, -nevertheless, that the bakhshi is very seldom wanting, and besides, -that the latter are found in great numbers, going about to exercise -their art. The nomads have the habit of amusing themselves with -poetic games. - -As people regard in company the happy finding of a rhyme or cadence -as indispensable to education, the young nomad girl will also, say, -give the preference to him who would answer her question in a verse -with happy rhymes. The poetry of the OEzbegs consists first of -narratives, which either appeal to religious life or famous heroic -deeds. The first are composed by the Mullah world, or by the more -polished bakhshis, after Arabic or Persian sources, and adapted to -native taste,--the last are genuine Tartar compositions, in which -there are not wanting at times both glowing language and good -metaphors. These tales of heroic exploits, which are similar to our -romances, begin already to be of even greater extent, and are often -recited or sung many evenings together, and although Islam plays -here and there a conspicuous part, nevertheless those pieces are -preferred in which home-heroes figure on well-known historic fields. -Of these last-named compositions, one much esteemed in Central Asia -may serve as a specimen. It bears as its title - - -"AHMED AND YUSUF," - -And is the history of two sons of heroes, who, after their country's -fashion, even in early youth undertake a tchapao or razzia against -heretical Iran, in which the leading motive is not so much the -thirst for spoil as the chastisement of the unbelieving Shiites. -Just at the beginning Yusuf harangues his heroes ready for the foray -in the following fashion:-- - -"With the worthless fellow unite not, for he makes known the deepest -secret. Speak no secret words in bad spots, for thy deep hidden -mystery will become known. Better is the bare leaf than the faded -rose. Better is dry earth than worthless grass. Better is a staff -than a stupid fellow-traveller. For he makes known the direction -of thy route to the foe. Do not instruct the fool, because he will, -nevertheless, reach the grave of misery unconsciously. When you -enter at a good-for-nothing fellow's as a guest, he attacks you like -the little cur, and makes his vice known. Would that I could give -you the picture of a true hero! He draws his sword only for the -destruction of the unbelievers. Do not march against the enemy with -a coward, since he makes known the trodden track as well as his own -path. Yusuf Beg says, 'Such a time is come. This home-land is for us -no longer. Fools know not their own lair; they speak angrily, and -make their evil speech known.'" - -They march away. The report of their heroic deeds spreads far and -wide, and naturally reaches their home-land. Here governed only -petty princes, each of whom would take renowned warriors into his -service. The usual career of warfare proceeds, and Yusuf takes the -command, but only with the consent of his comrades. - -They draw out afresh for an expedition against Guzel Shah, the -Governor of Isfahan. The OEzbegs are overpowered by Persian -cunning. Both princes are taken and dragged in chains to Iran. This -misfortune rouses deep cries from the heart of Yusuf, and as he -could not turn for sympathy to his captors, he pours forth his wail -to the lofty hills that surround him, and exclaims:-- - -"Ye snow-bedecked, many coloured hills, what has befallen me; -have you seen it? I am become the slave of these unbelievers; my -tarrying behind, have you seen it? No one pities my tears, the -hills only throb at my tears. With lashes around my head, how must -I have stepped along the way; have you seen it? Heedless were my -attendants. Ah! I weep tears of blood! How captured with Ahmed Beg -came I here, have you seen it? I drink blood,--in this world too -heavy is my sorrow! Walking on foot, unbelievers on steeds; have -you seen it? Yusuf Beg says, 'I am inwardly consumed, my sorrow is -endless. Dragged with these bound hands at a horse's pleasure, have -you seen me?'" - -He is then thrown into prison, where he finds a fellow-sufferer in -the person of a Sunnite, who as enchanter and fortune-teller by -profession, had drawn on himself the displeasure of the Persian -monarch; and he also finds in the daughter of the gaoler, who -had become enamoured of him, a kind friend. Up to this point the -strifes, the mighty hero-deeds, the religious enthusiasm, are -constantly detailed. From this point love also mingles in the -strain. Yusuf Beg had left at home a sister and a lady love. The -former vainly waiting his return, cries bitterly, and in tears calls -on her maidens to loosen her hair; the latter, in his absence, -maintains her passionate regard, and sends the trained cranes of the -hero with a love-letter to him. It contains the following charge:-- - -"Oh, ye five cranes of Yusuf Beg! Rush out and draw near to N. -Strengthen yourselves and fly away over the hills! Seeing Yusuf Beg, -hasten back, that the hawk see not on the plains the tips of your -wings. I am deprived of half my heart. Come back, asking him of -his health! Hasten back! I was once the world-rose; flown hence is -the nightingale of my grove! Should my lover be living, then brush -with your lively wings early back. Should the red roses have become -withered; should his life have reached its end; should my lover be -dead, put on mourning, and weeping return! Calling on God, shake -then your wings. With ardour look forth to the heaven; burst out for -the town of Uergendj. Break out and draw towards the town of N. Gain -true intelligence, and come back. Oh, hear Gul Assl's cry! Carry to -him my heart-sorrow! Oh, make a pilgrimage to his grave. Bring me a -little dust, and hasten back." - -The birds circle around the prison of their sorrowful master with -plaintive chirping. He remarks them, and sends back to his home the -following message:-- - -"Oh, ye cranes! Fly round me, right and left, in mazy sweep in air. -Go back,--say my greeting to my people! Oh, ye cranes! right and -left, looking round, go back.--say my greeting to my people! The -crane flies and rests high in the air. Tired are his wings with the -long way. Here in prison breaks out afresh my sorrow. Oh, greet, -then, my kinsmen! Kharezm town is my home. There stays my friend, -my beloved, my well-wisher, my dear one, my tender one. Oh, greet -her, my mother! my Kaaba! On the mountains of sorrow are pines high, -high. Oh, pray for me all of you, young and old. Mournful autumn -became my fate; before the life's blossoms had opened yet! Oh, greet -for me my poor little sister! She from early morn waiting for me -looks around. She is inwardly consumed by the torture of separation. -Looking on the path in the morning with dishevelled hair, she cries: -'He is not come!' Her whole soul for me is waste and empty,--my love -Gul Assl, for her I mourn. Oh, greet her! In one day, oh crane! -thou wilt reach from here to Kharezm. On the way thither go over -the seven mountains. Note this thou hast seen, Yusuf Beg; greet the -cowardly Begs for me." - -The birds depart, but the heroes languish yet long in prison. At -last they are condemned to die. But the miraculous power of the -Sunnee saints saves them. All the weapons employed become blunt. The -Persian tyrant remarks it, and summons the heroes to his presence. -As the chief condition of obtaining the wished-for freedom, Yusuf -must improvise in opposition to the court fool, Koekche, and in the -event of his overcoming the latter in poetic ability, then he is -to be restored to his home in full liberty. Yusuf improvises in -strikingly bold language. He sings not the praises of the tyrant, -but his own, while he says,-- - -"My people is a fine people. Winters there are continually -summers, gardeners tend the gardens, the trees give their fruits. -In white tents repose the aged, the youths hunt around them. In -cordial companionship live the youths, spending time in delight and -pleasure. Fast as the wind the steeds. In racing thy steeds lay -behind them. High soaring to heaven is the flight of the birds. In -scorn they carry off men. Should intelligence of me arrive in a day, -in a day also an army can come. Out of six pounds of thick cord are -the strings of their bows. Their princes rule in equity, partiality -is far from them. Hear me, Guzel Shah, thou unbeliever, should I -return to wage war on thee, then know that one wave of my arm kills -100,000 men. Of Isfahan are their swords. Their streets are united -bazaars, their fields like beds of tulips. With deers, hares, -falcons, the fields of my people are full. Their free inhabitants -are like Hatem,[56] their leaders are like Behram and Rustem in the -day of battle, heroes in the strife. I am a slave without power, the -unbeliever regards not this; without fate the fly dies not; let not -my tears flow in vain." - - [56] The oriental emblem for generosity. - -He conquers, goes laden with treasure to Uergendj; and though he has -to undergo some hard struggles on the road, arrives happily home, -where his reception is described in many deeply-moving, highly -poetical images. After an interview with his beloved and his sister -they conduct him to Lalakhan, his mother, who in consequence of -mourning for him for several years, has almost lost her sight. -They bring her the joyful intelligence, which she disbelieves at -first, and says,--"My ardent desire has bent me low. Am I really -to see thee, my dear child? Sunk in sorrow, I only sighed, with -eyes tremulously searching for you. The whole world would I look -through could I really find thee, my child. Shall I mourn like the -nightingale? Shall I, like Mansur, succumb to sorrow? Shall I, like -Djerdjis, weep tears of blood? Am I again to find thee, oh my dear -child," &c. - -Yusuf Beg is led to her. He bides apart, and when he hears the cry -of his mother, his anguish bursts forth for their fatal separation -in yet more sorrowful words. By the voice his mother recognises him. -Overpowered by excessive joy, she yet welcomes him in the following -words:-- - -"Oh, thou seven years' sufferer in prison! Oh, thou balsam of my -wounded heart! My star of happiness brightens. Vanished is the night -of misery! Oh, prince of my people and land! Thou Rustem, thou hero -of the world! My Yusuf, my glorious son, my comfort, my life-power! -Thou crown of happiness, thou highest grace of my life! Lalakhan has -found her son, the All-powerful has shown mercy to her. Gone is all -pain from my breast, all sorrow. Yusuf, my son, is come!" - -Soon after this the marriage of the lovers takes place, his hero -blood suffers not the adventure-seeking chief to rest. He collects -an army, of which all the people of Central Asia form part. It is to -take vengeance on Guzel Shah. Fortune attends his arms. The Persian -is conquered; his old fellow-sufferer, Kamber, freed. He goes home -crowned with glory, and the conquered Guzel Shah must pay him the -following tribute. - - -DEMANDS OF YUSUF FROM GUZEL SHAH. - -"He shall give me the whole Kharads of the town, N.,--40,000 silk -stuffs embroidered with gold, and 40,000 khimhal (stronger silk -stuffs) shall he send. His tolls and taxes he shall collect; 40,000 -magnificent dresses shall he send; 40,000 chargers, with golden -saddles; 40,000 male and female camels; 40,000 young slaves with -golden girdles; 40,000 youths, with beautiful eyes, shall he send; -40,000 oxen (well bred) shall he send; 40,000 rhinoceri, bound in -chains, shall he send; 40,000 reins, well shod, with gold nails, and -40,000 grey falcons shall he send; 40,000 whips shall he send, the -nails of which shall be symmetrically arranged; lashes, worked in -silver, the handles with golden spangles; 40,000 iron greys, 40,000 -foxes, 40,000 noble steeds, with snake like tails, shall he send; -40,000 ambling nags, 40,000 roadsters, 40,000 peasants, as caravan -guides, shall he send; these, with black locks falling down right -and left, whose faces are covered with moles; 40,000 wonderfully -beautiful maidens, with golden girdles, shall he send; 40,000 caps, -60,000 turbans, shall he send. Also, 70,000 sheep and double horned -rams shall he send. Yusuf Beg says he shall have all ready quickly; -100,000 Russian thalers and 10 gold dishes shall he send." - -This was, in short, the material of an OEzbeg romance, of which -there is an innumerable quantity, and of domestic tales also; and -these are considered the most valuable portion of their literature. -Here and there, one finds an union of religion and valour. The -Heroes are taken out of the Islam world, as, for instance, in the -story of Zerkum Shah, where Ali conquers the last named heathen -prince of Persia, in wonderful engagements, which border upon -the imaginative, and may be compared to the poems of Ariosto and -Bojardi; finally, he converts him to Islam. There are also numerous -tales of Ebu Muslim, the old Field-Marshal of the Abassides, -and, later, the independent ruler of Khorassan and Kharezm. The -historical facts are pretty old, and yet each OEzbeg, in the great -desert which separates his home from Persia, points out many a -spot where the Arabian Field-Marshal encamped, fought, and enacted -supernatural deeds of valour. Finally, there are also the epics, in -which the old princes of the house of Shah Kharezmian are extolled. -In these, as well as in those which tell of Mohamed Emin, Khan of -Khiva, Mohamed Ali Khan of Khokand, we find many an image which -indicates the natural feeling and pride of the OEzbegs. - -Then follow, also, on these compositions, which are always -of greater length, short poems, which tell of love, morality, -heroism,--or contain special directions for handling of weapons, -dressing of horses, and the duties of a good warrior. These are, -for the greater part, productions of plain burghers, professional -Bakhshis, people who are unacquainted with reading and writing, and -leave their poetry to be written by others; or, finally, productions -by women and young girls, who break out into poetic effusions from -the fire kindled by passion. I brought with me a pretty collection, -written on soiled paper, in a bad hand, bound in rough leather, -which I found among the Turkomans at a Bakhshi's, who hid the -"Opus Curiosum" in the broad leg of his boots; and it has really -very strange things in it, sometimes not without beauty. We wish -to produce some specimens, under the names of the writers; some of -them appear to be anonymous. The first one, in the genuine Oriental -style, mourns the transitory condition of humanity and the vanity of -the world. - - -ALLAH YAR. - -1. To build castles in this world is a fruitless thing; finally, all -will become ruin, and building is really not worth the trouble. - -2. Day and night, for each poor wanderer to labour and strain -himself, is really not worth the trouble. - -3. Friends! For idle good in this empty world, to mourn and lament -oneself, is really not worth the trouble. - -4. To do homage to passion out of ostentation, to torment the poor -and the sick, is really not worth the trouble. - -5. To destroy the lands of Islam, and to draw the sword to -annihilate, is really not worth the trouble. - -6. With taxes, duties, with hundredfold griefs and sorrows to vex -Molla Khodja,--nay, the whole world, is really not worth the trouble. - -7. As you cannot, Allah Yar, stand the brunt of the world, why -plague yourself going up and down it? it is really not worth the -trouble. - - -REVNAK. - -1. I went to my love one evening, on foot, treading softly. In sweet -sleep lay the dear one. I embraced her softly, softly. - -2. I took a kiss from her lips and refreshed my soul by it. I -embraced her tender limbs, and kissed her once more,--softly, softly. - -3. I said, give me a kiss, then. What, are you not ashamed, said -she? Return whence you came, quickly,--treading softly, softly. - -4. I was obstinate, and would not go. She seized my arm and pushed -me out. At last, I saw no other chance, and sneaked off,--softly, -softly. - -5. I departed; could not endure separation, and came back. Oh, -merciless one, I implore thee, give me a kiss,--softly, softly. - -6. Too genial to suit European taste. - -7. Revnak says, as the whole world is full of jokes and sport, so -let no one blame me, and read this softly, softly. - - -MESHREF. - -1. My soul blazes in flame, yet my mistress comes not. What said -I,--Mistress! The beloved of my heart comes not. - -2. I am inwardly consumed for the love of this cypress-like beauty. -She is so cruel. Into her thoughts I enter not. - -3. I see in dreams her ringlets, and rise deeply saddened at noon. -From this lock of her hair my heart separates not. - -4. Medjnun and Leila, take a lesson from me in love; my charming -dear one heeds me not. - -5. The life of foolish Meshref seems coming to its end, and the sad -flirt heeds me not. - - -FUZULI. - -1. Hold fast to the leading strings of modesty, for nothing is -lovelier than modesty. Immodesty, mark this well, advances neither -in this nor that world. - -2. Oh! bird of my heart, flutter not in the air, but light on the -hand of a king. The too high-flying hawk is never employed in the -chase. - -3. Desire treasure only from God; he has many storehouses. Should -a drop only fall to thee for portion, this is amply sufficient: it -ends not. - -4. He, on whom the bird of happiness has rested, flies high, even -without wings. He, on whom a dark lot has fallen, can scarcely raise -his own hand. - -5. Be always humble: strive to obtain a contrite spirit. He who -suffers gold-hunger can never be satisfied. - -6. You, Fuzuli, live in this world only for friendship. Winter lives -in unfriendly hearts; never can it be summer there. - - -NESIMI. - -1. _Saturday._ I met my cypress-like charmer, and she made me -distracted. - -2. _Sunday._ I was frantic, and a wanderer, and fell down senseless. -I saw her face, and thought it was the shining moon. - -3. _Monday._ At last I told her my heart-secret. Her eyes are like -the narcissus, her cheeks resemble roses, her eyebrows are like a -bow. - -4. _Tuesday._ I became a huntsman, and went over the country -(walked), yet I myself became the chased, and fell a sacrifice to -the ever coy one. - -5. _Wednesday._ My beauty walked in the fields; the nightingale saw -her face and uttered wild cries. - -6. _Thursday._ I said to my loved one: Hearken, then, to my advice: -hide thy secret still from both good and bad. - -7. _Friday._ At last Nesimi saw her beauty, and drank to satiety of -the sherbet of her rosy lips. - -These, although through the poetic beauty of our European tastes -they may not prove quite agreeable, give yet sufficient evidence -that the inhabitants of Central Asia, apart from the roughness of -their social relations, despite their incessant wars and forays, -are not unskilled in the expression of traits of poetic feeling and -tender love. The higher classes, though they do not look on the -popular poetry with contempt, still wish to show traces of refined -taste, a higher education, and enjoy the works of the elder Persian -poets, or the books of Nevai, who stepped forward as the first of -the Tchagatay poets in that kind of accomplishment, by which all the -rest of the poets of the Islamitish polite world acquired renown. -Nevai is a scholar of the celebrated Sheikh Abdurrahman Djami, -during many years minister, field marshal, and governor of many -provinces. He is of rare genius in poetry, and of great fertility; -for he has produced more than thirty-two distinct works on poetry, -history, morals, logic; and though his works are thoroughly Persian -in spirit, and not pervaded with the spirit of Central Asia, yet the -merit of having reined and ennobled the Turkish dialect of Central -Asia cannot be taken from him. - -Here I give a few specimens. - - -NEVAI. - -1. Oh! heart, come, let us seek out a love; the cypress-growing one, -the silver-cheeked one, let us seek. - -2. As the darling of our eyes has looked for another friend, we also -have eyes; therefore, another let us seek. - -3. She greets the glance of men only with the dust of death. Why -stand longing here? Another beauty let us seek. - -4. Should I not find another like thee, who destroyest all the -world, then a lowly, modest, but tender one, I will seek. - -5. We will hasten through field and plain for the loved one; we will -search garden and meadows. Her will we seek. - -6. As the wish is good, it shall not remain unfulfilled. Among small -and great, through all as far as possible, we wish to seek. - -7. Oh! Nevai, from this passion you will never get freed. Come, -therefore, before the meeting. Patience and perseverance let us seek. - - -NEVAI. - -1. Absent from the loved one, the heart is like a land without a -king. A land without a king is like a body without a soul. - -2. Oh! Mussulman, what service is a body without a soul! It is like -black earth, which has no sweet smelling roses. - -3. Black earth, that has no sweet smelling roses, is like a dark -night, that has no bright moonbeams. - -4. A dark night, that has no bright moon, is like darkness without a -life-source. - -5. A darkness, that has no life-source, is like a hell, which has no -paradise-plains. - -6. Oh! Nevai, as the loved give so much pain, it is certain that -absence has its pangs, and the return no aid. - -His Tchihardivan is beautiful, in which he celebrates the various -ages of men, as also his adaptation of the well-known romances, -Ferhad and Shirin, Medjnun and Leila, Yusuf and Zuleikha, &c. Also -his versification of some stories out of the 1,001 Nights, among -which Prince Seif-ul-Muluk is the most successful. The following -will serve as a specimen of the latter. - - -_How Seif-ul-Muluk sets out from the town of Tchin, and journeys to -the sea._ - -1. Come, tale-teller, let us hear the story of the adverse fate that -befel the king's son? - -2. The tale-teller replied, "That is hard to do; for the sword of -sorrow cleaves the breast." - -3. The prince had everything prepared for his departure, and first -enquired about the town of Katine. - -4. Satisfactory information was soon received; all his effects -brought to the ship. - -5. The whole crew were on board, the officers stood prepared, and -the army equipped. - -6. Then the prince betook himself on board, and confided his person -to the "god's device" (the ship). - -7. The pilots led the way, followed by an endless host of ships. - -8. There sat the prince in sweet reverie, with smiling lips and a -heart free from sorrow. - -9. Six months he went across the sea, with pilot carefully watching -his way. - -10. Soon, Fate made him feel the sting of envy, and maliciously -opposed him. - -11. The sea became moved and girded on the blood-thirsty sword. - -12. She opened herself, and the deluge wildly burst forth,--a deluge -on all sides of streams of fire. - -13. Every moment she showed a fresh scene of horror--every instant -makes a thousand souls tremble. - -14. Wildly swelled the waves, and threatened with mighty floods: -with blood-thirsty jaws rush and roar the waters of the sea. - -15. Then dark fearful winds arise--the horizon veils itself in -pitchy darkness, and from the surface of the sea there sounds forth -wild lamentation. - -16. The day, bright with the sun, becomes a pitch-dark night. What a -fearful day! It is the image of the day of judgment. - -17. Wherever thou lookest no man is visible, not even the hand -before the eyes,--all, and over all, is water. - -18. The salt waves toss and roll incessantly, and raise the ships -with keels upward. - -19. Ever does the mighty sea rage and roar and mount with fury from -the deep abyss. - -20. Wild cries of creatures break out together, you would think it -was the day of Resurrection. - -21. In frightful hurly-burly one ship runs into the other; they -split, and sink to the bottom of the sea. - -22. The yards break, the planks fall in pieces, no possibility of -escape. - -23. Those hundred ships, said the tale-teller; that crew, those -possessions, - -24. All was wrecked on the sea coast, not a trace remained behind on -the surface of the waters." - -Wide as the territory of Turkestan-Proper extends, so far does -the literature of which we have tried to give a slight sketch in -the foregoing pages. And the further we betake ourselves from the -frontiers into the desert, so in like manner does Islam become -weaker, and here commences the change from Mohamedan civilisation -into the old Shamanism. Among the Kirghis, notwithstanding the -greater part of them profess Islam, one meets here and there with -a tale which was generated in the Khanats; this, however, is -looked upon as an exotic plant, and never preferred to the native. -The popular poetry that one finds among them forms the point of -transition from the currents of ideas of one society into another. -Indeed, only two days' distance from the borders of the Yaxartes, -or northward from the Sea of Aral, may a bakhshi prosper, provided -he can give in the best fashion tales or narratives of a purely -Kirghis character. The poetry of the wild inhabitants of the steppe -is more strange and odd than pretty. Here and there a happy image -occurs, at other times there are only broken exclamations and -solitary verses without the smallest connection. Since each person -is a poet, a tale cannot long preserve its originality, either they -add something new to it or cast the whole off, and few people can -keep themselves from annexing to their songs the momentary influence -of their fantasy. Of the love-lays of the Kirghis, Lewschine has -introduced a short poem, not without charm, in his book, p. 380:-- - -"Dost thou see this snow? The body of my loved one is whiter still." - -"Dost thou see the dropping blood of the slain lamb? Her cheeks are -redder still." - -"Dost thou see the trunk of this burnt tree? Her hair is blacker -still." - -"Dost thou know with what the mollahs of our Khan write? Her -eyebrows are blacker than their ink." - -"Dost thou see these glowing embers? Her eyes are brighter still." - -Another specimen which follows this consists of detached sentences -without any connection. - -"The hawk has pounced on the ducks--on a flight of ducks--on a great -flight!" - -"I am very ill, and hardly ever think of eating," or "yonder is a -tall pine-tree, the mist has fallen over it." - -"Yesterday she allowed me to enter her house. Formerly she would -come herself and caress me." - -These more or less may be found among all purely popular tales of -oriental people. There is even a trace of them in Hungarian, as for -example,-- - -"Three apples and a half, I invited thee, and thou camest not," or -"the crane flies high, singing beautifully, my loved one is angry, -for she will not speak to me," &c. - -A considerable number of tales or narratives of hero deeds exists -among nomadic tribes, partly in verse, partly in prose. In these the -spirit of the literature of the Turkish tribes of South Siberia is -more prominent than that of their Central Asiatic neighbours; and -I have heard many compositions of Kirghis Bakhshis, which I find -with little variation and dialectic differences faithfully conveyed -in the more recent work,--"Proofs of the Popular Literature of the -Turkish tribes of South Siberia," by Dr. Radloff. - -It leaves no doubt that as the learned A. Schiffner, in the myths -and tales of Dr. Radloff's collection, finds traces of a Buddhist -influence, so many of the irtegi (tales) of the modern Kirghis -have reached them from the further south, beyond Djungaria; for -Islam, coming from the south-west, could take no firm root over the -Yaxartes, and now that the mighty waves of Russian power roll down -from the north, will certainly prevail no further. This kind of -literature belonging rather to the Turks of South Siberia, we shall -conclude our present sketch by a tale of the Kirghis, which belongs -to this little horde, according to European opinion, but according -to inland appellation, to Mangishlak Kazagi, _i.e._, a Kirghis of -Mangishlak. It is from the book of Bronislas Zaleski, who, as a -Polish exile, dwelt nine years in the desert, and on his return, -1865, published under the title of "La Vie des Steppes Kirghizes." -Paris. Fol. 1865. - - -THE TALE OF KUGAUL.[57] - -Man is, in Heaven, helpless without God; on earth, powerless without -a horse. - - [57] I adopt the orthography of the original, although Kugaul - (hunter) Barzagai (master lion) instead of Buruzgay would be - preferable. - -There was once a Kirghis, named Buruzgay. He had great numbers of -sheep and horses, and nothing was wanting to him if God had not -denied him children. He was alone, consequently, in an advanced -state of life. He said not his daily prayer (namaz), nor kept the -enjoined feasts. One day, the sorrow of his childless condition -overcame him, and he determined to go to the Holy places, in the -hope that his prayers might obtain for him a son. He forged for -himself shoes of iron, and took a staff of iron in his hand, and so -betook himself on his way. He travelled and travelled ten years -long, and probably more. So long, so long did he travel, until his -iron shoes were quite worn out, and only the handle of his iron -staff remained. At last, he fell down on the ground, prostrate. -Great were his sufferings, for he could neither raise himself up nor -die. - -Lo! before him appeared a holy man, who perceived him lying on -the earth, had compassion on him, bent over him and enquired what -ailed him. Buruzgay could not utter a word. The holy man fell on -his knees, recited his prayer, (namaz) and prayed the Almighty to -loosen the tongue of the unhappy man. Hardly had he done this, when -Buruzgay began to feel his strength revive. He related his history, -and on what grounds he had abandoned his aoul. The holy man withdrew -a short distance, and continued in prayer until God said to him, -"Thou art well pleasing in my sight. I will accomplish thy wish. -But why dost thou interest thyself in Buruzgay? He pays no impost, -he says no prayer (namaz), he observes no fast. How shall I have -compassion on him?" "Lord," said the holy man, "in time to come he -will serve Thee devoutly, and will repeat his prayers; only do not -reject my intreaties. Grant my prayer and take me for an hostage." -Then God said, "Depart, faithful servant, thy prayers are granted. -Enquire of Buruzgay what is his desire. Will he have forty sons -and forty daughters, or only one son and one daughter especially -approved by me." - -The holy man returned to Buruzgay. He found him quite restored, and -on his knees; and he cried aloud with joy, "Oh, God, I have not -lied to Thee: Buruzgay, before my return, had begun to perform his -duty." He then told Buruzgay the words of God. "What shall I do with -forty sons and forty daughters? If the Almighty hear my prayers, he -will give me one son and one daughter." The holy man blessed him, -and conveyed back to the Lord his reply. Buruzgay found his iron -shoes as though unworn, and betook himself to his aoul. Approaching -it, he appeared to recognize his steppe and flocks. He viewed all -with heartfelt joy. Slowly and slowly regaining his recollection, -he perceived that nothing had changed since his departure. He -approached a shepherd, to enquire of him as to the owner of the -herds. The shepherds did not recognise him, he had so fallen away, -and become so changed through fasting and hardships, and his clothes -were worn out. "What is our master to thee," enquired the shepherds, -"go thy way." They went their way to their flocks. Buruzgay waited -until their return, and questioned them afresh. The shepherds drove -him away as a poor beggar (baygouche), without wishing to speak to -him, till at last he uttered his name. They immediately looked at -him attentively, recognised him, and told him that his wife, whom -he had left in the family way, was near her confinement, and they -were expecting guests in the aoul. Then, without waiting for his -reply, the shepherds ran off swifter than an arrow, and coming -to Buruzgay's wife, demanded the suyundji, (the customary gift -for good news). They received it, and informed the wife of the -arrival of her husband. She was highly delighted, and immediately -afterwards Buruzgay entered. A few days after his arrival, his wife -was delivered of two fine, strong children,--twins. One was a son, -the other was a daughter. Buruzgay was beside himself with joy, and -he kept constantly meditating on what names he should give these -children, with whom God had rejoiced his old age. Whilst he was -buried in thought, his former intercessor with Heaven, the holy -man, came to him, and said, "Thou wilt name thy son Kugaul, and thy -daughter Khanisbeg. And Buruzgay hearkened to the holy man, who -immediately left him. - -The children grew, and were beautiful. Four years passed away. The -twins began to learn shooting, with little bows prepared for them. -Kugaul easily learned to shoot, and ten years passed away. At this -time, it came to pass that a mighty Sultan gave a feast (Toy). -During the banquet, he gave notice that he wished a lofty mast to -be erected, with a piece of gold on the summit, and that whoever -could pierce with his arrow the gold piece, should be the husband -of his daughter. A host of competitors presented themselves. The -mast was very high; they shot in turns; none could pierce the gold -piece, and the renowned archers of the Steppe missed their aim. At -length, the last guest at the banquet missed also. The Sultan cried -out, "are these all the young people that there are in the Steppe? -Have none stayed away who will let fly an arrow for the hand of -the Sultan's daughter?" "Only one remains," they replied, "Kugaul, -son of Buruzgay; but he is only a little boy ten years old." "That -matters nothing," said the Sultan, "bring him here immediately." -They went into the aoul to seek him. He appeared on a broken-winded -horse, in old clothes, with a bow at his back. He had plenty of -beautiful clothes, and good horses, for his father was rich, and -denied him nothing, but he wished, before the rich, to appear poor -and humble. When the Sultan's wife saw him riding forward, she cried -out immediately, "This shall be my son-in-law, and none other among -those present." Arrived at the mast, Kugaul would not immediately -draw his bow. - -"You are many," said he; "I am alone, and young; and if I were to -hit successfully, I might, perhaps, not then receive the hand of -the Sultan's daughter. The Sultan assured him that he would give -him his daughter, but only on the condition that he should shoot -successfully. Kugaul prepared to pierce the gold piece. He took -aim, bent his bow so powerfully, that his lean, miserable horse, -sank beneath him. He struck him with his whip until he rose. Kugaul -took aim again, stretched the cord afresh. This time the horse -only bent the knee. The arrow went off and pierced the centre of -the golden piece. Kugaul, exhausted with the effort, dismounted, -unsaddled his horse, lay down on the ground, and, reclining his head -on the saddle, fell asleep. He slept there three days long in his -miserable attire, little as he was on a poor saddle. The Sultan had -fully intended not to give his daughter to such a wretched-looking -being. In vain Kugaul awaited the messengers. No one came, and he -thought of some means by which he could obtain his bride. Suddenly -a woman appeared before him from the Sultan's household, and -explained to him fully the position of circumstances. Kugaul said -to her, "Return to the Sultan, and tell him that I give him until -mid-day to-morrow for consideration. If he does not then give me his -daughter, and forty laden camels, and forty carpets, I will kill him -and exterminate his whole family." The woman took a fancy to Kugaul, -imagining him to be a great warrior (batyr), returned quickly to -the aoul of the Sultan, gave the Sultana an account of the meeting, -who rushed to her husband, saying, that Kugaul would become a great -hero (batyr), and if he should not keep his word, he would draw on -himself a disgrace darker than the earth. The Sultan's wife spoke -many similar speeches, until at last her husband resolved to marry -his daughter, and he gave Kugaul notice to that effect. Kugaul now -attired himself in splendid robes, mounted a magnificent courser, -and presented himself to the Sultan. The marriage was celebrated, -and after the accustomed wedding feast (toy) Kugaul conducted -his young wife home, and returned to his father's aoul. Forty -camels, laden with costly objects, and covered with forty carpets -followed him. This was the dower of the bride. When he reached -home, Kugaul's wife lowered her veil, according to the custom of -the Kirghis. But when they were in the presence of his father and -mother, Kugaul lifted it for the first time. Hardly had his parents -seen her countenance, when they presented her gifts of horses and -cattle. Then, because they had not guessed her favourite colours for -animals, the daughter-in-law did not fall at their knees to thank -them. The old Buruzgay was angry at this, and cried out, enraged, -"What an animal is this maiden! We have given her a host of presents -and she will not humble herself before us, nor give us even the -usual salute (selam)." She replied, "What are your presents to me? -I do not require them. You have not given me the very best. Behind -the house there is a chesnut mare, she sinks knee-deep in the sand; -she alone suits me. For she will produce a stallion, which will save -my Kugaul from many misfortunes, and become a true warrior's steed. -Give me this mare, she is the most valuable, and I prefer her to -all." "My daughter-in-law is, though young, prudent enough," said -Buruzgay. This pleased him, he became reconciled to her, gave her -the mare, and the young bride fell at the feet of her parents, and -gave the usual greeting. A beautiful tent was erected near the old -people, and the newly-married dwelt therein, and the wife of Kugaul -ordered her servants to attend to the chesnut mare as the apple of -their eye. They then dug a deep recess, covered it with grass, and -there the mare was protected and well fed. During the night a fire -was lighted around. Forty days passed and the mare brought forth a -colt, a little bay stallion. The servants ran immediately to apprise -the lady, and demanded a reward for the joyful intelligence. "Wait -another forty days," she answered; "take great care of the stallion, -give him plenty to eat and drink." The servants obeyed, and when -the appointed time was passed they returned to their mistress, -who informed them that from that moment they were all free, and -could go where they wished. As for the young colt, a silk noose of -forty fathoms was prepared,--they fed him on pure barley, milk, -and kishmish (a kind of dry raisin), and he grew up with Kugaul. -It happened at this time that the Khan (chief of the Kirghis) came -on a visit to the old Buruzgay, and when he saw Khanisbeg and the -wife of Kugaul they pleased him so much that he fell senseless to -the ground. They brought him back to life, and prepared food for -all. They all set to work to cut meat for mishbarmak (a Kirghis -dish). The Khan did the same, but whilst his hands were occupied -his eyes admired the beautiful women. He became inflamed with a -mighty passion, and could not turn his looks away from her face. -So absorbed was he that he did not even remark, that instead of -cutting meat he had cut his own finger, and did not discover this -for some minutes. Aware of it, he became so ashamed that he could -cut nothing,[58] and not to displease his host he made belief as -though he were tasting the dishes. He took leave quickly, and -returned home with a concealed longing in his heart. Hardly had he -reached it when he gathered his friends and relatives together, and -consulted with them on the means he should take to remove Kugaul, -and become possessed of his wife and his sister. Every body said -that he could not kill him, for he was far too great a hero. - - [58] This same episode occurs in the romance of Yusuf and Zuleikha, - where Zuleikha's friends at the banquet are so astonished at the - beauty of Yusuf that instead of paring the pomegranates before them - they cut off the skin with their fingers. - -But they devised another plan; they resolved to send Kugaul against -a hostile horde with the command to bring the Khan, who was there -ruling, alive or dead. This idea pleased the love-lorn Khan. People -assured him that the envoy could not return under ten years, and it -was indeed very probable that he might perish. They sent for Kugaul -immediately, and gave him the instructions. He returned home to his -aoul and related to his wife the commands he had received. "Not on -this account does he send thee," replied she, "I know the feelings -of his heart. When he was here he was seized with a passionate -longing for me and thy sister; he will have us and send thee away, -so that thou mayest die; but thou hast thine horse, thou canst not -fail, only return quickly." Kugaul departed, and only took with him -his servants and his horse, and travelled over many steppes, until -at last he reached the hostile border. Ten years, perhaps, more -or less, he travelled, I do not know exactly. At last his horse -stopped, Kugaul pressed him on, but the animal suddenly began to -speak with a human voice. "Compel me not to advance further, we are -near the enemy. Take off my bridle and saddle, I will go thither and -see how many they are in number." Kugaul obeyed his horse, which -began to roll on the ground, and by this means to increase his -strength more than by the best food. Then he rose, shook himself, -neighed, changed into a bird, and flew up into the clouds. Thus he -flew for three days. At last he returned and said, "There are more -enemies than hairs in my mane or tail. Consider well what thou dost. -Wilt thou fight or return?" Kugaul was not terrified. He left his -servants with the command that they should await him on that spot. -"If you hear of my fall," continued he, "bear the news to my wife -and my mother." He then offered an earnest prayer to God for help, -and departed. The enemy surrounded him, but he permitted not himself -to be conquered. His horse was a great help to him, for hardly did -one of the enemy take aim at him with his gun than he changed into -an eagle and flew far away with Kugaul towards the heaven. If he -were threatened with an arrow, the horse changed into a sparrow -and disappeared among the grass like a small ball. Kugaul fought -thus many days and at last slew and exterminated all the men of -this race, carried off the women, children, cattle, and possessions -with him, brought them to the place where he had left his servants, -commanded them to convey the booty home, and he himself rode forward -on his faithful steed. On and on he journeyed for a long time. One -evening, however, his horse would go no further, did nothing, and -stood petrified. Kugaul dismounted and lay down to sleep. Towards -the morning he awoke, approached his horse, and perceived that he -was shedding bitter tears. "What dost thou ail, my good horse," -inquired Kugaul, "why dost thou weep?" "Alas, why should I not -weep!" answered the horse. "this is the spot where once I trotted -in my silken halter. Here was also our aoul, and now there is not -a trace remaining of it, all is destroyed." And he began again to -weep. "Take off my saddle and bridle, let me take rest, and so -recruit my strength, and I will make enquiry as to the doer of all -this, and discover thy enemy." - -Kugaul took the saddle and bridle off the horse; he began to roll -afresh; and when he had regained strength he raised his head, took -a deep breath with his powerful nostrils. He bounded, changed into -a bird, and flew up into the air. He flew three days, without, -however, discovering anything, and was already on the point of -returning, when, on the opposite side, he discovered the aouls -of the Khan. Hither he directed his course; flew over the tents -and flocks, and saw everything. No one guessed that the bird was -Kugaul's horse, only the wife of the hero (Batyr) had a presentiment -that some one was coming to her, and nigh at hand, which idea she -communicated to her sister. The bird returned to Kugaul, related -what he had seen, that the Khan had carried off his wife and sister, -taken his flocks, compelled his father to collect tezek (a fuel -made of manure), his mother to tend the sheep. The horse began to -weep afresh. Kugaul prayed God to come to his assistance, so that -he might punish his insulting foe. He then commanded the horse to -convey him forthwith to his mother. He departed, and soon found her -in the steppe, occupied in tending the sheep. He threw himself into -her arms. "Why dost thou thus embrace me?" said the good old woman; -"can it be that thou art my son?" "If I am not thy son, am I not -worth as much as he?" "Oh, no; none in the steppe is worth as much -as my son." "Have you no news of him?" "I do not know where he is. -The Khan has despatched him against a hostile people; since that -time I have never heard talk of him. Only, to-day it appears to -me that I heard the noise of his horse's wings; but I do not know -whether it was reality or a trick of Satan." "And is it long since -thy Kugaul departed?" "Yes, yes; a long, long, very long time." "But -I am Kugaul himself. Dost thou not recognise me?" The old woman -looked at him more attentively, and she did not recognise him, and -said: "No, thou art not Kugaul; but if thou art his companion, or -if thou knowest anything of him, then speak. But do not deceive -me--do not torment me." "I am Kugaul," cried the son. "It was my -horse that flew over thy head this day." But the old woman was still -incredulous. He asked her if Kugaul had no birth-mark, and she -replied, that he had a black spot on his shoulder, big as a hand. He -then asked his mother to rub his shoulder (a common habit among the -Kirghis). "But," the old woman replied, "the sheep will run about in -all directions, and the Khan will beat me; for he often beats me. -Go, then, and let me manage my flocks." But he insisted and pressed, -and said, that if they wished to beat her, he would protect her. -At last the old woman consented. She took off the khalat (upper -garment) and the shirt, and proceeded to rub his shoulders. She -perceived the black spot large as a man's hand, threw herself on the -neck of the young man, and cried out, "Thou art Kugaul, thou art my -Kugaul;" and she wept for joy. "Did you not, then, recognise me, -mother?" said Kugaul. "Is it, then, so long a time that I have been? -And you, my poor dear mother, how altered you are! You have grown -old and grey, and your eyes are red with tears." And he embraced -her, weeping. "I knew not my child," replied his mother; "how long -you have been absent! But the Khan has attacked our aoul, carried -off thy wife and sister, and all our effects, and reduced thy -father and myself to be his slaves. I have been constantly expecting -thee; but I have lost all memory: I cannot tell how long a time has -passed. I know only that it is a long time, a very long time, that -thou hast left us." "Be tranquil, mother," said Kugaul; "the evil -days are terminating, and all begins anew to go right. God will aid -me. Return to the aoul; hasten to get in thy sheep, without paying -attention that it is yet early. If any one inquires about me, say -that I am not far off; but not a word more." He took leave of her, -and went his way. The old woman returned to the aoul, but she did -not walk as usual,--she ran; she, who could hardly before catch a -lamb, now chased three or four at once,--so much had her strength -improved. The Khan remarked it, and said to those around him: "That -old wife of Buruzgay must have received intelligence of her son." He -approached her, and questioned her about her son. "He is here,--he -is come," replied the old mother. "You will not be able henceforth -to make me suffer any more." She spoke boldly; for her interview -with her son had filled her heart with joy and hope. The Khan turned -pale with fright, and soon he perceived Kugaul, who, mounted on his -celebrated steed, advanced to him. Kugaul stopped at some distance, -then spoke, without descending from his horse. "You have deceived -me, you wished to get rid of me, to carry off my wife and sister. I -thought that you acted loyally with me, and went out at thy bidding -as a true man. But thou art only a hound, a perjured miscreant, -a robber. We must reckon. But what shall I gain by thy solitary -death. They would say, that Kugaul, the Batyr, has only killed the -Khan. Gather, then, thy army together." And the Khan begged of him -to grant him three days to assemble his people. Kugaul consented, -and departed. The Khan sent his orders into all the aouls of his -horde, and drew together a large armament of his people around him. -Kugaul prayed meanwhile to God. At the day appointed he came, and -said: "You are my Khan; I will not shoot first at you,--you begin." -The Khan shot: missed his aim. "I will not yet shoot at thee," said -Kugaul; "gather together thy best marksmen, and command them to -shoot against me; if they do not hit me, then I will shoot." The -best marksmen of the Khan stepped out of the ranks, and shot. Each -shot an arrow at Kugaul, but his horse transformed himself into an -eagle, then into a lark; protected him against all the shots, by -raising himself up in the clouds--and against all the arrows, by -crouching down in the grass of the steppe. They could not hit him. -Three days Kugaul permitted them thus to shoot against him. On the -fourth, he said to the Khan: "Well, since you are my master, you -have shot against me,--you and your servants, for three days. Now -comes my turn." "Do what you like," said the Khan. Kugaul placed the -best hunter, and then two archers, and the Khan himself in a line -behind them. He placed himself opposite to them, and, turning to -his horse, said: "My true steed, rest firm now, and change not thy -position, in order that I may, with a single arrow, kill all four." -The horse stayed still as a stone. Kugaul drew the string with all -his might: the arrow went through huntsman, archers, and the Khan -himself. When the people saw that the Khan was dead, they ran away -on all sides. Kugaul followed them. He reached, on horseback, now -this one, then that one, from the height of the clouds; and all that -he struck, died. At last he gave over his work of extermination. -He returned to his aoul, found there his parents, his wife, and -sister, and seized on the possessions of the Khan. Among the women -and children that the servants brought in, there was the daughter -of the Khan. Kugaul took her for his second wife. He married his -sister, Khanisbek, to a very rich Khan of a neighbouring tribe, and -he himself became also Khan. - -So ends the story. The old people say (added Mourzakay) that all -this is the exact truth, and that all the events happened in the -steppes. I did not see them; but we must believe what the old people -tell us. - - - - -CHAPTER XIX. - -RIVALRY BETWEEN RUSSIA AND ENGLAND IN CENTRAL ASIA. - - -It is three years ago since, in the closing chapter of my Travels -in Central Asia, I expressed my surprise and dissatisfaction at -the indifference of Englishmen towards Russian progress in those -regions. I then indicated not only the exact course of Russian -procedure on the Yaxartes, but also its steadily approaching -influence on British India. Abstaining purposely from all -far-reaching political reflections, I was as brief and concise -as possible, and could hardly have believed that the unassuming -remarks of a European, just returned home from Asia, would be found -worthy of closer consideration. Nevertheless, these few lines were -discussed and dwelt upon by almost every organ of the English and -Indian press, from the _Times_ to the _Bengal Hirkaru_. Only a very -small proportion of those various journals attached itself in any -measure to my ideas; the most of them, on the contrary, rejected my -good counsel; and without directly ridiculing my judgment, raised -from all sides a loud-sounding Hosannah over the happy change in -English politicians, who, being less short-sighted now than they -were thirty years back, discovered in the advance of the Russians -only a disagreeable event; nay, would even regard it with pleasure, -and cry success to their march southward over the snow-capped peaks -of the Hindu-Kush and the Himalayas. - -In these three years, however, a great change has taken place. -Far though I be from wishing as an ex-dervish to exult over the -fulfilment of my prophecies, still I cannot help referring to the -lines in which I happened to proclaim the progress of the Russian -arms. While I was in Central Asia the furthest out-posts of the -Cossacks lay at Kale-Rehim, thirty-two miles from Tashkend. Forts -1, 2, and 3, on the Yaxartes, if actually conquered, were not yet -wholly in safe keeping. On the north of Khokand, too,--on the -west of the Issikkoel and the Narin, the Court of St. Petersburg -could show but few tokens of success. The Kirghis were embittered -and hostile to the strange intruders, and the OEzbeg tribes on -the northern frontier of Khokand would then have deemed a Russian -occupation equivalent to the destruction of the world; so much did -they hate and scout the Unbelievers. Three years have passed, and -what has happened in that time? Not only has Khodja-Ahmed-Yesevi, -that holiest patron of the Kirghis, become a Russian subject in -Hazreti-Turkestan; not only has Tashkend, the most important trading -town, the great mart of Central-Asiatic and Chinese trade with -Russia, been absorbed into the northern Colossus; not only does the -Russian flag wave from the citadel of Khodjend, the second town of -importance in Khokand; it may now be also seen on the small fortress -of Zamin, Oratepa, and Djissag. The dreaded Russ has set himself up -as lord-protector in the eastern Khanat of Turkestan: the Hazret, -the Khan, as also the Hazret or High Priest of Namengan, strive -for the favour of one who, but a year before, would have filled -their very dreams with mortal terror. Nay, not Khokand only, but -the Tadjik population also throughout Bokhara and Khiva, the great -number of freedmen and slaves in service, and even the wealthier -merchants from Mooltan and other parts of India, who once trembled -before the OEzbeg power, now whisper delightedly into each other's -ears that the Russians are slowly drawing nearer, and that OEzbeg -lordship and OEzbeg absolutism are coming to an end. - -For three years have these metamorphoses in the oasis-countries of -Turkestan been carried on with sure and steady hand from the banks -of the Neva. As an erewhile traveller, for whom those spots had been -full of interest from my youth up, I had already kept, albeit from -a distance, a watchful eye on all that went on amidst the plains -of the Yaxartes. I devoured alike the newspaper reports and the -scanty notices which my fellow pilgrims from Turkestan communicated -to me through their westward journeying brethren. That I took a -hearty interest in everything will surprise no one, little as the -utterances of the English press and the writings of British Indian -diplomatists during these occurrences claimed my full attention. To -the prophecies of the Dervish neither the one party nor the other -gave a thought. The note of satisfaction struck three years before -was kept up without a break. People were no longer content with the -bare assertion, that Russian progress in Central Asia was a thing to -welcome, but tried their utmost to show convincing grounds for that -assertion, in order to represent the success of the Muscovite arms -as tending more and more profitably for English interests. - -To solve this problem the more happily, to convince all thoughtful -Englishmen the more unanswerably of the profit to be gained from -Russian successes, the question was debated by a light which was -sure to be equally welcome to all the different classes. The -scientific world was informed by the learned President of the -Royal Geographical Society touching the excellent service rendered -to science at large by the trigonometrical, geographical, and -geological societies of Russia. Russian voyages of discovery were -exalted above everything; Russian scholars were deified; nay, it -was only lately that even Vice-Admiral Butakoff was presented -with the large gold medal for his discoveries on the Sea of Aral. -Social Reformers, on the contrary, were taught to compare Tartar -savagery with Russian civilisation. The picture which I myself drew -of Central Asia was contrasted with the young Russia of to-day: -the emancipation of slaves, the Russian endeavours after national -enlightenment, the great change in manners, the mighty strides by -which Russia was approaching England in civilised ideas, were all -brought into the foreground; and in every thread of this tissue was -expression given to the great usefulness of Russian supremacy in -Asia. The trading world was shown the advantage which must accrue -from safe means of communication, now that Russian arms are on -the point of smoothing a way through the inhospitable steppes of -Turkestan towards India. Some journals, indeed, were carried so -far away by their zeal as to point out to the honest workmen of -Birmingham, Sheffield, Manchester, &c., that only English wares -and English capital would travel to and fro along the new Russian -commercial road to Central Asia. Even the military class had a -friendly word whispered into its ear. To the sons of Mars it was -needful to represent a Russian invasion of India as a ridiculous -bugbear. From every stand-point, moral, physical, strategical, was -such an attempt proved to be an impossibility. How, indeed, could -Russia overcome the enormous difficulties of those parched steppes -that stretched week after week before her; how master the warlike -Afghans, or win through the dreaded Khyber Pass? And even if she -succeeded in that also, how roughly would she not be handled by -the British Lion, who would lie waiting leisurely for her in his -luxurious palankeen? Nay, even to the Church, that mightiest of -English levers, should a lullaby be chanted forth. People hinted -at a happy union between the Orthodox Church of Russia and that of -England. Dr. Norman Macleod is an authority; and his cry, "The Greek -Church is not yet lost," has aroused the hopes of many; and very -learned church dignitaries have looked forward with blissful smiles -to the moment when the three-fold Greek Cross shall rise from the -Neva up to the proud dome of St. Paul's in London, for the kiss of -brotherhood, and the two united churches shall become a powerful -weapon against Papal ideas. - -Independent pamphlets and thundering newspaper articles alternated -on the field of this question with the expositions above-named. -The warning voice of a small minority could not succeed in making -head against the Optimists, against those apostles of the new -political doctrine. Sir Henry Rawlinson, whose perfect conversance -with the circumstances of that region no one can dispute, a man -whose practical experience is at one with his theoretic insight, -has here and there in the _Quarterly Review_ pointed out the errors -of such speculations in solidly written essays; and though, as -doubting any ultimate design of Russia upon India, he protested -against all actual interference, merely blaming the indifference -above-mentioned; still his words passed unheeded of the multitude. -I might well say to myself that where such an authority carries no -weight, my present words could but travel a very short way. I was -therefore slow to speak; and yet, as I had studied this momentous -question in all its aspects, and examined it from many sides with -impartial eyes, I deemed it possible to show, not only to the -statesmen of England, but to those of all Europe, how fatally the -Cabinet of St. James errs in its way of looking at the matter; and -how this cherished indifference is not only hurtful to English -interests, but becomes a deadly weapon wherewith Great Britain -commits a suicide unheard of in history. - -How it happens that I, who by race am neither English nor Russian, -have taken so warm an interest in this matter, is mainly accounted -for by the fact of my regarding the collision of these two Colossi -in Asia less from the stand-point of their mutual rivalry, than -from that of the interests of Europe at large. Whether England or -Russia get the advantage, which of the two will become chief arbiter -of the old world's destinies, can never be to us an indifferent -matter; for widely as these two powers differ from each other in -their character as channels of Western civilisation, not less widely -do they diverge from one another in any future reckoning up of the -issues of their struggle. A passing glance, on the one hand, at the -Tartars, who have lived for two hundred years under Russian rule; on -the other, at the millions of British subjects in India, might teach -us a useful lesson from the past on this point. This, however, -may be reserved for later investigation. For the present we will -only affirm that the question of a rivalry between these two North -European powers in Central Asia concerns not only Englishmen and -Russians, but every European as well; nay, more, it deserves to be -studied with interest by every thoughtful person of our century.[59] - - [59] Up to this moment the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, alone of all - the Continental press, has brought out two special articles on - Central Asia. The first, without any acknowledged leaning, points - out the critical conditions of the approaching conflict; the second, - imbued with a Russian spirit, keeps time to the song of the English - optimists; for doing which I would not blame the writer, had he not - cited several passages from my book as his own property. - - -1. RUSSIAN CONQUESTS IN CENTRAL ASIA DURING THE LAST THREE YEARS. - -First of all we will recount the historical facts of the Russian -war of conquest during the last three years. Instead of going into -those details about the campaigns of Perovski, Tchernaieff, and -Romanovski, which were recorded partly in Mitchell's book, "The -Russians in Central Asia," partly in several solid treatises in -the _Quarterly_ and the _Edinburgh Review_, or into the slender -notices which have trickled out into publicity from the Russian -State-Cabinets, or those yet scantier notices which were revealed -by highly-paid English spies in Central Asia, we would cast only a -hurried glance at events, in order to acquaint the reader with the -latest posture of Russian arms in Central Asia. - -So successfully had the Russian operations been started in Central -Asia, that after a brilliant overthrow of the Kirghis, they -entered first on the conquest of Khokand, in order to gain firm -foothold in the three Khanats. In those eastern parts of the three -oasis-countries of Turkestan the social order has always been -relatively least, the religious culture weakest, and the antipathy -to warlike enterprises most strong. These were accompanied by -internal disorders, for while the Khodjas through their inroads -into Chinese territory on the east of the Khanat were always -encountering the risk of a collision with China, which in bygone -centuries did sometimes ensue, the greedy Ameers of Bokhara from -the west have continually laid the country waste with their wanton -lust of conquest. Before the capture of Ak-Meshdjid the nearing -columns of the mighty Russ on the north had but little place in the -bazaar-talk of Namengan and Khokand. At the time of the miscarriage -of Perovski's expedition Mehemed Ali Khan was seated on the throne. -He was beloved and honoured, and the dazzled masses were much too -wanting in ideas of conquest, to think seriously of self-defence -against the threatening foe on the north, or of Conolly's projected -alliance with Khiva. Not till after the death of Mehemed Ali ensued -the fall of Ak-Meshdjid, the first serious wound in the Khanat's -existence; and the Russian success was all the easier, because at -that time their fighting powers were crippled, on one side by -the fierce conflict between Kirghis and Kiptchaks in the interior -of the Khanat, and by the first attempt of Veli-Khan-Toere against -Kashgar on the other. The storming columns of the Russians against -the Khokandian fastnesses on either shore of the Yaxartes leave no -cause to complain of cowardice, although the thousands of Khokandian -warriors mentioned in the Russian accounts seem to rest on an -over-keen eyesight. - -After the capture of the last-named place, or, to speak more -correctly, after a systematic restoration of the chain of fortresses -along the Yaxartes, on whose waters the steamers of the Aral -flotilla could now move freely about, the Russian power advanced -with strides as gigantic as those with which Khokand, through the -continuous working of the causes above-mentioned, continually fell -away. The line of forts offered not only security against Turkestan, -but was also a powerful bulwark against the Kirghis, who, being -at length surrounded on all sides, could not so easily raise into -the saddle an _Ished_,[60] as the last anti-Russian chief styled -himself during the Crimean War. Thenceforth the work of occupation -was pursued by the court of St. Petersburg with its wonted energy; -and not till both the army corps, which were operating from the -Chinese frontier to the Issik-koel, from the Sea of Aral along the -Yaxartes, had drawn together southwards from the north-east and -the north-west at Aulia Ata, (_Holy Father_, an ancient place of -pilgrimage,) did Russian diplomacy deem it necessary to announce, -in a despatch signed by Prince Gortshakoff on the 21st November, -1864, that the government of the Tzar had at length obtained its -long-cherished desire to remove the boundary line of its possessions -from the ill-defined region of the Sandy Desert to the inhabited -portion of Turkestan; that the policy of aggression was now at -an end, and that its one single aim in the future would be to -demonstrate to the neighbouring Tartar states, with regard to their -independence, that Russia was far from being their foe, or indulging -in ideas of conquest, &c. &c. - - [60] _Ished_, which the Russians wrongly pronounce _Iset_, is a - usual contraction of "Eish Mehemmed," which signifies "Mohammed's - delight." - -That no Cabinet save the English placed any more faith in such -assurances than the Russian Minister himself, it is easy enough to -imagine. The tale of ever-recurring conquests from vanquished states -has long been notorious. We have instances thereof in every page -of the world's history, in every age in which some power has set -about enlarging itself. Just as the English are vainly apologising -for Lord Dalhousie's thirst for annexation, or absorption in India, -so are all Russian notes composed in a strain of overflowing -politeness. It is only the natural course of things; and the court -of St. Petersburg was right, could not indeed do otherwise, after -setting up a government in Turkestan, than follow the southern -course of the Yaxartes; and as the waste steppe formed at the -first no defensible frontier, neither could the thinly-peopled -neighbourhood of Tchemkend and Hazret furnish a better one. There -was need of a well-inhabited region, to provide against being -dependent merely on the means of communication from Orenburg and -Semipalatinsk. Therefore was Tashkend, rich and fertile Tashkend, -doomed to incorporation in Russian territory. - -It would be a profitless waste of time to quote as the main cause -of the Russian occupation of the last-named town, on the 25th June, -1865, the moving history of the petition of the Tashkend merchants, -of the numerous deputation that came beseechingly to the Russian -camp, to obtain the shelter of the two-headed Eagle, whom the -Central Asiatics call the _ajder_-kite, a bird not greatly beloved -of yore. Tashkend, which from time immemorial, lived at feud with -the masters of Khokand, was latterly very much enraged, because its -darling Khudayar was twice driven from his throne. To endamage the -dominant influence of the Khirgis by means of Russian supremacy, -was for it a welcome idea; but it is not at all likely that the -supremacy itself should have been generally desired. - -Russia has absorbed Tashkend, because she deemed it indispensable -as a firm base for further operations; not, however, with a view to -erecting therewith a bulwark against possessions already secured. -Still it was through Tashkend that the court of St. Petersburg had -embroiled itself in hostilities with the Khanat of Bokhara. The -Ameer, as we know, had earned for himself, through his campaign -of 1863, the nominal right of suzerainty over the western part of -Turkestan; and though after his departure everything fell back into -the old rut of Kiptchak lawlessness and party warfare, he still -thought to make good his right over all Khokand. He therefore wrote -the commandant of the newly-conquered town a threatening letter, -in which he summoned him to vacate the fortress. This, however, -gave small concern to the Russian general; and, hearing that -Colonel Struve, the famous astronomer, whom he had sent to Bokhara -for a friendly settlement of the affair, had been forthwith taken -prisoner, he burst forth on the 30th January, crossed the Yaxartes -at Tashkend with fourteen companies of foot, six squadrons of -Cossacks, and sixteen guns, with the purpose of going straight into -Bokhara and punishing the Ameer for the violation of his envoy. - -This design, however, miscarried. The Russians had to retire, -but did so in perfect order; and though countless hosts of -Bokharians swarmed round them on every side, yet their loss was -too insignificant to accord with the bombastic tales of triumph -which the Bokharians thereon trumpeted through all Islam, and which -even found their way to us through the Levantine press. General -Tchernaieff had excused himself on the plea that his hasty advance -was intended merely to baffle the movements of secret English -emissaries, who were striving with all possible zeal after an -Anglo-Bokharian alliance, and were also the main cause of his envoy, -Colonel Struve's imprisonment. In Petersburg, however, they could -not pardon his military failure: he was displaced from his high -command, and General Romanofski went out in his stead. The latter -moved forward with slow but all the more cautious steps. On the 12th -April a flock of fifteen thousand sheep, escorted by four thousand -Bokharian horsemen, was made prize of; and a month afterwards there -ensued, in the neighbourhood of Tchinaz, a fierce fight, called the -battle of Irdshar, in which the Tartars were utterly beaten. On the -25th May fell the small fort of Nau; and afterwards Khodshend, the -third town in the Khanat of Khokand, was taken by storm; but not -without a hard fight, in which the Russians left on the field a -hundred and thirty-three killed and wounded, the Tartars certainly -ten times that number. The battle, however, was well worth the -cost, for the fortifications of this place were better than those -of Tashkend or of any other town in the Khanat. This was the second -resting-point for the Russian arms on their march southward; and -though the "Russian Invalid," in an official report concerning -further projects, affirms that the conquest of that part of Bokhara -which is severed from the rest of their possessions by the steppes -could never become the goal of Russian operations, while for the -present it would be entirely profitless, yet progress has already -been made over Oratepe, through the small districts of Djam and -Yamin, as far as Djissag; whilst everywhere important garrisons have -been left behind. - -What has happened in the Khanat of Khokand itself during this -triumphal march of the Russians, is a point no less worthy of our -attention. The inhabitants, consisting of nomads,--OEzbeg, and -Tadjik or Sart,--were as much divided in their Russian likings and -dislikes, as they were different from each other in race, condition, -and pursuits. The warlike, powerful, and widely-courted Kiptchaks, -being ancient foes of the oft-encroaching Bokharians, who wanted -to force upon them the hated Khudayar Khan, immediately sided with -the Russians. Their friendship was for these latter an important -acquisition; and the friendly movement must have already begun, -when the north-eastern army-corps came in contact with them in its -forward struggle from Issikkoel; for if this had not been the case, -the Russian advance on that line would certainly have been purchased -at heavier cost. - -The OEzbegs, as being _de jure_ the dominant race, had defended -themselves as well as they could; yet with their well-known lack of -courage, firmness, and endurance, they had but small success; and -when they began to reflect that Russian rule would probably be no -worse a misfortune than the incessant war with Bokhara, or their -internal disorders, they prepared to accommodate themselves to -inevitable fate. Only a few angry Ishans and Mollahs maintained an -unfounded dread of Bokhara; the descendants, for example, of Khodja -Ahmed Yesevi in Hazreti-Turkestan, who, however, in all likelihood -will soon go back to the bones of their sacred forefathers, as -the Russians assuredly will not hinder them from collecting pious -alms among their pilgrims. Moreover, to the wealthier merchants of -Tashkend, to the Sarts and Tadjiks, and a small number of Persian -slaves, the Russian occupation seemed welcome and advantageous; for -whilst the former expected considerable profit from the admission of -their native town into the Russian customs-circle, the latter hope -to be rescued from their oppressed condition through the downfall of -OEzbeg ascendancy. As we may see from the correspondence addressed -by General Krishanofski to a Moscow journal, it was these very -Sarts who gave the Russians most help. Their Aksakals, not those of -the OEzbegs, were the first to accept office under the Russians. -In public places they always appear by the side of the Russian -officers, harangue the people, and while Russian churches were -getting built, spread about a report that His Majesty, having been -converted by a vision in the night to Islam, was on the point of -making a pilgrimage to Hazreti-Turkestan. From the length of their -commercial intercourse with Russia, many of the Tadjiks, especially -the Tashkenders, are skilled in writing and speaking Russian; they -serve as interpreters and middle-men, and as many of them reach the -highest places in the _mehkeme_ (courts of justice) and other posts, -the main motive of their adherence is easy to apprehend. - -So far has it fared with the main line of operations in the Khanat -of Khokand. On adjacent points likewise, both eastern and western, -has the work of transformation stealthily begun. From Chinese -Tartary we learn, that ever since 1864 the Chinese garrisons have -been expelled, and replaced by a national government. First came -disorders among the Tunganis, presently followed by the deliverance -of Khoten, Yarkand, Aksoo, and Kashgar; and although these disorders -may have been caused at bottom by the traditional delight of -the Khokandie Khodjas in free plundering, still many of us are -positively assured that the court of St. Petersburg countenanced -all those revolutionary movements; aye, and that the Kiptchaks, -who are now masters of Kashgar, were helped to win it by Russian -arms. Such is the usual prelude to Russian interference. For a -time these independent towns are permitted to carry on feuds and -warfare against each other; but it is easy to foresee that their -enmity will come to appear dangerous to the peace of the yet distant -Russian frontier; and if haply the court of Pekin be in no hurry to -restore order, the Russians are very certain to forestal it on that -point ere long. The English press comforts itself with remarking, -that the insuperable barrier of the Kuen-Lun mountains renders -further progress towards Kashmir impossible; and that this Russian -diversion is only for the good of Central-Asiatic trade. For the -moment, however, we will put aside the discussion of this question, -preferring to glance at that part of Central Asia which inclines -westward from Khokand. Albeit engaged in war with Bokhara, Russia -has hitherto made no attack on the real territory of that State, -for Djissag is the lawful boundary between the former and Khokand. -About this well-known seat of the struggle with Bokhara, there is -only a diplomatic skirmish, which still goes on, under whose cover -the revolution of Shehr-i-Sebz holds its ground. For, even if the -Russian press denies for the thousandth time all interference, yet -the appearance of the Aksakal of Shehr-i-Sebz in Tashkend cannot -be regarded as unimportant. It is, at any rate, noticeable with -reference to the Russian plans in Khiva. The settled portion of -the Khanat proper has not yet been touched by Russian influence, -and only in the north, since the destruction of the fortress of -Khodja-Niyaz, on the Yaxartes, have some Cossack and Karakalpak -hordes, skirting the eastern shore of the Sea of Aral, been -converted into Russian subjects. - - -2. RUSSIA'S FUTURE POLICY. - -Our sketch of Russian progress in Central Asia furnishes its -own evidence of the way in which the policy of the court of St. -Petersburg will follow out its purpose in the immediate future. - -The most southern, therefore the most advanced, outposts rest on -Djissag. This word, in Central Asiatic, means a hot, burning spot, -and its position in the deep, cauldron-like valley of the Ak-Tau -hills entirely justifies the name. Owing to its utterly unwholesome -climate, and the great want of water, the population of this station -on the way to Khokand is but very small; and that the Russians have -selected it for a more abiding resting-place, I cannot believe, in -spite of the aforenamed asseverations of the "Russian Invalid," -and in spite of the contrary opinion of the learned writer of the -article, Central Asia, in the "Quarterly Review." Not only is it an -unhealthy and barely tenable post; but a lengthened stay here must -also be acknowledged as most impolitic. The gentlemen on the banks -of the Neva know well what Bokhara is in the eyes of all Central -Asia, I might even say of all Mohamedans. They know that on the -Zerefshan may be sought the special fount of religious ideas and -modes of thought, not only for the mass of Central Asiatics, but -for Indians, Afghans, Nogay Tartars, and other fanatics. In order -to achieve a grand stroke, the Ameer, who styles himself Prince -of all true believers, must be made to recognise the supremacy -of the white Tzar; the holy and honoured Bokhara, where the air -exhales the aromatic fragrance of the Fatiha and readings from the -Koran, must learn to reverence the might of the black unbelievers; -and the crowd of crazy fanatics, of religious enthusiasts, must -acknowledge that the influence of the saints who rest in her soil -is not strong enough to blunt the point of the Russian bayonet. The -fall of Bokhara will be a fearful example for the whole Islamite -world; the dust of her ruins will penetrate the farthest distance, -like a mighty warning-cry. For this must the court of St. Petersburg -assuredly be striving, and ready to strive. - -From this stand-point it is therefore most probable that the -greatest attention will henceforth be paid to the line of operations -from Tashkend, Khodjend, and Samarkand. The conquest of the whole -Khanat of Khokand may also follow in time, for that offers no -special difficulties; but the chief interest lies in the maintenance -and security of the roads of communication, on which the advancing -army, in concert with the strong garrisons in the now well-fortified -Tashkend and the northern forts, as also with the governments of -Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, will move along a road furnished with -an unbroken line of wells. The Ameer may have recourse to all -possible means of gaining the friendship of the Russians, in which -he has hitherto failed; he may send to Constantinople as many -Job's messengers as he will; he may despatch ever so many friendly -invitations to the Durbar of the Indian Viceroy: but all that will -do him no good. The town of Bokhara shall, with or without his -leave, be governed by an Ispravnik; for the Russians dare not and -cannot rest, until ancient Samarkand and Nakhsheb (Karshi), or the -whole right bank of the Oxus has been absorbed into the gigantic -possessions of the House of Romanoff. That this catastrophe, this -last hour of Transoxanian independence, will not be brought about -so easily as the heretofore successes in Central Asia, is manifest -enough. Already in my mind's eye do I behold a frantic troop of -Mollahs and Ishans, with thousands of students, roaming the Khanats -with holy rage, in order to preach the Djihad (religious war) among -the Afghans, Turkomans, Karakalpaks; and going through scenes of the -deepest, the devoutest anguish, in order to draw down the curse of -God on the foreign intruder. The death-struggle will be fierce but -profitless. So far as I know the Khivans and the Afghans, I deem the -notion of a general alliance with Bokhara to be quite impracticable; -for, if such was their inclination, they should have formed one long -ago. No egotism, no political combinations, but the greatest want -of principle alone, an utter recklessness of the future, will keep -them quiet until Hannibal stands before their gates. In vain shall -we look for any effort after a general league, either in Central -Asia, or even among any of the other Eastern nations. As the very -warlike Afghans could play their part with a force of disciplined -auxiliaries, so also might the Khan of Khiva join the Ameer's army -with twenty to thirty thousand horse. Yet this is what neither the -one nor the other will do. To unite them under one command might -be possible for a Timur or a Djinghiz; and even then the smallest -booty might stir up rancour and dissensions in their ranks. So, too, -the hundred thousand well-mounted Turkomans, who inhabit the broad -steppes from this side the Oxus to the Persian frontier, are utterly -useless for the rescuing of the Holy City. Their Ishans, indeed, if -summoned by their fellow-priests in noble Bokhara and by the Ameer, -might do their very best to stir up the wild sons of the desert to -a holy warfare: but I know the Turkomans too well not to be sure -that they will take part in the _Djihad_ only so long as the Ameer -can offer them good pay and the prospect of yet richer booty; and as -they sometimes owned in Afghan-Persian offices, it is most likely -that the Russian imperialists will soon turn them into excellent -brothers-in-arms of the Cossacks. Enthusiasm for the creed of the -Prophet existed, if I remember rightly, only for the first hundred, -indeed I might say only for the first fifty years. What Islam -afterwards accomplished in Anatolia, in the empire of Constantine, -in the islands of the Mediterranean, in Hungary, and in Germany, was -due to the impulse of a wild daring in quest of booty and treasures, -and a hankering after adventures. Where these leading incentives -failed, there was a failure in zeal; and I repeat that, although the -struggle will be a stern one, the speedy triumph of Russian arms in -Bokhara is open to not the slightest doubt. - -With the fall of the mightiest and most influential part of -Turkestan, will Khokand, of her own accord, exchange a protection -for the manifest sovereignty of the white Tzar. Khiva however, -undaunted by the example, will, to all seeming, take up the struggle -nevertheless. The conquest of Kharezm, moreover, though easier than -that of Khokand, is connected with remarkable difficulties. With the -exception of two towns, whose inhabitants are better known through -their commercial relations with Russia, the OEsbeg population -of this Khanat abhor the name of Russian. In courage, they stand -much higher than the men of Khokand and Bokhara, and, protected by -the formation of their native land, will cause much trouble to the -Russian troops from the way of fighting peculiar to the Turkoman -race. As for the view upheld by many geographers and travellers, -that the Oxus will form the main road of the expedition, I am bound -to meet it with the same denial as before. That river, on account of -its great irregularity and the fluid sea of sand borne down upon its -waves, is hard of passage for small vessels, not to speak of ships -of war. Not a year passes without its changing its bed several miles -in the shifting ground of the steppes; and if the Russians were not -quite convinced of this circumstance, the small steamers of the -Aral-Sea flotilla, built as they were for river navigation, would -have begun forcing their way inland by the Oxus, instead of the -Yaxartes. For although the smaller forts, such as Kungrad, Kiptchak, -and Maugit, which were built on the fortified heights by the left -bank of the river, might do harm to a flotilla passing near; yet, -owing to the sad state of the Khivan artillery, they are hardly -worth considering. Attempts to pass up the river, from its mouths to -Kungrad, where the stream is deepest and most regular, have already -been tried; still, the fact of their remaining merely attempts, -clearly shows that the navigation of the Deryai Amus (Oxus), if not -altogether impossible, is a hard problem nevertheless. - -These, however, are but secondary drawbacks, and in Khiva, as in -Bokhara, the white Tzar will be raised aloft upon the white carpet -of the Kharezmian princes, if not through the grey-beards of the -Tshagatay race, at any rate by his own bayonets and rifled guns. - -The conquest of the whole right bank of the Ganges once assured -to them, the strip of land from Issikkoel to the Sea of Aral once -come into full possession of the Russians, and well provided with -excellent victualling-stores, then will the game of diplomacy -have begun in Afghanistan also. Among the Afghans the court of -St. Petersburg will not intervene so suddenly with arms in hand; -not because England's miscarriage in 1839 has made it cautious, -but because such a procedure is by no means customary with the -Russians. That, moreover, would be partly superfluous, partly beyond -the mark, amidst the now proverbial disunion of Dost Mohammed's -successors. Where brother rages against brother in deadliest feud, -where intrigues caused by greed and vanity are ever in full swing; -there the secret agent, the kind word, a few friendly lines of -writing, are much more profitable than a sudden assault with the -armed hand. Hitherto, in his brother-strife against Shere-Ali-Khan, -Abdurrahman-Khan has in no way entangled himself with Russian -agents, although he sought to frighten the English moonshee (agent), -by bringing some such conception to his notice. That he was greatly -inclined to such a step I have not the slightest doubt; but as yet -the Russians have given him no encouragement to take it. For if the -Afghan opponents of Shere-Ali-Khan, the Ameer accredited by England, -had received but the faintest wink from the Neva, they would never -have coquetted with Sir John Lawrence in Calcutta. Not only chiefs -and princes, but every Afghan warrior, nay, every shepherd on -the Hilmund, puts his trust in the idea of Russian trade; and I -have a hundred times over convinced myself how easily, indeed how -gladly, these people would embrace a Russian alliance against the -masters of Peshawar. Whether the fruits of such a friendship would -be wholesome, and conduce to the interests of Afghanistan, no one -takes into question. The Afghans, like all Asiatics, look only to -the interests of the moment, see only the harm which Afghans have -suffered in Kashmere and Sindh through English ascendancy, have a -lively remembrance of the last sojourn of the red-jackets in Kabul -and Kandahar; and though every one knows that the Kaffirs of Moscow -are very little better than the Feringhies, still, from an impulse -of revenge, they all desire and will prefer an alliance with the -North to a good understanding with England. - -Hence it is but a friendly regard, it is only a compact upheld not -by treaties, but by a strong force on the Oxus, which the Russians -can aim at for some time to come. - -The same kind of relation must be their object in Persia. Here -too, for the last ten years, has the court of St. Petersburg been -playing a lucky game. Since the appearance of Russian envoys at the -splendid court of the Sofies, in the time of Khardin, until now, -Russian influence has gone through many phases. At first scorned and -disregarded, the Russians have risen into the strongest and most -dangerous opponent of Iran. Whilst, in the days of Napoleon I., -England and France, to the profit and partial aggrandisement of the -Shah, vied with each other in turning to account their influence -at the court of Teheran, Russia, as "inter duos certantes tertius -gaudens," quietly smoothed her way to the conquest of the countries -beyond the Caucasus, to the profitable treaties of Gulistan and -Turkmanshay. And while the same Western Powers persevered in that -policy, the Colossus of the North took up such a position on the -Caucasus as well as the Caspian Sea, that its shadow stretched not -only over the northern rim of Iran, but far also into the country. -At the time of Sir Henry Rawlinson's embassy, English influence was -near being in the ascendant; but since then it has been continually -sinking; for however lavish of gold and greetings the English policy -might be in Malcolm's days, it showed itself just as cold and -indifferent from the time of Mac Neil downwards. Both the Shah and -his ministers seem urged on by necessity to accept the Russians as -their Mentor. It is not from any conviction of a happier future that -they have flung away from the fatherly embraces of the British Lion -into the arms of the Northern Bear; and the Shah must dance for good -or ill to the song which the latter growls out before him. - -If now, in accordance with the aforeshown position of the Russian -power and policy in Central Asia, we cast a glance on the frontier, -stretching for 13,000 versts wide, from the Japanese Sea to the -Circassian shore of the Black Sea, where Russia is always in contact -with so many peoples of different origin and different religion, -over whose future her aggressive policy hangs like the doomful sword -of a Damocles; we shall soon be driven to observe that, although -the southern outposts in Asia are on the Araxes, yet the only point -where, in their further advance, they impinge on a European power is -to be found in Central Asia. Separated twenty years ago from British -India's northern frontier by the great horde of the Khirgis and the -Khanats, the space at this moment left between Djissag and Peshawar, -although the difficult road over the Hindu-Kush lies midway, amounts -to no more than fifteen days' journey, and in reckoning by miles -to hardly a hundred and twenty geographical miles. For an army -the road, though difficult, is not insuperable, while it should be -tolerably easy for the development of political influence; and for -all England's readiness to see a mighty bulwark for her frontier in -the snow-crowned peaks of the Hindu-Kush, she forgets the ease with -which a Russian propaganda from the banks of the Oxus can smooth a -way hence towards the north of Sindh. From the moment, indeed, when -the Russian flag waves in Karshi, Kerki, and Tchardshuy, may England -regard this power as her nearest neighbour. - - -3. RUSSIA'S VIEWS ON INDIA; AND ENGLISH OPTIMISTS. - -Has Russia any serious views, then, on British India? Will she -attack the British Lion in his rich possessions? Does her ambition -really reach so far, that she would wield her mighty sceptre over -the whole continent of Asia, from the icy shores of the Arctic Sea -to Cape Comorin? These are questions of needful interest, not to -Englishmen only, but to all Europeans. On the bank of the Thames -as well as in Calcutta, statesmen have latterly answered them in -the negative; for their organs, official and unofficial, regard the -utmost danger of the meeting as a neighbourhood of frontiers, and -not an aggression; a neighbourhood which, so far from imperilling -English interests, will be altogether to their advantage. These -gentlemen are sadly at fault, for the spirit of Russia's traditional -policy,--her steadfast clinging to the schemes before indicated, -the unbounded ambition of the House of Romanoff, the immense -accumulation of means at their disposal for the accomplishment of -their designs,--place in surer prospect the fulfilment of any aim on -which they have once bent their gaze. Russia wants India first of -all in order to set so rich a pearl in the splendid diamond of her -Asiatic possessions; a pearl, for whose attainment she has so long, -at so heavy a cost, been levelling the way through the most barren -steppes in the world; next, in order to lend the greatest possible -force to her influence over the whole world of Islam (whose greatest -and most dangerous foe she has now become), because the masters of -India have reached, in Mohamedan eyes, the non-plus-ultra of might -and greatness; and lastly, by taming the British Lion on the other -side the Hindu-Kush, to work out with greater ease her designs on -the Bosphorus, in the Mediterranean, indeed all over Europe; since -no one can now doubt that the Eastern question may be solved more -easily beyond the Hindu-Kush than on the Bosphorus: for if, at the -time of the Crimean war, when Nana Sahib's brother was feted at -Sevastopol, Russia had held her present position on the Yaxartes, -the plans of Tzar Nicholas on Constantinople would not have been so -easily buried under the ruins of the Malakhoff. - -These far-reaching designs may not, perhaps, be the work of the next -years, nor even of the Government of the peaceful and well-disposed -Alexander; yet who can assure us that after him no Nicholas, or -no yet sterner nature than his, may succeed to the throne, who -will thwart the desire of a Taimur or a Nadir to come forth as a -thoroughly Asiatic conqueror of the world? What a Russian autocrat -can do in the present condition of Russia, in the present social -position of his subjects, who, moreover, will long continue such, -every one knows, and the statesmen of England best of all. It is, -therefore, the more remarkable, that these gentlemen should think -to put the said eventualities so easily aside, and to contest the -question of a Russian invasion of India with arguments so very -shallow. They usually bring forward the unpassable glaciers of -Hindu-Kush and the Himalayas, and the swarms of hostile nomads which -would hem in a force advancing from the north on its way southward. -They console themselves with the great distance, which would bring -an invading army to the Indian frontier tired and exhausted, while -the English troops lying by, ready to strike at their ease, and -strong in military zeal and training, awaited the shock of war with -greediness. But do these gentlemen believe that Russia, in the -event of her really cherishing these sort of views, would dispatch -her invading armies thitherwards direct from Petersburg, Moscow, -or Archangel? What end is served by the South-Siberian forts? What -by Tashkend, Khodshend, and still more afterwards, by Bokhara and -Samarkand? What, too, by the Persian-Afghan alliance? What did the -Cossacks and the Russian troops of the line do in Gunib, and in the -rugged hills of Circassia? Were they exhausted when they reached -their journey's end? And the latter station is not so much farther -from the capital on the Neva, than Peshawar is from the cities -just named! And why are we to assume that Russia would choose only -the difficult road through Balkh to Kabul, and thence through the -Khyber Pass, and none other? Without mentioning that this could have -been so fatal to the English army of 1839, which fled in affright -and disorder, for the march thither cost no especial sacrifices; -the road through Herat and Kandahar, the proper caravan-course to -India through the Bolan Pass, is far more convenient. The latter, -fifty-four or five English miles in length, did indeed cost the -Bengal corps of the army of the Indus many days' toil; and yet we -read in a trustworthy English author that the passage of 24-pounder -howitzers and 18-pounder guns caused no particular trouble. Or -why should the Russians not force the Gomul or the Gulari Pass, -called also the middle road from Hindostan to Khorassan, which, -according to Burnes, serves the Lohani Afghans as their main road of -communication, and offers no especial difficulties? - -It is too hard, indeed, to scatter the sanguine views of the English -optimists with regard to the strength of their fancied bulwarks. -The way through Kabul would have to be taken only in case of -necessity; for the chief points by which Russia could quite easily -approach the Indian frontiers are Djhissag and Astrabad; from the -former in a southerly, from the latter in an easterly direction. -Both roads have often led armies, time out of mind, to the goal of -their desires; for both, though bordered by large deserts, pass -through well-peopled, even fertile districts, which can support many -thousands of marching men with ease. - -Indeed, even the chances of an eventual war are greatly -over-estimated by the English. True, that their present army in -India, numbering 70,000 picked British troops besides the strong -contingent of sepoys, is not to be compared with any of their former -fighting forces in those regions. To throw as strong a muster across -Afghanistan into the Punjaub, would certainly cost Russia some -trouble. Still we must not forget how stout a support an invading -army would find in a Persian-Afghan alliance, and in the great -discontent which prevails in the Punjaub, in Kashmir, in Bhotan, -and among the fanatic Mohamedans of India. The ever-broadening -network of Indian railways may do much to hasten and promote a -concentration; but the fountain-head of military support for India -being on the Thames or the islands of the Mediterranean, is not -much nearer than that of the Russians, especially if we consider -that more than three hundred vessels sailing down the Volga make -the transport to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea considerably -easier. By this road may a large army be brought in a short time to -Herat and Kandahar through the populous part of northern Persia; on -the one hand through Astrabad, Bujnurd, and Kabushan; on the other, -by the railway as yet only projected to Eneshed. This railroad the -Tzar wants to build for the relief of the pilgrimage to the tomb -of Imam Rizah; yet through all the Russian promises of subsidies -there gleam forth other and non-religious plans. Or would people in -England, besides the no longer doubtful possibility of a Russian -design upon India, measure the political constellations which the -said power has called into being on her behalf, in the field of -European diplomacy? The Russian-French alliance of a Napoleon I. -and an Alexander I., which left noticeable traces in Teheran, would -now be much easier to enter on than before, owing to the dominant -influence of France in Egypt and Syria, through the commencement of -the Suez Canal. And these things apart, will not the ever-increasing -_entente cordiale_ between Washington and St. Petersburg prove of -signal advantage for Russia's purposes? People scoff at the way in -which the Yankee cap entwines itself with the Russian knout; and -yet the banquets on the Neva, at which American brotherhood was -vigorously toasted, the journey of the Tzarovitch to New York, the -mighty show made by America in China and Japan, where she threatens -to turn the calm face of ocean into an American lake;--do not these -things furnish ample reason for discerning in the alliance between -Russia and America symptoms of the greatest danger for English -interests? Indeed, when the decisive moment comes for acting, -Russia will be able to avail herself of many ways and many means, -which, however little worthy of notice they may seem to English -statesmen, will be carefully pre-arranged without any noise. - -Nevertheless, we are willing to allow that the actual shock will -follow only in some very distant future. Gladly, too, will we bear -to be pointed at as a false prophet. But how is it that English -statesmen will proclaim as harmless the more and more manifest -advance of their northern rival; how disguise and palliate the -mischievous menace of that rival's aims? - -The body of English politicians friendly to Russia is wont, -whenever this question comes up for discussion, to reply that the -neighbourhood of a well-ordered State is more acceptable to them, -than several wild nomad tribes living in anarchy and plunder. -An Englishman once asked me, whether I would not prefer to sit -beside an elegantly-dressed fine gentleman, instead of a dirty and -uncouth boor. People may wish success with all their might to a -Muscovite neighbour; yet to me it is not at all clear, why those -gentlemen should wish for the neighbourhood of a sly and powerful -adversary in the room of an unpolished but essentially-powerless -foe. What happened once in America, in the north of Africa, and -even on Indian ground, between rising England on the one hand, -and waning Holland and Portugal on the other, has often been and -will yet often be repeated in the pages of history. As in ordinary -life two strong, selfish individuals, will but rarely thrive in -one same path; so does the same impossibility exist in the case -of two States;--a fact, of which the long war between France and -England for the superiority in India furnishes the best proof. -Even if she followed the best aims, how could Russia, backed as -she is by the gigantic power of the whole Asiatic continent;--she, -whose policy for the last hundred years, has led her through desert -regions with a perseverance so great, at a cost so lavish,--refuse -a hearing at once to her own designs and to the insinuations of her -abettors? Will she have sufficient self-control to forbear from -profiting by the happy occasion which plays into her hands the -Mohamedan population of India, more than thirty millions strong? The -last-named, being the most fanatical of all who profess Islam, are -filled with unspeakable hatred of the British rule. Their religious -zeal, fostered on one side by Bokhara, on the other by the Wahabies, -goes so far, that, in order to drain the cup of martyrdom, they -often murder a British officer walking harmlessly about the bazaar, -and even give themselves up to the headsman's axe.[61] In India, -where religious enthusiasm has ever found a most fruitful soil, -Islam has revealed itself in the oddest forms. The brotherhoods -introduced in the days of the Taimurides, are there more powerful -and important than elsewhere; and not Scoat alone, but every place -has an Akhond of its own to show, whose summons to a crusade would -be followed by thousands. In spite of the manifold blessings which -English rule has secured to the Mohamedans, it is they alone who -form the nest of revolutions; they alone who gave most support to -the rebellion in its last disorders; they alone who take chief -delight in conspiring for a Russian occupation, and proclaim in all -directions the advantages of Muscovite rule. - - [61] Query--Hangman's halter? (Trans.) - -Should we not also take this occasion to think of the Armenians, -who, scattered through Persia and India, form single links of the -chain wherewith the court of St. Petersburg conducts the electric -stream of its influence from the Neva to the Ganges; aye, even to -the shores of Java and Sumatra? The hard-working, wealthy Armenians, -who in their religious sentiments are inclined to be more catholic -than the Papist, more Russian, more orthodox than the Tzar himself, -will assuredly not recommend the Protestant church and Protestant -power to the natives of India, to the injury of supremely Christian -Russia. How many zealous subjects of British rule in Calcutta, -Bombay, and Madras, are not enrolled at Petersburg as yet more -zealous promoters of Russian interests! Every member of this church -in Asia is to be regarded as a secret agent of Muscovite policy; and -if the moment came for a decision, the English would be amazed to -see what kind of chrysalis emerged from this religious, moral, free -and industrious people. - -How, then, can England look on with indifference, to say nothing of -her desire to have as neighbour a great and certainly unfriendly -power, in a land where such inflammable elements are to be found? -Trade will spring up, I hear from all sides; yet, to all seeming, -the prospect of the commercial advantages, which British statesmen -behold in Russia's oncoming, and in the removal of anarchical -conditions in Central Asia, rests rather on a pretended hope than on -true conviction. Is it not strange, that a people, so practical in -its ways of thinking as the English, should for one moment entertain -the hope that some profit would arise for England out of the plans -which Russia has followed up for years with toil, and expense, and -self-sacrifice; that English goods will get the upper hand in the -markets of Central Asia, as soon as they have passed under the -Russian rule? Henry Davies, in his commercial report, may point to -the considerable figures which the export trade through Peshawar, -Karachie, and Ladak, to Central Asia, has to show; and yet he must -allow that this would be ten times larger, were it supported by -English influence beyond the frontier of northern India. And in -the same proportion will it diminish, in which the Russian eagle -spreads out his wings over those regions. To Lord William Hay's plan -for laying down a commercial road through Ladak, Yarkend, Issikoel, -and Semipalatinsk, the Petersburg cabinet has given its seeming -assent; yet, in fact, nobody wanted to support the plan, nor will -it occur to any Russian statesman to carry it out. The Chinese are -far superior not only to the Russians, but even to the English, -in mercantile zeal; and yet they trade along the great commercial -road from Pekin through South Siberia only to Maimatshin, while -from Kiachta the Chinese exports are forwarded, mainly through -Russian hands, to Petersburg and Europe. And how fared the Italian -silk merchants, who, under Russian protection, found their way to -Bokhara, but were there arrested and robbed of their goods and -possessions? One of them, Gavazzi, lets us feel very forcibly -in his report, that he could never place full faith in Russian -letters commendatory, in spite of all after applications from St. -Petersburg. The products of English manufacturing towns are wont -to drive Russian manufactures out of every market. The merchants -of Khiva and Bokhara still carry with them Russian articles from -Nijni-Novgorod and Orenburg, which they sell to Central Asiatics -under the name of _Ingilis mali_, or English wares; such being -always in most demand among the latter. People in England forget -that plain dealing will for some time yet be wanting to Russian -policy, and that, on the commercial roads which its arms have -opened out, it will throw, of a certainty, in the way of foreign -interests, obstacles of a like nature, if not indeed the same, as -one now meets with from Afghan rapacity, from OEzbeg lawlessness, -on the commercial roads to the Oxus. In the year 1864-5 America -alone disposed of more than fifteen million pounds' worth of linen -and cotton goods, which was naturally possible only under the free -institutions of England. Do the gentlemen in Calcutta expect any -similar dealings with the Russians? - -Ephemeral, alas! are the calculations formed by people in England on -behalf of Russia's future policy with reference to India. Just as -the fabric of security which the statesmen of Downing Street are now -building within their brains, can soon be shattered to the ground; -so the arguments for a future _entente cordiale_ are but slight -indeed. Instead of a bootless refutation, we would rather point out -former mistakes, would rather touch on the means by which the danger -of a direct collision,--that most perilous of all games for English -interests,--may yet be avoided. - - -4. RUSSIAN GAINS AND THE DISADVANTAGES OF ENGLISH POLICY. - -In order thoroughly to understand the misconceptions of English -politicians concerning their Russian rivals, it is necessary for us -to consider all the advantages which the latter always enjoyed, and -still enjoy, on the field of action. In Europe, we are wont to look -with amazement on Russia's gigantic empire in Asia; and yet nobody -thinks of the means which have rendered essential service towards -the acquisition of it. The Russians are Asiatics, not so much in -consequence of their descent as of their geographical position and -their social relations; and it is only because with the Asiatic -_laisser-aller_ they combine the steadfastness and resolution of -Europeans, that they have mostly been a match for the Asiatic -races. In their contact with Chinese, Tartars, Persians, Circassians -and Turks, they have always shown themselves as Chinese, Tartar, -Persian, and so forth, according to circumstances. An English -historian says, pretty correctly, if not without ill-will, that the -Russians moved forward like a tiger. "At first, creeping cautiously -and gliding stealthily through the dust, until the favourable -moment admits of its taking the fatal spring. With smiles of peace -and friendship, with soft smooth words on their emissaries' part, -have they often averted every fear, every precaution, until the -certain success of their schemes made all fears profitless, and -baffled every precaution. Blind, therefore, and ill-advised must -every government be, which can go to sleep over Russian advances -towards its frontiers, be those never so slow, or the interval -between the conqueror and the goal of his endeavours be never so -great!" As Asiatics, they are wont to hold out less rudely against -their neighbours in manners, customs, and modes of thought, than -the English, for whom, on account of their higher culture, such a -renunciation would be a great sacrifice, incompatible with their -efforts after civilisation. They seldom offend against the national -ways of thinking, and easily conform to them when their interests -require it. In England the Government has hitherto disdained to -place itself in direct correspondence with the Ameer of Bokhara, for -what the chief city in Zarif-Khan obtained up to this date from the -British cabinet was always enjoyed through the Governor-General -of India. In Russia they think differently; and even the haughty -Nicholas, that stern autocrat, who long shrank from calling the -French emperor "mon frere," behaves, in presence of the Tartar -princes of Central Asia, not as Emperor of all the Russias, but as a -Khan on the Neva. As a result of such procedure, we find the nations -all along the Russian frontier of Asia, whether nomad or settled, -Boodhist or Mohamedan, in such a state of intimacy at this moment, -if not of actual friendship, with the Russians, as happens nowhere -else in the foreign possessions of a European power. - -These advantages, however, of Asiatic modes of thought, which might -properly be specified as excessive slyness and craftiness, are, -even in political intercourse, far more profitable than the open -and upright language employed on principle by Englishmen from of -old. It is only Great Britain's foes in Europe, only the enviers of -her power, who can find fault with the English in India; and yet -whoever is sufficiently informed as to their political dealings with -native princes and neighbours on the border, whoever is thoroughly -conversant with Asiatic character, will, in the utter absence of -this very defect, discover the one great fault of English statesmen. - -From the largest province on the Amoor, to the smallest of the -possessions latest won by Russia on Asiatic ground, may we always -find one same procedure of intrigues and wiles,--a scattering of -the seeds of discord, bribery and corruption, through the vilest -means,--all serving as forerunners of invasion. Men come first -through commercial relations in contact with foreign elements; then -the slightest differences come to be readily employed as _casus -belli_; failing these, the ground will be undermined by emissaries, -the chiefs bribed by presents, or bemuddled with lavish draughts -of vodki (Russian brandy), and drawn on into the dangerous magic -circle. A well-founded cause of war and of invasion would nowhere be -easy to discover; and certainly the gigantic empire of the House of -Romanoff has been builded up more through the wiles of its Asiatic -statesmen than by the might of its arms. Moreover, in consequence -of the qualities lately named, Russia is more conversant with the -relations of Asiatic peoples, far better informed of all that is -passing in the border-states, than the English and other Europeans. -To the great watchfulness of her emissaries, to the unwearied zeal -of her diplomatists, is she indebted for the fact that her cabinet -is often more quickly and fully informed of the most private -doings of her neighbours, than the particular native government -itself. Passing over the fact that, in Petersburg, a company of -the cleverest men can make money out of their experiences through -the different parts of Asia, there is here and there a Kirghis, -a Buryat, a Circassian, or a Mongol, who, after being trained in -Russian learning and modes of thought, becomes a most serviceable -tool against the wholly or half-subjected land of his birth. - -In England we meet everywhere with the sharpest contrasts. - -Whoever is aware of the great ignorance of public opinion in England -about events in India, about the relations between those great -possessions and the neighbouring States; whoever in the course -of a year has noted down those absurd and ridiculous news, those -telegraphic despatches in the English papers, which reach Europe and -England through Bombay and Calcutta; whoever is aware of the very -small number of English statesmen who are so carefully informed on -Asiatic relations, that they can pass a sound judgement on questions -of Eastern policy;--such a one must surely be amazed at the way in -which Great Britain founded her foreign possessions, to say nothing -of her being able to hold them until now. - -And just as even those among the English public who have lived any -time in India have kept aloof from the natives, in accordance with -their national character, and are but seldom conversant with their -language and manners,--so, too, can the English Government entrust -to naturalized Levantines, and not to Englishmen, the Dragomanate, -that necessary organ of mutual intercourse, in such important -embassies as that, for instance, of Constantinople. While Russia, -France and Austria, have long had Oriental academies for diplomatic -beginners; in England, with her rich dower of colleges, schools, and -universities, no one has ever thought of such an institution. And so -again in the legislative body as well as in the ministry, where the -smallest questions often have a special advocate, there are but very -few men competent to discuss the important relations in Asia; and -even these, on account of the prevailing nepotism, are but seldom -allowed to turn their experiences to account. - -This indifference must surprise all foreigners. Still more amazed -will they be to hear men of the liberal party say: "What does -Asia concern us; what the swarm of barbarous races that cause us -more trouble than profit; what the wealth of India, whose income -has long ceased to cover her expenditure, to say nothing about -the costs of the conquest?" I have often heard remarks of this -kind from the most famous leaders of this party. The sincerity of -their confession defies questioning; and yet they have always left -me without an answer, when I have asked them how they would make -up for the loss of that political influence which springs from a -great colonial empire. People seem wholly to forget that a large -number of young Englishmen, of all ranks, are pursuing military -and political careers in India; they seem to be unaware how many -sons of clergymen and officers, to whom no sphere of action offers -itself within their island home, earn wealth in lucrative offices -on the Ganges and the Indus, with the view of spending at home -in a calm old age the outcome of their earlier years. They seem -to leave entirely out of their reckoning the enormous number of -merchants dwelling in their great Asiatic dominions amidst the most -extensive commercial interests, through whose hands English capital -multiplies by millions. Those liberals are very short-sighted, who -deem the possession of such a colony as India an indifferent or -superfluous matter. That they should wish to see the greatness of -their fatherland founded on the flourishing condition of inland -manufactures, and not on their dominion over foreign peoples, can no -longer be regarded as a view generally valid in England, now that -more than sixty millions pounds sterling are laid out in Indian -railway undertakings alone; for that neither manufacturing industry -nor the enterprising spirit of English merchants can succeed, to any -great extent, without the supporting hand of English rule, is amply -shown by the circumstances of British trade in Algiers, Central -Asia, and other non-British territories. - -It is faulty views like these which neutralise all the advantages -of English individualism in the presence of Russian policy, which -always acts with steadfast consistency. To these errors may be -ascribed the fact that Russia, having grown up into a powerful -rival in a space of time incredibly short, is treading so close on -the Achilles-heel of Great Britain. With the position she holds on -the Aral and the Caspian Seas, after conquering the whole of the -Caucasus, after her enormous successes in Central Asia, it would now -be useless to try and force back that giant power. What might with -no great trouble have been attained twenty years ago, it is now far -too late to attempt; but if England would avoid the usual lot of -commercial states,--the doom of Carthage, Venice, Genoa, Holland, -and Portugal,--there is but one way left to her: a policy of stern -watchfulness, a swift grasp of the measures still at her command. - - -5. ADVICE TO ENGLAND FOR THE PURPOSE OF AVERTING THE DANGER. - -To think of moving out in open hostility to the growing power of -Russia, were now, on England's part, just as great an error as the -strange inaction she has displayed for the last twenty-five years -amidst all the occurrences beyond the Hindu-Kush. Russia will -establish herself on the right bank of the Oxus, will absorb the -three Khanats, and perhaps Chinese Tartary, will make everything -OEzbeg to acknowledge her supremacy. That can no longer be -prevented; but thus far and no farther should Englishmen allow their -rivals to advance. - -All that lies between the Oxus and the Indus should remain neutral -territory. Through her physical conformation, through the warlike -character of her inhabitants, and specially through their great -aptitude for diplomacy, Afghanistan would be altogether suited to -form a military and political barrier against any possible collision -between the two giants. That country would cost the conqueror, -coming whether from North or South, a tenfold harder struggle than -did the Caucasus. Besides, the possession would not for a long while -make good the material advantage of an expensive war; and although -the continual disorders that prevail in the mountain-home of the -Afghans may be of no advantage to either neighbour, still the danger -is not so great as to justify any schemes of conquest on one side or -the other. - -How, then, in case Russia continues her policy of aggression, may -England secure the neutrality of Afghanistan? What must she do to -set up with her influence there a solid barrier, without coming -forward as a conqueror? - -That is the work of a skilled diplomatic intercourse, the work of an -uninterrupted alliance, carried on by agents, who, acquainted with -the Afghan character, and eschewing English modes of thought, can -conduct themselves as Asiatics. - -The same fault which Lord Auckland committed in 1839, by his active -interference in Afghan affairs, that fault and one far greater still -did his successors prove guilty of, through their utter withdrawal -from the scene, through their strange indifference in respect of the -concerns of the neighbouring State. The English resemble a child -which, after having once burnt itself at a fire, will not for a -long time venture to draw near its warmth. The catastrophe of the -Afghan campaign, the thirty millions sterling in costs, dwell even -now, after a quarter of a century, with such fearful vividness in -the eyes of every Briton, that he trembles at the very thought of -political influence beyond the Hindu-Kush. Have we not here two -sharply-opposed extremes? First, armed to the teeth in support of -the interests of a prince so little loved as Shah Sujah; and then, -after the annexation of the Punjab, scarce willing to give one more -thought to Kabul! And why should the frontier above Peshawar be so -dangerous a barrier for every Englishman and European? If several -thousands of Kakeries, Lohanies, Gilzies, and Yusufzies, yearly -pass over the northern frontier of Hindostan,--some for mercantile -purposes, others to graze their flocks,--why should British -travellers not be allowed to venture over the Hindu-Kush, let alone -a few hours' journey beyond Peshawar? Afghan merchants drive a -flourishing trade with Mooltan, Delhi, Lahore: why, from the English -side, may not one mercantile firm or another betake itself for the -same end to Kabul? - -In truth, this state of things has always astonished me; the more -so, when I heard that the officer whom Sir John Lawrence sent to -Kabul to offer welcome to Shere Ali Khan had to be always escorted -there by a strong detachment of troops, to guard himself from the -rage of a fanatic population. This is surely a mode of proceeding -at once wrong and ridiculous, for giving Asiatics a lesson in -European magnanimity and European love of justice. England, who -has long dealt with the Asiatics after this fashion, resembles a -person trying with all his might to make a blind man comprehend -the beauty of one of Raphael's cartoons. In this respect Russia is -far more practical. She knows that such proofs of magnanimity and -humanity are only ridiculed by the Orientals; that, so far from -taking the example to themselves, they misuse those proofs for their -own special ends; and, instead of wasting moral preachings on them, -England would act shrewdly by helping herself to the same weapons, -and treating Orientals in Oriental fashion. - -At the time when the martyrs Conolly and Stoddart were pining in -cruel imprisonment, out of which they were afterwards delivered -only by the headsman's axe, there happened to be in British -territory a number of Bokharians, Khokandies, and other Central -Asiatics, by whose arrest the lot of the English officers might -have been alleviated, and their deliverance from death assured. -In such cases Russia is wont to clear herself from the dilemma by -the law of retaliation. England acts differently. She would play -the high-minded part; and what has she gained by it? When I was in -Bokhara, I heard how this very act of British generosity had missed -its mark. England, said the Bokharians, dares not awaken the wrath -of the Ameer of Bokhara: her weakness commands this moderation. - -Do the gentlemen in Calcutta imagine that the Afghans think -otherwise? No; and they likewise say: protected by the might -and greatness of Islam, our indigo and spice merchants, our -camel-hirers, can venture unharmed on British ground; whilst not one -infidel soul dares show himself among us. - -The same unpardonable weakness did the Viceroy of India show in -1857, when he was sent by Lord Canning to Peshawar to conclude, -in conjunction with Edwardes, an offensive and defensive alliance -against Persia with the then reigning Dost Mohamed Khan. At that -time the Afghans were hard pressed; they wanted arms and money: the -grey-haired Barukzie chief, attended by his sons, betrayed this -fact in every word; and yet his demands were fulfilled in every -point, without his yielding in the least to any of England's leading -claims. Four thousand stand of arms, with bayonets, sabres, pouches, -and twelve lakhs of rupees a year, were promised him, so long as -England was at war with Persia. Of this large sum they received, -even after the conclusion of peace at Paris, a considerable -instalment; and yet the chief end of the negotiations at Kabul and -Kandahar--the appointment of a permanent English representative--was -not attained. Dost Mohamed Khan avowed, as Kaye tells us in his -"History of the Sepoy War," that he would not take on himself the -responsibility of such a step; that he could not protect English -agents against Afghan fanaticism; that every step of theirs might -compromise, &c., &c. I cannot comprehend how John Lawrence, one of -the few men acquainted with Eastern character, could yield to the -endearments of the grey Afghan wolf,--how he could believe those -false apprehensions. If even Dost Mahomed could say that an English -mission might tarry in peace at Kandahar, why could it not fare as -well in Kabul? The British commissioners were greatly in the wrong -if they doubted even for a moment the supreme power of the Afghan -ruler. With a very little more persistency, the English, who then -appeared as helpers in need, might have obtained not two but several -posts of embassy. The Afghans would soon have grown used to their -presence, and the diplomatic alliance, once made easy, would have -been maintained unbroken. - -In a semi-official article, which appeared in the _Edinburgh Review_ -for January, 1867, Sir John Lawrence now strives to show how hard -and vain it is to enter into diplomatic intercourse with neighbours -so wild and turbulent as those who surround India on all sides. -Still, I cannot understand why the Viceroy should not take example -from Russia, who, with the same elements on her frontier, sends -envoy after envoy, knows how to obtain for them respect and safety, -and so keeps moving forward to her wished-for goal. Why does not -England pursue, in this case, the same policy which she once began -in China, Japan, and other Asiatic countries? It seems to me that -people are less convinced of the difficulty of carrying out such a -purpose, than of the extreme remoteness of the consequent gain. Or -are these gentlemen really unaware of the permanent support thus -rearable, not only for English interests in Afghanistan, but even -for the special welfare of the Afghans themselves? - -Sir Henry Rawlinson's diplomatic bearing in Kandahar, which enabled -him so long to maintain himself there with his suite in the most -difficult position, at a period the most critical, is a splendid -proof that even the rudest Asiatics are not unmanageable. And if the -said officer could accomplish so much in the threatening attitude -of a conqueror, what might not first have been attained through -political tact and friendly persuasion? - -The tangible results of uninterrupted diplomatic intercourse would, -if we mistake not, be:-- - -1st. A greater impulse given to trade; for, as English goods have -long enjoyed a good name in Central Asia, English products, imported -direct from England, could certainly drive similar but less-prized -Russian products out of the market. At present this is naturally -not the case: at this moment, in the bazaars of Kabul, Kandahar, -Herat, and other places, there is much more sold of many Russian -articles,--such as ironware and working tools, coarse cotton and -handkerchiefs,--than of English ones; solely because the former, -owing to the lower price at which they were first saleable, are -not raised by the additional payments to so high a figure as the -English goods, whose value, originally dear, is raised twofold in -the transit. Moreover, in Bokhara, here and there in Khiva and in -Karshi, Russian traders may be found who, secure in the energy of -their government, can of course advance their own interests better -than foreign mercantile agents. In vain should we seek for a better -apostle, a better pioneer for civilisation, than trade; in vain, -for a better teacher to turn men to our own ways of thinking, than -the silent bales of goods which are carried over from Europe; and -England, apart from her commercial interests, is bound, for the ends -of humanity also, to help forward trade in Central Asia. - -2. The Afghans, who, under the name of Ingilis or Feringhi, -have hitherto been acquainted with but one armed power, one -conquest-seeking neighbour, will easily, in the peaceful garb -of diplomatic intercourse, in well-meaning counsels, accept the -teaching of a better one. In the year 1808, when the Afghans had -little fear of an English invasion, the ambassador, Mountstuart -Elphinstone, with a numerous following, whose escort amounted -to only four hundred Anglo-Indian soldiers, was well received -throughout Afghanistan, for fear and mistrust had as yet taken no -root. Down to the beginning of this century the same state of things -might be found in all parts of the Ottoman Empire. European and -enemy were deemed identical things; but now, after our embassies and -consulates have pushed themselves, spite of the Porte's reluctance, -into many places, will Osmanlis and Arabs no longer cherish the -same sort of views? They have clearer notions about the generic -term, "Feringhi," and know for certain that Russia, for instance, -feels just as friendly to the Porte as England feels inimical; that -this government has one set of plans, the other another; and so -on. Without consulates such a result could not have been attained. -And so the Afghans, until they have been brought into nearer and -peaceful intercourse with the English, will never understand what -England or Russia may do for their weal or woes; whose friendship -will render them the more or the less service. - -3. The Afghans, most warlike of all Central Asiatics, might, -with the powerful support of English counsels, easily be raised -into a military power of some importance. What the _Instructeurs -Militaires_ of their day accomplished in the army of Sultan Mahmood -and Mehemed Ali Pasha; what English officers accomplished with the -troops of Abbas Mirza,--would be as nothing in comparison with -the consequences of a similar undertaking among the Afghans; out -of whom, so far as one may judge from the military bearing and -manoeuvring of a Kabul regiment drilled by Sepoy deserters, a -regular army will very easily be formed. Such a result may also -be attained with the fortresses of Herat and Kandahar, whose -fortifications, in the event of their coming under the charge of -a second Pottinger, would certainly prove a far harder prize for -Russian besiegers than if they were given over to the warlike skill -of Afghans alone. - -4. The prime gain, however, which we look for from a permanent -agency is, that England, being accurately informed of proceedings -in Central Asia, of the military and political movements of Russia, -will no longer be exposed to the danger of finding herself suddenly -surprised on one point or another, and, through the continual -uncertainty in which she wavers touching the true state of things, -of being disabled from taking the right precautions. At this moment, -the Viceroy maintains a few Moonshies without any official character -in Kabul, Kandahar, and Herat; Moonshies, that is, scribes, and -Mohamedans, who, being among other things well paid, are engaged to -furnish occasional news. Besides these, there are also spies, or -secret emissaries, despatched in this or that direction on special -conjunctures, who roam in the disguise of a merchant or a pilgrim -through Turkestan, and furnish tidings of political events. Letting -alone the fact that I regard both the former and the latter class as -alike unfit for such an office, because they never enter in their -memorandum-books anything but bazaar-reports and the politics of the -caravan, I may, as one who has lived whole years among Orientals, -be allowed to place the very smallest faith in those people. Do -persons in Calcutta consider what Mohamedan fanaticism is; are they -aware that no amount of gold will succeed in turning one Mussulman -to the account of the Feringhie against another Mussulman? To all -appearance these emissaries and spies will display the greatest -diligence, the most reckless loyalty, the most forward zeal; and -yet in the interior of Central Asia they will fulfil the commands -of their order by squatting on the self same carpet with those -religious comrades, with whom they repair to one common mosque. -On this point British statesmen will certainly not agree with me, -though that is the very reason why they are so little acquainted -with what goes on in Central Asia,--why the absurdest stories spread -through India into Europe,--and why they can regard the affairs of -the Khanats in the light which Russian diplomacy has kindled for -them. - -Far as I am from wanting to set up as a political advice-giver, -I find that these unpretending counsels point out the only means -whereby Afghanistan's neutrality can be secured, and herself erected -into a powerful barrier against Russia's further progress in Central -Asia. In view of so weighty a question as the possession of the -East Indies is for the greatness and continuance of English power, -it were too dangerous to seek a false protection in palliative -measures. Political errors, however trifling, form in time so many -links in one unbroken chain of disasters,--a chain which, presently, -the greatest struggles, the most clear-eyed statesmanship, may -trouble themselves to break in vain. - - -6. THE GENERAL INTERESTS OF THE QUESTION. - -It still remains to answer the one further question, why we cannot -look with indifference on the danger for English interests from -Russian ascendancy, and for what special reason it is that the -decline of England's power seems to us so detrimental, that we see -in Russia's undue influence a bar to the advance of the spirit of -our age. - -The answer is very simple: Russia was, is, and long will be -Asiatic. The cheering prospect that the overgrown body of Russian -power will, according to the laws of nature, necessarily break up -hereafter into two or more sections, and the danger that threatens -us be thereby lessened, is one which we cannot for a moment -entertain. We need only fix our eyes on the character of political -life in Russia, its social circumstances, the relation of the people -towards the upper castes of the governing circle, the general -state of popular culture, and the modes of popular thought, to see -how everything there is Asiatic, aye, wildly Asiatic in tendency; -and how little, in spite of the long struggle after European -civilisation, has yet been taken in, to speak comparatively, from -what we call European or Western life. Without repeating the -well-worn adage, "Scrape a Russian and you will lay bare a Tartar," -it is none the less impossible, whether from personal experience, -or the reports of later, and to Russia most friendly travellers, to -help acknowledging how much may yet be found, on the Neva and in -other large Russian towns, of that surface civilisation which many -Asiatic governments bring successfully to bear on short-sighted -Europe. No doubt this pretence of civilisation succeeds better in -Petersburg, wielded by a government containing a strong admixture -of Christian and European elements, than in Cairo, Constantinople, -and Teheran. The Russian noble, in appearance a finished European, -thoroughly versed in our language, manners and modes of thought, -will certainly cut a better figure than the semi-European Effendi -on the Bosphorus, or the Persian Mirza. A government which draws -towards itself, at a cost so heavy, so many scientific and artistic -forces, which has lately advanced with so much zeal in founding -schools, universities, scientific associations, which hires persons -in Europe to blazon forth the progress of Russian civilisation,--can -assuredly reap for itself greater credit than the Porte or the -Persian ministry, which, engaged in upholding their weakly -existence, cannot bestow so much attention on the needful pageantry. - -No wonder, then, if to a superficial glance Russia seems more -European, more imbued with the spirit of our civilisation, and can -easily win the sympathy of those who would love her with all their -might. But if once we try impartially to lift up the outer covering -and peep into the inside of the great Russian community, what shall -we behold? - -Great, indeed, is the disenchantment that awaits us at every step, -when we seek to discover in the majority of the Russian people those -traces of progress, which ought to exist according to the statements -of Russian hirelings in the European press. The Englishman who, -in 1865, in a pamphlet called "Russia, Central Asia, and British -India," sought to indoctrinate the English public with the same -idea, and, inferring the commencement of many reforms from the -bearing of such innovations as slave emancipation, placed such a -conversion in the foreground, though even Russian writers like -Herzen and Dolgorukoff are doubtful of it, would in all likelihood -have thought very differently, if he had drawn the parallel, not -between persons of intelligence, but between the Russian people and -the Asiatics. - -On that immense frontier where Russia touches Asia, we shall -everywhere find the Russians standing on a markedly lower level of -development, and in freedom of manners far behind those Asiatic -peoples to whom we would impart the advantages of our younger -European as compared with their old Asiatic civilisation. Alexander -Michie, a traveller from Pekin to Petersburg, and so great a friend -of Russia that he calls Siberia a second Paradise, and deems the -exiled Poles enviably fortunate, cannot, however, help proclaiming -aloud the superiority of the Chinese to the Russians, wherever -he finds the two holding intercourse with each other. And this -is the case not only in Maimadshin and Kiachta, but even among -the Mussulmans. The Russian, as a northerner, will display more -energy than the Asiatic _de pur sang_; but his remarkably dirty -exterior, his drunkenness, his religion bordering on fetishism, his -servility, his crass ignorance, his coarse, unpolished manners,--are -characteristics which make him show very poorly against the supple, -courtly, keen-sighted Eastern. Just as I have heard a cultivated -Moslem Tadjik in Bokhara speak with contempt of the uncivilised -Russians, whom he set above the Kirghis only, so in all likelihood -will every Chinaman, every Persian in Transcaucasia, and every -well-educated Tartar in Kazan, say the same. What can these nations, -then, learn from Russia? - -Can her forms of government awaken any envy in Asiatic races? The -corruptibility of the placemen, their tyrannical and arbitrary -conduct under Nicholas, the mass of more than fifty million peasants -who occupied the lowest of all positions beside the caste of -placemen and nobles,--all this really is not particularly alluring -for those among whom the wildest autocratic institutions are yet -combined with patriarchal mildness. - -Yes, it is hard, not only at present, but even in the distant -future, to discover in Russia's craving for conquests the prospect -of a profitable change in the social life of the Asiatic peoples, a -change in the direction of European ideas. If we ask ourselves what -has become of the Tartars, who for more than two hundred years have -dwelt under Russian protection; what of the great number of Siberian -tribes,--such as Bashkirs, Voguls, Tzeremisses, Votjaks,--which have -been or are on the point of being absorbed into the Russian nation, -must we not everywhere regard the Russianising as the chief result? - -Russianising is naturally a step from Asia towards Europe, as the -government of an Alexander II., so far as it has gone, may even -be called a turning-point: and yet who will blame us, if to this -wearisome process, whose results seem always doubtful, we prefer -the English scheme of civilisation, which has at this moment such -splendid and surprising results to show in India, and wherever else -it deals with Asiatics? - -That the peoples of broad India, of the land which has been the -cradle and the fountain-head of that Asiatic civilisation which we -show up and fight against as unfit to live, hold very persistently -to their old usages, to their own ways of thinking, no one will -dispute; and yet how great a change has come over India, even since -the beginning of the last century! Methinks, even the worst enemies -of Great Britain will be unable to deny that the caste-system of the -Hindoos and their many inhuman customs have suffered a mighty blow -from English influence. No one can deny that these wild Asiatics, -in spite of all their stiff-necked bearing, are advancing with -wonderful strides on the path of our civilisation. We find at this -moment in India a great number of people thoroughly convinced of -the blessed influence of their conqueror: numerous schools and -institutions spread the light of the new world abroad through all -classes of the population. Not only are there many well versed in -the English tongue; they also take an active part in our scientific -discussions, are enrolled as members of learned European societies, -and sometimes even take up the pen to emulate the writers of the -West. Rajah Radakant Deb Bahadur, Maharajah Kali Krishna Bahadur, -Baboo Rayendra Lala Mitra, a good many pundits (priests), and other -learned gentlemen, may be found on the list of French, German, and -Anglo-Asiatic societies, and are known in distinguished circles -by their works. Strong in their own sense of nationality, the -Hindoos are now better acquainted with their language, history and -philosophy, than ever they were in the days of their inland princes. -Societies are formed, as in England, for the extirpation of certain -prejudices, for doing away with so many shameful habits and customs, -for the advancement of social intercourse; and if we consider how -much the reading world increases day by day, how large a circle has -been procured from among the natives for such Hindustani papers as -the _Hirkara Bengala_ ("Bengal Messenger"), the _Suheili Panjabi_ -("Punjaub Star"), the _Audh Akbar_ ("Oudh News"), _Khairkah Panjabi_ -("Punjaub Wellwisher"), and how greatly the press is rising day by -day into a powerful factor of Europeanism, we shall be obliged to -own that England's subject races stand, in respect of culture, not -only above their yoke-fellows in Russia, but even above many of the -Russians themselves. - -If to the above-named unfitness of Russia for civilising India we -superadd the important circumstance that Russia, in thus absorbing -half the world, and blending many millions of Asiatics into her -own body, presents herself in an attitude of powerful menace, not -to Great Britain only, but to all Europe as well, we shall find -this immense predominance more hurtful to our own existence than -advantageous to the leading Tartar races of Asia. Russophobia, -we are told, is a foolish crotchet; and I am willing to think so -myself. Still, if we contemplate the mighty influence of the Russian -two-headed eagle in all parts of Asia; if we reflect, that through -its position on the Hindu Kush the court of St. Petersburg will -solve, in its own favour, the Eastern question on the Bosphorus, -it is hard to feel perfect peace of mind with regard to the future -destiny of our own hemisphere. The diplomacy of to-day, which pays -more homage to fashion than to good sense, makes merry enough with -Napoleon's prophecy regarding Cossack rule in Europe. But people -forget how much may be accomplished with our present means of -communication by a power which will extend from Kamshatka to the -Danube, or perhaps to the shore of the Adriatic,--from the icy zones -of the North Sea to the burning banks of the Irawaddy. Visionary as -it may seem to many, it is in nowise impossible that some hundred -thousands of Asia's wildest horsemen may readily follow the summons -of such a power into the midmost heart of Europe. In the beginning -of this century the possibility of such an inroad, a la Djinghis -Khan and Taimur, was shown by the Don Cossacks on the banks of -the Seine. And why might this not be repeated now-a-days, with -railroads and steamers at their disposal? Our European war-science -may overcome this savage power: no member of the House of Romanoff -could long play among us the part of a Djinghis or a Taimur. Yet -a struggle of that sort, however momentary, would evolve mournful -issues; and it is now a matter of pressing need to keep off the -approach of such an event, while measures of precaution are still -within our reach. - -Apart, however, from these far-reaching calculations, can any one -doubt that England's power and greatness are of more advantage than -Russian supremacy to the general interests of Europe? England has -many foes, or perhaps we should rather call them, enviers. Certain -voices in the continental press will always, under the sway of -passion, discover in her conduct selfishness, greed, and pride. -Enthusiasts will see the blindest materialism in every move; and -yet people must be blind and carried away by prejudice, not to see -the triumphs won by English greatness, English capital, and English -endurance, for our civilisation and our scientific researches. -Is it not England alone, whose powerful flag has opened Eastern -Asia to our trade? Who else but English travellers have been -driven by a daring spirit of inquiry into the farthest regions, -in order to enrich our geographical and ethnographical knowledge; -and what happens on the Thames, what in every other town of that -ever-stirring and busy island-realm? Do those haughty spirits -who are continually finding fault with English materialism, ever -consider that these brokers, in spite of their lively interest in -trade and money-making, still render the greatest service in the -advancement of science, in the enlightenment of the world? What -country is there, in which Government gives its millions so readily -for an institution like the British Museum; where a hundred thousand -pounds is laid out with so free a hand on the mere catalogue of a -library, as lately happened in London; where Government fits out -ships and expeditions in quest of an imperilled traveller, as they -have lately done in behalf of Livingstone? - -Yes; in spite of all her faults, from which no country is free, we -must allow that England, whether in consequence of the materialism -thus strongly censured, or of the thirst for power so often laid to -her charge, anyhow stands at the top of European civilisation. For -if France and Germany furnish indispensable aid in diffusing the -light of our higher civilisation, still, the chief agent is England -alone. With her flag emerges the day-dawn of a fairer era in every -zone, in every part of the world. What the enviers of Great Britain -tell us of her tyrannical behaviour, is mainly an untruth. It is not -at the writing-table and in easy arm-chairs, but in the countries -of the Asiatic world, that these sentimental fault-finders should -inform themselves about England's influence; and if they saw how -the march of our western civilisation drives out the vices of the -old Asiatic, how it seeks to upraise the downtrodden rights of man, -and freeing millions from the absolute sway of a single tyrant, -leads them on towards a better future, then assuredly they could not -remain indifferent to England's influence in foreign lands. - -And would it not be grievous, if Muscovite ascendancy should do harm -to such a State? The strong will of a free people governs on the -Thames; on the Neva the ambition of an Asiatic dynasty, a system of -government so framed that its capacity for reform in the future -remains doubtful, while its great perniciousness in the present is -all the more assured. - -Yes; only in Russia's approach towards India, that Achilles-heel -of British interests, may we discover the infallible sign of -serious danger for England. A greater struggle than that which the -British Lion had to encounter in the south with France, for the -establishment of its power on the Ganges, it has still to look for -in the north. The first-named foe, weaker in numbers and endurance, -had but a small fleet, and a sea at that time unnavigable behind -her back, and could easily be overcome. The last-named, on the -contrary, will be supported by an unbroken chain of fortresses, -garrisons, guarded roads; her weapons are a boundless ambition, the -blind devotion of millions of subjects, and the sympathy of rude -neighbour-states. Victory over such a power will be far less easy, -and the consequences of defeat far greater. - -Be on thy guard, therefore, Britannia! For if the star of thine -ancient fortune should now begin to wane, then will that verse-- - - "The nations not so blest as thee - Must in their turn to tyrants fall, - While thou shalt flourish great and free, - The dread and envy of them all," - ---have to remain unread in the different zones. - - - LEWIS & SON, Printers, Swan Buildings, Moorgate Street, London. - - * * * * * - -Transcriber's note: - -Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. -Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as -printed. - -Mismatched quotes are not fixed if it's not sufficiently clear where -the missing quote should be placed. - -The cover for the eBook version of this book was created by the -transcriber and is placed in the public domain. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sketches of Central Asia (1868), by -Arminius Vambery - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SKETCHES OF CENTRAL ASIA (1868) *** - -***** This file should be named 43795.txt or 43795.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43795/ - -Produced by Albert Laszlo and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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