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@@ -1,39 +1,4 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 -(of 4), by Richard Muther - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43792] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ASCII - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING, VOL I *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Laszlo and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43792 *** THE HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING @@ -122,9 +87,9 @@ CHAPTER II influences, and directs the tendency of French art towards the Low Countries.--Pastel: Maurice Latour, Rosalba Carriera, Liotard.--Society painters: Lancrat, Pater.--The decorative - painters: Francois Lemoine, Francois Boucher, Fragonard.--"Society" + painters: François Lemoine, François Boucher, Fragonard.--"Society" turns virtuous.--Jean Greuze.--Middle-class society and its - depicter, Jean Baptiste Simeon Chardin.--Germany: Lessing frees the + depicter, Jean Baptiste Siméon Chardin.--Germany: Lessing frees the drama from the classical yoke of Boileau, and, following the English, produces in "Minna" the first domestic tragedy.--Daniel Chodowiecki as the portrayer of the German middle class.--Tischbein @@ -136,12 +101,12 @@ CHAPTER II Robert.--Joseph Vernet.--Salomon Gessner.--Ludwig Hess.--Philip Hackert.--Johann Alexander Thiele.--Antonio Canale.--Bernardo Canaletto.--Francesco Guardi.--Don Petro Rodriguez de Miranda.--Don - Mariano Ramon Sanchez.--The animal painters: Francois Casanova, + Mariano Ramon Sanchez.--The animal painters: François Casanova, Jean Louis de Marne, Jean Baptiste Oudry, Johann Elias Riedinger.--An event in the history of art: in place of the prevailing Cinquecento and the "sublime style of painting" degraded at the close of the seventeenth century, a simple and sincere art - succeeds throughout the whole of Europe.--Return to what Duerer and + succeeds throughout the whole of Europe.--Return to what Dürer and the Little Masters of the sixteenth century and the Dutch of the seventeenth century originated 41 @@ -153,7 +118,7 @@ CHAPTER III shows no advance, but an unnatural retrograde movement, and notes in Germany the beginning of the same decadence which had happened in Italy with the Bolognese, in France with Poussin, and in Holland - with Gerard de Lairesse.--The teachings of Winckelmann, Anton + with Gérard de Lairesse.--The teachings of Winckelmann, Anton Rafael Mengs, Angelica Kauffmann.--The younger generation carries out the classical programme in the value it sets upon technical traditions.--Asmus Jacob Carstens.--Buonaventura Genelli 80 @@ -165,12 +130,12 @@ CHAPTER IV In France also the classical tendency in art was no new thing, but a revival of the antique which was restored to life by the foundation of the French Academy in Rome in 1663.--Influence of - archaeological studies.--Elizabeth Vigee-Lebrun.--The Revolution + archæological studies.--Elizabeth Vigée-Lebrun.--The Revolution heightens the enthusiasm for the antique, and once more gives Classicism an appearance of brilliant animation.--Jacques Louis David.--His portraits and his pictures in relation to contemporary - history.--David as an archaeologist.--Jean Baptiste - Regnault.--Francois Andre Vincent.--Guerin 98 + history.--David as an archæologist.--Jean Baptiste + Regnault.--François André Vincent.--Guérin 98 BOOK II @@ -184,7 +149,7 @@ CHAPTER V Influence of literature.--Wackenroder.--Tieck.--The Schlegels.--Instead of the antique, the Italian Quattrocento appears as the model for the schools.--Frederick Overbeck.--Philip - Veit.--Joseph Fuehrich.--Edward Steinle--Julius Schnorr von + Veit.--Joseph Führich.--Edward Steinle--Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.--Their pictures and their drawings 117 CHAPTER VI @@ -196,12 +161,12 @@ CHAPTER VI CHAPTER VII - THE DUeSSELDORFERS + THE DÜSSELDORFERS On the Rhine, a school of painting instead of a school of drawing.--Wilhelm Schadow, Carl Friedrich Lessing, Theodor - Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, Heinrich Muecke, Christian Koehler, H. - Plueddemann, Eduard Bendemann, Theodor Mintrop, Friedrich Ittenbach, + Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, Heinrich Mücke, Christian Koehler, H. + Plüddemann, Eduard Bendemann, Theodor Mintrop, Friedrich Ittenbach, Ernest Deger.--Why their pictures, despite technical merits, have become antiquated 157 @@ -217,7 +182,7 @@ CHAPTER IX THE FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM IN FRANCE Last years of the David school wearisome and without character, - except in portrait painting.--Francois Gerard, the "King of + except in portrait painting.--François Gérard, the "King of Painters and Painter of Kings"; his portraits of the Empire and Restoration periods.--Commencement of the revolt: Pierre Paul Prudhon; his pictures and the story of his life; Constance @@ -230,8 +195,8 @@ CHAPTER X THE GENERATION OF 1830 The revolt of the Romanticists against Classicism in literature and - art.--Theodore Gericault and his early works.--"The Raft of the - Medusa."--Eugene Delacroix: protest against the conventional, and + art.--Théodore Géricault and his early works.--"The Raft of the + Medusa."--Eugène Delacroix: protest against the conventional, and renewed importance of colour.--Delacroix's pictures; influence of the East upon him.--His life and struggles.--The Classical reaction.--J. A. D. Ingres and the opposition to Romanticism.--His @@ -243,17 +208,17 @@ CHAPTER XI Moderation the watchword of Louis Philippe's reign, in politics, literature, and art.--Jean Gigoux, a follower of Delacroix and an - inexorable realist.--Eugene Isabey.--Middle position occupied by + inexorable realist.--Eugène Isabey.--Middle position occupied by Ary Scheffer between the Classical and the Romantic schools; decline of his popularity.--Hippolyte Flandrin, as a religious painter a French counterpart to the Nazarenes.--Paul Chenavard, - compared to Cornelius.--Theodore Chasseriau; his short and - brilliant career.--Leon Benouville.--Leon Cogniet and his + compared to Cornelius.--Théodore Chassériau; his short and + brilliant career.--Léon Benouville.--Léon Cogniet and his pictures.--Transition from the Romantic school to the historical painters.--The great writers of history: renewed activity in this field: historical tragedies and romances.--Art takes a similar - course: popularity and facility of historical painting.--Eugene - Deveria; Camille Roqueplan.--Nicolaus Robert Fleury; Louis + course: popularity and facility of historical painting.--Eugène + Devéria; Camille Roqueplan.--Nicolaus Robert Fleury; Louis Boulanger.--Paul Delaroche; his popularity and its causes; his defects as a painter.--Delaroche's pictures.--Thomas Couture 255 @@ -264,9 +229,9 @@ CHAPTER XII France under the Second Empire; the society of the period not represented in French art.--Continuation of the old traditions without essential change.--Alexandre Cabanel.--William - Bouguereau.--Jules Lefebure.--Henner.--Paul Baudry: his pictures; - decoration of the Grand Opera House.--Elie Delaunay: his pictures, - decorative painting, and portraits.--The "Genre feroce"; + Bouguereau.--Jules Lefébure.--Henner.--Paul Baudry: his pictures; + decoration of the Grand Opera House.--Élie Delaunay: his pictures, + decorative painting, and portraits.--The "Genre féroce"; predilection for the horrible in art.--Numerous painters of this school.--Laurens.--Rochegrosse and his pictures.--Henri Regnault 278 @@ -276,14 +241,14 @@ CHAPTER XIII Belgium to 1830.--David and his school.--Navez, Matthias van Bree.--Gustav Wappers, Nicaise de Keyzer, Henri Decaisne, Gallait, - Biefve.--Ernest Slingeneyer, Guffens and Swerts.--The Exhibition of + Bièfve.--Ernest Slingeneyer, Guffens and Swerts.--The Exhibition of Belgian pictures in Germany 301 CHAPTER XIV THE REVOLUTION OF THE GERMAN COLOURISTS - Anselm Feuerbach, Victor Mueller.--The Berlin school: Rudolf + Anselm Feuerbach, Victor Müller.--The Berlin school: Rudolf Henneberg, Gustav Richter, Knille, Schrader, and others.--The Munich school: Piloty, Hans Makart, Gabriel Max.--The historical painters and the end of the illustrative painting of history 317 @@ -294,7 +259,7 @@ CHAPTER XV The Historical Picture of Manners as opposed to Historical Painting, an advance in the direction of intimacy of feeling.--The - Antique Picture of Manners: Charles Gleyre, Louis Hamon, Gerome, + Antique Picture of Manners: Charles Gleyre, Louis Hamon, Gérôme, Gustave Boulanger.--The Picture of Costume from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.--France: Charles Comte, Alexander Hesse, Camille Roqueplan.--Belgium: Alexander Markelbach, Florent @@ -320,9 +285,9 @@ PLATES IN COLOUR GAINSBOROUGH: The Sisters 38 GREUZE: The Milkmaid 58 CHARDIN: The House of Cards 64 - WATTEAU: Fete Champetre 74 + WATTEAU: Fête Champêtre 74 ANGELICA KAUFFMANN: Portrait of a Lady as a Vestal 86 - ELIZABETH VIGEE-LEBRUN: Portrait of the Painter with her + ELIZABETH VIGÉE-LEBRUN: Portrait of the Painter with her Daughter 100 CORNELIUS: "Let there be Light" 144 SCHWIND: The Wedding Journey 182 @@ -344,8 +309,8 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE BENDEMANN, EDUARD. The Lament of the Jews 165 - BIEFVE, EDOUARD. - Portrait of Biefve 314 + BIÈFVE, EDOUARD. + Portrait of Bièfve 314 The League of the Nobles of the Netherlands 315 BOUGUEREAU, WILLIAM ADOLPHE. @@ -362,11 +327,11 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Children of the Night 92 Priam and Achilles 93 - CHARDIN, JEAN SIMEON. + CHARDIN, JEAN SIMÉON. Portrait of Himself 63 Grace before Meat 65 - CHASSERIAU, THEODORE. + CHASSÉRIAU, THÉODORE. Apollo and Daphne 259 CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL. @@ -376,7 +341,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE The Morning Compliment 70 The Artist's Nursery 71 - COGNIET, LEON. + COGNIET, LÉON. Tintoretto Painting his Dead Daughter 261 The Massacre of the Innocents 263 @@ -395,14 +360,14 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS. Portrait of David 102 - Madame Recamier 103 + Madame Récamier 103 The Oath of the Horatii 105 The Rape of the Sabines 107 Helen and Paris 109 Belisarius asking Alms 111 The Death of Marat 113 - DELACROIX, EUGENE. + DELACROIX, EUGÈNE. Portrait of Delacroix 226 Dante's Bark 227 Hamlet and the Grave-diggers 230 @@ -419,7 +384,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE The Princes in the Tower 267 Strafford on his Way to Execution 269 - DELAUNAY, ELIE. + DELAUNAY, ÉLIE. Diana 293 Boys Singing 294 Madame Toulmouche 295 @@ -434,8 +399,8 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Medea 327 Dante Walking with High--born Ladies of Ravenna 329 - FUeHRICH, JOSEPH. - Portrait of Fuehrich 126 + FÜHRICH, JOSEPH. + Portrait of Führich 126 From the "Legend of St. Gwendolin" 127 Ruth and Boaz 128 The Departure of the Prodigal Son 129 @@ -459,21 +424,21 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Odysseus and the Sirens 96 Portrait of Genelli 97 - GERARD, FRANCOIS. - Portrait of Gerard 190 + GÉRARD, FRANÇOIS. + Portrait of Gérard 190 Mlle. Brongniart 191 Madame Visconti 192 Cupid and Psyche 193 - Madame Recamier 194 + Madame Récamier 194 - GERICAULT, THEODORE. - Portrait of Gericault 221 + GÉRICAULT, THÉODORE. + Portrait of Géricault 221 The Wounded Cuirassier 222 Chasseur 223 The Raft of the Medusa 224 The Start 225 - GEROME, LEON. + GÉRÔME, LÉON. The Cock-fight 367 GESSNER, SALOMON. @@ -529,7 +494,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE The Rake's Progress (Plate II.) 14 The Rake's Progress (Plate VII.) 15 The Rake's Progress (Plate VIII.) 16 - Marriage a la Mode (Plate V.) 17 + Marriage à la Mode (Plate V.) 17 The Enraged Musician 18 Gin Lane 19 @@ -561,7 +526,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE LAURENS, JEAN PAUL. The Interdict 298 - LEFEBURE, JULES. + LEFÉBURE, JULES. Truth 283 LESSING, CARL FRIEDRICH. @@ -575,7 +540,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Mother and Child 372 LUMINAIS, EVARISTE. - Les Enerves de Jumieges 297 + Les Énervés de Jumièges 297 MAKART, HANS. Portrait of Makart 341 @@ -596,7 +561,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Portrait of Mayer 201 The Dream of Happiness 202 The Tomb of Prudhon and Constance Mayer at - Pere-Lachaise 203 + Père-Lachaise 203 MEISSONIER, ERNEST. The Man at the Window 373 @@ -651,7 +616,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE La Nuit 207 L'enjouir 208 Marguerite 209 - Les Petits Devideurs 210 + Les Petits Dévideurs 210 The Vintage 211 The Virgin 212 Christ Crucified 213 @@ -707,7 +672,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE From the Story of the Seven Ravens 179 A Hermit leading Horses to a Pool 181 Nymphs and Stag 184 - Ruebezahl 185 + Rübezahl 185 The Fairies' Song 187 SLINGNEYER, ERNEST. @@ -727,7 +692,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE Book Illustration 134 The Violin Player 135 - SYLVESTRE, JOSEPH NOEL. + SYLVESTRE, JOSEPH NOËL. Locusta Testing in Nero's Presence the Poison prepared for Britannicus 296 @@ -744,7 +709,7 @@ IN BLACK AND WHITE WATTEAU, ANTOINE. Portrait of Watteau 56 - La Partie Carree 57 + La Partie Carrée 57 The Music Party 73 The Return from the Chase 74 @@ -818,7 +783,7 @@ most directly opposed to the Romance. They disdain to ingratiate themselves into men's minds by outward grace of form, but win the heart by their deep religious feeling and intimate sensibility. They are German to the core, racial even to the stiffness of the German -character, but full of feeling and truth to life. Duerer in his woodcuts +character, but full of feeling and truth to life. Dürer in his woodcuts and copper engravings is "_inwendig voller figur_"; in them he offers the "concentrated, homely treasure of his heart." Holbein is great by the incomparably real art of his portraits. The century of that joyous @@ -969,7 +934,7 @@ speech, depending on a foundation of the established canonical works of old, is not their own but borrowed. In others, on the contrary, who, apart from the dominating tendency, had the courage rather to be insignificant, and yet remain themselves, observing with their own eyes -nature which surrounded them, or naively abandoning themselves to the +nature which surrounded them, or naïvely abandoning themselves to the disposition of their artistic fantasy, in them will be seen the essential vehicles of the modern spirit. And then it will be apparent that the art of the nineteenth century as well as that of every earlier @@ -1038,7 +1003,7 @@ the world from France, was hardly suitable. To the cold Classicism represented by Pope, there succeeded in English literature--far earlier than was the case elsewhere--the delineation of what was immediately contemporary. At the same time that Mdlle. de -Scudery--when it was a question of describing the court of the Great +Scudéry--when it was a question of describing the court of the Great King, the society of Louis XIV--felt herself bound to translate her theme into the antique and write a _Cyrus_, the English novel had taken its motives from actual life. Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_ is the first @@ -1081,7 +1046,7 @@ come over to England with the "glorious revolution," with William of Orange and Queen Anne; whilst in Holland itself the French invasion of 1672 had caused a reaction to the courtly idea, against which the English took up an attitude of conscious and rigid protest. This -opposition is clearly expressed by the English aesthetic writers. +opposition is clearly expressed by the English æsthetic writers. The most important name to be mentioned is that of Shaftesbury. Beneath the favour of the court in France, he says, art has suffered. We @@ -1091,7 +1056,7 @@ breed, by means of his pensions, a race of flattering Court painters. Our civil liberty affords us a sufficient foundation, and our liberty leads us to _absolute verity_ in art. -Thus did Shaftesbury enunciate his leading aesthetic doctrine; it was his +Thus did Shaftesbury enunciate his leading æsthetic doctrine; it was his constant message, and it was constantly repeated with great emphasis: "All beauty is truth." "The search after truth leads you to nature." "Truth is the mightiest thing in the world, since it exercises sovereign @@ -1135,7 +1100,7 @@ not be possible, with the help of education, for that to be overcome? And so Shaftesbury's view of art comprised a third, and very dangerous, element; namely, that to fulfil the most serious mission of that culture which had ensued from the free and natural conditions in England--even -in the realm of aesthetics--the painter, like the poet, must appear as +in the realm of æsthetics--the painter, like the poet, must appear as the moral teacher of his age. Imagine an artist who fulfils these conditions and you have, as a result, _Hogarth_, with all his qualities and defects. @@ -1186,13 +1151,13 @@ wine-bibbers, in gambling hells, in rooms of poets, in cellars of highwaymen, in the death-chambers of fallen maidens. "The Harlot's Progress," which he produced in a series of pictures, brought him his first success. He then published further series of similar careers over -crooked courses--"The Rake's Progress," "Marriage a la Mode." He painted +crooked courses--"The Rake's Progress," "Marriage à la Mode." He painted the rabble of London, their society and their morals; those who went in cotton and rags and those in satin and silk. In his writings he censures the old painters plainly because in their historical style they had quite passed over the middle classes. And he went with great knowledge to these new subjects. In the National Gallery, which possesses the -originals of "Marriage a la Mode," one is astounded at the technical +originals of "Marriage à la Mode," one is astounded at the technical qualities of Hogarth's painting. Whoever has been misled by the engraved reproductions, and looks for bad, distorted drawing, may here learn to know him as a painter in the fullest sense of the word. There is no sign @@ -1210,11 +1175,11 @@ hardly one of his predecessors. Against these qualities it must be understood that an equal number of defects is to be set off. The inartistic part of him was that he -followed the aesthetic theories of the age, and looked upon art as merely +followed the æsthetic theories of the age, and looked upon art as merely a means to ends alien to itself. With him painting was an instrument to disseminate the inventions of his poetic-satiric humour; it was a form of speech to him. He is not unjustly called on that account a comedian -of the pencil, the Moliere of painting. We look at other pictures, but +of the pencil, the Molière of painting. We look at other pictures, but his we read. The commentaries on them are in some respects the rendering back of the pictures into their proper element. Lessing called the drama his pulpit; with Hogarth his art was a pulpit. He wanted, like Hamlet, @@ -1261,7 +1226,7 @@ again in the madhouse. The third and most famous series was completed many years after the "Rake"--in 1745. Hogarth has admittedly taken particular pains with the -six oil paintings of "Marriage a la Mode," which have been placed in the +six oil paintings of "Marriage à la Mode," which have been placed in the National Gallery; and these painted novels reveal in strength and beauty of execution the high-water mark of his work as a painter. The whole is quieter, simpler, less overloaded with ingenious accessories. The @@ -1297,7 +1262,7 @@ characterised his art, in these words-- Whose pictured morals charm the mind, And through the eye correct the heart." -[Illustration: HOGARTH. MARRIAGE A LA MODE, PLATE V.] +[Illustration: HOGARTH. MARRIAGE À LA MODE, PLATE V.] Hogarth painted stirring and humorous scenes, full of effective morality, with which he sought to cheer, terrify, and improve humanity. @@ -1423,7 +1388,7 @@ all that fell into his hands in the way of woodcuts and copper engravings. One of the earliest drawings which remain from his childhood represents the interior of a library. At the age of nineteen he came to London to a well-known master, Hudson, the favourite painter with the -gentry of the day, who required L120 with a pupil. He was already +gentry of the day, who required £120 with a pupil. He was already convinced that only in London could he find the means to attain fame, and even as early as 1744 he took a fine establishment and kept open house in order to attract attention. He was soon in a position to @@ -1486,7 +1451,7 @@ early as 1755, when Hogarth was compelled to give up portrait painting for lack of patrons, one hundred and twenty-five persons sat for Reynolds, and after that about one hundred and fifty people were painted by him annually; and this brought him in a yearly income of about -L16,000. +£16,000. [Illustration: REYNOLDS. GARRICK AS ABEL DRUGGER.] @@ -1555,7 +1520,7 @@ time said to be the work of Johnson or Burke. [Illustration: REYNOLDS. SAMUEL RICHARDSON.] -They are aesthetic treatises and essays in the history of art, of an +They are æsthetic treatises and essays in the history of art, of an enduring value. Originating from a vast insight, and expressed in a precise style, they treat of the laws of classic art, the variation in styles, the causes of the finest bloom in art. Certainly eclecticism is @@ -1579,8 +1544,8 @@ the great, caressed by sovereign powers and celebrated by distinguished poets, ... the loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow." He was buried with great pomp in St. Paul's Cathedral. The pictures left unfinished at his death fetched at -auction L37,000; the whole fortune which he left is estimated at -L80,000. +auction £37,000; the whole fortune which he left is estimated at +£80,000. The biography of _Thomas Gainsborough_ reads quite differently. @@ -1613,7 +1578,7 @@ birthplace, he trained himself. At the age of ten he was a painter. A sojourn of four years in London seems to have added little to his ability. Elegant in his manners, lively in his conversation, a born gentleman, he might have become completely the man of fashion. But he -was far too diffident, with his naive simplicity, to force himself +was far too diffident, with his naïve simplicity, to force himself amongst the stars of the world of art in London, far too distinguished and retiring to join in the race after the favour of the public, and so at the age of eighteen he returned to his native place with the @@ -1752,7 +1717,7 @@ were, she had, when still a child, joined her parents on their Thespian pilgrimages, and had had many engagements in the provinces, at Birmingham, Manchester, and Bath, before she was recruited by the playwright Sheridan for the Drury Lane company in London. She made her -_debut_ there on 10th October 1782, and was hailed forthwith as the +_début_ there on 10th October 1782, and was hailed forthwith as the greatest actress of her time. Lady Macbeth was her great part; in that she was painted both by Romney and Lawrence. Reynolds painted her as the Tragic Muse. A diadem encircles her hair, she sits upon a throne, the @@ -1811,7 +1776,7 @@ school, which had hitherto possessed no perfected tradition of painting, technically on firm feet. He was the founder of a scientific technique of painting derived from the ancients,--the Lenbach of the eighteenth century. Upon the mixture of colours, the gradations of light and shade, -technically and aesthetically, no artist has pondered more than he, who +technically and æsthetically, no artist has pondered more than he, who knew the great Netherlanders, Rubens, Van Dyck, and Rembrandt, as well as, or better than, his particular favourites, the Italians. He made experiments all his life long to discover the stone of the wise @@ -1873,7 +1838,7 @@ often faulty, but in his best pictures has a charm to which those of the President of the Academy never attained. Gainsborough, too, at his death murmured the name of an old master. "We are all going to Heaven, and Van Dyck is of the company." But what distinguishes him from Reynolds, and -gives him a character of greater originality, is just his naive +gives him a character of greater originality, is just his naïve independence of the ancients, which resulted partly from the different nature of his education in art. Reynolds had lived for two years in Rome and explored all the principal cities of Italy, had visited Flanders and @@ -2069,7 +2034,7 @@ is said that he only sent half a dozen landscapes to the Academy during the eighteen years that he exhibited there. On the other hand, they hung in his house in Pall Mall in long rows on the walls of his studio. After his death his widow held a sale, at which fifty-six landscapes were -sold. Gainsborough must be accounted one of the moderns, so naive and +sold. Gainsborough must be accounted one of the moderns, so naïve and intimate is the impression which his pictures produce. He, who passed his whole youth in the idyllic loveliness of the woods, was fitted to be the delineator of that mellow English nature. He understood the murmur @@ -2149,13 +2114,13 @@ controversy, full of _Sturm und Drang_. Men did homage to every kind of extravagance, and went into ecstasies over virtue. The sarcasm of scoffers went hand in hand with the deepest sentimental feeling for nature; superstition flourished by the side of enlightenment and -learning; in the _salons_ of the aristocracy courtly abbes file past +learning; in the _salons_ of the aristocracy courtly abbés file past with the greatest thinkers, glowing with a holy zeal for the rights of man. And, in the midst of all this contradiction, there exists that simple, virtuous middle class which is preparing to make the ascent which will lead it to power. -One may imagine oneself in a salon of the _ancien regime_, in which wit +One may imagine oneself in a salon of the _ancien régime_, in which wit is lord, and laughter and merriment reign. Into that salon enters abruptly a rough plebeian, with none of the fine tact of that company, yet a great, aristocratic spirit, a man who despised such a society and @@ -2212,7 +2177,7 @@ comparison with which those of Rome and Sparta would be convents of nuns." In a loud voice _Ficsco_ proclaims itself on the very title-page to be a "republican" tragedy. _Intrigue and Love_ even aims full at the rottenness and corruption of the actual time. It can be traced--and -Brandes has done it in his _Haupstroemungen_--how in the literature of +Brandes has done it in his _Haupströmungen_--how in the literature of the age, the life of sensibility and idealism prevailing in the previous century gradually dwindles, and in its stead quite modern progressive views--religious, political, and social--surge up in an ever-increasing @@ -2230,7 +2195,7 @@ world. A wonderful chance ordained that, in the province of art, the most powerful figure of that storm and tumult, the one artist of the age of the race of Prometheus, to which belonged the young Goethe and the young -Schiller, should be born in the most mediaeval country in Europe, on +Schiller, should be born in the most mediæval country in Europe, on Spanish soil. Against an art that was more catholic than catholicism, courtly and mystical, there came by far the greatest reaction in Goya. From Roelas, Collantes, and Murillo to him there is hardly any @@ -2256,7 +2221,7 @@ in Goya revolutionary, free, modern. GOYA. THE MAJA CLOTHED.] Goya is, in his whole nature, a modern man, a restless, feverish soul; -nervous as a _decadent_; temperament to his finger-tips. His style in +nervous as a _décadent_; temperament to his finger-tips. His style in portraiture, his art of composition, his whole method,--all speak to our artists to-day in a language easily understood, and on many of them the influence of Goya is unmistakable. He is one of the most fascinating @@ -2345,7 +2310,7 @@ Academy of San Fernando in 1780, Pintor del Rey, with an income of Madrid Academy--the drollest Director of an Academy that man can imagine! Goya, the peasant youth, with his bull neck and matador-like strength, lived at the Spanish Court in the midst of the enervated -scions of a dissolute aristocracy, who, with their sickly and anaemic +scions of a dissolute aristocracy, who, with their sickly and anæmic features, indolent and impotent, skulked through life, young men prematurely old. Naturally he was the idol of the women, hated by the courtiers on account of his caustic wit, a terror to all husbands @@ -2367,7 +2332,7 @@ the Cross," therefore, in the Museo del Prado, is simply tedious, a bad academical study. His frescoes in San Antonio de la Florida, at Madrid, exhibit a pretty, decorative motive--considerable movement, grace, and spirit. But amongst them are angels who sit there most irreverently, -and, with a laugh of challenge, throw out their legs _a la_ Tiepolo. The +and, with a laugh of challenge, throw out their legs _à la_ Tiepolo. The chief picture represents St. Antony of Padua raising a man from the dead. But all that interested him in it were the lookers-on. On a balustrade all around he has brought in the lovely, dainty faces of @@ -2438,7 +2403,7 @@ observer, who depicts with sensitive devotion the harmonious lines of the irradiating, young, human body so worthy of celebration. The transparent stuff that covers the body of "La Maja clothed" reveals all that it hides; in the other picture the unveiled nudity sings the high -paean of the flesh. The drawing is sure, the modelling of a marvellous +pæan of the flesh. The drawing is sure, the modelling of a marvellous tenderness. The heaving bosom, the slender limbs, the tantalising eyes--every part of that nervous body, with its ivory whiteness, stretched out on the milk-white couch made for love, breathes of @@ -2452,13 +2417,13 @@ modernity that almost makes him seem a contemporary of our own--that zeal for the pictorial, for colour and light, which attracts us so much to-day. Very characteristic also of the changed aspect of the age are his designs for the famous tapestry in Santa Barbara, with which he made -his debut at Madrid. They are very crude in decoration. Two or three +his début at Madrid. They are very crude in decoration. Two or three neat young girls, with big, black, moist eyes, here and there pleasing details--a couple of men carrying a wounded companion--are unable to gloss over the heaviness of the composition and colour. But it was of great consequence that Goya should have had courage for so bold a step as to make use of character scenes in decorative painting at a time when -everywhere else, without exception, _fetes champetres_ predominated. +everywhere else, without exception, _fêtes champêtres_ predominated. [Illustration: GOYA. VOLAVERUNT. @@ -2532,7 +2497,7 @@ blank--that sufficed to give life and character to his figures. _From "Los Capriccios."_] -The "Miseres de la Guerre" are intrinsically more serious. All the +The "Misères de la Guerre" are intrinsically more serious. All the scenes of terror that occurred in Spain as a sequel to the French invasion and the glory of Napoleon here utter their cry of lamentation. A few plates amongst them are worthy of comparison with the finest of @@ -2578,7 +2543,7 @@ century, had had its birthplace in the Italy of Leo X. The light of the Italian Renaissance had suffused France ever since the appearance of Rosso and Primaticcio. Rome had been the cradle of Simon Vouet and Nicolas Poussin. France endeavoured, in rich decoration and masterly -swing of lines, to overtop the Italians, whose formulae were studied +swing of lines, to overtop the Italians, whose formulæ were studied partly in Rome and partly in the Palace of Fontainebleau, that Rome _in petto_. Those religious pictures of Lebrun, arranged in panels, appeared with their theatrically elegant attitudes and their flowing drapery, @@ -2627,7 +2592,7 @@ _Antoine Watteau_, who guided the stream of French art into this new channel--of the Netherlands--was by birth and training a Fleming. His birthplace, Valenciennes, although French territory since the Peace of Nymeguen, resembled in its whole character a Flemish town. In the church -here he first saw any of Rubens' pictures. Here, through Gerin, he +here he first saw any of Rubens' pictures. Here, through Gérin, he became instructed in Flemish traditions. Rubens and Teniers are the two masters from whom his own art sprang. During the years when the war of the Spanish Succession had changed the French frontier provinces into a @@ -2640,7 +2605,7 @@ party of rustics are carousing at a table in front of a farmyard, while on the other side half-drunken men and women are going home. Louis XIV had made before the pictures of Teniers his well-known _mot_: "_Otez moi ces magots_." Now, through Watteau, the _magot_ makes its entrance into -French art. Thus in his chief picture in this manner, "La Vraie Gaiete," +French art. Thus in his chief picture in this manner, "La Vraie Gaieté," the figures are unmistakably after Teniers. The men are short and sturdy, entirely Flemish. Only the costumes have changed with the mode. But the women are not in the least Flemish. The clean caps and tidy @@ -2661,7 +2626,7 @@ Rubens had been the first in his "Garden of Love," of the Dresden and Madrid Galleries, to invite to the embarkation for the Island of Cythera. Watteau acquired something from everyone he studied, and yet resembles none. After having hitherto sought his personages on the -highways and in camps, he was now to become the painter of _fetes +highways and in camps, he was now to become the painter of _fêtes galantes_, the painter of "Society." For in his shepherds and shepherdesses there lives the elegance of France. The gods of the Renaissance, in whom no one any longer believed, glided into the @@ -2676,9 +2641,9 @@ Watteau's art betokened the triumph of naturalism over the mannerism into which the French art of the seventeenth century, based on the Italian Renaissance, had dwindled. As it is said in an old poem-- - "Paree a la Francoise, un jour Dame Nature + "Parée à la Françoise, un jour Dame Nature Eut le desir coquet de voir sa portraiture. - Que fit la bonne mere? Elle enfanta Watteau." + Que fit la bonne mère? Elle enfanta Watteau." Watteau became for French art what, a hundred years before, Rubens had been for Flemish--the deliverer. He delivered them from the oppressive @@ -2700,7 +2665,7 @@ lyric poet, the great poet of the eighteenth century. [Illustration: ANTOINE WATTEAU.] -[Illustration: WATTEAU. LA PARTIE CARREE.] +[Illustration: WATTEAU. LA PARTIE CARRÉE.] In this way the development proceeded. The pompous representation which portrait painting had practised hitherto was gone. People would no @@ -2737,9 +2702,9 @@ elegance. [Illustration: GREUZE. "_L'Art._"] Even the decorative painters abandoned more and more the much-worn paths -of the Italians. _Francois Lemoine_ gave them, by Rubens' aid, the +of the Italians. _François Lemoine_ gave them, by Rubens' aid, the transition to a manner peculiarly French, elegant, sensuous, charming. -His pupil, _Francois Boucher_, followed him. Like the sons of the +His pupil, _François Boucher_, followed him. Like the sons of the seventeenth century, he made exhaustive use of mythological subjects and was often a superficial artist, and in his later works he became entirely a mannerist; but he was not so at the beginning. It was a great @@ -2785,7 +2750,7 @@ civilisation, the aristocracy understood, with a refined and unique understanding, how to turn life into a feast. Silk trains rustle over the parquet, silk shoes trip, eyes gleam, diamonds flash, white bosoms heave. Tall cavaliers advance to their sprightly partners, gossip and -smiles fly around, Knights of Malta and abbes hang over the chairs and +smiles fly around, Knights of Malta and abbés hang over the chairs and pay their court. Yes, this autumn of the old French culture was of a marvellous beauty for the fortunate, and those fortunate ones knew, as no other generation has ever done, how to enjoy life with serenity, in a @@ -2811,7 +2776,7 @@ with a presentiment of what is to come, as though destiny might thus be set aside. The writings of Diderot afford the clearest instance of this changed spirit of the age, and art too must become virtuous, and work for the amelioration of the world. Thus Diderot upheld the sentimental -and emotional subject against the _fetes galantes_ of the _rococo_ +and emotional subject against the _fêtes galantes_ of the _rococo_ painter. Boucher derived his inspiration from the slough of prostitution; only a moral upheaval could tend to a high style. With Boucher the idea of honour, of innocence, has become something strange; @@ -2827,9 +2792,9 @@ embroidered waistcoat, only beneath a woollen smock, can a noble heart beat. The happy ignorance of the young Savoyard, eating his cheese or his oranges in a church porch, lies nearer to the original perfection of mankind than the most subtle erudition of the most ingenious of the -encyclopaedists. Amongst nature's noblemen one must seek for the secret +encyclopædists. Amongst nature's noblemen one must seek for the secret of virtue, which has been lost by the aristocracy in the stream of -civilisation. Thus beneath the aegis of Rousseau's philosophy the Third +civilisation. Thus beneath the ægis of Rousseau's philosophy the Third Estate makes its entry into French salons. From the man of the people society wanted to learn how to become once more simple, unassuming, and virtuous; and it was a gruesome irony of fate that this "man of the @@ -2847,12 +2812,12 @@ fasting and penitence had ensued. It was considered that the aim of art must be to instruct and elevate, not merely to amuse; it should set an example to raise and inspire the good, to serve as a warning for the bad. "_Rendre la vertu aimable, le vice odieux, le ridicule saillant, -voila le projet de tout honnete homme qui prend la plume, le pinceau ou +voilà le projet de tout honnête homme qui prend la plume, le pinceau ou le ciseau._" In these words Diderot formulated his programme. It was his wish that the corrupt man, when he went to an exhibition, should feel pricks of conscience at the pictures and read in them his own condemnation. "_Si ses pas le conduisent au Salon, qu'il craigne -d'arreter ses regards sur la toile._" Educational effects, "moral +d'arrêter ses regards sur la toile._" Educational effects, "moral stories told in pictures," that is the keynote of Diderot's demands upon the painter, and of the accomplishment of Greuze in answer to this claim. He is the French Hogarth, whether he paints in sombre colours the @@ -2914,7 +2879,7 @@ high priest of a sort of orgie of virtue, to whose festivals they had grown reconciled. The century which in its first half had danced as light-heartedly as any other the can-can of life, becomes, in its second half, sad of soul, enthusiastic over the reward of justice, the -punishment of transgressors, over honour and the naivete of innocence. +punishment of transgressors, over honour and the naïveté of innocence. Time after time do his contemporaries praise precisely that sense of virtue in the art of Greuze. So that in France, as in England, the burden of interest was laid no longer upon the art, but upon an @@ -2964,7 +2929,7 @@ girl types, just as that of Leonardo is with the dreamy, smiling sphinx-like head of Mona Lisa. In them he has given an unsurpassable expression to the ideal of innocence at the end of the eighteenth century, and provided in them a new thrill of beauty for his -contemporaries. And a _blase_ society which had indulged in every +contemporaries. And a _blasé_ society which had indulged in every licence bathed itself with passionate delight in the unknown mystery of this surging flood. Yes, after the stimulating champagne of _rococo_, people had even come to delight in simple black bread. And so, out of @@ -3024,7 +2989,7 @@ the wainscoting, and the white table-cloth was flooded with the silvery green which poured in from a little skylight. In this peaceful and harmoniously toned chamber were laid those small domestic scenes, which he so loved to paint, and which were called by the French, in contrast -to the _Fetes Galantes_, "_Amusements de la Vie Privee_." The clock +to the _Fétes Galantes_, "_Amusements de la Vie Privée_." The clock ticks, the lamp burns, water is boiling on the homely tiled stove. There is an effect in every one of his pictures, as though he had lived them himself, as if they were reminiscences of something dear to him and @@ -3033,7 +2998,7 @@ depicted only the quiet life of custom, everyday life as it befell in a constant, regular routine. There are no hasty movements with him, no catastrophes nor complications; he has a preference for "still life" in the world of men, just as in nature. He is _par excellence_ the painter -of _Intimitaet_ (intimate life); which is not the same as _a genre_ +of _Intimität_ (intimate life); which is not the same as _a genre_ painter. Painters who in the manner of _genre_ have depicted domestic scenes in rooms are to be found in every school; but how few have known how to depict the poetry of the family life with such truth, with such @@ -3091,7 +3056,7 @@ less his domesticity never became commonplace. [Illustration: DANIEL CHODOWIECKI.] -His contemporary, _Etienne Jeurat_, painted scenes at country fairs, and +His contemporary, _Étienne Jeurat_, painted scenes at country fairs, and _Jean Baptiste le Prince_ pictures of guardrooms and similar subjects. In Holland _Cornelis Troost_ went on parallel lines with him. He depicted the life of his age and of his nation--comic scenes, banquets, @@ -3127,7 +3092,7 @@ the pride of German courts to be small copies of Versailles. cries the young Goethe, in his essay on German style and art, "I could not sufficiently protest; they have caught the eyes of the women with theatrical poses, false complexions, and gaudy costumes; the wood -engravings of manly old Albrecht Duerer, at whom tyros scoff, are more +engravings of manly old Albrecht Dürer, at whom tyros scoff, are more welcome to me.... Only where intimacy and simplicity exist is all artistic vigour to be found, and woe to the artist who leaves his hut to squander himself in academic halls of state." @@ -3159,9 +3124,9 @@ enchanting freshness, and--which should not be forgotten--is more of an artist than Hogarth, since he is neither moralist nor satirist. His object, without any moral after-thought, was the true and kindly observation of life as displayed in the world around him. He took the -wholly naive delight of the genuine artist in turning everything he saw +wholly naïve delight of the genuine artist in turning everything he saw into a picture. These chronicles of his have some, it may be but a -particle, of the spirit of Duerer. Simultaneously, the young _Tischbein_ +particle, of the spirit of Dürer. Simultaneously, the young _Tischbein_ delved into the past of the nation, the age of Conradin and the Hohenstaufen, with the intention of finding there the simplicity which the academic pictures had come to lack; and, later on, he painted in @@ -3204,7 +3169,7 @@ the easy naturalness of everyday life. In Berlin, ever since 1709, _Antoine Pesne_ had been for half a century the centre of artistic life, and in his works the revolution may be traced. Something familiar and intimate takes the place of that stately -pomp. The princes, hitherto, had liked to be represented in mediaeval +pomp. The princes, hitherto, had liked to be represented in mediæval armour or antique equipment; Pesne painted them in the costume of the time. And in his portraits of his friends and his family circle he has been still more unconstrained. There is the charming picture of 1718, in @@ -3223,7 +3188,7 @@ the Swiss, took the lead with his simple, domestic, honest, real portraits. It was a happy disposition of fate that Graff's activity just corresponded with the great period of the awakening of intellectual life in Germany, that Lessing and Schiller, Bodmer and Gessner, Wieland -and Herder, Buerger and Gellert, Christian Gottfried Koerner and Lippert, +and Herder, Bürger and Gellert, Christian Gottfried Körner and Lippert, Moses Mendelssohn and Sulzer, and a long succession of other poets and scholars of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, found in him a portrait painter whose quick and agile hand left us their @@ -3235,7 +3200,7 @@ Besides Graff, there worked in Dresden _Christian Leberecht Vogel_, likewise a most independent, picturesque, and sensitive artist, who, if only for his pictures of children, deserves a place of honour in the history of art in the eighteenth century. In the portrait of his two -boys, in the Dresden Gallery, the naivete of child-life is observed with +boys, in the Dresden Gallery, the naïveté of child-life is observed with such tenderness and rendered with such vigour as only Reynolds understood. The boys are sitting close together on the ground. One, in a brown frock, is holding a book on his knees, which the other, in a red @@ -3262,7 +3227,7 @@ afterwards found expression in France and Germany, and dissipated the prevailing taste in gardens. The seventeenth century--with the exception of the Dutch--had set nature in order with the garden shears. As Lebrun in his historical compositions endeavoured to outdo the Italians, so -Lenotre's garden style exemplified the perfection and exaggeration of +Lenôtre's garden style exemplified the perfection and exaggeration of the gardens of the Italian Renaissance, which themselves again were laid out on the plan of the old Roman gardens from existing descriptions. A garden reminded one more of state apartments, which one could only walk @@ -3280,11 +3245,11 @@ up his picture. Out of many leaves he takes only the most perfectly developed, puts only such perfect leaves on one tree, and so obtains a perfect tree. Let the essential of his production be _nature choisie_, a selection of objects that "are capable of producing agreeable -impressions"; his aim "_le beau vrai qui est represente comme s'il -existait reellement et avec toutes les perfections qu'il peut +impressions"; his aim "_le beau vrai qui est représenté comme s'il +existait réellement et avec toutes les perfections qu'il peut recevoir_." The eighteenth century went back from this "noble," improved nature, step by step to the divine beauty of unimproved nature; -just as those masters untouched by the Romans, Duerer and Altdorfer, +just as those masters untouched by the Romans, Dürer and Altdorfer, Titian and Rubens, Brouwer and Velasquez, had painted her. The great Watteau, too, was here for the most part in advance of his age, in that, instead of the stiffly designed stage scenery of Poussin, he gave @@ -3333,13 +3298,13 @@ sensation when Rousseau's works appeared. It was over with all efforts of "stylists" as soon as Rousseau declared that everything was good just as it came out of the lap of the universal mother, nature. -[Illustration: WATTEAU. FETE CHAMPETRE.] +[Illustration: WATTEAU. FÊTE CHAMPÈTRE.] Goethe, the pupil of Rousseau, presages, in his whole conception of nature, something of the manifestation of the school of Fontainebleau. He had something of Daubigny when, as Werther, he lies on the bank of the stream and looks down thoughtfully at the worms and small -insects. He makes one think of Dupre or Corot when he says: "As nature +insects. He makes one think of Dupré or Corot when he says: "As nature declines upon autumn, within me and around me it grows autumn"; or, "I could not now draw so much as a stroke, and I have never been a greater painter than at the present moment"; or, "Never have I been happier, nor @@ -3358,7 +3323,7 @@ were, accidental bits of nature. People took no more trouble, in Rousseau's phrase, "to dishonour nature by seeking to beautify her," but laid out gardens in harmony with Goethe's remark in _Werther_: "A feeling heart, not a scientific art of gardening, suggested the plan." -Close to Versailles, near the box-tree patterns of Lenotre, lay the +Close to Versailles, near the box-tree patterns of Lenôtre, lay the Petit Trianon, with its pond, its brook, and its dairy, where the unfortunate Marie Antoinette used to dream. And if painting still loitered on its preliminary return to nature, that only implied that the @@ -3411,11 +3376,11 @@ sensibility of the Swiss. He looked at a landscape somewhat insipidly, as Chodowiecki at his models. But his drawing is sober, the atmosphere of his pictures clear and fresh; he cannot be tedious in his composition. In Dresden there lived Johann Alexander Thiele, who roamed -through Thueringen and Mecklenburg as a landscape painter. Even in Italy +through Thüringen and Mecklenburg as a landscape painter. Even in Italy landscapes were the most independent performances which the eighteenth century had brought forth there. There worked in Rome the Netherlander, Vanvitelli, who depicted in graceful water-colours Roman and Neapolitan -street life; and Giovanni Paolo Pannini, the _peintre des fetes +street life; and Giovanni Paolo Pannini, the _peintre des fêtes publiques_, in whose pictures groups of richly coloured figures moved through splendid palaces. Venice was the home of the Canaletti. In _Antonio Canale's_ town pictures of Venice, Rome, and London there is at @@ -3465,7 +3430,7 @@ Mariano Ramon Sanchez_ his small views of towns and harbours. And, as in England, hand in hand with that came paintings of animals. -In France, _Francois Canova_ was working, the painter of huge battle +In France, _François Canova_ was working, the painter of huge battle scenes and small pictures of animals; _Jean Louis de Marne_, who was famous for his cattle, market scenes, village pictures, and the like; and the great _Jean Baptiste Oudry_, who painted with breadth and @@ -3484,7 +3449,7 @@ of Europe. In the seventeenth century the Dutch alone had maintained their isolation. They who entered fresh into art, and had to break with no tradition, gave at that time the first expression to the new spirit, in that they resolutely recalled art from its courtly surroundings to -the humbler dwellings of the middle classes. They _painted_ what Duerer +the humbler dwellings of the middle classes. They _painted_ what Dürer and the "little masters" had only graved upon wood blocks and copper plates. Still, they wished to paint these things less for their own sakes than because so intimate a light was shed upon them. Through @@ -3558,11 +3523,11 @@ alive and active in our midst. But would anyone dare to mention Mengs and Carstens in the same breath with these giants? The close of the eighteenth century was a period of antiquarian revival. -The ruins of Paestum had been brought to light, Greek vases and Roman +The ruins of Pæstum had been brought to light, Greek vases and Roman monuments had become known to the public by the works of Hamilton and Piranesi. In 1762 Stuart and Revett published their splendid work on the _Antiquities of Athens_. To a German, however, was to fall the honour of -becoming the hero of the archaeological period. The _History of Ancient +becoming the hero of the archæological period. The _History of Ancient Art_, by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, appeared in 1764, and this writer devoted his literary energies to the hymning of the glories of the re-discovered treasures of antiquity. In the realm of pictorial art he @@ -3579,7 +3544,7 @@ what he must lend to nature in order to give dignity and propriety to his imitation," writes Solomon Gessner in 1759. In 1762 Hagedorn of Dresden deplored, in his _Treatise on Painting_, that "Terburg and Metsu never showed us fair Andromache amongst her industrious women, instead -of Dutch sempstresses." In 1766 Lessing wrote his _Laocoon_, and, like +of Dutch sempstresses." In 1766 Lessing wrote his _Laocoön_, and, like Winckelmann, saw in the sculpture of the Greeks the ideal to be imitated. From this point forward he despised landscape and _genre_ painting, and especially everything which illustrates intimate emotions @@ -3630,7 +3595,7 @@ cold ideal manner to what was natural, and held Greek art the absolutely valid model. From it should be derived a fixed canon, a table of accepted laws, to be the standard for the artist of our own days, and of every age. The _Prize Essays_, which he published with Heinrich Meyer in -the _Propylaeen_, and later in the _Jena Literary Journal_, required the +the _Propyläen_, and later in the _Jena Literary Journal_, required the treatment of subjects exclusively from the Hellenic legendary cycles, "whereby the artist should become accustomed to come out from his own age and surroundings"; the composition of pictures was to correspond @@ -3657,19 +3622,19 @@ cannot be surpassed." In a letter to Goethe, in the year 1800, Schiller wrote: "The antique was a manifestation of its age which can never return, and to force the individual production of an individual age after the pattern of one quite heterogeneous, is to kill that art which -can only have a dynamic origin and effect." Madame de Stael, in her book +can only have a dynamic origin and effect." Madame de Staël, in her book on _Germany_, says: "If nowadays the fine arts should be confined to the simplicity of the ancients, we should not then be able to attain to the original strength which distinguished them, while we should lose that intimate, composite feeling for life which is especially found in us. Simplicity in art would easily turn with the moderns into coldness and affectation, whereas with the ancients it was full of life." In 1797 -Counsellor Hirth published in Schiller's _Horae_ his well-known treatise +Counsellor Hirth published in Schiller's _Horæ_ his well-known treatise on _Beauty in Art_, which, in opposition to the inanimate type of beauty of Winckelmann, upheld the characteristic as the first principle in art. Most remarkable, however, is the breadth of historical outlook which was peculiar to Herder, and the stern actuality with which in his _Plastik_, -and in the _Vierten_ _Kritischen Waeldchen_, he turned against "those +and in the _Vierten_ _Kritischen Wäldchen_, he turned against "those pitiful critics, those wretched and narrow rules of art, that bitter-sweet prattle of universal beauty, through which the younger generation is being ruined, which is nauseating to the master, and @@ -3709,13 +3674,13 @@ deplorably, the whole order of nature and history." These sentences, however, stood in isolation, or else they came too late. Immediately after it had been heralded by the literary movement, -after the archaeologists had verbally announced its aim, formulated its +after the archæologists had verbally announced its aim, formulated its principles and laws, German art turned into the new paths. "It happened for the first time in the history of art," wrote Goethe, "that important talents took pleasure in disciplining themselves by the past, and so founding a new epoch in art." - "Des Deutschen Kuenstler's Vaterland, + "Des Deutschen Künstler's Vaterland, Ist Griechenland, ist Griechenland" was sung in the academies. And this violent grasping after the ideal of @@ -3822,7 +3787,7 @@ to the difference between sculpture and painting, they practically recommended the painter to work after plastic models. The fact that Lessing, in discussing the limits of painting in his -_Laocoon_, took a work of sculpture as his starting-point, proves that +_Laocoön_, took a work of sculpture as his starting-point, proves that to him the laws and conditions of both arts were valued as the same. They denounced the confusion of the art of painting with poetry, and instead advocated the confounding of painting with sculpture, which was @@ -3835,16 +3800,16 @@ pictorial apprehension; a vain and exclusively reproductive ideality deprived his figures of the last remnant of truth to nature which he had formerly understood how to give them. It is difficult to believe that Winckelmann's paroxysm of friendship should have burst out, upon the -completion of the "Parnassus," into this paean: "During the whole of the +completion of the "Parnassus," into this pæan: "During the whole of the new age a more beautiful work has not appeared in painting; even Raphael would have bowed his head." The whole is nothing more than a -_melange_ of plagiarism and _banal_ reminiscences, without soul or +_mélange_ of plagiarism and _banal_ reminiscences, without soul or perception, without freshness or individuality; a mere plastic warehouse, and not even a painted antique group, but a daubed compilation of solitary statues, colder and more lifeless than any Baltoni ever painted. There was an audacious, strong aim, genial strength and an overwhelming flow of fantasy in the contemporary works -of the great _decorateur_ Tiepolo; here there is a mere work of +of the great _décorateur_ Tiepolo; here there is a mere work of intellect which with philological aid builds up the composition entirely of borrowed materials. The only thing which even still points in this work to the good old times is a more solid study of form and colour than @@ -3943,7 +3908,7 @@ with its technique, whilst they left the academy in open dissatisfaction, and threw off in contempt the whole paraphernalia of technical traditions. -_Carstens_ plays the momentous role in German art as the first who trod +_Carstens_ plays the momentous rôle in German art as the first who trod this path. He has more individuality than Mengs; _antiquarianising_ with him is not exclusively an external derivation and a cold imitation: he lives in the antique; the world of the Greek poets is his spiritual @@ -3961,7 +3926,7 @@ dwarf intelligences of the age; how the studios of inferior artists were full of gaping visitors, whilst the halls of the Vatican stood deserted. "Learn the taste for beauty in the antique," the cooper's apprentice learns from Webb's works. "Let us meditate upon the style of the -painter's art in the 'Laocoon,' with regard to the fighter. Notice the +painter's art in the 'Laocoön,' with regard to the fighter. Notice the sublimity in the divine character of Apollo. Let us stand hushed before the exquisite beauty of the Venus di Medici. These are the extreme incentives of the art of drawing.... The Belvedere Apollo and the @@ -3974,7 +3939,7 @@ air. I stretch myself on a flowery plot, the shadow of the orange trees covers me;--there, unmolested, I gaze at a group full of the highest feminine beauty. Niobe, my beloved, beautiful mother of beautiful children, thou fairest among women, how I love thee!" So dreamed Asmus -Jacob in the wine-cellar at Eckernfoerde, or in his solitary chamber by +Jacob in the wine-cellar at Eckernförde, or in his solitary chamber by the dim light of his lamp, as he had been seized with giddiness before all the great and marvellous revelations of art which this book had afforded him. In his enraptured fantasy he painted the hour nearer and @@ -4014,7 +3979,7 @@ expression in philosophy and poetry, the painter strove for the reputation only of being the _poet_ of his pictures. And Carstens encountered the old tragedians and philosophic writers with a fine, poetic understanding. "The Greek Heroes with Cheiron," "Helen at the -Skaean Gate," "Ajax," "Phoenix and Odysseus in the Tent of Achilles," +Skæan Gate," "Ajax," "Phoenix and Odysseus in the Tent of Achilles," "Priam and Achilles," "The Fates," "Night with her Children," "Sleep and Death," "The passage of Megapenthes," "Homer before the People," "The Golden Age"--all these prints have really something of the noble @@ -4023,18 +3988,18 @@ simplicity and quiet harmony of Greek art. [Illustration: CARSTENS. CHILDREN OF THE NIGHT.] It can be understood, then, that such subjects should be in the highest -degree interesting to an archaeologist. When Carstens, in April 1795, was +degree interesting to an archæologist. When Carstens, in April 1795, was organising the famous exhibition of his collected works in Rome, Fernow published in Wieland's _Deutscher Merkur_ a discourse in which he celebrated him as the creator of a new epoch. From the very first, however, an equally resolute opposition was excited in artistic circles. -The painter Mueller, nicknamed "The Devil's Miller," who at that time +The painter Müller, nicknamed "The Devil's Miller," who at that time wandered about Rome as a cicerone, proves that Winckelmann's principles, even at the threshold of the century, by no means met with universal -acceptance. The _Writing of Herr Mueller, Painter in Rome, upon the +acceptance. The _Writing of Herr Müller, Painter in Rome, upon the Exhibition of Herr Professor Carstens_, with the motto _Amicus Plato, Amicus Socrates, magis amica veritas_, was published in 1797 in -Schiller's _Horae_. Carstens imitated; he worked rather by reminiscence +Schiller's _Horæ_. Carstens imitated; he worked rather by reminiscence and understanding than by fantasy. Isolated figures do not bring their individuality to an expression. Then he pointed out the models, discussed the lack of colour, and proved numerous sins of the @@ -4050,7 +4015,7 @@ be great and beautiful in the representation which is not right and true. In almost similar words, later on, Koch, in his _Thoughts on Painting_, and with him the majority of artists, has censured Carstens. And posterity cannot but allow them to be in the right as against the -archaeologists. +archæologists. [Illustration: CARSTENS. PRIAM AND ACHILLES.] @@ -4086,7 +4051,7 @@ encouragement such as were granted to no old master, and if, in spite of that, he never rose above the cares of life, that is only a proof of the limitations and partiality of his art. He had lost all decorative facility; still more was the inheritance of oil painting first naturally -mislaid by him, and by draughtsmanship alone not even Duerer nor +mislaid by him, and by draughtsmanship alone not even Dürer nor Rembrandt could have lived. This deficiency in technique must even debar him from claiming any @@ -4177,27 +4142,27 @@ THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN FRANCE In France also modern art began with a stream of antiquarianism which -flowed from the same archaeological source. De Brosses published a +flowed from the same archæological source. De Brosses published a history of the Roman Republic, and wrote on Herculaneum. Leroy produced -his _Ruines des plus anciens monuments de la Grece_ in 1758. Shortly -afterwards the _Recueils d'Antiquite_ of Caylus and Hamilton were +his _Ruines des plus anciens monuments de la Grèce_ in 1758. Shortly +afterwards the _Recueils d'Antiquité_ of Caylus and Hamilton were published. The former undertook his great journeys, and presented the -Academy of Inscriptions with a succession of archaeological treatises. He +Academy of Inscriptions with a succession of archæological treatises. He is perhaps the first since Batteux and Coypel who again makes of the modern painter a positive demand for a quiet beauty of lines after the -"_maniere simple et noble du bel antique_." The architects begin to take +"_manière simple et noble du bel antique_." The architects begin to take counsel of Vitruvius, and to work after some model borrowed from the antique. Soufflot rebuilt the Pantheon, and produced the Temple of -Paestum. +Pæstum. Even in 1763 Grimm could write: "For some years past we have been making keen inquiry for antique ornaments and forms. The predilection for them -has become so universal that now everything is to be done _a la +has become so universal that now everything is to be done _à la Grecque_. The interior and exterior decorations of houses, furniture, dress material, and goldsmiths' work all bear alike the stamp of the Greeks. The fashion passes from architecture to millinery: our ladies -have their hair dressed _a la Grecque_, our fine gentlemen would think -themselves dishonoured if they did not hold in their hands _une boite a +have their hair dressed _à la Grecque_, our fine gentlemen would think +themselves dishonoured if they did not hold in their hands _une boîte à la Grecque_." Even Diderot's preference for the ethical and emotional, as Greuze had painted it--and as Diderot himself had dramatised it--veered round at the commencement of the sixties into an enthusiasm @@ -4210,15 +4175,15 @@ be found which could be employed in relief, or even as statues. The new taste demanded pure and simple lines, the beauty of sculpture; it went back to the antique. When a French translation of Winckelmann appeared in 1765 he spoke out, on the occasion of a review of the book, clearly -and plainly: "_Il me semble qu'il faudrait etudier l'antique pour -apprendre a voir la nature_." In the same vein Watelet pronounced on -Boucher: "_Jamais artiste n'a plus ouvertement temoigne son mepris pour -la vraie beaute telle qu'elle a ete sentie et exprimee par les -statuaires_ _de l'ancienne Grece_." Thus the change in the artistic +and plainly: "_Il me semble qu'il faudrait étudier l'antique pour +apprendre à voir la nature_." In the same vein Watelet pronounced on +Boucher: "_Jamais artiste n'a plus ouvertement témoigné son mépris pour +la vraie beauté telle qu'elle a été sentie et exprimée par les +statuaires_ _de l'ancienne Grèce_." Thus the change in the artistic outlook was heralded long before the curtain went up upon the events of 1789. -_Madame Vigee-Lebrun_, the French Angelica Kauffmann, possessed of a +_Madame Vigée-Lebrun_, the French Angelica Kauffmann, possessed of a tender, soft, sympathetic talent, is perhaps the truest representative of this gracious, entirely French transition style, over which like a breath, but only like a breath, hovers the antique. She has in her @@ -4229,8 +4194,8 @@ simple white robe, the scarf thrown modestly over the shoulders, they had effected a return to antique simplicity. Boucher, moved to the depths of his consciousness by Diderot, resolved to paint a picture taken from ancient history. Greuze painted "Severus and Caracalla," -Fragonard "Choereas and Callirhoee." Hubert Robert grew more and more -archaeological, and played in his landscapes with ancient remains and +Fragonard "Choereas and Callirhöe." Hubert Robert grew more and more +archæological, and played in his landscapes with ancient remains and classical ruins. Vien became enthusiastic over antique gems, and thought he must draw the conclusion, from the noble calm of these figures, that the amiable coquetry and capricious garments of _rococo_ were without @@ -4249,7 +4214,7 @@ thunder from Paris. Soon they beheld the earth crack and burst asunder, as that time came when the air was filled with the smoke of powder, when the first notes of the Marseillaise rang out, and in the Place de la Concorde, where to-day the loveliest fountains in the world are playing, -blood ran from a dozen guillotines. That "_apres nous le deluge_" of the +blood ran from a dozen guillotines. That "_après nous le deluge_" of the Marquise de Pompadour had become a dire, prophetic truth, and in that flood of blood and horrors the artistic ideal of the eighteenth century was also washed away. The Revolution gave the death-blow to _rococo_. At @@ -4275,7 +4240,7 @@ virtue, renunciation, courage, and patriotic sacrifice of the great men of antiquity; they had used these deeds as a means of proving their thesis, and their ideas aroused deep echoes in men's hearts. -[Illustration: ELISABETH VIGEE-LEBRUN. PORTRAIT OF THE PAINTER WITH +[Illustration: ELISABETH VIGÉE-LEBRUN. PORTRAIT OF THE PAINTER WITH HER DAUGHTER.] The sentiment of Rome had entered into the people as a thing of flesh @@ -4291,22 +4256,22 @@ evident then that France, so soon as she had freed herself from her kings, so soon as she had spoken the word "Republic," must take the _Roman_ Republic as her pattern. People lived in an atmosphere of antiquity; the great citizens of Rome and Athens were ranged with the -French National Convention; Scaevola, Scipio, Cato, Cincinnatus, were the +French National Convention; Scævola, Scipio, Cato, Cincinnatus, were the idols of the populace. The speakers in the council cited the ancients in -preference; Madame Vigee-Lebrun gave _soupers a la Grecque_. "Everything +preference; Madame Vigée-Lebrun gave _soupers à la Grecque_. "Everything was ordered according to the _Voyage d'Anacharsis_--garments, viands, amusements, and the table, all were Athenian. Madame Lebrun herself was -Aspasia; M. l'Abbe Barthelemy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath on -his head, recited a poem; M. de Cabieres played the golden lyre as +Aspasia; M. l'Abbé Barthélémy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath on +his head, recited a poem; M. de Cabierès played the golden lyre as Memnon, and young boys waited at table as slaves. The table itself was set entirely with Greek utensils, and all the viands were actually those of ancient Greece." Children were given Greek and Roman names. People called themselves "Romans." "_Mais, je l'aimais, Romains!_" cried Coulon at the death of Mirabeau. Paris is Rome. In the theatre the bust of Brutus is set opposite that of Voltaire, and the actor says: "_O buste -revere de Brutus, d'un grand homme, transporte dans Paris tu n'as point -quitte Rome_." And as with the bust of Brutus in the theatre, that of -Mucius Scaevola appears in the cafes, which Parisian journalists, still +réveré de Brutus, d'un grand homme, transporté dans Paris tu n'as point +quitté Rome_." And as with the bust of Brutus in the theatre, that of +Mucius Scævola appears in the cafés, which Parisian journalists, still full of remembrances of ancient history studied in the gymnasium, liken to the Lyceum and the Porch. In every case ancient Rome is set up as the exemplar. The Parisian collection of engravings on copper possesses a @@ -4317,7 +4282,7 @@ been possible, people would have gladly thrown themselves back eighteen hundred years into the past, with all its grandeur, its simplicity, and its ruthlessness. Political and social forms did not suffice; even the implements and costume of the ancients were again brought into honour. -Furniture put on antiquarian shapes; the walls were decorated _a la +Furniture put on antiquarian shapes; the walls were decorated _à la Grecque_. The lively frivolity of _rococo_, with its freaks and fancies, was no longer adapted to the boudoir of the age of revolution, now transformed into the political council-room. Twists and curves were no @@ -4361,7 +4326,7 @@ in 1789, and lived till 1806, saw himself hooted in spite of his "Choereas." He, the true representative of frivolous tenderness, of fair and roseate hues, had lost every right to exist in the new world, and ended his life by a sad death when, after the Reign of Terror, there was -no longer a place for _fetes galantes_. A delightful portrait of +no longer a place for _fêtes galantes_. A delightful portrait of himself, which he painted in the first period of the Revolution, shows us an old man, clothed entirely in black, softly melancholy, standing in a formal, dusky-brown salon. On the table on which his arm rests lies a @@ -4439,14 +4404,14 @@ revolutionaries, children of liberty, equality, and fraternity." And one understands--when one also adds the influence of Napoleon--this reaction of military simplicity against the effeminacy of _rococo_. -[Illustration: DAVID. MADAME RECAMIER.] +[Illustration: DAVID. MADAME RÉCAMIER.] David, at the outbreak of the Revolution, no longer a young man, but forty years old, was the terrible painter of the age, its despotic dictator. As a deputy in the Convention he not only ruled over painting, but also imposed his taste upon sculpture, ivory work, goldsmiths' work, and decoration. He designed the new costumes for the deputies and -ministers. As organiser of public fetes, he brought to life again the +ministers. As organiser of public fêtes, he brought to life again the whole of republican Rome. He was one of those rare artists who are the men of their hour. To a new plebeian race, to whose feverishly excited patriotism the soft, luxurious, aristocratically reprehensible art of @@ -4454,7 +4419,7 @@ _rococo_ must seem as a mockery of all the rights of men, he showed, for the first time, the man, the hero who died for an idea or for his country; and he gave this man huge and elastic muscles, like those of a gladiator who struggles in the arena. He was a second Hercules, -cleansing the Augaean stables; with his own strong shoulders he thrust +cleansing the Augæan stables; with his own strong shoulders he thrust back the petulant band of painters who had tarried too long in the island of Cythera. He applied art to the heroism of the day, gave it the martial attitude of patriotism, inspired it with the spirit of @@ -4483,11 +4448,11 @@ philological retrospect, but with the free expression of the characteristically modern spirit. German art had no new pronouncement to make through the medium of the antique; it followed, on the other hand, the programme of an artistically barren scholar who forgot that -archaeology is not art, recommended imitation as the path to perfection, +archæology is not art, recommended imitation as the path to perfection, and perpetually reminded the artists who followed him how widely they deviated from the correct lines of the model. "Afterwards they rebuke it, and say it is not antique and consequently not good art," as -Albrecht Duerer had complained of such people. In the earnest sentiment, +Albrecht Dürer had complained of such people. In the earnest sentiment, the exalted Roman spirit, the declaiming over rugged, masculine virtues, freedom and patriotism, that found expression in David's first pictures, there lived something of the Catonian spirit of the Terror; and that @@ -4513,9 +4478,9 @@ the "first Martyr of Liberty," it was hung in the Convention chamber. On Charlotte Corday. David was presiding at the Jacobin Club when the news was brought him, and he embraced the citizen who had arrested the girl. Deputations of the people appeared in the Convention to express their -grief for the heavy loss. Suddenly a voice was heard to cry: "_Ou es tu, -David? Tu as transmis a la posterite l'image de Lepelletier mourant pour -la patrie, il te reste encore un tableau a faire._" Silence succeeded in +grief for the heavy loss. Suddenly a voice was heard to cry: "_Où es tu, +David? Tu as transmis à la posterité l'image de Lepelletier mourant pour +la patrie, il te reste encore un tableau à faire._" Silence succeeded in the Assembly. Then David started up: "_Je le ferai._" On 11th October he informed the Convention that his "Marat" was finished. "The people asked for their murdered man back again, longed to look once more on the @@ -4532,7 +4497,7 @@ of the bath, still holds a paper in a convulsive grip; the other hangs down limp and dead to the ground. Over this head, with the half-closed eyelids, and the mouth distorted from the death-throes, Caravaggio would have rejoiced, there is such keen naturalism in every stroke of the -brush. Like Gericault, in later times, David was then a regular visitor +brush. Like Géricault, in later times, David was then a regular visitor at the Morgue, attended at executions, and took an interest in the convulsive muscular movements of the guillotined. And the colour, too, like the drawing, is of a naturalistic strength to which he never again @@ -4554,7 +4519,7 @@ the freshness of youth. Face to face with his model, he forgot the Greeks and Romans, saw life alone, was rejuvenated in the youth-giving fount of nature, and painted--almost alone of the painters of his generation--the truth. Here his effect, when otherwise he was lacking in -all naivete, is actually naive and intimate. The best painters have +all naïveté, is actually naïve and intimate. The best painters have never treated flesh better. He had an aversion to palette tones, and sought after nature with unexampled attention. The fine pearl-grey of his colouring is as delicate as it is distinguished; in his portraits, @@ -4565,23 +4530,23 @@ portrayer of those men of an austerity like Cato's, and those women with their free, masculine, proud gaze; that valiant generation that felt within itself a desire to begin civilisation again and found religion anew. The portrait of Lavoisier and his wife reminds one in its -refinement of Madame Vigee-Lebrun. The chemist is sitting by a table +refinement of Madame Vigée-Lebrun. The chemist is sitting by a table covered with instruments; his wife, in an elegant light gown, bends attentively over him. The picture dates from 1788, and it still looks like some good work of the age of Louis XVI. Again, how intimate is the -effect of the marvellous portrait of Michael Gerard and his family. The +effect of the marvellous portrait of Michael Gérard and his family. The good man, in his shirt-sleeves, seems to feel really at home; a small boy is leaning against his knee, a girl is playing on the clavicorde. There is not the slightest suggestion of pose or a conventional type of beauty in this stout old gentleman sitting so comfortably in his -_bourgeois neglige_, and with honest eyes gazing out so inquisitively +_bourgeois négligé_, and with honest eyes gazing out so inquisitively round him. In a few other pictures the spiritual life of women is portrayed with remarkable tenderness. One of the earliest is the -exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law, Madame Pecoult, in +exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law, Madame Pécoult, in 1783; then, in 1790, the portrait of the Marquise d'Orvilliers, with that expression of dreamy languor which plays round the eyes of the beautiful woman. The Louvre possesses, in the portrait of Madame -Recamier, perhaps the most charming and attractive woman's portrait that +Récamier, perhaps the most charming and attractive woman's portrait that David ever painted. The beautiful Juliette lies stretched on a divan of antique pattern. She wears a white dress, her soft rosy feet are bare. The arrangement of the room coquettes primly with that simplicity which @@ -4629,7 +4594,7 @@ accompanied by the Empress, his ministers, and his staff. The Court drew up, and the Emperor moved up and down in front of the picture, hat in hand, for more than half an hour, examining it in all its details. Finally, with one of those dramatic effects of which he was so fond, he -lightly raised his hat: "_C'est bien, tres bien; David, je vous salue_." +lightly raised his hat: "_C'est bien, très bien; David, je vous salue_." [Illustration: DAVID. BELISARIUS ASKING ALMS.] @@ -4653,8 +4618,8 @@ who stood completely within his age, who shared its passions and was permeated by its greatness; he even appeared as a _charmeur_ who handled the phenomena of colour and light as few others have done. It is true, David showed himself in this favourable light at the exhibition only -because the entirely archaeological side of his talent was not -represented. For at the bottom of his heart he too was an archaeologist. +because the entirely archæological side of his talent was not +represented. For at the bottom of his heart he too was an archæologist. Many of his works, such as "The Death of Socrates," "Brutus," "The Oath in the Tennis Court," and "The Rape of the Sabines," are specimens of a barren theory. @@ -4672,12 +4637,12 @@ comparison and through composition. The human being of art ought always to be a copy of that perfect being, primitive man, whom the Roman sculptors had still before their eyes, but who had deteriorated in the course of ages. Thus in France, too, the sensuous art of painting was -converted into an abstract science of aesthetics. The classic ideal +converted into an abstract science of æsthetics. The classic ideal weighed upon French art and prescribed for all alike the same "heroic style," the same elevation, the same marble coldness and monotony of -colour. _Jean-Baptiste Regnault_, and _Francois Andre Vincent_, whose +colour. _Jean-Baptiste Regnault_, and _François André Vincent_, whose studios were most frequented after David's, worshipped the same gods. -After David's departure, _Guerin_, in particular, endeavoured to +After David's departure, _Guérin_, in particular, endeavoured to bequeath to the students those genuinely academic rules which his pupil, Delacroix, has summed up in these words: "In order to make an ideal head of a negro, our teachers make him resemble as far as possible the @@ -4710,18 +4675,18 @@ touching the three unities of the drama. Voltaire, who had a reverence for nothing in heaven or earth, respected the received treatment of the Alexandrine verse. And David, the great painter of the Revolution, who cast the pictures of Boucher out of the Louvre, and whose pupils used to -shoot bread-crumbs at Watteau's masterpiece, the "Voyage a Cythere," yet +shoot bread-crumbs at Watteau's masterpiece, the "Voyage à Cythère," yet conveyed with him into the new age, as an inheritance from _rococo_, its prodigious knowledge. The good old traditions of the technique of French painting were little shaken by him and his school. The Academy described -by Quatremere as the "eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices," +by Quatremère as the "eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices," was indeed overthrown, but David became immediately the head of a new one. This age of absorption in politics developed an art to correspond, more disciplined than ever, girt round by an iron cuirass; and this art, notwithstanding multifarious phases, at no time lost its touch, technically, with the acquisitions of former epochs, but evolved itself in its various directions from one centre, distracted from its path by -nothing brought into it from outside. Gericault, Delacroix, Courbet, and +nothing brought into it from outside. Géricault, Delacroix, Courbet, and Manet, widely as they differ from one another, are links in one chain of evolution. Art comes from knowledge. This maxim, which David held in honour, has remained to the present day a dominant force in French art, @@ -4754,7 +4719,7 @@ following along new lines, the art of France did not thereby suffer as regards the quality of its execution; in spite of all Classicism it remained the disciplined art of the schools. These favourable preliminaries were lacking in Germany. It was not allotted to German -painting to grow up in naive contentment with the technical inheritance +painting to grow up in naïve contentment with the technical inheritance of its forefathers, but, on the contrary, at the entrance of its new career it broke so completely with its predecessor--the art of the eighteenth century--that it could no longer adopt even its technical @@ -4808,7 +4773,7 @@ fashioned town, the treasury of German art; and the spirit of the past powerfully inspired them. Whilst for Lessing and Winckelmann "Gothic" art only meant barbarian art, the wonders of Nuremberg were now observed with fresh eyes. In a sort of intoxication of art the friends wandered -through churches, stood by the graves of Albrecht Duerer and Peter +through churches, stood by the graves of Albrecht Dürer and Peter Vischer, and a vanished world rose before them. The spires and turrets behind falling walls and ramparts, the old, stately, patrician houses, which jutted out their oriel windows, as it were with curiosity, into @@ -4816,7 +4781,7 @@ the crooked streets, were peopled to their imagination with picturesque figures in bonnet and hose from that great time when Nuremberg was "the living, swarming school of native art," when "an exuberant, artistic spirit" governed within its walls, when Master Hans Sachs and Adam Kraft -and Peter Vischer and Albrecht Duerer and Willibald Pirkheymer were +and Peter Vischer and Albrecht Dürer and Willibald Pirkheymer were alive. Shortly after that they came to Dresden, and devoted themselves in the gallery there to an enthusiastic cult of the Madonna. The _Herzensergiessungen eines Kunstliebenden Klosterbruders_, which @@ -4824,7 +4789,7 @@ appeared a year before Wackenroder's death in his twenty-sixth year, was the result of these wanderings and studies. In this tender production of a visionary youth the spirit of Romantic art found expression. -Winckelmann was an archaeologist; Wackenroder, an enthusiast of the +Winckelmann was an archæologist; Wackenroder, an enthusiast of the Middle Ages; on the one side knowledge only, on the other all feeling; for the one, paganism, for the other, Christ. For it is from the first a leading principle of the "_Klosterbruder_," that "the finest stream of @@ -4840,7 +4805,7 @@ he was fain to kneel down before art, and offer it the homage of an was full, he found nowhere in his times. The age of enlightenment was to him an undevout and inartistic age. Only in his wanderings through the uneven streets of Nuremberg did the deepest yearning of his soul seem -satisfied. He applied himself to mediaeval, and especially to German art. +satisfied. He applied himself to mediæval, and especially to German art. His standpoint is the same which the young Goethe had adopted when he intervened with Herder for "German style and art," and dedicated his pamphlet on German architecture to the shade of Erwin von Steinbach. He @@ -4916,12 +4881,12 @@ which the French had plundered, countless masses of paintings of every sort were extricated. A great deal perished; nearly all, however, that had hitherto been kept as heirlooms, and for the most part almost inaccessible, now became movable, attainable property. The brothers -Boisseree began their celebrated collection, which is to be seen to-day +Boisserée began their celebrated collection, which is to be seen to-day in the Munich _Pinakothek_. While hitherto one had, at the most, known -of Duerer, now one touched upon an age which lay behind the Reformation, +of Dürer, now one touched upon an age which lay behind the Reformation, an age in which Catholicism was flourishing, in which "not great artists but nameless monks represented art," and it was soon all fire and ardour -over the sweetness, naivete, and faith of these pictures. Fernow had +over the sweetness, naïveté, and faith of these pictures. Fernow had still pronounced generally against the capacity of the "Catholic religion, with its Jewish-Christian mythology and martyrology," to satisfy the demands of a pure taste in art. Carstens had written down @@ -4947,8 +4912,8 @@ profession of faith of the young school. Where previously Augustus William had described in his sonnets the Io, Leda, and Cleopatra of the Dresden Gallery, it was now the Madonna who received the homage of the gallant poet. By Frederick, Christianity was recommended to the artist -as a formal model and a source of aesthetic enjoyment,--as it was, at the -same time, by Chateaubriand as _predilection d'artiste_. +as a formal model and a source of æsthetic enjoyment,--as it was, at the +same time, by Chateaubriand as _prédilection d'artiste_. [Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ @@ -4962,23 +4927,23 @@ imperiously: "We would see no more pagan pictures on any German walls." French "frivolity" was contrasted with German seriousness, German Christianity with the free-thought of the French; there was a return from the cold philosophy of enlightenment to the vigorous feeling of -mediaeval faith. +mediæval faith. Frederick Schlegel, the author of _Lucinde_, who had written as lately as 1799:-- "Mein einzig Religion ist die, - Dass ich liebe ein schoenes Knie, - Volle Brust und schlanke Hueften, - Dazu Blumen mit suessen Dueften," + Dass ich liebe ein schönes Knie, + Volle Brust und schlanke Hüften, + Dazu Blumen mit süssen Düften," was converted to Catholicism. Schelling wrote his _Philosophy of -Revelation_; Goerres, the editor of the _Rothen Blut_, ended as the +Revelation_; Görres, the editor of the _Rothen Blut_, ended as the author of the _Christian Mystic_. Here set in the period of the Nazarenes. What Schlegel had said was to become true, that the German artist has either no character at all or he -must have the character of the mediaeval masters, true-hearted and +must have the character of the mediæval masters, true-hearted and thoughtful, innocent withal, and somewhat maladroit. In architecture the Hellenic school is succeeded by the Gothic, painting passes from the reverence of the Greek statues to that of old Italian pictures. @@ -4989,10 +4954,10 @@ reverence of the Greek statues to that of old Italian pictures. Rome remained for the Nazarenes, too, the centre of influence, only they no longer made pilgrimages, like the Classicists, to ancient but to -Christian Rome. _Overbeck_ of Luebeck came in 1810 with Pforr of -Frankfort and Vogel of Zuerich; the Duesseldorfer, Cornelius, followed in +Christian Rome. _Overbeck_ of Lübeck came in 1810 with Pforr of +Frankfort and Vogel of Zürich; the Düsseldorfer, Cornelius, followed in 1811, _Schadow_ and _Veit_ of Berlin in 1815, _Schnorr von Carolsfeld_ -of Leipzig in 1818, the Viennese _Fuehrich_ and _Steinle_ in 1827 and +of Leipzig in 1818, the Viennese _Führich_ and _Steinle_ in 1827 and 1828. In all of them there lived the perception that in such a serious age men should be of high moral endeavour, and art the expression of the religious capacity of their lives. @@ -5002,7 +4967,7 @@ religious capacity of their lives. SCHNORR. ADAM AND EVE AFTER THE FALL.] There still stands to-day, on a secluded hillock of the Monte Pincio a -small church, whose facade is adorned with the statues of St. Isidore, +small church, whose façade is adorned with the statues of St. Isidore, the patron of husbandmen, and of St. Patrick, apostle of Ireland. A court with weather-beaten cloisters and an old well separates the church from the monastery which lies behind it, where the cells of the monks, @@ -5014,13 +4979,13 @@ On the first floor is a large hall, the walls of which have been decorated by the hand of some old monk with frescoes, and which, formerly a refectory, is used to-day as a theological lecture-room. This was the room where Overbeck and his friends in the first period after -their arrival stood for one another as models. Lethiere, the director of +their arrival stood for one another as models. Lethière, the director of the French Academy, had obtained permission for them to install themselves in the deserted rooms of the monastery of San Isidoro, which had been spared by Napoleon, for which they paid the small sum of three scudi monthly. -[Illustration: JOSEPH FUeHRICH. _Graphische Kunst._] +[Illustration: JOSEPH FÜHRICH. _Graphische Kunst._] "We led a truly monastic life," relates Overbeck; "held ourselves aloof from all, and lived only for art. In the morning we marketed together; @@ -5079,7 +5044,7 @@ Xeller, as late as 1858, "was the end at which we aimed! Unknown, without encouragement, without aid, except that of our loving Father in heaven." -[Illustration: FUeHRICH. FROM THE "LEGEND OF ST. GWENDOLIN."] +[Illustration: FÜHRICH. FROM THE "LEGEND OF ST. GWENDOLIN."] It is obvious that between the ascetics of the monastery and the Classicists direct friction must ensue. To them the "ever repeated and @@ -5090,7 +5055,7 @@ watchword. The opposition was historically immortalised when Bunsen, the Prussian envoy, invited the whole colony to the christening of his little daughter, and Niebuhr touched glasses with Thorwaldsen "to the health of old Jupiter." Only Cornelius joined in; the others started and -looked upon the young Duesseldorfer as a heretic. +looked upon the young Düsseldorfer as a heretic. This positive Christian standpoint, which allowed art to be esteemed only as a religious service, pictures only as a means of ecclesiastical @@ -5099,7 +5064,7 @@ The effort of the Nazarenes to make piety the foundation of true artistic activity was to him a continual subject of contempt. Religion no more bestows talent for the arts than it gives taste. He spoke with irony of the "valiant artists and ingenious friends of art who had -resort to the honourable, naive, yet somewhat coarse taste" of the +resort to the honourable, naïve, yet somewhat coarse taste" of the fourteenth and fifteenth-century masters. He constantly employed of them the expression "star-gazing." He had already mockingly remarked of Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_ what an unwarrantable conclusion it @@ -5118,10 +5083,10 @@ contemporary art for imitating that of the Middle Ages, and to praise the latter only when it imitated the antique. Speaking as a man of Mengs' school, and merely proposing Hellenic art as a canon instead of early Italian, he had, after all, no right to be angry if Frederick -Schlegel opposed classical models with mediaeval. Otherwise, however, +Schlegel opposed classical models with mediæval. Otherwise, however, even to-day little can be added to Goethe's animadversions. -[Illustration: FUeHRICH. RUTH AND BOAZ.] +[Illustration: FÜHRICH. RUTH AND BOAZ.] As with Carstens, so with the Nazarenes, we are warned by the idealistic tendency which inspired the young enthusiasts. There are but few @@ -5139,7 +5104,7 @@ had a soul. Even the much-despised conversion of the Protestants among them to the Catholic Church arose out of the deep conviction that they also, as well as their art, must be united in religion. -[Illustration: FUeHRICH. THE DEPARTURE OF THE PRODIGAL SON.] +[Illustration: FÜHRICH. THE DEPARTURE OF THE PRODIGAL SON.] In a certain sense they even show an advance in art. They found between themselves and the great painters of the eighteenth century a gulf that @@ -5165,7 +5130,7 @@ school was a combination from Leonardo, Raphael, Michael Angelo, Correggio, and Titian, and that it possessed an incomparably greater facility in technique. -[Illustration: FUeHRICH. JACOB AND RACHEL.] +[Illustration: FÜHRICH. JACOB AND RACHEL.] The Nazarenes abandoned on principle the employment of the model, from fear lest it might entice them away from the ideal representation of the @@ -5179,7 +5144,7 @@ sacrilege to have depicted her as purely womanly. They therefore only occasionally sat to one another for studies of drapery, and, for the rest, "in order not to be naturalistic," painted their pictures from imagination in the seclusion of their cells. As the Catholicism of -Schlegel was an anaemic system, so the painters, too, deprived their +Schlegel was an anæmic system, so the painters, too, deprived their figures of blood and being in order to leave them only the abstract beauty of line. They are beings who are exalted above everything, even above correctness of drawing, and who must expire of a lack of blood in @@ -5197,7 +5162,7 @@ When the intelligence of the Battle of Waterloo had penetrated even into the silent cells of the monks, they believed that art too should participate in this universal elevation, and become a factor again in the development of the German nation. It must not be used, wrote -Cornelius in his famous letter to Goerres, as a mere plaything, or to +Cornelius in his famous letter to Görres, as a mere plaything, or to tickle the senses, not merely for the delectation and pomp of high and rich Maecenases, but for the ennoblement and glorification of public life. The means of this artistic elevation, and at the same time a new @@ -5262,7 +5227,7 @@ supplied even by other people, he was at that time still free. [Illustration: STEINLE. BOOK ILLUSTRATION.] When the pictures had been unveiled in 1819 a festival of German artists -was held in Rome. Rueckert, Bunsen, the Humboldts, the Herzes were there; +was held in Rome. Rückert, Bunsen, the Humboldts, the Herzes were there; Cornelius, Veit, and Overbeck had arranged the transparencies. "The centre of all," writes the Danish romantic Atterbom, was the Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, "the idol of every German artist, whose ruling @@ -5305,21 +5270,21 @@ at Mayence. Overbeck, the only one who could not tear himself from Rome, remained, till his death in 1869, the "Young German Raphael," as his father had -called him in a letter from Luebeck in 1811: a devout, religious poet, +called him in a letter from Lübeck in 1811: a devout, religious poet, pure of soul and of fine culture, as one-coloured and one-sided as he was mild and tender. At the outset he knew, at least, how to extract -from the old masters a certain naive piety without positive character, +from the old masters a certain naïve piety without positive character, whereas later he lost himself more and more in the arid formalism of dead dogmas. What was in his power to give he has given in pictures such as the "Entry of Christ into Jerusalem" and the "Weeping over the Body -of Christ"--both in the Marienkirche at Luebeck, in the "Miracle of +of Christ"--both in the Marienkirche at Lübeck, in the "Miracle of Roses," in Santa Maria Degli Angeli at Assisi, in the "Christ on the Mount of Olives" in the Hospital at Hamburg, and the "Betrothal of Mary" in the Berlin National Gallery--pictures which expressed nothing that would not have been expressed better at the end of the fifteenth century. His "Holy Family with St. John and the Lamb," of 1825, in the Munich Pinakothek, is in composition and type a complete imitation of -the Florentine Raphael; his "Lamentation of Christ" in the Luebeck +the Florentine Raphael; his "Lamentation of Christ" in the Lübeck Marienkirche is reminiscent of Perugino; his "Burial" would never have existed but for Raphael's picture in the Borghese Gallery. His sentiment coincided exactly in devotion and godliness with that of Fra Angelico or @@ -5356,13 +5321,13 @@ fine trait, many an intimate reflection of the soul was lost, or through the obduracy of the material did not attain a right expression, here their spiritual and emotional qualities can be better valued. -Joseph Fuehrich, one of the most staunchly convinced champions of these +Joseph Führich, one of the most staunchly convinced champions of these reactionary tendencies, has become, entirely owing to his extensive activity as a draughtsman, somewhat more familiar to our modern knowledge than most of his contemporaries. He had begun as a draughtsman. As a student of the Prague Academy he was an enthusiast for Schlegel, Novalis, and Tieck; and even before his journey to Rome he had -etched fifteen plates for Tieck's _Genoveva_. It was Duerer who exercised +etched fifteen plates for Tieck's _Genoveva_. It was Dürer who exercised the deciding influence upon his further development. He had been led to him through Wackenroder, and had copied his "Marienleben" in 1821. "Here I saw," he says in his Autobiography, "a form before me which stood in @@ -5373,7 +5338,7 @@ with that absence of character which prevailing academic art mistakes for beauty I saw here a keen and mighty characterisation which dominated the figures through and through, making them, as it were, into old acquaintances." The strong and godly German middle age took then in -Fuehrich's heart the same place which the Italian Quattrocento had filled +Führich's heart the same place which the Italian Quattrocento had filled in Overbeck's range of thought. And this old-German tendency was only temporarily interrupted by his sojourn in Rome. After he came to Rome in 1826 he became a Nazarene, and was accustomed there to look back at the @@ -5392,18 +5357,18 @@ the impressions of his youth, and so found himself again. As a boy, in his little native village of Kratzau, in Bohemia, he had tended the cows in summer time and had acquired a certain sincere -knowledge of nature and shepherd-life. He had to thank Duerer for his +knowledge of nature and shepherd-life. He had to thank Dürer for his preference for the idyllic and patriarchal family scenes in Sacred History, and these tendencies found pleasing expression in pictures like "Jacob and Rachel," or "The Passage of Mary across the Mountains." No matter that the figures in "Jacob and Rachel" are taken out of the early pictures of Pinturicchio and Raphael, they are still interwoven, with -their background of landscape, into an idyll of great naivete and charm. -More especially, however, did the qualities which he owed to Duerer -acquire value--a sturdy characterisation, a naive art in telling the +their background of landscape, into an idyll of great naïveté and charm. +More especially, however, did the qualities which he owed to Dürer +acquire value--a sturdy characterisation, a naïve art in telling the story, and a great wealth of fresh traits, straight from nature--in the serial compositions of his old age. There is no sentimental vagueness, -nothing academical. Fuehrich had a keen eye for what was intimate, +nothing academical. Führich had a keen eye for what was intimate, familiar; a tender sense of the individualities of landscape in woodland and meadow, of the charm of everyday life as well as of the animal world; and though an idealist, he knew how to assimilate ingeniously @@ -5430,7 +5395,7 @@ of fable. His "Loreley," in the Schack Gallery, as she looks down, a Medusa-like destroyer, from the tall cliff; his watchman who looks dreamily into space over the houses of the old town; his violin player on his tower who plays, forgetful of the world,--these have something -musical, poetical, that freshness of sentiment and unsought naivete +musical, poetical, that freshness of sentiment and unsought naïveté which as an inheritance of his Viennese home was also peculiar in such a high degree to Schwind. @@ -5438,7 +5403,7 @@ The Romantic aspiration is revealed in Steinle, even, in a certain "yearning after colour." There lives in his works a refined feeling for colour that, especially in his water-colours, rarely forsakes him. Take, for instance, the fresh, tinted pen-drawings, engraved by -Schaffer, in which he displayed with the naivete of Memlinc the life of +Schaffer, in which he displayed with the naïveté of Memlinc the life of St. Euphrosyne; the five aquarelles of Grimm's "Snow-White and Rose-Red"; or his illustrations to Brentano's poems, such as the _Chronicle of the Wandering Student_, and the _Fairy Tale of the Rhine @@ -5459,13 +5424,13 @@ sacred history in strong and vigorous strokes. Strangest to the present-day taste have become the drawings of Cornelius. His plates to Goethe's _Faust_ have, indeed, a certain -austere strength of conception, which he learnt from Duerer; but also +austere strength of conception, which he learnt from Dürer; but also faults of drawing, exaggerations, crudities, and errors in perspective, -which he did not find in Duerer. +which he did not find in Dürer. In his second work, the Nibelungen cycle, an intentional old-German angularity, with an unintentional modern clumsiness, has effected a -_mesalliance_ even less attractive. +_mésalliance_ even less attractive. [Illustration: OVERBECK. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AND CORNELIUS.] @@ -5480,7 +5445,7 @@ THE ART OF MUNICH UNDER KING LUDWIG I More than seventeen hundred years ago there reigned a Roman emperor who loved art passionately. He looked upon it from an intellectual altitude which few have reached, and he valued it as the monumental consummation -of Graeco-Roman culture. Standing upon a plane of intellectual elevation, +of Græco-Roman culture. Standing upon a plane of intellectual elevation, himself gifted with artistic intuition, he knew of no higher enjoyment for a ruler than the cultivation of the architectural and other forms of art. It was he who opened up to the energy of artists a field such as @@ -5522,12 +5487,12 @@ king's splendid enthusiasm for the ideal significance of art, which he hoped would lead the German people, then seeking to work out its individuality, from out of its Philistine narrow-mindedness to nobler and greater things--this enthusiasm will redound to his enduring honour. -Schiller's idea of educating humanity by aesthetic means had in him grown +Schiller's idea of educating humanity by æsthetic means had in him grown into a living and powerful sentiment. All that it was possible to accomplish in the cause of art, on the basis of existing development, his endeavours have fully realised. In the -course of twenty-three years he spent more than L3,000,000 from his +course of twenty-three years he spent more than £3,000,000 from his privy purse, and made Munich what it is, the principal art centre of Germany; changed it from a Boeotia into an Athens; founded its art collections, and erected the buildings which give the town its @@ -5545,8 +5510,8 @@ in those sad times of political stagnation and reaction. But that there was a living soul of art in those days posterity will no more acknowledge than it does in the case of the age of Hadrian. - "Wie bei Bartholdy als Kind, so in Massimis Villa als Juengling - Teutshes Fresco wir sehn, aber in Muenchen als Mann," + "Wie bei Bartholdy als Kind, so in Massimis Villa als Jüngling + Teutshes Fresco wir sehn, aber in München als Mann," sang King Ludwig. Now, after two generations, it can be seen that fresco-painting at Munich from 1820 to 1840 produced less original @@ -5568,7 +5533,7 @@ believe in a kind of metempsychosis; as though the spirit of the great Florentine master, that giant of the Renaissance, had been restored to humanity. At that very period the Italian art of the Cinquecento enjoyed the exclusive favour of the German scholars. It alone was worthy of -imitation; in it the aesthetic philosophers sought for rules and laws to +imitation; in it the æsthetic philosophers sought for rules and laws to govern the development of art. And as they thought that all the qualities of this artistic method were to be found in the works of Cornelius, it was only logical to arrive at the conclusion which the @@ -5673,7 +5638,7 @@ produced nothing better than caricatures of Michael Angelo, that they expressed themselves in shallow phrases, that their religious pictures are cold and inflated, and that their mythological presentations with naked figures impress us as bombastic and repellent. Houbraken, in his -biography of Gerard de Lairesse, wrote: "A whole book could be filled +biography of Gérard de Lairesse, wrote: "A whole book could be filled with the description of his innumerable pictures and panels, ceilings and frescoes." To-day we dismiss this unattractive mannerist in a few lines. What his contemporaries described as his Michaelangelesque and @@ -5747,7 +5712,7 @@ fallen three hundred years earlier,--the only difference being that he surpassed them in erudition. But although this quality would no doubt have greatly helped him had he written books, we cannot take it into account in discussing his artistic merits, any more than we can judge -Gerard de Lairesse by his literary achievements. Nay, more, as he had +Gérard de Lairesse by his literary achievements. Nay, more, as he had elected to confine himself to painting, his erudition became a curse to him, bringing him to disregard beauty of form in a manner as yet unknown in the history of art. Not only was he filled with ardour for the @@ -5834,7 +5799,7 @@ was on their lips, but not a spark of whose genius was in their heads, with every sort of mannerism. "When nature once produces a new birth she does so with a lavish hand. Talents, talents enough for centuries!" In these words Cornelius himself did honour to his pupils--to Carl -Herrmann, Straehuber, Hermann Anschuetz, Hiltensperger, and Lindenschmit +Herrmann, Strähuber, Hermann Anschütz, Hiltensperger, and Lindenschmit the elder, the mention of whose names evokes a painful memory of the arcades in the palace garden at Munich. @@ -5864,7 +5829,7 @@ patrons for whom he worked, and by whom he was placed on a pedestal. Look at both of them from a purely artistic point of view, comparing them with the old masters, and both of them sink equally into insignificance. But if we come to accept the problem of art criticism as -a matter of psychology rather than of aesthetics, if we search for the +a matter of psychology rather than of æsthetics, if we search for the relations between the work of art and the soul of its author, we cannot but look upon Kaulbach as by far the inferior. Cornelius endeavoured to raise the masses to his level, paid for his idealism with unpopularity, @@ -5933,9 +5898,9 @@ him of a German Hogarth should unfortunately have been caught in the toils of the Cornelian school. But this comparison does little justice to Hogarth. There is nothing in the illustrations of Kaulbach which many other artists could not have improved upon. In his "Reynard the Fox" he -adapted, for the benefit of the German public, Grandville's _Scenes de -la Vie privee et publique des Animaux_, published in 1842. His -illustrations for _editions de luxe_ ("The Women of Goethe," etc.) +adapted, for the benefit of the German public, Grandville's _Scènes de +la Vie privée et publique des Animaux_, published in 1842. His +illustrations for _éditions de luxe_ ("The Women of Goethe," etc.) marked the first steps of the road which ended in Thuman. And Thuman stands higher than Kaulbach. The faint, unaccented drawing, the oval "beauty" of heads, declamatory and expressionless, the academic touch @@ -5958,21 +5923,21 @@ since been kind enough to render almost invisible--he fulfilled his task by mocking at what he should have glorified. "All die Meister Kunstbahnbrecher, wie die Herren selbst sich nennen, - Wahrlich Widderkoepfe sind sie, Mauern damit einzurennen. + Wahrlich Widderköpfe sind sie, Mauern damit einzurennen. Mit dem Loche in der Mauer ist's noch lange nicht geschehen, Da muss erst der Held erscheinen, siegreich dadurch einzugehen. Gegen jenes Ungeheuer ziehen sie zu Feld mit Phrasen, - Wie die sieben Schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekaempft den Hasen. - Voran zieht der edle Ritter Schnorr, der Kuenste Don Quixote, + Wie die sieben Schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekämpft den Hasen. + Voran zieht der edle Ritter Schnorr, der Künste Don Quixote, Seine Rosinante setzt er, statt des Pegasus in Trotte; Heiliger Hess, sein Sancho Pansa, Du nicht liebst das offene Streiten, - Und du laesst dich sachte, sachte, 'rab von Deinem Esel gleiten. + Und du lässt dich sachte, sachte, 'rab von Deinem Esel gleiten. Was ist denn so grosses Neues in der Neuen Kunst geschehen? - Nichts, als was sie nicht der aften, laengst vergangnen abgesehen. - Waende ich auch Lorbeerkraenze all um diese Alltagsfratzen, - Wuerden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle Glatzen." + Nichts, als was sie nicht der aften, längst vergangnen abgesehen. + Wände ich auch Lorbeerkränze all um diese Alltagsfratzen, + Würden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle Glatzen." -This is the commentary written by Kaulbach himself; and Theophile +This is the commentary written by Kaulbach himself; and Théophile Gautier called the suite _un carnaval au soleil_. "The king in his youth spent millions in order to elevate art," says Schwind; "and now in his old age he pays another thousand pounds in order to be laughed at for @@ -6001,11 +5966,11 @@ learnt again right from the beginning. CHAPTER VII -THE DUeSSELDORFERS +THE DÜSSELDORFERS On the Rhine there existed a school of painting instead of a school of -drawing, a fact which at that time placed Duesseldorf next in importance +drawing, a fact which at that time placed Düsseldorf next in importance to Munich. Wilhelm Schadow, its first director, was lacking in any personal distinction as an artist, but he had received from his great father a tendency towards perfection of technique, which brought him and @@ -6015,11 +5980,11 @@ able to exercise an authoritative influence. In Rome he was the only one of the Nazarenes amenable to the French influence, while the others nervously held aloof from the members of the French Academy. And this formal bent of his talent later gave him the qualifications of a sound -teacher. Immediately upon his arrival at Duesseldorf, in November 1826, +teacher. Immediately upon his arrival at Düsseldorf, in November 1826, he was escorted by a stately throng of students: Carl Friedrich Lessing, -Julius Huebner, Theodor Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, H. Muecke, and Christian +Julius Hübner, Theodor Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, H. Mücke, and Christian Koehler, who were afterwards joined by Eduard Bendemann, Ernest Deger, -and others. These became the mainstay of the celebrated Old Duesseldorf +and others. These became the mainstay of the celebrated Old Düsseldorf School, which was soon supported by the jubilant enthusiasm of its contemporaries. At the Berlin exhibitions the new school of painting passed from one triumph to the other. Young men fresh from school @@ -6034,7 +5999,7 @@ calculation, but the result of a sudden burst of ardour, and the disillusion had now followed upon the enthusiasm. In 1810, with the French bayonets gleaming outside the windows, and the French kettledrums drowning the sound of his voice, Fichte delivered at the Berlin -University his famous speeches which sounded the reveille for Germany. +University his famous speeches which sounded the réveillé for Germany. At the same time Kleist wrote his _Hermannschlacht_: Napoleon was to be treated as Hermann had treated Varus. "_Was blasen die Trompeten, Husaren heraus_," pealed through the air; the song of "_Got, der Eisen @@ -6051,7 +6016,7 @@ old storehouses of faded German reminiscences, and fled for inspiration to the times of a consolidated German Empire. This return to the ruins of the past was a protest against the grey, colourless present. The patriotic frenzy of the poets of freedom changed into enthusiasm for the -vanished glories of mediaeval Germany. They remembered with longing and +vanished glories of mediæval Germany. They remembered with longing and yearning the days when the robber-knights ruled town and country from their strongholds. Schenkendorff sang hymns inspired by the old cathedrals, rummaged with holy horror among the skeletons of knights and @@ -6074,15 +6039,15 @@ bottom of the green current, pictures full of charming wilfulness, dreamily winsome, like summer evenings on the Rhine. Uhland sang, as once had sung the knightly poets with the golden harps-- - "Von Gottesminne, von kuehner Helden Muth, - Von lindem liebesinne, von suesser Maiengluth." + "Von Gottesminne, von kühner Helden Muth, + Von lindem liebesinne, von süsser Maiengluth." To this day we seem to peep between the weather-beaten castles, standing on their grey rocks along the Rhine Valley, into the realm of romance as into an enigma propounded by mountain and dale. Rhine and romance! No spot in Germany was better fitted to become the cradle of a romantic -art than Duesseldorf, the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of +art than Düsseldorf, the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of the green river. In the fifteenth century, in addition to the school of Florence, where flowed a rich current of political and human life, where great buildings, monuments, and frescoes kept architects and sculptors @@ -6095,24 +6060,24 @@ same manner, in the nineteenth century, we find in contrast with the Munich school, with its numerous architectural products, its massive statuary, and the epic-dramatic fresco painting of Cornelius--"wedding the German to the Greek, and Faust to Helen"--that lyrico-sentimental -Duesseldorf school of painting which embraced Madonnas and prophets, +Düsseldorf school of painting which embraced Madonnas and prophets, knights and robbers, gipsies and monks, water-nymphs and nuns with the same languishing tenderness. In matter and technique it completes the art of Cornelius and the Nazarenes; that of the Munich master by its encouragement of oil-painting; that of the Nazarenes by the stress which -it lays upon the more worldly side of mediaeval life, upon chivalry, and -in a less degree upon that other pillar of mediaevalism the Church. The -Nazarenes are archaeological and ascetic; the Duesseldorf school is +it lays upon the more worldly side of mediæval life, upon chivalry, and +in a less degree upon that other pillar of mediævalism the Church. The +Nazarenes are archæological and ascetic; the Düsseldorf school is insipid in a modern way, feeble, colourless, and sentimental. Count Raczynski and Friedrich von Uechtritz have given us interesting -descriptions of life at Duesseldorf at that time, and their story reads +descriptions of life at Düsseldorf at that time, and their story reads like a chapter of Tacitus' _Germania_. "_Grand dieu! Bons et affectueux allemands!_" exclaimed a Parisian critic of the Count's book in sad emotion, and held up this virtuous German life, as an example worthy of imitation, to his compatriots, the decadents of fashionable artistic Paris, fallen into modern luxury. Undisturbed by the hum of a big city, -and without any communication with its surroundings, the Duesseldorf +and without any communication with its surroundings, the Düsseldorf colony of artists lived its life of seclusion. The painters saw none but painters. They herded together in the studios, and the sole recreation in the intervals of their work was a visit to another studio. The whole @@ -6128,7 +6093,7 @@ artistic life. Few of them ever read a newspaper. In the year of revolution, 1830, their sole interest in the events around them was concentrated in the fear that a war might disturb their idyllic life. The end of the day's work saw them in summer-time bent on a pilgrimage -to the Stockkaempchen, to refresh themselves with a cup of buttermilk, to +to the Stockkämpchen, to refresh themselves with a cup of buttermilk, to play at bowls, or to enjoy a race among the cabbage patches of the garden. In winter they made a point of meeting at seven o'clock every Saturday night at the inn for a literary reading. Each taking his part @@ -6136,7 +6101,7 @@ they recited the dramas of Tieck, of Calderon, and Lopez; or Uechtritz read extracts from German history, the Crusades, the period of the emperors, the riots of the Hussites. Every Sunday night there met at Schadow's a very distinguished intellectual circle, consisting of Judge -Immermann (the reformer of the stage at Duesseldorf), Felix Mendelssohn +Immermann (the reformer of the stage at Düsseldorf), Felix Mendelssohn the composer, Kortum, author of the _Jobsiade_, and Assessor von Uechtritz, with their ladies. But the great gala-days were the theatrical performances which took place twice a week. Under the @@ -6146,19 +6111,19 @@ even so far as to take part in amateur performances, conducted by Immermann, and given in Schadow's house, under the auspices of the whole of the distinguished society. And thus the pictures of this school were not conceived under the influence of life, but of the theatre. The -Duesseldorf artists were youths whose productions were not rooted in +Düsseldorf artists were youths whose productions were not rooted in life, but in reading and culture; youths who always moved in good society, and who had passed through the great ordeals of life, but only on "the boards representing the universe." -_Theodor Hildebrandt_ became the Shakespeare of Duesseldorf. The +_Theodor Hildebrandt_ became the Shakespeare of Düsseldorf. The translation of the works of the English poet by Schlegel had been -published some time earlier, and Immermann, in Duesseldorf, had been the +published some time earlier, and Immermann, in Düsseldorf, had been the first to offer Shakespeare a home on the German stage. The performances of his tragedies were regarded as red-letter days. During the three years of Immermann's leadership (1834-37), _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, _King John_, _King Lear_, _The Merchant of Venice_, _Romeo and Juliet_, -_Othello_, and _Julius Caesar_ were performed on fifteen occasions in +_Othello_, and _Julius Cæsar_ were performed on fifteen occasions in all.[1] To give the titles of these plays is at once to characterise the subject-matter of Hildebrandt's paintings. He very often had a hand in the staging of the plays, and is said to have shown a remarkable @@ -6168,12 +6133,12 @@ other poets for his inspiration, as in his "Pictures from Faust" and his "Brigands," where he may have been inspired by one of the many variations on _Rinaldo Rinaldini_ that flooded the market at the time, or perhaps also by Byron, whose influence was very marked on the -Duesseldorf school. +Düsseldorf school. Goethe's _Frauengestalten_, more especially the Leonoras, were reproduced in oils by old father _Sohn_. _Eduard Steinbruck_ painted -Genevieves, Red Riding Hoods, Elves, and Undines, after Tieck and -Fouque; _H. Stilke's_ "Pictures from the Crusades" introduced Walter +Genevièves, Red Riding Hoods, Elves, and Undines, after Tieck and +Fouqué; _H. Stilke's_ "Pictures from the Crusades" introduced Walter Scott to the German public. Uhland's first ballads had brought into fashion the damsels who from the ramparts of their castles wave a sad farewell to the lonely shepherds; the ancestral tombs, in which the last @@ -6182,7 +6147,7 @@ melancholy heroes stab themselves. His _Love-song of the Shepherd to the Shepherdess_-- "Und halt ich dich in den Armen - Auf freien Bergeshoehn, + Auf freien Bergeshöhn, Wir sehn in die weiten Lande Und werden doch nicht gesehn," @@ -6196,7 +6161,7 @@ honoured in German art. Im schwarzen Trauerkleide, Die Jungfrau sah ich nicht." -After Buerger he painted a Leonora--of course in so-called mediaeval +After Bürger he painted a Leonora--of course in so-called mediæval costume, in order "to avoid the unpicturesque attire in fashion during the Seven Years' War"; and at the same time as Hildebrandt, "A Mourning Brigand," who, in the full light of the evening sun, sits brooding on a @@ -6216,10 +6181,10 @@ the exception of the frescoes of the Casa Bartholdy, the subjects of which were selected with an eye to the religious belief of their purchaser, the Nazarenes found all the subject-matter they wanted in the New Testament. The Passion of Our Lord was unable to inspire the -Duesseldorf school. As compared to the few Christian paintings by W. +Düsseldorf school. As compared to the few Christian paintings by W. Schadow, and the dreamy Madonnas of Deger, Ittenbach, and little Perugino Mintrop, we find a far greater number of scenes from the Old -Testament, which at the time gave birth to numerous dramas. Huebner, +Testament, which at the time gave birth to numerous dramas. Hübner, always inclined to idyllic and melancholy scenes, painted Ruth and Boaz, his first great picture, which established his reputation. After Klingemann had utilised the whole life of Moses by turning it into a @@ -6229,25 +6194,25 @@ then, incited by Raupach's "Semiramis," abandoned his biblical heroines for Oriental ones. Theodor Hildebrandt took Tieck's "Judith" as an inspiration for his picture of this Jewish heroine. Kehren's "Joseph reveals Himself to his Brethren" was begun after the opera _Joseph in -Egypt_ had been performed at Duesseldorf. Bendemann, in 1832, played his +Egypt_ had been performed at Düsseldorf. Bendemann, in 1832, played his trump card with his "Lament of the Jews," now in the Cologne Museum, after Byron had made his propaganda, suggested by the sad lives of the children of Israel, and Friedrich von Uechtritz had caused his drama, _The Babylonians in Jerusalem_, to be performed, ending as it does with the sending of the Jews into captivity in Babylon-- - "Wein' ueber die die weinen fern in Babel, + "Wein' über die die weinen fern in Babel, Ihr Tempel brach, ihr Land ward, ach! zur Fabel! Wein'! es erstart der heil 'gen Harfe Ton, - Im Haus Jehovas haust der Spoetter Hohn." + Im Haus Jehovas haust der Spötter Hohn." And his oil-paintings of a later date, "Jeremiah on the Ruins of Jerusalem" (1834), now in the German Emperor's collection, and the "Sending of the Jews into Captivity in Babylon" (1872), in the Berlin National Gallery, were variations on the same theme. -The productions of the Duesseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony -with the programme issued by Puettmann in his book. Pictorial +The productions of the Düsseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony +with the programme issued by Püttmann in his book. Pictorial representations may be taken from two ranges, History or Poetry; the painter may choose an historical fact as a subject for representation, or reproduce in visible form the rhythmically shaped fancy of a @@ -6264,7 +6229,7 @@ catastrophe." [Illustration: SOHN. THE TWO LEONORAS.] Thus the scale of sorrow from sad melancholy to painful suffering became -the speciality of the Duesseldorf school. At the foot of the scale we +the speciality of the Düsseldorf school. At the foot of the scale we find the pictures which "represent the common, yet keen sorrow of parents at the death or the sad future of their children." Lessing's "Royal Pair" mourn the death of their daughter; Hagar grieves because @@ -6280,9 +6245,9 @@ children-- Their lips were four red roses on a stalk, Which in their summer beauty kissed each other." -Job grieves at the downfall of his house; Huebner's "Ruth," because her +Job grieves at the downfall of his house; Hübner's "Ruth," because her weeping mother-in-law entreats her to depart; Stilke's "Pilgrim in the -Desert," because his horse has died of thirst; Plueddeman's "Columbus," +Desert," because his horse has died of thirst; Plüddeman's "Columbus," because he knows himself to be unworthy of the grace of God which enabled him to discover America; Kiederich's "Charles V", because he has retired too early to his monastery, and is plagued by the ticking of @@ -6312,7 +6277,7 @@ and the present, just as between the Germany of to-day and the Germany of 1830. Men of the younger generation, who were still at school when Bismarck spoke his word of blood and iron, can hardly understand how this modern, realistic Germany can have been, two generations ago, a -sentimental Germany. Now the significance of the Duesseldorf school in +sentimental Germany. Now the significance of the Düsseldorf school in the history of civilisation lies in the fact that they are the real representatives of that age of sentimentality. A generation that melted away in tearful dreamings must needs enthusiastically recognise its own @@ -6336,13 +6301,13 @@ Technically, the pictures of this school were not without their merits. "The greatness of Michael Angelo" may not have been Bendemann's, and Sohn's carnations are far removed from "the melting colouring of Titian." But as opposed to the one-sidedness to which fresco painting at -Munich was given up, the encouragement of oil-painting at Duesseldorf +Munich was given up, the encouragement of oil-painting at Düsseldorf must be looked upon as praiseworthy. These painters were the first in Germany to try again to learn how to paint in oils. The extreme artistic clumsiness that had reigned under Cornelius was followed by a period in which, under Schadow, earnest studies and serious work were devoted to an effort again to master a technical medium. Their friendly emulation -led to surprising progress, which assured to the Duesseldorf school a +led to surprising progress, which assured to the Düsseldorf school a technical superiority over all the other German schools of the period. [Illustration: SOHN. THE RAPE OF HYLAS.] @@ -6352,7 +6317,7 @@ vital works of art, it is due to the fact that they were produced under the pressure of that mechanical idealism which makes all their productions so utterly unattractive to us. The ideal "line of beauty" has turned the figures into bloodless shadows and washed-out theatrical -forms. As philosophy was to Cornelius, so to the Duesseldorfers was +forms. As philosophy was to Cornelius, so to the Düsseldorfers was poetry their Noah's Ark. The interest aroused by the poet was their ally; the breath of the wind that set their boat afloat; the general poetical tendency made up for the deficiency in artistic interest. Had @@ -6375,7 +6340,7 @@ subject to may be interpreted with the assistance of the plaster bust: honour, fidelity, love. And as sentiment and heroism are national virtues of the Germans, they are bound to show sentimental expression whilst killing their adversaries. Even the brigands are generalised lay -figures. The Duesseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender, +figures. The Düsseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender, vaguely graceful swing of outline that anxiously avoided all manly and strong, energetic and characteristic expression, all that could remind one of nature. They rejected Leonardo da Vinci's advice, to tug at the @@ -6403,19 +6368,19 @@ THE LEGACY OF GERMAN ROMANTICISM It was reserved for two younger men to reach the aim that hovered in the -far distance before Cornelius and the Duesseldorfians. And, by one of +far distance before Cornelius and the Düsseldorfians. And, by one of fortune's remarkable freaks, the greatest German monumental painter of -the nineteenth century came from the Duesseldorf, the greatest +the nineteenth century came from the Düsseldorf, the greatest Romanticist from the Munich school. _Alfred Rethel_ was twenty-four years old when he received the commission to paint the frescoes in the _Kaisersaal_ at Aachen, and had -previously worked in the Duesseldorf Academy, and then with Veit at -Frankfort. But the pictures are suggestive neither of his Duesseldorfian +previously worked in the Düsseldorf Academy, and then with Veit at +Frankfort. But the pictures are suggestive neither of his Düsseldorfian nor of his Nazarene training. The deeds of Charlemagne, the ancestor of the German Imperial dynasties, are nobly, and, at the same time, vigorously embodied in them. Rethel had studied the harsh strength of -his Albrecht Duerer, but only as a kindred spirit studies his kin. +his Albrecht Dürer, but only as a kindred spirit studies his kin. Neither Cornelius nor Schnorr has depicted the old German heroic might and the vanished imperial grandeur, the great past, the iron Middle Ages, with such notable traits. How plain in his heroic greatness stands @@ -6454,7 +6419,7 @@ Kleist, the greatest German poet of the post-classical age, who was chosen for so high a vocation, the creation of a new dramatic style, shot himself; and the giant, Alfred Rethel, was to end in madness. Barely forty years old was he when he walked by the warder's side in the -courtyard at Duesseldorf, picking up flint-stones, a poor, simple madman. +courtyard at Düsseldorf, picking up flint-stones, a poor, simple madman. Only two series of designs ensure, apart from the frescoes at Aix, the immortality of his name: "Hannibal's Passage over the Alps," and the "Dance of Death." As a draughtsman, just as a painter of frescoes, he is @@ -6477,7 +6442,7 @@ burst over the soil of Europe, Rethel's fantasy reaped a rich harvest. He drew his "Dance of Death," represented Death the Leveller, who drives poor fools behind the barricades. The ghostly and spectral, that horror of death that breaks in upon us in the midst of life, had been the -propensity of German art since Duerer and Holbein. Like them, Rethel +propensity of German art since Dürer and Holbein. Like them, Rethel loved the world of the diabolical, and similarly chose for his embodiment of it the sturdy, simple contours of the old German wood engravings. Death as the hero of revolution makes a commencement. There @@ -6506,7 +6471,7 @@ features, behind their jesters' masks, twist and turn. [Illustration: RETHEL. THE EMPEROR OTTO AT THE TOMB OF CHARLEMAGNE.] There is something of Th. A. Hofmann's wild fantasy of the ague-fit in -this picture,--something morbid, satanic, that suggests Felicien Rops; +this picture,--something morbid, satanic, that suggests Félicien Rops; yet, at the same time, something so pithy and virile, and in form so compressed, well-balanced, and correct, that it brings the old Germans, too, to our recollection. And the reconciliation with which the series @@ -6551,12 +6516,12 @@ of effervescent wit. RETHEL. HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE OVER THE ALPS.] -When an aesthetic once hailed him as "the creator of an original, German +When an æsthetic once hailed him as "the creator of an original, German kind of ideal, romantic art," Schwind repeated very slowly, weighing each word: "'An original, German kind of ideal, romantic art.' My dear sir, to me there are only two kinds of pictures, the sold and the unsold; and to me the sold are always the best. Those are my entire -aesthetics." Or a noble amateur comes to him with the request that he +æsthetics." Or a noble amateur comes to him with the request that he would take him just for a few days into his school, and instruct him especially in his masterly art of drawing in pencil. Whereupon Schwind: "It does not require a day for that, my dear Baron; I can tell you in @@ -6570,9 +6535,9 @@ and very good value. Now, I have all these things lying together on the table, and a few thoughts in my head as well; then I sit down here and begin to draw. And now you know all that I can tell you." Again he asks "to be decorated with an order," because he "is ashamed to mix in such a -naked condition with his bestarred confreres," and after the bestowal +naked condition with his bestarred confrères," and after the bestowal of the desired decoration he says: "I wore it only once, at the last New -Year's levee, but I vowed at the same time that six horses should not +Year's levée, but I vowed at the same time that six horses should not drag me there again. Before, there was at any rate a beautiful queen there, and then the court ladies laughed at one; but amongst men only, the stupidity of it is not to be endured." When he grumbles over @@ -6582,7 +6547,7 @@ pictures and then growls, "What am I to do with the things, if nobody buys them?" when he indulges in outbursts of wrath, and a minute later has forgotten again the abusive words which the others spitefully bring up against him years afterwards,--then here, too, his happy humour -forces its way everywhere, that divine naivete which forms the soul of +forces its way everywhere, that divine naïveté which forms the soul of his and of all true art. [Illustration: RETHEL. DEATH AT THE MASKED BALL.] @@ -6599,9 +6564,9 @@ sentimentally, and as it were by stencil. He was spiritually permeated by that which had given Romanticism the capacity to exist: the sense of that forgotten and imperishable world of beauty which it has again discovered. The others sought for the "blue flower," Schwind found it; -resuscitated in all its faery beauty that "fair night of enchantment +resuscitated in all its faëry beauty that "fair night of enchantment which holds the mind captive." He incorporated the romantic idea in -painting as Weber did in music, and his works, like the _Freischuetz_, +painting as Weber did in music, and his works, like the _Freischütz_, will live for ever. Many a man listened to him holding forth upon water-nymphs, gnomes, and tricksy kobolds, as of beings of whose existence he appeared to have no doubt whatever. On one occasion, while @@ -6644,9 +6609,9 @@ gloved fingers, graceful in the modern sense. He was a painter of love--a breath of Walter von der Vogelweide's ideal perfection of womanhood pervades his pictures. - "Durchsuesset und gebluemet sind die reinen Frauen, + "Durchsüsset und geblümet sind die reinen Frauen, Es ward nie nichts so Wonnigliches anzuschauen, - In Lueften, auf Erden, noch in allen gruenen Auen." + In Lüften, auf Erden, noch in allen grünen Auen." Schwind, too, painted frescoes, and in them he is very unequal. All his life long he complained of the lack of important commissions; it was @@ -6681,7 +6646,7 @@ the miserable cell in which St. Elizabeth dies. A touch of the true-heartedness of the ancient Teuton, a breath of peacefulness, permeates Schwind's Wartburg pictures like the waft of an angel's wings. -[Illustration: MORITZ SCHWIND. _Graphische Kuenste._] +[Illustration: MORITZ SCHWIND. _Graphische Künste._] Schwind, like Rethel, is numbered among the few artists of that period who were able to preserve their absolute simplicity against the great @@ -6726,7 +6691,7 @@ private gallery for the quiet and devout enjoyment of thousands, he has given us his best work as a painter. Yet even _his_ pictures have the failings of his time. Compared with -Duerer, he seems like a gifted amateur; there are manifold empty, dead +Dürer, he seems like a gifted amateur; there are manifold empty, dead spaces to be observed among his figures; their action is at times misconceived and puppet-like; and his sense of colour was always limited. One may be permitted to look forward to some master, at the @@ -6743,7 +6708,7 @@ further poetic creation, it announces what Schwind would be were he alive to-day. An elfland kingdom of enchantment, full of genuine poetry and beauty, opens out before us; a fairy garden, where the "blue flower" pours forth the whole of its sense-benumbing perfume. Count von -Gleichen; the boy's miraculous horn; the mountain spirit Ruebezahl, +Gleichen; the boy's miraculous horn; the mountain spirit Rübezahl, wandering along through the wild mountain forest; the hermits; the elves' dance; the erlking; the knight and the water nymph,--they are flooded with all the enchantment of Romanticism, they possess deep @@ -6758,7 +6723,7 @@ harmless, and joyous being. His works, in comparison with those of his contemporaries, who were devising systems by means of which art should be brought back to the -classical, bear the stamp of naive creations in which no hypocrisy, no +classical, bear the stamp of naïve creations in which no hypocrisy, no decorative nothingness finds expression. As against the erudite treatises of the Cornelius school, they preached for the first time the doctrine, that in works of art what is important is not the quantity of @@ -6775,7 +6740,7 @@ the old masters; he spoke the language of his time. He was one of the first who at that time laid aside the prejudice against modern costume, and in his "Symphony" turned to artistic account, in one fantastic whole, even Franz Lachner's frockcoat and -Fraeulein Hetzenecker's modern society toilette. "If you may paint a man +Fräulein Hetzenecker's modern society toilette. "If you may paint a man hidden in an iron stove--what is called a knight in armour--you may still more permissibly paint a man in a frockcoat. In general, one can paint what one will, provided always that one wills what one can." And @@ -6792,9 +6757,9 @@ reality into the poetry of purest romance, so is his Romanticism saturated with a sense of reality charged with memories of home. Out of his fairy-tale pictures is breathed a charming fragrance of the long-vanished days of earth's first springtide, and yet for that very -reason a breath of the most modern Decadence. He is distinguished from -Marees and Burne-Jones, from Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau, by a -very unmodern attribute--he is bursting with health. He is still naively +reason a breath of the most modern Décadence. He is distinguished from +Marées and Burne-Jones, from Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau, by a +very unmodern attribute--he is bursting with health. He is still naïvely childlike, free from that elegiac melancholy, that temper of weary resignation, which the end of the nineteenth century first brought into the world. @@ -6860,7 +6825,7 @@ over the forms like a delicate vapour; and quite especially in his illustrations--so far as the word may be employed with respect to him, for he never illustrated, he gave shape to his own thoughts, and that only which moved his innermost being he brought fully formed before -one's eye. The _Bilderbogen_ and the _Fliegende Blaetter_ of Munich +one's eye. The _Bilderbogen_ and the _Fliegende Blätter_ of Munich obtained from him witty and humorous inventions, such as "The Almond Tree," "Puss in Boots," "The Peasant and the Donkey," "Herr Winter," and "The Acrobat Games." His fairest legacy consists of three cyclic works: @@ -6925,7 +6890,7 @@ Starnberger See, there stands a small rotunda, within is a prattling fountain, right round the walls runs a frieze, depicting the legend of the "Beautiful Melusina." It is Schwind's monument. With him German Romanticism perished; reality itself had now become so marvellous. When, -in 1850, Huebner had to paint a figure of Germania for a page in King +in 1850, Hübner had to paint a figure of Germania for a page in King Ludwig's album, he depicted a queenly woman, prone on the ground, with her face in the dust, amidst a desolate landscape and under a cloudy sky. The crown has fallen from her head and a skull lies by her side, @@ -6975,7 +6940,7 @@ tender soul that she is, had taken wings, whither none can tell. "That is why nobody has a single idea," as Schwind said in his drastic way. The Muse of Schwind, the last Romanticist, was a chaste, pensive, soulful maiden; while that of Piloty, the first colourist, was a noisy, -bloodthirsty Megaera. Yet one can have no doubt as to the necessity of +bloodthirsty Megæra. Yet one can have no doubt as to the necessity of this evolutionary change. [Illustration: _Albert, Helio._ @@ -7027,13 +6992,13 @@ In the very years when the first railways were ousting the old mail-coaches the mutual interchange of endeavour and ability between the various nations was slower and scantier than ever before. How German artists had wandered abroad in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in -that great age when Duerer crossed the Alps on Pirkheymer's pony, and +that great age when Dürer crossed the Alps on Pirkheymer's pony, and when Holbein obtained from Erasmus letters of introduction for England! -With what joy Duerer, in his letters and in his journal, gives an account +With what joy Dürer, in his letters and in his journal, gives an account of the recognition accorded him in artistic circles in Italy and the Dutch cities! Nearly all the German painters had, in the course of their long wanderings, made acquaintance with either the Netherlands or Italy. -They knew exactly what was going on in the world around them. Duerer and +They knew exactly what was going on in the world around them. Dürer and Raphael used to send drawings to each other, "so as to know each other's handwriting." It was only in the first half of the nineteenth century that the Germans, once proud in the consciousness of possessing the @@ -7053,7 +7018,7 @@ failing of that of France. With some such ideas in their heads the majority of the German painters, in the autumn of 1843, found themselves confronted by Gallait's -"Abdication of Charles V" and Biefve's "Agreement of the Dutch +"Abdication of Charles V" and Bièfve's "Agreement of the Dutch Nobility"; two Belgian pictures which at that time were going the round of the exhibitions in all the larger towns of Germany. And it was not long before the belief in the old gods, which had for thirty years held @@ -7083,42 +7048,42 @@ powerful development which was shortly to take place in French art. A legion of characterless pupils issuing from David's studio wearied the world with their aimless works, and hurled their thunderbolts against all rising talent. The austere catalogue of the Salon was a pell-mell of -Belisarii, Telemaques, Phaedras, Electras, Brutuses, Psyches, and -Endymions. Girodet and Guerin wearied themselves in putting on canvas +Belisarii, Télémaques, Phædras, Electras, Brutuses, Psyches, and +Endymions. Girodet and Guérin wearied themselves in putting on canvas the chief scenes in the classical tragedies at that time so frequently performed--Pygmalion and Galatea, the Death of Agamemnon, and the like--and painted portraits between times; Girodet's dry and poor, -Guerin's solemnly vacant. The universal note was that of tedium. +Guérin's solemnly vacant. The universal note was that of tedium. -_Francois Gerard_ alone, the "King of Painters and Painter of Kings," +_François Gérard_ alone, the "King of Painters and Painter of Kings," survives, at least in his portraits. Like David he is redeemed only by his portrait painting, and his successes in that direction eclipse even -Mme. Vigee-Lebrun, the amiable, gifted, and graceful painter of Marie +Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, the amiable, gifted, and graceful painter of Marie Antoinette's days. At the outbreak of the Revolution she had left France. Everywhere extolled and welcomed with open arms, she painted -Mme. de Stael in Switzerland, and at Naples Lady Hamilton, the famous +Mme. de Staël in Switzerland, and at Naples Lady Hamilton, the famous beauty of the time of the Directory. But when, in 1810, she returned to Paris, she had been forgotten. The day on which Marie Antoinette picked up her brush for her, as Charles V had done for Titian, was to remain -the happiest in her life. She belonged to the Ancien Regime, and +the happiest in her life. She belonged to the Ancien Régime, and although her death did not take place till 1842, at the age of eighty-seven, her work was already over in 1792. In her old age she busied herself in writing memoirs of the splendour of her youthful days, -from the famous mythological dinner in the Rue de Clery, where her +from the famous mythological dinner in the Rue de Cléry, where her husband appeared in the character of Pindar and recited his translation of Anacreon's odes, to the triumphs which accompanied her journey round Europe. -Gerard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure, and +Gérard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure, and filled it well, especially in his youth. When, in the Exhibition of Portrait Painting held at Paris in 1885, there appeared the likeness of -Mlle. Brongniart, from the collection of Baron Pichon, painted by Gerard +Mlle. Brongniart, from the collection of Baron Pichon, painted by Gérard in 1795, at the age of twenty-five, there was general astonishment at the familiar and intimate grasp of character it displayed. The portrait of this young girl standing in her white dress, so tranquil and without pose, has in the firmness of its draughtsmanship the austere charm and dignity of a Bronzino. And later none could give to the aristocracy of -Europe a nobler or more natural bearing than did Gerard, who became +Europe a nobler or more natural bearing than did Gérard, who became their tried and trusted depicter: yet in his last days he descended into theatrical exaggeration. Endowed as he was with all the captivating qualities of a cultured man of the world, he had from the beginning @@ -7128,16 +7093,16 @@ appointed a member of the Revolutionary Tribunal, he alleged illness in order to be absent from its sessions. He was a man of the salons, the born painter of the great world, his house the centre of a distinguished circle of society. Not a celebrity, not an emperor or king, but wished -to be painted by Gerard. And just as he had been the chosen portrait +to be painted by Gérard. And just as he had been the chosen portrait painter of the Bonaparte family, so after the Restoration he was still the official favourite of the Court. Josephine took the fashionable painter under her high protection, Napoleon's marshals defiled before him, and the aristocracy which returned with Louis XVIII vied with one another for his favour. -[Illustration: FRANCOIS GERARD. _L'Art._] +[Illustration: FRANÇOIS GÉRARD. _L'Art._] -Gerard's three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those +Gérard's three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those who in the first quarter of the century played any part in France upon the political, military, or literary stage. A man of supple talent and fine tastes, he completely satisfied the desires of a society which, @@ -7150,8 +7115,8 @@ princesses; and their surroundings allow of no doubt as to whether they are to be addressed as Sir, as Your Serene Highness, or as Your Excellency. No one knew how to flatter in so tactful a manner, particularly in portraits of ladies. It was to him, therefore, that Mme. -Recamier had recourse when she was dissatisfied with David's likeness of -her. Gerard's, which she destined for Prince Augustus of Prussia, one of +Récamier had recourse when she was dissatisfied with David's likeness of +her. Gérard's, which she destined for Prince Augustus of Prussia, one of her admirers, gave the "fair Juliette" the fullest satisfaction. In the former she was represented reposing on a couch, austere and without charm, like a tragic muse. Here she sits in a pleasant, lazy attitude @@ -7163,7 +7128,7 @@ about babies and the stork. [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - GERARD. MLLE. BRONGNIART.] + GÉRARD. MLLE. BRONGNIART.] The background, too, that colonnade "leading nowhither," is characteristic of the change in the manner of regarding things. The @@ -7187,20 +7152,20 @@ small figures, entire battles, marches, sieges, and so forth. Both these methods, and, together with them, that of an ideal, lightly indicated park landscape, were put an end to by the Revolution, under the influence of which all extravagant pomp, not only in life, but even in -portrait painting, was replaced by an ascetic sobriety. Gerard, the +portrait painting, was replaced by an ascetic sobriety. Gérard, the Court painter of the Bourbons, who on their return had "learnt nothing and forgotten nothing," reintroduced the gorgeous pillar decoration, which still remained the authoritative style under Stieler and Winterhalter, and has only in the _bourgeois_ era of to-day given way to the simple, neutral-toned background of the Italians. -David, by the way, never forgave Mme. Recamier for having preferred his -pupil to himself. When, in 1805, after the completion of Gerard's +David, by the way, never forgave Mme. Récamier for having preferred his +pupil to himself. When, in 1805, after the completion of Gérard's likeness of her, she approached David on the subject of finishing his, he answered drily: "Madame, artists have their caprices as well as women; now it is _I_ who will not." -As an historical painter Gerard was an imitator of the mannerist +As an historical painter Gérard was an imitator of the mannerist Girodet. Paintings such as "Daphnis and Chloe," or the famous "Psyche" receiving Cupid's first kiss (1798), made indeed a great sensation among the ladies, who for some time afterwards painted their faces white, to @@ -7212,7 +7177,7 @@ Royalist with a "Coronation of Charles X." [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - GERARD. MADAME VISCONTI.] + GÉRARD. MADAME VISCONTI.] The more stiff and sober the antique style of David became, the sooner a counter-current was likely to arise, and the change of taste showed @@ -7250,7 +7215,7 @@ hands. [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - GERARD. CUPID AND PSYCHE.] + GÉRARD. CUPID AND PSYCHE.] And meanwhile, away from the broad high-road, and almost unnoticed, was living that painter whom David contemptuously called "the Boucher of his @@ -7279,7 +7244,7 @@ creature, clung with girl-like tenderness. His parents used often to send him out with the other poor children of the little town to gather faggots for the winter in the wood belonging to the neighbouring Benedictine monastery. There the handsome, sprightly boy with the large -melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest, Pere Besson, who +melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest, Père Besson, who made him a chorister and gave him some instruction. Here, in the old abbey of Cluny, surrounded by venerable statues carved in wood, by old pictures of saints and artistic miniatures, he recognised his vocation. @@ -7296,7 +7261,7 @@ received at Dijon from an able painter, Devosge, he made rapid progress. [Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - GERARD. MADAME RECAMIER [DETAIL].] + GÉRARD. MADAME RÉCAMIER [DETAIL].] Nevertheless a generation was yet to pass before he was really to become a painter. His marriage, on 17th February 1778, with the daughter of the @@ -7389,7 +7354,7 @@ visitor of his studio. To keep the wolf from the door, Prudhon was obliged for some years to draw vignettes on letter-sheets for the Government offices, business -cards for tradesmen, and even little pictures for _bonbonnieres_. For +cards for tradesmen, and even little pictures for _bonbonnières_. For this the representatives of high art held him in contempt. Greuze alone treated him amicably, and even he held out no hopes for his future. "You have a family and you have talent, young man; that is enough in these @@ -7416,7 +7381,7 @@ He has immortalised the dainty upturned nose of his little gipsy, as he called her, in pictures, sketches, pastels, all of which have the same piquant charm, the same elegant grace, the same joyous and merry expression. In her he had found his type, as his namesake Rubens did in -Helene Fourment. Constance Mayer became the muse of his delicate, +Hélène Fourment. Constance Mayer became the muse of his delicate, graceful work. And she too died before his eyes, having cut her throat with a razor. @@ -7474,9 +7439,9 @@ conscience, and with continual thoughts of suicide, he lived on only for his recollections of her, in tender converse with the memorials she had left, insensible to the renown which began gradually to gather round his name. The completion of the "Unfortunate Family," which Constance had -left unfinished on her easel, was his last _tete-a-tete_ with her, his +left unfinished on her easel, was his last _tête-à-tête_ with her, his last farewell. He left his studio only to visit her grave in -Pere-Lachaise, or to wander alone along the outer boulevards. An +Père-Lachaise, or to wander alone along the outer boulevards. An "Ascension of the Virgin" and a "Christ on the Cross" were the last works of the once joyous painter of ancient mythology: the Mater Dolorosa and the Crucified--symbols of his own torments. Death at length @@ -7549,7 +7514,7 @@ landscape which serves as setting to the awful scene. [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - THE TOMB OF PRUDHON AND CONSTANCE MAYER AT PERE-LACHAISE.] + THE TOMB OF PRUDHON AND CONSTANCE MAYER AT PÈRE-LACHAISE.] In general, Prudhon was not a tragic painter; his preference was for the more joyous, light and dreamy, delicately veiled myths of the ancients. @@ -7610,7 +7575,7 @@ mysterious language of their eyes, by their familiar smile, and by their dreamy melancholy. No one knew better how to catch the fleeting expression in its most delicate shades, how to grasp the very mood of the moment. How piquant is his smiling Antoinette Leroux with her dress -_a la_ Charlotte Corday, her coquettish extravagant hat, and all the +_à la_ Charlotte Corday, her coquettish extravagant hat, and all the amusing "chic" of her toilette! Madame Copia, the wife of the engraver, with her delicately veiled eyes, has become in Prudhon's hands the very essence of a beautiful soul. A languishing weariness, a remarkable @@ -7630,7 +7595,7 @@ He sought to demonstrate that human beings do not in truth differ very widely to-day from those in whom Leonardo and Correggio delighted, that they are fashioned out of delicate flesh and blood, not out of marble and stone. Standing beside David, he appealed to the art of colour. But -as with Andre Chenier, a spirit congenial to his, it was long before he +as with André Chénier, a spirit congenial to his, it was long before he attained success. His modesty and his rustic character could effect nothing against the dictatorial power of David, on whom had been showered every dignity that Art could offer. People continued to @@ -7644,7 +7609,7 @@ fellows as the one most submissively devoted to his master; yet it was he who, without wishing it or knowing of it, was preparing the way for the overthrow of David's school. He was born 17th March 1771, at Paris, where his father was a miniature painter. His vocation was determined -in the studio of Mme. Vigee-Lebrun, who was a friend of his parents. In +in the studio of Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, who was a friend of his parents. In the Salon of 1785, which contained David's "Andromache beside the Body of Hector," he chose his instructor. He was then the handsome youth of fifteen represented in his portrait of himself at Versailles, with @@ -7661,7 +7626,7 @@ for the Prix de Rome, and this failure was the making of him. He went to Italy on his own account, and was an eye-witness of the war which Napoleon was there waging. There he beheld scenes in which -archaeology had no part. For when Augereau's foot-soldiers carried the +archæology had no part. For when Augereau's foot-soldiers carried the bridge of Arcola by assault, they had little thought of imitating an antique bas-relief. Gros observed armies on the march, and saw their triumphant entry into festally decorated cities. He learnt his lesson on @@ -7681,7 +7646,7 @@ to Paris, he had abundant opportunities of admiring critically the works of the sixteenth and seventeenth century masters. The two impressions thus received had a decisive effect upon his life. Gros became the great colourist of the Classical school, the singer of the Napoleonic epos. -Compared with David's marmoreal Graeco-Romans, Gros' figures seem to +Compared with David's marmoreal Græco-Romans, Gros' figures seem to belong to another world; his pictures speak, both in purport and in technique, a language which must more than once have astonished his master. @@ -7695,7 +7660,7 @@ a lieutenant on his staff. He had occasion, in the three days' battle of Arcola, to admire the Dictator's impetuous heroism; and he made a sketch of the General storming the bridge of Arcola at the head of his troops, ensign in hand. It pleased Napoleon, who saw in it something of the -daemonic power of the future conqueror of the world; and when the picture +dæmonic power of the future conqueror of the world; and when the picture was exhibited in Paris in 1801 it met there also with the most striking success. The greater warmth of colour, the broader sweep of the brush, and the life-like movement of the figures seemed, in comparison with @@ -7710,7 +7675,7 @@ home there. His field was that living history which the generals and soldiers of France were making. He won for contemporary military life its citizenship in art. David, wishing to remain true to "history" and to "style," had depicted contemporary events with reluctance. What -Gerard and Girodet had produced was interesting as a protest on the part +Gérard and Girodet had produced was interesting as a protest on the part of reality against classical convention, but on the whole it was unsatisfying and wearisome. Gros, the famous painter of the "Plague of Jaffa" and of the "Battle of Eylau," was the first to attain to high @@ -7750,7 +7715,7 @@ Like a new gospel, like the first gust of wind preceding the storm of Romanticism, this picture standing in the Louvre, surrounded by its stiff Classical contemporaries, excites a sensation of pleasure. -[Illustration: PRUDHON. LES PETITS DEVIDEURS.] +[Illustration: PRUDHON. LES PETITS DÉVIDEURS.] Gros' heroes know, as David's do, that they are important, and show it perhaps too much, but at least they act. The painter felt what he was @@ -7772,10 +7737,10 @@ picture. The State bought it for sixteen thousand francs. A banquet at which Vien and David presided was given in honour of the painter. Girodet read a poem, of which the conclusion ran as follows-- - "Et toi, sage Vien, toi, David, maitre illustre, - Jouissez de vos succes; dans son sixieme lustre, - Votre eleve, deja de toutes parts cite, - Aupres de vous vivra dans la posterite." + "Et toi, sage Vien, toi, David, maître illustre, + Jouissez de vos succès; dans son sixième lustre, + Votre élève, déjà de toutes parts cité, + Auprès de vous vivra dans la postérité." [Illustration: PRUDHON. THE VINTAGE.] @@ -7792,13 +7757,13 @@ to a halt, pale, his eyes turned towards the cities burning on the horizon, in his grey overcoat and small cocked hat, at the head of his staff, indifferent, inexorable, merciless as Fate. "_Ah! si les rois pouvaient contempler ce spectacle, ils scraient moins avides de -conquetes._" The classical posturing which still lingered, a disturbing +conquêtes._" The classical posturing which still lingered, a disturbing element, in the Plague picture, has been put aside completely. The conventional horse from the frieze of the Parthenon, which David alone knew, has given way to the accurately observed animal, and the colouring too, in its sad harmony, has fully recovered its ancient right of giving character to the picture. It was, beyond all controversy, the chief work -in the Salon of 1808, rich in remarkable pictures; neither Gerard's +in the Salon of 1808, rich in remarkable pictures; neither Gérard's "Battle of Austerlitz," nor Girodet's "Atala," nor David's Coronation piece endangered Gros' right to the first place. @@ -7809,11 +7774,11 @@ from the summit of those monuments forty centuries contemplate your actions," constitutes, in 1810, the coping-stone of the cycle. Gros alone at that time understood the epic grandeur of war. He became, also, the portrait painter of the great men from whom its events proceeded. -His picture of General Massena, with its meditative, slily tenacious +His picture of General Masséna, with its meditative, slily tenacious expression, is the genuine portrait of a warrior; and how well is heroic, simple daring depicted in the likeness of General Lasalle, without the commonplace device of a mantle puffed out by the wind! His -portrait of General Fournier Sarlovese, at Versailles, has a freshness +portrait of General Fournier Sarlovèse, at Versailles, has a freshness of colouring, the secret of which no one else possessed in those days except the two Englishmen, Lawrence and Raeburn. Gros was far in advance of his age. A painter of movement rather than of psychological analysis, @@ -7956,7 +7921,7 @@ but had remained stationary, fast bound to antiquated rules. The future belonged to the young, to a youth which from the standpoint of our own days seems even younger than youth commonly is, richer, fresher, more glowing and fiery--the Generation of 1830, the "_vaillants de dix-huit -cent trente_," as Theophile Gautier called them in one of his poems. +cent trente_," as Théophile Gautier called them in one of his poems. [Illustration: _Photo, Levi._ @@ -7974,11 +7939,11 @@ During the years which elapsed between 1820 and 1848 France produced a great and admirable school of art. After the convulsions of the Revolution and the wars of the Empire, that generation had arisen, daring and eager for action, which de Musset describes in his -_Confessions d'un Enfan du Siecle_. And these young men, born between +_Confessions d'un Enfan du Siècle_. And these young men, born between the thunders of one battle and another, who had grown up in the midst of greatness and glory, had to experience, as they ripened into manhood, the ignominy of Charles X's reign, the period of clerical reaction. They -saw monasteries re-erected, laws of mediaeval severity made against +saw monasteries re-erected, laws of mediæval severity made against blasphemy and the desecration of churches and saints' days, and the doctrine of the divine origin of the monarchy proclaimed anew. "And when young men spoke of glory," says de Musset, "the answer was, 'Become @@ -8016,7 +7981,7 @@ movement. Literature, which, adapting itself to the politics of the government, had begun in Chateaubriand with an enthusiastic fervour for Catholicism, -Monarchy, and Mediaevalism, had in the twenties become revolutionary; and +Monarchy, and Mediævalism, had in the twenties become revolutionary; and the description of its battles is one of the most glowing chapters in George Brandes' classic work. There was a revolt against the pseudo-antique, against the stiff handling of the Alexandrine metre, @@ -8032,7 +7997,7 @@ a serious and terrible power with which one may not trifle, as the fire with which one must not play, as the electric spark that kills. So George Sand, the female Titan of Romanticism, published her novels, with their subversive tendencies and their sparkling animation of narrative. -Between these two rises the keen bronze-like profile of Prosper Merimee, +Between these two rises the keen bronze-like profile of Prosper Mérimée, who prefers to describe the life of gypsies and robbers, and to depict the most violent and desperate characters in history. Finally, Victor Hugo, the great chieftain of the Romantic school, the Paganini of @@ -8046,17 +8011,17 @@ breathing passion and full of diversified movement. The conflict was deadly. The young generation hailed with applause the new Messiah of letters, and grew intoxicated with the harmony of Hugo's phrases, which sounded so much fuller and fierier than the measured -speech of Corneille and Racine. The Theatre Francais, recently benumbed +speech of Corneille and Racine. The Théâtre Français, recently benumbed as with the quiet of the grave, became all at once a tumultuous battlefield. There they sat, when Hugo's _Cromwell_ and _Hernani_ were produced on the stage, correct, well dressed, gloved, close shaven, with their neat ties and shirt collars, the representatives of the old generation, whose blameless conduct had raised them to office and place. And in contrast to them, in the pit were crowded together the young men, -the "Jeune France," as Theophile Gautier described them, one with his +the "Jeune France," as Théophile Gautier described them, one with his waving hair like a lion's mane, another with his Rubens hat and Spanish mantle, another in his vest of bright red satin. Their common uniform -was the red waistcoat introduced by Theophile Gautier--not the red +was the red waistcoat introduced by Théophile Gautier--not the red chosen for their symbol by the men of the Revolution, but the scarlet-red which represented the hatred felt by these enthusiastic young men for all that was grey and dull, and their preference for all @@ -8068,7 +8033,7 @@ in favour of the Grecian white, so now dresses once more assumed vivid, and especially deep red hues; deep red ribbons adorned the hat and encircled the waist. -[Illustration: THEODORE GERICAULT.] +[Illustration: THÉODORE GÉRICAULT.] Deep red--that was the colour of the Romantic school; the flourishing of trumpets and the blare of brass its note. Flashes of passion and @@ -8077,7 +8042,7 @@ corpses in horrible phosphorescence, seas at night-time in which ships are sinking, landscapes over which roaring War shakes his brand, and where maddened nations fall furiously upon one another--such are the subjects, resonant with shout of battle and song of victory, which held -sway over French Romanticism. At the very time when at Duesseldorf the +sway over French Romanticism. At the very time when at Düsseldorf the young artists of Germany were painting with the milk of pious feeling their lachrymose, susceptible, sentimental pictures, utterly tame and respectable; when the Nazarene school were holding their post-mortem on @@ -8112,20 +8077,20 @@ protest of painting against the plastic in art, the protest of liberty against the academic teaching of the Classical school, the revolution of movement against stiffness. -[Illustration: GERICAULT. THE WOUNDED CUIRASSIER.] +[Illustration: GÉRICAULT. THE WOUNDED CUIRASSIER.] -It was in the studio of Guerin, the tame and timid Classicist, that the +It was in the studio of Guérin, the tame and timid Classicist, that the young assailants grew up, "the daubers of 1830," who called the Apollo Belvidere a shabby yellow turnip, and who spoke of Racine and Raphael as of street arabs. They were tired of copying profiles of Antinous. The contemplation of a picture by Girodet was wearisome to them. It was -_Theodore Gericault_, a hot, hasty passionate nature, of Beethoven-like +_Théodore Géricault_, a hot, hasty passionate nature, of Beethoven-like unruliness and of heaven-storming boldness, who spoke the word of deliverance. He was a Norman, sturdily built and serious in manner. Even while he was -studying in Guerin's studio he had already grasped some of the ideas -which Gros had in his mind, and, although not his pupil, Gericault may +studying in Guérin's studio he had already grasped some of the ideas +which Gros had in his mind, and, although not his pupil, Géricault may be said to have continued his work, or at least would have been able to do so had he lived longer. Like him, he had from his youth up contemplated, full of wonder, the rolling sea and the thunder-laden @@ -8137,26 +8102,26 @@ deeds, pathos and frenzy in every form. His first works were splendid horsemen, whose every muscle twitches with nervous movement. During his short stay in Charles Vernet's studio he had already taken an interest in cavalry, and begun the studies of such subjects, which he continued -to the day of his death. Afterwards, while he was working under Guerin +to the day of his death. Afterwards, while he was working under Guérin and before his visit to Italy in 1817, he often went to the Louvre, copied pictures and studied Rubens, to the great annoyance of his teacher, who with horror beheld him entering upon so perilous a path. -[Illustration: GERICAULT. CHASSEUR.] +[Illustration: GÉRICAULT. CHASSEUR.] Here again he followed in the steps of Gros, whose portrait of General -Fournier Sarlovese was hung in the Salon of 1812 close by Gericault's -"Mounted Officer." This picture, a portrait of M. Dieudonne, an officer +Fournier Sarlovése was hung in the Salon of 1812 close by Géricault's +"Mounted Officer." This picture, a portrait of M. Dieudonné, an officer in the Chasseurs d'Afrique, crossing the battlefield sword in hand on a -rearing horse, was the first work exhibited by Gericault, then +rearing horse, was the first work exhibited by Géricault, then twenty-one years of age. It was an event. Gros found himself supported, if not surpassed, by a beginner who had his own enthusiasm for colour and movement, for profiles broadly and boldly delineated. In 1814 followed the "Wounded Cuirassier," staggering across the field of battle and dragging his horse behind him. These were no longer warriors seated on classical steeds foaming with rage, but real soldiers in whom there -was nothing of the Greek statue. Then Gericault went to Italy, but in -this case also it was not to pursue archaeological studies in the +was nothing of the Greek statue. Then Géricault went to Italy, but in +this case also it was not to pursue archæological studies in the museums, but to see the race of the _barberi_ during carnival. To this time belong those studies of horses, for the possession of which collectors vie with one another to-day, sketches made in the open air, @@ -8180,20 +8145,20 @@ higher the grey waves roll on. [Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - GERICAULT. THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA.] + GÉRICAULT. THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA.] -[Illustration: GERICAULT. THE START.] +[Illustration: GÉRICAULT. THE START.] How must such a scene have impressed a generation which for long years had seen nothing in the Salon but dry mythology and painted statues! -Gericault was the first to free himself from the tyranny of the +Géricault was the first to free himself from the tyranny of the plaster-of-Paris bust, and once again to put passion and truth to nature in the place of cold marble. Just as he commissioned the ship's carpenter who had constructed the raft and was one of the saved to make him a model of it, so also he moved into a studio close to the hospital, for the purpose of studying the sick and dying, of sketching dead bodies and single limbs. It must be admitted that one would wish for a yet -firmer grasp of the subject. In form, Gericault still belongs to the +firmer grasp of the subject. In form, Géricault still belongs to the school of David. A good deal of Classicism shows itself in the fact that he thought it necessary to depict the majority of the figures naked, in order to avoid "unpictorial" costumes. There is still something academic @@ -8207,7 +8172,7 @@ picture. From the distance, indeed, whence the rescuing ship is drawing near, a bright light shines forth upon a scene otherwise depicted in dull brown. Save for this, the intention of the picture is not expressed by means of colour, and it even shows some retrogression as compared -with Gericault's earlier works. He had begun with Rubens, yet these +with Géricault's earlier works. He had begun with Rubens, yet these studies in colouring did not last. In the "Wounded Cuirassier" of 1814 dark tones took the place of the former cheerfulness, and so in the "Raft of the Medusa" he imagined the tragedy could be represented only @@ -8220,13 +8185,13 @@ when their hour is come. [Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - EUGENE DELACROIX.] + EUGÈNE DELACROIX.] The next step in French art was to be that of reinstating the significance of colour in the full rights conquered for it by Titian, so that it should no longer be merely a tasteful tinting of the figures, but should become truly that which gives its temper to the picture. It -was not reserved for Gericault to effect this. A trip to London, which +was not reserved for Géricault to effect this. A trip to London, which he made in 1820, in company with his friend Charlet, was the last event of his life. There the sportsman awoke in him once more, and he painted the "Race for the Derby at Epsom." Soon after his return he was thrown @@ -8235,16 +8200,16 @@ suffering from a spinal complaint. With a few more years in which to develop he should have been one of the great masters of France, but he died when scarcely in his thirty-second year. -Yet he lived long enough to observe, in the Salon of 1822, the debut of -one of his comrades from Guerin's studio. A greater than himself, to +Yet he lived long enough to observe, in the Salon of 1822, the début of +one of his comrades from Guérin's studio. A greater than himself, to whom with dying voice he had given a few words of advice, arose as the intellectual heir of the young painter so prematurely carried off, and carried to its issue the struggle which he had begun. It was on 26th April 1799, at midday, that the first genuine painter's eye of the -century saw the light, at Charenton Saint-Maurice. Gericault had made a -beginning, but it was the impetuous, powerful genius of _Eugene +century saw the light, at Charenton Saint-Maurice. Géricault had made a +beginning, but it was the impetuous, powerful genius of _Eugène Delacroix_ which entered in and completed his work. What Gros had dimly -perceived, but had not dared to express, what Gericault had barely had +perceived, but had not dared to express, what Géricault had barely had time with a courageous hand to point out, a hand too soon stiffened in death--the modern poetry of colour, of fever, and of quivering emotion--it was reserved for Delacroix to write. @@ -8259,10 +8224,10 @@ he was right. DELACROIX. DANTE'S BARK.] -Delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in Guerin's studio, +Delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in Guérin's studio, but he became the latter's antipode. Even in his student years he took counsel, not of the antique, but of Rubens and Veronese; and when -Gericault was painting his "Raft of the Medusa," Delacroix belonged to +Géricault was painting his "Raft of the Medusa," Delacroix belonged to the little band of enthusiastic admirers which gathered round the young master. He served as model for the half-submerged man to the left in the foreground of that picture. After busying himself at first almost @@ -8271,12 +8236,12 @@ the Classical style, he exhibited in 1822 his "Dante's Bark," in a pictorial sense the first characteristic picture of the century. One is inclined even to-day to repeat David's exclamation when he caught sight of the work, the first great epoch-making life-utterance of the -revolutionary Romanticists: "_D'ou vient-il? Je ne connais pas cette +revolutionary Romanticists: "_D'où vient-il? Je ne connais pas cette touche-la._" There were thoughts in it which had not been conceived and expressed in the same manner since the time of Tintoretto. Dante and Virgil, ferried by Phlegyas over Acheron, are passing among the souls of the damned, who grasp hold of the boat with the energy of despair. A -theme taken from a mediaeval author; an antique figure, that of Virgil, +theme taken from a mediæval author; an antique figure, that of Virgil, but seen through the prism of modern poetry. While the Florentine, stiff with horror, gazes upon the swimming figures which cling to the boat with teeth and nails, Virgil, tranquil and serious, turns on them a face @@ -8298,7 +8263,7 @@ well-balanced, colourless traditions which held sway in David's school with their pedantic erudition and _bourgeois_ discretion. The principle of the Classicists was the Greek type of beauty, and the translation of sculpture into painting. In Delacroix's picture there was no longer -anything of that sort. Gericault had already broken away from the +anything of that sort. Géricault had already broken away from the academic stencilling of form, and had substituted natural expression, life, and emotion for conventional types; Delacroix now set aside the sullen colouring of the Classical school, and its painted statues made @@ -8342,7 +8307,7 @@ this fine painting one of the most impressive pictures in the Louvre. It is a work which flames in glow of colour more than any that had appeared in France since the days of Rubens. The English had been his teachers. "It is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt," -Gericault had previously written from London. Delacroix's work had +Géricault had previously written from London. Delacroix's work had already been sent off to the Salon when Constable's first pictures were just arriving there, and the impression which they made upon him was so powerful that, at the very last moment, and in the Louvre itself, he @@ -8370,7 +8335,7 @@ was blamed for the very qualities wherein lay his importance as a reformer. Accustomed as they had been for many years to an art in which intellect, correctness, and moderation held sway, not one of the critics was in a position to perceive all at once the value of this fiery -spirit. Delecluze, the indefatigable defender of the sacred dogmas of +spirit. Delécluze, the indefatigable defender of the sacred dogmas of the Classical school, characterised "dramatic expression and composition marked by action" as the reef whereon the grand style of painting must inevitably be wrecked. The modern schools of art, he taught as late as @@ -8381,8 +8346,8 @@ inferior genus, and all its excellences in colouring could not outweigh the ugliness of its form. Therewith began the battles of the Romantic school, and all the daring -of Theophile Gautier, Thiers, Victor Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire, -Buerger-Thore, Gustave Planche, Paul Mantz, and others had to be called +of Théophile Gautier, Thiers, Victor Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire, +Bürger-Thoré, Gustave Planche, Paul Mantz, and others had to be called upon in order to storm the heights held by the batteries of the Classical critics. Count Forbin gave proof of no less courage when he bought the picture, torn to shreds as it was by hostile criticism, for @@ -8414,7 +8379,7 @@ and an enthusiasm for the great Anglo-Saxon and German poets, Shakespeare and Goethe, in whom, contrasting with Racine's correctness, were to be found unrestrained genius and glowing passion. This influence of poetry over art may easily become dangerous, if painters sponge, so -to speak, upon the poet, as the Duesseldorf school did, and make use of +to speak, upon the poet, as the Düsseldorf school did, and make use of his work only for the purpose of enabling works, in themselves valueless, to keep their heads, artistically speaking, above water, by means of their extrinsic poetical interest. But Delacroix had no need of @@ -8441,7 +8406,7 @@ of Toulon, on 5th July 1832, he had seen Algiers and Spain, and had assimilated an abundance of sunshine and colour. It is in his Oriental pictures that his painting first reaches its zenith, just as Victor Hugo's mastery over language was at its highest point in his -_Orientales_. Goethe, in his _West-oestliches Divan_, celebrated what is +_Orientales_. Goethe, in his _West-östliches Divan_, celebrated what is quiet and contemplative in the Oriental view of life. Obermann sang of the land of legend, of buried treasures, of Aladdin and the wonderful lamp; but for Byron (who was practically the first to introduce into @@ -8469,7 +8434,7 @@ possess nothing save a blanket in which they walk, sleep, and are buried, and yet they look as dignified as Cicero in his curule chair. What truth, what nobility in these figures! There is nothing more beautiful in the antique. And all in white, as with Roman senators or at -the Greek Panathenaea." +the Greek Panathenæa." His palette was thus further enriched in lucid tints, the contrasts he formerly delighted in became less sharp and glaring, the gloomy @@ -8538,7 +8503,7 @@ works there is something of the joyous and sportive energy of Rubens' allegorical pictures, but not the least trace of imitation. He understood decorative painting in the sense of the great old masters, Giulio Romano and Veronese, not as wall didactics and lectures on -archaeology; he knew that descriptive prose has nothing whatever to do +archæology; he knew that descriptive prose has nothing whatever to do with the walls of a building, but that the sole aim of such paintings is to fill the house with their solemn grandeur, to make the whole building resound as it were with sacred organ music. Between 1853 and 1861 came @@ -8574,14 +8539,14 @@ stormy seas, or battling warriors; and he sought it in every sphere, in nature no less than in poetry and the Bible. Hardly any painter--not even Rubens--has depicted with equal power the passions and movements of animals: lions in which he is own brother to Barye; fighting horses, in -which he stands side by side with Gericault. No other artist painted +which he stands side by side with Géricault. No other artist painted waves more grand, wind-beaten, foaming, dashing, towering on high. Looking at them, one divines all the horrors concealed beneath the roar of the blue surface, horrors which were as yet so insufficiently -suggested in Gericault's "Raft of the Medusa." In his historical +suggested in Géricault's "Raft of the Medusa." In his historical pictures there reigns now terror and despair, as in the "Massacre of Chios"; now gloomy horror, as in the "Medea"; now feverish movement, as -in the "Death of the Bishop of Liege." He passes from Dante to +in the "Death of the Bishop of Liège." He passes from Dante to Shakespeare, from Goethe to Byron, but only to borrow from them their most moving dramatic situations--Hamlet at Yorick's grave, his fight with Laertes, Macbeth and the Witches, Lady Macbeth, Gretchen, @@ -8663,7 +8628,7 @@ by a feverish internal fire. His portrait of himself in the Louvre, with its pale forehead, its large dark-rimmed eyes, its lean, hollow face, its parchment-like skin stretched tightly over the bones, explains his pictures better than any -critical appreciation. Delacroix was one of the _ames maladives_, the +critical appreciation. Delacroix was one of the _âmes maladives_, the spirits sick unto death, to whom Baudelaire addresses himself in his _Fleurs du Mal_. Delicate from his youth up, thoroughly nervous by nature, he prolonged his sickly existence throughout his life by sheer @@ -8707,7 +8672,7 @@ himself for a single moment to please the public; and therefore the public did not come to him. Controversies such as that which took place over the "Massacre of Chios" continued decade after decade, and the exhibition of each of his pictures was the signal for a battle. "No work -of his," writes Thore, "but called forth deafening howls, curses, and +of his," writes Thoré, "but called forth deafening howls, curses, and furious controversy. Insults were heaped upon the artist, coarser and more opprobrious than one would be justified in applying to a sharper." At Charenton, where he was born, is the Bedlam of France. Hence the @@ -8763,7 +8728,7 @@ one who knows the French must feel that David's Latin style could not so suddenly disappear out of their art, that it was not possible at a blow to banish all that had hitherto held sway and to replace it by its opposite. Ever since Poussin they had sought in Roman antiquity the -formulae of their art. The predilection which the Parisians have even +formulæ of their art. The predilection which the Parisians have even to-day for the representation of Racine's and Corneille's tragedies, the admiration which even the most extreme Naturalists bestow upon Poussin and Lesueur, prove abundantly how deep Classicism is rooted in the flesh @@ -8790,20 +8755,20 @@ the literature of the world. Classicism found its poet and its muse. An unknown but very worthy young man, not endowed with wealth of imagination, but imbued with the most honourable intentions, came to Paris from the provincial town where he -had grown to manhood, with a manuscript in his pocket. And Francois -Ronsard's _Lucrece_, a tragedy from the antique, in its style sober and +had grown to manhood, with a manuscript in his pocket. And François +Ronsard's _Lucrèce_, a tragedy from the antique, in its style sober and severe, reminding one of Racine, was represented amid thunders of applause, shortly after Hugo had been hissed off the stage. Enthusiastic admirers saw in it a glorious return to the great tragic drama of France, an emanation from the spirit of Corneille, and praised its clear, measured, and at once "classic and familiar" language. Together with its poet, the Classical reaction found its actress. In 1838 a young -untrained child made her debut at the Theatre Francais--a Jewish girl +untrained child made her début at the Théâtre Français--a Jewish girl who had sung in the streets to the accompaniment of her harp. Rachel appeared upon the boards, and restored its former power of attraction to the old Classical repertoire, to the very tragedies which the Romantic school had banished from the theatre amid mockery and derision. _The -Cid_, _Merope_, _Chimene_, and _Phedre_ recovered their place upon the +Cid_, _Mérope_, _Chimène_, and _Phèdre_ recovered their place upon the stage. [Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ @@ -8849,7 +8814,7 @@ belonging to their art? Is the sense of the beautiful that impression which is made upon us by a picture by Velasquez, an etching by Rembrandt, or a scene out of Shakespeare? Or again, is the beautiful revealed to us by the contemplation of the straight noses and correctly -disposed draperies of Girodet, Gerard, and others of David's pupils? A +disposed draperies of Girodet, Gérard, and others of David's pupils? A satyr is beautiful, a faun is beautiful. The antique bust of Socrates is full of character, notwithstanding its flattened nose, swollen lips, and small eyes. In Paul Veronese's 'Marriage at Cana' I see men of various @@ -8893,7 +8858,7 @@ figure appear to be worked in metal. (_By permission of M. Jules Bapst, the owner of the picture._)] -Ingres was born in 1781, under the _Ancien Regime_. As a young man he +Ingres was born in 1781, under the _Ancien Régime_. As a young man he lived through the triumphs of the Empire and the Classical school, and it was only natural that he should become David's pupil. In 1796 he entered his studio, and studied there with such assiduity that he never @@ -8933,7 +8898,7 @@ mathematician than an interesting painter. Ingres' range of subjects was unusually wide. Pictures on themes taken from antiquity ("Oedipus and the Sphinx" and "Virgil reading the -AEneid"); costume pictures ("Henry IV and his Children" and the "Entry of +Æneid"); costume pictures ("Henry IV and his Children" and the "Entry of Charles V into Paris"); religious paintings (Madonnas, "Christ giving the Keys to St. Peter," and "St. Symphorian"); nude female figures (the "Odalisque," the "Liberation of Angelica," and "The Source"); allegories @@ -8957,7 +8922,7 @@ consisted in discovering, with a weird certainty, whether the subject of which he wished to treat had already been painted by an Italian or other Classical master. The picture "Jupiter and Thetis," of 1811, is put together after a design on a Greek vase, and represents in its studied -archaism the AEginetan period of his art. The "Vow of Louis XIII," of +archaism the Æginetan period of his art. The "Vow of Louis XIII," of 1824, was his confession of faith as regards the Cinquecento. The motive was taken from the Madonna di Foligno, the curtains from the Madonna di San Sisto, the floating angels from the Madonna del Baldacchino, and the @@ -8972,7 +8937,7 @@ together out of elements derived from the school of Urbino. In his "St. Symphorian," which was belauded as the _ne plus ultra_ of style, he turned by way of variety to the imitation of Michael Angelo: the action is violent, the muscles swollen. The "Apotheosis of Homer" is an -admirable lecture in archaeology, a sitting of the great academy of +admirable lecture in archæology, a sitting of the great academy of genius, in which the poses are so fine and the heads so full of marble idealism that in comparison with it Raphael's "School of Athens" has the effect of the wildest naturalism. @@ -9014,7 +8979,7 @@ attains to a certain grace, but it is an animal, expressionless grace. Skilful as he was in delineating the muscles of the human body, he was yet absolutely incapable of painting heads expressive of feeling or emotion. He depicted the form in itself, the abstract, typical, absolute -form. He was dominated only by a love for the _beaute supreme_, so that +form. He was dominated only by a love for the _beauté suprême_, so that when he was in presence of nature he could not refrain from purifying and generalising. Everywhere we see beautiful lines, bodies modelled with admirable skill, but we never enter into any closer relationship @@ -9041,7 +9006,7 @@ have much to ask your pardon; for you were one of the greatest and most refined spirits to whom the century has given birth." For I doubt whether any one down to the present time has rightly understood the mysterious figure of Ingres, the man who in his youth was enraptured by -"_l'esprit, la grace, l'originalite de Vataux et la delicieuse couleur +"_l'esprit, la grâce, l'originalité de Vataux et la délicieuse couleur de ses tableaux_," and who, at a later time, not because of failing powers but deliberately and of set purpose, adopted a calmer system of colour tones; of this Classicist _par excellence_, who is counted among @@ -9072,10 +9037,10 @@ the great old masters. So far back as 1806 there appeared in the Salon his likeness of Napoleon I, with his bloodless, corpse-like face, enchased with such art that -Delecluze called it a Gothic medal. The Emperor is seated like a wax +Delécluze called it a Gothic medal. The Emperor is seated like a wax figure upon the throne, surrounded by the attributes of majesty--stiff, motionless as a Byzantine idol. It was followed in 1807 by the portrait -of Mme. Devaucay, which even to-day impresses the beholder most +of Mme. Devauçay, which even to-day impresses the beholder most pleasingly, notwithstanding the pedantic style in which it is painted. One feels in it fire and youthfulness, the enthusiasm and ardour of a new convert, who has for the first time discovered in nature beauties @@ -9104,7 +9069,7 @@ _bourgeoisie_ under the Monarchy of July more fully and clearly than does Louis Blanc's _Histoire de Dix Ans_. In the best of humours, with the four-square solidity of a knowledge of his own worth, which is full of character, this modern newspaper demi-god sits on his chair as on a -throne, the throne of the _Journal des Debats_, like a _bourgeois_ +throne, the throne of the _Journal des Débats_, like a _bourgeois_ Jupiter Tonans, with his hands on his knees. [Illustration: _Baschet._ @@ -9127,7 +9092,7 @@ painter." To-day these small masterpieces of which he was ashamed sell for their weight in gold. In the Paris Exhibition of 1889 there was Mme. Chauvin with her Chinese eyes; Mme. Besnard on the terrace of the Pincio with her broad hat and her elegant sunshade; Mrs. Henting with her -innocent smile of an "_honnete femme_"; Mrs. Cavendish, an affected +innocent smile of an "_honnête femme_"; Mrs. Cavendish, an affected young blonde, with her overladen travelling dress and her crazy coiffure. Strange, that a man like Ingres should rave so about new fashions and pretty toilettes! @@ -9143,7 +9108,7 @@ warm, and fine-feeling heart; that he was in his innermost being by no means the cold academician, the stiff doctrinaire he appears in his large pictures, and which he became by his opposition to the Romantic school. Here we have an enchanter such as the Primitives were and the -Impressionists are, like Massys and Manet, like Duerer and Degas, like +Impressionists are, like Massys and Manet, like Dürer and Degas, like all who have looked Nature in the face. And while these drawings, at once occasional and austere, place him as a draughtsman on a level with the greatest masters in the history of art, they also show him, the @@ -9168,12 +9133,12 @@ tricolour. The _bourgeoisie_ which had effected the Revolution of 1830 was soon appalled at its own temerity. Even in literature it inclined towards a temperate and lukewarm mediocrity. It was astonished to find itself admiring Casimir Delavigne. It found in Auber and Scribe its -ideal of music and comedy, as in Guizot, Duchatel, Thiers, and Odilon +ideal of music and comedy, as in Guizot, Duchâtel, Thiers, and Odilon Barrot its ideal of politics. The intellectual exaltation which had gone before and followed after the Revolution of July had calmed down, and that which was to rise out of the Revolution of February was as yet latent. The same elder generation which had looked upon Napoleon -Bonaparte's stony Caesarian eye, when, like a god of war, unapproachable +Bonaparte's stony Cæsarian eye, when, like a god of war, unapproachable in his power he rode by at the head of his staff, now saw the Roi Citoyen, the long-exiled ex-school-master, homely and fond of law and order, as every day at the same hour he passed alone on foot and in @@ -9195,17 +9160,17 @@ directed. _Jean Gigoux_, a remarkable artist, has the merit of having given the most effective support which Delacroix received in his battle against -the _beaute supreme_ of the Classical school. When, in the Universal +the _beauté suprême_ of the Classical school. When, in the Universal Exhibition of 1889 at Paris, his picture of "The Last Moments of Leonardo da Vinci," painted in 1835, emerged from the seclusion of a provincial museum, its healthy fidelity to nature was the cause of general astonishment. The personages indeed wear costly costumes, and are surrounded by wealth and magnificence, but they themselves are common, ugly human beings. Here there is no trace of idealism, not even -in the sense of Gericault, who, notwithstanding his love of truth, +in the sense of Géricault, who, notwithstanding his love of truth, remained faithful to the heroic type. The faces are, with religious devotion, painted exactly after nature by a man who evidently loved the -youthful works of Guercino and had zealously studied Duerer. At the same +youthful works of Guercino and had zealously studied Dürer. At the same time was exhibited the portrait of the Polish "General Dwernicki," painted in 1833, whom also Gigoux depicts as a man, not as a hero. War has made him not lean but fat, and in Gigoux's picture his red nose and @@ -9215,10 +9180,10 @@ paintings in Saint Germain l'Auxerrois he held fast to this principle, and this circumstance gives him a place to himself, apart from all the productions of his contemporaries. In a period which, with the solitary exception of Delacroix, was still absolutely devoted to the doctrine -_Exagerer la beaute_, his works are of a healthy, soul-refreshing +_Exagérer la beauté_, his works are of a healthy, soul-refreshing ugliness. -A portion of Delacroix's charm in colour descended to _Eugene Isabey_. +A portion of Delacroix's charm in colour descended to _Eugène Isabey_. He is certainly not a great artist, but a delightful, sympathetic individuality, a painter who affords one pleasure even at this day. Amid the group of Classicists of his time he has the effect of a beautiful @@ -9279,7 +9244,7 @@ without tenderness or charm. These failings are ill-assorted with the attitudes and physiognomy of his figures, which have always an affectation of weakness, exhaustion, and moral suffering. He is a sentimental Classicist, and his subjects the antithesis of the -Graeco-Roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique. His "Suliote +Græco-Roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique. His "Suliote Women" was already, in sentiment, form, and colour, only a subdued and weakened reminiscence of the "Massacre of Chios." At a later time he entirely forsook historical subjects (such as "Gaston de Foix" and @@ -9295,7 +9260,7 @@ Schiller." Even before her fall, before she is in love, Marguerite is pensive and sad like a fallen angel. Mignon, Francesca da Rimini, and St. Monica were also favourite figures for his delicate and contemplative spirit. He alone in French art inclines a little, in his -tearful sentimentality, to the Romantic school of Duesseldorf. +tearful sentimentality, to the Romantic school of Düsseldorf. [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ @@ -9316,7 +9281,7 @@ more slavishly than Ingres in the paths of the Italian masters of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This painter, worthy of respect, full of conviction, learned and of sterling worth, but colourless and cold, who decorated the churches of St. Vincent de Paul and St. Germain -des Pres, has enriched the history of art by no new gift. An +des Prés, has enriched the history of art by no new gift. An indefatigable worker, but endowed with little intellectual power, he went no further than to follow out strictly the rules which Ingres taught his pupils and had himself acquired from the old masters. After @@ -9339,7 +9304,7 @@ original in the pictures of the Italian masters. Only a certain blond, tender, slightly melancholy, modern face of a Christian maiden is Flandrin's peculiar property. He transferred these same ascetic and pure principles to portrait painting, and thereby acquired for himself a -large practice as the painter of the _femme honnete_. These women +large practice as the painter of the _femme honnête_. These women conversed with him and blushed in his presence; in his pictures we find grace and delicacy, eyes sparkling or meek, tenderness and mocking laughter, all translated into a nun-like, unapproachable appearance, @@ -9370,7 +9335,7 @@ Chenavard could draw much better than the German, but was not much better as a painter; the works of both have a literary rather than an artistic value. -Brief and brilliant was the career of _Theodore Chasseriau_, who shot +Brief and brilliant was the career of _Théodore Chassériau_, who shot across the heavens of art like a gleaming meteor, first as a devotee of form, in Ingres' sense of the word, and afterwards, like Delacroix, as an enthusiastic lover of sunshine and the clear light of Africa. Born in @@ -9382,14 +9347,14 @@ art in our time, and knows absolutely nothing of the poets of recent days. He will live on as a reminiscence and a reproduction of certain ages in the art of the past, without having created anything to hand down to the future. My wishes and my ideas do not in the least -correspond with his." In these words Chasseriau has himself pointed out +correspond with his." In these words Chassériau has himself pointed out what it was that distinguished him from Ingres. Unfortunately he -produced but little. Personally a very elegant, _blase_ gentleman, he +produced but little. Personally a very elegant, _blasé_ gentleman, he plunged on his return from Italy into the whirlpool of Parisian life. He was remarkably ugly; but his black, piercing eyes made him the idol of the ladies, and he hurried through life with such haste that he broke down altogether at the age of thirty-six. Beyond various decorative -paintings for the church of Saint Mery and for the Salle des Comptes in +paintings for the church of Saint Méry and for the Salle des Comptes in the Palais d'Orsay, only a few Eastern pictures, and, best and most characteristic, a couple of lithographs, remain to represent his work. In these delicate mythological compositions a chord is struck which @@ -9398,12 +9363,12 @@ of the French New Idealists and the English Pre-Raphaelites: there speaks in them a Romantic Hellenism, a something dreamily mystic, which makes him a remarkable link between Delacroix and the most refined spirit in the modern school, Gustave Moreau. It was purely an act of -gratitude in Moreau when he affixed the dedication "To Theodore -Chasseriau" to his fine picture of "The Young Man and Death." +gratitude in Moreau when he affixed the dedication "To Théodore +Chassériau" to his fine picture of "The Young Man and Death." -_Leon Benouville_ will be remembered only for his picture of the "Death +_Léon Benouville_ will be remembered only for his picture of the "Death of St. Francis," in the Louvre, a good piece of work in the manner of -the Quattrocento. _Leon Cogniet_ deserves to be mentioned because in the +the Quattrocento. _Léon Cogniet_ deserves to be mentioned because in the fifties he brought together in his studio so many foreign pupils, especially Germans. He enjoyed above all others the reputation of being able to initiate beginners both quickly and with certainty into the @@ -9435,7 +9400,7 @@ of the most famous painters of the century; and in this double capacity is an interesting proof that in art the "Vox populi" is seldom the "Vox Dei." What a difference between him and the great spirits of the Romantic school! They were enthusiastic poets; their predilection for -Mediaevalism was concerned only with its aesthetic charm, with the +Mediævalism was concerned only with its æsthetic charm, with the twilight shadows of its picturesque churches, the sounding presage of its bells, the motley processions of that world gleaming bright with uninterrupted colour. And what further allured their imaginative powers @@ -9492,7 +9457,7 @@ Portici_ and Rossini's _Guillaume Tell_. [Illustration: COGNIET. THE MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS.] Art also sought to turn to account the new materials furnished by -historical science, and aesthetic minds hastened to enumerate the +historical science, and æsthetic minds hastened to enumerate the advantages which were to be expected of it. On the one hand--and this was nothing new--the artist, whose curse it was to be born in an inactive and colourless age, would find here all that he sought, for @@ -9562,17 +9527,17 @@ twinkling of an eye leaders of the schools. [Illustration: PAUL DELAROCHE. _L'Art._ - "Paul Delaroche a la funebre mine + "Paul Delaroche à la funèbre mine S'entour avec plaisir de cadavres et d'os - Jane Grey, Mazarin, heros et heroine - Chez lui tout meurt ... excepte ces tableaux."] + Jane Grey, Mazarin, héros et héroine + Chez lui tout meurt ... excepté ces tableaux."] -_Eugene Deveria_ was the first and most important painter deliberately +_Eugène Devéria_ was the first and most important painter deliberately to enter upon this course. When his picture of the "Birth of Henry IV" was exhibited in the Salon of 1827 his appearance was welcomed as that of a new Veronese, and his work joyfully saluted as the first historical picture in which the local colour of the epoch represented was -accurately observed. Henceforth Deveria dressed always in the style of +accurately observed. Henceforth Devéria dressed always in the style of Rubens, and his house became the headquarters of the Romantic school. He was perhaps the only member of this group in whom some breath of Delacroix's spirit survived, but unfortunately he never found again @@ -9627,7 +9592,7 @@ circumspect nature Romanticism was an abomination, and his cool and deliberative spirit felt itself much more at home in the society of the Classicists. The works of the historians opened to him a welcome outlet by which to avoid a rupture with either party, and Delaroche found his -vocation. He assumed the role of a peacemaker between the quarrelling +vocation. He assumed the rôle of a peacemaker between the quarrelling brothers, placed himself as mediator between Montagues and Capulets, and thus became--like Casimir Delavigne in literature--the head of that "School of Common Sense" on whose banner glittered in golden letters @@ -9667,7 +9632,7 @@ public would not stand it, he preferred merely to suggest the approaching death of the weeping and terrified children by placing in front of the bed a small dog, which is looking uneasily towards the door, where the red light of torches indicates the approach of the -assassins,--a Duesseldorf picture with improved technique. It is just the +assassins,--a Düsseldorf picture with improved technique. It is just the same with his melodramatic and lachrymose "Cromwell." It would be hardly possible to represent one of the greatest figures in universal history in a more paltry manner, and to this day it is not quite certain whether @@ -9676,7 +9641,7 @@ in whom was embodied the political and ecclesiastical revolution of England must have been extremely busy on the day of Charles I's funeral, and have had better things to do than stealthily to open the coffin and contemplate, with a mixture of childish curiosity and sentimental pity, -the corpse of the king whom he had fought and conquered. Eugene +the corpse of the king whom he had fought and conquered. Eugène Delacroix had treated this subject in a sketch, in which Cromwell, at the funeral of Charles, gazes in quiet contempt upon the weak monarch who had not known how to keep either his crown or his head. As a work of @@ -9686,11 +9651,11 @@ beginning he had no sense for the passionate or dramatic. From the first day, had the tailor who prepared costumes struck work, his artistic greatness would have fallen away to nothing; from the commencement he produced nothing but large, clumsily conceived illustrations for -historical novels. Planche pointed out long ago that all the costumes +historical novels. Planché pointed out long ago that all the costumes are glaringly new, that all the victims look as if they had got themselves up for a masked ball, that this sort of painting is much too clean and pretty to give the argument the appearance of probability. -Theophile Gautier, who had proclaimed the powerful originality of +Théophile Gautier, who had proclaimed the powerful originality of Delacroix, fumed with rage against these "saliva-polished representations, this art for the half-educated, disguised in false, Philistine realism, this art of historical illustration for the familiar @@ -9726,8 +9691,8 @@ That is the further great difference between Delaroche and Delacroix, between the vagrant painter of history and the artist. The latter had the gift of the inner vision, and only painted things which had intellectually laid hold upon him and had assumed firm shape in his -imagination. It was while the organ was playing the _Dies irae_ that he -saw his "Pieta" in a vision--that mighty work which in power of +imagination. It was while the organ was playing the _Dies iræ_ that he +saw his "Pietà" in a vision--that mighty work which in power of expression almost approaches Rembrandt. "Is not Tasso's life most interesting?" he writes. "You weep for him, swaying restlessly from side to side on your chair, when you read the story of his life; your eyes @@ -9771,7 +9736,7 @@ characteristics remain, as ever, thoroughly middle-class. His likeness of Napoleon is perhaps that which shows most clearly how paltry a soul this painter possessed. It is not Devastation in human shape, not the man in whom his officers saw the "God of War" and of whom -Mme. de Stael said, "There is nothing human left in him." The intellect +Mme. de Staël said, "There is nothing human left in him." The intellect of that Corsican, with his great thoughts striding as in seven-leagued boots, thoughts each of which would give any single German writer material for the rest of his life, was hidden to the inquisitive glance @@ -9798,8 +9763,8 @@ the thick-headed, slowly developing boy as a kind of idiot, and are said to have treated him with no excessive gentleness. He was sent away from school because he could not understand the simplest things, and studied without success in the studios of Gros and Delaroche. And yet, after he -had made his debut in the Salon of 1843 with the "Troubadour," a fine -picture in the style of Deveria, his "Orgie Romaine" of 1847 made him at +had made his début in the Salon of 1843 with the "Troubadour," a fine +picture in the style of Devéria, his "Orgie Romaine" of 1847 made him at one stroke the most celebrated painter in France. Pupils thronged to him from every quarter of the globe, and he left a deep and enduring impression upon every one of them. A very short, corpulent, @@ -9829,7 +9794,7 @@ was as if one long buried had come to life again. It had meanwhile become evident that even his "Romans of the Decadence" was only a work of compromise, the whole novelty of which consisted in forcing the results attained by the Romantic school in colouring into that bed of -Procrustes, the formulae of idealism. The work is undoubtedly very +Procrustes, the formulæ of idealism. The work is undoubtedly very noble in colouring, but what would not Delacroix have made of such a theme! or Rubens, indeed, whose Flemish "Kermesse" hangs not far from it in the Louvre. Couture's figures have only "absolute beauty," nothing @@ -9873,9 +9838,9 @@ thorough-going Republicans reluctantly concede to him the possession of one good quality: he knew how to bring prosperity to the shop; "_il faisait marcher le commerce_." One hears it said that the beautiful city on the Seine is but the shadow of what it then was. "_Le niveau a -baisse!_" says the Parisian, when he calls to mind the gorgeous days of +baissé!_" says the Parisian, when he calls to mind the gorgeous days of the Empire. The extravagant elegance, the magnificent luxury, which used -to roll in superb carriages along the Boulevards and the Champs Elysees +to roll in superb carriages along the Boulevards and the Champs Elysées towards the Bois de Boulogne, and exhibited itself in the evening in the boxes of the theatres; the lustre which emanated from the Court, and the concourse of all the nabobs of the world,--all this must in those days @@ -9889,7 +9854,7 @@ of living better, cultivated and exhausted it after a more inventive fashion, than any generation that had gone before. In the Tuileries sat the man of the Second of December, the connoisseur and promoter of all refined tastes. In his person the age was embodied, that age depicted by -Zola in _La Curee_, in the passage where he describes the halls, +Zola in _La Curée_, in the passage where he describes the halls, illumined as if by enchantment, of the imperial palace. There, all the splendour of over-civilisation glitters and gleams, with its bright eyes and sparkling jewels, with its breath of intoxicating perfumes floating @@ -9897,7 +9862,7 @@ from naked shoulders and arms and half-veiled voluptuous bosoms; while the green, sphinx-like eye of Napoleon III rests indifferently on the alabaster sea of white shoulders bowing before him, as he reviews all that he has possessed and all that he can yet enjoy. Dumas' _Dame aux -Camelias_, _Diane de Lys_ and _Le Demi-monde_, Barriere's _Filles de +Camélias_, _Diane de Lys_ and _Le Demi-monde_, Barrière's _Filles de Marbre_, Augier's _Mariage d'Olympe_, give the impress of the period upon literature, and the single phrase "The Lady of the Camelias" conjures up a world of forms and of scenery. _La Nouvelle Babylone_ is @@ -9954,7 +9919,7 @@ provocatively. A modern refined taste plays round the classical scheme. [Illustration: BOUGUEREAU. BROTHERLY LOVE.] _Alexandre Cabanel_, the incarnation of the academician, was, under -Napoleon III, the head of the Ecole des Beaux Arts. He was a fortunate +Napoleon III, the head of the École des Beaux Arts. He was a fortunate man. Born at Montpellier, the city of professors, nourished from his earliest youth on academic milk, winner of the Grand Prix de Rome in 1845, awarded the first medal at the Universal Exhibition of 1855, he @@ -9968,7 +9933,7 @@ together out of Raphael and Michael Angelo. After that he laid himself out to provide England and America with those women, more or less fully attired, who bore sometimes biblical, sometimes literary names: Delilah, the Shulamite woman, Jephthah's daughter, Ruth, Tamar, Flora, Echo, -Psyche, Hero, Lucretia, Cleopatra, Penelope, Phaedra, Desdemona, +Psyche, Hero, Lucretia, Cleopatra, Penelope, Phædra, Desdemona, Fiammetta, Francesca da Rimini, Pia dei Tolomei--an endless procession. But the only variety in this poetical seraglio lay in the inscriptions on the labels; the way in which the figures were represented was always @@ -10001,7 +9966,7 @@ himself far more than is good for portrait-painting to smooth rosy flesh, large glassy eyes, and dainty fine hands, and over-idealised his sitters till they lost every appearance of life. -[Illustration: LEFEBURE. TRUTH. +[Illustration: LEFÉBURE. TRUTH. (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] @@ -10029,13 +9994,13 @@ Second Empire. Close by Bouguereau's "Venus" in the Luxembourg hangs the well-known colossal figure of a beautiful nude woman with unnaturally over-developed thighs, which by the shining mirror in its uplifted right -hand proclaims itself to be "Truth." _Jules Lefebure_, the painter of +hand proclaims itself to be "Truth." _Jules Lefébure_, the painter of this picture, is also completely a slave to tradition; he came from Cogniet's studio, and won the Prix de Rome in 1861. But he at least possesses more taste, elegance, and character; his painting of the nude is more distinguished, truer, and more powerful. He is in the broader sense of the word a worshipper of nature, and was so in his youth -especially. His "Sleeping Girl" of 1865 and his "Femme couchee" of 1868 +especially. His "Sleeping Girl" of 1865 and his "Femme couchée" of 1868 are smooth and honest studies from the nude, of delicate, sure draughtsmanship, and have therefore not become antiquated even to-day. Unfortunately he did not find this masculine accent again, when at a @@ -10191,7 +10156,7 @@ the favourite forms of the Cinquecento; they are the testament of the Cinquecento masters. He was a Parisian Primaticcio, a posthumous member of the old school of Fontainebleau. In him was embodied the last smile of the Renaissance, the results of which he assimilated and reduced to -formulae. He lacked creative imagination, and his pictures are wanting in +formulæ. He lacked creative imagination, and his pictures are wanting in individual character. The nervous movement and sinewy stretchings of his young men's bodies would never have been painted but for Donatello's "David." Of his women, the powerful and muscular are descended from @@ -10230,7 +10195,7 @@ charming note. He possesses an elegance and grace which are neither Correggio's, nor Raphael's, nor Veronese's, but French and Parisian. His Muses and Cupids, his "Comedy" and his "Judgment of Paris," are documents of the French spirit in the nineteenth century, and--together -with a few small and fine portraits on a green or blue background _a la_ +with a few small and fine portraits on a green or blue background _à la_ Clouet, among which that of his friend About takes the first rank--they will always assure him an important place in the history of French art. @@ -10244,14 +10209,14 @@ will always assure him an important place in the history of French art. [Illustration: BAUDRY. LEDA.] Another artist who worked with Baudry at the decoration of the Grand -Opera House was _Elie Delaunay_, who painted in a hall leading out of +Opera House was _Élie Delaunay_, who painted in a hall leading out of the foyer three large pictures on the myths of Apollo, Orpheus, and Amphion, and was at that time less appreciated than he deserved. Delaunay was born in the same year as Baudry, and, like him, was a Breton. In their genius also they are very similar. He shared in Baudry's admiration of the masters of the Renaissance, but his worship was less for the Cinquecento than the fourteenth century. It was in -Flandrin's studio that he prepared himself for his entry into the Ecole +Flandrin's studio that he prepared himself for his entry into the École des Beaux Arts. His first picture, in 1849, "Christ healing a Leper," was, with respect to its Roman manner of conceiving form and its bronze-like firm draughtsmanship, still entirely in the style of Ingres. @@ -10272,7 +10237,7 @@ The bodies of his nude male figures are strained in nerve and muscle like those of Donatello; they have the essential elegance and powerful rhythm of Dubois' statues. Even the two pictures which he sent from Italy to the Salon, "The Nymph Hesperia fleeing from the Pursuit of -AEsacus," and the "Lesson on the Flute" in the Museum at Nantes, were +Æsacus," and the "Lesson on the Flute" in the Museum at Nantes, were works of great taste and sincerity, studied with respectful and patient devotion to nature, without striving after sentimental effect and without conventional reminiscences. When in 1861 he returned from Rome, @@ -10297,8 +10262,8 @@ days alone possessed. After the completion of the Opera paintings he finished, in 1876, twelve decorative pictures for the great hall of the Council of State in the Palais Royal. His last works, which remained unfinished, were designs for the Pantheon--scenes from the life of St. -Genevieve--in which he followed in the footsteps of the great fresco -colourists of Upper Italy, Gaudenzio Ferrari and Pordenone. Elie +Geneviève--in which he followed in the footsteps of the great fresco +colourists of Upper Italy, Gaudenzio Ferrari and Pordenone. Élie Delaunay was no original genius, and as a pupil of the painters of the Quattrocento has not enriched the history of art in any way, but he stands forth, in a time which cared for nothing but external effect, as @@ -10317,9 +10282,9 @@ highest places in the Salon, and shows itself altered only in this respect, that, instead of Delaroche's tameness of style, we have sensational subjects, arguments which revel in scenes of horror and display of corpses. Literature had already entered upon this path. Even -Merimee in his last novel, _Lokis_, was clearly the forerunner of that +Mérimée in his last novel, _Lokis_, was clearly the forerunner of that tendency in taste which Taine characterised by the words, "_Depuis dix -ans une nuance de brutalite complete l'elegance_." Flaubert himself, in +ans une nuance de brutalité complète l'élégance_." Flaubert himself, in his _Salambo_, was to some extent carried away by the stream. Consider, for instance, the descriptions of Gisko crawling, a maimed, shapeless stump, out of the ditch into Matho's tent, and of how his head is sawn @@ -10338,7 +10303,7 @@ murders; murders in connection with robbery, and murders arising out of revenge; with subdivisions corresponding to the means employed, as poison, the dagger, the halter, broadsword and rapier, the bowstring, strangling, burning, etc. This was the time when, on account of this -dominance of the "_Genre feroce_," the public used to call the Salon the +dominance of the "_Genre féroce_," the public used to call the Salon the Morgue. [Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ @@ -10354,18 +10319,18 @@ delivered over by David to the Gibeonites, hanging alongside of each other in a dark forest scene on a cross-shaped framework, like butcher's meat from the shambles. Their mother stands beneath the scaffold, swinging a knotted club to protect the corpses from an antediluvian -vulture. In a painting by _Brehan_, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, gives a +vulture. In a painting by _Bréhan_, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, gives a banquet, and by way of dessert has his guests the Scythian leaders massacred by his mercenaries. In one by _Matthieu_, Heliogabalus has hit upon a yet happier idea, for at the conclusion of the meal he sets -half-starved lions and tigers upon his guests. _Aime Morot_ depicted in -a large picture "The Wives of the Ambrones" in the battle of Aquae -Sextiae. They are hurling themselves like a horde of furies upon the +half-starved lions and tigers upon his guests. _Aimé Morot_ depicted in +a large picture "The Wives of the Ambrones" in the battle of Aquæ +Sextiæ. They are hurling themselves like a horde of furies upon the Roman horsemen who are attacking the camp. Half-naked, or entirely so, with their hair flowing behind them, they throw themselves upon the Romans, catch hold of the swords by the blade, tear their eyes out, and are trampled beneath the horses' hoofs. Especially popular were the -voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the Caesars. Nero +voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the Cæsars. Nero in particular suited the atmosphere of the period; his ghost haunted the novel, the stage, sculpture, and painting, and there seemed to be a general agreement to immortalise him and the morally monstrous @@ -10383,9 +10348,9 @@ the task, and painted with tender interest the marks caused by suffusion of blood which the athlete's hand had left upon the unhappy prince's neck. A very familiar figure is that of Seneca, with distorted features, uttering his last words of wisdom while the blood pours from his opened -veins. After the madness of the Caesars comes the atrocious history of +veins. After the madness of the Cæsars comes the atrocious history of the Merovingian kings. _Luminais_, the painter of Gauls and barbarians, -represented in his large picture "Les Enerves de Jumieges" the sons of +represented in his large picture "Les Énervés de Jumièges" the sons of King Clovis II, who, after the muscles of their knees have been destroyed by fire, are set helplessly adrift in a boat on the Seine. Then followed torture scenes from the time of the Inquisition, and @@ -10431,7 +10396,7 @@ these pictures compel respect on account of their unusual ability. These naked bodies, twisting themselves in the most varying postures of pain, give proof by their correct draughtsmanship of the most painstaking anatomical studies, yet after all they are nothing more than inverted -Laocoons. The Classical spirit haunts them still, and a discordant +Laocoöns. The Classical spirit haunts them still, and a discordant effect is produced when subjects so full of wild passion are tranquilly depicted according to cold conventional rules. Over all these figures and scenes, even the most horrible, lies the veil of a Classical @@ -10475,7 +10440,7 @@ is not without its justification. [Illustration: _L'Art._ - LUMINAIS. LES ENERVES DE JUMIEGES.] + LUMINAIS. LES ÉNERVÉS DE JUMIÈGES.] Among the younger generation, _Rochegrosse_, an artist of daring genius, appeared for a while to have taken to such themes by free choice, and @@ -10496,7 +10461,7 @@ on the warpath. Mangled corpses complete the picture, and on the bare wall to the left, over the stairs, hang dead bodies abandoned to corruption and the birds of prey. In his third picture he took for his theme the horrors of the barbarous and ferocious Peasants' War in the -fourteenth century, as Merimee had described them in his book entitled +fourteenth century, as Mérimée had described them in his book entitled _La Jacquerie_; and his work is all the more effective as there lurks in the subject a certain grim modern touch which reminds one of the Social Democracy, of the insurrection of the Commune, of something which might @@ -10518,11 +10483,11 @@ laughter upon the mortal terror of the aristocratic ladies. LAURENS. THE INTERDICT.] In his subsequent pictures Rochegrosse did not go so far afield. His -"Murder of Julius Caesar" was a work of art in white upon white, full of +"Murder of Julius Cæsar" was a work of art in white upon white, full of crude imagination, with white walls, white reflections of light, white togas, and dark red blotches of blood. His grass-eating "Nebuchadnezzar" proved that from the sublime to the ridiculous there is often only a -step. Between times he painted archaeological trifles for ladies of +step. Between times he painted archæological trifles for ladies of literary culture, such as the "Battle of the Sparrows" of 1890; but in his great "Fall of Babylon" he has proved once more what he can do. No doubt it is not a fine work: it is a mere decorative piece, but an @@ -10530,7 +10495,7 @@ astonishingly spirited performance. The scene is the palace of the Babylonian kings, the decorative construction of which the recovered monuments and the recent scientific investigations had rendered it possible to reproduce. Rochegrosse consulted with the zeal of an -archaeologist all the treasures of the Louvre and the British +archæologist all the treasures of the Louvre and the British Museum,--Assyrian friezes, ornaments, and costumes,--and then set forth in these surroundings the famous banquet at which the Prophet Daniel explained the words "Mene, Tekel, Peres." The day begins to break; in @@ -10557,7 +10522,7 @@ of Delacroix's heirs--even allowing for the exaggerated renown which came to him in France, from the fact that he was the last to fall in the war of 1870. His portrait of "General Prim" of 1869, which, rejected by the sitter, came eventually to the Louvre, is somewhat reminiscent of -Velasquez and Delacroix, but is nevertheless, with those of Gericault, +Velasquez and Delacroix, but is nevertheless, with those of Géricault, amongst the finest equestrian portraits of the century. In his "Salome" he has depicted a black-haired girl with twitching feet, resting upon a stool after her dance, and contemplating with the cruelty of a tigress @@ -10589,9 +10554,9 @@ silver, with sparkling embroideries and precious stones. The "Orlando Furioso" of art lives once more in these fascinating harmonies, in the power, splendour, and lustre of the colouring. Just as Baudry at the close of the Classical period produced in his paintings for the Opera -House the noblest work after the idealist formulae, so Regnault in his +House the noblest work after the idealist formulæ, so Regnault in his "Salome" and his "Prim" has completed the last defiant works of the -formulae of Romanticism. +formulæ of Romanticism. We have thought it advisable to follow this development of the art of painting down to its close, just as in treating of the older periods we @@ -10603,7 +10568,7 @@ become the high school of art for other nations, those paths have at the same time been indicated along which the art of painting was proceeding during these years in other countries. -[Illustration: HENRI REGNAULT GENERAL PRIM] +[Illustration: HENRI REGNAULT GENERAL PRÍM] @@ -10638,7 +10603,7 @@ country where art followed the great changes of culture in the age. Hence Flemish painting had been crossed with French elements long before David's arrival. And Paris was for the artists of 1800 what Italy had been for those of 1600. They made their pilgrimage in troops to the -studio of Suvee, who had originally come from Bruges, but had lived +studio of Suvée, who had originally come from Bruges, but had lived since 1771 on the Seine. There, and there only, recipes for the composition of great figure pictures were to be obtained. And thus art completed what the Empire had in a political sense begun. The artistic @@ -10662,7 +10627,7 @@ was prescribed the mathematical regularity of the antique canon. The old Flemish joyousness of colour passed into a consumptive cacophony. And then was repeated in Belgium the tragedy which Classicism had played in France. Everything became a pretext for draperies, stiff poses, -sculptural groupings, and plaster heads. Phaedra and Theseus, Hector and +sculptural groupings, and plaster heads. Phædra and Theseus, Hector and Andromache, Paris and Helen, were, as in Paris, the most popular subjects. And so great a confusion reigned, that a sculptor from whom a wolf was ordered included the history of Romulus and Remus gratuitously. @@ -10713,7 +10678,7 @@ method of presentation did this no less. What the old Van Bree looked for, the return to the splendour of colour and sensuous fulness of life of the old masters, was achieved in this picture. In the same year, when Belgium had won her nationality and independence once more, a painter -also ventured to break away from the French formulae of Classicism, and +also ventured to break away from the French formulæ of Classicism, and to treat a national theme in the manner of those painters who in former centuries had been the glory of Flanders. Wappers was greeted as a national hero; his part it was to bring to an issue with the brush that @@ -10775,7 +10740,7 @@ renewer of Belgian art, he was now placed alongside of the greatest masters. Thiers induced him to exhibit in Paris the much discussed work, the fame of which had passed beyond the boundaries of Belgium. The "Episode" made a triumphal tour of all the great towns of Europe before -it found its home in the Musee Moderne; and Wappers' fame abroad +it found its home in the Musée Moderne; and Wappers' fame abroad increased yet more his celebrity in Flanders. Thanks to him, the neighbouring nations began to interest themselves in the Belgian school. All were united in admiration of "the mighty conception and the @@ -10833,11 +10798,11 @@ brilliant article in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, now gratified a long cherished desire of the Belgian national pride when he united the heroes of the land in an ideal gathering. -Soon afterwards _Gallait_ and _Biefve_ trod the stage of Belgian +Soon afterwards _Gallait_ and _Bièfve_ trod the stage of Belgian painting. In point of size their pictures surpassed all that that age, accustomed as it was to vast canvases, had yet witnessed. "The Abdication of Charles V" measured twenty feet; it was hung in the Salon -Carre of the Louvre above Paul Veronese's "Marriage at Cana." An entire +Carré of the Louvre above Paul Veronese's "Marriage at Cana." An entire court of great ladies and gentlemen, clad in velvet and brocade, move in the gorgeous hall of state of a king's castle. The solemn moment is represented when Charles V, erect and dominating the entire assembly, @@ -10868,7 +10833,7 @@ eclipsed, and Louis Gallait took the lead. [Illustration: WAPPERS. THE DEATH OF COLUMBUS.] -_Edouard de Biefve's_ "Treaty of the Nobles" formed the historical +_Edouard de Bièfve's_ "Treaty of the Nobles" formed the historical supplement to this work; after the triumph of the kingdom came the triumph of the people. The picture represents the signing of the defensive league, against the Inquisition and other breaches of @@ -10914,7 +10879,7 @@ somewhat dubious light. After the disconsolate wilderness of Classicism this period marked an advance. Every Salon brought some new name to light. The State had contributed a big budget for art, and extended its protecting hand over the "great painting" which was the glory of the -young nation. What could not be got into the Musee Moderne, founded in +young nation. What could not be got into the Musée Moderne, founded in 1845, was divided amongst the churches and provincial museums. The number of painters and exhibitions increased very noticeably. Beside the great triennial exhibitions in Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent, there were @@ -10923,14 +10888,14 @@ painters of 1830 appear, no doubt, as great men, when one considers to what a depth art had sunk before their advent. Wappers especially widened the horizon, by breaking the formula of Classicism and renewing the tradition of the brilliant colourists of the seventeenth century. De -Biefve, De Keyzer, Slingeneyer, severally contributed to the Belgian +Bièfve, De Keyzer, Slingeneyer, severally contributed to the Belgian Renaissance. The old Flemish race knew itself once more in this fond quest of beautiful and radiant colouring. The historical painting had even a certain actual interest. Standing so near to the glorious September days when the country won its independence, the painters wished to draw a parallel between the glorious present and the great past, and to waken patriotic memories by the apotheosis of popular -heroes. And yet the Musee Moderne of Brussels is not one of those +heroes. And yet the Musée Moderne of Brussels is not one of those collections in which one willingly lingers. The works in the old museum, hard by, have remained fresh and living and in touch with us; those in the new gallery seem to be divided from us by centuries. For the @@ -10961,7 +10926,7 @@ picture of 1834 is an unfortunate transposition into a sentimental key of the "Freedom on the Barricades" by Delacroix. Here also are play-actors rather than men and women of the people. This old man who is kissing the banner, the wife who winds her arms about her husband as -Venus does about Tannhaeuser, the pale girl who has fallen in a faint, +Venus does about Tannhäuser, the pale girl who has fallen in a faint, the warrior who, with his eyes turned up to Heaven, is breaking his sword--these are figures out of a melodrama, not revolutionaries storming the barricades, nor famishing artisans fighting for their very @@ -10976,7 +10941,7 @@ which he responded to a political movement by an artistic endeavour, does he seem, in a certain sense, individual and powerful. All the others are stereotyped productions which, having nothing to do with the Belgian national movement, have all the more to do with the Parisian -_Ecole du bon sens_. Even his "Christ in the Grave," painted in 1833, +_École du bon sens_. Even his "Christ in the Grave," painted in 1833, and now in St. Michael's Church at Louvain, with its artificial grace and pietistical sentimentality, might have been painted by Ary Scheffer. The pathetic scenes from English and French history of the sixteenth and @@ -10986,7 +10951,7 @@ Charles VII, Abelard and Eloise, Charles I taking leave of his children, Anne Bullen's parting from Elizabeth, Peter the Great presenting to his ministers the model of a Dutch ship, Columbus in prison, Boccaccio reading the _Decameron_ to Joanna of Naples, the brothers De Witt before -their execution, Andre Chenier in the prison of Saint-Lazare, Louis XVII +their execution, André Chénier in the prison of Saint-Lazare, Louis XVII at Simon the shoe-maker's, the poet Camoens as a beggar, Charles I going to the scaffold--all are subjects treated by others before him in France, and neither in their conception nor their technique have they @@ -11067,7 +11032,7 @@ family portraits painted after death, and then washed over with a faint conventional tinge of red. The whole thing is like a huge piece of still-life, which an adroit painter has put together out of a mixture of heads, gold, jewels, mantles, and perukes. Delaroche seems to have -contributed the composition, Deveria the sumptuous costumery; and as for +contributed the composition, Devéria the sumptuous costumery; and as for the colouring, Isabey, with his sunbeams shimmering in gold and silver, may not improbably have had something to do with that. What was spontaneous in Wappers is replaced in Gallait by cold calculation. Once @@ -11088,10 +11053,10 @@ bad actors, scrupulously arrayed and making pathetic gestures. Their action has been studied from drawing-school copies; no genuine cry of passion ever breaks through. Heads, hands, and outlines have all a sickly idealism; a studious and sedulously polished manner of painting -has ruined the intrinsic spirit of the work as a whole. Theophile +has ruined the intrinsic spirit of the work as a whole. Théophile Gautier was right when he wrote of Gallait: "_Tout le talent_ _qu'on -peut acquerir avec du travail, du gout, du jugememt, et de la volonte, -M. Gallait le possede._" Gallait's "Last Obsequies," hung in that same +peut acquérir avec du travail, du goût, du jugememt, et de la volonté, +M. Gallait le possède._" Gallait's "Last Obsequies," hung in that same Salon of 1850 which contained Courbet's "Stone-breakers," and the words of recognition accorded to it, were the last obsequies given to the parting genius of historical painting. A few years went by, and @@ -11114,31 +11079,31 @@ long dead. GALLAIT. EGMONT'S LAST MOMENTS.] -Finally, _Edouard de Biefve_, who in 1842 shared Gallait's triumph in +Finally, _Edouard de Bièfve_, who in 1842 shared Gallait's triumph in Germany, and was afterwards named in the same breath with him, is the man who marks the complete corruption of this tendency. If the sturdy Wappers, the emasculate De Keyzer, and the eclectic Gallait tricked out their pathetic heroes with noble heads like that of the Antinous, and offered their contemporaries an adroit theatrical art, a parade, and a -hollow pathos, the incapable Biefve never got beyond the painting of +hollow pathos, the incapable Bièfve never got beyond the painting of _tableaux vivants_ laboriously presented. Terrible and of Shakespearian impressiveness is the scene in which the half-famished Ugolino hurls himself upon his son in an appalling ecstasy of frenzy, a curse against God and man upon his lips. Upon the canvas, six metres wide, which -Biefve in 1836 devoted to this theme, there is represented an old +Bièfve in 1836 devoted to this theme, there is represented an old gentleman, who, though certainly a little pale, contrives to maintain in perfection the punctilious bearing of a cavalier, and in the midst of his fasting cure has picturesquely draped round his shoulders an ermine mantle, as if he had been asked out to dinner. Before him stands a young man, possessing that graceful outline beloved of Paul Delaroche. -Deveria, Ary Scheffer, and Johannot were better painters of such +Devéria, Ary Scheffer, and Johannot were better painters of such monumental illustrations of the classics. As yet the shivering art of Belgium had learnt only to warm itself at the Parisian fireside. Even -Biefve's "League of the Nobles of the Netherlands," despite its national +Bièfve's "League of the Nobles of the Netherlands," despite its national subject-matter, was no more than a lucky hit, which he owed to his long residence in Paris. And how tiresomely is the scene played out! One would wish to catch the mutterings of insurrection from these men who -personify the Belgian people; but Biefve's picture is restful and +personify the Belgian people; but Bièfve's picture is restful and dignified. Egmont and Horn, the lions of the occasion, are conducting themselves like honest citizens who are bored at a party. Seated in his chair, the handsome Egmont thinks merely of showing his fine profile to @@ -11149,7 +11114,7 @@ well-known oath to die together. [Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - EDOUARD BIEFVE.] + EDOUARD BIÈFVE.] It is a little irony in the history of art that in 1842 these two same pictures set all Germany in tumult, and diverted the whole stream of @@ -11161,7 +11126,7 @@ been so prepared that the least touch was enough to set it in flames. [Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - BIEFVE. THE LEAGUE OF THE NOBLES OF THE NETHERLANDS.] + BIÈFVE. THE LEAGUE OF THE NOBLES OF THE NETHERLANDS.] Since the wars of liberation Germany had been very reserved in her attitude towards the French. Until the year 1842 original works of the @@ -11176,7 +11141,7 @@ condition of German affairs, had done what in them lay for the dissemination of this cult. The rising generation of the forties had been driven by Heine's notices of the Salon into an almost hostile attitude towards the dominant art schools of Germany, the schools of -Duesseldorf and Munich. The stylists on the Isar and the sentimental +Düsseldorf and Munich. The stylists on the Isar and the sentimental elegiac painters on the Rhine met with the same antipathy from the younger generation. The appearance of the two Belgian historical pictures, which were really nothing more than offshoots of the great @@ -11193,7 +11158,7 @@ world with the intention that painters should transform it into a world of shadowless contours. They recognised that the style of cartoon work had led away from all painting, and that it was therefore necessary to do honour once more to the despised handiwork and technique of art, as -the fundamental condition of its well-being. However much the aesthetic +the fundamental condition of its well-being. However much the æsthetic party might warn them not to renounce "the Reformation of painting, which had been begun and perfected forty years before," and not "with modern technique to sink back into the pre-Cornelian, ornamental model @@ -11245,8 +11210,8 @@ the school of Cornelius. In their opulence of ideas the draughtsmen of cartoons had made a notch in the history of art by casting the technical tradition overboard. To have reinstated this as far as they could, with the aid of the French, is the peculiar merit of the generation of 1850. -"_Regle generale: si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd, vous -pouvez le complimenter en francais._" So runs the motto--not +"_Règle générale: si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd, vous +pouvez le complimenter en français._" So runs the motto--not complimentary to Germany, but quite unassailable--which Edmond About prefixed to his notices on the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855. @@ -11262,13 +11227,13 @@ Classicism achieved in Feuerbach's "Symposium of Plato" a great, noble, and faultless work, which will live. He moved upon classic ground more naturally and freely and with more of the Hellenic spirit than even the French. For the classic genius was begotten in him, and not inoculated -from without. In the _Vermaechtniss_ the son calls his father's book the +from without. In the _Vermächtniss_ the son calls his father's book the prophetic seal of his own original being. He inherited the classic spirit from the enthusiastic scholar, the subtile author of the Vatican Apollo, to whom the genius of Greece had so fully and completely revealed itself. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ ANSELM FEUERBACH. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] @@ -11278,7 +11243,7 @@ strayed through life solitary and with leaden weights upon her feet,--such was Anselm Feuerbach, and by that division of his being he was ruined. Equipped with a superior education, an appearance of singular nobility, and with proud family traditions, he emerged like a -shining meteor in Duesseldorf, when he began his career at the age of +shining meteor in Düsseldorf, when he began his career at the age of sixteen, brilliant, precocious, and already a favourite amongst women. This was in 1845. He ran through all the schools in Germany, Belgium, and France. In regard to the living, he believed himself to be indebted @@ -11317,7 +11282,7 @@ art better than Couture was capable of understanding them; and he achieved a simple amplitude to which the French Classicism had never risen. -From his first works, to which the Duesseldorf egg-shell is still +From his first works, to which the Düsseldorf egg-shell is still sticking, down to the "Symposium of Plato"--what a route it is, and through what phases he passes. "Hafiz at the Well," surrounded by voluptuous, half-naked girls, painted at Paris in 1852, was his first @@ -11354,11 +11319,11 @@ almost to the point of colourlessness; to a glimmer of leaden blue, a moonlight pallor. At the same time he has concentrated the whole life of his figures in their inward being, whilst every movement has been taken from their limbs. Even the expression of spiritual emotion in the eyes -and features has been subdued in the extreme. The "Pieta," both the +and features has been subdued in the extreme. The "Pietà," both the "Iphigenias," and the "Symposium of Plato" are the world-renowned proofs of the height of classic inspiration which he touched in Italy. Measure, nobility, unsought and perfected loftiness characterise the -"Pieta," that mother of the Saviour who bows herself in silent agony +"Pietà," that mother of the Saviour who bows herself in silent agony over the body of her Divine Son, and those three kneeling women, whose silent grief is of such thrilling power, precisely because of its emotionlessness. For "Iphigenia" Feuerbach has given of his best. She is @@ -11406,7 +11371,7 @@ greatest things. They display a sureness and majesty which find no parallel in the German art of those years. But they were destined never to be completed. -Feeling himself, like Antaeus, strong only on Roman soil, he lost his +Feeling himself, like Antæus, strong only on Roman soil, he lost his power in Vienna. Reserved, innately delicate, a mystical, ideal nature like that of Faust, and one which only with reluctance permitted to a stranger a glimpse of its inner being; in his life, as in his art, @@ -11444,7 +11409,7 @@ his contemporaries, did he believe himself to be, that he held himself justified in saying: "Believe me, after fifty years my pictures will possess tongues, and tell the world what I was and what I meant." In truth, he owes his resurrection less to his pictures than to the -_Vermaechtniss_. A book has opened the eyes of Germany to Feuerbach's +_Vermächtniss_. A book has opened the eyes of Germany to Feuerbach's greatness, and since that time the worship of Feuerbach has gone almost into extremes. Throughout his lifetime--like almost every great artist who has died before old age--he was handled by the Press without much @@ -11460,11 +11425,11 @@ _later_ posterity will subscribe to only with hesitation. [Illustration: FEUERBACH. MOTHER'S JOY.] Feuerbach presents a problem for psychological rather than artistic -analysis. Whoever has read the _Vermaechtniss_ feels the personal element +analysis. Whoever has read the _Vermächtniss_ feels the personal element in these works, sees in them the confessions of a proud, unsatisfied, and suffering soul, and in their author no son of the Renaissance born out of due season, but a modern who has been agitated through and -through by the _decadent_ fever. In his book Feuerbach appears as one of +through by the _décadent_ fever. In his book Feuerbach appears as one of the first who felt to his inmost fibre all the intellectual and spiritual contradictions which are bred by the nineteenth century, and who cherished them even with a sort of tenderness, as contributing to a @@ -11488,7 +11453,7 @@ shore of the sea, chilled through and through by the consciousness of her abandonment; the daughter of Agamemnon, who in spirit is seeking the land of the Greeks, with the boundless sea spreading wide and grey before her, like her own yearning,--both are images of the lonely -Feuerbach, who, like Hoelderlin, the Werther of Greece, flies to a dreamy +Feuerbach, who, like Hölderlin, the Werther of Greece, flies to a dreamy Hellas as to a happy shore, to find peace for his sick spirit. His "Symposium of Plato" has not that exuberant sensuousness, that mixture of _esprit_ and voluptuousness, of temperance and intemperance, which @@ -11525,7 +11490,7 @@ doors, in the picture "In Spring," look like young widows, putting the whole tenderness of their souls into elegiac complaints for their lost husbands. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ FEUERBACH. MEDEA.] @@ -11617,7 +11582,7 @@ peculiarly gifted natures. FEUERBACH. DANTE WALKING WITH HIGH-BORN LADIES OF RAVENNA.] These matters--a silent historical sermon--one reads, with the help of -the _Vermaechtniss_, out of Feuerbach's works. There "his pictures +the _Vermächtniss_, out of Feuerbach's works. There "his pictures possess tongues"; there comes out of them a sound like the cry of a human heart; the whole tragedy of his career becomes present--what he succeeded in doing and what remained unapproachable. Yet later @@ -11658,7 +11623,7 @@ French soil, now on Venetian or Roman; and in his sentiment he is an imitator of the Cinquecentists, or, if you will, a phenomenon of atavism. His writings and drawings show him concerned with the present, his paintings with the past. The modern temperament, artistically -restrained, breaks out no more, the nerves have no role, no human sound +restrained, breaks out no more, the nerves have no rôle, no human sound is forced from his figures. He learnt through the spectacles of the great old masters to look away from everything petty in life, but he never laid those spectacles down. This modern man, who was so neurotic @@ -11677,7 +11642,7 @@ the consciousness of itself. [Illustration: GUSTAV RICHTER. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] Together with Feuerbach--and having, like him, previously received -enlightenment as to colouring at the Antwerp Academy--_Victor Mueller_, +enlightenment as to colouring at the Antwerp Academy--_Victor Müller_, of Frankfort, had gone to Couture in 1849. He resided until 1858 on the banks of the Seine, and was especially influenced by Delacroix, and perhaps also a little affected by Courbet. At least his "Wood Nymph"--a @@ -11690,7 +11655,7 @@ were pictures of a deep, sonorous glow of colour; the characters in them were seized with great intellectual concentration, and the surrounding landscape filled with that sombre poetry of nature which in the hands of Delacroix so mystically heightens the impression of human tragedies. -Victor Mueller was of a bold, uncompromising talent, full of southern +Victor Müller was of a bold, uncompromising talent, full of southern glow and wild Romanticism; a powerful, forcible realist, who never sought the empty, sentimental, ideal beauty known to his age. In a period dominated almost from end to end by a jejune and rounded beauty, @@ -11700,7 +11665,7 @@ painted by a man who openly loved the youthful works of Riberas and Caravaggio. And just as surprising is the power of expression, the deep and earnest sentiment, which he attained in gestures and physiognomy. While Makart, in his balcony scene from _Romeo and Juliet_, never got -away from a hollow, theatrical affectation, Mueller's picture glows +away from a hollow, theatrical affectation, Müller's picture glows throughout with a sensuous passion that saps the blood. A new Delacroix seemed to have been born; an extraordinary talent seemed to be rising above the horizon of our art, but Germany had to follow to the grave her @@ -11709,7 +11674,7 @@ just as she lost Rethel, the greatest son of the cartoon era, in the flower of his age. Of the others who made the pilgrimage to Paris with Feuerbach and -Mueller, not one has a similar importance as an artist. Their merit was +Müller, not one has a similar importance as an artist. Their merit was that they made themselves comparatively able masters of technique, and taught the new gospel when they returned to Germany. To their superiority in technique and colour, given them by a sound French @@ -11725,24 +11690,24 @@ most independent of the many artists who journeyed from the Spree to the Seine is, probably, _Rudolf Henneberg_, who died young. His technique he owed to Couture, in whose studio he worked from 1851, and his subject-matter to the German classical authors. Born a Brunswicker, he -felt himself specially attracted by his countryman Buerger, and became a +felt himself specially attracted by his countryman Bürger, and became a Northern ballad painter with French technique. Movement, animation, wildness, and a certain romantic eeriness, proper to the Northern -ballad--these are Henneberg's prominent features, as they are Buerger's. +ballad--these are Henneberg's prominent features, as they are Bürger's. His pictures have a bold caprice and a peculiarly powerful and sombre poetry. The hunting party storm past irresistibly, like a whirlwind, in -his "Wild Hunt," the illustration to Buerger's ballad, which in 1856 won +his "Wild Hunt," the illustration to Bürger's ballad, which in 1856 won him the gold medal in Paris. "Und hinterher bei Knall and Klang Der Tross mit Hund und Ross und Mann." -A Duesseldorfian Romanticism, from the Wolf's Glen, is united to +A Düsseldorfian Romanticism, from the Wolf's Glen, is united to Couture's nobleness of colouring in his "Criminal from Lost Honour," of 1860. And a part--even if only a small one--of the spirit which created -Duerer's "The Knight, Death, and the Devil" lives in his masterpiece "The +Dürer's "The Knight, Death, and the Devil" lives in his masterpiece "The Race for Fortune," a picture breathed on by the spirit of sombre, -mediaeval Romanticism, which made his name the most honoured in the +mediæval Romanticism, which made his name the most honoured in the Exhibition of 1868. [Illustration: SCHRADER. CROMWELL AT WHITEHALL.] @@ -11906,7 +11871,7 @@ the beginning of a new period. Before him the most celebrated men of the Munich school made a boast of not being able to paint, and looked down upon the "colourers" with a contemptuous shrug; so here everything was attained which the young generation had admired in Gallait and -Biefve. This astounding revelation of colour was in 1855 praised in +Bièfve. This astounding revelation of colour was in 1855 praised in Germany as something unheard of and absolutely perfect. There was no more of the petty, motley, bodyless painting which had hitherto been dominant. The manner in which the grey of morning falls upon the @@ -11969,14 +11934,14 @@ Makart the whole province of the more artistic trades was regarded from a pictorial point of view. Oriental carpets, heavy silken stuffs, Japanese vases, weapons and inlaid furniture, became henceforth the principal elements of decoration. The fashionable world surrounded -itself with brilliant colours; papers were supplemented by _portieres_ +itself with brilliant colours; papers were supplemented by _portières_ and Gobelins, ceilings were painted, and gay umbrellas stood in the fireplace. The bald, honest city-alderman style gave way, and a bright triumph of colour took its place. In the studio of the master were the finest blossoms of all epochs of art; richly ornamented German chests of the Renaissance stood near Chinese idols and Greek terra-cotta, Smyrna carpets and Gobelins, and old Italian and Netherlandish pictures were -mingled with antique and mediaeval weapons. And amid this rich still-life +mingled with antique and mediæval weapons. And amid this rich still-life of splendid vessels, weapons, sculpture, and costly stuffs and costumes, which crowded all the walls and corners, there rose to the surface as further pieces of decoration a velvet coat, a pair of riding breeches, @@ -12021,10 +11986,10 @@ lavish instrumentation. Because a correct and solid anatomy was wanting to his creations from their birth upwards, they can live no longer now that their blooming flesh is withered. In fact, Makart's painting was a weakly and superficial art. He had a sense for nothing but what was -external. It is said that in Chile there are huge and splendid facades +external. It is said that in Chile there are huge and splendid façades on which are written _Museo Nacional_, _Theatro Nacional_, and there is nothing behind. And so for Makart the world was a house with a splendid -facade glowing with colour, but without dwelling-rooms in which the +façade glowing with colour, but without dwelling-rooms in which the sorrow and joy of humanity make their abode. His men do not think and do not live; they are only lay figures for splendid garments, or materially circumscribed spaces of rosy flesh colour; they make a stuffed, @@ -12052,7 +12017,7 @@ Makart, though much tamer and smaller, has a relationship with Delacroix in his sovereign artistry. That joy in the purely pictorial which expressed itself in the festal procession in the Ring-Strasse and in the furnishing of his studio was, moreover, the ground-principle of his art. -With the naivete of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all +With the naïveté of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all historical truth; with absolute want of respect for books of history he has committed anachronisms at which any critic would be irritated. Revelling in splendid revelations of colour, all that he concerned @@ -12073,7 +12038,7 @@ beautiful women, genii, Bacchantes, and historical figures, and at the same time draws into his kingdom of art all nature with its variety of plants, flowers, and fruits, all civilisation with its fulness of splendid vessels and jewels, of shining stuffs, emblems, weapons, and -masks. All that he created breathes the naive, sensuous satisfaction of +masks. All that he created breathes the naïve, sensuous satisfaction of the genuine painter. "The Pest in Florence" undoubtedly had its origin in Boccaccio's @@ -12090,7 +12055,7 @@ splendid architecture of the piazza. To the anger of the historian, he removes the scene from the fifteenth century to the blossoming period of the sixteenth, when the creations of Sansovino, Titian, and Veronese adorned the Queen of the Adriatic. "The Entry of Charles V into Antwerp" -derived only its external impulse from Duerer's Diary. The picture with +derived only its external impulse from Dürer's Diary. The picture with the naked girls strewing flowers might almost as well represent the triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon. In the magic land by the Nile it is not the history of civilisation and ethnography that attracts him, @@ -12177,7 +12142,7 @@ pity, that the victim should not have been a hero, as in conventional catastrophes, but a soft and sweet girl, made for love and never for the cross. And it was the more absorbing, too, because it was impossible to say whether the young Roman was looking up to the beautiful woman with -the desecrating sensuality of a _decadent_ or with the fervid ecstasy of +the desecrating sensuality of a _décadent_ or with the fervid ecstasy of a convert. The same horrified fascination was wakened again and again in the presence of the later pictures of the painter. Almost every one contained a scene of martyrdom, in which the tormented and sinking @@ -12202,7 +12167,7 @@ corpse-like eyes an expression that was terribly demoniacal, and had been attained to the same degree by no earlier illustrator of _Faust_. A raven, pecking at the lost ring, was her ghostly escort. -Max showed great invention in hitting upon such things. Buerger's +Max showed great invention in hitting upon such things. Bürger's _Pfarrertochter von Taubenhain_ gave him the material for his "Child-murderess"--a young girl who, by the bank of a lonely pool, overgrown with reeds, stabs her child to the heart with a needle, and in @@ -12242,7 +12207,7 @@ the masterpieces of this group. The underlying idea of the picture catacombs, offers lamps to the entering Christians for the illumination of their dark way. The blind woman as the giver of light! Even in his youth, with cruel irony, he had had sung by a blind quartet the song, -"_Du hast die schoensten Augen_." A touch of Delaroche is in the other +"_Du hast die schönsten Augen_." A touch of Delaroche is in the other young martyr, who, between the bloodthirsty beasts of the Roman circus, looks up amazed to the rows of spectators, from the midst of which a young Roman has flung her a rose as a last greeting. In the next moment @@ -12289,7 +12254,7 @@ And so too does that charming "Spring Tale" of 1873, which breathes only of gaiety, happiness, and peace; a young girl sits under the blossoming bushes, and listens enraptured to the warbling of a nightingale. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ MAX. THE LION'S BRIDE.] @@ -12361,11 +12326,11 @@ shivering in the breeze. In such pictures, too, Max has a morbid inclination to a mystical delicacy of sentiment. He gives what is real an exquisite subtlety which transplants it into the world of dreams, and his tender sense of pain -perhaps appeals only to spirits of an aesthetic temper. He is the +perhaps appeals only to spirits of an æsthetic temper. He is the antithesis of robust health; and yet there lies in the excess of nervous sensibility--in the pathological trait in his art--precisely the quality which inspires the characteristic delicacy of his earlier works. Here is -no pupil of Piloty, but our contemporary. In their anaemic colour his +no pupil of Piloty, but our contemporary. In their anæmic colour his pictures have the effect of a song of high, fine-drawn, and tremulous violin tones, at once dulcet and painful. With their refinement and polish, their subtle taste and intimate emotion, so wonderfully mingled, @@ -12376,11 +12341,11 @@ next to Feuerbach, the first who prescribed for his compositions _dolce_, _adagio_, and _mezza voce_; who sought for the refined, subdued emotions in place of the _emotions fortes_. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ MAX. THE SPIRIT'S GREETING.] -[Illustration: _Graephische Kunst._ +[Illustration: _Gräphische Kunst._ MAX. ADAGIO.] @@ -12490,9 +12455,9 @@ subjects. And what happened was just the contrary. When Delaroche had skimmed the cream, his successors were forced to search in the great martyr book of history for events which were more and more unknown and indifferent. Piloty took from ancient history "The -Death of Alexander the Great," "The Death of Caesar," "Nero at the +Death of Alexander the Great," "The Death of Cæsar," "Nero at the Burning of Rome," and "The Triumphal Progress of Germanicus"; and from -mediaeval history, "Galileo in his Prison observing the Periodic Return +mediæval history, "Galileo in his Prison observing the Periodic Return of a Solar Ray," and "Columbus sighting Land"; from the history of the Thirty Years' War, "The Foundation of the Catholic League by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria," "Seni before the Body of Wallenstein" (the @@ -12521,7 +12486,7 @@ and "The Baptism of Vajk," afterwards King Stephen the Holy of Hungary; _Josef Fluggen_: "The Flight of the Landgravine Elizabeth," "Milton dictating Paradise Lost," and "The Landgravine Margarethe taking leave of her Children"; by _Carl Gustav Hellquist_ there were "The Death of -the wounded Sten Sture after the Battle of Bogesund in the Maelarsee," +the wounded Sten Sture after the Battle of Bogesund in the Mälarsee," "The Embarkment of the Body of Gustavus Adolphus," and the forced contribution of "Wisby and Huss going to the Stake." _Ernst Hildebrand_ had the Electress of Brandenburg secretly taking the sacrament in both @@ -12533,19 +12498,19 @@ Florentines"; _Emanuel Leutze_: a "Columbus before the Council of Salamanca," "Raleigh's Departure," "Cromwell's Visit to Milton," "The Battle of Monmouth," and "The Last Festival of Charles I"; _Alexander Liezenmayer_: "The Coronation of Charles Durazzo in Stuhlweissenburg," -and "The Canonisation of the Landgravine Elizabeth of Thueringen"; +and "The Canonisation of the Landgravine Elizabeth of Thüringen"; _Wilhelm Lindenschmit_: "Duke Alva at the Countess of Rudolstadt's," "Francis I at Pavia," "The Death of Franz Von Sickingen," "Knox and the Scottish Image-breakers," "The Assassination of William of Orange," "Walter Raleigh visited in his Cell by his Family," "Luther before Cardinal Cajetan," "Anne Boleyn giving her Child Elizabeth to the care of Matthew Parker," and "The Entrance of Alaric into Rome"; _Alexander -Wagner_: "The Departure of Isabella Zapolya from Siebenbuergen," "The +Wagner_: "The Departure of Isabella Zapolya from Siebenbürgen," "The Entry into Aschaffenburg of Gustavus Adolphus," "The Wedding of Otto of Bavaria," "The Death of Titus Dugowich," "Matthias Corvinus with his Hunting Train," and many more of the same description. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ MAX. MADONNA.] @@ -12607,7 +12572,7 @@ had then only one mask for the many characters which life creates. There was a fear of "ugliness," as if it were a spot of dirt, and the personages portrayed received, one and all, an icy trait of "the Beautiful." The various Egmonts, Wallensteins, and Charles the Firsts of -Gallait and Biefve, Delaroche, and Piloty have not the blood of human +Gallait and Bièfve, Delaroche, and Piloty have not the blood of human beings, they have not the scars which are made by fate, but are all alike in their Byronic turn of the head. One knows the so-called character-heads--Luther gazing upwards with the look of one strong in @@ -12669,10 +12634,10 @@ nervously with his pencil. "The German only becomes impassioned when he lies." The most genuine masters of German blood have felt that right well, and they have been honest enough to say it out. A pervading trait of old German art is simplicity, the avoidance of everything impassioned -even in the grandest conception, such as Duerer has. If in Leonardo's +even in the grandest conception, such as Dürer has. If in Leonardo's "Last Supper" terror, indignation, curiosity, and sorrow are reflected by twelve heads and twenty-four hands in movements of agitation which -are always new, in Duerer's woodcut all the limbs and senses of the +are always new, in Dürer's woodcut all the limbs and senses of the disciples are paralysed at the sorrowful revelation of the Saviour; it seemed to them desecration to break the solemn, oppressive stillness by noisy utterances of opinion and hasty gestures. And the same thing is to @@ -12705,7 +12670,7 @@ THE VICTORY OVER PSEUDO-IDEALISM Immediately upon the epoch-making labours of the historians followed the -first romances that were archaeological and dealt with the history of +first romances that were archæological and dealt with the history of civilisation; and hand in hand with these literary productions there was developed--by the side of historical painting proper, in France, Belgium, and Germany--a tendency to represent the life of the past, not @@ -12756,8 +12721,8 @@ world quite at their ease, and began to paint simple little pictures from the daily life of antiquity, instead of the great ostentatious canvases of David and Ingres. In literature their parallels are Ponsard and Augier, who in their comedies brought antique life upon the stage, -the one in _Horace et Lydie_, the other in _La Cigue_ and _Le Joueur de -Flute_. +the one in _Horace et Lydie_, the other in _La Ciguë_ and _Le Joueur de +Flûte_. _Charles Gleyre_ approached nearest to the strict academical style of Ingres. Not even by a tour in the East did he allow himself to be led @@ -12799,7 +12764,7 @@ youthful, fresh, and childlike. His colour is lighter and more delicate than Gleyre's. None but blended colours such as light blue and light yellow mingle in the harmony of white tones. The severe antique style has been given a pretty _rococo_ turn: his Greek girls, women, and -children are like figures of Sevres porcelain; the scenes in which he +children are like figures of Sèvres porcelain; the scenes in which he groups them are pleasing,--sports of fancy brought forward in a Grecian garb, of an affected sensuousness and a coquettish grace. His prettiest picture was probably "My Sister's not at Home"--Greece seen through a @@ -12812,17 +12777,17 @@ gauze transparency in the theatre. (_By permission of Messrs. Boussod, Valadon & Co., the owners of the copyright._)] -_Leon Gerome_ has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the +_Léon Gérôme_ has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the antique; being a pupil of Delaroche, however, he has treated not mythological but historical episodes of antiquity. His "Cock-fight," "Phryne before the Areopagus," "The Augurs," "The Gladiators," -"Alcibiades at the House of Aspasia," and "The Death of Caesar," together +"Alcibiades at the House of Aspasia," and "The Death of Cæsar," together with pictures from Egypt, are his most characteristic works: Ingres and Delaroche upon a smaller scale. He shares with the one his learnedly pedantic composition, and with the other his taste for anecdote. It may be remarked that in these same years Emile Augier was active in literature, but that Augier, living in the same epoch of modern life, is -far more powerful and animated in his Classical pieces. Gerome's art is +far more powerful and animated in his Classical pieces. Gérôme's art is an intelligent, frigid, calculating art. In execution he does not rise above a petty study of form and an academic discipline. His drawing is accurate, and he has even succeeded in giving his figures a certain @@ -12840,10 +12805,10 @@ characterless outlines. And this marble coldness remained with him later when, moving with the development of historical painting, he gradually took to working on more tragical subjects. Even the most violent subjects are depicted with a dainty grace, and with a smile he serves up -decapitated heads, prepared with a painting _a la maitre d'hotel_, upon +decapitated heads, prepared with a painting _à la maitre d'hôtel_, upon a gold-rimmed porcelain plate as smooth as glass. -Another painter of archaeological _genre_ is _Gustave Boulanger_, who +Another painter of archæological _genre_ is _Gustave Boulanger_, who after extensive studies in Pompeii gave a vogue to those antique interiors and scenes of Pompeian street life now associated with the name of Alma-Tadema. @@ -12852,7 +12817,7 @@ Direct descendants of Delaroche and Robert Fleury were those who threw themselves enthusiastically into treating the physiognomy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and devoted the most ardent study to the weapons, costumes, and furniture of those epochs. They never -wearied in representing Francois I and Henri IV in the most varied +wearied in representing François I and Henri IV in the most varied situations of life, nor in searching the biographies of great artists and scholars for episodes worth painting. Especially popular subjects were those of celebrated painters at their meeting with contemporaries @@ -12896,20 +12861,20 @@ of the following painters. [Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - GEROME. THE COCK-FIGHT.] + GÉRÔME. THE COCK-FIGHT.] Of the generation of the eminent Flemish artists of 1830 _Hendrik Leys_ is the one whose fame has been most enduring. Born in Antwerp on 18th February 1815, at first destined for the priesthood, and then in 1829 admitted to the studio of Ferdinand de Braekeleers, he had made his -debut in the beginning of the thirties with a pair of historical +début in the beginning of the thirties with a pair of historical pictures. These indeed revealed little of the power which he evinced later, but they furnished some indication of what he was aiming at. Here were none of the skirmishes--so popular at the time--in which blood flows as from the pipes of a fountain; the combatants fought with decorum and moderation, and less from conviction than to justify the helmets and cuirasses which had been fetched from the wardrobe. In both -of them, on the other hand, the background--a mediaeval town with +of them, on the other hand, the background--a mediæval town with tortuous alleys, lanterns, and picturesque taverns--was most lovingly treated. Here was revealed a thoroughly German delight in minute detail. Instead of subordinating the accessories as others did, with the object @@ -12918,7 +12883,7 @@ entire corner of the world at once, giving full distinctness to the smallest things, down to the implements of daily life, the grasses and flowers of the landscape, and the variegated corner-stones of the old house-fronts, whose picturesque porches and lattices bulge into the -crooked lanes. His next picture, "The Massacre of the Loewen +crooked lanes. His next picture, "The Massacre of the Löwen Magistrates," was a still further departure from precedent, since--quite in Callot's manner--it mingled with the principal drama a mass of grotesque episodes. The born _genre_ painter was announced by these @@ -12957,7 +12922,7 @@ After he had followed Rembrandt for more than a decade he turned from him to cast himself suddenly into the arms of the German masters of the sixteenth century, and, according to his own saying, "from that time forward to become an artist." During a tour through Germany, in 1852, he -had become familiar with Duerer and Cranach; in Dresden, Wittenberg, and +had become familiar with Dürer and Cranach; in Dresden, Wittenberg, and Eisenach there hovered round him the great figures of the Reformation period. Half-effaced memories of his countrymen, the brothers Van Eyck and Quentin Matsys, became once more fresh, and drove him decisively @@ -13043,13 +13008,13 @@ life and colour. And whilst as a colourist he was bent upon avoiding uniformity of tone and giving everything its natural character, as a draughtsman, too, he set up, in opposition to the more patrician fluency of others, the citizen-like angularity of an art uninfluenced by the -Cinquecento. As in Cranach, Duerer, and Holbein, one finds in his +Cinquecento. As in Cranach, Dürer, and Holbein, one finds in his pictures profiles that are vividly true; harsh and often unwieldy heads, wrinkled faces, and heavy, massive shoulders resting on stunted bodies. The human form, with fat stomach and great horny hands, seems almost deformed. Everything which the struggle for existence has made of the image of God is expressed in the works of Leys for the first time since -David. Even his "Massacre of the Loewen Magistrates" showed sharp, +David. Even his "Massacre of the Löwen Magistrates" showed sharp, naturalistic physiognomies in the midst of its confused composition, and his "Barthel de Haze," fifteen years after, fully exemplified this striving after characteristic and truthful expression. None of his @@ -13065,7 +13030,7 @@ transition which led to the modern style. In setting up quaintness and far-fetched archaism against the mannerism of the idealists, Leys accustomed the eye again to recognise that there was something truer than nobility of line and aristocratic pose; and, as he appealed to the -old masters as accomplices, it was impossible for aesthetic criticism to +old masters as accomplices, it was impossible for æsthetic criticism to be offended. [Illustration: LEYS. MOTHER AND CHILD.] @@ -13085,7 +13050,7 @@ The fifteenth century, with the energetic force of its figures, its close grasp of nature, and its pithy characterisation, which did not even shrink from ugliness, induced painters to go back more than they had formerly done to the sources of real life and to bring something of -its directness into their creations. Elie Delaunay began to look on +its directness into their creations. Élie Delaunay began to look on nature with an eye less bent on making abstractions and regarding all things from the standpoint of style; he began to apprehend more clearly her individual peculiarities and to reproduce them more truly than had @@ -13242,7 +13207,7 @@ North German trait, which often expresses itself in these days (when German art has become subtle and superior) by a crude naturalism in the Berlin painting. In the beginning of the century, however, it set the Berlin painting, as art of the healthy human understanding, in salutary -contrast to the sickliness of Munich and Duesseldorf. Even eighty years ago +contrast to the sickliness of Munich and Düsseldorf. Even eighty years ago the people of Berlin were too acute and practical to be Romanticists. The artists whom Menzel found active and honoured at his arrival were Schadow and Rauch, and beside them, as representatives of the _grande peinture_, @@ -13252,7 +13217,7 @@ Romanticists on the Rhine as never having given an unqualified homage to their flag. A clear, realistic method was dominant in the art of Berlin. And in this respect it was as much a corrective--and one by no means to be undervalued--against the inflated sentiment of Munich as against the weak -and sickly sentimentalism of Duesseldorf, with its knights and monks and +and sickly sentimentalism of Düsseldorf, with its knights and monks and noble maidens. Even Cornelius, who had been called to Berlin by Frederick William IV--that King of the Romanticists on the throne of the eminently unromantic Hohenzollerns--found himself helpless against the ruling taste. @@ -13295,7 +13260,7 @@ town, the most brilliant epoch of which he was predestined to depict and to conquer by his art. Since it brought in profit sooner than anything else, he had made himself familiar with the technique of reproduction; and having devoted himself in particular to the newly discovered art of -lithography, he turned out _menus_, New Year cards, vignettes for +lithography, he turned out _ménus_, New Year cards, vignettes for occasional poems, etc., and in things of this sort displayed a genuine affinity of spirit with Chodowiecki and Gottfried Schadow. From his twelfth year onwards he had not only assured his own existence, but even @@ -13320,7 +13285,7 @@ Even in the twelve simple lithographs which appeared in 1837, "Memorable Events from Prussian History in the Brandenburg Era," the "scholar" Menzel stands ready as the actual historian of the Prussian kingdom. In an age which took its pleasure in a vaporous, sentimental enthusiasm for -the mediaeval splendour of the empire, he was the one who as a youth of +the mediæval splendour of the empire, he was the one who as a youth of twenty pointed to the corner-stones of Prussian history in the Brandenburg times; he was the only man of his age who refused to blow the horn of the mawkish Romanticists, and still less that of the @@ -13330,7 +13295,7 @@ had nothing poetical; and just as little were they tedious pictures of ceremonies or spectacular pieces. Striking characterisation and sparkling vividness were united here to the most painstaking study of nature and history, carried down to the peculiarities of costume and -weapons. History was not arranged in accordance with academic formulae, +weapons. History was not arranged in accordance with academic formulæ, but delineated as if from life with absorbing truthfulness. Everything was expressed simply and sincerely, without exciting passages, and without conventional sentiment pumped out of models. Every epoch had its @@ -13352,7 +13317,7 @@ tobacco; Menzel had to invent it afresh and teach an engraving school of his own before the four hundred masterly plates of the book were made possible. -But it became more revolutionary still for the aesthetic ideas of the +But it became more revolutionary still for the æsthetic ideas of the time. Menzel had not set himself to produce a sequence of pictures, displaying events and heroes in the most ideal situations possible, but made it his business to sift the entire life of Frederick the Great to @@ -13391,7 +13356,7 @@ art in foreign countries was based. Thenceforth Menzel had a kind of monopoly in this subject, and when in 1840 Frederick William IV had the works of the great king published in -an _edition de luxe_, Menzel, amongst others, was entrusted with the +an _édition de luxe_, Menzel, amongst others, was entrusted with the illustration. Every one of the thirty volumes contains portraits of Frederick's contemporaries which were engraved by Mandel and others after original pictures of the period. Menzel had an apparently @@ -13401,10 +13366,10 @@ were destined to be incorporated in the text as tail-pieces, vignettes, and the like. This was the great work which occupied him during the forties; and in these headings and tail-pieces to the works of Frederick the Great he showed, for the first time, that he was not merely a -learned investigator of sources, but was full of brilliant _apercus_. +learned investigator of sources, but was full of brilliant _aperçus_. One has to read Frederick the Great before one can do full justice to the acuteness and ready resource, the subtlety and pungency of the -artist's pencil. All aesthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art +artist's pencil. All æsthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art are scattered like dust before these creations, in which the most fantastic ideas are embodied with the whole force of the realistic power of our days. @@ -13459,7 +13424,7 @@ with a finely modulated twilight. Only Menzel could have conjured up in so convincing a manner the brilliancy of this Court festival of the past. -[Illustration: _Hanfstaengl._ +[Illustration: _Hanfstängl._ MENZEL. FREDERICK THE GREAT ON A JOURNEY.] @@ -13596,7 +13561,7 @@ CHAPTER I General: - Rouquet: L'etat des Arts en Angleterre Paris, 1755. + Rouquet: L'état des Arts en Angleterre Paris, 1755. H. Walpole: Anecdotes of Painting in England. With Illustrations. 5 vols. London, Strawberry Hill, 1762-71. New Edition, London, Ward, @@ -13608,7 +13573,7 @@ General: England. London, 1808. J. D. Fiorillo, Geschichte der Malerei in Grossbritannien, vol. v. - Goettingen, 1808. + Göttingen, 1808. W. Carey: Progress of the Fine Arts in England and Ireland during the Reigns of George II, III, IV. London, 1826. @@ -13632,12 +13597,12 @@ General: G. F. Waagen: Treasures of Art in Great Britain. London, 1854. - Prosper Merimee: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre, "Revue des Deux + Prosper Mérimée: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre, "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1857. T. Silvestre: L'Art, Les Artistes, etc., en Angleterre. London, 1857. - C. de Pesquidoux: L'Ecole Anglaise, 1672-1851. Etudes biographiques et + C. de Pesquidoux: L'École Anglaise, 1672-1851. Études biographiques et critiques. Paris, 1858. Our Living Painters: their Lives and Works. London, 1859. @@ -13648,8 +13613,8 @@ General: W. Thornbury: British Artists from Hogarth to Turner. 2 vols. London, 1860-61. - J. Milsand: L'esthetique anglaise. Etude sur M. John Ruskin. Trad. - franc. Paris, 1864. + J. Milsand: L'esthétique anglaise. Étude sur M. John Ruskin. Trad. + franç. Paris, 1864. R. and S. Redgrave: A Century of Painters of the English School. 2 vols. London, 1866. New Edition, 1890. @@ -13710,7 +13675,7 @@ General: E. Chesneau: La peinture anglaise. Paris, 1882. - J. Faber: La peinture anglaise. "Federation artistique," 1883. 11-15. + J. Faber: La peinture anglaise. "Fédération artistique," 1883. 11-15. N. D'Anvers: An Elementary History of Modern Painting. New Edition. London, Sampson Low, 1883. @@ -13723,10 +13688,10 @@ General: under the direction of F. G. Dumas. (Leighton, Millais, Herkomer, Hook, etc.) 2 vols. London and Paris, 1882-84. - Feuillet de Conches: Histoire de l'ecole anglaise de peinture jusqu'a - Sir Thomas Lawrence et ses emules. Paris, Leroux, 1883. + Feuillet de Conches: Histoire de l'école anglaise de peinture jusqu'à + Sir Thomas Lawrence et ses émules. Paris, Leroux, 1883. - H. J. Wilmot-Buxton and S. R. Koehler: English and American Painters. + H. J. Wilmot-Buxton and S. R. Köhler: English and American Painters. Plates. London, 1883. John Ruskin: The Art of England. Lectures given in Oxford. Orpington, @@ -13774,11 +13739,11 @@ General: W. E. Henley: A Century of Artists. A Memorial of the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888. With Illustrations. Glasgow, 1889. - Hermann Helferich: Ueber die Kunst in England, "Kunst fuer Alle," iv, + Hermann Helferich: Ueber die Kunst in England, "Kunst für Alle," iv, 1888, pp. 161, 177. Paul Meyerheim: Die englische Malerie in den letzten 50 Jahren, "Nord - und Sued," 1889, p. 17. + und Süd," 1889, p. 17. J. A. Crowe, Continental and English Painting, "Nineteenth Century," April 1890. @@ -13801,20 +13766,20 @@ General: H. Taine: Notes sur l'Angleterre. Paris, 1872. - H. Taine: Histoire de la Litterature Anglaise. + H. Taine: Histoire de la Littérature Anglaise. Periodicals: "Art Journal," "Portfolio," and "Magazine of Art," _passim._ Hogarth: - W. Hogarth: Analyse de la beaute. 2 vols. Paris, 1805. + W. Hogarth: Analyse de la beauté. 2 vols. Paris, 1805. John Nichols: Biographical Anecdotes of W. Hogarth. London, 1781. Second Edition, 1785. - G. C. Lichtenberg: Erklaerung der Hogarth'schen Kupferstiche, mit - verkleinerten Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Goettingen, 1794-1831. + G. C. Lichtenberg: Erklärung der Hogarth'schen Kupferstiche, mit + verkleinerten Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Göttingen, 1794-1831. W. Hogarth: Complete Works, Including the Analysis of Beauty. London, 1837. @@ -13826,7 +13791,7 @@ Hogarth: G. A. Sala: W. Hogarth, Painter, Engraver, and Philosopher. Illustrations. London, 1866. - C. Justi: W. Hogarth, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," vii, 1872. + C. Justi: W. Hogarth, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," vii, 1872. A. Dobson: Hogarth. London, Low, New and Enlarged Edition, 1903. (Illustrated Biographies of Great Artists.) @@ -13835,7 +13800,7 @@ Hogarth: Hogarth's Shrimp Girl, "Portfolio," 1886, p. 105. - F. Rabbe in the compilation, "Les artistes celebres." + F. Rabbe in the compilation, "Les artistes célèbres." _Reproductions:_ @@ -13892,7 +13857,7 @@ Reynolds: J. C. Collins: Sir Joshua Reynolds as a Portrait Painter. An Essay, with 20 Portraits. London, 1874. - Edw. Hamilton: A Catalogue Raisonne of the Engraved Works of Joshua + Edw. Hamilton: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Engraved Works of Joshua Reynolds, 1755-1820. London, 1874. Frederick Wedmore: Sir Joshua Reynolds, "Temple Bar," July 1876. @@ -13908,7 +13873,7 @@ Reynolds: Royal Academy et de la Grosvenor Gallerie, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1884, i 327. (The same reprinted and enlarged. Paris, 1885.) - Various articles in the "Athenaeum," 1883 and 1884. + Various articles in the "Athenæum," 1883 and 1884. Helen Zimmern: Sir Joshua Reynolds, in "Westermanns Monatsheften," May 1884. @@ -13917,12 +13882,12 @@ Reynolds: Gainsborough. London, Seeley & Co., 1886. Ernest Chesneau: Joshua Reynolds. With 18 Illustrations. Paris, 1887 - (in the compilation "Les artistes celebres"). + (in the compilation "Les artistes célèbres"). Lady Blennerhasset: Joshua Reynolds' Discourses, "Allgemeine Zeitung," 1889. - Ed. Leisching: Zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Kuenste. + Ed. Leisching: Zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Künste. Akademische Reden von Sir J. R., Uebersetzt u. mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, Register u. Textvergleichung versehen von Dr. E. L. Leipzig, 1893. @@ -13955,7 +13920,7 @@ Gainsborough: George M. Brock-Arnold: Gainsborough. London, Sampson Low, 1889. - Walter Armstrong in the compilation, "Les artistes celebres." + Walter Armstrong in the compilation, "Les artistes célèbres." Mrs. Bell: Thomas Gainsborough: a Record of his Life and Works, with Illustrations, etc. London, 1897. @@ -13990,15 +13955,15 @@ CHAPTER II General: - Georg Brandes: Hauptstroemungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts, Bd. + Georg Brandes: Hauptströmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts, Bd. i, 2 Aufl. Leipzig, 1887. Wilhelm Weigand: Essays. (Voltaire, Rousseau, zur Psychologie des 19 - Jahrhunderts, etc.) Muenchen, 1892. + Jahrhunderts, etc.) München, 1892. Goya: - Theophile Gautier: Cabinet de l'amateur, 1842. + Théophile Gautier: Cabinet de l'amateur, 1842. Laurent Matheron: Biographie de Fr. Goya. Paris, 1858. @@ -14011,21 +13976,21 @@ Goya: D. F. Zapater y Gomez: Goya, noticias biograficas. Zaragoza, 1868. Paul Lefort: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1875, ii 506; 1876, i 336; ii - 500. Reprinted and enlarged under the title of Francisco Goya, Etude - biographique et critique, suivie de l'essai d'un catalogue raisonne de - son oeuvre grave et lithographie. Paris, 1877. + 500. Reprinted and enlarged under the title of Francisco Goya, Étude + biographique et critique, suivie de l'essai d'un catalogue raisonné de + son oeuvre gravé et lithographié. Paris, 1877. Charles Yriarte: Goya, Aquafortiste, "L'Art," 1877, ii 3, 33, 56, 78. P. G. Hamerton: Fr. Goya, "Portfolio." 1879, 67-99. - Munoz y Manzano: Francesco de Goya y Lucientes, "Revista + Muñoz y Manzano: Francesco de Goya y Lucientes, "Revista contemporanea," September 1883. - Lucien Solvay: L'Art Espagnol. Paris, 1887. (Bibliotheque + Lucien Solvay: L'Art Espagnol. Paris, 1887. (Bibliothèque internationale de l'Art.) - Con. de la Vinaza: Goya, su tiempo, su vida, sus obras. Madrid, 1887. + Con. de la Viñaza: Goya, su tiempo, su vida, sus obras. Madrid, 1887. P. Lafond: Goya. Paris, 1902. @@ -14041,45 +14006,45 @@ Goya: Los Proverbios. Colleccion de 18 laminos. Madrid, 1864. - Los Caprichos. Gravures fac-simile de M. Segui y Riera. Notice - biographique et etude critique par Ant. de Nait. Barcelone, 1887. + Los Caprichos. Gravures fac-similé de M. Segui y Riera. Notice + biographique et étude critique par Ant. de Nait. Barcelone, 1887. French Art in the Eighteenth Century: - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siecle. Paris, 1850. 3rd + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siècle. Paris, 1850. 3rd Edition, Paris, 1880. - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: La femme au XVIII siecle. Paris, 1889. + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: La femme au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1889. - Charles Blanc: Les Peintres des Fetes galantes. (Watteau, Lancret, + Charles Blanc: Les Peintres des Fêtes galantes. (Watteau, Lancret, Pater, Boucher.) Paris, 1854. - Arsene Houssaye: Histoire de l'Art Francais du XVIII siecle. + Arsène Houssaye: Histoire de l'Art Français du XVIII siècle. Portraits. Paris, 1860. - E. B. de la Chavignerie: Les Artistes Francais du XVIII siecle oublies - ou dedaignes. Paris, 1865. + E. B. de la Chavignerie: Les Artistes Français du XVIII siècle oubliés + ou dédaignés. Paris, 1865. - A. v. Wurzbach: Die franzoesischen Maler des 18 Jahrh. Stuttgart, 1879. + A. v. Wurzbach: Die französischen Maler des 18 Jahrh. Stuttgart, 1879. - Auguste Nicaise: L'ecole francaise au XVIII siecle. Chalons-sur-Marne, + Auguste Nicaise: L'école française au XVIII siècle. Chalons-sur-Marne, 1883. - Paul Seidel: Friedrich d. Gr. u. die franzoesische Kunst seiner Zeit. + Paul Seidel: Friedrich d. Gr. u. die französische Kunst seiner Zeit. Berlin, 1892. Watteau: - Figures de differents caracteres de paysage et d'etudes dessinees - d'apres nature par A. Watteau. 2 vols., 350 pl. Paris. No date. + Figures de différents caractères de paysage et d'études dessinées + d'après nature par A. Watteau. 2 vols., 350 pl. Paris. No date. - D'Argenville: Abrege de la vie des plus fameux peintres. Paris, 1762. + D'Argenville: Abrégé de la vie des plus fameux peintres. Paris, 1762. Mariette: Abecedario. Published in the archives of French Art by - Chennevieres. 1852, etc. + Chennevières. 1852, etc. Caylus: La vie d'Antoine Watteau. Read on 3rd February 1748 before the - Paris Academy. Cited by Goncourt, L'Art du XVIII siecle, 1850. + Paris Academy. Cited by Goncourt, L'Art du XVIII siècle, 1850. Julienne in the preface to his book of plates, 1755. @@ -14087,90 +14052,90 @@ Watteau: Valenciennes, 1867. Edmond de Goncourt: A. Watteau. Paris, 1860. By the same author, - Catalogue raisonne de l'oeuvre peint, dessine et grave d'A. Watteau. + Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre peint, dessiné et gravé d'A. Watteau. Paris, 1875. Theodor Volbehr: Antoine Watteau, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des - 18 Jahrh. Muenchen, 1885. + 18 Jahrh. München, 1885. Emil Hannover: A. Watteau. Kopenhagen, 1887. Deutsch von Alice Hannover. Berlin, 1889. - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1889. + G. Dargenty in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1889. Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1889, i 5, 177, 455; ii 5, 129, 222. Reprinted 1892. Boucher: - P. Mantz: Francois Boucher, Lemoyne et Natoire (with engravings from + P. Mantz: François Boucher, Lemoyne et Natoire (with engravings from their works). Paris, 1880. - Andre Michel in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1889. + André Michel in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1889. Lancret: - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes celebres." + G. Dargenty in "Les artistes célèbres." Pater: - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes celebres." + G. Dargenty in "Les artistes célèbres." Fragonard: - Baron Roger Portalis: Honore Fragonard, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, + Baron Roger Portalis: Honoré Fragonard, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, 1887. - Felix Naquet in "Les artistes celebres." 1893. + Felix Naquet in "Les artistes célèbres." 1893. - C. Mauclair: Fragonard, Biographie critique illustree de vingt-quatre + C. Mauclair: Fragonard, Biographie critique illustrée de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904. Baudouin: - Ch. Normand in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1892. + Ch. Normand in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1892. Greuze: - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siecle. + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siècle. - Charles Blanc: Histoire de peintres des toutes les ecoles, ii. + Charles Blanc: Histoire de peintres des toutes les écoles, ii. - Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l'Art pendant la Revolution, p. 517. + Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l'Art pendant la Révolution, p. 517. - Charles Normand in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1892. + Charles Normand in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1892. Quentin La Tour: Clement de Ris: L'oeuvre de Maurice Quentin de Latour, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1882, ii 251. - Champfleury in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1886. + Champfleury in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1886. H. Lapauze. With 87 Plates. Paris, 1885. La Tour et son oeuvre au - Musee de Saint-Quentin, 1905. + Musée de Saint-Quentin, 1905. Liotard: - F. Guye: Jean Etienne Liotard, 1702-91. Zofingen, 1890. + F. Guye: Jean Étienne Liotard, 1702-91. Zofingen, 1890. Chardin: - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siecle. + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII siècle. G. Dargenty: "L'Art," 1883, ii 3. - H. de Chennevieres: Chardin au Musee du Louvre, "Gazette des Beaux + H. de Chennevières: Chardin au Musée du Louvre, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1889, i 121. - Charles Normand in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1892. + Charles Normand in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1892. - G. Schefer: Chardin ... Biographie critique illustree de vingt-quatre + G. Schéfer: Chardin ... Biographie critique illustrée de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904. Cornelis Troost: - A Ver Huell: Cornelis Troost en zyn Werken. Arnhem, 1873. + A Ver Huell: Cornelis Troost en zÿn Werken. Arnhem, 1873. Changes of Taste in Germany: @@ -14179,23 +14144,23 @@ Changes of Taste in Germany: Chodowiecki: - W. Engelmann: Daniel Chodowieckis saemmtliche Kupferstiche. Leipzig, + W. Engelmann: Daniel Chodowieckis sämmtliche Kupferstiche. Leipzig, 1857. Alfred Woltmann: Hogarth und Chodowiecki. From Vier Jahrhunderte - niederlaendisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878. + niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878. Ferdinand Meyer: Daniel Chodowiecki der Peintre-graveur. Berlin, 1888. W. von Oettingen. Berlin, 1895. - L Kaemmerer: Bd. 21 der Kuenstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, + L Kämmerer: Bd. 21 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1897. See Selection from the artist's finest engravings, in photography, by A. Frisch. Berlin, 1885. - D. Chodowiecki: Von Berlin nach Danzig, eine Kuenstlerfahrt im Jahre + D. Chodowiecki: Von Berlin nach Danzig, eine Künstlerfahrt im Jahre 1783. 108 Facsimiledrucke nach Ch.'s Zeichnungen. Berlin, 1883. Tischbein: @@ -14205,14 +14170,14 @@ Tischbein: Fr. v. Alten: Ans Tischbeins Leben und Briefwechsel. Leipzig, 1872. - Edmond Michel: Etude biographique sur les Tischbein. Lyon, 1881. + Edmond Michel: Étude biographique sur les Tischbein. Lyon, 1881. Pesne: Paul Seidel: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1891. Paul Seidel: Die Berliner Kunst unter Friedrich Wilhelm I. - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1888, p. 185. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1888, p. 185. Anton Graft: @@ -14223,18 +14188,18 @@ Anton Graft: Joseph Vernet: - Amedee Durande: Joseph, Carl, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et + Amedée Durande: Joseph, Carl, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et biographie. Paris, 1863. - L. Lagrange: J. Vernet et la peinture au XVIII siecle. Paris, 1864. + L. Lagrange: J. Vernet et la peinture au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1864. A. Genevay: "L'Art," 1876, iii 254, 307; iv 61. - Albert Maire: Les Vernet in "Les artistes celebres." + Albert Maire: Les Vernet in "Les artistes célèbres." Hubert Robert: - C. Gabillot in "Les artistes celebres." + C. Gabillot in "Les artistes célèbres." Canaletto: @@ -14246,11 +14211,11 @@ Francesco Guardi: Gessner: - Heinrich Woelfflin: Salomon Gessner. Frauenfeld. 1889. + Heinrich Wölfflin: Salomon Gessner. Frauenfeld. 1889. Oudry und Desportes: - Charles Normand in "Les artistes celebres." + Charles Normand in "Les artistes célèbres." Riedinger: @@ -14262,49 +14227,49 @@ CHAPTER III German Art in General: - Raczynski: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, uebersetzt von K. + Raczynski: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, übersetzt von K. Hagen. 3 Bde. Text, 1 Bd. Tafeln. Berlin, 1836. Anton Hallmann: Kunstbestrebungen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1842. - Theophile Gautier: Les Beaux Arts en Europe, 1855. Paris, 1855. + Théophile Gautier: Les Beaux Arts en Europe, 1855. Paris, 1855. A. Hagen: Die deutsche Kunst in unserm Jahrhundert. Berlin, 1857. - E. Foerster: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Leipzig, 1863. + E. Förster: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Leipzig, 1863. Anton Springer: Die bildende Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1858. - J. Gerard: Considerations sur l'art allemand, ses principes et - tendances a propos de l'exposition de Munich. Bruxelles, 1859. + J. Gérard: Considérations sur l'art allemand, ses principes et + tendances à propos de l'exposition de Munich. Bruxelles, 1859. Hermann Riegel: Geschichte des Wiederauflebens der deutschen Kunst seit Carstens. Hannover, 1876. - Friedr. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, Studien und - Erinnerungen. Noerdlingen, Beck, 1877-81. + Friedr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, Studien und + Erinnerungen. Nördlingen, Beck, 1877-81. J. Beavington-Atkinson: The Schools of Modern Art in Germany. With numerous Illustrations. London, Seeley, 1880. - A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemaeldesammlung. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1881. + A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1881. Neue Ausgabe als Einleitung zu den Albertschen Heliogravuren der - Galerie Schack. Muenchen, 1889. + Galerie Schack. München, 1889. - Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, unter Mitwirkung von + Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, unter Mitwirkung von Fachgenossen, herausgegeben von R. Dohme. Leipzig, Seemann, 1881 ff. D. Duncker, Moderne Meister. Charakteristiken aus Kunst und Leben. Berlin, 1883. - Franz Reber: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, mit Excursen ueber - die parallele Kunstentwicklung der uebrigen Laender. 3 Bde. 3 Aufl. + Franz Reber: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, mit Excursen über + die parallele Kunstentwicklung der übrigen Länder. 3 Bde. 3 Aufl. Leipzig, 1884. - Anton Springer: Die Wege und Ziele der gegenwaertigen Kunst, in seinen + Anton Springer: Die Wege und Ziele der gegenwärtigen Kunst, in seinen Bildern aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. 2 Aufl. Bonn, 1886. - Adolf Rosenberg: Die Muenchener Malerschule seit 1871. Leipzig, 1887. + Adolf Rosenberg: Die Münchener Malerschule seit 1871. Leipzig, 1887. Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Malerei. Bd. 2 und 3, Deutschland. Leipzig, 1888 ff. @@ -14314,12 +14279,12 @@ German Art in General: L. Pfau in "Kunst und Kritik," Bd. 1. Stuttgart, 1888, pp. 445-535. - Friedrich Pecht: Geschichte der Muenchener Kunst. Muenchen, 1889. + Friedrich Pecht: Geschichte der Münchener Kunst. München, 1889. Hubert Janitscheks, final chapter in his Geschichte der Deutschen Malerei. Berlin, Grote, 1890. - M. de la Mazeliere: La peinture allemande au XIX siecle. Paris, 1900. + M. de la Mazelière: La peinture allemande au XIX siècle. Paris, 1900. Cornelius Gurlitt: Die deutsche Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Berlin, 1899. @@ -14328,37 +14293,37 @@ German Art in General: Friedrich Haack: Die Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, 1905. - Periodicals chiefly: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," Leipzig, 1866. - "Die Kunst fuer Alle," Muenchen, 1886. "Die Kunst unserer Zeit" - (specially the work of H. E. v. Berlepsch and Corn. Gurlitt), Muenchen, + Periodicals chiefly: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," Leipzig, 1866. + "Die Kunst für Alle," München, 1886. "Die Kunst unserer Zeit" + (specially the work of H. E. v. Berlepsch and Corn. Gurlitt), München, 1890. "Der Kunstwart," Dresden, 1887. "Die Gegenwart" (articles by Floerke, Lichtwark, Gurlitt, etc.), Berlin, 1872 ff. "Die Nation" (articles by Helferich, Elias, etc.), Berlin, 1883 ff. "Die Freie - Buehne" (articles by Helferich, B. Becker, etc.), Berlin, 1888 ff. "Die - preussischen Jahrbuecher" (articles by Carl Neumann, etc.). All cited + Bühne" (articles by Helferich, B. Becker, etc.), Berlin, 1888 ff. "Die + preussischen Jahrbücher" (articles by Carl Neumann, etc.). All cited in particular in the appropriate place. The Classical Reaction: - Hermann Helferich: Classicitaet, "Freie Buehne," 1890. + Hermann Helferich: Classicität, "Freie Bühne," 1890. - Carl Neumann: Christian Rauch, Betrachtungen ueber Ursprung und Anfaenge - der modernen deutschen Plastik, "Preuss. Jahrbuecher," Bd. 64, 1889. + Carl Neumann: Christian Rauch, Betrachtungen über Ursprung und Anfänge + der modernen deutschen Plastik, "Preuss. Jahrbücher," Bd. 64, 1889. Heinr. v. Stein: Die Entstehung der neueren Aesthetik. Stuttgart, 1886. -The Theories of Gerard de Lairesse: +The Theories of Gérard de Lairesse: Carl Lemcke in his Study of Adriean van der Werff in "Kunst and - Kuenstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande," vol. ii. Leipzig, 1878. + Künstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande," vol. ii. Leipzig, 1878. Winckelmann: Carl Justi: Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke, seine Zeitgenossen. Bd. 1, Leipzig, 1866; Bd. 2, Leipzig, 1872. -The Influence of Archaeological Studies upon Art: +The Influence of Archæological Studies upon Art: K. Bernh. Stark: Handbuch der Archaeologie, Bd. 1. Leipzig, 1879. @@ -14383,10 +14348,10 @@ Goethe's Relations to the Plastic Arts: Gustav Ebe: Goethes Beziehungen zur bildenden Kunst, "Gegenwart," xxvii. Heft 16 und 18. - C. Urlichs: Ueber Goethes Verhaeltniss zur alten Kunst. + C. Urlichs: Ueber Goethes Verhältniss zur alten Kunst. "Goethe-Jahrbuch," iii. - Hermann Uhde: Goethe, J. G. Quandt und der saechsische Kunstverein. + Hermann Uhde: Goethe, J. G. Quandt und der sächsische Kunstverein. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1877. A. Heusler: Goethe und die italienische Kunst. Basel, Reich, 1891. @@ -14396,93 +14361,93 @@ Goethe's Relations to the Plastic Arts: Bode: Goethes Asthetik. Berlin, 1901. - Julius Vogel: Aus Goethes roemischen Tagen. Leipzig, 1906. + Julius Vogel: Aus Goethes römischen Tagen. Leipzig, 1906. Mengs: Bianconi: Elogio storico del Cavaliere Anton R. Mengs. Pavia, 1759. - Mengs: Gedanken ueber die Schoenheit und ueber den Geschmack in der - Malerei. Zuerich, 1765. Seine saemmtlichen hinterlassenen Schriften. + Mengs: Gedanken über die Schönheit und über den Geschmack in der + Malerei. Zürich, 1765. Seine sämmtlichen hinterlassenen Schriften. Bonn, 1843-44. - Franz Reber in "Kunst und Kuenstler Deutschl. u. der Niederlande," + Franz Reber in "Kunst und Künstler Deutschl. u. der Niederlande," 1878. - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xiv, 1879, pp. 33 + Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xiv, 1879, pp. 33 u. 72. - Woermann: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1894. + Woermann: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1894. Angelica Kauffmann: Giov. Gher. de Rossi: Vita di Angelica Kauffmann. Firenze, 1810. German by A. Weinhart, Bregenz, 1814. - J. E. Wessely in "Kunst und Kuenstler Deutschlands und der + J. E. Wessely in "Kunst und Künstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande," 1878. A. W. Grube: Angelika Kauffmann. Bregenz, 1889. - Wilh. Schram: Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann. Bruenn, 1890. + Wilh. Schram: Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann. Brünn, 1890. - Fr. A. Gerard: Angelica Kauffmann. London, 1892. + Fr. A. Gérard: Angelica Kauffmann. London, 1892. _See also_ F. Guhl: Die Frauen in der Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1858. Oeser: - Alphons Duerr: A. F. Oeser, Ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 - Jahrh. Leipzig, Duerr, 1879. + Alphons Dürr: A. F. Oeser, Ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 + Jahrh. Leipzig, Dürr, 1879. Carstens: - Karl Ludwig Fernow: Leben des Kuenstlers J. A. Carstens. Leipzig, 1806. + Karl Ludwig Fernow: Leben des Künstlers J. A. Carstens. Leipzig, 1806. Neuherausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. Hannover, 1867. - Hermann Grimm: Ausgewaehlte Essays zur Einfuehrung in das Studium der + Hermann Grimm: Ausgewählte Essays zur Einführung in das Studium der neueren Kunst. 2 Aufl. Berlin, 1883, p. 216. F. v. Alten: A. F. Carstens. Schleswig, 1865. - H. Grimm: Ueber Kuenstler und Kunstwerke, i. Berlin, 1865, pp. 73-95. + H. Grimm: Ueber Künstler und Kunstwerke, i. Berlin, 1865, pp. 73-95. - Schoene: Beitraege zur Lebensgeschichte des Malers Carstens. Leipzig, + Schöne: Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte des Malers Carstens. Leipzig, 1866. - Fr. Eggers: Vier Vortraege aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, + Fr. Eggers: Vier Vorträge aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1867, p. 1. - Carstens' Werke, in Kupferstichen von W. Mueller, herausgegeben von + Carstens' Werke, in Kupferstichen von W. Müller, herausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. Leipzig, Bd. 1, 1869; Bd. 2, 1874; Bd. 3, 1884. Jul. Lange: Nutids Kunst. Kopenhagen, 1873, pp. 1-15. Fr. Pauli: A. Carstens. Berlin, 1876. - Hermann Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortraege und Aufsaetze, p. 200, + Hermann Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze, p. 200, "Carstensiana." Braunschweig, 1877. - Alfr. Woltmann, from Vier Jahrhunderte niederlaendisch-deutscher + Alfr. Woltmann, from Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878, p. 169. - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. III Reihe. - Noerdlingen, 1881, p. 31 ff. + Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. III Reihe. + Nördlingen, 1881, p. 31 ff. August Sach: Asmus Jacob Carstens' Jugend und Lehrjahre nach urkundliche Quellen. Halle, 1881. D. Schnittgen: A. J. Carstens, "Christliches Kunstblatt," 1882, 12. - Hermann Luecke in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. + Hermann Lücke in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. -The Painter Mueller: +The Painter Müller: - C. Seuffert: Maler Mueller. Berlin, 1877. + C. Seuffert: Maler Müller. Berlin, 1877. Sauer in "Deutscher Nationallitteratur," Bd. 81. - Mueller's article against Carstens is in Schiller's Horen, 1797, iii + Müller's article against Carstens is in Schiller's Horen, 1797, iii 21, iv 4. Luise Seidler: @@ -14491,11 +14456,11 @@ Luise Seidler: aus handschriftliche Nachlass zusammengestellt und bearbeitet, 2 Auflage. Berlin, Hertz, 1876. -Waechter: +Wächter: Dav. Friedr. Strauss: Kleine Schriften. Leipzig, 1862, pp. 333-360. - A. Haakh: Beitraege aus Wuerttemberg zur neueren deutschen + A. Haakh: Beiträge aus Württemberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Stuttgart, 1863, pp. vii ff., 10 ff., 133 ff. Schick: @@ -14504,90 +14469,90 @@ Schick: Fr. Eggers: "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1858, pp. 129-137. - A. Haakh: Beitraege aus Wuertternberg zur neueren deutschen + A. Haakh: Beiträge aus Württernberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte, pp. xiv ff., 23-31, 59-312. - H. Kindt: Zu Gottlieb Schicks 100 jaehrigem Geburtstag. Gegenwart, + H. Kindt: Zu Gottlieb Schicks 100 jährigem Geburtstag. Gegenwart, 1879, 31. - Winterlin: Wuerttenbergische Kuenstler. Stuttgart, 1895. + Winterlin: Württenbergische Künstler. Stuttgart, 1895. Genelli: H. Riegel: Deutsche Kunststudien. Hannover, 1868, pp. 291 ff. - M. Jordan: Bonaventura Genelli, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," v + M. Jordan: Bonaventura Genelli, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," v pp. 1-19. - H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortraege und Aufsaetze. Braunschweig, + H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze. Braunschweig, 1877, pp. 148-170. L. v. Donop: Briefe von Bonaventura Genelli und Karl Rahl, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xii pp. 25 ii.; xiii pp. 115 ff. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xii pp. 25 ii.; xiii pp. 115 ff. Letters from Schwind to Genelli, do. xi p. 11. - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, II Reihe. - Noerdlingen, 1879, pp. 271-304. + Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, II Reihe. + Nördlingen, 1879, pp. 271-304. - A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemaeldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. + A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 9-40. - O. Berggruen: Die Gallerie Schack in Muenchen. Wien, 1883. Also in "Die - graph. Kuenste," iv, 1881, 1. + O. Berggruen: Die Gallerie Schack in München. Wien, 1883. Also in "Die + graph. Künste," iv, 1881, 1. O. Baisch: Einzelheiten aus Genellis Leben und Briefwechsel, - "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xviii pp. 257-262. + "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xviii pp. 257-262. CHAPTER IV French Art in General: - Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres francais au XIX siecle. Paris, + Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres français au XIX siècle. Paris, 1845. - Gustave Planche; Portraits d'artistes. Paris, 1853. + Gustave Planché; Portraits d'artistes. Paris, 1853. - Gustave Planche: Etudes sur l'ecole francaise, 1831-52. Paris, 1855. + Gustave Planché: Études sur l'école française, 1831-52. Paris, 1855. A. de la Forge: La Peinture contemporaine en France. Paris, 1856. - T Silvestre: Histoire des Artistes vivants francais et etrangers. + T Silvestre: Histoire des Artistes vivants français et étrangers. Paris, 1857. - Theodore Pelloquet: Dictionnaire de poche des Artistes contemporains. + Théodore Pelloquet: Dictionnaire de poche des Artistes contemporains. Paris, 1858. L. Laurent-Pichat: L'Art et les Artistes en France. Paris, 1859. - Moritz Hartmann; Bilder und Buesten. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1860. + Moritz Hartmann; Bilder und Büsten. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1860. Ch. Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861. Olivier Merson: La Peinture en France. Paris, 1861. - E. Chesneau: La Peinture Francaise au XIX siecle. Les Chefs d'Ecole, - L. David Gros, Gericault, Decamps, Meissonier, Ingres, H. Flandrin, E. + E. Chesneau: La Peinture Française au XIX siècle. Les Chefs d'École, + L. David Gros, Géricault, Decamps, Meissonier, Ingres, H. Flandrin, E. Delacroix. Paris, 1862. New Edition, Paris, 1883. - Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres de toutes les ecoles. Paris, + Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles. Paris, 1861-76. - L. Pfau: Franzoesische Maler und Bilder, in "Freie Studien." Stuttgart, + L. Pfau: Französische Maler und Bilder, in "Freie Studien." Stuttgart, 1866. Enlarged in "Kunst und Kritik," Bd. 1, pp. 115-444. Stuttgart, 1888. - Charles Clement: Etudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865. + Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865. Second Edition, 1867. - Julius Meyer: Geschichte der modernen franzoesischen Malerei seit 1789. + Julius Meyer: Geschichte der modernen französischen Malerei seit 1789. Leipzig, 1867. - Julius Meyer: Die franzoesische Malerei seit 1848, "Zeitschrift fuer + Julius Meyer: Die französische Malerei seit 1848, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," ii pp. 13, 32, 56, 119. Leipzig, 1867. - A. Bonnin: Etudes sur l'art contemporain. Les Ecoles francaises et - etrangeres en 1867. Paris, 1868. + A. Bonnin: Études sur l'art contemporain. Les Écoles françaises et + étrangères en 1867. Paris, 1868. P. G. Hamerton: Contemporary French Painters. London, 1868. @@ -14598,7 +14563,7 @@ French Art in General: W. B. Scott: Gems of French Art, with an Essay on the French School. Plates. London, 1871. - M. Chaumelin: L'Art contemporain. La Peinture a l'Exposition + M. Chaumelin: L'Art contemporain. La Peinture à l'Exposition universelle de 1867. Salon de 1868, 1869, 1870. Paris, 1873. Th. Gautier: Portraits contemporains. Paris, 1874. @@ -14606,33 +14571,33 @@ French Art in General: Pierre Petroz: L'Art et la critique en France depuis 1822. Paris, 1875. - L. Dussieux: Les Artistes francais a l'etranger. Paris, Lecoffre fils + L. Dussieux: Les Artistes français à l'étranger. Paris, Lecoffre fils et Cie, 1876. - R. Menard: French Artists of the Present Day. Notices of some + R. Ménard: French Artists of the Present Day. Notices of some Contemporary Painters. 12 engravings. London, 1876. Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876. - Jules Claretie: L'Art et les Artistes Francais contemporains, avec un - avant-propos sur le Salon de 1876. Paris, 1876. Deuxieme serie, Paris, + Jules Claretie: L'Art et les Artistes Français contemporains, avec un + avant-propos sur le Salon de 1876. Paris, 1876. Deuxième série, Paris, 1881. - Philippe Burty: Maitres et petits maitres. Paris, 1877. + Philippe Burty: Maîtres et petits maîtres. Paris, 1877. - Marquet de Vasselot: Recherches sur l'art francais. Architecture, + Marquet de Vasselot: Recherches sur l'art français. Architecture, Peinture, Sculpture. Paris, 1878. - Lucien Double: Promenade a travers deux siecles et quatorze salons. + Lucien Double: Promenade à travers deux siècles et quatorze salons. Paris, 1878. - G. Berger: L'ecole Francaise de Peinture. Paris, 1879. + G. Berger: L'école Française de Peinture. Paris, 1879. - Victor Champier: Les Beaux Arts en France et a l'Etranger. Paris, + Victor Champier: Les Beaux Arts en France et à l'Étranger. Paris, 1879. - E. Bellier de la Chavignerie et L. Auvray; Dictionnaire generale des - Artistes de l'Ecole Francaise. Paris, 1880. + E. Bellier de la Chavignerie et L. Auvray; Dictionnaire générale des + Artistes de l'École Française. Paris, 1880. Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et Statuaires Romantiques. Paris, 1880. @@ -14642,25 +14607,25 @@ French Art in General: Marquet de Vasselot: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, 1880. George Lafenestre: L'Art vivant, la Peinture et la Sculpture aux - Salons de 1868 a 1877. Paris, 1881. + Salons de 1868 à 1877. Paris, 1881. - E. Leclerq: Caracteres de l'Ecole francaise moderne de Peinture. + E. Leclerq: Caractères de l'École française moderne de Peinture. Paris, 1881. F. Gosselin: Histoire anecdotique des Salons de peinture depuis 1673. Paris, Dentu, 1881. - L. de Pesquidoux: L'Art au XIX siecle. L'Art dans les deux mondes, + L. de Pesquidoux: L'Art au XIX siècle. L'Art dans les deux mondes, Peinture et Sculpture. 2 vols. Paris, 1881. - Eugene Montrasier. Les artistes modernes: 1. Les peintres de genre; 2. + Eugène Montrasier. Les artistes modernes: 1. Les peintres de genre; 2. Les peintres militaires et les peintres de nu. 40 Biogr., 40 Tables. 2 vols. Paris, 1881. Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Kunst. 1 Abtheilung. Die franz. Kunst Leipzig, 1882. - H. Houssaye: L'Art francais depuis dix ans. Paris, 1882. + H. Houssaye: L'Art français depuis dix ans. Paris, 1882. Henri de Clenzion: L'Art national en France. Paris, 1882-83. @@ -14669,7 +14634,7 @@ French Art in General: Raf. Sinset et Jules d'Auriac: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, 1884. - V. Fournal: Les artistes contemporains francais, peintres, sculpteurs. + V. Fournal: Les artistes contemporains français, peintres, sculpteurs. With 176 Illustrations. Tours, Mame et fils, 1884. Jean Gigoux: Causeries sur les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1885. @@ -14678,33 +14643,33 @@ French Art in General: Victor d'Halle: Histoire de la peinture en France. Paris, 1886. - Paul Marmottan: L'ecole francaise de peinture (1789-1830). Paris, + Paul Marmottan: L'école française de peinture (1789-1830). Paris, 1886. J. Comyns Carr: Art in Provincial France. 1883. - Henri Jouin: Maitres contemporains. Paris, 1887. + Henri Jouin: Maîtres contemporains. Paris, 1887. - Charles Bigot: Peintres francais contemporains. Paris, 1888. + Charles Bigot: Peintres français contemporains. Paris, 1888. C. H. Stranahan: A History of French Painting. New York, 1888. - La peinture francaise a l'exposition centennaire de 1889. Ouvrage - publie sous la direction de Antonin Proust. Paris, 1890. + La peinture française à l'exposition centennaire de 1889. Ouvrage + publié sous la direction de Antonin Proust. Paris, 1890. - Les Chefs d'oeuvres de l'Art au XIX siecle. 5 vols. Paris, 1890 ff. + Les Chefs d'oeuvres de l'Art au XIX siècle. 5 vols. Paris, 1890 ff. - 1. L'ecole francaise de David a Delacroix, par Andre Michel. - 2. L'ecole francaise de Delacroix a H. Regnault, par Alfred de + 1. L'école française de David à Delacroix, par André Michel. + 2. L'école française de Delacroix à H. Regnault, par Alfred de Lostalot. - 3. La peinture francaise actuelle, par Paul Lefort. - 4. Les ecoles etrangeres aux XIX siecle, par Th. de Wyzewa. - 5. La Sculpture et la Gravure en France au XIX siecle, par Louis + 3. La peinture française actuelle, par Paul Lefort. + 4. Les écoles étrangères aux XIX siècle, par Th. de Wyzewa. + 5. La Sculpture et la Gravure en France au XIX siècle, par Louis Gonse. - Richard Muther, Ein Jahrhundert franzoesischer Malerei. Berlin, 1901. + Richard Muther, Ein Jahrhundert französischer Malerei. Berlin, 1901. - A. Julius Meier-Graefe: Der Entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst. + A. Julius Meier-Gräfe: Der Entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst. (With Illustrations and a volume of Plates.) Stuttgart, 1904. Periodicals specially to be noted: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," Paris, @@ -14714,27 +14679,27 @@ The Art of the Revolution Period: Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l'art pendant la revolution. Paris, 1863. - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la societe francaise pendant - la revolution. Paris, 1854. New Edition, 1889. + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la société française pendant + la révolution. Paris, 1854. New Edition, 1889. - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la societe francaise pendant + Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la société française pendant le Directoire. Paris, 1855. - Anton Springer: Die Kunst waehrend der franzoesischen Revolution, Bilder + Anton Springer: Die Kunst während der französischen Revolution, Bilder aus der neueren Kuntsgeschichte. Bonn, 1886. - Paul Marmottan: L'ecole francaise de peinture 1789-1850. Paris, 1886. + Paul Marmottan: L'école française de peinture 1789-1850. Paris, 1886. - Carl v. Luetzow: Die franzoesische Kunst vor 100 Jahren, "Zeitschrift - fuer bildende Kunst," xxiv, 1889, p. 181. + Carl v. Lützow: Die französische Kunst vor 100 Jahren, "Zeitschrift + für bildende Kunst," xxiv, 1889, p. 181. -Madame Vigee-Lebrun: +Madame Vigée-Lebrun: Her Autobiography: Souvenirs de ma vie. Paris, 1835-37. - Sophia Beale: Elisabeth Louise Vigee-Lebrun, "Portfolio," 1891, 89. + Sophia Beale: Elisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun, "Portfolio," 1891, 89. - Charles Pillet in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1892. + Charles Pillet in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1892. Vien: @@ -14746,21 +14711,21 @@ David: P. A. Coupin: Essai sur J. L. David. Paris, 1827. - E. J. Delecluze: Louis David. Paris, 1855. + E. J. Delécluze: Louis David. Paris, 1855. Jules David: Le peintre Louis David (1748-1825), souvenirs et - documents inedits. Paris, Havard, 1879. + documents inédits. Paris, Havard, 1879. - C. A. Regnet in "Kunst und Kuenstler Spaniens, Frankreichs, und + C. A. Regnet in "Kunst und Künstler Spaniens, Frankreichs, und Englands." Leipzig, 1880. - G. Nieter: Le peintre David, "Revue generale," March 1881. + G. Nieter: Le peintre David, "Revue générale," March 1881. "L'Art," 1889, ii p. 46. - C. Brun: Louis David und die franzoesische Revolution. Zuerich, 1886. + C. Brun: Louis David und die französische Revolution. Zürich, 1886. - Charles Normand in "Les artistes celebres." + Charles Normand in "Les artistes célèbres." L. Rosenthal: David. Paris, 1904. @@ -14769,7 +14734,7 @@ CHAPTER V The Parallel Movement in Literature: - Georg Brandes, Haupstroemungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts. Vol. + Georg Brandes, Haupströmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts. Vol. ii, Die deutsche romantische Schule. Leipzig, 1887. Georg Haim: Die romantische Schule. Berlin, 1871. @@ -14779,7 +14744,7 @@ The Parallel Movement in Literature: On the Nazarenes in General: - Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. + Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. Alfred Woltmann: Cornelius und seine Genossen in Rom. Aus Vier Jahrhunderte, etc. Berlin, 1878, pp. 208 ff. @@ -14789,7 +14754,7 @@ On the Nazarenes in General: Overbeck: - A. v. Zahn: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," vi, 1871, pp. 217-235. + A. v. Zahn: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," vi, 1871, pp. 217-235. J. R. Beavington-Atkinson, Overbeck (Great Artists). London, Low, 1882. @@ -14797,81 +14762,81 @@ Overbeck: Margaret Howitt: Friedrich Overbeck. Sein Leben u. Schaffen, etc. 1886. - Amongst minor works: J. N. Sepp: Friedrich Overbeck, Gedaechtnissrede. + Amongst minor works: J. N. Sepp: Friedrich Overbeck, Gedächtnissrede. Augsburg, 1869.--Franz Binder: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. - Muenchen, 1870.--H. Holland: Zu Friedrich Overbeck's Heimgang, - 1870.--G. Fr. v. Hertling: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Koeln, + München, 1870.--H. Holland: Zu Friedrich Overbeck's Heimgang, + 1870.--G. Fr. v. Hertling: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Köln, 1875. -Fuehrich: +Führich: Autobiography in the "Libussa." Prag, 1844. New Edition, Vienna, Sartori, 1876. - R. Zimmermann: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," vii, 1868, pp. 189, + R. Zimmermann: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," vii, 1868, pp. 189, 209. - F. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh., iii. Noerdlingen, 1881, pp. + F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh., iii. Nördlingen, 1881, pp. 64-108. - Lucas v. Fuehrich: "Graphische Kuenste," viii pp. 1-16, 25-64. Also + Lucas v. Führich: "Graphische Künste," viii pp. 1-16, 25-64. Also separate. - C. v. Luetzow, from Fuehrichs Nachlass, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende + C. v. Lützow, from Führichs Nachlass, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xvii, 1882, p. 33. - Die Fuehrich-Ausstellung in Frankfurt: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende + Die Führich-Ausstellung in Frankfurt: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1885, xx, Beiblatt, 32. - L. R. von Kurz: T. von Fuehrich. Graz, 1902. + L. R. von Kurz: T. von Führich. Graz, 1902. Veit: - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Kuenstler, und Kunstwerke; also in "Zeitschrift - fuer bildende Kunst," xv 2. + Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke; also in "Zeitschrift + für bildende Kunst," xv 2. Martin Spahn: Philipp Veit. (With 92 Illustrations.) Bielefeld, 1901. The Frescoes in the Casa Bartholdy: - L. v. Donop: Die Wandgemaelde der Casa Bartholdy in der + L. v. Donop: Die Wandgemälde der Casa Bartholdy in der Nationalgalerie. Berlin, 1888. Steinle: - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graph. Kuenste," iv. 3 and 4. + O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graph. Künste," iv. 3 and 4. Constantin v. Wurzbach: Ed. Steinle, ein Madonnenmaler unserer Zeit. Biographische Studie. Wien, 1879. - Veit Valentin: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 1 and 33. + Veit Valentin: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 1 and 33. - L. Christiani: Plaudereien ueber Kunstinteressen der Gegenwart. Berlin, + L. Christiani: Plaudereien über Kunstinteressen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1871. A. Reichensperger: Erinnerungen an Steinle. Frankfurt, 1887. - A. M. von Steinle: E. von Steinle und August Reichensperger. Koeln, + A. M. von Steinle: E. von Steinle und August Reichensperger. Köln, 1890. _Reproductions:_ - Ausgewaehlte Werke E. v. Steinles. Frankfurt, 1888. + Ausgewählte Werke E. v. Steinles. Frankfurt, 1888. Ed. Steinles Bilder zu Parcival. Frankfurt, 1884. Schnorr: - M. Jordan: Aus Julius Schnorrs Lehr-und Wanderjahren, "Zeitschrift fuer + M. Jordan: Aus Julius Schnorrs Lehr-und Wanderjahren, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1867, pp. 1 ff. - H. Riegel, "Kunstgeschichtliche Vortraege und Aufsaetze." Braunschweig, + H. Riegel, "Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze." Braunschweig, 1877, pp. 210-248. M. Jordan: Ausstellung von Werken Julius Schnorrs in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, 1878. - Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." + Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." Friedrich Haack in "Das 19 Jahrhundert in Bildnissen." Berlin. Photographische Gesellschaft, 1901. @@ -14885,17 +14850,17 @@ Schnorr: _Compare_ "Bibel in Bildern." Leipzig, 1852-62. Zeichnungen von Jul. Schnorr v. Carolsfeld, mit Einleitung von Jordan. - Leipzig, Duerr, 1878. + Leipzig, Dürr, 1878. CHAPTER VI The Art of Munich under King Ludwig I.: - Alfred Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlaendisch-deutscher + Alfred Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte." Berlin, 1878, pp. 260 ff. - Hans Reidelbach: Koenig Ludwig I und seine Kunstschoepfungen. Muenchen, + Hans Reidelbach: König Ludwig I und seine Kunstschöpfungen. München, 1888. Cornelius: @@ -14903,20 +14868,20 @@ Cornelius: Herm. Riegel: Cornelius, der Meister der deutschen Malerei. Hannover, 1866. - M. Carriere: Denkrede auf Cornelius. Leipzig, 1867. + M. Carrière: Denkrede auf Cornelius. Leipzig, 1867. - A. Teichlein: Betrachtungen ueber Riegels Buch, "Cornelius, der Meister - der deutschen Malerei," "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," ii. 1867, + A. Teichlein: Betrachtungen über Riegels Buch, "Cornelius, der Meister + der deutschen Malerei," "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," ii. 1867, pp. 128 ff., 189 ff. Alfred Frhr. v. Wolzogen: Peter v. Cornelius. Berlin, 1867. - Max Lohde: Gespraeche mit Cornelius, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," + Max Lohde: Gespräche mit Cornelius, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," III 1, 30, 84. 1868. - W. Luebke: Kunsthistorische Studien. Stuttgart, 1869. + W. Lübke: Kunsthistorische Studien. Stuttgart, 1869. - Ernst Foerster: Peter Cornelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und + Ernst Förster: Peter Cornelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und Wirken. 2 vols. Berlin, 1874. Herm. Grimm: Berlin und P. v. Cornelius (Die Cartons von P. v. @@ -14926,31 +14891,31 @@ Cornelius: V. Kaiser: Cornelius und Kaulbach in ihren Lieblingswerken. Basel, 1876. - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh., Bd. 1. Noerdlingen, 1877. + Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh., Bd. 1. Nördlingen, 1877. - A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlaendisch-deutscher Kunst." + A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunst." Berlin, 1878, pp. 208-259. Fr. Pecht: P. v. Cornelius. "Gartenlaube," 1879, 29. - M. Carriere in "Deutscher Plutarch," Bd. vii. Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1-56. + M. Carrière in "Deutscher Plutarch," Bd. vii. Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1-56. A. Rosenberg: Cornelius im Lichte der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1881, I. A. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, P. v. Cornelius, "Die graph. - Kuenste," 1881, 4, 2. + Künste," 1881, 4, 2. Rossmann: Briefe von Peter Cornelius. Grenzboten, 1882, 16. G. Portig: Die sixtinische Madonna und die Camposanto Cartons von Cornelius. Leipzig, 1882. - V. Valentin in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1883-85. + V. Valentin in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1883-85. - Herm. Riegel: Peter Cornelius, Festschrift zu des grossen Kuenstlers + Herm. Riegel: Peter Cornelius, Festschrift zu des grossen Künstlers 100 Geburtstage. Berlin, 1883. - Carl v. Luetzow: Zur Erinnerung an P. v. Cornelius, "Zeitschrift fuer + Carl v. Lützow: Zur Erinnerung an P. v. Cornelius, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 19, 1. Der 100 Geburtstag von Cornelius, "Allegemeine Zeitung," 1883, B. 130. @@ -14959,99 +14924,99 @@ Cornelius: H. Grimm: Cornelius betreffend, "Deutsche Rundschau," March 1884. - L. v. Urlichs: Beitraege zur Kunstgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885, p. 119. - Cornelius in Muenchen und Rom. + L. v. Urlichs: Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885, p. 119. + Cornelius in München und Rom. A. Frantz in "Kunst und Literatur." Berlin, 1888, pp. 1-60. Kaulbach: - Guido Goerres: Das Narrenhaus von W. Kaulbach. Muenchen. No date. + Guido Görres: Das Narrenhaus von W. Kaulbach. München. No date. - Max Schasler: Die Wandgemaelde Wilhelm von Kaulbachs im Treppenhause + Max Schasler: Die Wandgemälde Wilhelm von Kaulbachs im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin. Berlin, 1854. - W. v. Kaulbachs Shakespeare-Galerie, by M. Carriere. Berlin, 1856. + W. v. Kaulbachs Shakespeare-Galerie, by M. Carrière. Berlin, 1856. V. Kaiser: Kaulbachs Bilderkreis der Weltgeschichte. Berlin, 1879. Ed. Dobbert: Die monumentale Darstellung der Reformation durch - Rietschel und Kaulbach. "Sammlung gemeinverstaendlicher - wissenschaftlicher Vortraege," No. 74. Berlin, 1869. + Rietschel und Kaulbach. "Sammlung gemeinverständlicher + wissenschaftlicher Vorträge," No. 74. Berlin, 1869. - A. Teichlein: Zur Charakteristik W. v. Kaulbachs, "Zeitschrift fuer + A. Teichlein: Zur Charakteristik W. v. Kaulbachs, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xi, 1876, pp. 257-264. V. Kaiser: Macbeth und Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare's Dichtungen und in Kunstwerken von Cornelius und Kaulbach. Basel, Schweighauser, 1876. - A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlaendisch-deutscher + A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte." Berlin, 1878, pp. 288-316. - Fr. Pecht: "Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts," ii. Noerdlin gen, + Fr. Pecht: "Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts," ii. Nördlin gen, 1879, pp. 54-109. - Kaulbachs Wandgemaelde im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin, in + Kaulbachs Wandgemälde im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin, in Kupfer gestochen von G. Eilers, H. Merz, J. L. Raab, A. Schultheiss. - Mit erlaeuterndem Text herausgegeben unter den Auspicien des Meisters. + Mit erläuterndem Text herausgegeben unter den Auspicien des Meisters. Neue Ausgabe. Berlin, A. Duncker, 1879. - Hans Mueller: W. Kaulbach. Berlin, 1893. + Hans Müller: W. Kaulbach. Berlin, 1893. CHAPTER VII -The Duesseldorfers: +The Düsseldorfers: - W. Schadow: Gedanken ueber folgerichtige Ausbildung des Malers, + W. Schadow: Gedanken über folgerichtige Ausbildung des Malers, "Berliner Kunstblatt," 1828, pp. 264-273. - A. Fahne: Die Duesseldorfer Malerschule, 1835-36. Duesseldorf, 1837. + A. Fahne: Die Düsseldorfer Malerschule, 1835-36. Düsseldorf, 1837. - H. Puettmann: Die Duesseldorfer Malerschule und ihre Leistungen seit der + H. Püttmann: Die Düsseldorfer Malerschule und ihre Leistungen seit der Errichtung des Kunstvereins in Jahre 1829. Leipzig, 1839. - Fr. v. Uechtritz: Blicke in das Duesseldorfer Kuenst- und Kuenstlerleben. - Duesseldorf, 1839. + Fr. v. Uechtritz: Blicke in das Düsseldorfer Künst- und Künstlerleben. + Düsseldorf, 1839. - Wolfg. Mueller v. Koenigswinter: Duesseldorfer Kuenstler ans den letzten + Wolfg. Müller v. Königswinter: Düsseldorfer Künstler ans den letzten 25 Jahren. Leipzig, 1854. - W. v. Schadow: Der moderne Vasari, Erinnerungen aus dem Kuenstlerleben. + W. v. Schadow: Der moderne Vasari, Erinnerungen aus dem Künstlerleben. Berlin, 1854. - R. Wiegmann: Die koenigliche Kunstakademie zu Duesseldorf, ihre - Geschichte, Einrichtung und Wirksamkeit und die Duesseldorfer Kuenstler. - Duesseldorf, 1854. + R. Wiegmann: Die königliche Kunstakademie zu Düsseldorf, ihre + Geschichte, Einrichtung und Wirksamkeit und die Düsseldorfer Künstler. + Düsseldorf, 1854. - J. Huebner: Schadow und seine Schule, Festrede bei Enthuellung des - Schadowdenkmals zu Duesseldorf, 1869. Bonn, 1869. + J. Hübner: Schadow und seine Schule, Festrede bei Enthüllung des + Schadowdenkmals zu Düsseldorf, 1869. Bonn, 1869. - M. Blanckarts: Duesseldorfer Kuenstler, Nekrologe aus den letzten zehn + M. Blanckarts: Düsseldorfer Künstler, Nekrologe aus den letzten zehn Jahren. Stuttgart, 1877. - K. Woermann: Zur Geschichte der Duesseldorfer Kunstakademie. - Duesseldorf, 1880. + K. Woermann: Zur Geschichte der Düsseldorfer Kunstakademie. + Düsseldorf, 1880. - A. Rosenberg: Die Duesseldorfer Schule. Grenzboten, 1881, 1 1 ff. + A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. Grenzboten, 1881, 1 1 ff. - Mor. Blanckarts: Der Kuenstlerverein Malkasten in Duesseldorf, + Mor. Blanckarts: Der Künstlerverein Malkasten in Düsseldorf, "Allgemeine Kunstchronik," 1883, 47. - A. Rosenberg: Die Duesseldorfer Schule. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. + A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. - Schaarschmidt: Geschichte der Duesseldorfer Kunst, 1902. + Schaarschmidt: Geschichte der Düsseldorfer Kunst, 1902. Bendemann: - Die Ausstellung der Werke von E. Bendemann in der koenigliche + Die Ausstellung der Werke von E. Bendemann in der königliche Nationalgalerie v. 3 Nov. bis 15 Dez. 1890. Berlin, 1890. L. Bund: Ed. Bendemann, "Illustrirte Zeitung," 1881, 2014. -Huebner: +Hübner: - M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1883, 13. + M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1883, 13. Reumont, "Archiv. storico italiano," xi 2. @@ -15068,7 +15033,7 @@ CHAPTER VIII Rethel: - Wolfgang Mueller v. Koenigswinter: Alfred Rethel. Blaetter der + Wolfgang Müller v. Königswinter: Alfred Rethel. Blätter der Erinnerung. Leipzig, 1861. Friedr. Theodor Vischer: Altes und Neues. Drittes Heft. Stuttgart, @@ -15080,98 +15045,98 @@ Rethel: Veit Valentin: A. Rethel, eine Charakteristik, "Aesthet. Schriften I." Berlin, 1892. - Max Schmid: Bd. 32 der Kuenstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, + Max Schmid: Bd. 32 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898. Schwind: - L. v. Fuehrich: Moriz v. Schwind, Eine Lebensskizze. Leipzig, 1871. + L. v. Führich: Moriz v. Schwind, Eine Lebensskizze. Leipzig, 1871. - Ed. Ille: Dem Andenken M. Schwinds. Muenchen, 1871. + Ed. Ille: Dem Andenken M. Schwinds. München, 1871. - A. W. Mueller: M. v. Schwind. Eisenach, 1871. + A. W. Müller: M. v. Schwind. Eisenach, 1871. - Hermann Dalton: "Sechs Vortraege." St. Petersburg, 1872. + Hermann Dalton: "Sechs Vorträge." St. Petersburg, 1872. Ludwig Hevesi: M. Schwind. "Gegenwart," 1872. H. Holland: M. v. Schwind. Stuttgart, 1873. - A. v. Zahn: Zur Charakteristik M. v. Schwinds, "Zeitschrift fuer + A. v. Zahn: Zur Charakteristik M. v. Schwinds, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," vii 1873, p. 287. - F. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrh. Noerdlingen, 1877, i 195-231. + F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh. Nördlingen, 1877, i 195-231. - Bauernfeld: Moriz Schwind zum Gedaechtniss, "Nord und Sued," iii, 1877, + Bauernfeld: Moriz Schwind zum Gedächtniss, "Nord und Süd," iii, 1877, p. 353. - Bernh. Schaedel: Briefe von Moriz Schwind, "Nord und Sued," xiv, 1880, + Bernh. Schädel: Briefe von Moriz Schwind, "Nord und Süd," xiv, 1880, p. 23; xv, 1881, p. 357. - Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemaeldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 41-73. + Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 41-73. O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack. Wien, 1883. Mit Radirungen. - Alph. Duerr: Ein halbvergessenes Werk von Schwind (Wandmalereien in + Alph. Dürr: Ein halbvergessenes Werk von Schwind (Wandmalereien in Hohenschwangau) in der Festschrift zu Ehren Anton Springers. Leipzig, 1885, pp. 231-239. - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Kuenstler, und Kunstwerke. Leipzig, 1888. + Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke. Leipzig, 1888. - Briefwechsel zwischen Schwind u. Ed. Moerike, mitgeth. v. J. Baechtold. + Briefwechsel zwischen Schwind u. Ed. Mörike, mitgeth. v. J. Baechtold. Leipzig, 1890. H. W. Riehl: Studien und Charakteristiken. Stuttgart, 1891. - Friedrich Haack: Bd. 31 der Kuenstlermonographien von Knackfuss. + Friedrich Haack: Bd. 31 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898. Otto Grantoff, in "Muthers Sammlung Die Kunst." Berlin, 1903. Julius Naue: Worte u. Wirken v. M. von Schwind. (With a Portrait and 3 - Illustrations.) Muenchen, 1904. + Illustrations.) München, 1904. _Reproductions:_ - Aschenbroedel, Bildercyclus von M. v. Schwind. Holzschnittausgabe nach - den Theaterschen Stichen, mit Text von H. Luecke. 1873. + Aschenbrödel, Bildercyclus von M. v. Schwind. Holzschnittausgabe nach + den Theaterschen Stichen, mit Text von H. Lücke. 1873. - Die sieben Raben u. die schoene Melusine, zuletzt unter dem Titel - "Deutsche Maerchen" bei Neff in Stuttgart erschienen. + Die sieben Raben u. die schöne Melusine, zuletzt unter dem Titel + "Deutsche Märchen" bei Neff in Stuttgart erschienen. Operncyclus im Foyer des k. k. Opernhauses in Wien. 14 Compositionen - von Moritz Schwind. Mit Text von Ed. Hanslick. Muenchen, 1880. + von Moritz Schwind. Mit Text von Ed. Hanslick. München, 1880. - Almanach von Radirungen mit Erklaerungen. Text von Feuchtersleben. - Zuerich, 1844. + Almanach von Radirungen mit Erklärungen. Text von Feuchtersleben. + Zürich, 1844. - Schwinds Wandgemaelde in Hohenschwangau. 46 Compositionen nach den - Aquarellentwuerfen gestochen von J. Naue und K. Walde. Leipzig. + Schwinds Wandgemälde in Hohenschwangau. 46 Compositionen nach den + Aquarellentwürfen gestochen von J. Naue und K. Walde. Leipzig. - Schwind-Album. Muenchen, 1880. + Schwind-Album. München, 1880. CHAPTER IX -Gerard: +Gérard: - Charles Lenormant: Francois Gerard, peintre d'histoire. Essai de + Charles Lenormant: François Gérard, peintre d'histoire. Essai de biographie et de critique. Paris, 1847. - Adam: L'oeuvre du Baron Gerard. Paris, 1852-57. + Adam: L'oeuvre du Baron Gérard. Paris, 1852-57. - Correspondance de Francois Gerard, peintre d'histoire. Publiee par - Henri Gerard, son neveu, et precedee d'une Notice sur la vie de Gerard + Correspondance de François Gérard, peintre d'histoire. Publiée par + Henri Gérard, son neveu, et précédée d'une Notice sur la vie de Gérard par Adolphe Viollet le Duc. Paris, 1867. - Charles Ephrussi: Francois Gerard d'apres les lettres publiees par M. - le baron Gerard, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1890, ii 449. 1891, i 57, + Charles Ephrussi: François Gérard d'après les lettres publiées par M. + le baron Gérard, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1890, ii 449. 1891, i 57, 201. Prudhon (besides Jul. Meyer, Renouvier, and Rosenberg): Voiart: Notice historique sur la vie et les oeuvres de P. P. Prudhon, - peintre. Paris, 1824. Quatremere de Quincy: Notice lue a l'Institut, 2 + peintre. Paris, 1824. Quatremère de Quincy: Notice lue à l'Institut, 2 Octobre 1824. Eug. Delacroix: "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1857. @@ -15180,18 +15145,18 @@ Prudhon (besides Jul. Meyer, Renouvier, and Rosenberg): correspondance, first in 1867-68, then in "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1872, with 30 Illustrations. Paris, Didier & Co., 3rd Edition, 1880. - Edm. et J. de Goncourt: L'Art au XVIII siecle. Paris, 1875. New + Edm. et J. de Goncourt: L'Art au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1875. New Edition, 1882, vol. ii, p. 385. - Edm. de Goncourt: Catalogue raisonne de l'oeuvre peint, dessine et - grave de Prudhon. Paris, 1876. + Edm. de Goncourt: Catalogue raisonné de l'oeuvre peint, dessiné et + gravé de Prudhon. Paris, 1876. Ph. Burty: L'oeuvre de P. P. Prudhon, "L'Art," 1877, i p. 33. Alfred Sensier: Le Roman de Prudhon, "Revue internationale de l'Art et - de la Curiosite," 15 Dec. 1869. + de la Curiosité," 15 Dec. 1869. - Arsene Houssaye: Artiste, Janvier-Juin 1877. Article in "L'Art," 1877, + Arséne Houssaye: Artiste, Janvier-Juin 1877. Article in "L'Art," 1877, i p. 33. Charles Gueullette: Mlle. Constance Mayer et Prudhon, "Gazette des @@ -15199,11 +15164,11 @@ Prudhon (besides Jul. Meyer, Renouvier, and Rosenberg): Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres, vol. iii. - Aug. Schmarsow in "Kunst und Kuenstler der ersten Haelfte des 19 + Aug. Schmarsow in "Kunst und Künstler der ersten Hälfte des 19 Jahrhunderts," published by Robert Dohme, vol. ii. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. - Pierre Gauthiez: Prudhon in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1891. + Pierre Gauthiez: Prudhon in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1891. Almost all the works of Prudhon are photographed by Braun of Dornach. @@ -15215,21 +15180,21 @@ Gros (besides Charles Blanc, Jul. Meyer, and Rosenberg): J. Tripier le Franc: Histoire de la vie et de la mort du baron Gros, le grand peintre. Paris, 1880. - Eugene Delacroix: "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1848. Also in a separate + Eugène Delacroix: "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1848. Also in a separate reprint. - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'ecole. 3rd Edition, 1883, pp. 58-126. + Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'école. 3rd Edition, 1883, pp. 58-126. - On Gros' paintings in the Pantheon: Ph. de Chennevieres in the + On Gros' paintings in the Pantheon: Ph. de Chennevières in the "Gazette des Beaux Arts," xxiii pp. 168-174. G. Dargenty: Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de Gros, "L'Art," 1886, ii p. 121, and 1889, ii p. 100. - Richard Graul in "Kunst und Kuenstler der ersten Haelfte des 19 + Richard Graul in "Kunst und Künstler der ersten Hälfte des 19 Jahrhunderts," vol. 2. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. - G. Dargenty: Le baron Gros. Paris, 1887, in "Les artistes celebres." + G. Dargenty: Le baron Gros. Paris, 1887, in "Les artistes célèbres." The chief pictures of Gros are photographed by Braun of Dornach. @@ -15239,27 +15204,27 @@ CHAPTER X On the Parallel Movement in Literature: Georg Brandes: Die Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts in ihren - Hauptstroemungen, 2 Auflage Bd. 5. Leipzig, 1883. + Hauptströmungen, 2 Auflage Bd. 5. Leipzig, 1883. On the Romantic Movement in General: E. Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques (Huet, Boulanger, - Preault, Delacroix, Th. Rousseau, Millet, etc.). Paris, Charavay - freres, 1879. + Préault, Delacroix, Th. Rousseau, Millet, etc.). Paris, Charavay + frères, 1879. -Gericault: +Géricault: - Charles Blanc: Th. Gericault, 1845. + Charles Blanc: Th. Géricault, 1845. - Charles Clement: Th. Gericault, Etude biographique et critique, avec - le catalogue raisonne. Paris, 1868. New Edition, 1879. + Charles Clement: Th. Géricault, Étude biographique et critique, avec + le catalogue raisonné. Paris, 1868. New Edition, 1879. Delacroix: - E. Galichon: Les Peintures de M. E. Delacroix a Saint-Sulpice, + E. Galichon: Les Peintures de M. E. Delacroix à Saint-Sulpice, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," xi, 1861, p. 511. - Amedee Cantaloube: Eugene Delacroix, l'homme et l'artiste. Paris, + Amédée Cantaloube: Eugène Delacroix, l'homme et l'artiste. Paris, 1864. Henri de Cleurion: L'oeuvre de Delacroix. Paris, 1865. @@ -15268,47 +15233,47 @@ Delacroix: Adolphe Moreau: E. Delacroix et son oeuvre. Paris, 1873. - Lettres de E. Delacroix (1815-1863), recueillies et publiees par Phil. + Lettres de E. Delacroix (1815-1863), recueillies et publiées par Phil. Burty. Paris, Quantin, 1879. - Alfred Robaut: Peintures decoratives de E. Delacroix. Le Salon du roi + Alfred Robaut: Peintures décoratives de E. Delacroix. Le Salon du roi au Palais legislatif. Paris, A. Levy, 1879. - Alfred Robaut: Peintures decoratives de E. Delacroix, "L'Art," 1880, + Alfred Robaut: Peintures décoratives de E. Delacroix, "L'Art," 1880, 279. - M. Vachon: E. Delacroix a l'ecole des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885. + M. Vachon: E. Delacroix à l'école des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885. - Ph. Burty: Eugene Delacroix a Alger, "L'Art," 1880, 422. + Ph. Burty: Eugène Delacroix à Alger, "L'Art," 1880, 422. - Ernest Chesneau: Eugene Delacroix, "L'Art," 1882, 382. + Ernest Chesneau: Eugène Delacroix, "L'Art," 1882, 382. - Ernest Chesneau: L'oeuvre complet de E. Delacroix, commente par E. + Ernest Chesneau: L'oeuvre complet de E. Delacroix, commenté par E. Chesneau. Paris, 1885. - G. Dargenty: Eug. Delacroix par lui-meme. Paris, 1885. + G. Dargenty: Eug. Delacroix par lui-même. Paris, 1885. Henri Guet: L'oeuvre de E. Delacroix, "Le Salon" de 1885, etc. Paris, 1885. Maurice Tourneux: Eug. Delacroix, devant ses contemporains, ses - ecrits, ses biographes, ses critiques. Paris, 1886. (Bibliotheque - internationale de l'Art, Ser. II, vol. vi.) + écrits, ses biographes, ses critiques. Paris, 1886. (Bibliothèque + internationale de l'Art, Sér. II, vol. vi.) - Veron: Eugene Delacroix. Paris, 1887. + Véron: Eugène Delacroix. Paris, 1887. - _See_ Eugene Delacroix: Journal de E. D. (With Introductory Study, - etc., by M. Paul Flat and Rene Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, + _See_ Eugène Delacroix: Journal de E. D. (With Introductory Study, + etc., by M. Paul Flat and René Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, 1903. Ingres: - A. Magimel: Oeuvres de J. A. I., gravees par A. Reveil. [102 + A. Magimel: Oeuvres de J. A. I., gravées par A. Réveil. [102 Copperplates.] Paris, 1851. Charles Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861. - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'ecole. Paris, 1868, p. 253. + Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'école. Paris, 1868, p. 253. Henri Delaborde: Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux. Paris, 1870. @@ -15316,22 +15281,22 @@ Ingres: Amaury Duval: L'atelier d'Ingres. Souvenirs. Paris, 1878. - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes francais. Paris, 1878, p. 139. + Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français. Paris, 1878, p. 139. - R. Balze: Ingres, son ecole, son enseignement du dessin: avec des + R. Balze: Ingres, son école, son enseignement du dessin: avec des notes recueillies par P. et A. Flandrin, Lehman, Delaborde, etc. Paris, Pillet et Dumoulin, 1880. Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880, p. 259. - Eugene Montrosier; Peintres modernes: Ingres, H. Flandrin, Robert + Eugène Montrosier; Peintres modernes: Ingres, H. Flandrin, Robert Fleury. Paris, Baschet, 1883. - August Schmarsow in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." Leipzig, + August Schmarsow in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." Leipzig, 1886. - Jules Mommeja in "Les artistes celebres." + Jules Mommeja in "Les artistes célèbres." CHAPTER XI @@ -15340,7 +15305,7 @@ Ary Scheffer: Blanche de Saffray: Ary Scheffer. Paris, 1859. - Antoine Etex: Ary Scheffer, etude sur sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, + Antoine Etex: Ary Scheffer, étude sur sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, 1859. Miss Grote: Memoir of the Life of A. Scheffer. 2nd Edition. London, @@ -15353,7 +15318,7 @@ Ary Scheffer: Hofstede de Groot: Ary Scheffer, ein Charakterbild. Berlin, 1870. - M. E. Im-Thurn; Scheffer et Decamps. Nimes, 1876. + M. E. Im-Thurn; Scheffer et Decamps. Nîmes, 1876. Johannot: @@ -15367,29 +15332,29 @@ Flandrin: J. B. Poucet: Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1864. - A. Galimard: Examen des Peintures de l'Eglise de St. Germain des Pres. + A. Galimard: Examen des Peintures de l'Eglise de St. Germain des Prés. Paris, 1864. - Charles Clement: Etudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865, p. + Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865, p. 191. Anon.: Hippolyte Flandrin, A Christian Painter of the Nineteenth Century. London, 1875. - M. de Montrond: H. Flandrin, Etude biographique et historique. 3rd + M. de Montrond: H. Flandrin, Étude biographique et historique. 3rd Edition, with plates. Paris, Lefort, 1876. - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'ecole, p. 297. + Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'école, p. 297. Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 263. - Henri Delaborde: Lettres et pensees d'Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, + Henri Delaborde: Lettres et pensées d'Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1877. Eng. Montrosier: Peintres modernes; Ingres, Flandrin, Robert-Fleury. Paris, 1882. - Hermann Helferich: Etwas ueber franzoesische Neuidealisten, "Kunst fuer + Hermann Helferich: Etwas über französische Neuidealisten, "Kunst für Alle," 1892. Louis Flandrin: Hippolyte Flandrin, sa vie et son oeuvre, etc. Paris, @@ -15403,11 +15368,11 @@ Chenavard: Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 191. - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes francais, p. 299. + Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 299. - Th. Chasseriau: + Th. Chassériau: - Arthur Baignieres: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1886, i 209. + Arthur Baignières: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1886, i 209. Cogniet: @@ -15415,22 +15380,22 @@ Cogniet: Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1881, i 33. - Leon Bonnat: "Chronique des Arts," 1883, 8. Also separate. + Léon Bonnat: "Chronique des Arts," 1883, 8. Also separate. - Ernest Vinet: Leon Cogniet. Paris. Without date. + Ernest Vinet: Léon Cogniet. Paris. Without date. H. Delaborde: Notice sur la vie de L. Cogniet. Paris, 1881. -Deveria: +Devéria: - J. Guiffrey: Achille et Eugene Deveria, "L'Art," 1883, p. 422. + J. Guiffrey: Achille et Eugène Devéria, "L'Art," 1883, p. 422. Delaroche: Oeuvre de Paul Delaroche: reproduit en photographie par Bingham, - accompagne d'une Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godde. Paris, 1858. + accompagné d'une Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Goddé. Paris, 1858. - Henri Delaborde: Etudes sur les Beaux Arts, vol. ii. Paris, 1857. + Henri Delaborde: Études sur les Beaux Arts, vol. ii. Paris, 1857. Charles Blanc: P. Delaroche in "Histoire des peintres." @@ -15438,11 +15403,11 @@ Delaroche: J. Runtz-Rees: P. Delaroche. London, 1880. - Adolf Rosenberg in "Kunst und Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." + Adolf Rosenberg in "Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." Couture: - Methodes et Entretiens d'atelier, par Thomas Couture. Paris, 1868. + Méthodes et Entretiens d'atelier, par Thomas Couture. Paris, 1868. Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. 163. @@ -15453,7 +15418,7 @@ Couture: Paul Leroy: "L'Art," 1880, 298. Also separate. - Clara Biller: Zur Erinnerung an Thomas Couture, "Zeitschrift fuer + Clara Biller: Zur Erinnerung an Thomas Couture, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xvi, 1881, p. 101. H. C. Angel: Th. Couture, "American Art Review," 1881, 24. @@ -15467,29 +15432,29 @@ Cabanel: Bouguereau: - Artistes modernes. "Dictionnaire illustre des Beaux Arts." Paris, + Artistes modernes. "Dictionnaire illustré des Beaux Arts." Paris, 1885. Parts I-V. Baudry: - Emile Bergerat: Peintures decoratives de Paul Baudry au grand foyer de - l'Opera. Avec preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875. + Emile Bergerat: Peintures décoratives de Paul Baudry au grand foyer de + l'Opéra. Avec preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875. Edmond About: Paul Baudry, "L'Art," 1876, iv 169. Jules Claretie: L'art et les artistes contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. 49. - Edmond About: Peintures decoratives de Paul Baudry. Photogr. Goupil. + Edmond About: Peintures décoratives de Paul Baudry. Photogr. Goupil. Paris, 1876. - G. Berger: Les peintures de Paul Baudry dans le Foyer de l'Opera, + G. Berger: Les peintures de Paul Baudry dans le Foyer de l'Opéra, "Chronique des Arts," 1879. Charles Ephrussi: L'exposition des oeuvres de M. P. Baudry, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1882, ii 132. - G. Dargenty: Paul Baudry a propos de l'exposition de ses oeuvres a + G. Dargenty: Paul Baudry à propos de l'exposition de ses oeuvres à l'orangerie des Tuileries, "Courrier de l'Art," 28, 1883. Dubufe: Paul Baudry, "La nouvelle Revue," 15 Juli 1883. @@ -15501,7 +15466,7 @@ Baudry: Charles Ephrussi: Paul Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1887. - Richard Graul: Paul Baudry, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xxii, + Richard Graul: Paul Baudry, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xxii, 1887, pp. 1 and 65. A. Bonnin: Paul Baudry. Vannes, 1889. @@ -15520,24 +15485,24 @@ Regnault: H. Cazalis: Henri Regnault, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1871. - H. Bailliere: H. Regnault. Paris, 1871. + H. Baillière: H. Regnault. Paris, 1871. Arthur Duparc: Correspondence de Henri Regnault. Paris, 1873. Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876, p. 347. - Roger-Ballu: Le monument de Henri Regnault a l'ecole des Beaux Arts. + Roger-Ballu: Le monument de Henri Regnault à l'école des Beaux Arts. "L'Art," 1876, iii 176. Philip G. Hamerton: Modern Frenchmen, 5 biographies. London, 1878, p. 334. - A. Angelier: Etude sur Henri Regnault. Paris, Boulanger, 1879. + A. Angelier: Étude sur Henri Regnault. Paris, Boulanger, 1879. - Hermann Billung: Henri Regnault, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," + Hermann Billung: Henri Regnault, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1880, xv 93. "L'Art," 1886, ii 48. - Roger Marx: Henri Regnault, in "Les artistes celebres." Paris, 1886. + Roger Marx: Henri Regnault, in "Les artistes célèbres." Paris, 1886. Gustave Larroumet: Henri Regnault, 1848-1871. Paris, 1889. @@ -15547,29 +15512,29 @@ CHAPTER XIII The Historical School in Belgium: Principal work: Camille Lemonnier: Histoire des beaux-arts en - Belgique. Cinquante ans de liberte. Bruxelles, 1881, vol. iii. Neue + Belgique. Cinquante ans de liberté. Bruxelles, 1881, vol. iii. Neue Ausgabe. 1906. Likewise: Von Hasselt: La Belgique, in "L'Art moderne en Allemagne," iii. Paris, 1841. Felix Bogaerts: Esquisse d'une histoire des Arts en Belgique depuis - 1640 jusqu'a 1830. Anvers, 1841. + 1640 jusqu'à 1830. Anvers, 1841. - L. Pfau: Die zeitgenoessische Kunst in Belgien, "Freie Studien." + L. Pfau: Die zeitgenössische Kunst in Belgien, "Freie Studien." Stuttgart, 1866. F. Reber: Die belgische Malerei, "Deutsche Revue," vii, 1882, p. 219. "Patria Belgica," tome iii, Les Expositions de tableaux depuis 1830. Bruxelles, 1875. - Annuaire de l'Academie royale des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux Arts, + Annuaire de l'Académie royale des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux Arts, passim. - J. A. Wauters: La peinture flamande, 3 ed. Paris, Quantin, 1891. + J. A. Wauters: La peinture flamande, 3 éd. Paris, Quantin, 1891. Compare also the final chapter in Max Rooses' "Geschichte der - Malerschule Antwerpens," deutsch von Reber. 2 Ausgabe. Muenchen, 1889. + Malerschule Antwerpens," deutsch von Reber. 2 Ausgabe. München, 1889. M. J. van Bree: @@ -15592,15 +15557,15 @@ De Keyzer: Gallait: - A. Teichlein: L. Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland. Muenchen, + A. Teichlein: L. Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland. München, 1853. - Henne, Louis Gallait: Annales de l'Academie d'arch. de Belgique, 1890, + Henne, Louis Gallait: Annales de l'Académie d'arch. de Belgique, 1890, 4. - Nekrolog in "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1890. + Nekrolog in "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1890. -Biefve: +Bièfve: Obituary in "L'Art moderne," 7, 1881. @@ -15611,41 +15576,41 @@ CHAPTER XIV The Germans in Paris: - Edmond About: Voyage a travers l'exposition des Beaux Arts, 1855, p. + Edmond About: Voyage à travers l'exposition des Beaux Arts, 1855, p. 56. Feuerbach: - Ein Vermaechtniss von Anselm Feuerbach. 2 Auflage. Wien, 1885. 4 Aufl, + Ein Vermächtniss von Anselm Feuerbach. 2 Auflage. Wien, 1885. 4 Aufl, 1897. - Fr. Pecht: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," viii, 1873, p. 161. + Fr. Pecht: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," viii, 1873, p. 161. - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Noerdlingen, 1877, + Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1877, pp. 238-268. - Katalog der Ausstellung des Kuenstlerischen Nachlasses in der Berliner + Katalog der Ausstellung des Künstlerischen Nachlasses in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, mit Biographie von Max Jordan. Berlin, 1880. - Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemaeldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 93-116. + Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 93-116. - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack in Muenchen. Wien, 1883. Mit - Radirungen. (Also in "Graphische Kuenste," 1880, iii 1.) + O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack in München. Wien, 1883. Mit + Radirungen. (Also in "Graphische Künste," 1880, iii 1.) - A. Wolf: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xv Beiblatt, 15. + A. Wolf: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xv Beiblatt, 15. W. v. Seidlitz: A. Feuerbach, im 4 Heft der "Stichausgabe moderner Meister der Dresdener Galerie." - Marc Schuessler: Zum Gedaechtniss an A. Feuerbach. Nuernberg, 1880. + Marc Schüssler: Zum Gedächtniss an A. Feuerbach. Nürnberg, 1880. H. Grimm in "15 Essays," 3 Folge. Berlin, 1882, p. 337. - Feuerbachs Handzeichnungen. Muenchen, Hanfstaengl, 1888. + Feuerbachs Handzeichnungen. München, Hanfstängl, 1888. - Carl Neumann: A. Feuerbach, "Preussische Jahrbuecher," Bd. 62, 1888. + Carl Neumann: A. Feuerbach, "Preussische Jahrbücher," Bd. 62, 1888. - C. Allgeyer: A. Feuerbach, "Nord und Sued," 1888. + C. Allgeyer: A. Feuerbach, "Nord und Süd," 1888. Emil Hannover: A. Feuerbach, "Tilskueren." Copenhagen, 1890. @@ -15659,7 +15624,7 @@ The Berlin School since 1850: R. Henneberg: - H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortraege und Aufsaetze. Braunschweig, + H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze. Braunschweig, 1877, p. 367. Gustav Richter: @@ -15680,11 +15645,11 @@ Steffeck: Stuttgart, 1848. R. v. Eitelberger: Geschichte und Geschichtsmalerei, Mittheilungen des - oesterreichischen Museums, 1883, 208. + österreichischen Museums, 1883, 208. Lessing: - R. Redtenbacher: Erinnerungen an Carl Fr. Lessing, "Zeitschrift fuer + R. Redtenbacher: Erinnerungen an Carl Fr. Lessing, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xvi, 1881, p. 33. Piloty: @@ -15693,11 +15658,11 @@ Piloty: Karl Stieler: Die Pilotyschule. Berlin, 1881. - F. Pecht: "Kuenstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." III Reihe. Noerdlingen, 1881. + F. Pecht: "Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." III Reihe. Nördlingen, 1881. - C. A. Regnet: Muenchener Kuenstlerbiographien, Bd. 2. + C. A. Regnet: Münchener Künstlerbiographien, Bd. 2. - A. Rosenberg: Die Hauptstroemungen in der bildenden Kunst der + A. Rosenberg: Die Hauptströmungen in der bildenden Kunst der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1880. H. Helferich, Neue Kunst. Berlin, 1887. @@ -15708,8 +15673,8 @@ Makart: C. Landsteiner: H. Makart und Robert Hamerling. Wien, 1873. - C. v. Luetzow; Makarts Entwuerfe fuer den Wiener Festzug, "Zeitschrift - fuer bildende Kunst," 1879, 7. + C. v. Lützow; Makarts Entwürfe für den Wiener Festzug, "Zeitschrift + für bildende Kunst," 1879, 7. S. Feldmann: Hans Makarts neuestes Bild, "Die Gegenwart," 1881, 24. @@ -15718,23 +15683,23 @@ Makart: Makart-Album, in 10 Lieferungen, Holzschnitte, und Lichtdrucke, mit Text. Wien, Bondy, 1883. - H. Makart als Architekt. "Wochenblatt fuer Architekten," 1884, 89, 90. + H. Makart als Architekt. "Wochenblatt für Architekten," 1884, 89, 90. Mrs. Schuyler van Rensselaer: Hans Makart, "Portfolio," 1886, pp. 36-49. - Carl v. Luetzow: "Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst," xxi, 1886, pp. 181, + Carl v. Lützow: "Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst," xxi, 1886, pp. 181, 214. Robert Stiassny: H. Makart und seine bleibende Bedeutung, "Sammlung - kunstgewerblicher und kunsthistorischer Vortraege," Nr. 12. Leipzig, + kunstgewerblicher und kunsthistorischer Vorträge," Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886. Max: - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 225, 375. + Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 225, 375. - Agathon Klemt: "Graphische Kuenste," ix 1-12, 25-36. + Agathon Klemt: "Graphische Künste," ix 1-12, 25-36. J. Beavington-Atkinson: Gabriel Max, "Art Journal," 1881, 6. @@ -15748,16 +15713,16 @@ CHAPTER XV Gleyre: - Charles Clement: Gleyre; Etude biographique. Paris, 1878. + Charles Clement: Gleyre; Étude biographique. Paris, 1878. Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1875, i 233. - Fr. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Geneve, 1874 ("Bibliotheque universelle," + Fr. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Genève, 1874 ("Bibliothèque universelle," vol. 50). - E. Montegut: Ch. Gleyre, "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1878. + E. Montégut: Ch. Gleyre, "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1878. - Hofmeister: Das Leben des Kunstmalers Karl Gleyre. Zuerich, 1879. + Hofmeister: Das Leben des Kunstmalers Karl Gleyre. Zürich, 1879. Ch. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Lausanne, 1880. @@ -15767,23 +15732,23 @@ Hamon: Georges Lafenestre, "L'Art," 1875, i 394. -Gerome: +Gérôme: Charles Timbal: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1876, ii 228, 334. Leys: - Hermann Billung: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xv 333, 370. 1880. + Hermann Billung: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xv 333, 370. 1880. Ludwig Pfau: "Freie Studien," p. 262. Meissonier: - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'ecole, p. 241. + Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'école, p. 241. - Otto Muendler: "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," 1866. + Otto Mündler: "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," 1866. - Charles Clement: Etudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1869, p. + Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1869, p. 237. Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, pp. @@ -15803,15 +15768,15 @@ Meissonier: Lionel Robinson: J. L. E. Meissonier, his Life and Work. "Art Annual" for 1887. - Ch. Bigot: Peintres francais contemporains. Paris, 1888. + Ch. Bigot: Peintres français contemporains. Paris, 1888. L. Gonse: Meissonier, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1891, i 177. G. Larroumet: Meissonier. (Study followed by a Biography by Philippe Burty.) Paris, 1893. - Greard: Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Ses souvenirs--Ses entretiens. - (With a study of his life and work by M. O. Greard; with Plates and a + Gréard: Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Ses souvenirs--Ses entretiens. + (With a study of his life and work by M. O. Gréard; with Plates and a Catalogue of the artist's work.) Paris, 1897. E. Hubbard: Meissonier. New York, 1899. @@ -15820,13 +15785,13 @@ Meissonier: Menzel: - Bruno Meyer: Adolf Menzel, "Zeitschrift fuer bildende Kunst," xi, 1, + Bruno Meyer: Adolf Menzel, "Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst," xi, 1, 41. 1876. Alfred Woltmann: Das Preussenthum in der neueren Kunst, "Nord und - Sued," 1877, p. 109. + Süd," 1877, p. 109. - Ludwig Pietsch: A. Menzel, "Nord und Sued," 1879, p. 439. + Ludwig Pietsch: A. Menzel, "Nord und Süd," 1879, p. 439. Duranty: Adolphe Menzel, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1880, ii 105. @@ -15835,21 +15800,21 @@ Menzel: J. Beavington-Atkinson: Menzel's Illustrations to the Works of Frederick the Great, "Art Journal," November 1883. - L. Gonse: Illustrations d'Adolphe Menzel pour les oeuvres de Frederic + L. Gonse: Illustrations d'Adolphe Menzel pour les oeuvres de Frédéric le Grand, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1882, i 596. - Das Werk A. Menzels. Text by Jordan and Dohme. Muenchen, 1885, ff. + Das Werk A. Menzels. Text by Jordan and Dohme. München, 1885, ff. Cornelius Gurlitt: A. Menzel, "Die Kunst unserer Zeit," 1892. Sondermann: Adolph Menzel, Monographie. Magdeburg, 1896. - Knackfuss: Menzel. (With 141 Illustrations), Kuenstler Monographien, + Knackfuss: Menzel. (With 141 Illustrations), Künstler Monographien, vii. Bielefeld, 1895. H. von Tschudi: Das Werk Adolf Menzels. Berlin, 1905. - Julius Meyer-Graefe: Der junge Menzel. Stuttgart, 1906. + Julius Meyer-Gräfe: Der junge Menzel. Stuttgart, 1906. @@ -15863,361 +15828,4 @@ Menzel: End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 (of 4), by Richard Muther -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING, VOL I *** - -***** This file should be named 43792.txt or 43792.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43792/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Laszlo and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43792] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING, VOL I *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - -THE HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING - - -[Illustration: ANTON GRAFF PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST] - - - THE HISTORY OF - MODERN PAINTING - - - BY RICHARD MUTHER - PROFESSOR OF ART HISTORY - AT THE UNIVERSITY - OF BRESLAU - - - IN FOUR - VOLUMES - - [Illustration] - - VOLUME - ONE - - - - - REVISED EDITION - CONTINUED BY THE AUTHOR - TO THE END OF THE XIX CENTURY - - LONDON: PUBLISHED BY J. M. DENT & CO. - NEW YORK: E. P. DUTTON & CO. MCMVII - - - _Printed by_ - MORRISON & GIBB LIMITED - _Edinburgh_ - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix - -INTRODUCTION - - Old and new histories of art.--Seeming "restlessness" of the - nineteenth century.--To recognise "style" in modern art, and to - prove the logic of its evolution, the principles of judgment in the - old art-histories are also to be employed for the new.--The - question is, what new element the age brought into the history of - art, not what it borrowed eclectically from earlier ages 1 - -BOOK I - - THE LEGACY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY - -CHAPTER I - - COMMENCEMENT OF MODERN ART IN ENGLAND - - The commencement of modern art in England.--Two divisions of modern - art since the sixteenth century.--Classic and naturalistic - schools.--English succeed the Dutch in the seventeenth - century.--William Hogarth: his purpose and his inartistic - methods.--Sir Joshua Reynolds.--Thomas Gainsborough.--Comparison - between them.--Reynolds, an historical painter; Gainsborough, a - painter of landscape.--Pictures of Richard Wilson show the end of - classical landscape.--Those of Gainsborough, the beginning of - "paysage intime" 9 - -CHAPTER II - - THE HISTORICAL POSITION OF ART ON THE CONTINENT - - English influence upon the art of the Continent from the middle of - the eighteenth century.--Sturm-und-Drang period in - literature.--Rousseau.--Goethe's "Werther."--Schiller's - "Robbers."--Spain: Francis Goya, his pictures and - etchings.--France: Antoine Watteau frees himself from "baroque" - influences, and directs the tendency of French art towards the Low - Countries.--Pastel: Maurice Latour, Rosalba Carriera, - Liotard.--Society painters: Lancrat, Pater.--The decorative - painters: Franois Lemoine, Franois Boucher, Fragonard.--"Society" - turns virtuous.--Jean Greuze.--Middle-class society and its - depicter, Jean Baptiste Simon Chardin.--Germany: Lessing frees the - drama from the classical yoke of Boileau, and, following the - English, produces in "Minna" the first domestic tragedy.--Daniel - Chodowiecki as the portrayer of the German middle class.--Tischbein - goes back to the national past.--Posing disappears in portrait - painting.--Antoine Pesne.--Anton Graff.--Christian Lebrecht - Vogel.--Johann Edlinger.--The revival of landscape.--Rousseau's - influence.--English garden-style succeeds the French - style.--Disappearance of "nature choisie" in painting.--Hubert - Robert.--Joseph Vernet.--Salomon Gessner.--Ludwig Hess.--Philip - Hackert.--Johann Alexander Thiele.--Antonio Canale.--Bernardo - Canaletto.--Francesco Guardi.--Don Petro Rodriguez de Miranda.--Don - Mariano Ramon Sanchez.--The animal painters: Franois Casanova, - Jean Louis de Marne, Jean Baptiste Oudry, Johann Elias - Riedinger.--An event in the history of art: in place of the - prevailing Cinquecento and the "sublime style of painting" degraded - at the close of the seventeenth century, a simple and sincere art - succeeds throughout the whole of Europe.--Return to what Drer and - the Little Masters of the sixteenth century and the Dutch of the - seventeenth century originated 41 - -CHAPTER III - - THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN GERMANY - - The influence of the antique at the end of the eighteenth century - shows no advance, but an unnatural retrograde movement, and notes - in Germany the beginning of the same decadence which had happened - in Italy with the Bolognese, in France with Poussin, and in Holland - with Grard de Lairesse.--The teachings of Winckelmann, Anton - Rafael Mengs, Angelica Kauffmann.--The younger generation carries - out the classical programme in the value it sets upon technical - traditions.--Asmus Jacob Carstens.--Buonaventura Genelli 80 - -CHAPTER IV - - THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN FRANCE - - In France also the classical tendency in art was no new thing, but - a revival of the antique which was restored to life by the - foundation of the French Academy in Rome in 1663.--Influence of - archological studies.--Elizabeth Vige-Lebrun.--The Revolution - heightens the enthusiasm for the antique, and once more gives - Classicism an appearance of brilliant animation.--Jacques Louis - David.--His portraits and his pictures in relation to contemporary - history.--David as an archologist.--Jean Baptiste - Regnault.--Franois Andr Vincent.--Gurin 98 - - -BOOK II - - THE ESCAPE INTO THE PAST - -CHAPTER V - - THE NAZARENES - - Influence of literature.--Wackenroder.--Tieck.--The - Schlegels.--Instead of the antique, the Italian Quattrocento - appears as the model for the schools.--Frederick Overbeck.--Philip - Veit.--Joseph Fhrich.--Edward Steinle--Julius Schnorr von - Carolsfeld.--Their pictures and their drawings 117 - -CHAPTER VI - - THE ART OF MUNICH UNDER KING LUDWIG I - - Peter Cornelius.--Wilhelm Kaulbach.--Their importance and their - limitations 141 - -CHAPTER VII - - THE DSSELDORFERS - - On the Rhine, a school of painting instead of a school of - drawing.--Wilhelm Schadow, Carl Friedrich Lessing, Theodor - Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, Heinrich Mcke, Christian Koehler, H. - Plddemann, Eduard Bendemann, Theodor Mintrop, Friedrich Ittenbach, - Ernest Deger.--Why their pictures, despite technical merits, have - become antiquated 157 - -CHAPTER VIII - - THE LEGACY OF GERMAN ROMANTICISM - - Alfred Rethel and Moritz Schwind oppose the Roman with the German - tradition.--Their pictures and drawings 167 - -CHAPTER IX - - THE FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM IN FRANCE - - Last years of the David school wearisome and without character, - except in portrait painting.--Franois Grard, the "King of - Painters and Painter of Kings"; his portraits of the Empire and - Restoration periods.--Commencement of the revolt: Pierre Paul - Prudhon; his pictures and the story of his life; Constance - Mayer.--Revival of colouring.--Antoine Jean Gros and his pictures - of contemporary life; discrepancy between his teaching and his - practice 189 - -CHAPTER X - - THE GENERATION OF 1830 - - The revolt of the Romanticists against Classicism in literature and - art.--Thodore Gricault and his early works.--"The Raft of the - Medusa."--Eugne Delacroix: protest against the conventional, and - renewed importance of colour.--Delacroix's pictures; influence of - the East upon him.--His life and struggles.--The Classical - reaction.--J. A. D. Ingres and the opposition to Romanticism.--His - classical pictures.--Excellence of his portraits and drawings 219 - -CHAPTER XI - - JUSTE-MILIEU - - Moderation the watchword of Louis Philippe's reign, in politics, - literature, and art.--Jean Gigoux, a follower of Delacroix and an - inexorable realist.--Eugne Isabey.--Middle position occupied by - Ary Scheffer between the Classical and the Romantic schools; - decline of his popularity.--Hippolyte Flandrin, as a religious - painter a French counterpart to the Nazarenes.--Paul Chenavard, - compared to Cornelius.--Thodore Chassriau; his short and - brilliant career.--Lon Benouville.--Lon Cogniet and his - pictures.--Transition from the Romantic school to the historical - painters.--The great writers of history: renewed activity in this - field: historical tragedies and romances.--Art takes a similar - course: popularity and facility of historical painting.--Eugne - Devria; Camille Roqueplan.--Nicolaus Robert Fleury; Louis - Boulanger.--Paul Delaroche; his popularity and its causes; his - defects as a painter.--Delaroche's pictures.--Thomas Couture 255 - -CHAPTER XII - - THE POST-ROMANTIC GENERATION - - France under the Second Empire; the society of the period not - represented in French art.--Continuation of the old traditions - without essential change.--Alexandre Cabanel.--William - Bouguereau.--Jules Lefbure.--Henner.--Paul Baudry: his pictures; - decoration of the Grand Opera House.--lie Delaunay: his pictures, - decorative painting, and portraits.--The "Genre froce"; - predilection for the horrible in art.--Numerous painters of this - school.--Laurens.--Rochegrosse and his pictures.--Henri Regnault 278 - -CHAPTER XIII - - THE HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF PAINTING IN BELGIUM - - Belgium to 1830.--David and his school.--Navez, Matthias van - Bree.--Gustav Wappers, Nicaise de Keyzer, Henri Decaisne, Gallait, - Bifve.--Ernest Slingeneyer, Guffens and Swerts.--The Exhibition of - Belgian pictures in Germany 301 - -CHAPTER XIV - - THE REVOLUTION OF THE GERMAN COLOURISTS - - Anselm Feuerbach, Victor Mller.--The Berlin school: Rudolf - Henneberg, Gustav Richter, Knille, Schrader, and others.--The - Munich school: Piloty, Hans Makart, Gabriel Max.--The historical - painters and the end of the illustrative painting of history 317 - -CHAPTER XV - - THE VICTORY OVER PSEUDO-IDEALISM - - The Historical Picture of Manners as opposed to Historical - Painting, an advance in the direction of intimacy of feeling.--The - Antique Picture of Manners: Charles Gleyre, Louis Hamon, Grme, - Gustave Boulanger.--The Picture of Costume from the sixteenth and - seventeenth centuries.--France: Charles Comte, Alexander Hesse, - Camille Roqueplan.--Belgium: Alexander Markelbach, Florent - Willems.--Germany: L. v. Hagn, Gustav Spangenberg, Carl - Becker.--The importance of Hendrik Leys, Ernest Meissonier, and - Adolf Menzel as mediators between the past and ordinary life, - between the heroic art of the first half of the nineteenth century - and the intimate art of the second half 363 - -BIBLIOGRAPHY 391 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - -PLATES IN COLOUR - - - PAGE - ANTON GRAFF: Portrait of Himself _Frontispiece_ - REYNOLDS: Mrs. Siddons 20 - GAINSBOROUGH: The Sisters 38 - GREUZE: The Milkmaid 58 - CHARDIN: The House of Cards 64 - WATTEAU: Fte Champtre 74 - ANGELICA KAUFFMANN: Portrait of a Lady as a Vestal 86 - ELIZABETH VIGE-LEBRUN: Portrait of the Painter with her - Daughter 100 - CORNELIUS: "Let there be Light" 144 - SCHWIND: The Wedding Journey 182 - REGNAULT: General Prim 300 - MEISSONIER: A Cavalier 378 - - -IN BLACK AND WHITE - - BAUDRY, PAUL. - Portrait of Baudry 286 - Charlotte Corday 287 - Truth 288 - The Pearl and the Wave 289 - Cybele 290 - Leda 291 - Edmond About 292 - - BENDEMANN, EDUARD. - The Lament of the Jews 165 - - BIFVE, EDOUARD. - Portrait of Bifve 314 - The League of the Nobles of the Netherlands 315 - - BOUGUEREAU, WILLIAM ADOLPHE. - Brotherly Love 281 - - CABANEL, ALEXANDRE. - Portrait of Cabanel 279 - The Shulamite 280 - - CARSTENS, ASMUS JACOB. - Portrait of Himself 88 - Scylla and Charybdis 90 - Argo Leaving the Triton's Mere 91 - Children of the Night 92 - Priam and Achilles 93 - - CHARDIN, JEAN SIMON. - Portrait of Himself 63 - Grace before Meat 65 - - CHASSRIAU, THODORE. - Apollo and Daphne 259 - - CHODOWIECKI, DANIEL. - Portrait of Chodowiecki 66 - The Family Picture 67 - All Sorts and Conditions of Women 68, 69 - The Morning Compliment 70 - The Artist's Nursery 71 - - COGNIET, LON. - Tintoretto Painting his Dead Daughter 261 - The Massacre of the Innocents 263 - - CORNELIUS, PETER. - Portrait of Cornelius 143 - From the Frescoes in the Friedhofshalle, Berlin 145 - Marguerite in Prison 146 - The Apocalyptic Host 147 - The Fall of Troy 149 - - COUTURE, THOMAS. - Portrait of Couture 271 - The Love of Gold 273 - The Romans of the Decadence 275 - The Troubadour 277 - - DAVID, JACQUES LOUIS. - Portrait of David 102 - Madame Rcamier 103 - The Oath of the Horatii 105 - The Rape of the Sabines 107 - Helen and Paris 109 - Belisarius asking Alms 111 - The Death of Marat 113 - - DELACROIX, EUGNE. - Portrait of Delacroix 226 - Dante's Bark 227 - Hamlet and the Grave-diggers 230 - Tasso in the Mad-house 231 - Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople 233 - Jesus on Lake Gennesaret 235 - Horses Fighting in a Stable 237 - Medea 238 - The Expulsion of Heliodorus 239 - - DELAROCHE, PAUL. - Portrait of Delaroche 264 - The Assassination of the Duke of Guise 265 - The Princes in the Tower 267 - Strafford on his Way to Execution 269 - - DELAUNAY, LIE. - Diana 293 - Boys Singing 294 - Madame Toulmouche 295 - - FEUERBACH, ANSELM. - Portrait of Himself 318 - Hafiz at the Well 319 - Pieta 321 - Iphigenia 322 - Portrait of a Roman Lady 323 - Mother's Joy 325 - Medea 327 - Dante Walking with High--born Ladies of Ravenna 329 - - FHRICH, JOSEPH. - Portrait of Fhrich 126 - From the "Legend of St. Gwendolin" 127 - Ruth and Boaz 128 - The Departure of the Prodigal Son 129 - Jacob and Rachel 130 - - GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS. - Portrait of Gainsborough 34 - Mrs. Siddons 35 - Wood Scene, Village of Cornard, Suffolk 36 - The Market Cart 37 - The Duchess of Devonshire 38 - The Watering Place 39 - - GALLAIT, LOUIS. - Portrait of Gallait 312 - Egmont's Last Moments 313 - - GENELLI, BONAVENTURA. - The Embassy to Achilles 94 - Thetis lamenting the Fate of Hector 95 - Odysseus and the Sirens 96 - Portrait of Genelli 97 - - GRARD, FRANOIS. - Portrait of Grard 190 - Mlle. Brongniart 191 - Madame Visconti 192 - Cupid and Psyche 193 - Madame Rcamier 194 - - GRICAULT, THODORE. - Portrait of Gricault 221 - The Wounded Cuirassier 222 - Chasseur 223 - The Raft of the Medusa 224 - The Start 225 - - GRME, LON. - The Cock-fight 367 - - GESSNER, SALOMON. - Landscape 75 - Landscape 76 - - GOYA, FRANCISCO. - Portrait of Himself 42 - The Majas on the Balcony 43 - The Maja Clothed 44 - The Maja Nude 45 - De Que Mal Morira (from "Los Capriccios") 46 - Soplones (from "Los Capriccios") 47 - Se Repulen (from "Los Capriccios") 48 - Que Pico de Oro (from "Los Capriccios") 49 - Volaverunt (from "Los Capriccios") 50 - Quien lo Creyera (from "Los Capriccios") 51 - Linda Maestra (from "Los Capriccios") 52 - Devota Profesion (from "Los Capriccios") 53 - Otres Leyes por el Pueblo 54 - - GREUZE, JEAN BAPTISTE. - Portrait of Greuze 58 - Head of a Girl 59 - Girl carrying a Lamb 60 - Girl looking up 61 - Girl with an Apple 62 - - GROS, ANTOINE JEAN (BARON). - Saul 215 - Portrait of Gros 216 - The Battle of Eylau 217 - - GUARDI, FRANCESCO. - Venice 77 - - HAMON, LOUIS. - My Sister's not at Home 365 - - HENNEBERG, RUDOLF. - The Race for Fortune 330 - - HENNER, JEAN JACQUES. - Susanna and the Elders 284 - The Sleeper 285 - - HILDEBRANDT, THEODOR. - The Sons of Edward 161 - - HOGARTH, WILLIAM. - Portrait of Himself 12 - The Harlot's Progress (Plate VI.) 13 - The Rake's Progress (Plate II.) 14 - The Rake's Progress (Plate VII.) 15 - The Rake's Progress (Plate VIII.) 16 - Marriage la Mode (Plate V.) 17 - The Enraged Musician 18 - Gin Lane 19 - - INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE. - Portrait of Ingres 242 - The Maid of Orleans at Rheims 243 - Portrait of Himself as a Youth 244 - Bertin the Elder 245 - Study for the Odalisque in the Louvre 247 - The Source 248 - Oedipus and the Sphinx 249 - Paganini 251 - Mlle. de Montgolfier 252 - The Forestier Family 253 - - KAUFFMANN, ANGELICA. - Portrait of Herself 86 - - KAULBACH, WILHELM. - Portrait of Kaulbach 151 - The Deluge 152 - Prince Arthur and Hubert 153 - Marguerite 156 - - DE KEYZER. - Portrait of de Keyzer 308 - The Battle of Woeringen 309 - - LAURENS, JEAN PAUL. - The Interdict 298 - - LEFBURE, JULES. - Truth 283 - - LESSING, CARL FRIEDRICH. - The Sorrowing Royal Pair 164 - The Hussite Sermon 335 - - LEYS, HENDRIK. - Portrait of Leys 369 - A Family Festival 370 - The Armourer 371 - Mother and Child 372 - - LUMINAIS, EVARISTE. - Les nervs de Jumiges 297 - - MAKART, HANS. - Portrait of Makart 341 - The Espousals of Catterina Cornaro 343 - The Feast of Bacchus 345 - - MAX, GABRIEL. - Portrait of Max 347 - A Nun in the Cloister Garden 349 - The Lion's Bride 351 - Light 353 - The Spirit's Greeting 355 - Adagio 356 - A Winter's Tale 357 - Madonna 359 - - MAYER, CONSTANCE. - Portrait of Mayer 201 - The Dream of Happiness 202 - The Tomb of Prudhon and Constance Mayer at - Pre-Lachaise 203 - - MEISSONIER, ERNEST. - The Man at the Window 373 - A Man reading 374 - Reading the Manuscript 375 - Polcinello 376 - A Reading at Diderot's 377 - A Halt 378 - - MENGS, ANTON RAFAEL. - Portrait of Himself 84 - Mount Parnassus 85 - - MENZEL, ADOLF. - Portrait of Menzel, 1837 379 - Frederick the Great and his Tutor 380 - The Round Table at Sans-Souci 381 - Frederick the Great on a Journey 383 - Illustration to Kugler's History of Frederick the - Great 384 - Portrait of Frederick the Great 385 - Reifspiel 387 - When will Genius Awake? 388 - - OVERBECK, FREDERICK. - Portrait of Overbeck 118 - The Annunciation 119 - The Naming of St. John 120 - Christ Healing the Sick 121 - Christ's Entry into Jerusalem 122 - The Resurrection 123 - The Seven Lean Years 124 - Portrait of Himself and Cornelius 140 - - PESNE, ANTOINE. - Portrait of Himself and Daughters 72 - - PILOTY, CARL. - Portrait of Piloty 336 - Girdonists on the Road to the Guillotine 337 - Under the Arena 339 - - PRUDHON, PIERRE PAUL. - Portrait of Himself 195 - Joseph and Potiphar's Wife 196 - Study directs the Flight of Genius 197 - Le Coup de Patte du Chat 198 - Cupid and Psyche 199 - The Unfortunate Family 204 - The Rape of Psyche 205 - Le Midi 206 - La Nuit 207 - L'enjouir 208 - Marguerite 209 - Les Petits Dvideurs 210 - The Vintage 211 - The Virgin 212 - Christ Crucified 213 - Madame Copia 214 - - REGNAULT, HENRI. - Salome 299 - The Moorish Headsman 300 - - RETHEL, ALFRED. - The Emperor Otto at the Tomb of Charlemagne 169 - The Destruction of the Pagan Idols 170 - Hannibal's Passage over the Alps 171 - Death at the Masked Ball 172 - Death the Friend of Man 173 - - REYNOLDS, SIR JOSHUA. - Portrait of Himself 20 - Dr. Johnson 21 - Garrick as Abel Drugger 22 - Heads of Angels 23 - Samuel Richardson 24 - Miss Reynolds 25 - Edmund Burke 26 - Mrs. Abington 27 - Edmund Malone 28 - Oliver Goldsmith 29 - Lady Cockburn and her Daughters 30 - Bishop Percy 31 - The Girl with the Mousetrap 32 - Dr. Burney 33 - - RICHTER, GUSTAV. - Portrait of Himself 331 - A Gipsy 332 - - SCHEFFER, ARY. - Portrait of Scheffer 257 - Marguerite at the Well 258 - - SCHNORR VON CAROLSFIELD, JULIUS. - Portrait of Schnorr 125 - Adam and Eve after the Fall 125 - - SCHRADER, JULIUS. - Cromwell at Whitehall 333 - - SCHWIND, MORITZ. - Portrait of Schwind 175 - From the Wartburg Frescoes 176 - From the Wartburg Frescoes 177 - Wieland the Smith 178 - From the Story of the Seven Ravens 179 - A Hermit leading Horses to a Pool 181 - Nymphs and Stag 184 - Rbezahl 185 - The Fairies' Song 187 - - SLINGNEYER, ERNEST. - The Avenger 311 - - SOHN, CARL. - The two Leonoras 163 - The Rape of Hylas 166 - - STEINBRUCK, EDUARD. - Elves 162 - - STEINLE, EDUARD. - The Raising of Jarius' Daughter 131 - "I have trodden the Winepress alone" 132 - Portrait of Steinle 133 - Book Illustration 134 - The Violin Player 135 - - SYLVESTRE, JOSEPH NOL. - Locusta Testing in Nero's Presence the - Poison prepared for Britannicus 296 - - VEIT, PHILIP. - Portrait of Veit 136 - The Arts introduced into Germany by Christianity 137 - The two Marys at the Sepulchre 139 - - WAPPERS, GUSTAV. - Portrait of Wappers 303 - The Sacrifice of Burgomaster van der Werff - at the Siege of Leyden 305 - The Death of Columbus 307 - - WATTEAU, ANTOINE. - Portrait of Watteau 56 - La Partie Carre 57 - The Music Party 73 - The Return from the Chase 74 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -The historian who wishes to relate the history of painting in the -nineteenth century is confronted with quite other demands than await him -who undertakes the art of an earlier period. The greatest difficulty -with which the latter has to cope is the deficiency of sources. He -manifestly gropes in the dark with regard to the works of the masters as -well as to the circumstances of their lives. After he has searched -archives and libraries in order to collect his biographical material, -the real critical problem awaits him. Even amongst the admittedly -authentic works, those which are undated confront those whose chronology -is certain. To these must be added those nameless ones, as to whose -history there is a doubt; to these again, those whose origin is to be -ascertained. It needs a quick eye to separate the schools and groups, -and finally to recognise the notes which are peculiar to the master. - -With none of these difficulties is the historian of modern art -confronted. The painters of the nineteenth century have very seldom -forgotten to attach a name and date to their works, and the -circumstances of their lives are related with an accuracy that was, -earlier, rarely the lot of the foremost men in history. It is all the -more difficult, face to face with such a chaos of pictures, to discover -the spiritual bond which connects them all, to construct a building out -of the immense supply of accumulated bricks, the piled-up mass of rough -material. The evolution of modern painting is more complicated and -varied than that of the art of an earlier period, just as modern life -itself is more complicated and varied than that of any previous age. - -How quietly, slowly, and surely was the evolution of that older period -carried out. One simple proportion was maintained between art and the -universal life of culture. Customs, views of life and art, were so -intimately bound up together, that the knowledge of the age in general -naturally comprises that of art. Standing before some old altar-piece of -the school of Cologne, it is as though one were watching in some broad -high dome; everything is quiet all round, and the august figures in the -picture lead their calm, grave existence in illustrious grandeur. The -message of Christianity, "My kingdom is not of this world," meets in -art, too, with a clear expression. Humility and devotion are joined -together, making for a refinement in the feeling of life that is -unsurpassed in its hieratic tenderness and gracious innocence. In the -fifteenth century, the age of discoveries, a new spirit entered the -world. Commerce and navigation discovered new worlds, painting -discovered life. The human spirit grew freer and more joyous; it was no -longer satisfied with yearning for the other world alone, it felt itself -at home also in this world, in the glory of the earth. Pictures, too, -were inspired with some of those joyous perceptions with which the -citizens of the fifteenth century issued from their narrow walls out -under God's free heaven, something of that Easter Day mood in _Faust_. -People still went on painting Madonnas and saints, subjects of a -religion which had spread from the far East over the whole West; but -with the severe simplicity of the heavenly, there was universal -awakening of all the charm and roguery and energy of the earthly. It is -the first virginal contact of the spirit with nature. On men's works -there rests the first morning-dew of spiritual life; they remind one of -woodlands in spring: Botticelli, Van Eyck, Schongauer. - -After the Italians had become vigorous realists in the fifteenth -century, they rose in the sixteenth, the century of inspired humanism, -to majesty. The time of hard grappling with the overwhelming fulness of -actuality is over. Those great masterpieces ensue in which the -unlaboured effort shines forth in the most felicitous achievement: -Raphael, Michael Angelo, Titian. At the same time the German manner is -most directly opposed to the Romance. They disdain to ingratiate -themselves into men's minds by outward grace of form, but win the heart -by their deep religious feeling and intimate sensibility. They are -German to the core, racial even to the stiffness of the German -character, but full of feeling and truth to life. Drer in his woodcuts -and copper engravings is "_inwendig voller figur_"; in them he offers -the "concentrated, homely treasure of his heart." Holbein is great by -the incomparably real art of his portraits. The century of that joyous -revival of Paganism, the Olympian vivacity of the Renaissance, is -followed by the age to which the Jesuits gave life and character. For -those stately churches in the Jesuit style, with their _fortissimo_ -effect, their huge, sculptured ornaments and their gleaming, gold -decorations, the classic quietness of the old masters ceases to be -appropriate. It is a question of a more stirring and impressive -treatment of sacred subjects, wherein the whole passion of renewed -Catholicism should be brought to expression. Spain, the country of the -Inquisition, set the classic stamp on this enhanced religious feeling. -Here all that monarchical and sacerdotal impulse which founded and -aggrandised the Spanish nation, founded too its true representative in -painting. Painters endowed their church pictures with a passionate -fervour and a flush of extravagant sensuousness of the national, -Spanish, local colour, such as are found united in the art of no other -age or country. Necessarily, moreover, such a feudal system as that of -Spain, with its grandees and princes of the Church, involved also an art -of portrait painting which ranks with the highest that has issued in -this kind from any country whatever: Murillo, Velasquez. In Flanders, -the second stronghold of the Jesuits, we have the titan Rubens. A -joyously fleshly Fleming, he seizes nature by the throat and drags her -there where he stands erect, as though he were lord of the world. -Freedom had found its way into victorious and Protestant Holland. Here -there flourished an art neither courtly nor fostered by the Church. It -stood in the closest connection with the burgesses, showed clear signs -of the struggle through which country and people had won independence. -In the first place, painting celebrated as its worthiest subject the -free burgher, the tighter in the heroic struggle for freedom. At no time -was portrait-painting practised to such an extent, and the sitters not -aristocratic courtiers, but proud burgesses of a free community; the men -grave, strong, self-reliant; the women faithful, pure, and modest. The -workmanship is correspondent: simple, solid, domestic; and soon there -followed the glorification of that which they prized the more after -their struggles had been accomplished: the quiet, comfortable delight of -hearth and home. - -During the War of Independence the Dutch had learnt to love their -fatherland, and they were the first, as artists, fully to grasp the -poetry of landscape. Art now no longer shines only upon the eyes of Mary -and the Hosts of Heaven: it settles upon arid country hills, streams -upon the sea waves, is at home in peasants' houses and the dark woods, -wanders through the streets and alleys, makes a temple of every market. -The religious sentiments, however, which stirred Protestant Holland had -to find appropriate expression; the living essence of biblical subjects -was to be released from a narrow, ecclesiastical sphere, and approached -anew with all the deep, German inwardness. These tendencies were all -united in Rembrandt--perhaps of all masters, since the Christian era, -the mightiest proclaimer of the great Pan; to him the cosmic powers of -light and air signified the divinity that Michael Angelo had painted -under a beautiful human form. - -Finally, in the eighteenth century, comes _rococo_, with its rustling -_frou-frou_ and its delicate charm. The whole life of that noble -society, which exchanged court costume for silken pastoral garments, -formality and rank for charm and grace, was a lively play, an -extravagant game. The king played with his crown, the priest with his -religion, the philosopher with his wisdom, the poet with the art of -rhyme. They did not hear as yet the hoarse threatening voice of the -disinherited, "_Car tel est notre plaisir_." What this age possessed of -beauty and charm, its peculiar grace and wanton vivacity, its reckless, -inassailable frivolity, was proper also to its art. Light and gracious -as the whole life of that harmless, merry generation, it glided through -the age untroubled, led by Cupidons, and kissed by the wandering winds. -It is only to-day that we understand once more the charming masters of -that elegant century. - -The painters of every epoch looked at nature with their own eyes, and -also with the eyes of their age and of their country. So the art of -every period appears as "the mirror and abstract chronicle" of its age. -With irresistible majesty, and conscious of its inspiration, it lays -hold of the external world, and gives back to it its own picture -infinitely exalted. It is the enlightened expression of the age, as -upright, as fresh, as fanatic, or as unnatural as its generation. -Therein lies the strength of the painters of _rococo_, that they painted -the artificiality of the time with such unsurpassable naturalness. It is -just these infinitely various manners of paying court to -nature--unceasingly throughout the course of centuries, now violently, -now softly and tenderly, at times, too, not without passing -infidelity,--it is just these which determine the beauty and value, the -mystery and essence of art, and are in the history of art all that tends -to its variety and unsurpassable charm. - -The nineteenth century not only shows a new age, but probably begins a -new section of universal history. It is probable that in contrast with -this epoch of stirring movement, during which the readjustment of all -political and social relations, the new discoveries in the instruments -of commerce, trade, and industry have given an entirely new aspect to -the world, the next thousand years will sum up all the previous -centuries as the "old world." New men require a new art. One would be -inclined to surmise from this that the art of the nineteenth century -presented itself as something essentially personal, with a sharply -distinctive style. Instead of this it offers at first view, in contrast -with those old ages of uniform production, a condition like that of -Babylon. The nineteenth century has no style--the phrase that has been -so often quoted as to have become a commonplace. In architecture the -forms of all the past ages live again. The day before yesterday we built -Greek, yesterday Gothic; here _Baroque_, there Japanese: but amidst all -these products of imitative styles there rise up stations and -market-places which, with the robust elegance of their iron colonnades, -herald the greatness of fresh conquests. In the province of painting -there are similar extremes. In no other age have minds so diverse -flourished side by side as Carstens and Goya, Cornelius and Corot, -Ingres and Millet, Wiertz and Courbet, Rossetti and Manet. And the -existing histories excite a belief that the nineteenth century is a -chaos into which it is possible only for some later age to bring order. - -Perhaps, however, it is already quite possible, if one only resolves -uncompromisingly to apply to the new age those principles which have -been tested in the treatment of the _old_ histories of art, if one -endeavours to study those artists who are in part still our -contemporaries as objectively as though they were masters long dead. -That is to say: one is wont, in a review of an older period in art, not -to inquire what it had caught from an earlier age, but rather what it -had introduced that was new. It was not because they imitated in their -turn that the old masters became great; not because they looked -backwards, but rather because they went forwards, that they made the -history of art. We are not grateful, for instance, to the Dutchmen of -the middle of the sixteenth century--Frans Floris and his -contemporaries--that they forsook Dutch naturalism, and bootlessly -exerted themselves in the way of Michael Angelo and Raphael. We can see -no remarkable merit in the fact that the Bolognese at the beginning of -the seventeenth century gathered their honey from the flowers of the -Cinquecento. And we are even less inclined to see in the contemporaries -of Adrian van der Werff, who endeavoured to refine the rugged, primeval -Dutch art by the study of the Italians, more than clumsy imitators. - -Just as much will the interest of the historian of the art of the -nineteenth century be bestowed in the first degree upon the works which -have really created something independent and transcending all the -earlier ages. He will not give especial prominence to those domains -which had their flowering-time in other days than our own, but he will -ask: Where is that distinctive element which appertains to the -nineteenth century only? What are the new forms which it has found, the -new sentiments to which it has given expression? Not those whose -activity lay in clothing--however cleverly--the artistic necessities of -the age in the store of already transmitted forms, but the pathfinders, -who went forwards and created anew, require our attention. Even if, -after the old masters, they can only be granted a place in the third or -fourth class, they must nevertheless always take precedence of those -others, because they exhibited themselves as they were, instead of -making themselves large by standing on the shoulders of the dead. Many -of those who were once valued highly, who, thriving on the inheritance -of the past, accomplished what was apparently of importance, measured by -this standard will arouse little interest, because their artistic -speech, depending on a foundation of the established canonical works of -old, is not their own but borrowed. In others, on the contrary, who, -apart from the dominating tendency, had the courage rather to be -insignificant, and yet remain themselves, observing with their own eyes -nature which surrounded them, or navely abandoning themselves to the -disposition of their artistic fantasy, in them will be seen the -essential vehicles of the modern spirit. And then it will be apparent -that the art of the nineteenth century as well as that of every earlier -period had its peculiar garment, even if for official occasions it -preferred to unpack from its wardrobe the state costumes of earlier -ages. It is only because this distinction between the eclectic and the -personal, the derived and the independent, has not yet been carried out -with sufficient strictness, that it has hitherto, in my opinion, been -found so difficult to discover the distinctive _style_ of modern art, -and to make clear the logic and sequence of its evolution. - - - - -BOOK I - -THE LEGACY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY - - - - -CHAPTER I - -COMMENCEMENT OF MODERN ART IN ENGLAND - - -If the question arises, why modern art has been compelled to find -expression for itself in a form different from that of the art of the -earlier centuries, we must first call attention to the change that has -taken place in the fundamental conditions of society. Formerly, the -chief supporters of art were the two leading powers of Church and King. -The most noted works of Raphael and Michael Angelo, of Velasquez and -Murillo, of Rubens and Van Dyck, were executed either for the churches -or for the reigning princes of their country. The patron of modern art -is the citizen. The old culture of the clerics and aristocrats has been -superseded by that of the middle classes, and the beginnings of modern -art must therefore be sought in the country in which this class first -developed its distinctive character--in England. - -England, as early as the eighteenth century, was already a land of -citizens. At a time when there was to be found on the Continent acute -mockery of what was old and outworn, conjoined with the most -enthusiastic and joyous faith in the future, the great and wealthy -England had established herself in the van of the new age. Here Voltaire -saw with astonishment for the first time, when he arrived in London as -an exile at the age of thirty-two, the free, open life of a great -people; here he learnt to know a country where there is "much difference -of rank, but none that is not based on merit; where one could think -freely without being restrained by slavish terror." Here was the idea of -a modern free state already accomplished at a time when, upon the -Continent, the thunderclouds of the impending storm hardly cast their -first shadow. Here the notion of a united family life had first -developed, upon the foundation of a civil order and security. Here, -therefore, were first broken down those barriers around the territory of -literature and art within which the spirit of the Renaissance had raised -its wonderful flowers, and the road was begun along which the nineteenth -century should advance. - -Simultaneously with the growth of the middle classes there arose the -need for a domestic, practical literature. Books were required which -people could read by their fireside, in the seclusion of the family -circle, in country districts. For that, the stiff and antiquated poetry -of courtiers and academicians, which had hitherto been poured out upon -the world from France, was hardly suitable. - -To the cold Classicism represented by Pope, there succeeded in English -literature--far earlier than was the case elsewhere--the delineation of -what was immediately contemporary. At the same time that Mdlle. de -Scudry--when it was a question of describing the court of the Great -King, the society of Louis XIV--felt herself bound to translate her -theme into the antique and write a _Cyrus_, the English novel had taken -its motives from actual life. Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_ is the first -book in which man and nature are depicted without the introduction of -antique types or fairies; the first novel in which the details of real -life are displayed, and what had been hitherto neglected is granted an -exact delineation. At a time when people in other countries were -occupied with representations of the antique, the English novelists had -embarked on the intimacy of the family circle. After Richardson, who -laboriously yet with animation described everyday life, followed -Fielding, with his sharp observation, homely and humorous; then -Goldsmith, with his serene outlook of untroubled equanimity, his -unsurpassed miniatures; Smollett, with his crude and satirical character -sketching; and the audacious and witty Laurence Sterne, whom Nietzsche -has called the most "gallant" of all authors. At the same time tragedy, -too, descended from the court and the nobility into the sphere of -domestic life; showing that here too were significant fortunes and -conflicts, which stories strike a truer human note than those of kings -and heroes. - -Painting moved along the same road; and whilst in other countries, with -the beginning of the century, the high, aristocratic art, which was the -offspring of the Renaissance, gradually waned, the plebeian paintings of -Hogarth laid the foundations of that art which prevailed in the -_bourgeois_ nineteenth century. English art had this advantage in -playing a pioneering part, that it had no old traditions to stand in its -way; it had no great past. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -England had been content to offer hospitality to Holbein and Van Dyck, -and to collect the works of foreign masters in her galleries. Her art -sprang into existence suddenly and unexpectedly at the beginning of the -eighteenth century, and thence developed exclusively on native lines. -Since the English could not lean either upon an old or a foreign model, -nor enter into a round of subjects that had already been brought to -perfection, they turned from the outset quite naturally into the road -which was only to be trodden later by the other nations still in the -bondage of tradition. They took up, to a certain extent, the thread -which the Dutch, who appeared in the seventeenth century as the most -modern people in art, had let drop: the progressive ideas of Holland had -come over to England with the "glorious revolution," with William of -Orange and Queen Anne; whilst in Holland itself the French invasion of -1672 had caused a reaction to the courtly idea, against which the -English took up an attitude of conscious and rigid protest. This -opposition is clearly expressed by the English sthetic writers. - -The most important name to be mentioned is that of Shaftesbury. Beneath -the favour of the court in France, he says, art has suffered. We -Englishmen live in an age in which freedom has arisen. Such a people -does not require, in order that art may prosper, an ambitious king to -breed, by means of his pensions, a race of flattering Court painters. -Our civil liberty affords us a sufficient foundation, and our liberty -leads us to _absolute verity_ in art. - -Thus did Shaftesbury enunciate his leading sthetic doctrine; it was his -constant message, and it was constantly repeated with great emphasis: -"All beauty is truth." "The search after truth leads you to nature." -"Truth is the mightiest thing in the world, since it exercises sovereign -rights over the creations of the imagination." - -But what must art be in order to produce truth? "The strictest imitation -of nature." By this word Shaftesbury does not understand what we -understand by the word "nature"; not, in the first instance, so much the -nature surrounding us, in its outward manifestations, but, above all, an -intimate human reality. Let the painter represent the reality of human -_inwardness_. Still life, the animal world, landscape,--all that, -Shaftesbury explains, is most valuable. But another and a higher life -exists in man than in the beasts and the woods, and there is the true -object of art. In no case should the artist proceed from external -vision; for then he will obtain fashionable attitudes, theatrical -unreality, or, in the most favourable instance, a formal, decorative -embellishment. Of what value is that in comparison with a single real -presentation of character? How insignificant would every external form -seem in contrast to each single feature of this intimate manner! Here is -the second characteristic of English painting. It proceeds neither, like -that of the sixteenth century, from formulas, nor, like the Dutch, from -the picturesque, but, like to the English novel of character, from an -intellectual impulse; it strives not after beauty of form and physical, -sensuous grace, but, in the first place, after intellectual expression. - -And from this there follows immediately a third trait. If art is to make -the inwardness of man its subject, the artist cannot remain an -indifferent portrayer. He will make great distinctions, will bring into -prominence what is meritorious or censurable in every character--he will -become a moralist. Only so can he conform to that last and highest -function which Shaftesbury assigns to the painter. - -The liberty which the English nation had fought for in the "glorious -Revolution" brought forth, in the course of years, while Shaftesbury was -writing, a fruitful crop of dissoluteness and licence. The mortification -of the flesh of the Puritans was followed by so violent a recrudescence -of sensuality that it was as though the whole menagerie of the passions -had been unchained. London swarmed with criminals; drunkenness was an -epidemic. The moral idea awoke amongst the cultivated classes. Might it -not be possible, with the help of education, for that to be overcome? -And so Shaftesbury's view of art comprised a third, and very dangerous, -element; namely, that to fulfil the most serious mission of that culture -which had ensued from the free and natural conditions in England--even -in the realm of sthetics--the painter, like the poet, must appear as -the moral teacher of his age. Imagine an artist who fulfils these -conditions and you have, as a result, _Hogarth_, with all his qualities -and defects. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -What marks the greatness of Hogarth is his freedom from foreign and -ancient influences. The eighteenth century came in as an academic age in -art. Turning away from life, it spent itself in allegory and the -imitation of typical figures that had been inherited from the -Renaissance and petrified into academic work. Gods, in whom no one any -longer believed, hovered, at least in paint, over a race which was -without enthusiasm. Then came Hogarth, and his quick vision discovered -the new way. He looked out upon the life surrounding him, with its -manifold idiosyncrasies, and felt himself with pride to be the son of a -new age, in which rigid, conventional forms were everywhere penetrated -by the modern ideas of free thought, the rights of man, conformity to -nature in morals and manners. This world which confronted him he -depicted truly as it was, in all its beauty and its ugliness. With him -was the origin of modern art. Before his paintings and engravings pale -idealism disappeared. It was he who resolved and set out to bring into -the world a new and independent observation of life. He was a painter -who, with as little aid from foreign influences as from those of the -past, went his own way and kept to it, and devoted his art, unblemished -by the pallor of a borrowed ideal of beauty, soberly and exclusively to -the realities of surrounding life. - -"It seemed to me unlikely," writes he, "that by copying old compositions -I could acquire facility for those new designs which were my first and -greatest ambitions." Works of old Italian masters, artistic -contemplations, which went back to Raphael and the Caracci, were -ignored and ridiculed by him. His rude strength of painting, directed to -the living truth, was a protest against all that idealism which was the -heritage of the Renaissance, and had grown quite bombastic under the -hands of its imitators. Nature, he writes, is simple, plain, and true in -all her works; and with this principle he has founded a strong English -school on the solid foundation of truth to nature. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. THE HARLOT'S PROGRESS, PLATE VI.] - -An Englishman by birth, character, and disposition, he depicted his -fellow-countrymen; he made his sketches in the midst of the hubbub of -the street. His world is London, the world-city, "old merry England," -which, in contrast with the Puritanism of to-day, still lived through -its golden age of riot. In such a world--a world existing to this day, -only more decently berouged--moved Hogarth; in the company of -wine-bibbers, in gambling hells, in rooms of poets, in cellars of -highwaymen, in the death-chambers of fallen maidens. "The Harlot's -Progress," which he produced in a series of pictures, brought him his -first success. He then published further series of similar careers over -crooked courses--"The Rake's Progress," "Marriage la Mode." He painted -the rabble of London, their society and their morals; those who went in -cotton and rags and those in satin and silk. In his writings he censures -the old painters plainly because in their historical style they had -quite passed over the middle classes. And he went with great knowledge -to these new subjects. In the National Gallery, which possesses the -originals of "Marriage la Mode," one is astounded at the technical -qualities of Hogarth's painting. Whoever has been misled by the engraved -reproductions, and looks for bad, distorted drawing, may here learn to -know him as a painter in the fullest sense of the word. There is no sign -left of the defective caricature which disfigures the engravings; there -is a severe, unadorned manifestation of realism, of an art that has from -the outset rooted itself in modern life. Under the manners and graces of -the age Hogarth stands a "self-made" man, a healthy Anglo-Saxon -personality, full of sturdy independence and impeccable common sense. He -attracts by a sharpness of observation, a penetration into -idiosyncrasies of character, a grip upon the most trivial changes in -men's emotions and play of features, the like of which is to be found in -hardly one of his predecessors. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. THE RAKE'S PROGRESS, PLATE II.] - -Against these qualities it must be understood that an equal number of -defects is to be set off. The inartistic part of him was that he -followed the sthetic theories of the age, and looked upon art as merely -a means to ends alien to itself. With him painting was an instrument to -disseminate the inventions of his poetic-satiric humour; it was a form -of speech to him. He is not unjustly called on that account a comedian -of the pencil, the Molire of painting. We look at other pictures, but -his we read. The commentaries on them are in some respects the rendering -back of the pictures into their proper element. Lessing called the drama -his pulpit; with Hogarth his art was a pulpit. He wanted, like Hamlet, -to "hold the mirror up to nature, to show virtue her own feature, scorn -her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and -pressure." Pictures beneath his hands became moral sermons. - -In the six pictures in "The Harlot's Progress," with which he started in -1733, and which to-day, since the originals have perished, can be -considered only in the copper engravings after them, all these -attributes are recognisable. Mary Hackabout comes innocent from the -country to the town with the intention of seeking a situation as a -servant-girl. She speedily falls a victim to temptation, becomes the -mistress of a Jewish banker, whom she soon loses by her infidelity, -descends to be a thief, and comes to the work-house. Released from -there, she becomes the companion of a highwayman, until she ends her -pitiful life in a disorderly house, leaving behind her a poor crippled -boy, who, at his mother's funeral, is playing with a top. The conclusion -of the paintings shows how the other women bid farewell to the corpse, -and buoy themselves up for their coming pleasures by drinking from the -spirit bottle, which stands on the coffin, while the priest, who is come -to give the blessing, announces his visit for the evening. - -The second series, which is to be seen to-day in the Soane Museum, -describes in eight tableaux the somewhat similar life of a young man, -the "Rake." As an Oxford student he has promised marriage to a pretty -but poor girl, when suddenly the death of a wealthy uncle throws him -into the vortex of London life. He wishes to buy himself freedom from -his sweetheart, but she disdainfully refuses the money and supports -herself and her child honestly with the labour of her hands. The -seducer, winning fame in the world of women and sport, rapidly paces the -road to ruin; yet he repairs his finances once again by a marriage with -a rich and one-eyed old lady. Once more on his feet, he flings himself -into games of chance, and comes to the sponging-house, whither his -better half follows him. It is the last straw when a play which he has -offered to a manager is refused, and he can no longer buy himself a pint -of ale; there remains only the final fall into the misery of frenzy, and -in the last picture we find him amongst the lunatics bound in chains as -a madman. Only his student love, Sarah Young, of Oxford, whom he had -treated so scurvily, cannot forget him, and, with tears, seeks him out -again in the madhouse. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. THE RAKE'S PROGRESS, PLATE VII.] - -The third and most famous series was completed many years after the -"Rake"--in 1745. Hogarth has admittedly taken particular pains with the -six oil paintings of "Marriage la Mode," which have been placed in the -National Gallery; and these painted novels reveal in strength and beauty -of execution the high-water mark of his work as a painter. The whole is -quieter, simpler, less overloaded with ingenious accessories. The -impoverished lord has married his son, who is already worn out with -excesses, to the strong and healthy daughter of a city alderman. A girl -is born; then they go their separate ways. The husband surprises the -wife with a lover, and is stabbed by him; the unfaithful wife, moved by -this, begs her dying husband for forgiveness. As a young widow, deprived -of her woman's honour, she goes back to the _bourgeois_, Philistine -ennui of her father's house, and when she learns of her lover's -condemnation she escapes from the burden of her misery by means of -poison. The father is sufficiently provident to take the wedding ring -off her finger before the body is cold, lest it should be stolen from -the corpse. In the last sequence Hogarth passed over completely to the -moral sermon and the study of crime. The series "Industry and Idleness," -in 1747, was comprised in twelve sheets, which he produced only in rough -engravings, as he wished exclusively to influence the masses. Two -apprentices enter a cloth-weaving business at the same time, of whom one -rises, through his zeal for the interests of the business, to a marriage -with his master's beautiful daughter, to the rank of alderman, and -finally to be Lord Mayor of London. The idle apprentice grows, on the -down grade, from a gambler into a vagabond. He is transported, comes -back again, and ends on the scaffold. The two comrades meet for the last -time when the honest man announces his death-warrant to the knave. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. THE RAKE'S PROGRESS, PLATE VIII.] - -Garrick, as we can see from his epitaph on Hogarth, has not unjustly -characterised his art, in these words-- - - "Farewell, great painter of mankind! - Who reached the noblest point of art, - Whose pictured morals charm the mind, - And through the eye correct the heart." - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. MARRIAGE LA MODE, PLATE V.] - -Hogarth painted stirring and humorous scenes, full of effective -morality, with which he sought to cheer, terrify, and improve humanity. -His five-act tragedies end always with the triumph of Virtue and the -punishment of Vice. As one of his contemporaries said, he exercised the -art of "hanging in colours." The twelve plates of the parallel -biographies of "Industry and Idleness" he employed as an illustrated -weekly sermon for the benefit of the working classes, and he was able to -observe with satisfaction that they had an actual influence on the -conduct of the people, as instanced in the diminution of gin shops. Yet -for all that, in the elevation of public morality, the highest aim of -art is not, as Garrick asserted, fulfilled. Who has ever seen such a -painter? Would he be a painter? It is exactly by this moralising with -the brush that Hogarth stands in such abrupt opposition to his -predecessors, the Dutch. They were painters, nothing but painters, and -in their painting reckoned on eyes which could appreciate their -pictorial subtilty. Man was for them a patch of colour; the real delight -of their eyes was the rich light that came mellowed through the shadows, -and played upon the ruffed garments and the clumsy forms. With Hogarth, -in the place of the idea of colour, the anecdote is brought in. He saw -the world not so much with the eyes of the painter, as with those of the -physician, the criminologist, the pastor. The familiar element, that -serene and comfortable observation of an everyday occurrence upon which -Dutch art was based, has altogether disappeared in his pictures. He did -not paint because something pictorial urged him, but saw in men the -actors of the parts which he had in his mind. This departure from the -purely picturesque is in part explained by the predominance of -literature in England at that time. In a country where the tragedy of -familiar life as well as the domestic novel had arisen there was -imminent peril that a young school of painting working without -traditions should branch off also on to those lines. Hogarth desired to -give painting a new manner; he seized upon what was epic or dramatic, -and painted the pictorial counter parts to Smollett's and Richardson's -novels. In the age of enlightenment the painter makes way for the -writer. With this idea he himself wrote: "I have endeavoured to treat my -subjects as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, my men and women -my players, who, by means of certain actions and gestures, are to -exhibit a dumb show." - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. THE ENRAGED MUSICIAN.] - -Moreover, to explain the growth of this sort of literary hybrid, one is -forced to consider the changed conditions under which painting was -introduced into England at large. Art, which hitherto had shone forth -her enchantment upon the few, was conducted from the first in free -England along the broad road of popularity, and given over to a public -which had to be educated to art by degrees; and this admission of the -mass of the people to the enjoyment of art, in a proportion hitherto -unheard of, must inevitably have a retrogressive effect upon painting -itself. Instead of the earlier amateur of really distinguished culture, -there stood "the People." - -But just as in the Middle Ages works of art were seen to be a sort of -picture-writing for the people--_picturis eruditur populus_, said -Gregory the Great,--so now the new patrons could hardly require other -than those works of art in which a story was pictorially told. These -could be understood even by the man whose understanding was otherwise -wholly closed to matters of art; and hence it came about that almost all -the _genre_ painters--for very nearly a century--followed with more or -less intelligence in the footsteps of Hogarth. To treat him, as is -frequently done, because of this popularisation of art, because of this -transformation of the picture into the picture story, as a pattern -instance of tastelessness, would lead to very dangerous consequences, -and should be the less employed because Hogarth's pictures are, at -least, comparatively well painted, whereas many of his successors could -escape the deluge only in the Noah's Ark of their talent for narration. -What Hogarth could do when he put off the schoolmaster, he has shown -moreover in his portraits. There he is an entirely great painter. His -pictures have none of that Van Dyck elegance, which had become the mode -in England before him; they are robust, crude, Anglo-Saxon, strongly and -broadly painted withal, sketches, in the best sense of the word. His -"Shrimp Girl," in the National Gallery, for instance, is a masterpiece -to which the nineteenth century can hardly produce a rival. - -In the history of painting it is notorious that the latter half of the -last century belongs especially to portraiture, and here the English -occupy the first rank. Neither Hogarth nor Reynolds nor Gainsborough was -a genius like Titian, Velasquez, or even Frans Hals. Their art is not to -be compared with that of the greatest of all portrait painters, but they -surpassed all the painters of the eighteenth century; they were not only -the greatest in England since Van Dyck, but the first portrait painters -in Europe at the time. - -[Illustration: HOGARTH. GIN LANE.] - -Reynolds and Gainsborough lived almost at the same period. The former, -born in 1723, died in 1792; the latter, born in 1727, died in 1788. They -had as models men and women of the same society. They went the same -road, side by side. Many celebrities strayed from one studio to the -other, and were painted by Reynolds as well as by Gainsborough. These -are just the pictures which show us so distinctly how widely the two, -who were usually mentioned in the same breath, differed from each other -in spite of having grown up on the same soil. Even their outward man -displays this dissimilarity. - -Reynolds appears in his "Portrait of Himself" in the Uffizzi Gallery at -Florence, in the red mantle of the President of the Academy, the -official cap on his head, while the hand resting on the table holds a -copy of his _Discourses_; close by is a bust of Michael Angelo. The -complexion is that of a man who sits much within doors. A pair of -spectacles with large, round glasses leads one to conclude that he -injured his eyesight early with much reading. Gainsborough, with his -refined Roman nose, the haughty, curved sensuous lips, and the -expression of his face which speaks at once of innocence and refinement, -gives an impression far more than Reynolds of the child of nature and -the gentleman. His cheeks are fresh and rather ruddy; a depth of soul -lies within the large blue eyes, that are somewhat melancholy, yet have -such a free outlook upon life. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -_Joshua Reynolds'_ father was a clergyman, a most learned man, who kept -a Latin school. He gave the boy, it is recorded, that most uncommon -Christian name, for the remarkable reason that he hoped thereby to draw -the attention of a great personage, who bore the same name, towards his -young namesake. His son was to become a physician. But books on other -subjects which he read at his desk at school made a greater impression -on the boy. In the well known _Treatise on Painting_, by Richardson, he -discovered his vocation. From the perusal of this book he developed a -taste for things artistic, studied the works on perspective of Pater -Pozzo, read everything he could find on art, and copied as a preliminary -all that fell into his hands in the way of woodcuts and copper -engravings. One of the earliest drawings which remain from his childhood -represents the interior of a library. At the age of nineteen he came to -London to a well-known master, Hudson, the favourite painter with the -gentry of the day, who required 120 with a pupil. He was already -convinced that only in London could he find the means to attain fame, -and even as early as 1744 he took a fine establishment and kept open -house in order to attract attention. He was soon in a position to -complete his artistic education by means of residence in Italy. In 1746 -he had painted the portrait of a Captain Keppel, who shortly afterwards -was appointed Commodore of the Mediterranean squadron, and invited the -young painter to go for a cruise in his ship. They sailed in 1749, and -Reynolds was able to spend three years in Italy. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - REYNOLDS. MRS SIDDONS.] - -His first impression was one of bitter disappointment. Where was that -rich colouring in the Italian classics which he had been led to expect -from English mezzotints? Everything struck him as lifeless, pale, -insipid. Whereupon he affected the opinion that there was no more to -be seen in Rome. Raphael, in particular, appeared to him to be a -mediocre painter, whom only a remarkable chance had brought to such a -pitch of fame. Surrounded by the great masterpieces of the Cinquecento, -he employed himself in drawing caricatures, and made a sort of travesty -of the _School of Athens_, in which he drew caricatures of the English -colony in Rome at that time, in the attitudes of figures in the pictures -of Raphael. But he very speedily changed his opinion, and began to -follow the paths of the great dead. He went indefatigably through the -galleries of Rome, from Rubens to Titian, from Correggio to Guido and -Raphael. He studied so hard in the Vatican, that he took a chill in the -cold rooms, which left him all his life a little deaf. That sojourn at -Rome was to Reynolds what, a hundred years later, his visit to Spain was -to Lenbach. - -He had already at Hudson's acquired great facility as a copyist, and of -Guercino, in particular, he had made numerous copies. During this -Italian tour, however, he became the greatest connoisseur of old masters -that the eighteenth century possessed. - -It is related that the Chevalier Van Loo, when he was in England in -1763, vaunted himself one day, in Reynolds' presence, upon his unfailing -discrimination in telling a copy from an original. Whereupon Reynolds -showed him one of his own studies of a head, after Rembrandt. The -Chevalier judged it to be, indisputably, a masterpiece by the great -Dutchman. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. DR. JOHNSON] - -He left Rome in April 1752, and made a further visit to Naples, to the -cities of Tuscany, and to Venice. The careless notes of travel that he -made on this journey show the clear insight which he had attained into -the Italian schools. They all deal with questions of technique, on -effects of light and shadow, on the mystery of _chiaroscuro_. For -Titian, in particular, he had an extravagant devotion,--he would ruin -himself, he said, if he might only possess one of the great works of -Titian. - -When he returned to England in 1752, at the age of thirty, his talent -was fully developed, and the connoisseurs were unanimous in hailing him -as a new Van Dyck. With the portrait of Miss Gunning, afterwards the -Duchess of Hamilton, he appeared in 1753 as a power in English art. As -early as 1755, when Hogarth was compelled to give up portrait painting -for lack of patrons, one hundred and twenty-five persons sat for -Reynolds, and after that about one hundred and fifty people were painted -by him annually; and this brought him in a yearly income of about -16,000. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. GARRICK AS ABEL DRUGGER.] - -At first he took up his quarters in St. Martin's Lane, which was then -the most fashionable place of residence for artists; but in 1760 he -bought a house, No. 47 Leicester Square, the most select quarter of -London, and furnished it with the most palatial splendour. The studio, -which he built for himself, was as large as a ballroom, and furnished -with a quite modern luxury. The large corridor that led to it had a -gallery of pictures by old masters. It was the age of the great literary -and dramatic revival in England. Garrick stood at the zenith of his -popularity, Burke had already made himself a name, Johnson had produced -his _Dictionary_, Richardson had reached the summit of his fame, -Smollett had written _Peregrine Pickle_, Gray had attracted notice by -his verse. All these and others who set the vogue in literature and the -drama, the principal figures in politics, the leaders of fashion, -lounged in that luxurious studio and gossiped with Reynolds of the -theatre, both before and behind the scenes, of the doings in Parliament -and the scandal of the Court, of literature and of art. At the time when -Goldsmith was putting the finishing touches to his _Travels_ he was a -guest of the house. Gibbon, the historian, and Sterne, whose -_Sentimental Journey_ was just then the talk of the town, spent their -vacant hours with him; and Burke as well, while he discussed with him -his treatise on the _Sublime and the Beautiful_. All these claimed a -niche in Reynolds' portrait gallery, where all the talents were met -together. The whole English nobility also flocked to him. For forty -years onwards from 1752 it was considered the proper thing to be painted -by him. His pictures were multiplied immediately at the hands of the -engravers. In the complete catalogue of Reynolds' works, Hamilton -counts, so far back as 1820, no fewer than 675 plates, engraved after -Reynolds by more than a hundred artists, and amongst these the -mezzotints of Samuel Cousins are by far the finest. Only an incredible -industry, enabling him for a long succession of years to paint almost -without intermission with a facility and regularity like that of Rubens, -rendered it possible for Reynolds to complete, exclusive of portraits, -quite a number of religious and mythological pictures, of which he -himself was especially proud. He painted with great speed and dexterity, -rose very early, breakfasted at nine o'clock, was in his studio -punctually at ten; and there till eleven he worked on pictures which had -been commenced. On the stroke of eleven the first sitter arrived, who -was succeeded by another an hour later. Thus he painted till four -o'clock, when he made his toilette, and thenceforward belonged to -society, for in spite of his scholarly temperament one can by no means -consider Reynolds as a solitary eccentric. Although he remained a -bachelor after Angelica Kauffmann had declined his hand, his house was a -central gathering-point for noble London. He gave balls to which the -whole of "Society" was invited, and drove in a magnificent carriage, -with coachmen in blue and silver liveries. The Literary Club was founded -at his instigation, where with Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Gibbon, and -Garrick he shared in conversation both profound and brilliant. He was -made a baronet, and when the Royal Academy was founded in 1768, became -its first president. The dinners of the Academy, which he organised at -the distribution of prizes, play a part in the history of English -cookery. Reynolds had promised that on each of these reunions he would -speak on some question of art. In this manner originated, during his -twenty-three years of office, those fifteen discourses upon painting -which show the highest result of his literary energy. They were not his -maiden essays. As far back as 1758 Johnson had invited him to publish an -article upon Art in a journal which he had founded, _The Idler_. In 1781 -he made a journey through Holland and Flanders, upon which, anticipating -Fromentin, he wrote an exceedingly fine book. In his _Discourses_ so -high a degree of literary talent was displayed that they were at one -time said to be the work of Johnson or Burke. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. HEADS OF ANGELS.] - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. SAMUEL RICHARDSON.] - -They are sthetic treatises and essays in the history of art, of an -enduring value. Originating from a vast insight, and expressed in a -precise style, they treat of the laws of classic art, the variation in -styles, the causes of the finest bloom in art. Certainly eclecticism is -preached too. The modern artist, it is declared, can only stand on the -shoulders of his forebears. The great Italians must be his models, and -of these the greatest is Michael Angelo. His last essay closes with -these words: "I reflect, not without vanity, that these discourses bear -testimony of my admiration of that truly divine man, and I should desire -that the last words which I should pronounce in this Academy, and from -this place, might be the name of Michael Angelo." - -When he died, his friend Edmund Burke wrote in the funeral oration which -he dedicated to him: "Sir Joshua Reynolds was, on many accounts, one of -the most memorable men of his time. He was the first Englishman who -added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his -country. In taste, in grace, in facility, in happy invention, and in the -richness and harmony of colouring, he was equal to the greatest masters -of the renowned ages.... In full affluence of foreign and domestic fame, -admired by the expert in art and by the learned in science, courted by -the great, caressed by sovereign powers and celebrated by distinguished -poets, ... the loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, -general, and unmixed sorrow." He was buried with great pomp in St. -Paul's Cathedral. The pictures left unfinished at his death fetched at -auction 37,000; the whole fortune which he left is estimated at -80,000. - -The biography of _Thomas Gainsborough_ reads quite differently. - -The traveller who rides from London to Birmingham passes through some of -the fairest scenery in the island. He finds himself in the heart of -fresh and tender English nature. Small rivulets flow through the gently -undulating country. Wide meadows clothe the soft hollows in the valleys -with abundant green. In grassy enclosures deer and roes are feeding; -they push forwards inquisitively as the train passes. Fragrant linden -trees rise dreamily in the suave, park-like landscape, through which the -Stour winds along like a riband of silver. On the bank of this -enchanting stream Thomas Gainsborough, the son of a simple clothier, was -born. Reynolds' vocation had been brought about through the perusal of a -book. In the scenery and the woods that were in the neighbourhood of his -home, Gainsborough, who was so alive to all the beauty of nature, -received the decisive impression of his life. Here he roamed as a boy, -while he neglected his school lessons. "Tom will be hung some day," -reflected his schoolmaster; "Tom will be a genius," thought his parents. -He sketched the parks and castles of the neighbourhood. In his later -life he used to say that there was no picturesque old tree trunk, no -meadow or woodland glade or stream within a four-mile radius of Sudbury, -that he did not retain a recollection of from his childish years. Like -Constable, when he was an old man, he still thought with gratitude of -his home, of all that beauty upon which he had looked, and which had -made him a painter. Here, in the green woods and fresh pastures of his -birthplace, he trained himself. At the age of ten he was a painter. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. MISS REYNOLDS.] - -A sojourn of four years in London seems to have added little to his -ability. Elegant in his manners, lively in his conversation, a born -gentleman, he might have become completely the man of fashion. But he -was far too diffident, with his nave simplicity, to force himself -amongst the stars of the world of art in London, far too distinguished -and retiring to join in the race after the favour of the public, and so -at the age of eighteen he returned to his native place with the -unencouraging prospect of playing the part of a simple painter in the -provinces. First and last, the woods remained his chief delight. One -morning, as he was painting there, he looked up from his easel and saw a -young and beautiful girl in a light summer dress, peeping coquettishly -from behind the trunk of a tree. She blushed, he spoke to her shyly. -Soon afterwards Margaret Burr became his wife, and the whole history of -his life with her remains a charming idyll, like the spring morning on -which he made her acquaintance. Married at the age of nineteen, he -installed himself at Ipswich, his wife's native place, and there he -spent fifteen years in great happiness, firm in the conviction that he -would end his days there. There he painted his first portraits, which, -from 1761, were forwarded by a carrier's cart to London for exhibition -in the Royal Academy. From Ipswich he went to Bath, the fashionable -watering-place, where he painted the visitors who came in the summer for -the cure. Finally, in the end his portraits met with approval in London. -That gave him courage in 1764 to proceed thither himself; and there he -took very modest rooms. On his arrival he was as yet very little known; -he came from the provinces, which he had till then never left, at a time -when Reynolds stood at the pinnacle of his fame, and had visited Italy -and Spain. Yet he gradually won a reputation. Franklin was one of the -first to sit to him. Soon he became the favourite painter of the king -and the royal family. George III was painted eight times by him, Pitt -seven times, Garrick five. Lord Chancellor Camden, Sir William -Blackstone, Johnson, Laurence Sterne, Richardson, Burke, Sheridan, Mrs. -Graham, Lady Montagu, Mrs. Siddons, Lady Vernon, Lady Maynard, and the -names of many other celebrities and beauties are bound up with his. His -life-work, excluding sketches, consists of no more than three hundred -pictures, of which two hundred and twenty are portraits--a very small -number in comparison with the four thousand paintings of Joshua -Reynolds. Thomas Gainsborough painted irregularly. Even when he was in -his studio he might be seen standing for hours gazing out of his window -dreamily at the grass. In other features of his life too he was equally -different from Reynolds: unaccountably, he was one moment a brilliant, -animated companion, the next plunged in melancholy. He dreamed much, -while Reynolds painted and wrote. In the evenings he usually sat at home -with his dear little wife, completed no treatises or discourses on his -art, but made sketches or sometimes music. Reynolds was a -scholar-painter, Gainsborough a painter-musician. It was said of him -that he painted portraits for money and landscapes for amusement, but -that he made music because he needs must. He collected musical -instruments as Reynolds did a library. Even in his pictures he gives his -people, for preference, violins in their hands. To the Musical Club -which he had founded in Ipswich he remained faithful all his life, and -in that neighbourhood, or in Richmond or Hampstead, he spent the summer -every year. Here amidst that green nature it was also his wish to be -buried. His funeral was a very quiet one. In the peaceful graveyard at -Kew, Thomas Gainsborough sleeps tranquilly under the shady willows, far -from the noise and tumult of the great city. Sir Joshua said at his -grave: "Should England ever become so fruitful in talent that we can -venture to speak of an English school, then will Gainsborough's name be -handed down to posterity as one of the first." Yes, one might say -to-day, as the first of all. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. EDMUND BURKE.] - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. MRS. ABINGTON.] - -Joshua Reynolds is certainly a great painter, and deserves the high -veneration in which his compatriots hold him. It is not without a -certain awe that, in the Diploma Gallery of the Royal Academy, one can -look upon the armchair that he used during his sittings, upon which all -who were famous in eighteenth-century England have sat. Reynolds is one -of the greatest English portrait painters, and, resembling most the -classical masters, showed in the highest degree the qualities we admire -in them. His colouring is of an amazing softness, depth, and strength; -his _chiaroscuro_ is warm and vaporous. There are portraits by him -which, in the subtlety of their tone, resemble the best of Rembrandt's; -others, whose noble colouring approaches the _chef-d'oeuvres_ of Van -Dyck. Master of the whole mechanism of the human body, he possessed in -the highest degree the rare art of setting persons surely and -unconstrainedly on their feet. His portraits are pictures; one needs no -whit to be acquainted with the persons they represent; they satisfy as -works of art in themselves, and as psychological studies by a man who -had the capacity of sounding the depths of the human heart. The complete -catalogue of all those who sat for Sir Joshua during the space of half a -century forms an uninterrupted commentary on the contemporary history of -England. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. EDMUND MALONE.] - -There we see the skilful portrait of Sterne, with his look of witty -mockery; the marvellous Bohemian, Oliver Goldsmith, who even then had -the manuscript of his _Vicar of Wakefield_ in his pocket; Johnson, who, -in one, sits at his writing-table, on which stands an ink-pot and a -volume of his _English Dictionary_, and in another is peering into a -book with his short-sighted eyes screwed up tightly, and his whole -posture awkward and unwieldy. Garrick, who went from one studio to the -other, appears also more than once in Reynolds' portrait gallery. -Amongst his portraits of military dignitaries, that of General Lord -Heathfield, the famous defender of Gibraltar, whom he painted in full -uniform, is one of the most noticeable. Strong as a rock he stands -there, with the key of the fortress in his hand. What a contrast between -these figures and those of the contemporary French portraits! There, -those friendly and smiling ministers, those gallant and dainty -ecclesiastics, those scented, graceful marquises, who move with such -elegant ease about the parquet floor, and from whose faces a uniform -refinement has erased all the roughness of individuality; here, -expressive, thoughtful heads, characters hardened in the school of life, -many of the faces coarse and bloated, the glance telling of cold -resolution, the attitude full of self-reliant dignity and gnarled, -plebeian pride. The same _bourgeois_ element predominates in the -pictures of the ladies. Van Dyck's noble, eminently intellectual figures -always wore the glamour of the Renaissance. In the background an -artistically arranged curtain, a column, or the view of the quiet -avenues of some broad park. From Reynolds we get strong active women in -their everyday clothes, and with thoughtful countenances: good mothers, -surrounded by their children, whom they kiss and enfold in a tender -embrace. The idea of half-symbolical representation has vanished, and in -its place is introduced the idea of home and the family. The pictures of -children by this childless old bachelor were an artistic revelation to -the existing generation, and are the delight of the world of to-day. In -other portraits of ladies, that noticeable characteristic of the English -nation, their predilection for domestic animals and for sport, finds an -expression. The beautiful Duchess of Devonshire he painted as she gently -restrained with her finger her little daughter's caresses, which would -fain have disordered her _coiffure_; a whole gallery of noble ladies he -represented feeding their poultry or petting their lap-dogs; Lady -Spencer in her riding-habit, her whip in her hand, her horse reined in, -her cheeks flushed from her gallop. Nelly O'Brien looks an actress, a -woman who turned men's heads, and she does it still to-day in Reynolds' -picture. There lurks something enigmatic, perplexing in the smile of -this sphinx--only Monna Lisa had such a smile, but Nelly's eyes are -deeper, more desirous. One feels that in the three centuries since Monna -Lisa love has taken on a new and subtler _nuance_. The portrait of Mrs. -Siddons is the most famous of the pictures of actresses which Reynolds -painted, and Mrs. Siddons, of all the women of that time, is the one -whose portrait occupied the painters most. She was the daughter of Roger -Kemble, the actor, and sister of that pretty actress, Mrs. Twiss, whose -portrait by Reynolds (in 1784) we also have, and of the famous John -Philip Kemble, who figures so often in the portrait gallery of Lawrence, -as Hamlet, Cato, Coriolanus, Richard III, etc. Born to the boards, as it -were, she had, when still a child, joined her parents on their Thespian -pilgrimages, and had had many engagements in the provinces, at -Birmingham, Manchester, and Bath, before she was recruited by the -playwright Sheridan for the Drury Lane company in London. She made her -_dbut_ there on 10th October 1782, and was hailed forthwith as the -greatest actress of her time. Lady Macbeth was her great part; in that -she was painted both by Romney and Lawrence. Reynolds painted her as the -Tragic Muse. A diadem encircles her hair, she sits upon a throne, the -throne rests upon clouds. Behind her stand two allegorical beings, Crime -and Remorse, two quite unfortunate figures. But the principal figure is -truly great, in its noble, regal attitude, and quite unconstrained in -its dramatic pose. Reynolds had the composition in his mind many weeks -before Mrs. Siddons sat for him in the autumn of 1783. "Take your seat -upon the throne for which you were born, and suggest to me the idea of -the Tragic Muse." With these words he conducted her to the pedestal. "I -made a few steps," the actress relates, "and then took at once the -attitude in which the Tragic Muse has remained." When the picture was -finished, says Sir Joshua, gallant as ever: "I cannot lose this -opportunity of sending my name to posterity on the hem of your garment." -And he, who hardly ever signed his pictures, wrote in large characters -his name and the date on the gold-embroidered border of the dress. The -original picture has been in the possession of the Grosvenor family -since 1822; a second copy is in the gallery at Dulwich. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. OLIVER GOLDSMITH.] - -Reynolds loved to depict his sitters in mythological or historical -settings. Thus he painted Mrs. Hartley, her son as a nymph and the -youthful Bacchus, the three Misses Montgomery as the Three Graces -crowning a term of Hymen, a little girl sitting on the grass as the "Age -of Innocence," Lady Spencer as a gipsy telling her brother's fortune, -Mrs. Sheridan as St. Cecilia. The five "Heads of Angels," as they are -called, in the National Gallery, are five different studies of the -lovely child-head of little Isabella Gordon. Garrick, in one of his -pictures, is set between the allegorical figures of Tragedy and Comedy. -Reynolds himself was frankly proud of these portraits in the mood of -history. He was, as he said, in general only a portrait painter because -the world required it; that which he aspired after was the great manner -of historical painting. Nevertheless, pictures, such as the "Little -Hercules with the Serpent," "Cupid unfastening the Girdle of Venus," -"The Death of Dido," "The Forbearance of Scipio," "The Childhood of the -Prophet Samuel," or "The Adoration of the Shepherds," do not cause us to -deplore too bitterly that he rarely found time for such mythological and -historical pictures. His _putti_ are derived from Correggio; in the -arrangement of drapery he resembles Guido; in his "Venus" he is a -coarser Titian. Reynolds' own manner in these pictures is merely the -eclectic accumulation of the peculiarities of the old masters--he -brought no new element into historical painting. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. LADY COCKBURN AND HER DAUGHTERS.] - -And herein lies his principal weakness. Hogarth declared: "There is only -one school, that of nature." Reynolds: "There is only one doorway to the -school of nature, and of that the old masters hold the key." The great -men of old were for him the object of constant and conscious thought. He -has endeavoured in his writings to propound a sort of general foundation -of painting, has adopted the principles of the best painters in every -land, was indefatigable in exploring the secrets of the old -masterpieces, and has therefore won the praise of having set the English -school, which had hitherto possessed no perfected tradition of painting, -technically on firm feet. He was the founder of a scientific technique -of painting derived from the ancients,--the Lenbach of the eighteenth -century. Upon the mixture of colours, the gradations of light and shade, -technically and sthetically, no artist has pondered more than he, who -knew the great Netherlanders, Rubens, Van Dyck, and Rembrandt, as well -as, or better than, his particular favourites, the Italians. He made -experiments all his life long to discover the stone of the wise -Venetians; but he met with the same experience as Lenbach. And these -experiments in the direction of the colour effects of the old masters -were the bane of his pictures' durability. It was well said by Walpole: -"If Sir Joshua is content with his own blemished pictures, then he is -happier than their possessors, or posterity. According to my view, he -ought to be paid in annual instalments, and only so long as his works -last." And Haydon opined that "Reynolds sought by tricks to obtain -results which the old masters attained by the simplest means." He -endeavoured by means of asphaltum to give his pictures the artistic -tones of the galleries, with the result that, to-day, the majority have -lost every sign of freshness. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. BISHOP PERCY] - -With regard to the pose also, and similar conceptions, one can never -quite get away from the thought of Van Dyck and other old masters. -Reynolds' chief endeavour, not only as regards colouring, but also in -other respects, was to resemble the ancients, and this has brought into -his pictures something imitative and laboured. He dearly loved the -Romans and Venetians; we believe to-day that he loved almost too dearly -the Bolognese. And just that fine, artistic education which he received -in Italy and Holland, and the scientific method in which he practised -his art, did harm to Reynolds, and brought into his pictures too much -reminiscence, too many alien touches. He has in most cases understood -it--how to bring into uniformity the numerous borrowings of his palette, -all that he had taken from Leonardo, Correggio, Velasquez, and -Rembrandt. Yet he has never quite forgotten the old masters and looked -only at his model, for the sake of the very daintiest lady or the -freshest English boy. For his children he thought of Correggio's -"Cherubim," for his schoolboys of Murillo, for the portrait of Mrs. -Hartley of Leonardo da Vinci, for that of Mrs. Sheridan of Raphael. -There lacked in him that spontaneity which denotes the great master. By -his erudition in art, Sir Joshua elevated himself on the shoulders of -all who had preceded him. He obtained thereby the piquant effects in his -portraits, but it was at the price of the penalty that from many of his -works it is rather a rancid odour of oil and varnish which exhales than -the breath of life. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. THE GIRL WITH THE MOUSETRAP.] - -Gainsborough can certainly not be compared with Reynolds in the mass of -his work. He was master neither of his powers of industry nor of his -smooth and brilliant methods of painting that were always sure of their -effect. In many of his pictures he gives the impression of a self-taught -man, who sought to help himself to the best of his power. Just as little -has he the psychological acuteness of Reynolds. A portrait painter puts -no more into a head than he has in his own; thus the acute thinker, -Reynolds, was able to put a great deal into his heads, whilst -Gainsborough, the dreamer, was often enough quite helpless when he -confronted a conspicuously manly character. In his whole temperament a -painter of landscape, before his model too he sat as before a landscape, -with eyes that perceived but did not analyse. What, with Reynolds, was -sought out and understood, was felt by Gainsborough; and therefore the -former is always good and correct, while Gainsborough is unequal and -often faulty, but in his best pictures has a charm to which those of the -President of the Academy never attained. Gainsborough, too, at his death -murmured the name of an old master. "We are all going to Heaven, and Van -Dyck is of the company." But what distinguishes him from Reynolds, and -gives him a character of greater originality, is just his nave -independence of the ancients, which resulted partly from the different -nature of his education in art. Reynolds had lived for two years in Rome -and explored all the principal cities of Italy, had visited Flanders and -Holland, learnt to wonder at Rembrandt, and developed an enthusiasm for -_chiaroscuro_. Gainsborough in his rural seclusion had been able neither -by travel on the Continent to study the great masters of the past, nor -to assimilate the traditions of the studio. He contented himself with -the beauties which he saw in his native country, studied them in their -touching simplicity, without troubling himself about academic rules. He -lived in London until his death, without once leaving England; and that -gives to his pictures a distinct _nuance_. The one studied pictures and -books, the other only the "book of nature." His portraits never aim at -any external effect, nor are they raised into the historical; they seek -to give no other impression than that of a quite subjective truth to -nature, both in arrangement and in colouring. Nothing intruded between -his model and himself, no "sombre old master" obscured his canvas. His -execution is more personal, his colour fresher and more transparent. The -very personages seem with him to be more elegant, more gracious, more -modern than with Reynolds, in whose work, through their kinship to the -Renaissance, they received a suggestion of style, classical and ancient. - -In his pictures the Englishman is clearly revealed, an Englishman of -that delicacy and noble refinement which is present to a unique degree -in the works of English painters of the present day. - -[Illustration: REYNOLDS. DR. BURNEY.] - -The passage from Hogarth to Gainsborough marks a chapter in the history -of English culture. Hogarth is the embodiment of John Bull; you can hear -him growl, like some savage bull-dog. That brutal, indecorous robustness -of England's aggressive youth becomes, in Gainsborough's hands, -agreeable, refined, gentle, and seductive. Reynolds, with his robustness -as of the old masters, might be best compared with Tintoretto; -Gainsborough, in his quite modern and fantastic elegance, is a more -tender, subtle, and mysterious spirit, poet and magician at once, like -Watteau. There one listened to the full, swelling chords of the organ; -here to the soft, dulcet, silvery notes of the violin. Reynolds loved -warm, brown and red tones; Gainsborough essayed for the first time, in a -series of his happiest creations, that scale of colour, coldly green and -blue, in which to-day the majority of English pictures are still -painted. Everything with him is soft and clear; the tone of those blue -or light yellow silks, which he loved especially, is that of the most -transparent enamel; the background fades away into dreamy vapour, the -figures are surrounded with an atmosphere of seduction. What a -masterpiece he has created in the "Blue Boy," his most popular and most -individual picture. One can describe every piece of the clothing, but -it is impossible to reproduce the harmony of the painting, the rich, -pure blue of the costume, which stands out against a lustrous, brown -background of landscape. How the stately youth stands, noble from head -to foot, in the brown and green autumn landscape, with its canopy of -sky! Master Bootall was by far the most elegant portrait painted in -England since Van Dyck, and withal of a nervosity quite new. See that -youthful pride in the gaze, that mobile sensibility in the pose! - -[Illustration: THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH.] - -Have men grown different, then, or does the painter see further? One -finds in Van Dyck no such expressively _nervous_ physiognomy. The -suggestion of melancholy, the deep reverie, the noble, aristocratic -haughtiness,--Gainsborough was the first to discover that, and give it -its full expression. And the same man who painted the noble elegance of -this youthful _grand seigneur_ depicted also peasant children coming -fresh from the green fields and woodlands of their village homes. In Sir -Joshua's children there was often something borrowed from Correggio; the -children of Gainsborough breathe a rustic charm, an untamed savagery; -they are the very offshoots of nature, who disport themselves as freely -as the wild things in the woods. But his women in particular are -creatures altogether adorable. While Reynolds, the historical painter, -liked to promote his into heroines, those of Gainsborough, with their -pure, transparent skins, their sweet glances (in which there lies so -admirable a mixture of languishing fragility, innocence, and coquetry), -are the true Englishwomen of the eighteenth century. His "Mrs. Siddons" -is not in theatrical costume, but in a simple walking-dress; no Tragic -Muse, but the passionate, loving woman who once, a romantic, impulsive -miss, escaped from a convent at the risk of her life, to join a handsome -young actor of her father's troupe who had entirely fascinated her. What -a charming grace in the pose, what fine taste in the arrangement, what -wonderful purity of colouring! With the exception of Watteau, I know of -no older master who could have painted such moist, dreamy, sensuous, -tender eyes. The marvellous "Mrs. Graham," in the National Gallery of -Scotland, is, from the purely pictorial standpoint, perhaps the greatest -of all his works. Yet how beautiful is the double portrait of that young -married couple, the Halletts, who, tenderly holding hands, pass along a -deserted path in some secluded garden; or that pale, languishing "Mrs. -Parsons," with her enchanting smile, and that mysterious language of the -eyes. Gainsborough was no keen observer, but he was a susceptible, -sensitive spirit who intercepted the soul itself, the play of the -nerves, the slightest suggestion of spiritual commotion. There moves -through the majority of his portraits a pathetic tenderness, a breath of -dreamy melancholy, that the persons themselves hardly possessed, but -which he transfused into them out of himself. Melancholy is the veil -through which he saw things, as Reynolds saw them through the medium of -erudition. Reynolds was all will and intelligence, Gainsborough all soul -and temperament; and nothing can show the difference between them better -than the fact that Reynolds, who had formed his style on early models, -when he had no sitters painted historical pictures; whilst Gainsborough -in like circumstances painted landscapes. Herein he was a pioneer, -whilst Reynolds was an issue of the past. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. MRS. SIDDONS.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. WOOD SCENE, VILLAGE OF CORNARD, SUFFOLK.] - -In the domain of landscape painting, too, the new germs of naturalism, -which had ventured above ground on all sides in the fifteenth century, -had been again stunted in the Great Renaissance. The theory had been -promulgated in the sixteenth century--in accordance with the idealistic -methods of the age--that it behoved the painter to improve upon nature -just as much as upon the human body. With the lofty style of the great -figure painters, and their artfully pondered composition, there -corresponded a school of landscape which was likewise conceived of, in -the first degree, as an honourable, architectural framing for a -mythological episode. England too possessed, in _Richard Wilson_, a -believer in this doctrine, which became so widely promulgated in the -seventeenth century through the influence of Claude Lorraine. The home -of his soul was Italy. He scraped together a small sum of money by -portrait painting, borrowed the rest, and felt himself in his element -for the first time when he had reached Venice. Here, at the instance of -Zucarrelli, he became a painter of landscapes, and was aided in his -endeavours by Joseph Vernet in Rome. He was on the way to become a -painter in great request, and in many of his pictures he shows a most -delicate notion of well-balanced and gracious composition in the manner -of Claude. But his success was of no long duration. Wilson, like so many -other of his contemporaries, had the fixed idea that the Creator had -only made nature to serve as a framework for the "Grief of Niobe" and as -a vehicle for classical architecture. The interpolated stage scenery of -trees and the classic temples of this English Claude, contain nothing -which had not been already painted better by the Frenchman. When the -king, in order to assist him, asked him on one occasion to represent Kew -Gardens in a picture, he composed an entirely imaginary landscape and -illuminated it with the sun of Tivoli. The king sent him back the -picture, mordant epigrams appeared in the journals, and Reynolds scoffed -at him in his Discourses. After that Wilson spent his days in the -alehouse, until he got delirium, and died half starved at the age of -seventy. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. THE MARKET CART.] - -The patriotic English were too much bound up with their own soil to -acquire a taste for the exotic, ideal scenery of Wilson. There existed -in them that patriotism, that feeling for home, which had turned the -Dutch of the seventeenth century into landscape painters. In this -province also they were destined to step in, as the inheritors of the -Dutch, to bring the germ of intimate landscape to its full fruition. -Lovely and luxuriant valleys with their soft grass, sweet woodlands with -their vari-coloured foliage, golden, swaying cornfields and picturesque -little cottages, with that indescribable softness of atmosphere, must of -themselves direct the eye of the writer and the painter to all these -beauties. It was an Englishman who in the eighteenth century wrote the -most memorable book upon the charms of nature. James Thomson, in his -_Seasons_, is the first great nature painter amongst the poets. Taine -finds the whole of Rousseau anticipated in him. "Thirty years before -Rousseau, Thomson had forestalled all the sentiments of Rousseau, almost -in the same style." He has not only, like Rousseau, a profound feeling -for the great wild aspects of nature, for the forms of clouds, effects -of light and contrasts of colour, but he delights also in the smell of -the dairy, in small birds, in the woodland shadows, and the light on the -meadows,--in all things sequestered and idyllic. - - "Nature! great parent! whose unceasing hand - Rolls round the Seasons of the changeful year, - How mighty, how majestic are thy works! - With what a pleasing dread they swell the soul - That sees astonished and astonished sings." - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. THE DUCHESS OF DEVONSHIRE.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. THE SISTERS.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GAINSBOROUGH. THE WATERING PLACE.] - -It was a remarkable chance which ordained that Thomas Gainsborough, the -first man who as a painter depicted the gracious charms of the country -of his birth, the comeliness of its expanses of deep green lush meadows, -the strength of the lofty, wide-spreading trees, as seen with the eyes -of a lover, should be born in the spring of the same year in which -Thomson's _Spring_ appeared. That he knew and admired Thomson is proved -by his dedication to him of that delightful "Musidora" in the National -Gallery, a lovely woman bathing her feet in some shady forest pool. It -is said that he only sent half a dozen landscapes to the Academy during -the eighteen years that he exhibited there. On the other hand, they hung -in his house in Pall Mall in long rows on the walls of his studio. After -his death his widow held a sale, at which fifty-six landscapes were -sold. Gainsborough must be accounted one of the moderns, so nave and -intimate is the impression which his pictures produce. He, who passed -his whole youth in the idyllic loveliness of the woods, was fitted to be -the delineator of that mellow English nature. He understood the murmur -of the brooks and the sighing of the winds. Like his own life, so -regular and peaceful, gently swaying as though to the friendly -elements, are the trees in his pictures, with their peaceful -tranquillity; no storm disturbs the calm of a Gainsborough picture. His -was a contented, harmonious spirit, like Corot's. His landscapes know no -tempestuous grandeur; they are a playground for children, a place for -shepherds to rest. "The calm of mid day, the haze of twilight, the dew -and the pearls of morning," said Constable, "are what we find in the -pictures of this good, kindly, happy man.... As we look at them the -tears spring to our eyes, and we know not whence they come. The solitary -shepherd with his flock, the peasant returning from the wood with his -bundle of faggots, whispering woods and open dales, sweet little peasant -children with their pitchers in springtime,--that is what he loved to -paint and what he painted, with as much sought-out refinement as with -tender truth to nature." His landscapes are like windows opening on the -country, not compositions, but pieces taken straight out of that -fruitful English nature. Every year he used to return to his green -pastures, and paint very early, when the sun rose. Before him rose a -cluster of trees, all round the farm the flocks were grazing, thousands -of busy bees flew buzzing from flower to flower; goats, with their kids, -were feeding in the meadows, wild doves cooed, and the birds in the wood -sang their praises to the Creator. Thus do the landscapes of -Gainsborough affect us. They are soft and tender as some sweet melody in -their discreet intimacy, without colorist effects, as wonderfully -harmonious as nature herself. A thatched cot, that peeps timidly from -between the great trees, a silvery dale shut in by weeping willows, a -bridge leading to some lush, green meadow,--those are Gainsborough's -materials. The famous "Cottage Door" is now at Grosvenor House. A young -peasant woman, with her youngest child in her arms, is standing by the -door of a country cottage, before which her other children are playing, -some half naked; deep contentment is all around, huge old oaks spread -their sheltering branches over the roof on both sides; golden rays of -sunshine dance across the meadow. Only Frederick Walker has, in later -days, painted such peasant women and such children, at once so tender -and so natural. Of the four pictures in the National Gallery, "The Wood -Scene," "The Watering Place," "Market Carts," and "Peasant Children," -"The Watering Place" is the most celebrated. In the foreground a quiet -pasture with cows, close by the herdsman, a Suffolk labourer; in the -background a noble old Norman castle, perhaps Hedingham Castle, near -Sudbury. It is through pictures like these that England has become the -native-land of intimate landscape--_paysage intime_. - -As figure painters, as well as landscape painters, the English in the -eighteenth century laid a course of their own, and it was not long -before the other nations followed them. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -THE HISTORICAL POSITION OF ART ON THE CONTINENT - - -Goethe compared the history of knowledge with a great fugue: the parts -of the nations first come to light, little by little; and this analogy, -already once made by Hettner, holds true in a very high degree of the -history of art during the eighteenth century. The three great nations of -culture--the German, the English, and the French--take up their parts in -turn, and through all there sounds one common, equal, dominant note. -England was in the vanguard of that great period of struggle known as -the age of enlightenment. Since the middle of the eighteenth century -English influences had begun to fertilise the Continent. The truth and -naturalness of English ideas were introduced as models, and England -became in her whole culture the schoolmistress of the Continent. In -every region war was declared against the pedantry brought over from the -past, while new conditions were aimed at. Obviously it was not so easy -for other nations to take their stand on the basis of modern society. -England had accomplished her revolution in the seventeenth century; -France was only preparing herself for hers. For all other nations, too, -the eighteenth century was a transition period, in which the old and the -new civilisation of culture were parting--an age of prodigious -controversy, full of _Sturm und Drang_. Men did homage to every kind of -extravagance, and went into ecstasies over virtue. The sarcasm of -scoffers went hand in hand with the deepest sentimental feeling for -nature; superstition flourished by the side of enlightenment and -learning; in the _salons_ of the aristocracy courtly abbs file past -with the greatest thinkers, glowing with a holy zeal for the rights of -man. And, in the midst of all this contradiction, there exists that -simple, virtuous middle class which is preparing to make the ascent -which will lead it to power. - -One may imagine oneself in a salon of the _ancien rgime_, in which wit -is lord, and laughter and merriment reign. Into that salon enters -abruptly a rough plebeian, with none of the fine tact of that company, -yet a great, aristocratic spirit, a man who despised such a society and -would make the world anew. Such is one's impression of the effect -produced at the time by the appearance of Jean Jacques Rousseau. -Voltaire was the first on the Continent to break through social -barriers, but none the less he coined his heart for gold in society. -Rousseau signifies a great advance: he gave up his place, laid aside -rapier, silk stockings, and perruque, and clothed himself after the -manner of a common man in order to earn his bread as a copier of music. -He is, as Weigandt has called him, the first man of the _bourgeois_ -century, the first pioneer of the new age. Against the traditions -bequeathed by the past, which in the course of time had become -over-refined and corrupt, he set up the natural conditions demanded by -reason. His fight against inequalities of rank is, as it were, a -foretaste of the revolution. "What hellish monsters are these -prejudices. I know no dishonourable inferiority other than that of -character or education. A man who is trained to an honourable mind is -the equal of the world; there is no rank in which he would not be in his -place. It is better to look down upon nobility than upon virtue, and the -wife of a charcoal-burner is worthy of more respect than the mistress of -a prince." Those were words in which the coming revolution was presaged. - -[Illustration: PORTRAIT OF GOYA. BY HIMSELF. - - _From: "Los Capriccios."_] - -The _Nouvelle Heloise_ appeared in 1761. Thirteen years later followed -Goethe's _Werther_, that history of a young Titan whose zeal for liberty -felt all the partition walls of Society to be prison walls, and who rose -against everything that was ceremonial, against all the subordinations -of the social hierarchy, against all trivial and rigid rules of prudent -everyday life. Werther abhorred rules in every sphere. "One can say much -in favour of rules, about as much as one can say in praise of -_bourgeois_ society." He scoffed at the Philistines, who daily went -along the same measured way. He saw in "Society," having hitherto moved -in the simple world of the _bourgeois_, "the most sacred and the most -pitiful emotions wholly without clothing." And this Society outraged -him, and sent him with contumely from its midst. "Working folk carried -him to the grave, and no minister of religion followed him." - -Soon afterwards young Schiller came upon the scene with his first works, -which were a declaration of war against all the foundations of human -society, those manifestoes of revolution which, were they new writings -to-day, no Court Theatre would dare to produce. The fierce, rampant -lion, with the inscription "In Tyrannos," which was displayed on the -title-page of the second edition of the _Robbers_, was an intimate -symbol of the deep revolutionary spirit that inspired the whole age. "I -grew disgusted with this ink-stained age, when I read in my _Plutarch_ -of great men. Fie, fie upon the flaccid, castrated century, that has no -other use than to chew over again the deeds of the past. Let me imagine -an army of fellows like you, and I see a republic arising in Germany, in -comparison with which those of Rome and Sparta would be convents of -nuns." In a loud voice _Ficsco_ proclaims itself on the very title-page -to be a "republican" tragedy. _Intrigue and Love_ even aims full at the -rottenness and corruption of the actual time. It can be traced--and -Brandes has done it in his _Haupstrmungen_--how in the literature of -the age, the life of sensibility and idealism prevailing in the previous -century gradually dwindles, and in its stead quite modern progressive -views--religious, political, and social--surge up in an ever-increasing -wave. The authors were the bold inciters to the battle. They were all -leaders in the battle for liberty against fossilised tradition,--some in -the field of poetry only, others in the whole sphere of intellectual -life. These are they who gave the signal for the war-cry of the -Revolution--Liberty, Equality, Fraternity; who rent asunder the old -society, inaugurated the age of citizenship, and were at the same time -the first to lose, as quite modern spirits, their faith in another -world. - -[Illustration: GOYA. THE MAJAS ON THE BALCONY.] - -A wonderful chance ordained that, in the province of art, the most -powerful figure of that storm and tumult, the one artist of the age of -the race of Prometheus, to which belonged the young Goethe and the young -Schiller, should be born in the most medival country in Europe, on -Spanish soil. Against an art that was more catholic than catholicism, -courtly and mystical, there came by far the greatest reaction in Goya. -From Roelas, Collantes, and Murillo to him there is hardly any -transition. - -_Francisco Goya_ preached Nihilism in the home of belief. He denied -everything, believed nothing, doubted of everything, even of that peace -and liberty which he hoped to be at hand. That old Spanish art of -religion and dogma was changed under his hands to an art of negation and -sarcasm. His attitude is not that of an insolent and impetuous youth, -who puts out his tongue at the Academy and strikes with audacious hand -at the academicians' high powdered perruques; it is the attitude of the -modern spirit, which begins by doubting all things which have been -honoured hitherto. His Church pictures are devoid of religious feeling, -and his etchings replete with sneers at everything which was previously -esteemed as authority. He scoffs at the clerical classes and the -religious orders, laughs at the priestly raiment which covered the -passions of humanity. Spanish art, which began in a blind piety, becomes -in Goya revolutionary, free, modern. - -[Illustration: (_Laurent, photo._) - - GOYA. THE MAJA CLOTHED.] - -Goya is, in his whole nature, a modern man, a restless, feverish soul; -nervous as a _dcadent_; temperament to his finger-tips. His style in -portraiture, his art of composition, his whole method,--all speak to our -artists to-day in a language easily understood, and on many of them the -influence of Goya is unmistakable. He is one of the most fascinating -figures of the beginning of the century. As audacious as he was clever, -as versatile as he was fantastic, a keen observer as well as a strong -creative spirit, he fascinates and astonishes in his pictures, just as -in his wonderful etchings, by a remarkable mixture of the bizarre and -the original. His pictures, whether they be violent or eccentric, tender -or hard, gloomy or joyous, nearly always move and palpitate with life -itself, and they will always keep their attraction. There is no one of -Goya's pictures, not even the flimsiest sketch, at which one can look -coldly. - -He was born in a village in the province of Aragon, the son of a small -landed proprietor, in 1746. At the age of fourteen, having already -painted frescoes in the church of his native-place, he went to Saragossa -as an apprentice; and there he showed himself to be vivacious and -passionate, and soon became the champion among his comrades in all their -pastimes and brawls. Restless, and always thinking of adventure, he -refused every regular kind of education, disarranged everything in his -master's studio, worked when he could, drew his sword when he had a mind -to, nourished in his head dark thoughts on liberty, came and went and -loved, dallied with his knife, snapped his fingers at the Inquisition, -which was after him, and fled from Madrid,--such was he at twenty, and -such he remained all his life. - -[Illustration: (_Laurent, photo._) - - GOYA. THE MAJA NUDE.] - -Italy, whither he fled on account of a duel, did not alter him. There -were new love quarrels. He fought, stabbed a rival, was wounded himself, -amused himself extremely, studied little, observed, admired, but neither -painted nor copied anything. It was thanks to this indolence that the -great past did not take him prisoner. He did not know much, but for what -he knew he could thank himself. He loved the old painters, but -platonically; their works did not lead him astray. In this lies the -explanation of his qualities and his faults: that marvellous mixture of -seductive grace and visible weakness, of subtlety and brutality, of -refinement and ignorance. He merits equally sympathy and blame, is as -genial as he is unequal. But one would not wish him to be otherwise: if -there had been more order and proportion in his works his good qualities -would have been lost. He would have suffered in spontaneity, vivacity, -originality, and quietly taken his anchorage in the sleepy haven of -mediocrity. As he is, he is wholly the child of his country: from head -to foot a Spaniard of the eighteenth century, a son of that downfallen -Spain that was dying from loss of blood. For hundreds of years a black -cloud, extinguishing all joy, had hung over Spanish life, a cloud out of -which, only here and there in dismal lightning flashes, there emerged -obscure figures of sombre despots, sick ascetics, and silent martyrs. -All mundane inclinations were suppressed, all sensuous desires -prohibited. Men spent their nights with their eyes fixed upon the gory -histories and passionate exhortations of the Old Testament, hearing in -imagination the menacing, thunderous voice of a dreadful God, until at -last in their own hearts the fanatical inspiration of the prophetic seer -awoke anew, and their feverish forms were torn asunder by ecstatic -visions and religious hallucinations. When Goya began his career the -sinister country of the Inquisition had grown frivolous. A breath of -revolution was passing over men's minds. An intoxicating odour of -mundane voluptuousness penetrated everywhere, even into the convents -themselves; the figures of the French Rococo Olympus had brought -confusion into the Christian paradise. Spain no longer believed; it -laughed at the Inquisition, trembled no more when it was threatened with -the pains of Hell. It had grown frivolous, wanton, epicurean, full of -grace and laughter. The rosy-red and blue shepherds of the Trianon had -made an entry into the sombre Court of Aranjuez. Literature, taste, and -art were infected by French influences, Parisian sparks of wit, -lightning _esprit_, and Parisian immorality; and the same rumbling -earthquake which wrecked the throne of France was soon to shatter that -of Spain. In Goya's works there is a refulgence of all this. But, like -every great artist, he is not only the expression of his epoch, but also -its leader; he almost anticipates the age which shall succeed it. Like a -figure of Janus, on the border-line between two centuries, standing in a -manner between two worlds, he was the last of the old masters and the -first of the moderns--even in that special sense in which we employ the -word to-day. - -[Illustration: GOYA. DE QUE MAL MORIRA. - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -Through a commission to design cartoons for the Spanish manufactories of -tapestry, he was brought into contact with the Court. Member of the -Academy of San Fernando in 1780, Pintor del Rey, with an income of -12,500 francs in 1786, he became soon afterwards the Director of the -Madrid Academy--the drollest Director of an Academy that man can -imagine! Goya, the peasant youth, with his bull neck and matador-like -strength, lived at the Spanish Court in the midst of the enervated -scions of a dissolute aristocracy, who, with their sickly and anmic -features, indolent and impotent, skulked through life, young men -prematurely old. Naturally he was the idol of the women, hated by the -courtiers on account of his caustic wit, a terror to all husbands -because of his perpetual intrigues, and at the same time feared as the -best swordsman in Madrid, who drew his rapier with the indifference with -which we light a cigarette. - -It is only as the outcome of such a personality that his works are to be -understood. - -[Illustration: GOYA. SOPLONES. - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -Goya was far too great a sceptic to put a religious sentiment into -matters in which he no longer believed; his talent was far too modern -for the religious abstraction to be able to seize him. His "Christ on -the Cross," therefore, in the Museo del Prado, is simply tedious, a bad -academical study. His frescoes in San Antonio de la Florida, at Madrid, -exhibit a pretty, decorative motive--considerable movement, grace, and -spirit. But amongst them are angels who sit there most irreverently, -and, with a laugh of challenge, throw out their legs _ la_ Tiepolo. The -chief picture represents St. Antony of Padua raising a man from the -dead. But all that interested him in it were the lookers-on. On a -balustrade all around he has brought in the lovely, dainty faces of -numerous ladies of the court, his _bonnes amies_, who lean their elbows -on the balcony and coquette with the people down below. Their plump, -round, white hands play meaningly with their fans; a thick cluster of -ringlets waves over their bared shoulders; their sensual eyes languish -with a seductive fire; a faint smile plays round their voluptuous lips. -Several seem only just to have left their beds, and their vari-coloured, -gleaming silks are crumpled. One is just arranging her coiffure, which -has come undone and falls over her rosy bosom; another, with a -languishing unconsciousness and a careless attitude, is opening her -sleeve, whose soft, deep folds expose a snow-white arm. There is much -_chic_ in this Church picture. One very immodest angel is supposed to be -the portrait of the Duchess of Alba, who was famed for her numerous -intrigues. - -[Illustration: GOYA. SE REPULEN. - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -In his portraits, too, he is unequal. He became the fashionable painter -at the court. The politicians, poets, scholars, great ladies, actresses, -all the famous folk of his epoch, sat to him. He daubed more than two -hundred portraits; but they were good only when the subject amused him. -His portraits of the Royal Family have something vicious and plebeian. -He is too little in earnest, too little of an official, to paint court -pictures. One might imagine that he with difficulty restrained himself -from laughing at the pompous futility which stood before him. It -irritated him to be obliged to paint these great lords and ladies in -poses so ceremonial, instead of making them, like the angels of San -Antonio, throw up their legs and skip over parapets. The Queen, Marie -Louise, is frankly grotesque; and the family of Charles IV look like the -family of a shopkeeper who have won the big prize in a lottery, and been -photographed in their Sunday clothes. But, ah! when something gives him -pleasure! In the Exhibition of Portraits at Paris, in 1885, there was -the portrait of a young man, dressed in gray, which excelled -Gainsborough for grace. With what a noble nonchalance this young elegant -stands there, reminding one, in attitude and costume, of the -_incroyables_ of Charles Vernet. With what equanimity does he look out -on life, in his satisfaction at the good fit of his clothes. The -wonderful harmony of the grey tones was rendered with all Gainsborough's -delicacy. The same man who in those pictures of ceremony let himself go -in a manner so brusque and frenzied, here revelled, a very Proteus in -his chameleon-like qualities, in soft and mellow and seductive tones. -One might say that he has thought here of Prudhon and Greuze, and joined -their study to the cult of Velasquez. - -[Illustration: GOYA. QUE PICO DE ORO! - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -Still more charming was he in his pictures of young girls, when he was -himself fascinated by the attractions of his subjects. The infantile -Donna Maria Josefa (at the Prado) and the twelve-year-old Queen Isabella -of Sicily (at Seville) are admirable pictures. In them the candour and -grace of budding youth, the whole poetry of young maidenhood, have won -life and expression from the enamoured tenderness of an artist hand. -Seduced by beauty, he renounced all irony, thought only of those big, -wide-opened eyes of velvet, those rosy young lips; of that warm -carnation and the elegant slimness of that soft young neck that rose in -delicate contour from the shoulders. Or again, that marvellous double -portrait of La Maja in the Academy of San Fernando: a young girl painted -once clothed and once nude, both pictures in exactly the same pose, and -both flooded with the same extraordinary sensuous charm. This is not the -uncertain, sarcastic painter of those State pictures. It is an attentive -observer, who depicts with sensitive devotion the harmonious lines of -the irradiating, young, human body so worthy of celebration. The -transparent stuff that covers the body of "La Maja clothed" reveals all -that it hides; in the other picture the unveiled nudity sings the high -pan of the flesh. The drawing is sure, the modelling of a marvellous -tenderness. The heaving bosom, the slender limbs, the tantalising -eyes--every part of that nervous body, with its ivory whiteness, -stretched out on the milk-white couch made for love, breathes of -pleasure and voluptuousness. - -In pictures of this kind Goya is wholly one of us. Grown independent of -every traditional rule, he abandoned himself entirely to his own -impressions, and produced enduring works, vibrating with life, because -he was himself fascinated with nature. He showed here an idea of -modernity that almost makes him seem a contemporary of our own--that -zeal for the pictorial, for colour and light, which attracts us so much -to-day. Very characteristic also of the changed aspect of the age are -his designs for the famous tapestry in Santa Barbara, with which he made -his dbut at Madrid. They are very crude in decoration. Two or three -neat young girls, with big, black, moist eyes, here and there pleasing -details--a couple of men carrying a wounded companion--are unable to -gloss over the heaviness of the composition and colour. But it was of -great consequence that Goya should have had courage for so bold a step -as to make use of character scenes in decorative painting at a time when -everywhere else, without exception, _ftes champtres_ predominated. - -[Illustration: GOYA. VOLAVERUNT. - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -In his oil paintings he went much further in this direction. In that -impetuous manner peculiar to him he endeavoured to get a firm grip on -the pictorial side of Spanish life, at home and in the streets, wherever -he found it. The most fearful subjects--such as the two great slaughter -scenes in the French invasion, painted with such breadth and -fierceness--alternate with incidents of the liveliest character. -Everything is jotted down, under the immediate influence of what has -been observed, by rapid methods, and on this account produces an effect -of sketches taken with complete directness from nature. In those -careless pictures, swept with large strokes of the brush, there rises -before us the mad drama of public holiday in the streets and in the -circus: processions, bull-fights, brigands, the victims of the plague, -assassinations, scenes of gallantry, national types--all observed with -the acuteness of a Menzel. The Majas on the balcony in the Montpensier -Gallery, the "Breakfast on the Grass," the "Flower Girl," the "Reaper," -the "Return from Market," the "Cart attacked by Brigands," are the most -piquant, vividly coloured of these pictures. The "Romeria de San -Isidoro" is full of such a sparkling, stirring life as the most modern -of the impressionists alone have learned again to paint. A few dashes of -colour, a few well-placed, bold strokes of the brush, and at once one -sees the procession move, the groups passing each other by just as, in -the marvellous sketches of the funeral of Sardina, in the Academy of -San Fernando, one can see the young couples revolve madly in the dance, -and the lances of the bull-fighters redden the sand of the arena. - -The superabundance of such phantasy could not, of course, be achieved by -the tardy brush. He required a quicker medium, that would permit him to -express everything. Therefore he executed his numerous etchings, by -which he was rendered famous, before people had learnt to appreciate him -as a painter: the "Capriccios," the "Malheurs de la Guerre," the -"Bull-fights," the "Captives"--those marvellous and fantastic pages in -which he expressed everything that his feverish, satirical soul had -accumulated for contempt, and hatred, and anger, and scorn. The etcher's -needle was the poisoned dagger with which he attacked all that he wished -to attack: tyranny, superstition, intrigue, adultery, honour that is -sold and beauty that lets itself be bought, the arrogance of the great -and the degrading servility of the little. He made an awful and jovial -hecatomb of all the vices and the scandals of the age. Whomsoever he -pilloried was laid bare in all respects; physically and morally, no -single trait of him was forgotten. And he did it so wittily that he -compelled even the offended person to laugh. Neither Charles IV himself, -nor the Court, nor the Inquisition, which bled most beneath his thrusts, -dared to complain. - -[Illustration: GOYA. QUIEN LO CREYERA! - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -In his "Capriccios" Goya stands revealed as a figure without even a -forerunner in the history of art. Satirical representations of popular -superstitions, bitter, mordant attacks on the aristocracy, the -government, and all social conditions, unprecedented assaults on the -crown, on religion and its doctrines, inexorable satires upon the -Inquisition and the monastic orders, make up this most remarkable book. -It had hardly appeared in 1796 before the Inquisition seized it. Goya -parried this stroke, however, by dedicating the plates to the king. - -A painter and a colorist, in this book he displays his genius as an -etcher. The outlines are drawn with light and genial strokes only; then -comes the _aquatinta_, the colouring which overspreads the background, -and gives localisation, depth, and light. A few scratches of the needle, -a black spot, a light produced by a spot of white ingeniously left -blank--that sufficed to give life and character to his figures. - -[Illustration: GOYA. LINDA MAESTRA! - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -The "Misres de la Guerre" are intrinsically more serious. All the -scenes of terror that occurred in Spain as a sequel to the French -invasion and the glory of Napoleon here utter their cry of lamentation. -A few plates amongst them are worthy of comparison with the finest of -Rembrandt's,--the sole classic for whom Goya cherished a veneration. All -the undertakings which followed these--the "Bull-fights," the -"Proverbs," the "Captives," the fantastic landscapes--tell of a long -study of the great Dutch master. Especially celebrated were the -seventeen new plates which he added to the "Malheurs de la Guerre" in -1814, at the time of the restoration of Ferdinand VII. They are the -political and philosophical testament of the old liberal, the keen -free-thinker, the last and utmost fight for all that he loved against -all that he hated. With sacred wrath and biting irony he waged war -against the intrigues and hypocrisy of the obscurantists who throttle -progress and suppress freedom of thought. With passionate wrath he -rushed upon kings, priests, and dignitaries. It seems incredible that -the plate entitled "Nada"--a dead man, who comes out of his grave and -writes with his corpse-fingers the word "Nada" (nothing)--that this -plate can be the work of a Spaniard of the eighteenth century. -Everywhere there is the same hatred of tyranny, of social injustice, of -human stupidity, the same incredulous effort after a dimly conceived -ideal of truth and liberty. - -It is neither the amiable fairyland of Callot nor the _bourgeois_ -pessimism of Hogarth. Goya is more inexorable and acute; his phantasy, -borne on larger wings, takes a higher flight. He sees direful figures in -his dreams, his laugh is bitter, his anger rancorous. He is a -revolutionist, an agitator, a sceptic, a nihilist. His _chronique -scandaleuse_ grows into the epos of the age. One understands why such a -man should no longer feel secure in Spain, and, towards the close of his -life, go into exile in France. - -There, too, in the home of the revolution, art, ever since the beginning -of the century, had freed herself more from the tradition of the -Renaissance, and betaken herself to the new way, which the Dutch, and -soon afterwards the English, had laid down in the seventeenth century. - -[Illustration: GOYA. DEVOTA PROFESION. - - _From "Los Capriccios."_] - -All that had been produced in Paris, up to the close of the seventeenth -century, had had its birthplace in the Italy of Leo X. The light of the -Italian Renaissance had suffused France ever since the appearance of -Rosso and Primaticcio. Rome had been the cradle of Simon Vouet and -Nicolas Poussin. France endeavoured, in rich decoration and masterly -swing of lines, to overtop the Italians, whose formul were studied -partly in Rome and partly in the Palace of Fontainebleau, that Rome _in -petto_. Those religious pictures of Lebrun, arranged in panels, appeared -with their theatrically elegant attitudes and their flowing drapery, -with their slim, oscillating limbs and their florid gestures. All -Olympus, all the saints and the heroes, were set to work to do honour to -the great king. Was it necessary to glorify his acts, then it was done -by portraying him as Cyrus or Alexander. The people of the seventeenth -century did not exist for painters. Lebrun and Mignard, as inheritors of -Roman culture, hovered over life without seeing it. Their ideals were a -hundred and fifty years old, ingenious variations on the -sixteenth-century pattern. - -Then came the death of the _Grand Monarque_, and with him the tradition -of the Renaissance went also to its grave. The old age was outworn, and -the new began to supersede it. The world was weary of the majestic, the -stiff, and the pompous, whose glamour had blinded it for sixty years. -The sun-king was dead, and the sun of the Italian Renaissance had set. -French society breathed once more. The ostentation of the court had -become an onerous ceremony, the monarchical principle an unendurable -constraint. The nightmare that had oppressed it, the ennui that had come -from Versailles, disappeared. Air and light and mirth penetrated the -salons. People shook off the heavy yoke of majesty from their shoulders, -abandoned their heroic, ostentatious palaces, and bought themselves -_petites maisons_ in the _Bois_. They had suffered, they wished to be -glad; they had been bored, they wished to be amused. Enough of -pater-nosters and stately etiquette! they wished to live. Away with the -antique temples and goddesses of Poussin! away with those devoted -martyrs who mortified themselves and killed the flesh! Away with the -semblance of the heroic, with pomp and glamour, with the service of God -and the service of lords! Here's to the service of the ladies. Here's to -the thatched roofs of farmhouses; the woods in whose thickets one can -lose one's way and exchange a kiss; rosy flesh and little turned-up -noses; everything which gave a thrill of voluptuousness after the -unapproachable, icy-cold nobility of the past. Long live Love! - -[Illustration: "_L'Art._" - - GOYA. OTRES LEYES POR EL PUEBLO.] - -So thought France when Louis XIV was dead, and the man was already grown -up in the Low Countries who was chosen to give a shape to these dreams, -to abolish the ascendency of gods and kings and heroes, and to show the -upper classes their own image reflected in the mirror of art. - -_Antoine Watteau_, who guided the stream of French art into this new -channel--of the Netherlands--was by birth and training a Fleming. His -birthplace, Valenciennes, although French territory since the Peace of -Nymeguen, resembled in its whole character a Flemish town. In the church -here he first saw any of Rubens' pictures. Here, through Grin, he -became instructed in Flemish traditions. Rubens and Teniers are the two -masters from whom his own art sprang. During the years when the war of -the Spanish Succession had changed the French frontier provinces into a -huge military camp, he painted soldiers and camp scenes, such as the -"March" in the collection of Edmund Rothschild, where a party of -recruits are straggling along a high plain in a fierce storm. Later came -pictures of country life in the manner of Teniers, like the "Retour de -Guinguette," engraved by Chedel, a landscape in which on the right a -party of rustics are carousing at a table in front of a farmyard, while -on the other side half-drunken men and women are going home. Louis XIV -had made before the pictures of Teniers his well-known _mot_: "_Otez moi -ces magots_." Now, through Watteau, the _magot_ makes its entrance into -French art. Thus in his chief picture in this manner, "La Vraie Gaiet," -the figures are unmistakably after Teniers. The men are short and -sturdy, entirely Flemish. Only the costumes have changed with the mode. -But the women are not in the least Flemish. The clean caps and tidy -kerchiefs, the freshly ironed aprons, and neat little feet that trip so -lightly and quickly along the street that no dirt seems to soil them, -give these peasant girls a certain desirability in which it is not hard -to discover the transition to French grace. The elegant motions and fine -heads point to that Watteau who was to become soon afterwards the -unsurpassable delineator of feminine coquetry. - -Gillot and Rubens led him into the new road. The Teniers-like character -of his figures disappeared, they became gracious and noble. In place of -the _magot_ came elegant French society. Gillot was the first in Paris -to break with the pompous Louis XIV style, and to begin the -representation of the cheerful life of comedians, to replace the -dwellers in Olympus by characters of the French and Italian stage. -Rubens had been the first in his "Garden of Love," of the Dresden and -Madrid Galleries, to invite to the embarkation for the Island of -Cythera. Watteau acquired something from everyone he studied, and yet -resembles none. After having hitherto sought his personages on the -highways and in camps, he was now to become the painter of _ftes -galantes_, the painter of "Society." For in his shepherds and -shepherdesses there lives the elegance of France. The gods of the -Renaissance, in whom no one any longer believed, glided into the -costumes of Harlequin and Pierrette. In lieu of the great and the -pathetic there came the small, the gay, the graceful, the dainty. The -architectural symmetry of composition disappeared, and the stiff -stage-scenery character of landscape vanished. The grave formality of -geometrical construction is changed into freedom and joyousness, just as -the rhetorical, exact, measured periods of Boileau were relaxed, under -the hands of Voltaire, into sentences unconstrained, buoyant, and crisp. -Watteau's art betokened the triumph of naturalism over the mannerism -into which the French art of the seventeenth century, based on the -Italian Renaissance, had dwindled. As it is said in an old poem-- - - "Pare la Franoise, un jour Dame Nature - Eut le desir coquet de voir sa portraiture. - Que fit la bonne mre? Elle enfanta Watteau." - -Watteau became for French art what, a hundred years before, Rubens had -been for Flemish--the deliverer. He delivered them from the oppressive -yoke of the Italian tradition. In his world, where there were no longer -any naked goddesses, but where the corset was opened only just wide -enough to reveal a rosy bosom, there was nothing more left of the past. -It is no longer antique beauty, no longer the plastic cold of the "Venus -di Milo," no longer the marble perfection of Raphael's "Galatea." Into -those tender, feminine hands, into those lace sleeves, out of which -snow-white arms come languishingly forth, into those slender waists, and -teasing, dimpled chins, something of coquetry, of sensibility, something -subtle and spiritual, has entered, that seems to transcend physical -beauty. His young men are tall and supple, his women entirely -indescribable, with their air of quiet roguishness and their exquisite -coiffures. Quite modern is that distinguished sense for costume which -made him a leader of fashion. Mysterious landscapes, that exhale peace -and happiness all around! Rightly has Edmond de Goncourt called him a -lyric poet, the great poet of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: ANTOINE WATTEAU.] - -[Illustration: WATTEAU. LA PARTIE CARRE.] - -In this way the development proceeded. The pompous representation which -portrait painting had practised hitherto was gone. People would no -longer be masters of the ceremonies, but human beings. New forms of -technique were discovered, such as pastel painting. No other material -was capable of rendering the peculiar fragrance of this fugitive flower -nature, the graceful appearance of this _rococo_ style, of these ladies -with the touch of powder in their hair, and their moist, dreamy eyes, as -Maurice Latour, Rosalba Carriera, and later the Swiss, Liotard, painted -them. Of those who endeavoured, on the model of Watteau's style, to -depict the life of the fashionable world, none approached the delicacy -of that national genius. _Lancret_ and _Pater_ followed him, but more -roughly, more soberly, more drily. Lancret in his whole conception, -compared with Watteau, is a homely, often a somewhat cumbrous -journeyman; Pater, an artist of greater elegance, has the fickleness of -the virtuoso. Both in conviction and in art they lacked that poetic, -glorifying breath which pervades Watteau's creations. In Watteau one -_believes_ that these gracious beings, these tall and nervous cavaliers, -these amiable coquettes and comely women, actually represent originals -in noble society; whereas in the works of his disciples it often happens -that the paid model, selected from a lower circle of society, appears to -us to be not congruous with the elegance of her wardrobe. These dancers, -huntsmen, and noble maidens are not wholly what they should represent. -But how delicious they are, these French gossips, so long as one is -mindful _not_ to think of Watteau! What grace is theirs too! What innate -tact! With what a pleasant adroitness do they understand how to rivet -our attention, and to keep far, far away from the tedium in which their -classical ancestors, with their natural heaviness, waded! Instinctively -and without effort they rejected the rhythmically balanced composition -and correct nobility of form of the classics, and found a characteristic -expression for unconstrained gestures, pleasing movements, and refined -elegance. - -[Illustration: GREUZE. "_L'Art._"] - -Even the decorative painters abandoned more and more the much-worn paths -of the Italians. _Franois Lemoine_ gave them, by Rubens' aid, the -transition to a manner peculiarly French, elegant, sensuous, charming. -His pupil, _Franois Boucher_, followed him. Like the sons of the -seventeenth century, he made exhaustive use of mythological subjects and -was often a superficial artist, and in his later works he became -entirely a mannerist; but he was not so at the beginning. It was a great -advance for France when Boucher gave his pupils the advice to abstain -from imitation of the great Italian masters, and not to grow "as cold as -ice." And what a great naturalist he is in his numerous drawings and -etchings, and in those marvellous groups of chubby children who are -playing and tumbling about on clouds, or playing musical instruments -shooting arrows, or sporting with flowers! "It is not every one who has -the stuff to make a Boucher" even his great antagonist David has said of -him. - -In _Fragonard_, again, there was summed up all the joy of life and the -frivolity, the lustrous, luxurious talent, the charming amiability and -nimble sureness, of French art in the eighteenth century. Fragonard has -painted everything. His great decorations are careless inspirations, -sparkling with spirit and life. With him pastoral scenes alternate with -episodes of everyday life--children, guitar players, women reading. -Fragonard is a piquant, ingenious painter. Perhaps hardly any other -painter has so much kissing in his pictures. His etching, "L'armoire," -of 1778, is well known. In that he already stood on the sure ground of -popular life. The old rustic, who is armed with a formidable cudgel, is -beating open, with the assistance of his wife, the doors of a great -clothes cupboard, in which a handsome young fellow has hidden himself; -close by is a pretty farm girl, weeping in confusion into her apron; in -the background the curious and amazed little sisters are looking on. - -[Illustration: GREUZE. THE MILKMAID.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GREUZE. HEAD OF A GIRL.] - -_J. F. de Troy_ had, at the same time, abandoned himself to a more -frolicsome manner, had played upon painting in pictures such as "The -Proposal of Marriage" and "The Garter" with something of that frivolity -which later came into fashion through Baudouin. That, however, was only -for a very short time. Life was beginning to be in earnest--that is -rather the impression one receives much earlier, from turning over the -engravings of those years. Amongst the elders of the actual _rococo_ -age, contentment and gaiety still rule. As the heirs of an old -civilisation, the aristocracy understood, with a refined and unique -understanding, how to turn life into a feast. Silk trains rustle over -the parquet, silk shoes trip, eyes gleam, diamonds flash, white bosoms -heave. Tall cavaliers advance to their sprightly partners, gossip and -smiles fly around, Knights of Malta and abbs hang over the chairs and -pay their court. Yes, this autumn of the old French culture was of a -marvellous beauty for the fortunate, and those fortunate ones knew, as -no other generation has ever done, how to enjoy life with serenity, in a -fairy glamour of rooms gleaming with Venetian chandeliers, where rosy -Cupidons laughed down bewitchingly from their light, gold moulded -panels. Under Louis XVI the French salon acquired another aspect. Its -walls, its whole architecture, were more sombre. The Cupidons still -sported on the ceiling, but they were forgotten, like ghosts of the -past; their shafts were already impotent. The vivacious, dancing couples -have disappeared. Festivity has been banished from the big rooms: here -and there is seen an earnest conversational party; gentlemen playing -cards or ladies reading philosophical books. Social and political -interests have sprung up with which people of education prefer to occupy -themselves. Numerous works on commerce and constitutional methods have -appeared during the last fifty years. In place of scandal there crop up -arguments, for and against the Parliament, for and against the Jesuits. -Enlightenment had won its victory. Henceforth development is no longer -compatible with sensuous delight. It is still the same society as -before, but without pleasure. One almost breathes the air of 1789. -Gaming is only a struggle against ennui; the foreheads of women are -furrowed with reading. Society has grown serious and sombre, as it were, -with a presentiment of what is to come, as though destiny might thus be -set aside. The writings of Diderot afford the clearest instance of this -changed spirit of the age, and art too must become virtuous, and work -for the amelioration of the world. Thus Diderot upheld the sentimental -and emotional subject against the _ftes galantes_ of the _rococo_ -painter. Boucher derived his inspiration from the slough of -prostitution; only a moral upheaval could tend to a high style. With -Boucher the idea of honour, of innocence, has become something strange; -the new age requires virtue, _bonnes moeurs_. But where are the virtues -to be found? Naturally, there alone, where Rousseau had discovered them. -Rousseau taught that man by nature was good, that he was noble, -conscious of his moral obligations, self-sacrificing and uncorrupted -when he came from the hands of his Maker, and that it was civilisation -which first corrupted him. It followed that the most civilised are the -most corrupt, and virtues are to be met with, if anywhere, amongst the -lower orders, who are the least affected by culture. Not beneath an -embroidered waistcoat, only beneath a woollen smock, can a noble heart -beat. The happy ignorance of the young Savoyard, eating his cheese or -his oranges in a church porch, lies nearer to the original perfection of -mankind than the most subtle erudition of the most ingenious of the -encyclopdists. Amongst nature's noblemen one must seek for the secret -of virtue, which has been lost by the aristocracy in the stream of -civilisation. Thus beneath the gis of Rousseau's philosophy the Third -Estate makes its entry into French salons. From the man of the people -society wanted to learn how to become once more simple, unassuming, and -virtuous; and it was a gruesome irony of fate that this "man of the -people" should reveal himself later, when the guillotine stood in the -Place de la Concorde, as by no means so lamblike, modest, and -self-sacrificing as that noble society had imagined him. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GREUZE. GIRL CARRYING A LAMB.] - -_Greuze_ represented this phase of French art when the riotous carnival -of _rococo_ had come to an end, and the Ash Wednesday of rule and -fasting and penitence had ensued. It was considered that the aim of art -must be to instruct and elevate, not merely to amuse; it should set an -example to raise and inspire the good, to serve as a warning for the -bad. "_Rendre la vertu aimable, le vice odieux, le ridicule saillant, -voil le projet de tout honnte homme qui prend la plume, le pinceau ou -le ciseau._" In these words Diderot formulated his programme. It was his -wish that the corrupt man, when he went to an exhibition, should feel -pricks of conscience at the pictures and read in them his own -condemnation. "_Si ses pas le conduisent au Salon, qu'il craigne -d'arrter ses regards sur la toile._" Educational effects, "moral -stories told in pictures," that is the keynote of Diderot's demands upon -the painter, and of the accomplishment of Greuze in answer to this -claim. He is the French Hogarth, whether he paints in sombre colours the -misery that the drunkard brings upon his family, and the horrors of -poverty, or depicts in brighter tones the love of children for their -parents and the works of charity; and with him too, as with the -Englishman, his title was chosen with a didactic after-thought to -heighten the effect of his picture. Thus such scenes as these occurred: -"The Father's Curse," "The Consolation of Age," "The Son's Correction," -"The Ungrateful Son," "The Beloved Mother," "The Spoilt Child," "The -Lame Man tended by his Relations," and "The Results of Good Education." -He had this, too, in common with Hogarth: he liked to develop his moral -stories in long series, which invariably ended with the triumph of -virtue and the punishment of vice. The didactic story of _Bazile et -Thibaut_ attempted to relate in twenty-six chapters the influence of a -good education on the formation of a whole life; and, just as in -Hogarth's story of the two apprentices, here too, at the conclusion, the -well-educated Thibaut pronounces sentence of death over his old friend -Bazile, the badly educated, and now condemned murderer. The fact that in -other things the two moral apostles differ greatly from each other is -accounted for by the difference in the national characteristics of those -to whom they variously appealed. - -Hogarth _scourged_ the vices of the Third Estate in order to raise them -to morality. Rape, bloodshed, debauchery, disorderliness, gluttony, and -drunkenness--that was the channel through which in England at that day -the furious flood of the uncontrolled spirit of the populace poured -itself, foaming and raging with fearful natural force. Hogarth swung -over these human animals the stout cudgel of morality in the manner of a -sturdy policeman and Puritan _bourgeois_. With such people a delicate -forbearance would have been misplaced. At the foot of every prison-scene -he inscribed the name of the vice that he had pilloried there, and -subjoined the predicted damnation from Holy Writ. He reveals it in its -hideousness, he steeps it in its filth, traces it to its retribution, so -that even the most vitiated conscience must recognise it and the most -hardened abhor it. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GREUZE. GIRL LOOKING UP.] - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GREUZE. GIRL WITH AN APPLE.] - -Greuze employs the Third Estate as a _mirror of virtue_, sets forth its -noble qualities as an edification to an aristocracy that has grown -vicious. Less primitive and, for that very reason, less original than -Hogarth, he never forgets that he lives in the most refined social -period in history. He does not strangle his culprits to provide -terrifying examples, but nearly always leaves a corner open for -repentance. He knew that he dared not exact too much from the nerves of -his noble public; he merely wished to stir them to a soft vibration. He -did not paint for drunken English people, but for those perfumed -marquises who, later on, bowed with so courtly an elegance before the -guillotine; for those sensitive ladies in whom virtue now excited the -same sensual delight that vice had done before. They welcomed in him the -high priest of a sort of orgie of virtue, to whose festivals they had -grown reconciled. The century which in its first half had danced as -light-heartedly as any other the can-can of life, becomes, in its second -half, sad of soul, enthusiastic over the reward of justice, the -punishment of transgressors, over honour and the navet of innocence. -Time after time do his contemporaries praise precisely that sense of -virtue in the art of Greuze. So that in France, as in England, the -burden of interest was laid no longer upon the art, but upon an -accessory circumstance. For since, in the hands of Greuze, the picture -had been turned into an argument, in France, as in England, art ceased -to be an end--it became only a means. He made painting a didactic poem, -the more melodramatic the better, and was driven thereby on the same -sandbank upon which Hogarth, and all _genre_ painters who _would be_ -more than painters, have made shipwreck. In order to bring out his story -with the utmost possible distinctness, he was too frequently compelled -unduly to accentuate his point. The effect became affected, the pathos -theatrical. His picture of the "Father's Curse" in the Louvre, with the -infuriated old man, the son hurrying wildly away, and the weeping -sisters, resembles the last act of a melodrama. "The Country Wedding," -where the father-in-law has given the young bridegroom the purse with -the dowry, and now pathetically observes, "Take it, and be happy," might -just as well have been entitled "The Father's Last Blessing." In the -picture in which a noble dame takes her daughter to the bedside of two -poor persons who are ill, to accustom her in early life to works of -charity, the personages in the picture, arranged exactly as if upon a -stage, must have been themselves uncommonly moved by the touching and -praiseworthy action. Greuze was the father of _genre_ painting in -France--that barbaric, story-telling art which replaced _tableaux -vivants_ based upon the literary idea by the Dutchmen's picturesque and -well-observed selections from nature. Beyond that, however, it must not -be forgotten that he, like Hogarth, psychologically opposed to the -earlier art, showed practical progress in many of his works. There were -few in French art before him who depicted the emotions of the soul with -such refinement as Greuze in his "Reading of the Bible." In proportion -to the understanding and character of the individual is the impression -of the listener reflected on his countenance. That was something new in -comparison with the laughing gods of Boucher. And that Greuze was also -capable of the most highly _pictorial_ magic when he could once bring -himself to lay aside the moral teacher is proved by his rosy, inspired -heads of young girls. He never grew weary of painting these pretty -children in every situation and attitude at that seductive age which -hides the charming feet beneath the first long gown. Blonde or brunette, -with a blue ribbon in the hair, a little cluster of flowers in the -bodice, they gaze out upon life with their big, brown child eyes, full -of curiosity and misgiving. A light gauze covers the soft lines of the -neck, the shoulders are as yet hardly rounded, the pouting lips are -fresh as the morning dew, and only the two rosy, budding breasts, that -fight lustily against their imprisonment, and seem, like Sterne's -starling, to cry, "I cannot get out," betray that the woman is already -awake in the child. Greuze's name will always be associated with these -girl types, just as that of Leonardo is with the dreamy, smiling -sphinx-like head of Mona Lisa. In them he has given an unsurpassable -expression to the ideal of innocence at the end of the eighteenth -century, and provided in them a new thrill of beauty for his -contemporaries. And a _blas_ society which had indulged in every -licence bathed itself with passionate delight in the unknown mystery of -this surging flood. Yes, after the stimulating champagne of _rococo_, -people had even come to delight in simple black bread. And so, out of -_bourgeoisie_ itself, a school of painting was developed as fresh and -healthy as this. - -[Illustration: _"Gaz. des Beaux Arts."_ - - CHARDIN. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -_Chardin_, the carpenter's son, is at the head of this domestic art in -the eighteenth century. After Greuze, the painter of refined taste, he -seems, a comfortable, healthy, _bourgeois_ master in whom the Dutchman -of the best period once more appears upon earth. - -After the king had, up to the close of the seventeenth century, been the -centre round which everything turned, the solitary personality which -dared to appear independent, and upon which the rest of the world formed -itself; after the circles round the court had next freed themselves, and -gained the right to enjoy life and art for themselves, there still -remained a third step to surmount. "Society" abdicates in favour of a -free and healthy _bourgeoisie_. - -A surgeon's sign was the first work which brought the young man, who had -received no systematic education, into notice. The surgeon is in his -shop attending to a man who has been wounded in a duel, grouped around -are curious bystanders, while the commissary of police investigates the -case with a grave countenance. It is the first picture of the Parisian -life of the people. And Chardin, with his middle-class origin, remained -the advocate of middle-class domestic life. He is the Watteau of the -Third Estate. Greuze owes his success, in the first place, to the -ingenious manner in which he made himself the spokesman of the moral -tendency of his age. It interested contemporary society to be told that -it is beautiful to see married folk live together in happiness; that -young mothers do a good action in nursing their children, when it is -possible, themselves; that man should repent of his sins; and that he -who honours his father and mother lives long in the land. Nowadays we -thank him for these wise counsels, but say, at the same time, that we -could have done without them. We no longer see the necessity of -illustrating the ten commandments, and notice now all the more the -mannerisms, the rhetorical strokes of advocacy which the painter must -employ in order to plead successfully. Chardin's effect is as fresh -to-day as it was a hundred years ago, because he was a sheer artist, who -did not seek to tell a story, but only to represent,--a realist of the -finest stamp, belonging in his exquisite sense of colour values to the -illustrious family of the Terburgs. His pictures have no "purpose." The -washerwoman, the woman scraping carrots, the housewife at her manifold -tasks--that is Chardin's world; the atmosphere in which these figures -move, the shimmering light that floats in the half-dark kitchen, the -wealth of sun-rays that play upon the white tablecloths and -brown-panelled walls--those are his fields of study. Chardin lived in an -old studio, high up near the roof, a quiet, dark room that was usually -full of vegetables which he used for his "still life." There was -something picturesque about the dusty walls where the moist green of -vegetables mingled so harmoniously with the time-worn, sombre brown of -the wainscoting, and the white table-cloth was flooded with the silvery -green which poured in from a little skylight. In this peaceful and -harmoniously toned chamber were laid those small domestic scenes, which -he so loved to paint, and which were called by the French, in contrast -to the _Ftes Galantes_, "_Amusements de la Vie Prive_." The clock -ticks, the lamp burns, water is boiling on the homely tiled stove. There -is an effect in every one of his pictures, as though he had lived them -himself, as if they were reminiscences of something dear to him and -familiar. In contrast to Greuze he shunned all critical moments, and -depicted only the quiet life of custom, everyday life as it befell in a -constant, regular routine. There are no hasty movements with him, no -catastrophes nor complications; he has a preference for "still life" in -the world of men, just as in nature. He is _par excellence_ the painter -of _Intimitt_ (intimate life); which is not the same as _a genre_ -painter. Painters who in the manner of _genre_ have depicted domestic -scenes in rooms are to be found in every school; but how few have known -how to depict the poetry of the family life with such truth, with such -an absence of affectation and insipidity! With Chardin art and life -are interfused. - -[Illustration: J. B. S. CHARDIN THE HOUSE OF CARDS] - -[Illustration: CHARDIN. GRACE BEFORE MEAT.] - -No Dutchman, however, had penetrated into the nursery. Chardin, in -surprising the child-world at their games, in their joys and sorrows, -has opened out to art a new province. And with what affectionate -devotion has he not absorbed himself in the spirit of the little people! -I know of no one before him who has painted the unconscious spiritual -life of the child with such discreet tenderness: the little hands that -grasp at something, the lips that a mother would like to kiss, the -dreamy wide-open young eyes. In this Chardin is a master. It is not only -obvious expressions of joy and sorrow, but those refined shades, so -difficult to seize, of observation, thoughtfulness, consideration, calm -reflection, quaintness, obstinacy or sulking, which he analyses in the -eyes of the child. There is the little girl playing with her doll, and -lavishing on her all the love and care of a tender mother. There is an -elderly, half-grown-up little lady teaching her younger brother the -mysteries of the alphabet. Then come the games and the tasks. They build -card-houses, blow bubbles, or are wholly engrossed in their -drawing-books and home-lessons. How attentive the little girl is whose -mother has just given her her first embroidery materials. How charmingly -embarrassed is the small boy whom she hears his lesson. And what trouble -she takes in the morning, that her darling shall be clean and tidy when -he goes to school. In one picture the cap on the little girl's head is -crooked, and her mother is putting it straight, whilst the child with a -pretty pride is peeping curiously in the glass. Again, there is the boy -just saying good-bye. He is neat and well combed; his playthings, too, -have been nicely tidied up, and his books are under his arm. His mother -takes his three-cornered hat off again in order to brush it properly. -When school is over, you see them sitting at dinner. The table is laid -with a snow-white cloth, and the cook is just bringing in a steaming -dish. It is touching to see how prettily the small boy clasps his hands -and says his grace. And when they are again off to afternoon school the -mother sits alone. She looks charming in her simple house-dress, with -the loose sleeves, her clean white apron and kerchief, her striped -petticoat and coquettish cap. Soon she takes her embroidery on her lap -and stoops forward to take a ball of wool out of her basket. Next she -sits before the fire in a cosy corner against a folding screen. A -half-opened book rests in her hand, a tea-cup stands close by, a homely -atmosphere of the living room hovers round her. Then, like a true -housewife, she takes up her house-keeping book, or goes into the kitchen -to help the cook, while she scrapes carrots or scrubs the cooking -utensils or brings in the meat from the larder. It is all rendered with -such truth and simplicity that one acquires an affection for Chardin, -who with his art got to the root of family life and bestowed upon it the -subtlest gifts of observation and generous comprehension, while none the -less his domesticity never became commonplace. - -[Illustration: DANIEL CHODOWIECKI.] - -His contemporary, _tienne Jeurat_, painted scenes at country fairs, and -_Jean Baptiste le Prince_ pictures of guardrooms and similar subjects. -In Holland _Cornelis Troost_ went on parallel lines with him. He -depicted the life of his age and of his nation--comic scenes, banquets, -weddings, and the like--in pastels or water colours, and that without -seeking inspiration from any of the Dutch classics, but with a vivid, -intelligent comprehension. Even Italian art ended in two "_genre_ -painters," the Venetians Rotari and Pietro Longhi, who have bequeathed -to us such charming little pictures of the life of that -age--fortune-tellers, dancing-masters, tailors, apothecaries, little -boys and girls at play or at their tasks. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - CHODOWIECKI. THE FAMILY PICTURE.] - -Germany presented no such great manifestation as Chardin, although there -too the tendency was the same. There too, after the devastation of the -Thirty Years' War, a moral, active _bourgeoisie_ had at last sprung up -that was prepared to take up the line which had been already laid down -by the English. Lessing was the first in this magnificent struggle for -evolution. He wrote, in his _Miss Sarah Sampson_, the first German -tragedy without the support of great mythical or historical heroes, and -without the stiff ponderousness of the Alexandrine. He declared, like -Moore, that helmets and diadems do not make tragic heroes; he even in -his _Minna_ set vividly before the eyes of his contemporaries something -in the immediate present, the Seven Years' War. And just as Lessing -liberated the German drama from the jurisdiction of Boileau, so art -began to mutiny against the classicism which had come in through the -medium of France, and which had been inherited from the age when it was -the pride of German courts to be small copies of Versailles. - -"How exceedingly abhorrent to me are our berouged puppet painters," -cries the young Goethe, in his essay on German style and art, "I could -not sufficiently protest; they have caught the eyes of the women with -theatrical poses, false complexions, and gaudy costumes; the wood -engravings of manly old Albrecht Drer, at whom tyros scoff, are more -welcome to me.... Only where intimacy and simplicity exist is all -artistic vigour to be found, and woe to the artist who leaves his hut to -squander himself in academic halls of state." - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - CHODOWIECKI. ALL SORTS AND CONDITIONS OF WOMEN.] - -_Daniel Chodowiecki_, with all his commonplaceness, is a genuine -expression of this phase of German art. He in Germany, Hogarth in -England, and Chardin in France, are products of the same tendency of the -age. After Lessing had produced in _Minna_ the first domestic German -tragedy, Chodowiecki, following the road of Hogarth and Chardin, was -able to become the painter of the German middle class. He is not a -master of such penetrating strength as they were, but he is no less an -artist of notable merit. He is certainly no genius--in fact almost a -handicraftsman, sober and philistine, but, like Hogarth, a self-made man -who in his whole artistic and personal outlook was rooted in the soil of -his city and of his age. Berlin society of that day was the basis of his -art, the daily life of house and street his domain. He began by -illustrating poems and depicting scenes out of the _Seven Years' War_ -and the _History of Charles the Great_, and went on from that to the -pleasant, homely life of the small _bourgeoisie_. Himself of the middle -classes, he chiefly worked for them, and with his sensitive and -dexterous graving tool he kept the liveliest and most exhaustive -chronicle of the German _bourgeoisie_ of that age. At times almost too -reasonable and prosaic, a genuine Nicolai, he has in other plates an -enchanting freshness, and--which should not be forgotten--is more of an -artist than Hogarth, since he is neither moralist nor satirist. His -object, without any moral after-thought, was the true and kindly -observation of life as displayed in the world around him. He took the -wholly nave delight of the genuine artist in turning everything he saw -into a picture. These chronicles of his have some, it may be but a -particle, of the spirit of Drer. Simultaneously, the young _Tischbein_ -delved into the past of the nation, the age of Conradin and the -Hohenstaufen, with the intention of finding there the simplicity which -the academic pictures had come to lack; and, later on, he painted in -Hamburg extremely realistic historical pictures of his own period, such -as that which is to be found in the Oldenburg Gallery: "Entry of General -Benigsen into Hamburg, 1814." He did good work too as a portrait -painter. In his best picture, "Goethe amongst the Ruins of Rome," the -head of the poet is energetic and full of strength, the colouring of an -excellent clear grey. - -In portrait painting in general, the revolution is reflected with -especial clearness. The artificial manner that had been copied from the -seventeenth century, the age of long perukes, gives way, slowly but -surely, to an ever-growing naturalness, simplicity, and originality. At -that time, while the spirit of Louis XIV still hovered over everything, -the passion of the individual to be king in his own sphere had -penetrated into the family. The honest citizen, therefore, would not let -himself be painted as such, but only as a prince,--he, himself, in gala -dress, with a pompous air, as stately as though he were giving an -audience to the spectator, his wife in silk and gold and lace; she has a -great mantle of state worn loose over her shoulders and hips, and looks -down with an assumption of grandeur on her grandchild, who is half -respectful and half inclined to make fun. The frame is as rich as the -costume, and probably bears a crown. We are with difficulty persuaded -that these are pictures of simple citizens, that the man, apart from the -hours during which he sat to the painter, is an industrious tradesman, -and the wife, glancing out so haughtily, most probably darned his -stockings. Their portraits seem to form part of an ancestral gallery. - -This age of princely state was followed by that of fraternity. In place -of berouged and postured portraits with allegorical accessories, there -appeared simple, unpretentious likenesses of human beings in their -work-a-day clothes; in place of stiff attitudes, _genre_ motives with -the easy naturalness of everyday life. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - CHODOWIECKI. THE MORNING COMPLIMENT.] - -In Berlin, ever since 1709, _Antoine Pesne_ had been for half a century -the centre of artistic life, and in his works the revolution may be -traced. Something familiar and intimate takes the place of that stately -pomp. The princes, hitherto, had liked to be represented in medival -armour or antique equipment; Pesne painted them in the costume of the -time. And in his portraits of his friends and his family circle he has -been still more unconstrained. There is the charming picture of 1718, in -the New Palace at Potsdam, which shows the painter himself with his wife -and his two children; the portrait of Schmidt the engraver, in the -Berlin Museum; and the beautiful picture of 1754 in the collection of -Colonel Von Berke, at Schemnitz, which depicts him again at the age of -seventy-one with his two daughters. Pesne is revealed in these -characteristic portraits, as well as in his character pictures in the -Dresden Gallery ("The Girl with the Pigeons," 1728, "The Cook with the -Turkey-hen," 1712), as a thoroughly sane and strong realist, of a kind -which became almost extinct in Berlin a hundred years later. - -In the next generation, in the _Sturm-und-Drang_ period, _Anton Graff_, -the Swiss, took the lead with his simple, domestic, honest, real -portraits. It was a happy disposition of fate that Graff's activity -just corresponded with the great period of the awakening of intellectual -life in Germany, that Lessing and Schiller, Bodmer and Gessner, Wieland -and Herder, Brger and Gellert, Christian Gottfried Krner and Lippert, -Moses Mendelssohn and Sulzer, and a long succession of other poets and -scholars of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, -found in him a portrait painter whose quick and agile hand left us their -features in the truest and most authentic manner. What and how robust -his art is, how clear and plastic the execution of the heads, how adroit -and infallible the technique! - -Besides Graff, there worked in Dresden _Christian Leberecht Vogel_, -likewise a most independent, picturesque, and sensitive artist, who, if -only for his pictures of children, deserves a place of honour in the -history of art in the eighteenth century. In the portrait of his two -boys, in the Dresden Gallery, the navet of child-life is observed with -such tenderness and rendered with such vigour as only Reynolds -understood. The boys are sitting close together on the ground. One, in a -brown frock, is holding a book on his knees, which the other, in a red -frock, with a whip in his hand, is looking at. The thoughtful expression -of the little ones is quite charming; the execution broad and strong, -the colour treatment delightful and tender. - -In Munich lived the excellent _Johann Edlinger_, the most industrious of -these sturdy masters, who were so modest and yet so capable. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - CHODOWIECKI. THE ARTIST'S NURSERY.] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux Arts._ - - ANTOINE PESNE. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AND DAUGHTERS.] - -In the domain of landscape the Continent produced no one who could be -compared with Gainsborough; but here, too, the English influence made -itself felt. It can be traced how the same feeling for nature which had -given birth to Thomson's _Seasons_ and Gainsborough's landscapes, -afterwards found expression in France and Germany, and dissipated the -prevailing taste in gardens. The seventeenth century--with the exception -of the Dutch--had set nature in order with the garden shears. As Lebrun -in his historical compositions endeavoured to outdo the Italians, so -Lentre's garden style exemplified the perfection and exaggeration of -the gardens of the Italian Renaissance, which themselves again were laid -out on the plan of the old Roman gardens from existing descriptions. A -garden reminded one more of state apartments, which one could only walk -through with measured steps, quietly and respectfully, than of nature, -where one is, and dares to be, human. Corresponding to this formally -planned, correctly measured style of garden there was a school of -landscape which improved nature on "artistic" principles, and, by the -arrangement of bits of nature, produced a world peculiarly full of -style. Landscapes were nicely laid-out parks, which, like the figure -pictures, made for an abstract beauty of mass and lines, and which, by -means of accessories, such as classical ruins, would turn one's thought -to the ancient world. Nature must not, as Batteux taught, be the -instructor of the artist, but the artist must select the parts and build -up his picture. Out of many leaves he takes only the most perfectly -developed, puts only such perfect leaves on one tree, and so obtains a -perfect tree. Let the essential of his production be _nature choisie_, a -selection of objects that "are capable of producing agreeable -impressions"; his aim "_le beau vrai qui est reprsent comme s'il -existait rellement et avec toutes les perfections qu'il peut -recevoir_." The eighteenth century went back from this "noble," -improved nature, step by step to the divine beauty of unimproved nature; -just as those masters untouched by the Romans, Drer and Altdorfer, -Titian and Rubens, Brouwer and Velasquez, had painted her. The great -Watteau, too, was here for the most part in advance of his age, in that, -instead of the stiffly designed stage scenery of Poussin, he gave -Elysian landscapes,--abodes of love, that now glisten in the sunshine of -the young morning, now are suffused with golden light and the misty -shadows of the evening twilight. The rose in her young bud is odorous, -the nightingale sings, the doves coo, the light boughs whisper to the -soft west wind, bright silver rivulets ripple, the wind sighs through -the tall branches. Watteau knew nature and loved her, and rendered her -in her transparent beauty with the intoxicated eyes of a lover. The -spirit of nature, not of humanity, dominates in his pictures. It is only -because nature is so lovely that man is so happy. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ _Photo, Mansell._ - - WATTEAU. THE MUSIC PARTY.] - -But still more modern is the effect, when instead of painting Elysian -landscapes with happy inhabitants, he drew mere bits of rural nature, -poor solitary regions in the neighbourhood of big towns, where -bricklayers are working on the scaffolding of some house, or peasants -are riding with their horses over some stony byway. Out of a number of -spirited drawings, this side of his perception in landscape is -especially notable in the picture in the New Palace at Potsdam, in the -left background of which a small stream flows past a farmhouse, whilst -in front a peasant is laboriously dragging a two-wheeled cart over the -rough ground. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ _Photo, Mansell._ - - WATTEAU. THE RETURN FROM THE CHASE.] - -It is interesting to observe, at that time, after Watteau and his -English predecessors, the widespread growth of this new feeling for -nature. Thomson was followed by Rousseau, who, on his lonely wanderings, -looked with moved eyes at "the gold of the corn crop, the purple of the -heather, the majesty of the trees, and the wonderful variety of flowers -and grasses." He delighted in the blossoming of spring, the copses and -rivulets, the song of birds, shady woods, and the landscapes of autumn, -where the reapers and vine-dressers were working. He is the author of -that lively feeling for nature that henceforth was aroused through the -whole of Europe. A breath of pure mountain air, a wholesome draught of -fresh water from Lake Leman, were brought suddenly into the sultry -atmosphere of salons, and filled people's hearts with a new and charming -sensation when Rousseau's works appeared. It was over with all efforts -of "stylists" as soon as Rousseau declared that everything was good just -as it came out of the lap of the universal mother, nature. - -[Illustration: WATTEAU. FTE CHAMPTRE.] - -Goethe, the pupil of Rousseau, presages, in his whole conception of -nature, something of the manifestation of the school of Fontainebleau. -He had something of Daubigny when, as Werther, he lies on the bank of -the stream and looks down thoughtfully at the worms and small -insects. He makes one think of Dupr or Corot when he says: "As nature -declines upon autumn, within me and around me it grows autumn"; or, "I -could not now draw so much as a stroke, and I have never been a greater -painter than at the present moment"; or, "Never have I been happier, nor -has my perception of nature, down to the pebble or the grass beneath me, -been fuller and more intimate. Yet,--I know not how I can express -myself, everything swims and oscillates before my soul, so that I can -seize no outline. A great, shadowy whole waves before my soul, my -perception grows indistinct before it, even as my eyes do." - -[Illustration: GESSNER. LANDSCAPE (ETCHING).] - -Thus were the French gardens delivered by the English. Just as figure -painting renounced lofty, architectural, formal composition, so those -bisected and upholstered gardens were supplanted by irregular and, as it -were, accidental bits of nature. People took no more trouble, in -Rousseau's phrase, "to dishonour nature by seeking to beautify her," but -laid out gardens in harmony with Goethe's remark in _Werther_: "A -feeling heart, not a scientific art of gardening, suggested the plan." -Close to Versailles, near the box-tree patterns of Lentre, lay the -Petit Trianon, with its pond, its brook, and its dairy, where the -unfortunate Marie Antoinette used to dream. And if painting still -loitered on its preliminary return to nature, that only implied that the -great artists--they only came in 1830!--were not yet born. Great artists -can only raise themselves on the shoulders of their predecessors, whose -value lies in their utility. The French landscapes of the eighteenth -century, seen in the light of historical development, are of no -importance; but, nevertheless, they gave a considerable stimulus in -that they sought to animate the style of Poussin with a closer -perception of nature. Hubert Robert is certainly strongly decorative, -but he has a light touch; one cannot take him at his word, but he is -intelligent, and has sometimes grey and green tones that are soft and -beautiful. Joseph Vernet painted coast scenery, views of harbours, -storms at sea, likewise with decorative, superficial effects of light; -he let flashes of lightning streak black clouds, sun-rays dance over -lightly ruffled waves, silver moonshine play mysteriously upon the -water, and caused conflagrations to break out and red flames to shoot up -to heaven. He is somewhat inane and motley in his colouring. But he had -ceased to see in the parts of nature nothing but materials for the -construction of nicely fitting scenery. He no longer attempted to speak -to the reason by means of lines, but to touch the soul through humour, -and he employed in his scenery not only buildings and ruins, gods and -ancient shepherds, but also modern groups of every kind. - -In Switzerland, the charming etchings and water-colours of _Solomon -Gessner_ must be especially mentioned. Ludwig Richter, indeed, pointed -them out as the eighteenth century works which, after the engravings of -Chodowiecki, he loved the best. Gessner venerated Claude, and had an -enthusiasm for Poussin, but his pictures have no traces of the lofty -style of the heroic school of landscape. He sketched his native meadows, -trees, and brooks; he loved all that was small and secluded and cosy, -arbours and hedges, quiet little gardens and idyllic nooks. He -approached everything with a very childlike and faithful observation of -nature. A second Swiss, Ludwig Hess, dedicated a similar subtile sense -of nature and loving zeal as much to his native Switzerland as to the -Roman Campagna. - -[Illustration: GESSNER. LANDSCAPE (ETCHING).] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - GUARDI. VENICE.] - -The German _Philip Hackert_ has been prejudiced rather than profited by -the monument which Goethe erected to him. As Goethe's enthusiasm was not -in due proportion with Hackert's importance, he ceased later to attract -attention, though this he did not merit, as he was always a vigorous and -healthy landscape painter. He did not see nature with the tender -sensibility of the Swiss. He looked at a landscape somewhat insipidly, -as Chodowiecki at his models. But his drawing is sober, the atmosphere -of his pictures clear and fresh; he cannot be tedious in his -composition. In Dresden there lived Johann Alexander Thiele, who roamed -through Thringen and Mecklenburg as a landscape painter. Even in Italy -landscapes were the most independent performances which the eighteenth -century had brought forth there. There worked in Rome the Netherlander, -Vanvitelli, who depicted in graceful water-colours Roman and Neapolitan -street life; and Giovanni Paolo Pannini, the _peintre des ftes -publiques_, in whose pictures groups of richly coloured figures moved -through splendid palaces. Venice was the home of the Canaletti. In -_Antonio Canale's_ town pictures of Venice, Rome, and London there is at -once so subtle an atmospheric movement, the water is so clear, the air -so transparent, that even if they represent mere streets and buildings, -they yet leave an impression of landscape achieved in a broad, pictorial -method. _Bernardo Canaletto_ produces an effect by the fine, cool, damp -light of his northern studies even simpler and more intimate, while by -his discovery that sunshine does not--as it was hitherto believed--gild -but silver the object it falls on, he became one of the fathers of -realistic landscape. The most ingenious, however, of the school of -Canale, not to say one of the cleverest landscape painters of the -century, was _Francesco Guardi_. Antonio Canale was a great artist, and -shows it never better than in his distinguished etchings, but as a -painter he interests the collector more than the connoisseur. There his -qualities are too often petrified into an excessive formality; he shows -something too much of the _camera obscura_. Guardi is ingenious and -startling. Where you have accuracy in Canale, in him you find spirit. -Canale shows us the real Venice, Guardi shows it as we have dreamed it -to be. He has not Canale's knowledge of perspective and architecture, -but he fascinates us. He is a musician and a poet whose palette resounds -with the purest harmonies. In his pictures the whole seductive legend of -the fallen Queen of the Adriatic abides. Garlanded gondolas glide -peaceful and fairy-like, majestic as vessels in some distant wonderland, -over the clear, green water of the canals, beneath the high, marble -palaces, which mirror their columns and balconies, their arches and -their loggias in the stream. Foreign ambassadors pass in great state -through the Piazza di San Marco; all that proud, Venetian nobility -greets them; and thick throngs of people in their Sunday attire move to -and fro beneath the Hall of the Procuration. Gay bands of musicians row -along the Piazzetta and the Riva. A moist breeze sweeps over the water; -the sunshine, now subdued and mellow, now dancing coquettishly, plays -upon the water or on the houses. Francesco Guardi, the magician of -Venice, is an animated, exquisite, always ingenious _improvisatore_, -strong as few others are in the direct transference of his personal -impression to canvas. Every stroke of his brush takes effect,--in each -one of his pictures one sees the nervous exaltation of the hand; and -that gives him a power of attraction which, compared with Canale, is -like that of the clay model, in which the hand of the sculptor is still -perceptible, compared with the cold, marble statue. - -Even Spain, which, except for the colossal figure of Velasquez, had so -far produced no painters of landscape--even Spain, after the middle of -the century, turned into this road. _Don Pedro Rodriguez de Miranda_ -painted his broad, clear, and vigorously observed highland studies; _Don -Mariano Ramon Sanchez_ his small views of towns and harbours. - -And, as in England, hand in hand with that came paintings of animals. - -In France, _Franois Canova_ was working, the painter of huge battle -scenes and small pictures of animals; _Jean Louis de Marne_, who was -famous for his cattle, market scenes, village pictures, and the like; -and the great _Jean Baptiste Oudry_, who painted with breadth and -freedom animals alive and dead, wild and tame, still-life of every kind. -In Augsburg lived _Johann Elias Riedinger_, whose field of activity -embraced the entire animal world, dogs and horses, stags and roes, wild -boars, chamois, bears, lions, tigers, elephants, and the -hippopotamus--which he depicted with fine observation, both in their -proud solitude and at strife with men. - -If we cast one more glance back to the road which art had travelled -since the commencement of the century, we can have no doubt as to the -end which was proportionately aimed at in all countries. Until quite -recently a courtly, aristocratic art had shed its light upon the whole -of Europe. In the seventeenth century the Dutch alone had maintained -their isolation. They who entered fresh into art, and had to break with -no tradition, gave at that time the first expression to the new spirit, -in that they resolutely recalled art from its courtly surroundings to -the humbler dwellings of the middle classes. They _painted_ what Drer -and the "little masters" had only graved upon wood blocks and copper -plates. Still, they wished to paint these things less for their own -sakes than because so intimate a light was shed upon them. Through -elements of light they contrived to cast over everyday moments a sort of -fairy inspiration. Watteau and his successors made a further advance in -the conquest of the visible world, in that they desired to paint their -age, for its own sake, in all its grace; and by the middle of the -century we find this new, intimate, familiar art, independent of ancient -tradition, triumphing all along the line. "Sublime" painting is more and -more forsaken. Art becomes more and more indigenous to her world and -age. Aristocratic Watteau is succeeded by Hogarth, Greuze, Chardin, and -Chodowiecki, who treat the Third Estate no longer in the Dutch -_chiaroscuro_, but in all its heavy reality as a valid object of art. -Instead of that lofty, majestic, vainglorious painting of mere -representations, which was the outcome of Cinquecento, and which at the -expiration of the seventeenth century had sunk, through abstraction, -into something uniform, trivial, and tedious, there appeared on all -sides an art which was simple and sincere, which plunged into the life -of every day, observed man in his relations with nature, with his -fellows, with his faithful animals, and with his household goods--an art -which created the variety of its representations out of its own -experience. So with landscape, the most modern branch of art; it reached -in the schools of all nations a greater significance--at least, in -extent--than it had ever possessed in the history of art. And this -development proceeded without its being established that any one country -had direct influence on any other. The ideas hung in the atmosphere; -they were the ideas of the century. It is as though the departing age -would hold a mirror before us--a magic mirror--which foretells the -future; as though it would point out that nineteenth century art, -advancing further along this road, should be domestic-human, and that it -should find in landscape its most appropriate expression. - -It was not given to painting to proceed straight forward in this course, -for through favour, partly of the changed current of literature, partly -of the revolution, the flame of reactionary classicism shot up brightly -once more before it expired. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN GERMANY - - -A hundred years ago there lived a man of the name of Asmus Carstens; and -he was the pioneer and founder of the new German art. That has become -since Fernow a standing maxim in manuals of the history of art. -Dilettantism, however, is not an element, but an end. It is on this -account, therefore, that later times will see in Carstens, not a -pioneer, but only one of the close followers of that tendency of which -the founders were the brothers Caracci, and the offshoots Lebrun, -Lairesse, and Van der Werff. It is, at all events, historically clear -that Hogarth and Gainsborough, Watteau, Greuze, Chardin, and Goya were -the men to whom the future belonged. Their art survived the overthrow of -the Classicalism represented by Mengs and Carstens, which, through -external circumstances, once more got the upper hand for a short time, -and it became the foundation on which, after the disappearance of this -tendency inherited from the past, the moderns built further. The former -represented progress, because they moved forwards; Carstens and David, -reaction, because they looked backwards--backwards to an age which had -long ago been buried. - -There is always danger to a living art in the contact with any great art -of the past. Only those who are themselves highly gifted may hope to -emulate the great ones of the earlier centuries; lesser geniuses perish -in the attempt. Painters like Leonardo and Raphael, like Titian and -Poussin, taking the Greeks as their masters, produced immortal works, -and Goethe and Schiller proved to us that the Hellenic spirit is still -alive and active in our midst. But would anyone dare to mention Mengs -and Carstens in the same breath with these giants? - -The close of the eighteenth century was a period of antiquarian revival. -The ruins of Pstum had been brought to light, Greek vases and Roman -monuments had become known to the public by the works of Hamilton and -Piranesi. In 1762 Stuart and Revett published their splendid work on the -_Antiquities of Athens_. To a German, however, was to fall the honour of -becoming the hero of the archological period. The _History of Ancient -Art_, by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, appeared in 1764, and this writer -devoted his literary energies to the hymning of the glories of the -re-discovered treasures of antiquity. In the realm of pictorial art he -may also be looked upon as the chosen of fate. Already, nine years -before the appearance of his _History of_ _Art_, he had given, at the -age of thirty-eight, his first writing to the world, _Thoughts upon the -Imitation of Greek Works_, in which the reformation motive is epitomised -in this sentence: "The sole means for us to become--ay, if possible, -inimitably great--is the imitation of the ancients." - -From Winckelmann the stone kept on rolling. "In Greek sculpture the -painter can attain to the most sublime conception of beauty, and learn -what he must lend to nature in order to give dignity and propriety to -his imitation," writes Solomon Gessner in 1759. In 1762 Hagedorn of -Dresden deplored, in his _Treatise on Painting_, that "Terburg and Metsu -never showed us fair Andromache amongst her industrious women, instead -of Dutch sempstresses." In 1766 Lessing wrote his _Laocon_, and, like -Winckelmann, saw in the sculpture of the Greeks the ideal to be -imitated. From this point forward he despised landscape and _genre_ -painting, and especially everything which illustrates intimate emotions -and actions, and would confine the composition of pictures to an -arrangement of two or three "ideal figures which please by physical -beauty." Soon afterwards, with almost astonishing partiality, Goethe -intervened in a notable manner on behalf of Classicism with the most -flagrant contradiction of the ideas of his youth. "Nature alone," he had -said in _Werther_, "makes the great artist"; and in his essay upon -_German Method and Art_ he aimed this sentence at Winckelmann and his -followers: "You yourselves, admirable beings, to whom it was given to -enjoy the highest beauty, you are hurtful to genius; it will be raised -up and borne along on no strange wings, were they even the wings of the -dawn." In the same essay occurs the beautiful passage: "If art is -produced out of an inward, single, independent conception, untroubled -by, unconscious indeed, of, all that is extraneous, then whether she be -born of rough wildness or of cultivated sensibility, she is complete and -living." Soon afterwards he wrote again these great words: "Rembrandt -appears to me in his biblical subjects as a true saint who saw God -present everywhere, at every step, in the chamber and in the fields, and -did not need the surrounding pomp of temples and sacrifices to feel -drawn towards Him,"--an observation made at a time when the academic and -erudite writer on art was still for years to perceive in the biblical -pictures of the great Dutchman only a crude conception of form. In -another passage, upon the frescoes of Mantegna, in the Church of the -Anchorite, at Padua, there occur the following sentences, showing the -deepest historical perception: "How sharp and sure a modernity stands -out in these pictures! From this modernity, which is quite real, and not -merely seeming, with factitious effects, speaking only to the -imaginative faculty, but solid, detailed, and conscientiously -circumscribed, and which at the same time has something austere and -industrious and painstaking--from this issued subsequent painters such -as Titian; and now the liveliness of their genius, the energy of their -nature, enlightened by the spirit of their predecessors, built up -through their strength, was able to soar ever higher and higher, to rise -from earth and create divine but real figures." But, alas! later on he -did not draw the conclusion which followed quite logically from these -observations for the judgment of contemporary German art. He came back -from Italy as a disciple and follower of Winckelmann's writings on art. -"Art has once for all, like the works of Homer, been written in Greek, -and he deceives himself who believes that it is German." - -Something pagan entered into his soul, a breath from the calm of -Olympus. He derided his earlier Gothic inclinations, contemptuous of all -that was opposed to Greek notions of form, mild and indulgent to all -that bore at least the outward semblance of the antique. He preferred a -cold ideal manner to what was natural, and held Greek art the absolutely -valid model. From it should be derived a fixed canon, a table of -accepted laws, to be the standard for the artist of our own days, and of -every age. The _Prize Essays_, which he published with Heinrich Meyer in -the _Propylen_, and later in the _Jena Literary Journal_, required the -treatment of subjects exclusively from the Hellenic legendary cycles, -"whereby the artist should become accustomed to come out from his own -age and surroundings"; the composition of pictures was to correspond -strictly with the style of the antique frieze. - -Amongst his contemporaries voices were not wanting to point out how -fatal this programme was. Notably, Wilhelm Heinse, in 1776, wrote this -golden sentence: "Art can only direct itself to the people with whom it -lives. Every one works for the people amongst whom fate has thrown him, -and seeks to plumb its heart. Every country has its own distinctive art, -just as it has its own climate, its scenery, its own taste, and its own -drink." - -Similarly, Klopstock opposed Winckelmann's theories in these lines-- - - "Nachahmen soll ich nicht und dennoch nennet, - Dein ewig Lob nur immer Griechenland. - Wem Genius in seinem Busen brennet, - Der ahm' den Griechen nach!--der Griech' erfand." - -Again, in the _German Republic of Letters_, in the chapter "On High -Treason": "It is high treason for any one to maintain that the Greeks -cannot be surpassed." In a letter to Goethe, in the year 1800, Schiller -wrote: "The antique was a manifestation of its age which can never -return, and to force the individual production of an individual age -after the pattern of one quite heterogeneous, is to kill that art which -can only have a dynamic origin and effect." Madame de Stal, in her book -on _Germany_, says: "If nowadays the fine arts should be confined to the -simplicity of the ancients, we should not then be able to attain to the -original strength which distinguished them, while we should lose that -intimate, composite feeling for life which is especially found in us. -Simplicity in art would easily turn with the moderns into coldness and -affectation, whereas with the ancients it was full of life." In 1797 -Counsellor Hirth published in Schiller's _Hor_ his well-known treatise -on _Beauty in Art_, which, in opposition to the inanimate type of beauty -of Winckelmann, upheld the characteristic as the first principle in art. -Most remarkable, however, is the breadth of historical outlook which was -peculiar to Herder, and the stern actuality with which in his _Plastik_, -and in the _Vierten_ _Kritischen Wldchen_, he turned against "those -pitiful critics, those wretched and narrow rules of art, that -bitter-sweet prattle of universal beauty, through which the younger -generation is being ruined, which is nauseating to the master, and -which, nevertheless, the rabble of connoisseurs takes in its mouth as -words of wisdom.... Shadows and sunrise, lightning and thunder, the -brook and the flame the sculptor cannot model; but is that therefore to -be a reason why it should not be done by the painter? What other law has -painting, what other power and function, than to depict the great scheme -of nature with all her manifestations, in their great and beautiful -aspect? And with what magic it does this! They are not clever who -despise landscape painting, the fragments of nature of the great harmony -of creation, who depreciate it or entirely forbid it to the sincere -artist. Is a painter not to be a painter? Is he to turn statues with his -brush, and fiddle with his colours, just as it may please their antique -taste? To represent the scheme of creation seems vulgar to them; just as -though heaven and earth were not better than an old statue.... Doubtless -Greek sculpture stands in the sea of time like a lighthouse, but it -should be only a friend and not a commander. Painting is a scheme of -magic, as vast as the world and as history, and certainly not every -figure in it can or ought to be a statue. In a picture no single figure -is everything; and if they are all equally beautiful, no one then is -beautiful any longer. They become a dull monotony of long-limbed Greek -figures with straight noses, who all stand there and parade and take as -little part in the action as possible. Now, when this misrepresentation -of beauty cries scorn at the same time upon the whole conception, upon -history, upon character, upon action, and this openly attacks that as a -lie, there comes a discord, something insupportable, into painting, -which certainly the antique pedant is unaware of, but which is felt all -the more by the true friend of the antique. And finally, our own actual -age, the most fruitful subjects of history, the liveliest characters, -all feeling of a simple truth and precision, will be _antiquarianised_ -away. Posterity will stand and gape at such fantasies in practice and -theory, and will not know what we were, in what age we lived, nor what -brought us to this wretched folly, to the wish to live in another age, -in another nation and climate, and thereby to abandon, or vitiate -deplorably, the whole order of nature and history." - -These sentences, however, stood in isolation, or else they came too -late. Immediately after it had been heralded by the literary movement, -after the archologists had verbally announced its aim, formulated its -principles and laws, German art turned into the new paths. "It happened -for the first time in the history of art," wrote Goethe, "that important -talents took pleasure in disciplining themselves by the past, and so -founding a new epoch in art." - - "Des Deutschen Knstler's Vaterland, - Ist Griechenland, ist Griechenland" - -was sung in the academies. And this violent grasping after the ideal of -a foreign race brought a bitter revenge, since not one of the artists -who now appeared had the genius to create anything new out of the old. - -[Illustration: _Photo Union, Munich._ - - MENGS. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -The disciples of Winckelmann had not been, like Goethe and Schiller, -vigorous naturalists until the spirit of ancient times had looked upon -them, and they were consequently still less able to resist her glance. -They entered upon the new road not with that generative impulse of the -creative mind, whose superabundance did not know what course it should -take, what stream it should find. They adopted the forms, as they had -been provided by the greater ages, without any doubt as to their -absolute excellence, or the least attempt at any happy innovation. And -if they "have better understood" the Greeks than their predecessors in -Italy and France were able to do, then one is never less like an -original nature than when one imitates them faithfully. Winckelmann's -road to inimitability led not only to a more hollow and lifeless -Classicism than there ever had been, to a more cheerless and unpleasant -art than any which the school of Bologna had produced. It tended, above -all, since the thinking people had thought out the classic idea--which -the other nations had not--to the sacrifice of all pictorial technique, -of the whole knowledge which the age had up till then possessed. There -is a legend in the history of the Church, that at the time of the -donation of Constantine a voice was heard from Heaven: "This day has -poison entered into the body of the Church." To the German art of our -century this poison was the writings of Winckelmann. - -First of all it was _Anton Rafael Mengs_, whose originally strong and -great talent was distorted by the counsels of the learned. As in the -works of the Caracci, those only are to-day of any interest which reveal -themselves least as eclectics and most as children of the seventeenth -century, so with Mengs--he is only enjoyable now where he did not try to -be antique, but sympathised without too much reflection on the -traditions of his age. He is particularly so in his fine pastel -portraits in the Dresden Gallery, which are wholly influenced by the -taste for _rococo_, and are its last expiring manifestation. They are a -testimony that it was not without some justice that the Apelles of -Dresden was called by his contemporaries the most remarkable German -painter of the eighteenth century. Rosalba Carriera and Liotard seem -weak and insipid beside him; Reynolds only at his best had that -characteristic clearness, that plastic energy of modelling, and that -life-like colouring. There is nothing insipid or affected, nothing of -that simpering affability that his successors brought into vogue. And -when we remember that they proceeded from a youth of sixteen, the -strength and simplicity of intuition seem incredible. In his later -portraits, too, painted in oil, the better ones are directly classic; -very noble in their clear, subtile, grey tone, strikingly alive, and, -withal, of an extraordinary independence which shows no leaning upon any -other master whatever. Mengs belongs to those portrait painters who look -into the souls of their sitters, and he ranks, in works like his -portrait of himself, in the Munich Gallery, amongst the best portrait -painters of the eighteenth century. - -[Illustration: MENGS. MOUNT PARNASSUS.] - -In his huge ecclesiastical paintings he is the son of that period which -had just commenced to be touched by the pallor of thought, and groped -eclectically now in this direction and now in that. "First of all must -the weeds be rooted up," wrote Zanotti in his _Directions to a Young Man -upon Painting_. "And then we must go back again to Cimabue and Giotto, -and again, a few years later, to Buonarotti and Sanzio, and their noble -successors whose footsteps are no longer sought or followed by any one. -But when such a happy resurrection will take place, God knows!" The old -Ismael Mengs believed that that was his concern; he chose Antonio da -Allegri and Rafael Sanzio as sponsors for his son. Anton Rafael should -become the eclectic reformer of art, and as he was probably the first -painter who, by the express permission of the Elector of Saxony, was -allowed to visit the hitherto inaccessible Dresden Gallery, this wish -was easy of accomplishment. - -[Illustration: ANGELICA KAUFFMANN. _Cassell & Co._] - -He was quick in freeing himself from the immediate tradition of the age, -and in harmony with the teaching of the Caracci, in returning to the -so-called "higher" models of painting. When one runs across such of his -pictures in some gallery--notably his altar pieces--they strike one as -the works of some good master of the seventeenth century whose name one -cannot, for the moment, recollect. His famous "Holy Night," in which he -wished to enter into rivalry with Correggio, has something of a Maratti -about it, only the heads are more vacant and insipid. - -It is that unfortunate "Parnassus" in the Villa Albani which first marks -the collapse of this great talent. When, upon the advice of his friend -Winckelmann, he turned from the study of Raphael and Correggio to that -of the antique, Mengs forfeited not only the remnant of all that was -essentially natural, but even all the picturesque qualities which had -hitherto distinguished him. After painting had so long taken sculpture -in tow, now sculpture seemed anxious to be revenged on it, and there was -a manifestation of those prettily painted figures in plaster which for -some score years afterwards paraded in every German picture. - -For Winckelmann's mistake, as Herder had already pointed out with great -justice, consisted not only in this, that he set up for imitation a -departed ideal for the consciousness of his contemporaries, but notably -in that he obtruded principles upon modern painting which might be valid -in ancient sculpture. Since the antique ideal was solely a plastic one, -and neither the Greek Prussian nor, later, Meister Ephraim was clear as -to the difference between sculpture and painting, they practically -recommended the painter to work after plastic models. - -The fact that Lessing, in discussing the limits of painting in his -_Laocon_, took a work of sculpture as his starting-point, proves that -to him the laws and conditions of both arts were valued as the same. -They denounced the confusion of the art of painting with poetry, and -instead advocated the confounding of painting with sculpture, which was -no less hazardous. - -[Illustration: ANGELICA KAUFFMANN. PORTRAIT OF A LADY AS A VESTAL.] - -In this manner there came an alien element into Mengs' hitherto quite -pictorial apprehension; a vain and exclusively reproductive ideality -deprived his figures of the last remnant of truth to nature which he had -formerly understood how to give them. It is difficult to believe that -Winckelmann's paroxysm of friendship should have burst out, upon the -completion of the "Parnassus," into this pan: "During the whole of the -new age a more beautiful work has not appeared in painting; even Raphael -would have bowed his head." The whole is nothing more than a -_mlange_ of plagiarism and _banal_ reminiscences, without soul or -perception, without freshness or individuality; a mere plastic -warehouse, and not even a painted antique group, but a daubed -compilation of solitary statues, colder and more lifeless than any -Baltoni ever painted. There was an audacious, strong aim, genial -strength and an overwhelming flow of fantasy in the contemporary works -of the great _dcorateur_ Tiepolo; here there is a mere work of -intellect which with philological aid builds up the composition entirely -of borrowed materials. The only thing which even still points in this -work to the good old times is a more solid study of form and colour than -all that which originated in Germany during the next fifty years. The -figures are painted with a strength and bloom which are still quite -worthy of the _rococo_. - -The "good _Angelica_" is the second representative of this phase of -transition. She, too, at the persuasion of her friend Winckelmann, -clothed herself as an ancient Vestal, but her true woman's nature left -in her classical raiment still a neat fashion of _rococo_. Through her -intercourse with Winckelmann she became somewhat of a "blue-stocking," -and studied the historians of antiquity in order to find there subjects -like Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, Agrippina with the urn of -Germanicus, Phryne, and the like. Still more there were the tender -legends of the ancients, out of whose store she satisfied her patrons: -Adonis at the chase, Psyche, Ariadne abandoned by Theseus or found by -Bacchus, the death of Alcestis, Hero and Leander. In these she is soft -to the point of sentimentality, and pleasant to the point of nausea. -Goethe says of her with justice: "The forms and traits of the figures -have little variety, the expression of the passions no force, the heroes -look like gentle boys, or girls in disguise." But he also says of her: -"The lightness, grace in form, colour, conception, and treatment is the -one ruling quality of the numerous works of our fair artist. No living -painter has surpassed her either in grace of representation or in the -taste and capacity with which she handles her brush." And this decision, -too, can still be endorsed. Angelica knew how to impart to those clear -lines and forms demanded by Winckelmann a grace now coquettish, now -sentimental, but always extremely lovable. She has struck soft -and--notably in her portraits of women--very tender colour chords. - -She and Mengs were the last who still possessed considerable technical -knowledge. Almost everything which has survived of the tradition of -craftsmanship in Germany in the nineteenth century is traceable to -Mengs' influence, and that fact so offended his successors that they no -longer counted him as one of them, but put him contemptuously aside as a -"mannerist painter by recipe." "Such technical knowledge," wrote Goethe, -"hinders that complete abstraction and elevation over the real, which is -asked of identical representations in sculpture, which merely furnish -forms in their highest purity and beauty." "Colouring, light and -shadows, do not give such value to a painting as noble contour alone," -wrote Winckelmann, and these sentences became the starting-point of the -next generation. Winckelmann's error when he recommended the imitation -of Greek sculpture to the modern painter consisted still further in -this, that he confused "noble simplicity and quiet grandeur" with lack -of colour and coldness. Herder had written well: "In distinction to the -compact harmony of form in sculpture, painting has her harmonious unity -in colour and light. I do not know why many theorists should have spoken -so contemptuously of what is called _chiaroscuro_, the grouping of light -and shade; it is the instrument of genius with every scholar and master, -the eye with which he sees, the flashing, spiritual sea with which he -sprinkles everything, and on which, indeed, every outline also depends. -This divine, spiritual sea of light, this fairyland of adjusted light -and shade, is the business of painting: why should we fight against -nature, and not allow every art to do what it alone can do and do best?" - -[Illustration: _Photographic Union, Munich._ - - CARSTENS. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -His words died away. The philosophic tendency of the century, which -sought to penetrate into the "soul" of things, and to recreate things -from the throne of the universe of the abstract, tried its hand also -upon painting. By abstracting from the manifestation of colour, and -touching upon form and line, it came to believe that in these plastic -elements it had discovered the Essential of which it was in search. - -Once on the road to execute statues in paint, the question ensued, Ought -we to paint our statues? And as that age, following in Winckelmann's -track, understood no word of the significance which the specific, -picturesque principles had for the Greeks, it was only logical that they -should endeavour to reconcile the idea of immaculate whiteness with that -of classical beauty, to see pure beauty in absence of colour, and in -consequence to accentuate the question, Ought we to paint our -_pictures_? To painters the most suspicious element in a painting became -the paint! There is nothing more urgent for them to do than to deprive -themselves ascetically of all coloristic means of expression. Painting -is shown to be an essential form of corruption--"The brush is become -the ruin of our art," wrote Cornelius--and there commences the era of a -cartoon style hitherto unprecedented, which is to be carried on by the -most highly endowed in the most earnest fashion. While during the -_rococo_ the sense of colour had reached, through a piquant arrangement -of the most tender and variegated tones, its highest point of -refinement, there followed now as a reaction an absolute lack of colour. -The ideal is seen in an abstract beauty of line, colour as a secondary -matter and a vain show. It was of as much value as a vari-coloured -dress, which nature could put on or off, without being less nature -thereby. Amongst painters there was talk of nothing but outlines. This -line style, whose world is not the wall or the canvas, but white paper, -can do with a proportionately meagre study of nature. Why, therefore, -when the ideal was so easy of attainment, drudge in the academy, where, -moreover, since the introduction of Mengs' Classicism, universal -desolation of the spirit and doctrinaire pedantry reigned? As Mengs had -broken with the taste of the _rococo_, so the younger generation broke -with its technique, whilst they left the academy in open -dissatisfaction, and threw off in contempt the whole paraphernalia of -technical traditions. - -_Carstens_ plays the momentous rle in German art as the first who trod -this path. He has more individuality than Mengs; _antiquarianising_ with -him is not exclusively an external derivation and a cold imitation: he -lives in the antique; the world of the Greek poets is his spiritual -home, and their profound thoughts find in him a subtle interpreter. But -he has, at the same time, the melancholy fame of being the first of the -frivolous to renounce the national inheritance, the knowledge bequeathed -by the _rococo_ age, and so definitely to cut the chain which should -otherwise have connected German art of the nineteenth century with that -of the eighteenth. - -Through the _Investigations of Beauty in Painting_, by Daniel Webb, -which was founded on Winckelmann's _Thoughts on Imitation_, the seed of -Hellenism was already sown in the youth's soul. He heard talk of the -dwarf intelligences of the age; how the studios of inferior artists were -full of gaping visitors, whilst the halls of the Vatican stood deserted. -"Learn the taste for beauty in the antique," the cooper's apprentice -learns from Webb's works. "Let us meditate upon the style of the -painter's art in the 'Laocon,' with regard to the fighter. Notice the -sublimity in the divine character of Apollo. Let us stand hushed before -the exquisite beauty of the Venus di Medici. These are the extreme -incentives of the art of drawing.... The Belvedere Apollo and the -daughter of Niobe offer us an ideal of nobility and beauty. Raphael's -drawing never reached to such a height of perfection as we find in the -statues of the Greeks.... Whither do you carry me, gods and demigods and -heroes who live in marble? I follow your call, and, Imagination! thy -eternal laws. I go into the Villa Medici and breathe there the purest -air. I stretch myself on a flowery plot, the shadow of the orange trees -covers me;--there, unmolested, I gaze at a group full of the highest -feminine beauty. Niobe, my beloved, beautiful mother of beautiful -children, thou fairest among women, how I love thee!" So dreamed Asmus -Jacob in the wine-cellar at Eckernfrde, or in his solitary chamber by -the dim light of his lamp, as he had been seized with giddiness before -all the great and marvellous revelations of art which this book had -afforded him. In his enraptured fantasy he painted the hour nearer and -nearer when he should attain to a sight of the works which were -described. Could he have looked into the future, what a picture would -have come before his eyes! Would he have recognised himself in the -broken-down man, with the pale countenance, the grief-marked expression, -and the decrepit figure, who in Rome gazed spellbound at the Colossus of -Monte Cavallo? - -[Illustration: CARSTENS. SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS.] - -Our Holsteiner was two-and-twenty years old when he discarded the -cooper's apron and entered the Copenhagen Academy, being then too old -for any regular training. His head was so full of "inventions" that "it -could not enter his mind to begin from the beginning." "Drawing from the -life did not satisfy me; the fellow, too, who sat as my model, although -he was for the rest well built, seemed to me, in contrast with the -antique from which I had attained a higher ideal of beauty, so petty and -imperfect that I thought I could easily learn to draw a better figure if -I only confined myself to that. I resolved not to visit the academy, in -spite of the other artists impressing upon me the importance and -utility of academic study." He stayed daily, instead, for hours together -before the casts in the antique room, and "a holy feeling of adoration, -almost compelling me to tears, pervaded me. There I never drew at all -after an antique. When I attempted it, it was as though all my emotion -was chilled by it. I thought that I should learn more if I gazed at them -with great studiousness." - -[Illustration: CARSTENS. ARGO LEAVING THE TRITON'S MERE.] - -Thus he reached, as Fernow says, the method whereby he "did not tread -the ordinary way of imitation, gradually progressing to a special -invention, but began at once with invention." There he was the true -child of his age. At a period whose creative power found its highest -expression in philosophy and poetry, the painter strove for the -reputation only of being the _poet_ of his pictures. And Carstens -encountered the old tragedians and philosophic writers with a fine, -poetic understanding. "The Greek Heroes with Cheiron," "Helen at the -Skan Gate," "Ajax," "Phoenix and Odysseus in the Tent of Achilles," -"Priam and Achilles," "The Fates," "Night with her Children," "Sleep and -Death," "The passage of Megapenthes," "Homer before the People," "The -Golden Age"--all these prints have really something of the noble -simplicity and quiet harmony of Greek art. - -[Illustration: CARSTENS. CHILDREN OF THE NIGHT.] - -It can be understood, then, that such subjects should be in the highest -degree interesting to an archologist. When Carstens, in April 1795, was -organising the famous exhibition of his collected works in Rome, Fernow -published in Wieland's _Deutscher Merkur_ a discourse in which he -celebrated him as the creator of a new epoch. From the very first, -however, an equally resolute opposition was excited in artistic circles. -The painter Mller, nicknamed "The Devil's Miller," who at that time -wandered about Rome as a cicerone, proves that Winckelmann's principles, -even at the threshold of the century, by no means met with universal -acceptance. The _Writing of Herr Mller, Painter in Rome, upon the -Exhibition of Herr Professor Carstens_, with the motto _Amicus Plato, -Amicus Socrates, magis amica veritas_, was published in 1797 in -Schiller's _Hor_. Carstens imitated; he worked rather by reminiscence -and understanding than by fantasy. Isolated figures do not bring their -individuality to an expression. Then he pointed out the models, -discussed the lack of colour, and proved numerous sins of the -draughtsman against nature in detail. The artist must ever seek to find -characteristic expression; composition comes in the second degree. -Technique, even if the previous age has been an epoch of fabrication, -must always stand in the foreground; it is not only from the artist, but -from the connoisseur, that knowledge is demanded, and in consequence of -this exhibition Carstens is recommended to forbear from his fantastical -geniality, observe nature, and achieve a picture exactly, since it is -only from nature that the ideal springs, and consequently nothing can -be great and beautiful in the representation which is not right and -true. In almost similar words, later on, Koch, in his _Thoughts on -Painting_, and with him the majority of artists, has censured Carstens. -And posterity cannot but allow them to be in the right as against the -archologists. - -[Illustration: CARSTENS. PRIAM AND ACHILLES.] - -Admirable in Carstens is the zeal with which he defended his ideal, the -sacred fire which burned within him and sustained him, even during those -years when his sickly frame was weakened by consumption. Art was, as he -wrote, his element, his religion, his beatitude, his existence. And it -is already something great to wear oneself out alone for the sake of an -ideal. Carstens was a sublime dreamer. It will not be forgotten of him -that, in an age when abundant mediocrity and manufacture were -all-prevailing, he once more pointed, unfaltering in his noble and pure -intention, to the sublimity of artistic creation. The history of art, -however, has not to deal with hearts, but to judge logically by results; -and it would not be doing justice to the old masters, nor to those -earnest _rococo_ painters who sat at their easels with less noble -intentions, but with so much greater knowledge of their craft, if one -were to proclaim Carstens, in consideration of the self-sacrifice and -renunciation which he showed in the fight for his ideal, as a martyr and -a genius, a pioneer of German art. He was not a genius, as he thought -himself, and announced so proudly to Heinitz, the Minister; for that he -possessed too little originality. It is not imagination, but -reminiscence, which created his works. The outlines of his plates are -done with fine sentiment, but sentiment taken from the Greeks, and he -required no genius to recognise in his recollection and his hand a -transcript of Greek forms. What pleases us in Carstens is in substance -not Carstens, but an echo of what we like in the Greek statues and -vases, in Michael Angelo and other old masters. - -[Illustration: GENELLI. THE EMBASSY TO ACHILLES.] - -He was not a martyr, because in his struggles he met with assistance and -encouragement such as were granted to no old master, and if, in spite of -that, he never rose above the cares of life, that is only a proof of the -limitations and partiality of his art. He had lost all decorative -facility; still more was the inheritance of oil painting first naturally -mislaid by him, and by draughtsmanship alone not even Drer nor -Rembrandt could have lived. - -This deficiency in technique must even debar him from claiming any -higher signification than that of a clever dilettante. He is not an -artist who does not in the midst of his exaltation think to put himself -in possession of the means which can turn the lispings of genius into a -fully intelligible language. Carstens' plates seduce by a certain wavy -treatment of the lines, but no one of them can sustain critical -appreciation. It is inconsistent to work in the beautiful and not to -become free of ugliness, to move in the great, in the sublime, and at -the same time to fall from one defect of form to another, from coarse -uncouthness into the most elementary sins against drawing and -proportion. Carstens was a draughtsman who could not draw, and, with -this limitation of his genius, by no manner of means a founder of German -art. One cannot call him a mannerist, because with him art and -individuality corresponded; but, nevertheless, like Mengs and Lairesse, -he gave art at second-hand, and only differs from them in that with him -commences that complete abandonment of the idea of colour which after -him disfigured German art. For the future it was quite indifferent that -Thorwaldsen took suggestions from Carstens, and Genelli trod in his -footprints as a draughtsman. - -[Illustration: GENELLI. THETIS LAMENTING THE FATE OF HECTOR.] - -_Bonaventura Genelli_, if one takes for once the standpoint of the -painters of his time, who desired to be the "poets" of their works, is -certainly a not unremarkable poet. In him, who was born in the year of -Carstens' death, the spirit of the little Holsteiner was raised to life, -and the figure which he assumed in this new incarnation actually made an -impression like a picture out of beauty-illuminated days of Hellas. The -muscular, thick-set figure of a youthful Hercules, with a broad chest -and sturdy neck, a head of short brown curly hair, full lips fringed by -the compact beard of a Sophocles, the short Greek nose, grave eyes -glancing out from beneath the strong brows--such was Genelli, a Hellene -left stranded in Germany, the last Centaur, as Heyse has depicted him in -his novel--"an antediluvian, mythological enigma on four sound legs -sprung upon our godless world." Thus he sat, as he himself writes, in -Rome, "in his dirty chamber, bare except for a chair or two, rickety or -quite broken down, and on the wall a pair of hawks nailed up, whose -pinions served as models for his winged figures." Thus he sat later in -his little house in the _Sendlingergasse_ at Munich, and lived in his -world of imagination. Perhaps, had he been the child of a more fortunate -period in art, he might have become a strong and memorable painter; as a -successor of Carstens he has left behind him a legacy of two suites of -copper prints--the two tragedies of the "Profligate" and the "Witch." He -existed, moreover, only in contour; he never rose above harmoniously -outlined silhouette. It was only to this point that his talent would -sustain him. The more he wished to produce shadow, water-colour, or even -oil, the more tedious and pale and vague did he become. And even in his -drawing he shares with Carstens the desolate generalisation of form, the -eternal euphony which so soon becomes wearisome and monotonous. To -beauty of line everything is offered up. The blank characterlessness of -the faces is even more noticeable with him than with Carstens, who had, -after all, in his youth drawn excellent portraits in crayons, and on -this account was able to give even to his Greeks more individual traits -and a certain variety of expression. With Genelli the heads are treated -as no more than parts of the body, and as they gave no opportunity for -flowing lines, they have not even the same graciousness as the limbs. -His women fared worst, for whilst he could be his own model for his men, -he created the _ewig Weibliche_ out of his inner consciousness. In men -and women the eyes, in particular, are merely animal. - -[Illustration: GENELLI. ODYSSEUS AND THE SIRENS.] - -Carstens' influence on German art has been then entirely a negative one. -It was not on such a foundation that a German art could arise. He -prepared no ground for his successors on which they could build further; -but through his abandonment of the whole capital which, since Stephen -Lochner, had been handed down at compound interest from one generation -of painters to another, he rather cut away the ground from under their -feet. "For very easily can art go astray, but it is a difficult and -lengthy process for her to recover herself." - -The art which was born in that humble studio in Rome to the sickly, -neurotic man, the "famous draughtsman," needed later, in order to become -technically healthy again, an impulse replete with life from abroad. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - BONAVENTURA GENELLI.] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN FRANCE - - -In France also modern art began with a stream of antiquarianism which -flowed from the same archological source. De Brosses published a -history of the Roman Republic, and wrote on Herculaneum. Leroy produced -his _Ruines des plus anciens monuments de la Grce_ in 1758. Shortly -afterwards the _Recueils d'Antiquit_ of Caylus and Hamilton were -published. The former undertook his great journeys, and presented the -Academy of Inscriptions with a succession of archological treatises. He -is perhaps the first since Batteux and Coypel who again makes of the -modern painter a positive demand for a quiet beauty of lines after the -"_manire simple et noble du bel antique_." The architects begin to take -counsel of Vitruvius, and to work after some model borrowed from the -antique. Soufflot rebuilt the Pantheon, and produced the Temple of -Pstum. - -Even in 1763 Grimm could write: "For some years past we have been making -keen inquiry for antique ornaments and forms. The predilection for them -has become so universal that now everything is to be done _ la -Grecque_. The interior and exterior decorations of houses, furniture, -dress material, and goldsmiths' work all bear alike the stamp of the -Greeks. The fashion passes from architecture to millinery: our ladies -have their hair dressed _ la Grecque_, our fine gentlemen would think -themselves dishonoured if they did not hold in their hands _une bote -la Grecque_." Even Diderot's preference for the ethical and emotional, -as Greuze had painted it--and as Diderot himself had dramatised -it--veered round at the commencement of the sixties into an enthusiasm -for the antique. After 1761 he carried on in the salons a war of -extermination against poor old Boucher, and lectured him in a menacing -voice upon the "great and severe taste of antiquity." He twitted him -with possessing neither reality nor taste, and produced in proof the -fact that, in the whole catalogue of Boucher's figures, not four could -be found which could be employed in relief, or even as statues. The new -taste demanded pure and simple lines, the beauty of sculpture; it went -back to the antique. When a French translation of Winckelmann appeared -in 1765 he spoke out, on the occasion of a review of the book, clearly -and plainly: "_Il me semble qu'il faudrait tudier l'antique pour -apprendre voir la nature_." In the same vein Watelet pronounced on -Boucher: "_Jamais artiste n'a plus ouvertement tmoign son mpris pour -la vraie beaut telle qu'elle a t sentie et exprime par les -statuaires_ _de l'ancienne Grce_." Thus the change in the artistic -outlook was heralded long before the curtain went up upon the events of -1789. - -_Madame Vige-Lebrun_, the French Angelica Kauffmann, possessed of a -tender, soft, sympathetic talent, is perhaps the truest representative -of this gracious, entirely French transition style, over which like a -breath, but only like a breath, hovers the antique. She has in her -portraits, in an especially refined manner, fixed that age when noble -ladies desired to forget the Marquise and Duchess, to exhibit only the -wife and mother, and believed that by unconstraint of attitude in their -simple white robe, the scarf thrown modestly over the shoulders, they -had effected a return to antique simplicity. Boucher, moved to the -depths of his consciousness by Diderot, resolved to paint a picture -taken from ancient history. Greuze painted "Severus and Caracalla," -Fragonard "Choereas and Callirhe." Hubert Robert grew more and more -archological, and played in his landscapes with ancient remains and -classical ruins. Vien became enthusiastic over antique gems, and thought -he must draw the conclusion, from the noble calm of these figures, that -the amiable coquetry and capricious garments of _rococo_ were without -nobility. His plan was "to study the antique--Raphael, the Caracci, -Domenichino, Michael Angelo, and, in one word, all those masters whose -works convey the character of truth and grandeur." - -But what gave far other significance to the French classicism of the -ensuing period was that great event in the world's history, of which -France became the theatre at the close of the eighteenth century. In the -secluded gardens of Versailles, where the goat-footed Pan embraced the -tall, white nymphs by an artificial water-fall, the noble lords and -ladies, clad as Pierrots and Columbines, overheard in the midst of their -whispered flirtations the menacing earthquake which was announced in -thunder from Paris. Soon they beheld the earth crack and burst asunder, -as that time came when the air was filled with the smoke of powder, when -the first notes of the Marseillaise rang out, and in the Place de la -Concorde, where to-day the loveliest fountains in the world are playing, -blood ran from a dozen guillotines. That "_aprs nous le deluge_" of the -Marquise de Pompadour had become a dire, prophetic truth, and in that -flood of blood and horrors the artistic ideal of the eighteenth century -was also washed away. The Revolution gave the death-blow to _rococo_. At -one stroke it overthrew the most pleasant of all French periods, the -truest presentiment of French grace and _esprit_, the noble and amiable -art of Louis XV, which the melancholy, life-emitting Watteau, Boucher, -and Fragonard cause to hover before us as in the clouds of a dream. -Classicism, however, attained through it a new and stronger basis, a -certain connection with modern life, since it was transposed by it from -the Museum of Antiquity into the middle of the Place de la Concorde -beneath the guillotine. - -What the age of the Revolution demanded of art was at all events not a -"noble style," as Vien had required of it, but rather in the first place -a Spartan virtue. Various philosophical writers had drawn a parallel -between the organisation of the old and the modern state; they had -exerted themselves to show that the old Republics were models of an -almost absolute perfection, which the modern should, in so far as it was -possible, imitate. They had contrasted the moral conditions of Sparta -and the Roman Republic with the moral constitution of contemporary, -monarchical France. They had quoted on every opportunity the acts of -virtue, renunciation, courage, and patriotic sacrifice of the great men -of antiquity; they had used these deeds as a means of proving their -thesis, and their ideas aroused deep echoes in men's hearts. - -[Illustration: ELISABETH VIGE-LEBRUN. PORTRAIT OF THE PAINTER WITH - HER DAUGHTER.] - -The sentiment of Rome had entered into the people as a thing of flesh -and blood even before the catastrophe had ensued. "We were more -prepared," wrote Nodier, "for the particular tone of the language of the -Revolution than people would have believed, and it cost us little pains -to pass from the studies of our _gymnases_ to the strife of the forum. -In the schools we had prize compositions set of this kind: Who stands -higher, the elder Brutus who judged his children, or the younger Brutus -who judged his father? And so Livy and Tacitus have done more to -overthrow the monarchical system than Voltaire and Rousseau." It was -evident then that France, so soon as she had freed herself from her -kings, so soon as she had spoken the word "Republic," must take the -_Roman_ Republic as her pattern. People lived in an atmosphere of -antiquity; the great citizens of Rome and Athens were ranged with the -French National Convention; Scvola, Scipio, Cato, Cincinnatus, were the -idols of the populace. The speakers in the council cited the ancients in -preference; Madame Vige-Lebrun gave _soupers la Grecque_. "Everything -was ordered according to the _Voyage d'Anacharsis_--garments, viands, -amusements, and the table, all were Athenian. Madame Lebrun herself was -Aspasia; M. l'Abb Barthlmy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath on -his head, recited a poem; M. de Cabiers played the golden lyre as -Memnon, and young boys waited at table as slaves. The table itself was -set entirely with Greek utensils, and all the viands were actually those -of ancient Greece." Children were given Greek and Roman names. People -called themselves "Romans." "_Mais, je l'aimais, Romains!_" cried Coulon -at the death of Mirabeau. Paris is Rome. In the theatre the bust of -Brutus is set opposite that of Voltaire, and the actor says: "_O buste -rver de Brutus, d'un grand homme, transport dans Paris tu n'as point -quitt Rome_." And as with the bust of Brutus in the theatre, that of -Mucius Scvola appears in the cafs, which Parisian journalists, still -full of remembrances of ancient history studied in the gymnasium, liken -to the Lyceum and the Porch. In every case ancient Rome is set up as the -exemplar. The Parisian collection of engravings on copper possesses a -reproduction of the guillotine, with the inscription: _A similar machine -was used for the execution of the Roman, Titus Manlius_. A valet -committed suicide, and quoted the illustrious example of Seneca. Had it -been possible, people would have gladly thrown themselves back eighteen -hundred years into the past, with all its grandeur, its simplicity, and -its ruthlessness. Political and social forms did not suffice; even the -implements and costume of the ancients were again brought into honour. -Furniture put on antiquarian shapes; the walls were decorated _ la -Grecque_. The lively frivolity of _rococo_, with its freaks and fancies, -was no longer adapted to the boudoir of the age of revolution, now -transformed into the political council-room. Twists and curves were no -longer permitted: everything had to be straightforward, logical, -ungenerous, inexorable. Men went clad wretchedly, with red Phrygian caps -and no breeches. Women and girls cast aside their ordinary attire and -put on straight, falling drapery, discarded their heeled shoes and bound -sandals round their feet, shook the powder from their locks and tied -their hair in a Greek knot. "Dressed in white raiment without adornment, -but decked in the virtue of simplicity," they appeared in the cabinet of -the president, in order to surrender their jewels for the salvation of -their country, like those Roman matrons in the time of Camillus. - -And, in co-operation with the building up of this new world, painting -also advanced. It was only when it assisted to arouse civic virtue, it -was said at a sitting of the jury at the Salon of 1793, that painting -could possess a right to exist in the new state, and as the handmaid of -this patriotism might fulfil an even higher mission than it had done in -ancient Greece and Rome. "The Greeks and Romans were indeed only slaves, -but we French are by nature free, philosophers in character, virtuous in -our every perception, and artists through our taste." In proportion as -the French Republic transcended the old free states, so too must French -art take the lead of the antique. "All that stimulated art in Greece, -the gymnastic exercises, the public games, the national festivals, is -also accessible to the French, who possess above all that which the -Greeks lacked, the feeling for true liberty. To depict the history of a -free people is indeed quite another mission for the true genius than to -embody scenes out of mythology." - -Through this fresh _nuance_, which classicism thus acquired, the ground -was cut from under the feet of those who devoted themselves to the study -of the antique as conceived by Diderot. The new moral age would have no -traffic with those artists in whom the last smile of the eighteenth -century was personified. Their pictures, full of grace and caprice, fell -into the same disrepute into which everything of yesterday had come, and -it was only with a bitter smile that they followed the course of events. -The younger Moreau, that animated master of _rococo_, became -academically cold and tedious when he designed his book on the French -costume of the Revolution. The good Fragonard, who was only fifty-nine -in 1789, and lived till 1806, saw himself hooted in spite of his -"Choereas." He, the true representative of frivolous tenderness, of fair -and roseate hues, had lost every right to exist in the new world, and -ended his life by a sad death when, after the Reign of Terror, there was -no longer a place for _ftes galantes_. A delightful portrait of -himself, which he painted in the first period of the Revolution, shows -us an old man, clothed entirely in black, softly melancholy, standing in -a formal, dusky-brown salon. On the table on which his arm rests lies a -guitar, at his feet a portfolio of engravings; but he neither plays the -guitar nor looks at the prints. In the shadows of the falling evening -he reminds himself forlornly of past days, and his bald forehead, where -so many rose-coloured dreams have passed, is overcast with gloomy -shadows. - -Greuze, too, outlived himself. It was no use for him to pretend more and -more to the utmost virtue, and to paint an "Ariadne at Naxos." He died -in misery and oblivion in 1805. The demands which this new classicism -made were able to be satisfied by no one any longer, not even by Vien. -However loudly he might proclaim himself a student of the Greeks, he, -nevertheless, remained a very timid and lukewarm revolutionary. An old -man, cold and peaceful and stolid, moderate in everything, he had -neither the energy nor the audacity of the reformer. He had been the -Court painter of Louis XVI, a most monarchically disposed and loyal man, -and was a suspect on this ground alone to those who were in power in -1789. His pictures, too, describe no more than the end of a world. -Greuze, Fragonard, and Vien, in spite of their assumed seriousness, -survived only as gallant phantoms in the new age, by the side of those -men of more rugged countenance who inaugurated the nineteenth century. - -[Illustration: JACQUES LOUIS DAVID. _L'Art._] - -_Jacques Louis David_ first satisfied the new requirements, and in so -doing lent to French classicism, if only for a few years, a certain -touch of far greater vivacity. He it was who carried through, in all its -consequence, that reformation in taste which Vien had sought in -externals, in costume, furniture and decoration; who inspired the gems -painted by Vien with republican pathos, and became in this way the great -herald of that age which read Plutarch and made Paris into a modern -Sparta. David, _Prix de Rome_ after three successive failures, still -came from that "corrupt epoch" against which Republican prudery was so -excited. At the age of twenty-six he had already painted Soffits, in the -manner of his kinsman "Boucher, to say it with respect." But the journey -to Rome converted Saul into Paul. In 1775 Vien, on his appointment as -director of the Roman Academy, had taken him to Italy as his best pupil, -and hardly dreamt at that time that this young man would strike out on -such an entirely new path from his Roman studies. He did not wait for -the Revolution to be converted; when the hour struck he was ready. Thus -his first pictures were in a manner the prelude to the Revolution. In -them he had already quite consciously entered upon the road along which -he was to go later. His "Oath of the Horatii" and his "Brutus," both -painted in Rome in 1784, proclaimed his programme. The little, rosy -loves, the doves of Venus, and all the charming frivolity and gallantry -of _rococo_, received their final dismissal, and rough men walked in -their stead. He broke his staff over all that he had previously -venerated, and declared loudly that he had sinned when in his youth he -had believed in the flowery palette of _rococo_, and completed in tender -tones those ceiling frescoes which Fragonard had commenced in the house -of Mdlle. Guimard. Capricious frivolities had to make way for a manlier -art, matter "that was worthy to rivet the gaze of a free nation upon -itself." Already, long before the taking of the Bastille, the painting -of young David was valued by the rising generation as the artistic -embodiment of their political ideas, imbibed while they were still at -school. When the "Horatii" was completed it was not only old Pompeo -Battoni who exclaimed, when he saw the picture in David's Roman studio, -"_Tu ed io soli siamo pittori, pel rimanente si puo gettarlo nel -fiume._" In Paris his success was universal; all the critics were -unanimous in praise; David was the man after the heart of the age, for -his picture was the first which spoke clearly and perceptibly of the -pathos of the revolution which stood at the threshold. People saw in it -an "example of patriotism which knew no obstacles," since not even love -for their sister, who was betrothed to the enemy, prevailed upon the -Horatii to refrain from combat with the Curiati. His next picture, -"Brutus" as he received the lictors, when they bring him the bodies of -his sons who have been implicated in a monarchical conspiracy, was -greeted as allegorical of the incorruptible justice of republicanism. -The populace saw in it the "glorification of the chastisement of all -traitors to liberty," and acclaimed David because he "had founded the -sinewy style which should characterise the heroic deeds of the -revolutionaries, children of liberty, equality, and fraternity." And one -understands--when one also adds the influence of Napoleon--this reaction -of military simplicity against the effeminacy of _rococo_. - -[Illustration: DAVID. MADAME RCAMIER.] - -David, at the outbreak of the Revolution, no longer a young man, but -forty years old, was the terrible painter of the age, its despotic -dictator. As a deputy in the Convention he not only ruled over painting, -but also imposed his taste upon sculpture, ivory work, goldsmiths' work, -and decoration. He designed the new costumes for the deputies and -ministers. As organiser of public ftes, he brought to life again the -whole of republican Rome. He was one of those rare artists who are the -men of their hour. To a new plebeian race, to whose feverishly excited -patriotism the soft, luxurious, aristocratically reprehensible art of -_rococo_ must seem as a mockery of all the rights of men, he showed, for -the first time, the man, the hero who died for an idea or for his -country; and he gave this man huge and elastic muscles, like those of a -gladiator who struggles in the arena. He was a second Hercules, -cleansing the Augan stables; with his own strong shoulders he thrust -back the petulant band of painters who had tarried too long in the -island of Cythera. He applied art to the heroism of the day, gave it the -martial attitude of patriotism, inspired it with the spirit of -Robespierre, St. Just, and Danton. The more obtrusively his heroes -paraded their patriotism, the more people saw in them a picture of the -French nation, as true as a transposition could hope to be. This -strained rhetorical pathos dwelt in the mind of the age. Talma moved the -people to enthusiasm when he played the "Horatii" of Corneille in the -classic cothurnus. When David painted, the state declamations of the -orators still rang in his ears. Robespierre is said to have spoken from -the tribune slowly, rhythmically, artistically: a Bossuet in his -rostrum, a Boileau in his chair, while the volcano quivered beneath his -very feet: his philippics were carefully divided into three sections, -like academic discourses: his patriotism resolved itself into tirades -with correctly composed periods. In David's pictures we have an exact -correspondence with all this: the rigid classicality of his composition, -figures grouped as though on parade; his cold pathos, the counterpart to -that of the orators' fine sentiments set forth in fine phrases. - -The great distinction between the beginning of modern art in Germany and -in France is that in France the new style was not only called forth by -the influence of a scientific programme from outside, but stood in -conjunction with a great transformation in culture, and that it was -compelled at first to concern itself not only with imitation and -philological retrospect, but with the free expression of the -characteristically modern spirit. German art had no new pronouncement to -make through the medium of the antique; it followed, on the other hand, -the programme of an artistically barren scholar who forgot that -archology is not art, recommended imitation as the path to perfection, -and perpetually reminded the artists who followed him how widely they -deviated from the correct lines of the model. "Afterwards they rebuke -it, and say it is not antique and consequently not good art," as -Albrecht Drer had complained of such people. In the earnest sentiment, -the exalted Roman spirit, the declaiming over rugged, masculine virtues, -freedom and patriotism, that found expression in David's first pictures, -there lived something of the Catonian spirit of the Terror; and that -still gives them historical value. His enthusiasm was not, first and -foremost, for antique art, but for the ideas of country, duty, freedom, -progress. The words antiquity and democracy were of like meaning to him. - -[Illustration: DAVID. THE OATH OF THE HORATII.] - -And how thoroughly this man was permeated with the spirit of his age is -shown still more when he discarded the cothurnus, boldly attacked the -present, and gave himself up entirely to the delineation of what came -under his direct observation in his own life and experience. There he -became not only a rhetorician, a revolutionary agitator, but a really -great painter. Lepelletier on his death-bed, the assassinated Marat, -and the dead Barre, are works of a mighty _naturalist_. Lepelletier, one -of the many deputies who had voted for the death of Louis XVI, was -treacherously assassinated in Paris, on 20th January 1793, by a valet of -the king's. The body was publicly exhibited; David painted it, and on -29th March presented the picture to the Convention. As the portrait of -the "first Martyr of Liberty," it was hung in the Convention chamber. On -13th July 1793 Marat, the man-of-terror, fell a victim to the knife of -Charlotte Corday. David was presiding at the Jacobin Club when the news -was brought him, and he embraced the citizen who had arrested the girl. -Deputations of the people appeared in the Convention to express their -grief for the heavy loss. Suddenly a voice was heard to cry: "_O es tu, -David? Tu as transmis la posterit l'image de Lepelletier mourant pour -la patrie, il te reste encore un tableau faire._" Silence succeeded in -the Assembly. Then David started up: "_Je le ferai._" On 11th October he -informed the Convention that his "Marat" was finished. "The people asked -for their murdered man back again, longed to look once more on the -features of their truest friend. They cried to me: 'David, take up your -brush, avenge Marat, so that the enemy may blanch when they perceive the -distorted countenance of the man who became the victim of his love for -freedom.' I heard the voice of the people, and obeyed." Thus David spoke -in the Assembly when he presented the Republic with the picture of the -murdered man--one of the most thrilling representations of that awful -age. The body is lying in the bath. Only the naked upper part of the -body, and the head, with a dirty cloth tied round it, and fallen back -upon the right shoulder, are visible; one hand, resting back on the side -of the bath, still holds a paper in a convulsive grip; the other hangs -down limp and dead to the ground. Over this head, with the half-closed -eyelids, and the mouth distorted from the death-throes, Caravaggio would -have rejoiced, there is such keen naturalism in every stroke of the -brush. Like Gricault, in later times, David was then a regular visitor -at the Morgue, attended at executions, and took an interest in the -convulsive muscular movements of the guillotined. And the colour, too, -like the drawing, is of a naturalistic strength to which he never again -attained. The light falls slantingly on the corpse from above and throws -the head, shoulder, and one arm into strong relief, while all the rest -is left in obscurity. In this awful _still-life_ of uncompromising -reality and tragical grandeur he has created a work in the midst of an -age of storm which will survive all storms and all changes of taste. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - DAVID. THE RAPE OF THE SABINES.] - -[Illustration: DAVID. HELEN AND PARIS.] - -His portraits have no less strikingly survived the fiery ordeal of time. -In them, too, he is neither rhetorical nor cold, but full of fire and -the freshness of youth. Face to face with his model, he forgot the -Greeks and Romans, saw life alone, was rejuvenated in the youth-giving -fount of nature, and painted--almost alone of the painters of his -generation--the truth. Here his effect, when otherwise he was lacking in -all navet, is actually nave and intimate. The best painters have -never treated flesh better. He had an aversion to palette tones, and -sought after nature with unexampled attention. The fine pearl-grey of -his colouring is as delicate as it is distinguished; in his portraits, -especially, the relief-tones of blue and light rose seem almost to -anticipate the delicate, toned-down tints of modern Impressionism. -Himself an ardent Revolutionist, he was, as it were, created to be the -portrayer of those men of an austerity like Cato's, and those women with -their free, masculine, proud gaze; that valiant generation that felt -within itself a desire to begin civilisation again and found religion -anew. The portrait of Lavoisier and his wife reminds one in its -refinement of Madame Vige-Lebrun. The chemist is sitting by a table -covered with instruments; his wife, in an elegant light gown, bends -attentively over him. The picture dates from 1788, and it still looks -like some good work of the age of Louis XVI. Again, how intimate is the -effect of the marvellous portrait of Michael Grard and his family. The -good man, in his shirt-sleeves, seems to feel really at home; a small -boy is leaning against his knee, a girl is playing on the clavicorde. -There is not the slightest suggestion of pose or a conventional type of -beauty in this stout old gentleman sitting so comfortably in his -_bourgeois nglig_, and with honest eyes gazing out so inquisitively -round him. In a few other pictures the spiritual life of women is -portrayed with remarkable tenderness. One of the earliest is the -exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law, Madame Pcoult, in -1783; then, in 1790, the portrait of the Marquise d'Orvilliers, with -that expression of dreamy languor which plays round the eyes of the -beautiful woman. The Louvre possesses, in the portrait of Madame -Rcamier, perhaps the most charming and attractive woman's portrait that -David ever painted. The beautiful Juliette lies stretched on a divan of -antique pattern. She wears a white dress, her soft rosy feet are bare. -The arrangement of the room coquettes primly with that simplicity which -was paraded at the time. Apart from the divan, there is only a huge -bronze candelabra to be seen. Then there is Barere's portrait. He stands -on the tribune, and delivers the speech which is to cost Louis XVI his -life. The face is small and insignificant, the gaze cold and harsh, and -on the mouth there is a shadow of bitter hate and narrow fanaticism. But -the triumph of these portraits of men is that of Bonaparte. David was -one of the first of the men of the Revolution to come beneath the spell -of the Little Corporal. One day, while he was working in his studio at -the Louvre, a pupil rushed in breathlessly: "General Bonaparte is -outside the door!" Napoleon entered in a dark-blue coat "that made his -lean yellow face look leaner and yellower than ever." David dismissed -his pupils, and drew, in a sitting of barely two hours, the stern head -of the Corsican. Thus he passed into the service of Napoleon. - -This man, who viewed himself only as the coping-stone of the -Republic--after the example of Augustus when he transformed the Roman -Republic into the Empire--was unwilling to show any opposition to the -republican tastes. The first painter of the Republic was appointed to be -the Imperial Court painter. What he had been under Robespierre he was -under Napoleon: the dictator of his age, who maintained a supremacy over -the whole of art similar to that which Lebrun held beneath Louis XIV. -The "Marat" was the great work of his revolutionary, the "Coronation" of -his monarchical period,--that colossal picture which, completed between -1806 and 1807, has handed down to posterity a true representation of the -ceremonial pageants that took place in Notre Dame on 2nd December 1804. -The moment selected is when Napoleon places the crown, which is carried -on a velvet cushion by the Duc de Berg, upon the head of the Empress, -who kneels before him in a white robe and a crimson mantle. The picture -contains portraits of all the personages present at the ceremony, -amongst them being David himself, as he stands on a platform and -sketches at a small table. The whole composition of this picture and the -grouping of the figures is full of stately gravity. Real energy and -patience must have been required to paint this immense picture, though -it shows not the least sign of fatigue. With the exception of Menzel's -"Coronation of William I," I know of no historical picture of the -century of as high an artistic value, with the like noble sublimity of -colour, with so tender, quivering a light. There are certain portions of -the "Coronation" in which the white robes, the deep-red velvet of the -mantles, and gold embroideries affect us like a symphony in colours. -When the picture was completed Napoleon visited David's studio, -accompanied by the Empress, his ministers, and his staff. The Court drew -up, and the Emperor moved up and down in front of the picture, hat in -hand, for more than half an hour, examining it in all its details. -Finally, with one of those dramatic effects of which he was so fond, he -lightly raised his hat: "_C'est bien, trs bien; David, je vous salue_." - -[Illustration: DAVID. BELISARIUS ASKING ALMS.] - -David had now still better opportunities than at an earlier period of -proving his great capacity as a portrait painter. His portraits of the -Emperor, of the Pope, of Cardinal Caprara, and of Murat symbolise the -brutal greatness of an age which worshipped strength. Even at the close -of his life, when the Restoration had exiled him from France, there -resulted in Brussels graceful and tenderly observed portraits, such as -that of the daughter of Joseph Bonaparte, which will perpetuate his -name. One, in the Praet Collection at Brussels--three women of -indescribable ugliness--marks the pinnacle of his pictorial strength and -keen naturalism. They are the "Three Fates" of 1810, and he has painted -them with the true artist's delight, and with a massiveness like that of -Frans Hals. - -When these works were brought together at the Paris Exhibition of 1889, -universal astonishment prevailed when it was discovered what a great -painter this Louis David was. He appeared in these pictures as an artist -who stood completely within his age, who shared its passions and was -permeated by its greatness; he even appeared as a _charmeur_ who handled -the phenomena of colour and light as few others have done. It is true, -David showed himself in this favourable light at the exhibition only -because the entirely archological side of his talent was not -represented. For at the bottom of his heart he too was an archologist. -Many of his works, such as "The Death of Socrates," "Brutus," "The Oath -in the Tennis Court," and "The Rape of the Sabines," are specimens of a -barren theory. - -Against all the caprice of the eighteenth century, with its charming, -alluring grace, he opposed a strict, inexorable system, as he believed -he saw it in the antique. Simplicity, however, beneath his hands became -dryness, nobility formal. He saw in painting a sort of abstract geometry -for which there existed hard-and-fast forms. There was something -mathematical in his effort after dry correctness and erudite accuracy. -The infinite variety of life with its eternal changes was hidden from -his sight. The beautiful, he taught with Winckelmann, does not exist in -a single individual; it is only possible to create a type of it by -comparison and through composition. The human being of art ought always -to be a copy of that perfect being, primitive man, whom the Roman -sculptors had still before their eyes, but who had deteriorated in the -course of ages. Thus in France, too, the sensuous art of painting was -converted into an abstract science of sthetics. The classic ideal -weighed upon French art and prescribed for all alike the same "heroic -style," the same elevation, the same marble coldness and monotony of -colour. _Jean-Baptiste Regnault_, and _Franois Andr Vincent_, whose -studios were most frequented after David's, worshipped the same gods. -After David's departure, _Gurin_, in particular, endeavoured to -bequeath to the students those genuinely academic rules which his pupil, -Delacroix, has summed up in these words: "In order to make an ideal head -of a negro, our teachers make him resemble as far as possible the -profile of Antinous, and then say, 'We have done our utmost; if he is, -nevertheless, not beautiful, we must altogether abstain from this freak -of nature, with his squat nose and thick lips, so unendurable to the -eyes.'" When he had to paint his "Insurrection in Cairo," therefore, -Egyptians as well as Arabs must first be supplied with heads of Antinous -and transformed from modern soldiers into ancient warriors, Romans of -the time of Romulus, before they could enter into the kingdom of art. -Everything was sacrificed to line,--an inflexible, inexorable, correct, -and icy line, the conventional, ideal line,--not the true line which -follows from observation of the infinite variety of nature. - -Nevertheless, even in works constructed as these were by rule and line, -we cannot fail to be impressed by the technical ability displayed by the -artist. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DAVID. THE DEATH OF MARAT.] - -France, who in her outward relations has generally had a feverish -longing for change, has been in literary and artistic respects, as a -rule, exceedingly conservative, has upheld authority, supported an -academy, and prized limitations and proportion above everything. They -had upset the monarchy, murdered the hated aristocrats, built up the -republic, done away with Christianity before they ever thought of -touching the three unities of the drama. Voltaire, who had a reverence -for nothing in heaven or earth, respected the received treatment of the -Alexandrine verse. And David, the great painter of the Revolution, who -cast the pictures of Boucher out of the Louvre, and whose pupils used to -shoot bread-crumbs at Watteau's masterpiece, the "Voyage Cythre," yet -conveyed with him into the new age, as an inheritance from _rococo_, its -prodigious knowledge. The good old traditions of the technique of French -painting were little shaken by him and his school. The Academy described -by Quatremre as the "eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices," -was indeed overthrown, but David became immediately the head of a new -one. This age of absorption in politics developed an art to correspond, -more disciplined than ever, girt round by an iron cuirass; and this art, -notwithstanding multifarious phases, at no time lost its touch, -technically, with the acquisitions of former epochs, but evolved itself -in its various directions from one centre, distracted from its path by -nothing brought into it from outside. Gricault, Delacroix, Courbet, and -Manet, widely as they differ from one another, are links in one chain of -evolution. Art comes from knowledge. This maxim, which David held in -honour, has remained to the present day a dominant force in French art, -and by virtue of this knowledge, which David received from the old -masters and guarded as a sacred trust, France became in the nineteenth -century the chief school of technique for all other nations. From the -French the other nations learned their grammar and syntax; through them -they acquired a wider horizon and a deeper insight into the great -mystery of nature. - -[Decoration] - - - - -BOOK II - -THE ESCAPE INTO THE PAST - - - - -CHAPTER V - -THE NAZARENES - - -Herein lies the great difference between France and Germany. Although -following along new lines, the art of France did not thereby suffer as -regards the quality of its execution; in spite of all Classicism it -remained the disciplined art of the schools. These favourable -preliminaries were lacking in Germany. It was not allotted to German -painting to grow up in nave contentment with the technical inheritance -of its forefathers, but, on the contrary, at the entrance of its new -career it broke so completely with its predecessor--the art of the -eighteenth century--that it could no longer adopt even its technical -traditions. It arose out of the negation of earlier art, an absolute -negation such as the world had never seen before. It began with a -self-made man who had never acquired the charter of craftsmanship, who -never learnt to paint. In France, revolutionary pictures inspired with -intense pathos, and frankly naturalistic portraits of masterly -technique; with Carstens, outlines showing refined feeling, but faulty -very generally in execution, sketches drawn roughly with the pencil, -crayon, or red chalk. - -It had taken many generations of painters, whose lives had been spent in -careful devotion to the work, to collect the technical capital which -Carstens so carelessly flung to the winds. - -The next step along this way was taken by the Nazarenes. - -Just as it was inevitable that cold and lifeless Classicism should -follow the brightness and animation of _rococo_, so it was necessary, -according to the law of extremes which alternate in every evolution of -culture, that, next to the antique, should come its exact opposite, the -Gothic or Middle Ages. The antique was so monotonous that people longed -for variety of colour again; it was so cold and statuesque that they -longed for something soulful, so Greek and pagan and severe that they -hankered again after something Christian, would believe again like -children. - -Even in the young days of the old pagan, Goethe, religion formed the -favourite topic of the _beaux esprits_, and in the same year, 1797, that -Carstens died, this cult of the emotional life found, for the first -time, expression in literature. In every library one finds a dainty, -finely printed book in small octavo, without the author's name, with the -title _Herzensergiessungen eines Kunstliebenden Klosterbruders_, and -with a sort of head of Raphael as a frontispiece, in which, with his -prominent eyes, full lips, and long neck, he looks like some -intellectual, Christ-inspired, consumptive enthusiast. It is the pale, -gentle face of Wackenroder. - -[Illustration: FREDERICK OVERBECK.] - -First Winckelmann, then Wackenroder. In the very personalities of these -two the whole opposition between Classicism and the Nazarenes is -reflected. A student barely twenty years old, a mild, modest, -contemplative soul, who had attached himself from early youth with -womanly devotion to his more energetic friend Tieck, and written letters -to him that read like a young girl's effusions to her sweetheart, he -entered the Erlanger University with his friend at the Easter of 1793. -They saw Nuremberg. More than once they made pilgrimages to the old -fashioned town, the treasury of German art; and the spirit of the past -powerfully inspired them. Whilst for Lessing and Winckelmann "Gothic" -art only meant barbarian art, the wonders of Nuremberg were now observed -with fresh eyes. In a sort of intoxication of art the friends wandered -through churches, stood by the graves of Albrecht Drer and Peter -Vischer, and a vanished world rose before them. The spires and turrets -behind falling walls and ramparts, the old, stately, patrician houses, -which jutted out their oriel windows, as it were with curiosity, into -the crooked streets, were peopled to their imagination with picturesque -figures in bonnet and hose from that great time when Nuremberg was "the -living, swarming school of native art," when "an exuberant, artistic -spirit" governed within its walls, when Master Hans Sachs and Adam Kraft -and Peter Vischer and Albrecht Drer and Willibald Pirkheymer were -alive. Shortly after that they came to Dresden, and devoted themselves -in the gallery there to an enthusiastic cult of the Madonna. The -_Herzensergiessungen eines Kunstliebenden Klosterbruders_, which -appeared a year before Wackenroder's death in his twenty-sixth year, was -the result of these wanderings and studies. In this tender production of -a visionary youth the spirit of Romantic art found expression. - -Winckelmann was an archologist; Wackenroder, an enthusiast of the -Middle Ages; on the one side knowledge only, on the other all feeling; -for the one, paganism, for the other, Christ. For it is from the first a -leading principle of the "_Klosterbruder_," that "the finest stream of -life only issues from the streams of art and religion when they flow in -company." He valued the older painters "because they had made painting -the true handmaid of religion"; art was to him an object of devotion. -Picture galleries, he says, ought to be temples; he would liken the -enjoyment of works of art to prayer; let it be a holy feast day to him -if he go with a serious and composed mind to their observance; indeed, -reverence for art and reverence for God were so closely interwoven that -he was fain to kneel down before art, and offer it the homage of an -"eternal and boundless love." This devotion to art, of which he himself -was full, he found nowhere in his times. The age of enlightenment was to -him an undevout and inartistic age. Only in his wanderings through the -uneven streets of Nuremberg did the deepest yearning of his soul seem -satisfied. He applied himself to medival, and especially to German art. -His standpoint is the same which the young Goethe had adopted when he -intervened with Herder for "German style and art," and dedicated his -pamphlet on German architecture to the shade of Erwin von Steinbach. He -is reluctant that one should condemn the Middle Ages because they did -not build such temples as the Greeks, any more than that one should -condemn the Indians because they spoke their language and not our own. -"It is not only beneath Italian skies, under majestic domes and -Corinthian columns, that true art thrives, it lives too under pointed -arches, intricately decorated buildings, and Gothic spires." - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. THE ANNUNCIATION.] - -It was all said so simply and heartily that soon the whole world began -to be "Wackenroderite." The ingenious and enthusiastic youth was -succeeded by theoretic reasoners. Tieck, who published his _Phantasies -upon Art_ in 1799, after Wackenroder's death, and amplified it with his -own explanations, was no longer a genuine but a counterfeit -"_Klosterbruder_." He first played with Catholicism, and uttered the -momentous sentence: "The best of the later masters up to the most recent -times have had no other aim than to imitate some one of the primitive or -typical artists, or even several together; nor have they easily become -great by any other method than by having successfully imitated -somebody." His _Sternbald_ is still more haunted by the spirit of -monastic devotion. - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. THE NAMING OF ST. JOHN.] - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. CHRIST HEALING THE SICK.] - -The particular starting-point was in this case too, as it had been -before for Winckelmann, the Dresden Gallery, where, at the turn of the -century, Augustus William and Frederick Schlegel, the two -"_Gotter-buben_," held their cultured rendezvous. "The Schlegels had -taken possession of the gallery," wrote Dora Stock, "and with Schelling -and Gries spent almost every morning there. It was a joy to see them -writing and teaching there. Sometimes they talked to me about art. I -felt myself often quite paltry, I was so far from any wisdom. Fichte, -too, they initiated into their secrets. You would have laughed if you -could have seen them drag him about and assail him with their -convictions." The journal _Europa_, founded by Frederick Schlegel in -1803, became the rallying-point of the new movement, and his articles -published therein contained the germs of all the efforts and errors of -the young school. In his discourse on Raphael he compares the -pre-Raphaelite period with that succeeding it, and considers the -proposition that "indubitably the corruption of art was originally -brought about by the newer school which was marked by Raphael, Titian, -Correggio, Giulio Romano, and Michael Angelo" so unquestionable that he -does not find it in the least necessary to prove it. He casually puts -forward as an _obiter dictum_ dropped in amongst a series of quite -opposed notions the idea that every art ought to have a national -foundation, and that any imitation of a foreign form of art is -deleterious. The result follows that it is to be deplored "that an evil -genius has alienated artists from the circle of ideas and the subjects -of the old painters. Culture can only attach itself to what has been -constituted. How natural it would be, then, if painters were to go on in -the old way, and cast themselves anew into the ideas and disposition of -the old painters." The artist should follow the painters prior to -Raphael, "especially the oldest," should strive to "copy carefully -their truth and simplicity long enough for it to become second nature to -his eye"; or he may "select the style of the old German school as a -pattern." - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. CHRIST'S ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM.] - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. THE RESURRECTION.] - -The latter counsel originated from the discovery in 1804 of the Cologne -Cathedral picture, referred to by Schlegel in his _Europa_. Through the -secularisation of the monasteries, attention was again directed to the -old ecclesiastical pictures which people had hitherto passed by -unnoticed. From the monasteries, churches, guild halls, and castles -which the French had plundered, countless masses of paintings of every -sort were extricated. A great deal perished; nearly all, however, that -had hitherto been kept as heirlooms, and for the most part almost -inaccessible, now became movable, attainable property. The brothers -Boissere began their celebrated collection, which is to be seen to-day -in the Munich _Pinakothek_. While hitherto one had, at the most, known -of Drer, now one touched upon an age which lay behind the Reformation, -an age in which Catholicism was flourishing, in which "not great artists -but nameless monks represented art," and it was soon all fire and ardour -over the sweetness, navet, and faith of these pictures. Fernow had -still pronounced generally against the capacity of the "Catholic -religion, with its Jewish-Christian mythology and martyrology," to -satisfy the demands of a pure taste in art. Carstens had written down -for himself the sentence from Webb's work: "The art of the ancients was -rich in august and captivating figures: their gods had grace, majesty, -and beauty. How much meaner is the lot of the moderns! Their art is -subservient to the priests. Their characters are taken from the lowest -spheres of life--men of humble descent and uncouth manners. Even their -Divine Master is in painting nowhere to be seen according to a great -idea; His long, smooth hair, His Jewish beard and sickly appearance -would deprive the most exalted beings of any semblance of dignity. -Meekness and humility, His characteristic traits, are virtues edifying -in the extreme but in no way picturesque. This lack of dignity in the -subject renders it intelligible why we look so coldly at these works in -the churches and galleries. The genius of painting expends its strength -in vain on Crucifixions, Holy Families, Last Suppers, and the like." Not -five years had elapsed after Carstens' death when, according to an -impression of Dorothea Veit, "Christianity was once more the order of -the day." William Schlegel's poem, _The Church's Alliance with the -Arts_, from which, later, Overbeck borrowed the thought for his -picture, can be looked upon, as Goethe already wrote, as the true -profession of faith of the young school. Where previously Augustus -William had described in his sonnets the Io, Leda, and Cleopatra of the -Dresden Gallery, it was now the Madonna who received the homage of the -gallant poet. By Frederick, Christianity was recommended to the artist -as a formal model and a source of sthetic enjoyment,--as it was, at the -same time, by Chateaubriand as _prdilection d'artiste_. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - OVERBECK. THE SEVEN LEAN YEARS.] - -Even more profound did the tendency become during the War of -Independence, which at the same time gave the death blow to Classicism. -Distress taught how to pray. In those years of humiliation the young -generation abandoned the classic ideal for ever, and Schenkendorf cried -imperiously: "We would see no more pagan pictures on any German walls." -French "frivolity" was contrasted with German seriousness, German -Christianity with the free-thought of the French; there was a return -from the cold philosophy of enlightenment to the vigorous feeling of -medival faith. - -Frederick Schlegel, the author of _Lucinde_, who had written as lately -as 1799:-- - - "Mein einzig Religion ist die, - Dass ich liebe ein schnes Knie, - Volle Brust und schlanke Hften, - Dazu Blumen mit sssen Dften," - -was converted to Catholicism. Schelling wrote his _Philosophy of -Revelation_; Grres, the editor of the _Rothen Blut_, ended as the -author of the _Christian Mystic_. - -Here set in the period of the Nazarenes. What Schlegel had said was to -become true, that the German artist has either no character at all or he -must have the character of the medival masters, true-hearted and -thoughtful, innocent withal, and somewhat maladroit. In architecture the -Hellenic school is succeeded by the Gothic, painting passes from the -reverence of the Greek statues to that of old Italian pictures. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - JULIUS SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD.] - -Rome remained for the Nazarenes, too, the centre of influence, only they -no longer made pilgrimages, like the Classicists, to ancient but to -Christian Rome. _Overbeck_ of Lbeck came in 1810 with Pforr of -Frankfort and Vogel of Zrich; the Dsseldorfer, Cornelius, followed in -1811, _Schadow_ and _Veit_ of Berlin in 1815, _Schnorr von Carolsfeld_ -of Leipzig in 1818, the Viennese _Fhrich_ and _Steinle_ in 1827 and -1828. In all of them there lived the perception that in such a serious -age men should be of high moral endeavour, and art the expression of the -religious capacity of their lives. - -[Illustration: _Wigand, Leipzig._ - - SCHNORR. ADAM AND EVE AFTER THE FALL.] - -There still stands to-day, on a secluded hillock of the Monte Pincio a -small church, whose faade is adorned with the statues of St. Isidore, -the patron of husbandmen, and of St. Patrick, apostle of Ireland. A -court with weather-beaten cloisters and an old well separates the church -from the monastery which lies behind it, where the cells of the monks, -Irish and Italian Franciscans, are placed. Above, on the terrace of the -house, one has a charming view of Rome and the Campagna, of Monte Cavo -and the heights of Tusculum. Below stretch the gardens of the Capucin -Convent, and farther back the grounds and avenues of the Villa Ludovisi. -On the first floor is a large hall, the walls of which have been -decorated by the hand of some old monk with frescoes, and which, -formerly a refectory, is used to-day as a theological lecture-room. This -was the room where Overbeck and his friends in the first period after -their arrival stood for one another as models. Lethire, the director of -the French Academy, had obtained permission for them to install -themselves in the deserted rooms of the monastery of San Isidoro, which -had been spared by Napoleon, for which they paid the small sum of three -scudi monthly. - -[Illustration: JOSEPH FHRICH. _Graphische Kunst._] - -"We led a truly monastic life," relates Overbeck; "held ourselves aloof -from all, and lived only for art. In the morning we marketed together; -at midday we took it in turns to cook our dinner, which was composed of -nothing but a soup and a pudding, or some tasty vegetable, and was -seasoned only by earnest conversation on art." Overbeck, as a good -housekeeper, kept accounts; the principal items of the daily outlay -occurred for polenta and risotto, oranges and lemons; every now and then -oil, too, was noted down. The afternoons were dedicated to the study of -the creations of art in Rome. With "beating hearts and holy awe" they -passed over the threshold of the _Stanze_. In the chapel of San Lorenzo -they became "familiar with the seraphic Fiesole, whose frescoes -transcend everything in purity of conception." They shunned the paganism -of St. Peter's, and marvelled with all the more intimate devotion at the -old Christian monuments. The churches of San Lorenzo and San Clemente, -the cloisters of St. John Lateran and St. Paul's-without-the-Walls, made -an ineffaceable impression upon the young men. At the twilight hour they -wandered up on to Monte Cavo. "And of evenings we drew studies of -drapery--glorious folds!--from Pforr's big Venetian mantle, in which we -took turns to pose for one another." Their whole hearts, however, first -swelled when they undertook a journey to Tuscany. In Orvieto, Luca -Signorelli awaited them, whose frescoes especially impressed Cornelius -mightily. At Sienna they found teachers who were still more sympathetic -to them, Duccio and Simone Martino, those masters of a tender, intimate -spirit and a charming sweetness of expression. In the Campo Santo at -Pisa they turned their attention to Fiesole's pupil, Gozzoli. Those -became their great teachers in art. "Just as ardent Christians wander to -the grave of the princes of the apostles in order to confirm their faith -and quicken their zeal, so should zealous young artists derive strength -and illumination from the silent and yet so eloquent speech of the -sublime geniuses of art. An artist of real worth will find in the -masterpieces of painting at Rome everything necessary for him in order -to reach the right path. But, to be sure, a well-made plait of hair does -not certainly constitute one a Raphael, because Raphael, too, arranged -his hair with feeling. Study alone leads to nothing. If since Raphael's -age, as one can almost declare, there has been no painter, that is the -fault of nothing else than of the fact that art has been vanquished by -workmanship. One learnt at the academies to paint excellent drapery, to -draw a correct figure, learnt perspective, architecture--in short, -everything, and yet no painter was produced. There is one want in all -recent painting--heart, soul, sentiment. Let the young painter then -watch, before everything, over his sentiments: let him allow neither an -impure word on his lips nor an impure thought in his mind. But how can -he guard himself from that? By religion, by study of the Bible, the one -and only study which made Raphael. This view now certainly contradicts -the accustomed principles that everything must be systematically learnt; -mere learning produces certainly an instructed but also a cold artist. -On that ground it is not good either to study anatomy from dead bodies, -because one dwarfs thereby certain fine sensibilities, or to work from -female models, for the same reason. Let the painter be inspired by his -subject as those of old were, and the result will be the same. Like -those old painters, let every artist remind himself that the truest use -of art is that which leads it heavenwards, its one function that of -having a moral effect upon men." "How pure and holy," cries Cornelius to -Xeller, as late as 1858, "was the end at which we aimed! Unknown, -without encouragement, without aid, except that of our loving Father in -heaven." - -[Illustration: FHRICH. FROM THE "LEGEND OF ST. GWENDOLIN."] - -It is obvious that between the ascetics of the monastery and the -Classicists direct friction must ensue. To them the "ever repeated and -pale reflexions of Greek sculpture" said nothing, while the Classicists -scoffed at the religionists, for whom the sarcastic brawler, Reinhart, -invented the nickname of "Nazarenes," which has since become a -watchword. The opposition was historically immortalised when Bunsen, the -Prussian envoy, invited the whole colony to the christening of his -little daughter, and Niebuhr touched glasses with Thorwaldsen "to the -health of old Jupiter." Only Cornelius joined in; the others started and -looked upon the young Dsseldorfer as a heretic. - -This positive Christian standpoint, which allowed art to be esteemed -only as a religious service, pictures only as a means of ecclesiastical -edification, irritated also the old man of Weimar at the first start. -The effort of the Nazarenes to make piety the foundation of true -artistic activity was to him a continual subject of contempt. Religion -no more bestows talent for the arts than it gives taste. He spoke with -irony of the "valiant artists and ingenious friends of art who had -resort to the honourable, nave, yet somewhat coarse taste" of the -fourteenth and fifteenth-century masters. He constantly employed of them -the expression "star-gazing." He had already mockingly remarked of -Wackenroder's _Herzensergiessungen_ what an unwarrantable conclusion it -was, that because a few monks were artists, all artists should therefore -be monks. He called the life of the Nazarenes "a sort of masquerade -which stood in opposition to the actual day," and wrote in the pages of -_Art and Antiquity_ that manifesto, the _New German Religious-Patriotic -Art_, or _History of the New Pietistic False Art since the Eighties_, -which so deeply wounded the young enthusiasts. "The doctrine was that -the artist needed piety above everything to equal the work of the best. -What an attractive doctrine! How eagerly we should accept it! For in -order to become religious one need learn nothing." The whole movement -reached nothing beyond a slavish imitation of Giotto and his immediate -followers. Of course, it was inconsistent of Goethe to reproach -contemporary art for imitating that of the Middle Ages, and to praise -the latter only when it imitated the antique. Speaking as a man of -Mengs' school, and merely proposing Hellenic art as a canon instead of -early Italian, he had, after all, no right to be angry if Frederick -Schlegel opposed classical models with medival. Otherwise, however, -even to-day little can be added to Goethe's animadversions. - -[Illustration: FHRICH. RUTH AND BOAZ.] - -As with Carstens, so with the Nazarenes, we are warned by the idealistic -tendency which inspired the young enthusiasts. There are but few -painters with whom life and art have been in such complete agreement as -with the gentle, mild, and modest Overbeck, the "Apostle John," as he -got to be called, that young man, that serene soul who looked upon art -simply as a harp of David for the praise of the Lord, to whom the "hope -that through his works one soul had been strengthened in faith and piety -was of far more value than any fame," and who ended at last in a sort of -religious mania. With the Nazarenes, too, as with the Classicists, it -was pure exaltation which drove them to free themselves from the -trammels of the school, in order to get back from dead fabrications to -creations of art, which, proceeding out of the living spirit, once more -had a soul. Even the much-despised conversion of the Protestants among -them to the Catholic Church arose out of the deep conviction that they -also, as well as their art, must be united in religion. - -[Illustration: FHRICH. THE DEPARTURE OF THE PRODIGAL SON.] - -In a certain sense they even show an advance in art. They found between -themselves and the great painters of the eighteenth century a gulf that -could no longer be spanned. After Carstens had thrown overboard every -colouristic acquisition, it was indeed something that the Nazarenes no -longer saw the highest aim of painting in black and white design, but -turned, though with timidity and hesitation, to the study of the Italian -Quattrocento with its joyous delight in colour, and so became the first -real painters after the cartoon period. Only that was as yet simply an -advance for the nineteenth century, and not especially for the history -of art. This was as little enriched with new forms and discoveries by -the Nazarenes as by the Classicists. The former, too, were imitators, -and only changed masters when they fled from the antique to the Middle -Ages, and copied the old Italians in lieu of the Greeks. The Classicists -had imitated with a certain cold erudition; the Nazarenes out of the -depths of their emotion. As the former used Greeks, so did they use the -fourteenth-century painters, as patterns of calligraphy from which they -made their copies, cut their stencils after the Italian form, and, like -Mengs, were able to reproduce in their works only a very weak reflection -of those departed spirits. As eclectics they would stand on the same -rung with the academics of Bologna, except that the ideal of the latter -school was a combination from Leonardo, Raphael, Michael Angelo, -Correggio, and Titian, and that it possessed an incomparably greater -facility in technique. - -[Illustration: FHRICH. JACOB AND RACHEL.] - -The Nazarenes abandoned on principle the employment of the model, from -fear lest it might entice them away from the ideal representation of the -character to be depicted. They sought in a dilettante manner to supply -the control over the material which alone makes the artist, by -enthusiasm for the material. Only Cornelius dared to draw from the -female form. Overbeck refused to do so, from modesty. The Virgin Mary -was to him the highest ideal of womanhood, the paler, the more virtuous, -the more akin to the Lamb of God; and he would have deemed it a -sacrilege to have depicted her as purely womanly. They therefore only -occasionally sat to one another for studies of drapery, and, for the -rest, "in order not to be naturalistic," painted their pictures from -imagination in the seclusion of their cells. As the Catholicism of -Schlegel was an anmic system, so the painters, too, deprived their -figures of blood and being in order to leave them only the abstract -beauty of line. They are beings who are exalted above everything, even -above correctness of drawing, and who must expire of a lack of blood in -their veins. The command, "Seek ye therefore first the kingdom of God, -and His righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto you," -was carried out by the Nazarenes only too well. - -[Illustration: STEINLE. THE RAISING OF JAIRUS' DAUGHTER.] - -They have created only two works which will survive, and which possess -an historical significance as pre-eminent, works of the whole movement -in common--the frescoes of the Casa Bartholdi and of the Villa Massini. - -When the intelligence of the Battle of Waterloo had penetrated even into -the silent cells of the monks, they believed that art too should -participate in this universal elevation, and become a factor again in -the development of the German nation. It must not be used, wrote -Cornelius in his famous letter to Grres, as a mere plaything, or to -tickle the senses, not merely for the delectation and pomp of high and -rich Maecenases, but for the ennoblement and glorification of public -life. The means of this artistic elevation, and at the same time a new -means of popular culture, was to be the introduction of fresco painting. - -[Illustration: STEINLE. "I HAVE TRODDEN THE WINEPRESS ALONE: AND OF - THE PEOPLE THERE WAS NONE WITH ME."] - -And thus the Brothers of San Isidoro re-discovered what had, as a matter -of fact, always been quietly practiced by the "rustics painters," but -since Mengs' time had no longer been employed by the "art painters," and -had been forgotten for half a century. The Prussian consul at Rome, -Bartholdy, gave them the commission. An old mason, who had last arranged -wall-plastering under Mengs, was recruited as technical adviser; Carl -Eggers, of Neustrelitz, zealously made chemical researches; and it is -said to have been Veit who, at Cornelius' request ("Now, Philip, you -make the first attempt!"), was the first to paint the portrait of a head -in fresco, whilst his companions looked on with amazement and delight. -Then the others set to work, "and painted away at it in the name of -God." "Yes, believe me, my friend, it is a desperate matter to paint -over a whole room in a manner which one has never before practised -oneself nor seen practised by others. Every day we tell each other that -we are fine bunglers, and give each other a regular dressing down. You -can have no conception how strange it feels at first when one is -confronted by damp plaster and lime. And nevertheless we construct -daily fresh castles in the air for painting churches, monasteries, and -palaces in Germany." - -The frescoes represent, in six mural paintings and two lunettes, the -history of Joseph in Egypt, from his sale to his recognition by his -brethren. The two latter are the work of Cornelius and Overbeck, the -others of Veit and Schadow. The work was prolonged through many years, -interrupted by manifold difficulties, and when one stands to-day before -the transferred pictures in the Berlin National Gallery one cannot -refrain from admiring them. - -[Illustration: EDWARD STEINLE.] - -There lives within them an unpretentiousness and sincerity of sentiment, -and, in spite of all deficiencies and lack of independence, somewhat of -that lofty inspiration which raises the pictures of really earnest -artists, even if they are faulty, far above any fabricated productions. -An association of young men, which, unconcerned about success and -material profit, contended only for ideal products, found here for the -first time an opportunity to display what it wanted. In the -interpretation of Pharaoh's dream and in the recognition by the -brethren, Cornelius, in formal language, full of character, and without -any phrases and posture, displayed all that he had derived from the -great Italians in nobility of grouping and fine arrangement of lines. -Overbeck reaches the same height in his allegory of the seven lean kine. -But it is not only as youthful works of artists, who, if they belonged -to a period of decadence, yet were, withal, the greatest representatives -of a period of German art, that these pictures are worthy of high -esteem; they are essentially the best that these masters have created. -Cornelius, notably, shows a study, a care for execution, indeed even a -harmony of colouring, that stands in surprising opposition to his later -negligence. From the conception that the artistic performance is -determined in the invention, and the design, but that the pictorial -execution is an indifferent, mechanical accessory which could be -supplied even by other people, he was at that time still free. - -[Illustration: STEINLE. BOOK ILLUSTRATION.] - -When the pictures had been unveiled in 1819 a festival of German artists -was held in Rome. Rckert, Bunsen, the Humboldts, the Herzes were there; -Cornelius, Veit, and Overbeck had arranged the transparencies. "The -centre of all," writes the Danish romantic Atterbom, was the Crown -Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, "the idol of every German artist, whose ruling -passion is for the fine arts and fair ladies. Everything was in old -German masques, the ladies in wide ruffs. The Crown Prince was in the -utmost good humour, and treated the artists as his equals. A toast was -drunk to German unity. The scene struck me like a beautiful dream out of -the Middle Ages." German unity at a Roman fancy ball! The German nation -a beautiful dream out of the Middle Ages! The Crown Prince Ludwig, when -he took Cornelius and Schnorr out of the Roman circle, at least created -a fatherland for German art, and later on the others also found at home -a suitable sphere of activity. - -Philip Veit, who went to Frankfort in 1830 as Director of the Staedel -Institute, was the first to settle down, and for all his energy could -only for a very short time make that city into a seat of the Christian -tendency in art. Of his pictures there, the fresco painted for the -Staedel Institute, "The Introduction of Christianity into Germany by St. -Boniface," is by far the most important. The apostle has hewn down the -oak of Thor, and from where it once stood there flows forth the new -spring of Christianity. The old Germans shrink back timorously, but the -youths listen to the preacher, and follow his direction to the figure of -religion which approaches with the palm of peace. In the background a -church rises, and in the distance, by a limpid river, a flourishing -town, in contrast to the sombre, primeval forest to which the Germans -who reject religion are flying. - -"The two Marys at the Sepulchre," in the Berlin National Gallery, and -the "Assumption," in the Frankfort Cathedral, date from a later period. -It was of no avail to him that he mingled with his Nazarenism a certain -air of the world, which found expression in a less ascetic language of -form and a somewhat stronger sense of colour. In 1841 he had already a -feeling that the restless, struggling age had passed him by. He -abandoned his post and went to meet oblivion as Director of the Gallery -at Mayence. - -[Illustration: _Munich, Albert._ - - STEINLE. THE VIOLIN PLAYER.] - -Overbeck, the only one who could not tear himself from Rome, remained, -till his death in 1869, the "Young German Raphael," as his father had -called him in a letter from Lbeck in 1811: a devout, religious poet, -pure of soul and of fine culture, as one-coloured and one-sided as he -was mild and tender. At the outset he knew, at least, how to extract -from the old masters a certain nave piety without positive character, -whereas later he lost himself more and more in the arid formalism of -dead dogmas. What was in his power to give he has given in pictures such -as the "Entry of Christ into Jerusalem" and the "Weeping over the Body -of Christ"--both in the Marienkirche at Lbeck, in the "Miracle of -Roses," in Santa Maria Degli Angeli at Assisi, in the "Christ on the -Mount of Olives" in the Hospital at Hamburg, and the "Betrothal of Mary" -in the Berlin National Gallery--pictures which expressed nothing that -would not have been expressed better at the end of the fifteenth -century. His "Holy Family with St. John and the Lamb," of 1825, in the -Munich Pinakothek, is in composition and type a complete imitation of -the Florentine Raphael; his "Lamentation of Christ" in the Lbeck -Marienkirche is reminiscent of Perugino; his "Burial" would never have -existed but for Raphael's picture in the Borghese Gallery. His sentiment -coincided exactly in devotion and godliness with that of Fra Angelico or -of the old masters of Cologne, and when he devoted himself to -programme-painting he lost all intelligibility. In the "Triumph of -Religion in the Arts," which he completed in 1846 for the Staedel -Institute, and in which he wished to embody the favourite ideas of -Romanticism, that art and religion must flow together in one stream, he -has copied the upper part from the "Disputa," the lower part from the -"School of Athens," and worked up both into a tedious and scholastically -elaborated whole. It is only through a series of unpretentious sketches -which he prepared for engravings, lithographs, and woodcuts that his -name has still a certain lustre. Plates such as the "Rest in the -Flight," the "Preaching of St. John," or the series "Forty Illustrations -to the Gospel," the "Passion," the "Seven Sacraments," may be -contemplated even to-day, since in them at least no tastelessness of -colour stands in the way. These plates, too, like his pictures, are less -observed than felt--felt, however, with an innocence and cheerfulness of -heart often quite childlike. - -[Illustration: PHILIP VEIT.] - -It shows above all much self-understanding that all these masters in -their later years restricted themselves exclusively to design, which -better expressed their character. In compositions and sketches of this -kind, which were only _drawn_, and were thus untrammelled by the -fruitless struggle with the difficulties of the technique of painting -and a complete lack of the notion of colour, they moved more freely and -lightly. In their frescoes and oil-paintings, partly through -insufficient technique, partly through their all too servile imitation -of foreign ideals, they went astray. As draughtsmen, they had more -courage to be themselves, and while in the completer paintings many a -fine trait, many an intimate reflection of the soul was lost, or through -the obduracy of the material did not attain a right expression, here -their spiritual and emotional qualities can be better valued. - -Joseph Fhrich, one of the most staunchly convinced champions of these -reactionary tendencies, has become, entirely owing to his extensive -activity as a draughtsman, somewhat more familiar to our modern -knowledge than most of his contemporaries. He had begun as a -draughtsman. As a student of the Prague Academy he was an enthusiast for -Schlegel, Novalis, and Tieck; and even before his journey to Rome he had -etched fifteen plates for Tieck's _Genoveva_. It was Drer who exercised -the deciding influence upon his further development. He had been led to -him through Wackenroder, and had copied his "Marienleben" in 1821. "Here -I saw," he says in his Autobiography, "a form before me which stood in -trenchant opposition to that of the Classicists, who are anxious to palm -off as beauty their smoothness and pomposity borrowed from the -misunderstood antique, and their affected delicacy as grace. In contrast -with that absence of character which prevailing academic art mistakes -for beauty I saw here a keen and mighty characterisation which dominated -the figures through and through, making them, as it were, into old -acquaintances." The strong and godly German middle age took then in -Fhrich's heart the same place which the Italian Quattrocento had filled -in Overbeck's range of thought. And this old-German tendency was only -temporarily interrupted by his sojourn in Rome. After he came to Rome in -1826 he became a Nazarene, and was accustomed there to look back at the -tendencies of his youth as an error; and both at Prague, where he -returned in 1829, after collaborating at the frescoes in the Villa -Massini, and at Vienna, where from 1841 he held the post of professor in -the Academy, he found rich opportunity for putting into practice his -ecclesiastical and orthodox views of art. - -[Illustration: VEIT. THE ARTS INTRODUCED INTO GERMANY BY CHRISTIANITY.] - -His frescoes in the Johannis-und-Altleschenfelder Church in Vienna are, -perhaps, more harmonious in colour, but no more independent in form, -than the works of the others. In his old age he returned once more to -the impressions of his youth, and so found himself again. - -As a boy, in his little native village of Kratzau, in Bohemia, he had -tended the cows in summer time and had acquired a certain sincere -knowledge of nature and shepherd-life. He had to thank Drer for his -preference for the idyllic and patriarchal family scenes in Sacred -History, and these tendencies found pleasing expression in pictures like -"Jacob and Rachel," or "The Passage of Mary across the Mountains." No -matter that the figures in "Jacob and Rachel" are taken out of the early -pictures of Pinturicchio and Raphael, they are still interwoven, with -their background of landscape, into an idyll of great navet and charm. -More especially, however, did the qualities which he owed to Drer -acquire value--a sturdy characterisation, a nave art in telling the -story, and a great wealth of fresh traits, straight from nature--in the -serial compositions of his old age. There is no sentimental vagueness, -nothing academical. Fhrich had a keen eye for what was intimate, -familiar; a tender sense of the individualities of landscape in woodland -and meadow, of the charm of everyday life as well as of the animal -world; and though an idealist, he knew how to assimilate ingeniously -what he had observed with a certain realistic fulness. The old story of -Boaz and Ruth grew beneath his hands into a delicious idyll of country -life. From the story of the Prodigal Son he has extracted with -sensitiveness the purely human kernel, and as late as the winter of -1870-71, at the age of seventy-one, he illustrated the legend of St. -Gwendolen, in which he depicted with tender reverence the escape of a -human soul, withdrawn from the world and resigned to God's will, into -Nature and her peace. - -Edward Steinle, who went from Rome to Vienna in 1833, and settled in -Frankfort in 1838, is called, not very appropriately, by his biographer, -Constantine Wuzbach, "a Madonna painter of our time." His name deserves -to come down to posterity rather for what he created outside the -essential characteristics of his art. In his frescoes in the minster at -Aachen, in the choir of the cathedrals of Strasburg and Cologne, he -stood firm on the standpoint of the Nazarenes; which is as much as to -say they contained nothing novel in the history of art. In his fairy -pictures, however, imagination broke through the narrow confines of -dogma, and entwined itself in creative enjoyment round the vague figures -of fable. His "Loreley," in the Schack Gallery, as she looks down, a -Medusa-like destroyer, from the tall cliff; his watchman who looks -dreamily into space over the houses of the old town; his violin player -on his tower who plays, forgetful of the world,--these have something -musical, poetical, that freshness of sentiment and unsought navet -which as an inheritance of his Viennese home was also peculiar in such a -high degree to Schwind. - -The Romantic aspiration is revealed in Steinle, even, in a certain -"yearning after colour." There lives in his works a refined feeling for -colour that, especially in his water-colours, rarely forsakes him. -Take, for instance, the fresh, tinted pen-drawings, engraved by -Schaffer, in which he displayed with the navet of Memlinc the life of -St. Euphrosyne; the five aquarelles of Grimm's "Snow-White and -Rose-Red"; or his illustrations to Brentano's poems, such as the -_Chronicle of the Wandering Student_, and the _Fairy Tale of the Rhine -and Radlauf the Miller_, in which he developed a delight in the world -and an idea of landscape that in the ascetic Nazarene excite -astonishment. - -[Illustration: VEIT. THE TWO MARYS AT THE SEPULCHRE.] - -Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld went, after the completion of the Ariosto -Room of the Villa Massini, first to Vienna, then in 1827 to Munich, in -order to paint the _Nibelungen_ in the halls of the royal residence of -that time, and in the imperial halls of the state palace the history of -Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa, and Rudolf of Hapsburg. He also, -however, created his best work at the close of his life in Dresden,--the -forcible woodcuts of his _Picture Bible_, which narrated the world's -sacred history in strong and vigorous strokes. - -Strangest to the present-day taste have become the drawings of -Cornelius. His plates to Goethe's _Faust_ have, indeed, a certain -austere strength of conception, which he learnt from Drer; but also -faults of drawing, exaggerations, crudities, and errors in perspective, -which he did not find in Drer. - -In his second work, the Nibelungen cycle, an intentional old-German -angularity, with an unintentional modern clumsiness, has effected a -_msalliance_ even less attractive. - -[Illustration: OVERBECK. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AND CORNELIUS.] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -THE ART OF MUNICH UNDER KING LUDWIG I - - -More than seventeen hundred years ago there reigned a Roman emperor who -loved art passionately. He looked upon it from an intellectual altitude -which few have reached, and he valued it as the monumental consummation -of Grco-Roman culture. Standing upon a plane of intellectual elevation, -himself gifted with artistic intuition, he knew of no higher enjoyment -for a ruler than the cultivation of the architectural and other forms of -art. It was he who opened up to the energy of artists a field such as -has never been offered to them before or since. He spent upon his works -sums incalculable, so that his people grew restless under their -emperor's mania for building. His villa at Tivoli, which attained to the -extent of a town, was in itself a copy of everything that he most loved -and admired in the world. It united nearly all the renowned buildings of -Athens in one masterly reproduction. And then with architecture came the -other arts. The most magnificent collections of sculpture were formed, -for none had better opportunities of acquiring the antique masterpieces -of the Greek towns. Numberless frescoes, scenes from those cities and -regions which had most impressed him on his travels, adorned the walls. - -And yet subsequent generations have viewed with unconcern this halcyon -period in the history of art. Though his contemporaries fancied that the -splendour of the Greek sun was still radiating over them, it was but a -borrowed lustre, which never went beyond the reproduction or copying of -classic examples. Whatever Greek temples the emperor might build and -decorate, he failed to summon into being a Phidias or a Polygnotes to -revive for him the forms of the antique. The names of the artists who -worked for him are forgotten. They had no originality; they copied the -types of the Grecian and Egyptian periods, and their art was but a -repetition of old ideals, without character of age or place. The fifteen -colossal columns of his Olympieion that are still standing impress one -as foreign to Athens, and would seem more in place at Baalbeck or -Palmyra than in this city of the Muses. Epictetus would have smiled at -the emperor diverting himself with an album of the wonders of the world, -as a piece of sentimentality. The age of Hadrian produced thousands of -buildings, statues, and pictures, but no original works. - -Will a different judgment be pronounced in the lapse of time upon the -artistic creations of King Ludwig I? Ludwig also--his biography reads -like that of Hadrian--was an enthusiastic admirer of art. After the -Peace of Vienna, when the political aspirations of Germany had been -frustrated, he alone among the numerous German princes of the old -alliance fostered homeless art, and thus fulfilled a noble mission. The -king's splendid enthusiasm for the ideal significance of art, which he -hoped would lead the German people, then seeking to work out its -individuality, from out of its Philistine narrow-mindedness to nobler -and greater things--this enthusiasm will redound to his enduring honour. -Schiller's idea of educating humanity by sthetic means had in him grown -into a living and powerful sentiment. - -All that it was possible to accomplish in the cause of art, on the basis -of existing development, his endeavours have fully realised. In the -course of twenty-three years he spent more than 3,000,000 from his -privy purse, and made Munich what it is, the principal art centre of -Germany; changed it from a Boeotia into an Athens; founded its art -collections, and erected the buildings which give the town its -character. Then he offered those new walls to the painter Cornelius, and -commanded him to cover them. "You are my field-marshal, do you provide -generals of division." In 1814 Cornelius had written to Bartholdy: "The -most powerful and unfailing means to restore German art and bring it -into harmony with this great period and the spirit of the nation would -be a revival of fresco-painting as it existed in Italy from the days of -the great Giotto to those of the divine Raphael." And through this royal -command the dream was realised beyond all expectation. No such lively -artistic animation had been witnessed since the great periods of Italian -art; an animation which does not cut the worst figure in German history -in those sad times of political stagnation and reaction. But that there -was a living soul of art in those days posterity will no more -acknowledge than it does in the case of the age of Hadrian. - - "Wie bei Bartholdy als Kind, so in Massimis Villa als Jngling - Teutshes Fresco wir sehn, aber in Mnchen als Mann," - -sang King Ludwig. Now, after two generations, it can be seen that -fresco-painting at Munich from 1820 to 1840 produced less original -conceptions of the German art of the nineteenth than weak reflections of -the Italian art of the sixteenth century. - -Various favourable circumstances combined at that time to cause -Cornelius to be specially looked upon by his contemporaries as an -incomparable master. Since Tiepoli, German monumental art had remained -dormant. The frescoes at Munich were the first attempts made to revive -it. And it seemed as though with Cornelius, German art had at once risen -to the dizzy heights to which Italian art had been led by Michael -Angelo. The lookers-on believed in Buonarotti's resurrection. As in the -Sistine "Last Judgment," the movement of his heroic figures appeared -plastic and pathetic, and his types, not excepting the women, gave that -impression of the terrible, which none but Signorelli and Michael Angelo -had attained before him. His advent, it was said, might almost make one -believe in a kind of metempsychosis; as though the spirit of the great -Florentine master, that giant of the Renaissance, had been restored to -humanity. At that very period the Italian art of the Cinquecento enjoyed -the exclusive favour of the German scholars. It alone was worthy of -imitation; in it the sthetic philosophers sought for rules and laws to -govern the development of art. And as they thought that all the -qualities of this artistic method were to be found in the works of -Cornelius, it was only logical to arrive at the conclusion which the -Crown Prince Ludwig summed up in the following words: "There has been no -painter like Cornelius since the Cinquecento." - -[Illustration: PETER CORNELIUS.] - -At the same time the intellectual character of his work harmonised with -the wishes of a period in which the leaders of German thought tried to -forget the dreary dulness of life by plunging into the most profound -speculations. "What does it matter," writes Hallman, "if we lack all -joyous, independent national feeling? What though we do not even try to -resuscitate this feeling with wars and battles? We strive after -something higher! The world is beginning to respect German intellect and -learning. We believe that in this we are in advance of other nations, -and we seek a mode of expression, we want to give a form to that lofty -thought through our art, in order that we may bequeath to posterity an -image of our fortunate condition.... Therefore it is a remarkable sign -of the times that painting strives to make the weighty output of -intellectual thought a common treasure of all who are neither able nor -disposed to follow speculation to its dizzy heights, nor erudition to -its lowest depths; that painters try to transform the results of those -investigations into fresh and ever lively conceptions--the element of -art." - -To accomplish this none was better fitted than Cornelius. What a weight -of thought and learning his works display! - -In the Pinakothek, Cornelius' main idea was to paint the life and work -of Nature as illuminated by the figures of the Greek gods. For the -series of paintings in the Hall of the Gods, Hesiod's _Theogony_ offered -a basis upon which to demonstrate the idea of the triumph of the -creative mind in heaven and upon earth. In the second room, human -passion, power, and tyranny were illustrated in scenes of Greek heroic -life from the _Iliad_. The frescoes in the Ludwigskirche were to follow -the Christian apocalypse as a concatenation, and to depict it in -symbolic treatment from the Creation to the Last Judgment. The frescoes -for the Campo Santo at Berlin were meant to represent "the universal and -most exalted fortunes of humanity, the manifestation of divine grace -towards the sins of mankind, the redemption from sin, perdition, and -death, the triumph of life and eternity." Each of these paintings is a -treatise. Each fresco bears a definite relation to the other; deep -philosophic speculations weave their threads from one to the other. Or -else the painter revels in a suite of compositions which trace a network -of intellectual combinations from one picture to the other. As he -himself expressed it, he delivered his diploma lecture through his -paintings. - -And this painted erudition harmonised with the requirements of those -times of dominating intellectual tendencies. The scholars saw in -Cornelius the poet, the doctor-in-philosophy; held that the principal -value of the work of art lay in its intellectual contents, and felt that -their loftiest mission was to express these contents still more -correctly than the painter himself. The idea, they said, was the alpha -and omega of the painter's art, and must be accepted at its full value, -even when represented in the most shadowy external form. - -These opinions have now vanished entirely. A more extended intercourse -with the old masters and with the art of other countries has gradually -cured the Germans too of that mental hypertrophy from which they -suffered in their view of art--a complaint whose characteristic symptom -was the entire lack of sensuousness, of that sensibility to beauty of -form and external charm which always has been and always must be the -predominating mood of a society in which art is to flourish. They have -gradually reached the point at which one interests one's self in a -picture for the sake of the painting of it, looks first at the picture, -and only then asks what the painter's idea may have been, or what the -spectator is to gather from it. No poem will find favour which offers -acceptable thoughts in badly worded, halting, unmelodious verse; nor do -the loftiest thoughts in themselves suffice to make a work of art. -Profundity of thought is a thing that has little to do with pure art; -and the subject alone, however world-stirring the ideas in it may be, -never makes a thing artistic. We have learnt to find the most intense -enjoyment in the mere contemplation of Titian's "Earthly and Heavenly -Love," although we may not yet know what this picture is really meant to -convey. And we know none the less that what renders Raphael's "School of -Athens" immortal is not its catalogue of ideas, which has been drawn up -by an anonymous pedant, but the master's artistic power, the intensity -with which he expresses what was barely showing bud in the material, the -self-reliant strength and sureness with which the form and colour have -succeeded in outlining and creating every figure and every movement in -the picture. - -[Illustration: PETER CORNELIUS. 'LET THERE BE LIGHT'.] - -[Illustration: CORNELIUS. FROM THE FRESCOES IN THE FRIEDHOFSHALLE, - BERLIN.] - -No less has the comparative study of art gradually refined people's -sensibility to originality. We are no longer compelled to place an -artist on the same level with a master of ancient art because of the -outer resemblance of their work. We have progressed so far as to respect -in art none but original genius, and to look upon imitation as a -_testimonium paupertatis_ though Praxiteles or Michael Angelo be the -model. In this we find the explanation of the low esteem in which some -of the old masters are now held. The contemporaries of Mabuse and Marten -Heemskerk thought that in these painters they had found again the great -primeval, Titanic nature of Michael Angelo, his vast motives and -majestic forms. To-day we say of them, and with justice, that they -produced nothing better than caricatures of Michael Angelo, that they -expressed themselves in shallow phrases, that their religious pictures -are cold and inflated, and that their mythological presentations with -naked figures impress us as bombastic and repellent. Houbraken, in his -biography of Grard de Lairesse, wrote: "A whole book could be filled -with the description of his innumerable pictures and panels, ceilings -and frescoes." To-day we dismiss this unattractive mannerist in a few -lines. What his contemporaries described as his Michaelangelesque and -majestic fierceness appears to us, looking back, as a mere pale -imitation. - -[Illustration: CORNELIUS. MARGUERITE IN PRISON.] - -Measure Cornelius by the same rule, and the result is no less -melancholy. Merciless history paused for a moment to consider whether it -ever saw his equal, and then passed on to the order of the day, as it -did with his predecessors. To us he is no longer the original genius -that he was to his contemporaries, but an imitator. The retrospective -history of art marks a new epoch with him, Heinrich Hess, and Schnorr: -the advance from the paths of the early Italians, trodden by the -Nazarenes, to this link with the golden age of the Cinquecento. The -works of Cornelius are mighty shadows cast into our days by the gigantic -figures of Michael Angelo. But only shadows! There is no blood in them. -A direct line leads from Michael Angelo to Millet; but I doubt whether -the master would delight in Cornelius, who has only used him as a -_gradus ad Parnassum_. The works of Cornelius are the products of a -civilised yet artistically poor period. The idealism of Michael Angelo -had raised itself upon the naturalistic shoulders of Donatello and -Ghirlandaio; this new Cornelian idealism sprang into being full-grown -from reminiscences, and was therefore from the outset without backbone. -It is the fruit of a decadence, not the mature product of a full-blown -art, which has taken centuries to grow and ripen. In Michael Angelo the -aspirations of Italian art, from Giotto onward, attained their zenith. -Cornelius, standing solitary in an inartistic period that had lost every -tradition and all technical method, believed in the possibility of -rising to the same level by making the forms borrowed from Michael -Angelo convey scraps of modern knowledge. In doing this he could not but -confirm the experience, thus described by Goethe in his _Theory of -Colour_: "Even the most perfect models are delusive, by causing us to -pass over necessary decrees of culture, and thus generally carrying us -beyond the goal into a domain of boundless error." - -[Illustration: CORNELIUS. THE APOCALYPTIC HOST.] - -At the same time that Heinrich Hess was carrying on his calligraphic -exercises after Raphael and Andrea del Sarto in the Basilika at Munich, -Cornelius was making his schoolboy sketches after Michael Angelo. What -is great in his master is empty _pose_ in him; what is _furia_ in the -former is a laboured imitation in the latter. While the terrific -Florentine Master found within himself the expression of his superhuman -figures, his learned follower copies attitudes, gestures, -groups--familiar to anyone who has been to Italy and passed a few hours -in the Sistine Chapel. One seems to hear the old Florentine's great -voice toned down through the telephone, and irritating us with false -pathos at moments when pathos is quite superfluous. All the faces are -distorted with grimaces, heads of hair are puffed up as though with -serpents, garments fly about; people shout instead of speaking, open -their mouths wide as though they were giving the word of command to an -army, stretch out their arms as though they would embrace the world. A -mother bearing a child in her arms squeezes it to death. A cook -roasting a leg of mutton bastes it with a Herculean gesture, and a -butler emptying a leather bottle has the air of a river-god meditating a -flood. In order that his human beings may look vigorous and heroic, he -makes them walk in seven-league boots, dislocate their limbs, expand the -gigantic measurement of the body far beyond the human. Every head shows -a different colouring: one red as sealing-wax, another rose-pink, a -third _caput mortuum_. Added to this, the academic drapery arrangements, -those florid garments with their rolling, writhing folds, for which -there is no real justification, and which have no use but that of -ornament. "Ah," says Goethe, in one of his letters, "how true it is that -nothing is remarkable but what is natural: nothing grand but what is -natural: nothing beautiful, nothing, etc., etc., but what is natural." -Michael Angelo is not at all easy to understand; and Cornelius' study of -him resulted in the very same mannerism into which the Dutchmen had -fallen three hundred years earlier,--the only difference being that he -surpassed them in erudition. But although this quality would no doubt -have greatly helped him had he written books, we cannot take it into -account in discussing his artistic merits, any more than we can judge -Grard de Lairesse by his literary achievements. Nay, more, as he had -elected to confine himself to painting, his erudition became a curse to -him, bringing him to disregard beauty of form in a manner as yet unknown -in the history of art. Not only was he filled with ardour for the -loftier thoughts, without allowing any other forms for their -presentation but those which were mere reminiscences of former art -periods--he did not even give himself leisure thoroughly to assimilate -the forms borrowed from Michael Angelo, and to animate them with fresh -life. Hence the fact that, as an artist, he remains greatly below the -level of the Dutch copyists, in whose work there is at least no faulty -drawing and tasteless colouring to be found. He asked for walls, not as -panels to paint on, but as tablets on which to inscribe his thoughts; -felt exclusively as a poet, a man of learning, brooding ideas. Engrossed -in developing these ideas, he valued form and colour no more than an -author would the embellishing of his manuscript with flowing letters and -an artistic arrangement of inks. It is only by this means that we can -explain the unjustifiable carelessness with which he surrendered his -cartoons to his pupils, and allowed them a free hand in the carrying -them out, or account for the evanescent colouring in the Glyptothek and -in the Ludwigskirche,--a colouring which was even at that time far below -the general level, and which could only be excused in the case of a -self-trained and quite untutored school. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - CORNELIUS. THE FALL OF TROY.] - -A man of this kind, who had nothing to teach that was worth the -learning, and who excelled only in intellectual qualities which could -not be imparted to others, must needs prove the most dangerous -academy-principal Germany has had since she first boasted an academy. So -much the more as his pupils readily submitted to the personal -fascination of this earnest little man with his black clothes, his -pompous appearance, his flashing eagle eye, which made one believe -that, Dante-like, he had looked upon heaven and hell. "As there are men -born to command an army, so Cornelius was born to be the head of a -school of painting," said King Ludwig. We can scarcely help smiling at -Schwind's account of the trembling awe with which, upon his arrival from -Vienna, he presented himself to the master. The red-haired stripling, in -his outgrown clothes, timidly strolling round the rooms of the -Glyptothek suddenly sees Cornelius himself, high on a scaffolding, in -all his glory, in an effulgence such as surrounds the head of Phoebus -Apollo. Accustomed to seeing young artists stoop before him, now -stammering, now paling, now blushing, the demi-god descends to the level -of the unknown mortal. "He is quite a little man, in a blue shirt, with -a red belt. He looks very stern and distinguished, and his black, -gleaming eyes impress you. He descended from his throne, changed his -blue smock for an elegant frockcoat, drank a glass of water with an easy -manner, and made my flesh thrill with a short explanation of what had -been painted and what was still to be done, tucked a few writing books -under his arm, and went upon his business to the academy." - -[Illustration: WILHELM KAULBACH.] - -The reformation of the academy, instigated by him at Munich, -demonstrated the one-sidedness of his point of view. He turned it into a -school for fresco-painting. "A professorship in _genre_ and landscape -painting appears to me superfluous," he wrote to the king in 1825; "true -art knows no subdivision." But as he himself had only partially mastered -fresco painting, he did not even succeed in establishing a school of -fresco painters. It was only one of designers of cartoons. - -"Read the great poets: Homer, Shakespeare, Goethe; do not forget to -include the Bible. The brush has become the ruin of our art. It has led -from Nature to Mannerism." By means of this teaching Cornelius infused -all his own defects into his academy, which for that reason was doomed -from the outset to an early decease. A war of extermination, often -leading to the most burlesque scenes, was declared by the Cornelians -against the Langerians, who were despised because they had retained a -few of the technical acquirements of the peruke period. When Cornelius's -attention was drawn to the fact that in one of his cartoons he had given -a Greek hero six fingers he answered with indifference: "Ay, and if he -had had seven, how would it affect the general idea?" - -[Illustration: KAULBACH. THE DELUGE.] - -It was only natural, therefore, that his pupils should feel above using -a model. It is said that at the time when they were turning Munich into -an Athens, and the painters were covering the city walls with frescoes, -Munich possessed but one model, and the poor fellow died of starvation. -And then, how they hated colours! They were so difficult to manage! Who, -pray, wanted to learn fresco painting by hard labour, and swallow the -chalk-dust? It was much easier to copy their lord and master, whose name -was on their lips, but not a spark of whose genius was in their heads, -with every sort of mannerism. "When nature once produces a new birth she -does so with a lavish hand. Talents, talents enough for centuries!" In -these words Cornelius himself did honour to his pupils--to Carl -Herrmann, Strhuber, Hermann Anschtz, Hiltensperger, and Lindenschmit -the elder, the mention of whose names evokes a painful memory of the -arcades in the palace garden at Munich. - -What survives of Cornelius is only the man, the individual. Posterity -will doubtless always honour him for the unflinching energy with which -he upheld his ideal from youth to failing age; for his courage in -propounding and defending what seemed right to _him_; for refraining -from putting on velvet gloves with the multitude, but frankly showing -them his nails. This high-mindedness of Cornelius, and his lofty -conception of the aims of art, must always command our respect. All his -works are the product of a serene, great, and noble soul. His is a -physiognomy with a proud, vigorous profile, which expresses an -intellectual tendency, and can never be forgotten. He was a man--as a -painter, a curse to German art, but a self-conscious, aristocratic mind. -As he himself said: "Art has its high-priests and also its -hedge-priests"; and when at the end of his life he made his profession: -"Never, under any circumstance of my life, have I lost my pious -reverence for the divinity of art; never have I sinned against it," we -none of us refuse to accept his word. - -[Illustration: KAULBACH. PRINCE ARTHUR AND HUBERT.] - -This unfailing earnestness which suffuses Cornelius's work raises him -high above _Wilhelm Kaulbach_, and secures for him lasting fame, when -that of Kaulbach shall have been buried with the last of the "cultured" -patrons for whom he worked, and by whom he was placed on a pedestal. -Look at both of them from a purely artistic point of view, comparing -them with the old masters, and both of them sink equally into -insignificance. But if we come to accept the problem of art criticism as -a matter of psychology rather than of sthetics, if we search for the -relations between the work of art and the soul of its author, we cannot -but look upon Kaulbach as by far the inferior. Cornelius endeavoured to -raise the masses to his level, paid for his idealism with unpopularity, -and was never understood. Kaulbach, the humble servant of the public, -changed the Spartan iron of the art of Cornelius for the base coin of -the art unions; to tickle the multitude, he clothed voluptuous -sensuality in the stately garment of the earnest Muse, and was hailed -with jubilation throughout his life. But the valise with which alone, -according to the fairy-tale, one can enter upon the journey to -immortality, was still lighter in his case. Idealistic painting, as -professed by Cornelius, had skimmed all the cream from religious and -mythological subjects; so Kaulbach tried to give something more actual -in its stead. He found this in the philosophy of history, in the images -of epochs in the history of the world which were then so much in vogue, -and handed his public, eager for knowledge, a printed programme upon -which he had catalogued the gigantic thoughts and even weightier -references which the picture was said to contain. As the masses were -awed by the severity of the Cornelian conception of forms, he softened -it down with superficial calligraphic elegance: what was sturdy and -angular in the former was by him changed into a coquettish effeminacy. -This he effected by daubing his pictures, which were in no way colour -conceptions, with insipid combinations of colour, and replaced with -oleographs Cornelius's illuminated monumental woodcuts. By these -concessions to the picturesque he drove the axe into the tree which the -designers of cartoons had planted. The part he plays is that of a man of -compromise between Cornelius and Piloty; his frescoes are too sugary; -his oil-paintings too faulty. It was he who buried the era of cartoons, -although the obsequies were conducted with all pomp. - -A spiritual battle, an aerial battle, the "Battle of the Huns," is the -first of his works. Beneath, a real historical event; above, the same -reproduced in the spiritual world. The battle is over; the field is -hidden beneath the corpses of the slain; but the spirits continue the -combat in mid-air, and strive to turn the occasion to account for a -display of nudity. Next came the "Destruction of Jerusalem," crammed -with ingenious references, and elucidated with long, printed -commentaries. This programme-painting played its trump card on the -staircase of the Berlin Museum, where a space of 240 feet by 28 feet is -occupied by "the intellectual manifestations of the historical -_Weltgeist_"; "the total evolution of culture with every people of every -period in its principal historical phases"; those incidents "which, in -the evolution of universal history, mark the important knots with which -the closely entwined threads of the national dramas of the universe are -bound together." The "Battle of the Huns," the "Destruction of -Jerusalem," were included in the series; and to them were added the -"Tower of Babel," the "Rise of Greece," the "Crusades," and the -"Reformation." The whole of Hegel's philosophy was reproduced on the -walls. But as the pictures are not new through any novelty or greatness -of their conception, we need certainly not enter into the "astounding -profundity" of their philosophy. The eye is struck with mere -compositions, built up according to certain formulas, and _tableaux -vivants_, put together with more or less cleverness, theatrical in -effect and crude in colour. - -Of his other large pictures, the "Naval Battle at Salamis" caused a -special stir through its sinking harem. In his "Nero" he contrasted the -orgies of the Romans of the decadence with the enthusiasm for death of -the early Christians. Again, in his great cartoon in charcoal of "Peter -Arbue," he inflated to monumental dimensions a drawing suitable for a -comic paper. - -Kaulbach is not an artist to be taken seriously. Woltmann, who made the -same observation twenty years ago, tried at least to vindicate the -illustrator, and expressed his regret that a man who had the stuff in -him of a German Hogarth should unfortunately have been caught in the -toils of the Cornelian school. But this comparison does little justice -to Hogarth. There is nothing in the illustrations of Kaulbach which many -other artists could not have improved upon. In his "Reynard the Fox" he -adapted, for the benefit of the German public, Grandville's _Scnes de -la Vie prive et publique des Animaux_, published in 1842. His -illustrations for _ditions de luxe_ ("The Women of Goethe," etc.) -marked the first steps of the road which ended in Thuman. And Thuman -stands higher than Kaulbach. The faint, unaccented drawing, the oval -"beauty" of heads, declamatory and expressionless, the academic touch -are common to both of them. But only with Kaulbach do we find the -penetrating perfume of the demi-monde, the voluptuous, satirical -laughter which is not even stilled before Goethe, the pandering -sensuality which cannot touch the purest and tenderest figures in German -poetry without using them as a pretext to fling nudities to the public -like bones to a dog. In his "Dance of Death" suite, Kaulbach turned into -frivolity what Rethel had before expressed solemnly and earnestly. Like -the two augurs, who could not meet without laughing, so at last the -satirical designer began to laugh at his own monumental pictures. After -completing in his series of mural paintings at the Berlin Museum his -"Apotheosis of the Evolution of Human Culture," he explained in his -friezes that the whole was, after all, nothing but a dustbin and a -lumber-room. When he was commissioned to depict a suite of paintings for -the upper walls of the new Pinakothek at Munich, the artistic life of -that town, as glorified by King Ludwig--a suite which the weather has -since been kind enough to render almost invisible--he fulfilled his task -by mocking at what he should have glorified. - - "All die Meister Kunstbahnbrecher, wie die Herren selbst sich nennen, - Wahrlich Widderkpfe sind sie, Mauern damit einzurennen. - Mit dem Loche in der Mauer ist's noch lange nicht geschehen, - Da muss erst der Held erscheinen, siegreich dadurch einzugehen. - Gegen jenes Ungeheuer ziehen sie zu Feld mit Phrasen, - Wie die sieben Schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekmpft den Hasen. - Voran zieht der edle Ritter Schnorr, der Knste Don Quixote, - Seine Rosinante setzt er, statt des Pegasus in Trotte; - Heiliger Hess, sein Sancho Pansa, Du nicht liebst das offene Streiten, - Und du lsst dich sachte, sachte, 'rab von Deinem Esel gleiten. - Was ist denn so grosses Neues in der Neuen Kunst geschehen? - Nichts, als was sie nicht der aften, lngst vergangnen abgesehen. - Wnde ich auch Lorbeerkrnze all um diese Alltagsfratzen, - Wrden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle Glatzen." - -This is the commentary written by Kaulbach himself; and Thophile -Gautier called the suite _un carnaval au soleil_. "The king in his youth -spent millions in order to elevate art," says Schwind; "and now in his -old age he pays another thousand pounds in order to be laughed at for -it." Heine's loud, scornful laughter resounds over the grave of romantic -literature; and so the "monumental period of German art" ends in -self-derision. - -Moreover, as the mural paintings of the new Pinakothek, like the -frescoes in the Arcades and most of the other monumental products of the -period, are falling into ruin, and only show traces of their past beauty -in a few faint spots of colour not yet entirely effaced, it is quite -clear that it was an inherent fallacy of Cornelius to expect a -_renovation_ of national German art from fresco painting. The Venetians -of the sixteenth century well knew why they did not take up fresco -painting. Monumental painting, as aimed at by Cornelius, must remain an -imported plant that cannot possibly thrive in a northern climate; and -oil-painting, since the Van Eycks the medium and basis of art-culture -among the Teutonic races, took its revenge upon his one-sidedness and -his Michaelangelesque disdain, in the fact that at Munich it had to be -learnt again right from the beginning. - -[Illustration: KAULBACH. MARGUERITE.] - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -THE DSSELDORFERS - - -On the Rhine there existed a school of painting instead of a school of -drawing, a fact which at that time placed Dsseldorf next in importance -to Munich. Wilhelm Schadow, its first director, was lacking in any -personal distinction as an artist, but he had received from his great -father a tendency towards perfection of technique, which brought him and -his school into direct opposition with the purely philosophical painters -of the severe Cornelian tradition, and which has even in our days been -able to exercise an authoritative influence. In Rome he was the only one -of the Nazarenes amenable to the French influence, while the others -nervously held aloof from the members of the French Academy. And this -formal bent of his talent later gave him the qualifications of a sound -teacher. Immediately upon his arrival at Dsseldorf, in November 1826, -he was escorted by a stately throng of students: Carl Friedrich Lessing, -Julius Hbner, Theodor Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, H. Mcke, and Christian -Koehler, who were afterwards joined by Eduard Bendemann, Ernest Deger, -and others. These became the mainstay of the celebrated Old Dsseldorf -School, which was soon supported by the jubilant enthusiasm of its -contemporaries. At the Berlin exhibitions the new school of painting -passed from one triumph to the other. Young men fresh from school -suddenly made names that were honoured throughout Germany, by reason of -the remarkable manner in which their works succeeded in expressing the -sentimental romanticism of the time. - -The Wars of Liberty of 1813, which had caused a gust of joyous -enthusiasm to penetrate even into the peaceful seclusion of the -Nazarenes, were not, like the wars of 1870, the outcome of careful -calculation, but the result of a sudden burst of ardour, and the -disillusion had now followed upon the enthusiasm. In 1810, with the -French bayonets gleaming outside the windows, and the French kettledrums -drowning the sound of his voice, Fichte delivered at the Berlin -University his famous speeches which sounded the rveill for Germany. -At the same time Kleist wrote his _Hermannschlacht_: Napoleon was to be -treated as Hermann had treated Varus. "_Was blasen die Trompeten, -Husaren heraus_," pealed through the air; the song of "_Got, der Eisen -wachsen liess_" rose heavenwards in brazen accords. And not long after, -the same lions who had beaten the Corsican at Leipzig, and had with -Arndt conceived the idea of a great, united fatherland, had once more -become the same easy-going people, drinking their beer and smoking their -pipes in their little duodecimo principalities as of old. Those dreary -times, which saw no prospect of relief in their own days, must needs -nourish a devotion to the past. That haughty antiquity, which had been -possessed of the ideal to which the present had not been able to attain, -became the object of a fanatical adoration. Men lost themselves in the -old storehouses of faded German reminiscences, and fled for inspiration -to the times of a consolidated German Empire. This return to the ruins -of the past was a protest against the grey, colourless present. The -patriotic frenzy of the poets of freedom changed into enthusiasm for the -vanished glories of medival Germany. They remembered with longing and -yearning the days when the robber-knights ruled town and country from -their strongholds. Schenkendorff sang hymns inspired by the old -cathedrals, rummaged with holy horror among the skeletons of knights and -heroes in the chapel, and wrote a poem in memory of the thousandth -anniversary of the death of Charlemagne; Arndt, the bard of the wars of -freedom, violently attacked the "industrialism" of the time, declaiming -against steam and machinery; Zacharias Werner composed his poem, "_Das -Feldgeschrei sei: alte Zeit wird neu_." - -This revival of romanticism opened up a wide field to science and -poetry. The apotheosis of the old imperial times was made manifest amid -fairy-like glamour. Poetry grasped the pilgrim's staff, or rode with -beauteous dames on milk-white palfreys through forest and glade. -Enchanted genii, elves, fairies, and goblins were encountered on the -road. Nowhere is there so sweet a scent of blossoms, so innocent a sound -of children's merriment, as in Tieck's delightful and dainty -fairy-tales, or in the works of Clemens Brentano, those precious stories -of Father Rhine, of the water-nymphs and the crystal castles at the -bottom of the green current, pictures full of charming wilfulness, -dreamily winsome, like summer evenings on the Rhine. Uhland sang, as -once had sung the knightly poets with the golden harps-- - - "Von Gottesminne, von khner Helden Muth, - Von lindem liebesinne, von ssser Maiengluth." - -To this day we seem to peep between the weather-beaten castles, standing -on their grey rocks along the Rhine Valley, into the realm of romance as -into an enigma propounded by mountain and dale. Rhine and romance! - -No spot in Germany was better fitted to become the cradle of a romantic -art than Dsseldorf, the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of -the green river. In the fifteenth century, in addition to the school of -Florence, where flowed a rich current of political and human life, where -great buildings, monuments, and frescoes kept architects and sculptors -and painters uniformly busied, there existed in the remote Umbrian -valleys, in the land of miracles and visions, that school of painting in -oils which saw its only eternal ideal in the deep eyes and soft aspect -of the Madonna, and made the visionary aspirations of the soul, -emotions, and sentiment the exclusive subject of their pictures. In the -same manner, in the nineteenth century, we find in contrast with the -Munich school, with its numerous architectural products, its massive -statuary, and the epic-dramatic fresco painting of Cornelius--"wedding -the German to the Greek, and Faust to Helen"--that lyrico-sentimental -Dsseldorf school of painting which embraced Madonnas and prophets, -knights and robbers, gipsies and monks, water-nymphs and nuns with the -same languishing tenderness. In matter and technique it completes the -art of Cornelius and the Nazarenes; that of the Munich master by its -encouragement of oil-painting; that of the Nazarenes by the stress which -it lays upon the more worldly side of medival life, upon chivalry, and -in a less degree upon that other pillar of medivalism the Church. The -Nazarenes are archological and ascetic; the Dsseldorf school is -insipid in a modern way, feeble, colourless, and sentimental. - -Count Raczynski and Friedrich von Uechtritz have given us interesting -descriptions of life at Dsseldorf at that time, and their story reads -like a chapter of Tacitus' _Germania_. "_Grand dieu! Bons et affectueux -allemands!_" exclaimed a Parisian critic of the Count's book in sad -emotion, and held up this virtuous German life, as an example worthy of -imitation, to his compatriots, the decadents of fashionable artistic -Paris, fallen into modern luxury. Undisturbed by the hum of a big city, -and without any communication with its surroundings, the Dsseldorf -colony of artists lived its life of seclusion. The painters saw none but -painters. They herded together in the studios, and the sole recreation -in the intervals of their work was a visit to another studio. The whole -of the day was devoted to painting; when the picture was complete it -went to the art union; and the hours of tediousness were overcome with -the assistance of a little intrigue. Hildebrandt possessed the nucleus -of a collection of beetles. Lessing, the hunter, collected pipes and -antlers, and only felt himself at home in the little room which he -occupied with Sohn when it assumed the appearance of a gamekeeper's -cottage. Convinced that politics were the ruin of character, they -allowed no questions of the day to interfere with the calmness of their -artistic life. Few of them ever read a newspaper. In the year of -revolution, 1830, their sole interest in the events around them was -concentrated in the fear that a war might disturb their idyllic life. -The end of the day's work saw them in summer-time bent on a pilgrimage -to the Stockkmpchen, to refresh themselves with a cup of buttermilk, to -play at bowls, or to enjoy a race among the cabbage patches of the -garden. In winter they made a point of meeting at seven o'clock every -Saturday night at the inn for a literary reading. Each taking his part -they recited the dramas of Tieck, of Calderon, and Lopez; or Uechtritz -read extracts from German history, the Crusades, the period of the -emperors, the riots of the Hussites. Every Sunday night there met at -Schadow's a very distinguished intellectual circle, consisting of Judge -Immermann (the reformer of the stage at Dsseldorf), Felix Mendelssohn -the composer, Kortum, author of the _Jobsiade_, and Assessor von -Uechtritz, with their ladies. But the great gala-days were the -theatrical performances which took place twice a week. Under the -leadership of Immermann the theatre had become the place whence the -young painters gathered their liveliest suggestions. Some of them went -even so far as to take part in amateur performances, conducted by -Immermann, and given in Schadow's house, under the auspices of the whole -of the distinguished society. And thus the pictures of this school were -not conceived under the influence of life, but of the theatre. The -Dsseldorf artists were youths whose productions were not rooted in -life, but in reading and culture; youths who always moved in good -society, and who had passed through the great ordeals of life, but only -on "the boards representing the universe." - -_Theodor Hildebrandt_ became the Shakespeare of Dsseldorf. The -translation of the works of the English poet by Schlegel had been -published some time earlier, and Immermann, in Dsseldorf, had been the -first to offer Shakespeare a home on the German stage. The performances -of his tragedies were regarded as red-letter days. During the three -years of Immermann's leadership (1834-37), _Hamlet_, _Macbeth_, _King -John_, _King Lear_, _The Merchant of Venice_, _Romeo and Juliet_, -_Othello_, and _Julius Csar_ were performed on fifteen occasions in -all.[1] To give the titles of these plays is at once to characterise the -subject-matter of Hildebrandt's paintings. He very often had a hand in -the staging of the plays, and is said to have shown a remarkable -histrionic talent in the performances at Schadow's. He rarely went to -other poets for his inspiration, as in his "Pictures from Faust" and his -"Beware of the Water Nymph," where he honoured Goethe, and in his -"Brigands," where he may have been inspired by one of the many -variations on _Rinaldo Rinaldini_ that flooded the market at the time, -or perhaps also by Byron, whose influence was very marked on the -Dsseldorf school. - -Goethe's _Frauengestalten_, more especially the Leonoras, were -reproduced in oils by old father _Sohn_. _Eduard Steinbruck_ painted -Genevives, Red Riding Hoods, Elves, and Undines, after Tieck and -Fouqu; _H. Stilke's_ "Pictures from the Crusades" introduced Walter -Scott to the German public. Uhland's first ballads had brought into -fashion the damsels who from the ramparts of their castles wave a sad -farewell to the lonely shepherds; the ancestral tombs, in which the last -knight of his race takes his everlasting rest; the lists, where -melancholy heroes stab themselves. His _Love-song of the Shepherd to the -Shepherdess_-- - - "Und halt ich dich in den Armen - Auf freien Bergeshhn, - Wir sehn in die weiten Lande - Und werden doch nicht gesehn," - -gave Bendemann the motive for his picture of the same name. Young -Lessing had to thank Uhland for the subject of his first success, "The -Sorrowing Royal Pair," which at one bound made his name one of the most -honoured in German art. - - "Wohl sah ich die Eltern beide - Ohne der Kronen Licht - Im schwarzen Trauerkleide, - Die Jungfrau sah ich nicht." - -After Brger he painted a Leonora--of course in so-called medival -costume, in order "to avoid the unpicturesque attire in fashion during -the Seven Years' War"; and at the same time as Hildebrandt, "A Mourning -Brigand," who, in the full light of the evening sun, sits brooding on a -rock over the depravity of the world. That all of them were frantically -enthusiastic for the Hohenstaufens is due to the publication of Von -Rainer's History in 1823, which took a greater hold of the public than -did Schiller's _History of the Thirty Years' War_, and inspired numerous -dramas. - -[Illustration: HILDEBRANDT. THE SONS OF EDWARD.] - -[Illustration: STEINBRUCK. ELVES.] - -Even the idyllic and touching scenes from the Old Testament and the -Hebrew elegies are easily traced back to theatrical inspirations. With -the exception of the frescoes of the Casa Bartholdy, the subjects of -which were selected with an eye to the religious belief of their -purchaser, the Nazarenes found all the subject-matter they wanted in the -New Testament. The Passion of Our Lord was unable to inspire the -Dsseldorf school. As compared to the few Christian paintings by W. -Schadow, and the dreamy Madonnas of Deger, Ittenbach, and little -Perugino Mintrop, we find a far greater number of scenes from the Old -Testament, which at the time gave birth to numerous dramas. Hbner, -always inclined to idyllic and melancholy scenes, painted Ruth and Boaz, -his first great picture, which established his reputation. After -Klingemann had utilised the whole life of Moses by turning it into a -theatrically effective sequence, Christian Koehler scored a success with -his "Moses hidden in the Bulrushes" and his "Finding of Moses," and -then, incited by Raupach's "Semiramis," abandoned his biblical heroines -for Oriental ones. Theodor Hildebrandt took Tieck's "Judith" as an -inspiration for his picture of this Jewish heroine. Kehren's "Joseph -reveals Himself to his Brethren" was begun after the opera _Joseph in -Egypt_ had been performed at Dsseldorf. Bendemann, in 1832, played his -trump card with his "Lament of the Jews," now in the Cologne Museum, -after Byron had made his propaganda, suggested by the sad lives of the -children of Israel, and Friedrich von Uechtritz had caused his drama, -_The Babylonians in Jerusalem_, to be performed, ending as it does with -the sending of the Jews into captivity in Babylon-- - - "Wein' ber die die weinen fern in Babel, - Ihr Tempel brach, ihr Land ward, ach! zur Fabel! - Wein'! es erstart der heil 'gen Harfe Ton, - Im Haus Jehovas haust der Sptter Hohn." - -And his oil-paintings of a later date, "Jeremiah on the Ruins of -Jerusalem" (1834), now in the German Emperor's collection, and the -"Sending of the Jews into Captivity in Babylon" (1872), in the Berlin -National Gallery, were variations on the same theme. - -The productions of the Dsseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony -with the programme issued by Pttmann in his book. Pictorial -representations may be taken from two ranges, History or Poetry; the -painter may choose an historical fact as a subject for representation, -or reproduce in visible form the rhythmically shaped fancy of a -stranger. History shows him figures full of expression, and even a less -powerful artist will find it possible to make a true copy of them. If -the painter works from poems his representations are sure to meet with -approval, as they render the beautiful and the attractive in visible -shape. "But the greatest success lies in store for those works which -depict in harmony with the mood of the times historical or poetical -performances which express human suffering in its various stages, from -homely and everyday griefs to the silent sorrow of irretrievable -catastrophe." - -[Illustration: SOHN. THE TWO LEONORAS.] - -Thus the scale of sorrow from sad melancholy to painful suffering became -the speciality of the Dsseldorf school. At the foot of the scale we -find the pictures which "represent the common, yet keen sorrow of -parents at the death or the sad future of their children." Lessing's -"Royal Pair" mourn the death of their daughter; Hagar grieves because -she is forced to abandon her son Ishmael in the desert; Genoveva, -because the roe is so long in coming to the rescue. The mortal grief of -love is represented by Lessing's "Leonora"; grief of love at separation -by Sohn's and Hildebrandt's pictures of "Romeo and Juliet." Even the -murderers of the "Sons of Edward" mourn at their crime when they see the -children-- - - "Girdling one another - Within their innocent alabaster arms: - Their lips were four red roses on a stalk, - Which in their summer beauty kissed each other." - -Job grieves at the downfall of his house; Hbner's "Ruth," because her -weeping mother-in-law entreats her to depart; Stilke's "Pilgrim in the -Desert," because his horse has died of thirst; Plddeman's "Columbus," -because he knows himself to be unworthy of the grace of God which -enabled him to discover America; Kiederich's "Charles V", because he has -retired too early to his monastery, and is plagued by the ticking of -his watch. The Hohenstaufens, of course, appealed more to the pity of -the public: the misfortunes of the beautiful Enzin, of Manfred and -Conrad, gave birth to a sentiment of profoundest sadness. Even brigands -mourn at the depravity of the world. The age had come to despise its own -Philistine situation so deeply that it looked up to the brigands, the -adversaries of civil order, as to representatives of justice. All -depravity, it was said, originated with the public functionaries, and to -the noble brigands was allotted the task of revolutionising existing -things. Their ally in this was to be the poacher. At a time when a -revision of the game-laws was the sole timid wish the people ventured to -lay before its princes, it was only logical that the poacher should be -looked upon as the victim of injustice, as the rescuer of the small man -from the claws of feudal despotism. The numerous pictures that glorify -him, as he falls weltering in his blood beneath the guns of the -gamekeepers, make pendants to Raupach's "Smugglers," and to the rest of -the highly esteemed literature which turned the life of the poacher into -sentimental dramas or novels. - -[Illustration: LESSING. THE SORROWING ROYAL PAIR.] - -Fortunately we, in our days, find great difficulty in entering into the -spirit which gave birth to these productions. A world lies between it -and the present, just as between the Germany of to-day and the Germany -of 1830. Men of the younger generation, who were still at school when -Bismarck spoke his word of blood and iron, can hardly understand how -this modern, realistic Germany can have been, two generations ago, a -sentimental Germany. Now the significance of the Dsseldorf school in -the history of civilisation lies in the fact that they are the real -representatives of that age of sentimentality. A generation that melted -away in tearful dreamings must needs enthusiastically recognise its own -flesh and blood in those knights and damsels, squires and pages, monks -and nuns, who, infinitely amorous or infinitely religious, were all -infinitely sentimental; and things that now only evoke a smile or a -shrug must needs have moved them to tears. Look where you will, you meet -the same world. It hung on the walls, it displayed itself in engravings, -lithographs, and coloured prints; if one lay down for a siesta, one -found a lovelorn knight and damsel or a praying nun stitched on the -cushion; if one put one's foot on a carpet, one trod upon noble -hunting-dames on horseback, falcon on wrist; one carried them in one's -pockets on cigar-cases and handkerchiefs; the traveller and the cheap -tripper took them abroad on their knapsacks. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - BENDEMANN. THE LAMENT OF THE JEWS.] - -Technically, the pictures of this school were not without their merits. -"The greatness of Michael Angelo" may not have been Bendemann's, and -Sohn's carnations are far removed from "the melting colouring of -Titian." But as opposed to the one-sidedness to which fresco painting at -Munich was given up, the encouragement of oil-painting at Dsseldorf -must be looked upon as praiseworthy. These painters were the first in -Germany to try again to learn how to paint in oils. The extreme artistic -clumsiness that had reigned under Cornelius was followed by a period in -which, under Schadow, earnest studies and serious work were devoted to -an effort again to master a technical medium. Their friendly emulation -led to surprising progress, which assured to the Dsseldorf school a -technical superiority over all the other German schools of the period. - -[Illustration: SOHN. THE RAPE OF HYLAS.] - -If, nevertheless, their pictures have not maintained their position as -vital works of art, it is due to the fact that they were produced under -the pressure of that mechanical idealism which makes all their -productions so utterly unattractive to us. The ideal "line of beauty" -has turned the figures into bloodless shadows and washed-out theatrical -forms. As philosophy was to Cornelius, so to the Dsseldorfers was -poetry their Noah's Ark. The interest aroused by the poet was their -ally; the breath of the wind that set their boat afloat; the general -poetical tendency made up for the deficiency in artistic interest. Had -it not been for the support of the poets, their sugary, insipid figures -would have from the beginning been unable to hold their own. For after -having been retouched by "Idealism," nothing vital remained in those -romantic kings, fantastic knights, Jews, and stage princesses; nothing -particular and characteristic in their generalisation, nothing generally -human. With them a king is always an heroic prince in black harness, a -woolly beard, and a scarlet cloak. A queen is represented as proud and -dark, or tender and fair-haired. In the much-beloved "couples" from -poems, characterisation goes no further than general contrasts: the -_brunette_ in red attire with white sleeves; the tender _blonde_ with -the complementary garment of pale violet; the one with luxurious -_embonpoint_, the other languidly slender--men brown, women white, -youths rosy. Knights wear silvery helmets with or without plumes; now -with open, now with shut visor; sometimes they sit on poetic palfreys, -now of slender, now of sturdy build. The only impressions they are -subject to may be interpreted with the assistance of the plaster bust: -honour, fidelity, love. And as sentiment and heroism are national -virtues of the Germans, they are bound to show sentimental expression -whilst killing their adversaries. Even the brigands are generalised lay -figures. The Dsseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender, -vaguely graceful swing of outline that anxiously avoided all manly and -strong, energetic and characteristic expression, all that could remind -one of nature. They rejected Leonardo da Vinci's advice, to tug at the -nipple of Mother Nature, but looked upon her merely as their aunt; and -for this, despised Nature took her revenge by making their figures -shapeless and phantom-like. And as their "dread of painted stupidities" -did not once bring them to make bold mistakes, we can neither praise nor -censure their pictures, cannot enjoy them or take offence at them, but -look at them _sine ira et studio_, with a lukewarm feeling of utter -indifference. - - -FOOTNOTE: - - [1] As is still the case in most of the German theatres, the - programme changed every night. Two or three consecutive performances - of one play remain a rarity. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -THE LEGACY OF GERMAN ROMANTICISM - - -It was reserved for two younger men to reach the aim that hovered in the -far distance before Cornelius and the Dsseldorfians. And, by one of -fortune's remarkable freaks, the greatest German monumental painter of -the nineteenth century came from the Dsseldorf, the greatest -Romanticist from the Munich school. - -_Alfred Rethel_ was twenty-four years old when he received the -commission to paint the frescoes in the _Kaisersaal_ at Aachen, and had -previously worked in the Dsseldorf Academy, and then with Veit at -Frankfort. But the pictures are suggestive neither of his Dsseldorfian -nor of his Nazarene training. The deeds of Charlemagne, the ancestor of -the German Imperial dynasties, are nobly, and, at the same time, -vigorously embodied in them. Rethel had studied the harsh strength of -his Albrecht Drer, but only as a kindred spirit studies his kin. -Neither Cornelius nor Schnorr has depicted the old German heroic might -and the vanished imperial grandeur, the great past, the iron Middle -Ages, with such notable traits. How plain in his heroic greatness stands -the mighty conqueror of the Saxons by the overthrown pagan idols; how -simply and majestically does he march into conquered Pavia. What an -inexorable and irresistible warrior he seems, as he rages amongst the -Moors who flock round the cars of their idols; and with what grave -phantom dignity does he gaze in death upon the young Emperor Otto, who -has forced his way into his vault, and kneels trembling before the -lifeless frame of his great forefather. There is no vestige of pose, -nothing superfluous; everywhere simplicity, compression, lucidity. Only -what is necessary is inscribed here, in the lapidary style. No -meaningless phrase interrupts his narrative; the inner meaning is never -sacrificed to any external beauty of line; his forms like his thoughts -are severe and precise. He draws with a sure hand in crisp lines, like a -writer who aims at the utmost brevity and so lays especial emphasis on -his sentences and words. The self-revelation in these pictures is -admirable--the illuminating clearness with which they tell what they -have to say without the aid of any commentator, the directness with -which they present in an artistic aspect the substance to be given. And -with this substance the painting corresponds. - -It is to be deplored that Rethel himself could carry out in colour only -four of his designs, and that the completion of the rest was entrusted -to the painter Kehren, who spoilt by his effort after charm of colour -the collective impression of the series. The pictures painted by Rethel -himself are, in the simplicity of their colouring, in remarkable -accordance with the powerful style of his drawing. Rethel's _painting_ -has something stern and grey, bare and sombre. He belongs to the -stylists whose implement is rather charcoal than the brush; but he had, -although no colourist, a free command of colour, and never committed any -fault of taste, but with a remarkably sure instinct used colour in the -mass, simply, but yet with significant effect. He might have been the -man to create a monumental German art. A tragic destiny! Heinrich von -Kleist, the greatest German poet of the post-classical age, who was -chosen for so high a vocation, the creation of a new dramatic style, -shot himself; and the giant, Alfred Rethel, was to end in madness. -Barely forty years old was he when he walked by the warder's side in the -courtyard at Dsseldorf, picking up flint-stones, a poor, simple madman. -Only two series of designs ensure, apart from the frescoes at Aix, the -immortality of his name: "Hannibal's Passage over the Alps," and the -"Dance of Death." As a draughtsman, just as a painter of frescoes, he is -the same Titan, sounds the same stern, manly note. - -Here the heroic hosts of the Carthaginians stand anxious, yet resolved, -at the foot of the grim Alpine pass; steep, beetling cliffs, precipice, -ice and snow, tower before them. Now the climb begins, and the struggle -with the fierce, barbaric folk of the mountains, who swing themselves on -leaping-pole like wild animals over the gaping crevices in the ice. -Yonder are men, horses, an elephant, hurled into the abyss; some have -spitted themselves on jagged branches of trees in their fall, others -twine themselves together in horrible coils; at last the most advanced -have reached the heights, and the heroic figure of the commander points -out proudly to them, as they breathe once more, the plains of Italy. - -Over his second work there broods the shadow of that mental darkness -which was to surround him. When, in the year 1848, the political storm -burst over the soil of Europe, Rethel's fantasy reaped a rich harvest. -He drew his "Dance of Death," represented Death the Leveller, who drives -poor fools behind the barricades. The ghostly and spectral, that horror -of death that breaks in upon us in the midst of life, had been the -propensity of German art since Drer and Holbein. Like them, Rethel -loved the world of the diabolical, and similarly chose for his -embodiment of it the sturdy, simple contours of the old German wood -engravings. Death as the hero of revolution makes a commencement. There -he rides as the town-executioner, a cigar between his lips, his scythe -in his hand. He sits shambling in the saddle, his smock and tall boots -dangle on his bony figure. Dressed like a charlatan, he excites the -people before the tavern against the rulers, that he may earn his -harvest at the barricade. He himself stands firm and proud, like a -general on the field of battle, the flag in his hand, and the bullets of -the soldiers whistling harmlessly through his bony ribs. But the -artisans who follow him are not invulnerable as he is; the grape-shot -sweeps them down off the barricade. The contest is over; triumphant, -with a wreath of bay round his skull, mocking venom in his glance, Death -rides with his banner unfurled across the barricade, where the dying -writhe in their gaunt death-struggle, and children bewail their fallen -fathers. The plate, "Death as the Assassin," takes up the story of the -outbreak of cholera at a masked ball in Paris. In terrified haste the -dancers and musicians leave the hall. Only one mummy-like spectre, the -Cholera himself, a shape of horror, keeps his ground, as though turned -to stone, and holds the triumphant scourge like a sceptre in his bony -hand. Death, in a domino, with two bones for a fiddle, plays a call to -the dance; and beneath the awful sounds of his tune the people, -stretched on the ground, in sick convulsions, grinning with distorted -features, behind their jesters' masks, twist and turn. - -[Illustration: RETHEL. THE EMPEROR OTTO AT THE TOMB OF CHARLEMAGNE.] - -There is something of Th. A. Hofmann's wild fantasy of the ague-fit in -this picture,--something morbid, satanic, that suggests Flicien Rops; -yet, at the same time, something so pithy and virile, and in form so -compressed, well-balanced, and correct, that it brings the old Germans, -too, to our recollection. And the reconciliation with which the series -ends is pathetic. In the high steeple, lit by the rays of the setting -sun, the grey old bellringer, his worn hands clasped in prayer, has -fallen quietly asleep in his armchair. A calm peace rests upon his good, -old, devout countenance. The thin hands, with their marks and furrows, -tell a long tale of hard work, sorrow, and longing for rest. And the -weary veteran has made a pilgrimage for the health of his poor soul, as -prove the pilgrim's hat and staff by the wall; and now Death has really -come, the well-known presence indeed, but this time with no grin of -mockery, rather in profound pity. In his ingenious manner of giving an -expression of mockery, cold indifference, or compassion to the head of -the skeleton, Rethel stands on a level with Holbein. To the old ringer, -Death, who before had grinned so diabolically, is a gentle and trusted -friend. Quietly and pensively he performs the task that the old man has -done so often when he attended the departure of some pilgrim of earth -with the solemn notes of his bell. Rethel himself had still to drag -through many years in an obscure night of the spirit before for him, -too, Death, as the friend, rang the knell. - -[Illustration: RETHEL. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE PAGAN IDOLS.] - -And now for him who was the most admirable of them all, Lady Adventure's -true knight. - -"Master _Schwind_, you are a genius and a Romanticist." This stereotyped -compliment was paid by King Ludwig to the painter on each occasion that, -without buying anything of him, he visited his studio. And with equal -regularity Schwind, when he had sat down again at his easel, after the -royal visit, to smoke his pipe, is said to have muttered something -extremely disloyal. In this trait the whole Schwind is already -revealed,--free from all ambition, every inch an artist. - -W. H. Riehl has described a series of such episodes, which one must know -in order to understand Schwind, that highly gifted child of nature, who -separates himself from the group of philosophical, "meditative" artists -of his age, both as an individual and as an audacious, original genius -of effervescent wit. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - RETHEL. HANNIBAL'S PASSAGE OVER THE ALPS.] - -When an sthetic once hailed him as "the creator of an original, German -kind of ideal, romantic art," Schwind repeated very slowly, weighing -each word: "'An original, German kind of ideal, romantic art.' My dear -sir, to me there are only two kinds of pictures, the sold and the -unsold; and to me the sold are always the best. Those are my entire -sthetics." Or a noble amateur comes to him with the request that he -would take him just for a few days into his school, and instruct him -especially in his masterly art of drawing in pencil. Whereupon Schwind: -"It does not require a day for that, my dear Baron; I can tell you in -three minutes how I do it, I can give you all the desired information at -once. Here lies my paper,--kindly remark it, I buy it of Bullinger, 6 -Residenz Strasse; these are my pencils, A. W. Faber's, I get them from -Andreas Kaut, 10 Kaufinger Strasse; from the same firm I have this -indiarubber too, but I very seldom use it, so that I use this penknife -all the more, to sharpen the pencils; it's from Tresch, 10 Dienersgasse, -and very good value. Now, I have all these things lying together on the -table, and a few thoughts in my head as well; then I sit down here and -begin to draw. And now you know all that I can tell you." Again he asks -"to be decorated with an order," because he "is ashamed to mix in such a -naked condition with his bestarred confrres," and after the bestowal -of the desired decoration he says: "I wore it only once, at the last New -Year's leve, but I vowed at the same time that six horses should not -drag me there again. Before, there was at any rate a beautiful queen -there, and then the court ladies laughed at one; but amongst men only, -the stupidity of it is not to be endured." When he grumbles over -commissions which have been given to others, and adds good-temperedly, -"Indeed, I'm an envious fellow"; when he paints the most delicate -pictures and then growls, "What am I to do with the things, if nobody -buys them?" when he indulges in outbursts of wrath, and a minute later -has forgotten again the abusive words which the others spitefully bring -up against him years afterwards,--then here, too, his happy humour -forces its way everywhere, that divine navet which forms the soul of -his and of all true art. - -[Illustration: RETHEL. DEATH AT THE MASKED BALL.] - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - RETHEL. DEATH THE FRIEND OF MAN.] - -Schwind remains a personality by himself--the last of the Romanticists, -and one of the most amiable manifestations in German art. He was free -from the malady of that sham Romanticism which sought the salvation of -art in the resurrection of the Middle Ages, misunderstood, and grasped -sentimentally, and as it were by stencil. He was spiritually permeated -by that which had given Romanticism the capacity to exist: the sense of -that forgotten and imperishable world of beauty which it has again -discovered. The others sought for the "blue flower," Schwind found it; -resuscitated in all its fary beauty that "fair night of enchantment -which holds the mind captive." He incorporated the romantic idea in -painting as Weber did in music, and his works, like the _Freischtz_, -will live for ever. Many a man listened to him holding forth upon -water-nymphs, gnomes, and tricksy kobolds, as of beings of whose -existence he appeared to have no doubt whatever. On one occasion, while -out walking near Eisenach in the Annathal, a friend laughingly observed -to him that the landscape really looked as if gnomes had made the -pathway and had had their dwellings there. "Don't you believe it was so? -_I_ believe it," answered Schwind in all seriousness. He _lived_ in the -world of legend and fairy-tale. If ever a fairy stood beside the cradle -of a mortal man, assuredly there was one standing by Schwind's; and all -his life long he believed in her and raved about her. Born in the land -where Neidhart of Neuenthal had sung and the Parson of the Kahlenberg -had dwelt, to his eyes Germany was overshadowed with ancient Teutonic -oaks: for him, elves hovered about watersprings and streams, their white -robes trailing behind them through the dewy grass; a race of gnomes held -their habitation on the mountain heights, and water-nymphs bathed in -every pool. In him part of the Middle Ages came back to life, not in -livid, corpse-like pallor, but fanned by the revivifying breath of the -present day. - -For that is what is noteworthy about Schwind; he is a Romanticist, yet -at the same time a genuine, modern child of Vienna. There are three -things in each of which Vienna stands supreme: hers are the fairest -women, the sweetest songs, and the most beautiful waltzes. The -atmosphere of Vienna sends forth a soft and sensual breath which -encircles us as though with women's arms; songs and dances slumber in -the air, waiting only for a call to be awakened. Vienna is a place for -enjoyment rather than for work, for pensive dreaming rather than for -sober wakefulness of mind. Moritz Schwind was a child of this city of -beautiful women, songs, and dances, as may be observed in the feminine -nature of his art, in its melody and rhythm: in music, indeed, it had -its source. In song-singing, bell-ringing Vienna it was difficult for -him to guess in what direction his talents lay; but all his life long he -kept an open eye for the charms of beautiful womanhood. No artist of -that time has created lovelier forms of women, beings with so great a -charm of maidenly freshness and modest grace. Instead of the goddesses, -heroines, and nun-like female saints, whose appearance dated from the -Italy of the Cinquecento, Schwind depicted modern feminine charm. The -group of ladies in "Ritter Kurt" is, even to the movement of their -gloved fingers, graceful in the modern sense. He was a painter of -love--a breath of Walter von der Vogelweide's ideal perfection of -womanhood pervades his pictures. - - "Durchssset und geblmet sind die reinen Frauen, - Es ward nie nichts so Wonnigliches anzuschauen, - In Lften, auf Erden, noch in allen grnen Auen." - -Schwind, too, painted frescoes, and in them he is very unequal. All his -life long he complained of the lack of important commissions; it was -fortunate for him that he did not get more of them. Such a painter as he -can execute no orders but his own,--just as good poems do not come to -order. A long list of wall paintings--the Tieck room and the -figure-frieze in the Habsburg Hall of the new palace at Munich, the -frescoes in the Kunsthall and in the Hall of Assembly of the Upper House -at Karlsruhe, those in the Castle of Hohenschwangau, even the theatre -pieces in the loggia and in the foyer of the Vienna Opera House--could -be easily struck out of Schwind's work, without detriment to his -reputation. Only when the subject permitted him to strike a simple note -of fairy music was he charming even in his wall-paintings, and therefore -those which depict scenes from the life of St. Elizabeth in the -Wartburg are rightly the most celebrated. Like Rethel in the field of -the heroic, so Schwind in that of romantic legend reached the goal which -the former kept before his eyes, for the revivifying of the time when -there was an enthusiasm for fresco painting. His paintings are poor in -colour, motley, magic-lantern views in the style of the heraldically -treated figures seen in the frescoes and stained glass of the Romanesque -and early Gothic Middle Ages, and yet in every line as delightful as the -man himself. Nowhere do we find glaring contrasts, nowhere any violent -agitation in the expression of the faces. It is by the avoidance of all -landscape accessories, and by a hardly noticeable change in the simple -plant-ornamentation in the background, that the events represented are -made to lose touch with actual reality. In the first picture, -bright-hued birds flit here and there among the rose-branches forming -the decorative work; in that which treats of St. Elizabeth's expulsion, -the Wartburg rises in the background, while little singing angels are -perched upon the boughs of the bare winter-stripped trees that overlook -the miserable cell in which St. Elizabeth dies. A touch of the -true-heartedness of the ancient Teuton, a breath of peacefulness, -permeates Schwind's Wartburg pictures like the waft of an angel's wings. - -[Illustration: MORITZ SCHWIND. _Graphische Knste._] - -Schwind, like Rethel, is numbered among the few artists of that period -who were able to preserve their absolute simplicity against the great -painters of Italy. "I went into the Sistine Chapel," he says of his -journey to Rome, "gazed upon Michael Angelo's work, and sauntered back -home to work at my 'Ritter Kurt.' I take the greatest possible pleasure -in my present picture, although the subject is absolutely crazy. I love -to paint trees and rocks and old walls, and I have put plenty of them -into it, besides a fellow on horseback and in full armour. What does it -matter? _One must work according to one's natural capacity. Even at the -time when I was studying at Munich I came to the conclusion that that of -which the mind of itself takes hold, and that which takes hold of it, is -the one only right thing for every man who has a vocation. Art consists -of this unconscious taking hold and being taken hold of. Deus in nobis._ -And therefore the young artist will do well to be careful in visiting -the museums. You go to the galleries where the works of the great -masters are to be seen. There you see, all at once and all together in -confusion, works of every school and of every era. It is extremely -likely that you are overwhelmed by the mass, and beauties of every kind, -belonging to tendencies and epochs altogether diverse, shake the ground -under your budding vocation, and like fifty various climates influencing -a single plant, arrest a growth which is possible only in one, and that -a favourable one. _The imitation of the Italians in especial can as a -rule have only the effect of estranging us from our own individuality_, -a fact which was once again fully borne in upon me when I saw Overbeck's -new altar-piece in the Cathedral of Cologne. It may sound severe and -uncalled-for from me, but _every man who has forgotten his mother-tongue -is tottering on his feet. The imitation of foreigners is the dangerous -blind alley into which our art has betaken itself_. When I exhibited -'Ritter Kurt' people said, 'It is Old German,' and forthwith it stood -condemned, as if that were a disgrace, and as if one should not rather -have saluted the fact with joy, as the right thing for us Germans. The -art of painting which I follow is the German, and glass-painting must be -taken as its foundation." - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. FROM THE WARTBURG FRESCOES.] - -In Schwind one might imagine an old German master of the race of -Albrecht Altdorfer come to life again. In the small, simple pictures of -landscape and fairy-tale, which Count Schack has collected in his -private gallery for the quiet and devout enjoyment of thousands, he has -given us his best work as a painter. - -Yet even _his_ pictures have the failings of his time. Compared with -Drer, he seems like a gifted amateur; there are manifold empty, dead -spaces to be observed among his figures; their action is at times -misconceived and puppet-like; and his sense of colour was always -limited. One may be permitted to look forward to some master, at the -head of a coming epoch in art, who shall combine with Schwind's German -fairy imagination the sensuous, dashing colour-elf that possessed -Boecklin. There might a school of art arise, to follow for the future -the path which Franz Stuck has struck out. As to technique, Schwind was -a child of the cartoon era; as regards tenderness of feeling, he is a -modern. It is difficult to persuade a non-German of Schwind's greatness, -in presence of the _pictures_; but when they are reduced to -black-and-white they appeal to every one. The heliogravure enables one -to imagine what the original does not show; it incites the soul to -further poetic creation, it announces what Schwind would be were he -alive to-day. An elfland kingdom of enchantment, full of genuine poetry -and beauty, opens out before us; a fairy garden, where the "blue flower" -pours forth the whole of its sense-benumbing perfume. Count von -Gleichen; the boy's miraculous horn; the mountain spirit Rbezahl, -wandering along through the wild mountain forest; the hermits; the -elves' dance; the erlking; the knight and the water nymph,--they are -flooded with all the enchantment of Romanticism, they possess deep -feeling without mawkishness, the old-German note of fairy legend and -Hans Memlinc's childlike simplicity, yet at the same time the life of -the present day, full of feeling and rich in delicate shades. How strong -and brave are the men; how tender, noble, and charming the women! What a -modest, maidenly art it is! just as its master was an innocent, -harmless, and joyous being. - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. FROM THE WARTBURG FRESCOES.] - -His works, in comparison with those of his contemporaries, who were -devising systems by means of which art should be brought back to the -classical, bear the stamp of nave creations in which no hypocrisy, no -decorative nothingness finds expression. As against the erudite -treatises of the Cornelius school, they preached for the first time the -doctrine, that in works of art what is important is not the quantity of -learning displayed therein, but the quality of the feeling exhibited. -With all their inequalities, all their incorrectness, all their weak -points, they are inspired, sung, dreamed, and not put together in cold -blood according to recipes: in them is the pulsation of a human heart, a -tender human heart full of delicate feeling. This it is which -constitutes his magical attraction to-day, which makes him the firm bond -of connection between the moderns. He was no imitator, no soulless -calligraphist performing laborious school exercises after the manner of -the old masters; he spoke the language of his time. - -He was one of the first who at that time laid aside the prejudice -against modern costume, and in his "Symphony" turned to artistic -account, in one fantastic whole, even Franz Lachner's frockcoat and -Frulein Hetzenecker's modern society toilette. "If you may paint a man -hidden in an iron stove--what is called a knight in armour--you may -still more permissibly paint a man in a frockcoat. In general, one can -paint what one will, provided always that one wills what one can." And -it was only by means of this present-day temper that Romanticism could -find so full-toned an expression in his works. Only because he was truly -a citizen of the present day and felt its blood beating in his veins, -could he feel the congenial elements of the past. To him the old-time -legends were no antiquarian, erudite, pedantic lumber; they were a part -of himself, and he interpreted them in more childlike simplicity of -manner and with more delicate feeling than any artist of former times, -because he observed them with the eye of the present age, with an eye -made keen with longing. Just as in his "Wedding Journey" he raised all -reality into the poetry of purest romance, so is his Romanticism -saturated with a sense of reality charged with memories of home. Out of -his fairy-tale pictures is breathed a charming fragrance of the -long-vanished days of earth's first springtide, and yet for that very -reason a breath of the most modern Dcadence. He is distinguished from -Mares and Burne-Jones, from Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau, by a -very unmodern attribute--he is bursting with health. He is still navely -childlike, free from that elegiac melancholy, that temper of weary -resignation, which the end of the nineteenth century first brought into -the world. - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. WIELAND THE SMITH.] - -[Illustration: _Neft, Helio._ - - SCHWIND. FROM THE STORY OF THE SEVEN RAVENS.] - -Yet Schwind was one of the first to feel and give expression to that -modern sense of longing desire which turns back from a nervous, -colourless age, from the prosiness of everyday life, towards a vanished -Saturnian era, when man still lived at peace and undisturbed in happy -union with nature. For even this proclaims him our contemporary, that -the temper of his pictures develops itself from the landscape. A -landscape painter through and through--almost in Boecklin's sense, -who transformed the temper of Nature into the contemplation of living -beings--he spoke of the rest and peace of German forests, of that hour -of summer's night when no wind blows, no leaflet moves, when to the -solitary wanderer in the woods the mists rising from the meadows are -transformed into white veils of the elves, and the gold-rimmed waves of -the sea into the yellow hair of mermaids frolicking in the moonlight to -the magic notes of their golden harps. He felt and loved his landscapes -rather than studied them, yet they are saturated with an entirely modern -sentiment for Nature. No German, at that time, had caught and understood -the interweaving of the forest boughs with such intimate familiarity. -The fresh sunshine of the morning breaks through the light green of the -young beeches, and leaps from bough to bough, transforming the -glittering dewdrops into diamonds, and the beetle, creeping comfortably -over the soft moss, into gold and precious stones. "_Da gehet leise nach -seiner Weise der liebe Herrgott durch den Wald_" ("The dear God holy, He -passeth slowly, as His wont is, through the wood"). With a few boldly -drawn lines and light colours we are transported into the midst of the -forest world, and all around us opening buds and verdurous green, sweet -scents, and the murmur of leaves. "When one has set one's love and joy -on a beautiful tree so fully," he said to Ludwig Richter, "one depicts -all one's love and joy with it, and then the tree looks quite different -from an ass's fine daub of what he thinks it should be." - -[Illustration: _Albert, Helio._ - - SCHWIND. A HERMIT LEADING HORSES TO A POOL.] - -Only so intimate a connection with Nature could enable Schwind to -imagine landscapes, which in their virginal old-world mood form at once -the echo of the figures and of their actions. These green meadows and -flower-besprent hills, these gloomy wooded slopes, these smooth valleys -through which glittering waters glide murmuring along, are fit and -suitable dwelling-places for the delicate fabulous beings of the -flower-entwined old fairy legends. Schwind _lived_ with Nature. He gave -the name of Tanneck (Fir-tree Corner) to the little country house which -he built for himself on the Starnberger See, and the fresh scent of -pinewood, the rustling sound of German forests, pour forth from his -pictures. Like young Siegfried, he understood the language of birds, and -went eavesdropping to hear what the pine trees whispered to one another. - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. THE WEDDING JOURNEY.] - -Still freer, more spontaneous, and lighter than in his oil paintings was -his touch in his water-colours, in which the colour is only breathed -over the forms like a delicate vapour; and quite especially in his -illustrations--so far as the word may be employed with respect to him, -for he never illustrated, he gave shape to his own thoughts, and that -only which moved his innermost being he brought fully formed before -one's eye. The _Bilderbogen_ and the _Fliegende Bltter_ of Munich -obtained from him witty and humorous inventions, such as "The Almond -Tree," "Puss in Boots," "The Peasant and the Donkey," "Herr Winter," and -"The Acrobat Games." His fairest legacy consists of three cyclic works: -"Cinderella," "The Seven Ravens," and "The Beautiful Melusina"; wherein -he glorified with praise the beauty and fidelity of women, and their -capacity for self-sacrifice. "Cinderella," which appeared in 1855, at -the Munich Exhibition, is a fairy-tale, than which poet has seldom, -indeed, narrated a chaster, tenderer, or more fragrant. In 1858 followed -the touching story of the good sister who releases her brothers by dint -of unspeakable suffering and endurance, to-day the priceless pearl among -the gems of the Weimar collection. For twenty years, as he said, the -work had been in his thoughts. So far back as in 1844 he wrote to -Genelli: "I believe that it will give something which may please people -who have a sense for love and faithfulness, and for a touch of the power -of enchantment." When an acquaintance of his gazed upon it with dismay, -and ingenuously asked for whom the thing was intended, and whither it -was to go, Schwind turned his penetrating, flashing little eyes upon -him, and then said: "Do you know, I painted that for myself; it is the -dream of my life; no one shall buy it; some day I shall give it to a -friend." It is an imperishable work, full of grace, modesty, and charm. - -Schwind takes the story up at the fateful moment when the lonely maiden, -who is determined to release her enchanted brothers by assiduous -spinning and constant silence, is discovered by a hunting party. There, -amid the enchantment of the forest solitude, she sits in the hollow of a -tree and spins away at the seven shirts, to free her seven brothers. -Thus the king's son catches sight of her. The fire of love kindles in -his eyes. In one long kiss the maiden gives herself to him. The wedding -takes place, and like another St. Elizabeth she is seen standing, soon -afterwards, distributing alms to starving beggars. Yet, meanwhile, she -has fallen under suspicion owing to her continuous silence; even her -husband becomes distrustful, because in the quiet of night he has -observed that she is not resting by his side, but is quietly up and -spinning. And the catastrophe comes when the silent queen gives birth to -twins, who, to the horror of all around, fly off in the form of ravens. -Tranquil and affectionate, the young mother awaits her fate. Then follow -the sentence of the Vehm-tribunal, the pathetic parting from her -husband, the preparation for death. There is only one hour more to pass -by before the seven years are over and the spellbound brothers set free. -The good fairy appears in the air, hour-glass in hand, and brings solace -to the hard-pressed heroine. The beggars, too, whose benefactress she -had been, bring help, and hold the gate of the dungeon in force. So the -time runs out, the spell is broken, and the brothers hasten, on -milk-white horses, to save their sister from the stake. In Schwind's -marvellous drawings the story passes quickly on, stroke by stroke, -deeply moving and soul-stirring in its dramatic force. - -The "Beautiful Melusina" was the kiss of the water-nymph, with which -Romanticism led her faithful knight to his death, only to disappear -together with him out of German art. "The winter has dealt me a sore -blow; I shall never be able to do anything more." Carl Maria von Weber -and Uhland had already gone before; Schwind was lying on his sick-bed -when the German victories created a German fatherland. He learned, -however, all the long series of glorious tidings that came from the -field of war, saw the tumultuous joy and the dazzling sea of fire which -surged through Munich in January 1871, and heard the joyful news that -Germany was at last united. Then he had a glass of champagne poured out -for him, and drank it to the new empire and the future of the nation. - -In the middle of a wood of lofty beeches in Bernrieder Park, on the -Starnberger See, there stands a small rotunda, within is a prattling -fountain, right round the walls runs a frieze, depicting the legend of -the "Beautiful Melusina." It is Schwind's monument. With him German -Romanticism perished; reality itself had now become so marvellous. When, -in 1850, Hbner had to paint a figure of Germania for a page in King -Ludwig's album, he depicted a queenly woman, prone on the ground, with -her face in the dust, amidst a desolate landscape and under a cloudy -sky. The crown has fallen from her head and a skull lies by her side, -while on the frame are inscribed these words from the Book of -Lamentations: "Mine eye runneth down with rivers of water for the -destruction of the daughter of my people; the crown of our head is -fallen." When Schwind died, Germany had re-arisen. In the very year of -his death, Lenbach painted his first Bismarck pictures: in Bismarck was -embodied that power by means of which the dream of a nation was -fulfilled. - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. NYMPHS AND STAG.] - -Thus Schwind's works are not only the sign of a completed period in -German history, but also at the same time both the climax and the -conclusion of an art-epoch. Schwind had lived through the entire -revolution which German painting had at that time undergone. At his -death the sound of the hunting horns of Romanticism had died away. He -had lived long enough to have the opportunity of criticising neatly, as -follows, the dry, unpoetical school of historical painting then making -its appearance, as if introduced by gaudily costumed models, a school -which made its first hit with Lessing's "Ezzelino": "I will explain the -picture to you. Ezzelino is seated in his dungeon, and two monks are -attempting to convert him. One of them recognises that all pains are -thrown away upon the old sinner, and takes himself off, regretfully -desisting from all further endeavour; the other still has hopes, and -continues his exhortations. But Ezzelino only keeps his angry gaze fixed -before him, muttering, 'Leave me alone! Don't you see that I am--posing -as a model!'" He had had occasion to write to his friend Bauernfeld: "I -have seen so many schools of so-called painting in my time that it is an -absolute horror to me"; he had asked Piloty: "What calamity are you -preparing for us now?" and had thought it his duty to address to one of -the younger painters the question: "Are we then an academy of the Fine -or of the Ugly Arts?" "A man like me, with his ideas, walks like a ghost -amid the battle of the virtuosi, in which the whole life of art has gone -astray," he used sadly to say. His last wonderful works stand alone in -a time which was dazzled by the flash of arms characterising the -Franco-Belgian school of art. It was not till much later that Hans Thoma -took up the threads which connect the work of Schwind with the present -epoch. When he died he was a solitary, isolated man taking leave of a -generation in which he had no part. The period of historical painting -which followed him produced no single work distinguished by Schwind's -sense of fragrant legendary poetry. The charming forest fairy who had -appeared to him showed herself to no other; like the betrayed Melusina, -she had returned to rest again, solitary, in her fountain home. Fantasy, -tender soul that she is, had taken wings, whither none can tell. "That -is why nobody has a single idea," as Schwind said in his drastic way. -The Muse of Schwind, the last Romanticist, was a chaste, pensive, -soulful maiden; while that of Piloty, the first colourist, was a noisy, -bloodthirsty Megra. Yet one can have no doubt as to the necessity of -this evolutionary change. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Helio._ - - SCHWIND. RUBEZAHL.] - -Schwind himself is among the masters "who have been, and are, and shall -be." He was different from all that was arising around him; he embodied -the spirit of the future, and exercises over the art of the present day -so great an influence that where two or three painters are gathered -together in the name of the beautiful, he has his place in the midst of -them, and is present, invisible, at every exhibition. But he exercises -this influence only spiritually. Young artists study him as if he were a -primitive master. Enraptured, they find in him all those qualities for -which there is to-day so ardent a longing--innocent purity and touching -simplicity, a mystic, romantic submersion in waves of old-time feeling -and a charming youthful fervour. They do not study him in order to -_paint_ like him. - -"Our heads are full of poetry, but we cannot give it expression," are -the words with which Cornelius himself characterised this period. -Germany had original geniuses indeed, but no fully matured school to -compare with the French; as yet the Germans did not know how to paint. -Up to this time the course of painting in Germany had been a bold but -imprudent flight through the air; in its Kaulbach-like cloud-heights it -had melted away to a shadow, only to fall again, somewhat roughly, to -the ground. It died of an incurable disease--idealism. The painters of -that time, one and all, had never become real artists; strictly -speaking, they had always remained amateurs. He alone is a great artist -in whom the will and the performance, the substance and the form, are in -complete accordance. Painters who never knew exactly what is meant by -painting, artists whose most noticeable characteristic was that they had -no art-capacity, were only possible in the first half of the nineteenth -century in Germany, where for that very reason they were admired and -praised. - -What now began was a necessary making good what had been so long -neglected. For craftsmanship is the necessary presupposition of all art, -which can no longer suffer any one to be called a master who has not -learnt his business. In the atmosphere of incense which surrounded -Cornelius in Munich, the dogma that salvation was to be found in German -art alone, and that the German nation was the chosen people of art, had -reached a height of self-adoration which came near to megalomania. In -the proud enthusiasm of those times, great in their aims as in their -errors, the Germans had as false an opinion as possible of the art of -foreign countries. - -In the very years when the first railways were ousting the old -mail-coaches the mutual interchange of endeavour and ability between the -various nations was slower and scantier than ever before. How German -artists had wandered abroad in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in -that great age when Drer crossed the Alps on Pirkheymer's pony, and -when Holbein obtained from Erasmus letters of introduction for England! -With what joy Drer, in his letters and in his journal, gives an account -of the recognition accorded him in artistic circles in Italy and the -Dutch cities! Nearly all the German painters had, in the course of their -long wanderings, made acquaintance with either the Netherlands or Italy. -They knew exactly what was going on in the world around them. Drer and -Raphael used to send drawings to each other, "so as to know each other's -handwriting." It was only in the first half of the nineteenth century -that the Germans, once proud in the consciousness of possessing the -finest comprehension of, and the greatest receptivity for, foreign -intellectual wares, lived apart in timid isolation. Into the suburban -still-life of the German schools of art not a sound made its way of what -was taking place elsewhere. Only thus was it possible for the Germans to -imagine that among all modern nations they alone had a vocation for Art. -No one had the least idea that in England, the land of machines and -beefsteaks, there were men who painted; and people went so far as to -proclaim piety, morality, thoroughness, accurate draughtsmanship, and -diligent execution the monopoly of German art; and superficiality, -frivolity, and "empty straining after effect" the ineradicable national -failing of that of France. - -[Illustration: SCHWIND. THE FAIRIES' SONG.] - -With some such ideas in their heads the majority of the German painters, -in the autumn of 1843, found themselves confronted by Gallait's -"Abdication of Charles V" and Bifve's "Agreement of the Dutch -Nobility"; two Belgian pictures which at that time were going the round -of the exhibitions in all the larger towns of Germany. And it was not -long before the belief in the old gods, which had for thirty years held -sway in the city of King Ludwig, was completely undermined by the -younger generation. "Even for the great gods, day comes to an end. Night -of annihilation, descend with the dusk!" Diogenes expelled from his -philosophic tub could not have felt more uncomfortable than the German -painters in presence of the Belgian pictures. As till then the -incapacity to paint had been belauded as one of the strongest possible -proofs of the higher artistic nature and of genuine greatness, so now it -was perceived that nevertheless, on the banks of the Scheldt and of the -Seine, a much greater school of painting was in full bloom, and -producing splendid fruit. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -THE FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM IN FRANCE - - -In France the first decade of the century gave no premonition of the -powerful development which was shortly to take place in French art. A -legion of characterless pupils issuing from David's studio wearied the -world with their aimless works, and hurled their thunderbolts against -all rising talent. The austere catalogue of the Salon was a pell-mell of -Belisarii, Tlmaques, Phdras, Electras, Brutuses, Psyches, and -Endymions. Girodet and Gurin wearied themselves in putting on canvas -the chief scenes in the classical tragedies at that time so frequently -performed--Pygmalion and Galatea, the Death of Agamemnon, and the -like--and painted portraits between times; Girodet's dry and poor, -Gurin's solemnly vacant. The universal note was that of tedium. - -_Franois Grard_ alone, the "King of Painters and Painter of Kings," -survives, at least in his portraits. Like David he is redeemed only by -his portrait painting, and his successes in that direction eclipse even -Mme. Vige-Lebrun, the amiable, gifted, and graceful painter of Marie -Antoinette's days. At the outbreak of the Revolution she had left -France. Everywhere extolled and welcomed with open arms, she painted -Mme. de Stal in Switzerland, and at Naples Lady Hamilton, the famous -beauty of the time of the Directory. But when, in 1810, she returned to -Paris, she had been forgotten. The day on which Marie Antoinette picked -up her brush for her, as Charles V had done for Titian, was to remain -the happiest in her life. She belonged to the Ancien Rgime, and -although her death did not take place till 1842, at the age of -eighty-seven, her work was already over in 1792. In her old age she -busied herself in writing memoirs of the splendour of her youthful days, -from the famous mythological dinner in the Rue de Clry, where her -husband appeared in the character of Pindar and recited his translation -of Anacreon's odes, to the triumphs which accompanied her journey round -Europe. - -Grard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure, and -filled it well, especially in his youth. When, in the Exhibition of -Portrait Painting held at Paris in 1885, there appeared the likeness of -Mlle. Brongniart, from the collection of Baron Pichon, painted by Grard -in 1795, at the age of twenty-five, there was general astonishment at -the familiar and intimate grasp of character it displayed. The portrait -of this young girl standing in her white dress, so tranquil and without -pose, has in the firmness of its draughtsmanship the austere charm and -dignity of a Bronzino. And later none could give to the aristocracy of -Europe a nobler or more natural bearing than did Grard, who became -their tried and trusted depicter: yet in his last days he descended into -theatrical exaggeration. Endowed as he was with all the captivating -qualities of a cultured man of the world, he had from the beginning -avoided as the plague the revolutionary politics in which David was for -some time engaged, and when at the instance of the elder master he was -appointed a member of the Revolutionary Tribunal, he alleged illness in -order to be absent from its sessions. He was a man of the salons, the -born painter of the great world, his house the centre of a distinguished -circle of society. Not a celebrity, not an emperor or king, but wished -to be painted by Grard. And just as he had been the chosen portrait -painter of the Bonaparte family, so after the Restoration he was still -the official favourite of the Court. Josephine took the fashionable -painter under her high protection, Napoleon's marshals defiled before -him, and the aristocracy which returned with Louis XVIII vied with one -another for his favour. - -[Illustration: FRANOIS GRARD. _L'Art._] - -Grard's three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those -who in the first quarter of the century played any part in France upon -the political, military, or literary stage. A man of supple talent and -fine tastes, he completely satisfied the desires of a society which, -after the storm of the Revolution, opened its salons again and -re-established its former hierarchy of rank. The portrait with rich -background of upholstery, and the depicting of public ceremonies, were -reintroduced by him into the field of art. The people whom he painted -are no longer "citizens," as with David, but princes, generals, -princesses; and their surroundings allow of no doubt as to whether they -are to be addressed as Sir, as Your Serene Highness, or as Your -Excellency. No one knew how to flatter in so tactful a manner, -particularly in portraits of ladies. It was to him, therefore, that Mme. -Rcamier had recourse when she was dissatisfied with David's likeness of -her. Grard's, which she destined for Prince Augustus of Prussia, one of -her admirers, gave the "fair Juliette" the fullest satisfaction. In the -former she was represented reposing on a couch, austere and without -charm, like a tragic muse. Here she sits in a pleasant, lazy attitude -upon a chair, in a transparent robe which fully displays her form; about -her lips plays a half-melancholy, half-coquettish smile, and she, the -great actress who had turned so many men's heads, gazes with gentle -child-eyes as innocently upon the world as though she believed the story -about babies and the stork. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - GRARD. MLLE. BRONGNIART.] - -The background, too, that colonnade "leading nowhither," is -characteristic of the change in the manner of regarding things. The -older schools of painting had, in the case of portraits, managed the -treatment of the background in two different ways. The old Dutch and -Germans--Jan van Eyck and Holbein--aimed at showing a man, not only -portrayed with the subtlest fidelity to truth, but also in the -surroundings in which he was usually or by preference to be found. The -Italians renounced all representation of such scenes, and gave only a -quiet, neutral tone to the background. Gorgeous decorative scenery was -introduced by the court painter Van Dyck, and since the second half of -the seventeenth century had continually risen in popular favour. -Mignard, Lebrun, and Rigaud had brought into fashion, for portraits of -princely personages, that stately pillared architecture, with broad -velvet curtains swelling and descending in ample folds, which at that -time was so remarkably in keeping with the whole cut of the costumes, -with the enormous full-bodied wigs and the theatrical attitudinising of -that epoch. For the likenesses of generals and warlike princes the -favourite background was one which represented, by means of a number of -small figures, entire battles, marches, sieges, and so forth. Both these -methods, and, together with them, that of an ideal, lightly indicated -park landscape, were put an end to by the Revolution, under the -influence of which all extravagant pomp, not only in life, but even in -portrait painting, was replaced by an ascetic sobriety. Grard, the -Court painter of the Bourbons, who on their return had "learnt nothing -and forgotten nothing," reintroduced the gorgeous pillar decoration, -which still remained the authoritative style under Stieler and -Winterhalter, and has only in the _bourgeois_ era of to-day given way to -the simple, neutral-toned background of the Italians. - -David, by the way, never forgave Mme. Rcamier for having preferred his -pupil to himself. When, in 1805, after the completion of Grard's -likeness of her, she approached David on the subject of finishing his, -he answered drily: "Madame, artists have their caprices as well as -women; now it is _I_ who will not." - -As an historical painter Grard was an imitator of the mannerist -Girodet. Paintings such as "Daphnis and Chloe," or the famous "Psyche" -receiving Cupid's first kiss (1798), made indeed a great sensation among -the ladies, who for some time afterwards painted their faces white, to -resemble the gentle Psyche; but from the artistic point of view they do -not rise above the ordinary level of the Classical school. As an -historical painter he took much the same course as David; he began as a -Revolutionist in 1795 with the usual "Belisarius," and ended as a -Royalist with a "Coronation of Charles X." - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - GRARD. MADAME VISCONTI.] - -The more stiff and sober the antique style of David became, the sooner a -counter-current was likely to arise, and the change of taste showed -itself first in the circumstance that, from 1810 on, a master came more -and more to the front who, already old, had hitherto lived in obscurity, -almost despised by his contemporaries. This was the amiable, -sympathetic, charming, sweet, and great _Prudhon_, the lineal descendant -of Correggio, a solitary painter, the gracefulness of whose art was at -first unappreciated, but who, as the orthodox academicians began to be -more and more tedious, exercised a correspondingly greater influence -over the younger generation. He is the one refreshing oasis in the -desert wilderness of the Classical school. - -What a difference between him and David! When the elegant grace of -Watteau fled from the French school, and the new Spartans dreamed of -founding a Greek art, David was the hero of this buskined theatrical -school of painting. He painted "The Horatii" and "Brutus," and thought -to bring ancient Rome back to life by copying the shapes of old Roman -chairs and old Roman swords. That was the antique style of his first -period. Later, having made the discovery that, compared with the Greeks, -the Romans were semi-barbarians, he abandoned the Roman style, and -thought to make a great stride forwards by copying Greek statues and -carefully transferring them to his pictures. This "pure Grecian -character" is represented in his "Rape of the Sabines." Later again, he -turned to the more ancient Greeks, and the result was the most academic -of his pictures, his "Leonidas." A mixture of dryness and declamatory -pathos; diligence without imagination; able draughtsmanship and an -absolute incapacity of drawing anything whatever without a model; -careful arrangement without the slightest trace of that gift of the -inner vision whereby the whole is brought complete and finished before -the eye,--these exhaust the list of David's qualities. By means of -casting and copying he thought to come near to that art of the antique -whose soul he dreamed of embracing, when he held but its skeleton in his -hands. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - GRARD. CUPID AND PSYCHE.] - -And meanwhile, away from the broad high-road, and almost unnoticed, was -living that painter whom David contemptuously called "the Boucher of his -time." He it was who truly cherished the gods of Greece in his heart, -under whose brush the dead statues began to breathe and to feel the -blood flowing in their veins, as in the old days when the Renaissance -dug them out of the ground. His appearance on the stage indicates the -first protest against the rigid system pursued by the painter of the -Horatii and of Brutus. Prudhon also believed in the antique, but he saw -therein a grace which no Classicist had ever seen; he also contrasted -the simplicity of the Grecian profile with the capricious, wrinkled -forms of the _rococo_ style; he too had spent his youth in Italy, but -had not thought it criminal to study Leonardo and Correggio; he did not -bind himself either to cold sculpture or to the delicate _morbidezza_ of -the Lombards as the only means of grace. He remained a Frenchman heart -and soul, in that he inherited from Watteau's age its womanly softness -and elegance. In a cold, ascetic age he still believed in tenderness, -gaiety, and laughter--he who as a man had but little reason to take -delight in life. - -Prudhon was ten years younger than David, and was born at Cluny, the -tenth child of a poor stone cutter. He grew up in miserable -circumstances, cherished only by a mother who devoted the whole of her -love to this her youngest born, and to whom the child, a delicate pliant -creature, clung with girl-like tenderness. His parents used often to -send him out with the other poor children of the little town to gather -faggots for the winter in the wood belonging to the neighbouring -Benedictine monastery. There the handsome, sprightly boy with the large -melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest, Pre Besson, who -made him a chorister and gave him some instruction. Here, in the old -abbey of Cluny, surrounded by venerable statues carved in wood, by old -pictures of saints and artistic miniatures, he recognised his vocation. -An inner voice told him that he was to be a painter. And now his Latin -exercise books began to fill with drawings, and he carved little images -with his penknife out of wood, soap, or whatever came to his hand. He -squeezed out the juice of flowers, made brushes of horsehair, and began -to paint. He was inconsolable on finding that he could not hit off the -colouring of the old church pictures. It was a revelation to him when -one of the monks said to him one day: "My boy, you will never manage it -so: these pictures are painted in oils"; and he straightway invented oil -painting for himself. With the help of the instruction which he now -received at Dijon from an able painter, Devosge, he made rapid progress. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GRARD. MADAME RCAMIER [DETAIL].] - -Nevertheless a generation was yet to pass before he was really to become -a painter. His marriage, on 17th February 1778, with the daughter of the -notary of Cluny, became the torment of his life. A linen-weaver and -three of his father-in-law's clerks were present at the wedding. His -wife was quarrelsome, their income small, and their family rapidly -increasing. He betook himself to Paris to seek his fortune, with a -letter of introduction to the engraver Wille. "Take pity on this -youngster, who has been married for the last three years, and who, were -he to come under some low fellow's influence, might easily fall into the -most terrible abyss"; so ran the letter, which a certain Baron -Joursanvault had given him. He hired himself a room in the house of M. -Fauconnier, the head of a firm engaged in the lace trade, who lived in -the Rue du Bac with his wife and a pretty sister. The latter, Marie, was -eighteen years of age, and, like Werther's Lotte, was always surrounded -by her brother's children, whom she looked after like a little -housewife. Prudhon, himself young, sensitive, and handsome, loved and -was loved, and made her presents of small flattering portraits and -pretty allegorical drawings, in which Cupid was represented scratching -the initials M. F. (Marie Fauconnier) on the wall with his arrow. That -he was married and several times a father she never knew, till one day -Madame Prudhon arrived with the children. "And you never told me!" was -her only word of reproach. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - PIERRE PAUL PRUDHON. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -Prudhon himself now went to Italy--a journey accompanied by serious -difficulties. At Dijon he had competed for the Prix de Rome, and had -been so simple as to make a sketch for one of his rivals. He owed it to -the latter's honesty that the scholarship nevertheless fell to himself. -He started on his journey; but when he reached Marseilles, and was ready -to embark, the vessel was unable to weigh anchor for several weeks, -owing to stormy weather. And even on the voyage it became necessary to -disembark again, so that months had elapsed before he arrived in Rome, -penniless, and having embraced, according to classical custom, the land -he had come to conquer; for he had fallen out of the carriage on the -way. Fortunately his dearly bought sojourn in Italy did him no harm. He -had indeed intended to draw only from the antique and after Raphael; but -after the lapse of a very few weeks he found his ideal in Leonardo. Him -he calls "his Master and Hero, the inimitable father and prince of all -painters, in artistic power far surpassing Raphael!" - -In a small sketch-book, half torn up, dating from this time, and still -in existence, we have already the whole Prudhon. It contains copies of -ancient statues, made laboriously and without pleasure in the work; then -comes Correggio's disarmed "Cupid," a delicious little sketch, and with -the same pencil that drew it he has written down the names of the -pictures he purposes painting later on: "Love," "Frivolity," "Cupid and -Psyche." It is as it were the secret confession of his fantasy, a -preliminary announcement of his future works. Here and there are found -sketches hastily dashed off of beautiful female forms in the graceful -attitude which had excited his admiration in the women of the -"Aldobrandini Wedding." But, above all, the young artist observed all -that was around him. He lived in unceasing intercourse with the -beautiful, and his soul was nurtured by the spirit of the works which -surrounded him. He accumulated pictures, not in his sketch-book, but in -himself; so much so that, when he was afterwards interrogated as to his -Italian studies, his only answer was: "I did nothing but study life and -admire the works of the masters." He avoided association even with -scholars who had taken the Prix de Rome. The elegant and graceful -sculptor Canova was the only one with whom he permitted himself any -intercourse. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - PRUDHON. JOSEPH AND POTIPHAR'S WIFE.] - -When his scholarship had run its course, at the end of November 1789, he -found himself again in Paris, and the struggle against poverty began -once more. Even while in Italy he had sent all his savings to his wife, -who had straightway squandered them in drink with her brother, a -sergeant in a cavalry regiment. At Paris he had to act as parlour-maid -and nursery-maid. The faces of two more women rise up in his life like -fleeting stars, and both of them died before his eyes. The first was the -mysterious stranger who appeared one day in his studio and commissioned -him to paint her portrait. She was young, scarcely twenty years of age, -with great blue eyes, but her face was weary and wan as though from long -sleepless nights. "Your portrait?" asked Prudhon, "with features so -troubled and sad?" He set to work, silent and indifferent; but with -every stroke of his brush he felt himself more mystically attracted to -this young girl, evidently as unhappy and as persecuted by fate as -himself. She promised to return on the morrow; but neither on that day -nor on the next did she appear. One afternoon he was wandering dreamily -along the street, thinking of the unknown fair one, when his eye almost -mechanically caught sight of the guillotine, and he recognised in the -unhappy victim at that very moment ending her days the mysterious -visitor of his studio. - -To keep the wolf from the door, Prudhon was obliged for some years to -draw vignettes on letter-sheets for the Government offices, business -cards for tradesmen, and even little pictures for _bonbonnires_. For -this the representatives of high art held him in contempt. Greuze alone -treated him amicably, and even he held out no hopes for his future. "You -have a family and you have talent, young man; that is enough in these -days to bring about one's death by starvation. Look at my cuffs." Then -the old man would show him his torn shirt-sleeves--for even he could no -longer find means of getting on in the new order of things. To his -anxieties about the necessities of life were added dissensions with his -wife. He became the prey of a continual melancholy; he was never seen to -smile. Even when a separation had been effected his tormentor persecuted -him still, until she was relegated to a madhouse. But now a change comes -over the scene with the entrance of Constance Mayer. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. STUDY DIRECTS THE FLIGHT OF GENIUS.] - -This amiable young painter, his pupil, was the star that lighted up his -old age. She was ugly. With her brown complexion, her broad flat nose, -and her large mouth, she had at first sight the appearance of a mulatto. -Yet to this large mouth belonged voluptuous lips ever ready to be -kissed; above this broad nose there were two eyes shining like black -diamonds, which by their changeful expression made this irregular, -_gamin's_ face appear positively beautiful. She was seventeen years his -junior, and he has painted her as often as Rembrandt painted his Saskia. -He has immortalised the dainty upturned nose of his little gipsy, as he -called her, in pictures, sketches, pastels, all of which have the same -piquant charm, the same elegant grace, the same joyous and merry -expression. In her he had found his type, as his namesake Rubens did in -Hlne Fourment. Constance Mayer became the muse of his delicate, -graceful work. And she too died before his eyes, having cut her throat -with a razor. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. LE COUP DE PATTE DU CHAT.] - -The master and the pupil loved each other. As sentimental as she was -passionate, as gay as she was piquant, nervous and witty, she possessed -every quality that was likely to captivate him, as she chattered to him -in her lively and original way, and flattered his pride as an artist. -This love seemed to promise him rest and a bright ending for his days. -He entered into it with the passion of a young man in love for the first -time. Mlle. Mayer, after her father's death, was dependent on no one. -Her studio in the Sorbonne was separated from her master's only by a -blind wall. She was with him the entire day, worked at his side, was his -housekeeper, and saw to the education of his daughter, to whom she was -at once a mother and an elder sister; and Prudhon transferred to her all -the tender love which as a child he had cherished for his mother. In his -gratitude he wished to share his genius with his friend, and to make her -famous like himself. It is pathetic to note in Mlle. Mayer's studies -with what patience and devotion he instructed her, how he strove to -animate her with his own spirit, and to give her something of his own -immortality. Even his own work was influenced by the new happiness. To -the period of his connection with Constance belong his masterpieces, -"Justice and Vengeance," "The Rape of Psyche," "Venus and Adonis," and -"The Swinging Zephyr." - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. CUPID AND PSYCHE.] - -These brought him at last even outward success. In 1808 the Emperor gave -him the Cross of the Legion of Honour for his picture of "Justice and -Vengeance," and he became, if not the official, at least the familiar -painter of the Court. The fine portrait of the Empress Josephine -belongs to this period. When the new Empress Marie Louise wished to -learn the art of painting, Prudhon, in 1811, became her drawing master; -and when on the birth of the King of Rome the city of Paris presented to -the Emperor the furniture for a room, he was commissioned to provide the -artistic decoration. Criticism began to bow its head when his name was -mentioned; and the younger generation of painters soon discovered in -him, once so contemptuously reviled, the founder of a new religion, the -want of which had long been felt. He began to make money. Constance -Mayer seemed to bring him luck: her death affected him all the more -deeply. - -[Illustration: CONSTANCE MAYER.] - -By nature nervous and highly strung, jealous and keenly conscious of her -equivocal position, she could not make up her mind, when the painters -were ordered to move their studios from the Sorbonne, either to leave -Prudhon or openly to live with him. On the morning of 26th March 1821 -she left her model, the little Sophie, alone, after giving her a ring. -Soon afterwards a heavy fall was heard, and she was found lying on the -ground in a pool of blood. Prudhon lingered on for two years more, two -long years spent as it were in exile. Solitary, tortured by remorse of -conscience, and with continual thoughts of suicide, he lived on only for -his recollections of her, in tender converse with the memorials she had -left, insensible to the renown which began gradually to gather round his -name. The completion of the "Unfortunate Family," which Constance had -left unfinished on her easel, was his last _tte--tte_ with her, his -last farewell. He left his studio only to visit her grave in -Pre-Lachaise, or to wander alone along the outer boulevards. An -"Ascension of the Virgin" and a "Christ on the Cross" were the last -works of the once joyous painter of ancient mythology: the Mater -Dolorosa and the Crucified--symbols of his own torments. Death at length -took compassion upon him. On the 16th of February 1823 France lost -Prudhon. - -His art was the pure expression of his spiritual life. His life was -swayed by women, and something feminine breathes through all his -pictures. In them there speaks a man full of soul, originally of a -joyous nature, who has gone through experiences which prevented him ever -being joyous again. He has inherited from the _rococo_ style its graces -and its little Cupids, but has also already tasted of all the melancholy -of the new age. With his smiles there is mingled a secret sadness. He -has learnt that life is not an unending banquet and a perpetual -pleasure; he has seen how tragic a morrow follows upon the voyage to -the Isle of Cythera. The bloom has faded from his pale cheeks, his brow -is furrowed--he has seen the guillotine. He, the last _rococo_ painter -and the first Romanticist, would have been truly the man to effect the -transition from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century by a path more -natural than that followed by David. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - CONSTANCE MAYER. THE DREAM OF HAPPINESS.] - -Even his fugitive sketches, thrown off in the days of his poverty, have -a quite peculiar charm and a thoroughly individual sentiment. There are -vignettes of his for letter-sheets, done for the Government offices, -which in a few pencil touches contain more manly elegance and poetry -than do David's most pretentious compositions with all their borrowed -Classicism. Prudhon was the only painter who at that time produced -anything of conspicuous merit in the art of ornament. Even drawings such -as "Minerva uniting Law and Liberty," which from their titles would lead -one to expect nothing more than frozen allegories, are imbued, not with -David's coldness, but with Correggio's charm. French grace and elegance -are united, without constraint, to the beauty of line found in ancient -cameos. He it was who first felt again the living poetry of that old -mythology, which had become a mere collection of dry names. He is -commissioned to draw a card of invitation for a ball, and he sends a -tender hymn on music and dancing. In extravagant profusion he scatters -forth, no matter where, poetic invention and grace such as David in his -most strenuous efforts sought for in vain. It was during this time that -Prudhon became the admirable draughtsman to whom the French school have -awarded a place among their greatest masters. These drawings and -illustrations were the necessary preparation for the great works which -brought him to the front at the beginning of the century. - -Even his first picture, painted in 1799--to-day half-destroyed--"Wisdom -bringing Truth upon the earth, at whose approach Darkness vanishes," -must, to judge from early descriptions, have been marked by a seductive -and delicate grace. And the celebrated work of 1808, "Justice and -Vengeance pursuing Crime," belongs certainly, so far as colouring is -concerned, rather to the Romantic than to the Classical era. For during -the latter, one faculty especially had been lost, and that was the art -of painting flesh. Prudhon, by deep study of Leonardo and Correggio, -masters at that time completely out of fashion, won back this capacity -for the French school. In wild and desolate scenery, above which the -moon, emerging from behind heavy clouds, shines with a ghostly light -upon the bare rocks, the murderer is leaving the body of his victim. He -strides forth with hasty steps, purse and dagger in hand, glancing back -with a shudder at the naked corpse of a young man which has fallen upon -a ledge of rock, lying there stiff and with outstretched arms. Above, -like shapes in the clouds, the avenging goddesses are already sweeping -downwards upon him. Justice pursues the fugitive with threatening, -wrathful glance; while Vengeance, lighting the way with her torch, -stretches out her hand to grasp the guilty one. In that epoch this -picture stands alone for the imposing characterisation of the persons, -for its powerful pictorial execution, and the stern and grandiose -landscape which serves as setting to the awful scene. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - THE TOMB OF PRUDHON AND CONSTANCE MAYER AT PRE-LACHAISE.] - -In general, Prudhon was not a tragic painter; his preference was for the -more joyous, light and dreamy, delicately veiled myths of the ancients. -His misfortunes taught him to flee from reality, and on the wings of Art -he saved himself, in the realm of legendary love and visionary -happiness. So we see Psyche borne aloft by Zephyr through the twilight -to the nuptial abode of Eros. A soft light falls upon her snowy body; -her head has fallen upon her shoulder, and one arm, bent backwards, -enframes her face. Silent like a cloud, the group moves onward--a -sweet-scented apparition from fairyland. Now, enraptured genii visit the -slumbering Fair One in forest-shadows, under the shimmering moon; now -she is stealing secretly down to bathe in a tranquil lake, and gazes -with astonishment upon her own likeness in the gloomy mirror. Here -Venus, drawing deep breaths of secret bliss, is seated, full of longing -love, by the side of Adonis. Who else, at that time, could draw nude -figures of such faultless beauty, so slender and pure, with lines so -supple and yet so firm, and enveloped in so full and soft a light? Or -again, he paints Zephyr swinging roguishly by the side of a stream. A -gentle breeze plays through his locks, and the cool darkness of the wood -breathes through all things round. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - PRUDHON. THE UNFORTUNATE FAMILY.] - -Prudhon's work is never a laborious patchwork of fragments of antique -forms picked up here and there, never the insipid product of the reason -working in accordance with recipes long handed down; it is thoroughly -intuitive. Never keeping too closely to his model, he gave to his -creations the movement and the divine breath of life. In his hands with -dreamlike fidelity the Antique rose up again renewed, new in the sense -of his own completely modern sentiment, and in that of those great -masters of the Renaissance who had wakened it to life three hundred -years before. For Prudhon, as is shown by his landscape backgrounds, is -altogether Jean Jacques Rousseau's contemporary, the child of that epoch -in which Nature revealed itself anew; and, as is proved by his figures, -he is a congenial spirit to Antonio da Allegri and Vinci. In fresh -recollection of Correggio, he loves a soft exuberance of flesh and a -delicate semi-obscurity; in enthusiastic reverence for Leonardo, those -heads of women, with deep, sensuously veiled eyes, and that mysterious -delicate smile playing dreamily round the wanton mouth. Only, the -enchanting sweetness of the Florentine and the delicious ecstasy of the -Lombard are toned down by a gentle melancholy which is entirely modern. -The Psyche borne up to heaven by Zephyr changes in the end, when -purified and refined, into the soul itself, which, in the form of the -Madonna, ascends into heaven, transfigured with longing desire; and -Venus, the goddess of love, is transformed into Love immortal, "Who, -stretched upon the Cross, yet reacheth out His hand to thee." - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. THE RAPE OF PSYCHE.] - -This man, with his soft tenderness and fine feeling for the eternal -feminine, was as though fashioned by Nature to be the painter of women -of his time. If David was the chief depicter of male faces bearing a -strong impress of character, delicate, refined, womanly natures found -their best interpreter in Prudhon. His heads of women charm one by the -mysterious language of their eyes, by their familiar smile, and by their -dreamy melancholy. No one knew better how to catch the fleeting -expression in its most delicate shades, how to grasp the very mood of -the moment. How piquant is his smiling Antoinette Leroux with her dress -_ la_ Charlotte Corday, her coquettish extravagant hat, and all the -amusing "chic" of her toilette! Madame Copia, the wife of the engraver, -with her delicately veiled eyes, has become in Prudhon's hands the very -essence of a beautiful soul. A languishing weariness, a remarkable -mingling of Creole grace and gentle melancholy, breathes over the -portrait of the Empress Josephine. She is represented seated on a grassy -bank in a dignified yet negligent attitude, her head slightly bent, her -gaze wandering afar with a look of uncertain inquiry, as though she had -some faint presentiment of her coming misfortune; and the dreamy -twilight-shadows of a mysterious landscape are gathering around her. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. LE MIDI.] - -Coming after a period of colour asceticism, Prudhon was the first to -show a fine feeling for colour. Even during the revolutionary era he -protested in the name of the graceful against David's formal stiffness. -He sought to demonstrate that human beings do not in truth differ very -widely to-day from those in whom Leonardo and Correggio delighted, that -they are fashioned out of delicate flesh and blood, not out of marble -and stone. Standing beside David, he appealed to the art of colour. But -as with Andr Chnier, a spirit congenial to his, it was long before he -attained success. His modesty and his rustic character could effect -nothing against the dictatorial power of David, on whom had been -showered every dignity that Art could offer. People continued to -ridicule poor Prudhon, who worked only after his own fantasy, who had -fashioned for himself in _chiaroscuro_ a poetic language of his own, -till the question was raised again from another side, and this time by a -young man who came directly out of David's studio. - -_Antoine Jean Gros_ was one of David's pupils, and stood out among his -fellows as the one most submissively devoted to his master; yet it was -he who, without wishing it or knowing of it, was preparing the way for -the overthrow of David's school. He was born 17th March 1771, at Paris, -where his father was a miniature painter. His vocation was determined -in the studio of Mme. Vige-Lebrun, who was a friend of his parents. In -the Salon of 1785, which contained David's "Andromache beside the Body -of Hector," he chose his instructor. He was then the handsome youth of -fifteen represented in his portrait of himself at Versailles, with -delicate features, full of feeling, on which lies an amiable, gentle -cast of sentimentality. Two large, dark-brown eyes look out upon the -world astonished and inquiring, dark hair surrounds the quiet, fresh -face, and over it is cocked a broad-brimmed felt hat. In this picture we -see a fine-strung, sensitive nature, a soul which would be plunged by -bitter experiences into depths of despair, in proportion as success -would raise it to heights of ecstasy. In 1792 he competed unsuccessfully -for the Prix de Rome, and this failure was the making of him. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. LA NUIT.] - -He went to Italy on his own account, and was an eye-witness of the war -which Napoleon was there waging. There he beheld scenes in which -archology had no part. For when Augereau's foot-soldiers carried the -bridge of Arcola by assault, they had little thought of imitating an -antique bas-relief. Gros observed armies on the march, and saw their -triumphant entry into festally decorated cities. He learnt his lesson on -the field of battle, and on his return placed on record what he had -himself gone through. In Italy he caught the poetry of modern life, and -at the same time was enabled as a painter to supplement David's lectures -with the teaching of another surpassing master. It was in Genoa that he -became acquainted with Rubens. As Prudhon's originality consisted in the -fact that he was the first of that period again to stand dreaming before -Leonardo and Correggio, so did Gros' lie in this, that he studied -Rubens at a time when the Antwerp master was also completely out of -fashion. His instinct as a painter had at the very commencement guided -him to Rubens' "St. Ignatius," which in his letters he described as a -"sublime and magnificent work." When he was subsequently appointed a -member of the Commission charged with the transference of works of art -to Paris, he had abundant opportunities of admiring critically the works -of the sixteenth and seventeenth century masters. The two impressions -thus received had a decisive effect upon his life. Gros became the great -colourist of the Classical school, the singer of the Napoleonic epos. -Compared with David's marmoreal Grco-Romans, Gros' figures seem to -belong to another world; his pictures speak, both in purport and in -technique, a language which must more than once have astonished his -master. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. L'ENJOUIR.] - -He was fortunate enough to be presented to Josephine Beauharnais, and -through her to Bonaparte, in the Casa Serbelloni at Milan; and Gros, -whose earnest desire it was to paint the great commander, was appointed -a lieutenant on his staff. He had occasion, in the three days' battle of -Arcola, to admire the Dictator's impetuous heroism; and he made a sketch -of the General storming the bridge of Arcola at the head of his troops, -ensign in hand. It pleased Napoleon, who saw in it something of the -dmonic power of the future conqueror of the world; and when the picture -was exhibited in Paris in 1801 it met there also with the most striking -success. The greater warmth of colour, the broader sweep of the brush, -and the life-like movement of the figures seemed, in comparison with -David's monotonous manner, to be far-reaching innovations. - -With his "Napoleon on the Bridge of Arcola" Gros had found his peculiar -talent. What his teacher had accomplished as painter to the Convention, -Gros carried to a conclusion in that span of time during which Napoleon -lived in the minds of his people as a hero. He too made an occasional -excursion into the domain of Greek mythology, but he did not feel at -home there. His field was that living history which the generals and -soldiers of France were making. He won for contemporary military life -its citizenship in art. David, wishing to remain true to "history" and -to "style," had depicted contemporary events with reluctance. What -Grard and Girodet had produced was interesting as a protest on the part -of reality against classical convention, but on the whole it was -unsatisfying and wearisome. Gros, the famous painter of the "Plague of -Jaffa" and of the "Battle of Eylau," was the first to attain to high -renown in this field. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. MARGUERITE.] - -These are two powerful and genuine pictures, two pre-eminent works which -will endure. Gros stands far above David and all his rivals in his power -of perception. The elder painter is now out of date, while Gros remains -ever fresh, because he painted under the impulse given by real events, -and not under the ban of empty theories. A realist through and through, -he did not shrink from representing the horrible, which antique art -preferred to avoid. In an epoch when Rome and Greece were the only -sources of inspiration he had the courage to paint a hospital, with its -sick, its dying, and its dead. When in the Egypto-Syrian campaign the -plague broke out after the storming of Jaffa, Napoleon, accompanied by a -few of his officers, undertook, on 7th March 1799, to visit the victims -of the pestilence. This act deserved to be celebrated in a commemorative -picture. Gros took it in hand, and represented Napoleon, in the -character of consoler, amid the agonising torments of the dying; -deviating from historical accuracy only so far as to transfer the scene -from the wretched wards of the lazaretto to the courtyard of a pillared -mosque. In the shadows of the airy halls sick and wounded men twist and -writhe, stare before them in despair, rear themselves up half-naked in -mortal pain, or turn to gaze upon the Commander-in-Chief, a splendid -apparition full of youthful power, who is tranquilly feeling the plague -boils of one of their comrades. Here and there Orientals move in -picturesque costumes, distributing the food which negro lads are -bringing in. And beyond, over the battlements of the Moorish arcades, -one sees the town with its fortifications, its flat roofs and slender -minarets, over which flutter the victorious banners of the French. On -one side lies the distant, glittering blue sea, and over all stretches -the clear, glowing southern sky. - -Like a new gospel, like the first gust of wind preceding the storm of -Romanticism, this picture standing in the Louvre, surrounded by its -stiff Classical contemporaries, excites a sensation of pleasure. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. LES PETITS DVIDEURS.] - -Gros' heroes know, as David's do, that they are important, and show it -perhaps too much, but at least they act. The painter felt what he was -painting, and an impulse of human love, an heroic and yet human life, -permeates the picture. Moreover, Gros did not content himself with the -scanty palette and the miserable cartoon-draughtsmanship of his -contemporaries. This treatment of the nude, these despairing heads of -dying men, show none of the stony lifelessness of the Classical school; -this Moorish courtyard has no resemblance to the tragedy peristyle so -habitually employed up to that time; this Bonaparte laying his hand upon -the dying man's sores is no Greek or Roman hero. The sick men whose -feverish eyes gaze upon him as on the star of hope, the negroes going up -and down with viands, are no mere supernumeraries; the sea lying in -sunshine beyond, full of bustling sails, and the harbour gaily decked -with many-coloured flags, point in their joyous splendour of colouring -to the dawn of a new era. The young artists were not mistaken when, in -the Salon of 1804, they fastened a sprig of laurel to the frame of the -picture. The State bought it for sixteen thousand francs. A banquet at -which Vien and David presided was given in honour of the painter. -Girodet read a poem, of which the conclusion ran as follows-- - - "Et toi, sage Vien, toi, David, matre illustre, - Jouissez de vos succs; dans son sixime lustre, - Votre lve, dj de toutes parts cit, - Auprs de vous vivra dans la postrit." - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. THE VINTAGE.] - -In his "Battle of Eylau," exhibited in 1808, Gros has given us a -companion picture to the "Plague of Jaffa": in one a visit to a -hospital, in the other the inspection of a field of battle after the -fight is over. The dismal grey hue of winter rests upon the white sheet -of snow stretching desolately away to the horizon, only interrupted here -and there by hillocks beneath which annihilated regiments sleep their -last sleep. In the foreground lie dead bodies heaped together, and -moaning wounded men; and in the midst of this horror of mangled limbs -and corrupting flesh he, the Conqueror, the Master, the Emperor, comes -to a halt, pale, his eyes turned towards the cities burning on the -horizon, in his grey overcoat and small cocked hat, at the head of his -staff, indifferent, inexorable, merciless as Fate. "_Ah! si les rois -pouvaient contempler ce spectacle, ils scraient moins avides de -conqutes._" The classical posturing which still lingered, a disturbing -element, in the Plague picture, has been put aside completely. The -conventional horse from the frieze of the Parthenon, which David alone -knew, has given way to the accurately observed animal, and the colouring -too, in its sad harmony, has fully recovered its ancient right of giving -character to the picture. It was, beyond all controversy, the chief work -in the Salon of 1808, rich in remarkable pictures; neither Grard's -"Battle of Austerlitz," nor Girodet's "Atala," nor David's Coronation -piece endangered Gros' right to the first place. - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. THE VIRGIN.] - -"Napoleon before the Pyramids," at the moment when he cries, "Soldiers, -from the summit of those monuments forty centuries contemplate your -actions," constitutes, in 1810, the coping-stone of the cycle. Gros -alone at that time understood the epic grandeur of war. He became, also, -the portrait painter of the great men from whom its events proceeded. -His picture of General Massna, with its meditative, slily tenacious -expression, is the genuine portrait of a warrior; and how well is -heroic, simple daring depicted in the likeness of General Lasalle, -without the commonplace device of a mantle puffed out by the wind! His -portrait of General Fournier Sarlovse, at Versailles, has a freshness -of colouring, the secret of which no one else possessed in those days -except the two Englishmen, Lawrence and Raeburn. Gros was far in advance -of his age. A painter of movement rather than of psychological analysis, -he brought out character by means of general effect, and gave the -essentials in a masterly way. His portraits, just as much as his -historical pictures, have a stormy exposition. In David all is -calculation; in Gros, fire. Almost alone among his contemporaries, he -had studied Rubens, and like him gave colour the place due to it. At -times there is in his pictures a natural flesh-colour and an animation -which make this warm-hearted man, who has not been sufficiently -appreciated, a genuine forerunner of the moderns. Surrounded as he was -by orthodox Classicists, he cried in a loud voice what Prudhon had -already ventured to say more timidly: "Man is not a statue--not made of -marble, but of flesh and bone." - -[Illustration: PRUDHON. CHRIST CRUCIFIED.] - -But as with Prudhon, so with Gros. This man, of exaggerated nervousness, -was lacking in that capacity for persistence which belongs to a strong -will conscious of its aim; he lacked confidence in himself and in the -initiative he had taken. So long as the great figure of Napoleon kept -his head above water he was an artist; but when his hero was taken from -him he sank. The Empire had made Gros great, its fall killed him. The -incubus of David's antique manner began once more to press upon him, and -when David after his banishment (in 1816) committed to him the -management of his studio in Paris, Gros undertook the office with pious -eagerness, on nothing more anxiously intent than as a teacher once more -to impose the fetters of the antique upon that Art which he had set free -by his own works. "It is not I who am speaking to you," he would say to -the pupils, "but David, David, always David." The latter had blamed him -for having taken the trouble to paint the battles of the Empire, -"worthless occasional pieces," instead of venturing upon those of -Alexander the Great, and thus producing genuine "historical works." -"Posterity requires of you good pictures out of ancient history. Who, -she will cry, was better fitted to paint Themistocles? Quick, my friend! -turn to your Plutarch." To depict contemporary life, which lies open -before our eyes, was, he held, merely the business of minor artists, -unworthy the brush of an "historical painter." And Gros, who reverenced -his master, was so weak as to listen to his advice: he believed in him -rather than in his own genius, in the strength of others rather than his -own. He searched his Plutarch, and painted nothing more without a -previous side-glance towards Brussels; introduced allegory into his -"Battle of the Pyramids"; composed in homage to David a "Death of -Sappho"; and painted the cupola of the Pantheon with stiff frescoes; -while between times, when he looked Nature in the face, he was now and -then producing veritable masterpieces. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - PRUDHON. MADAME COPIA.] - -His "Flight of Louis XVIII" in the Museum at Versailles, shows him once -more at his former height. It is "one of the finest of modern works," as -Delacroix called it in 1848, in an essay contributed to the _Revue des -Deux Mondes_; at once familiar and serious. Napoleon had left Elba, -marched on Paris, and had reached Fontainebleau, when, in the night of -the 19th-20th March 1815, Louis XVIII determined to evacuate the -Tuileries with all speed. Accompanied by a few faithful followers and by -the officers of his personal service, he abandons his palace and takes -leave of the National Guards. There is something pathetic in this -sexagenarian with his erudite Bourbon profile, immortalised in the large -five-franc pieces of his reign, with his protruding stomach and small -thick legs, looking like a dropsical patient going to hospital. His -bearing is most unkingly. Gros has boldly depicted the scene, even to -the pathological appearance of the king, just as he saw it, forgetting -all that he knew of antique art. He had himself seen the staircase, the -murmuring crowd, the lackeys hurrying by, lantern in hand, at their -wits' end, and the fat, gouty king, who in his terror has forgotten all -kingly dignity. - -That was an historical picture, and yet as he painted it he reproached -himself anew for having forsaken the "real art of historical painting." -At the funeral of Girodet in 1824 the members of the Institute talked of -their "irreparable loss," and of the necessity of finding a new leader -for the school who should avert with a strong hand that destruction -which hot-headed young men threatened to bring upon it. "You, Gros," -observed one of them, "should be the man for the place." And Gros -answered, in absolute despair; "Why, I have not only no authority as -leader of a school, but, over and above that, I have to accuse myself of -giving the first bad example of defection from real art." The more he -thought of David, the more he turned his back upon the world of real -life. With his large and wearisome picture of "Hercules causing Diomedes -to be devoured by his own Horses" (1835) he sealed his own fate. -Conventionality had conquered nature. - -[Illustration: GROS. SAUL.] - -The painters overwhelmed him with ridicule, and a shrill shout of -derision rose from all the critics. Already, for some time past, a few -writers had risen to protest against the Classical school. They spoke -with fiery eloquence of the rights of humanity, the benefits of liberty, -the independence of thought, the true principles of the Revolution, and -found numerous readers. They fought against rigid laws in the -intellectual as well as the social sphere; they pointed out that there -were other worlds besides that of antiquity, and that even the latter -was not peopled exclusively by cold statues; they delighted in -describing the great and beautiful scenes of Nature, and opened out once -more a new and broad horizon to art and poetry. The Spring was -awakening; Gros felt that he had outlived himself. Arming himself -against the voices of the new era with the fatal heroism of the deaf, he -became the martyr of Classicism in French art. He was a Classic by -education, a Romantic by temperament; a man who took his greatest pride -in giving the lie as a teacher to the work he had accomplished as an -artist, and this discordance was his ruin. - -On the 25th of June 1835, being sixty-four years of age, he took up his -hat and stick, left his house without a word to any one, and laid -himself face-downwards in a tributary of the Seine near Meudon. It was a -shallow place, scarce three feet deep, which a child could easily have -waded through. It was not till next day, when he had been dead for -twenty-four hours, that he was discovered by two sailors walking home -along the bank. One of them struck his foot against a black silk hat. In -it there was a white cravat marked with the initial G., carefully -folded, and upon it a short note to his wife. On a torn visiting-card -could still be read the name, Baron Gros. A little farther on they saw -the corpse, and as they were afraid to touch a drowned man, they drew -lots with straws to decide which of them should pull him out. "I feel it -within me, it is a misfortune for me to be alone. One begins to be -disgusted with one's self, and then all is over," he had once in his -youth written to his mother with gloomy foreboding. Such was the end of -a master every fibre of whose being was in revolt against Classicism, -and who had so great a love for colour, truth, and life. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - ANTOINE JEAN, BARON GROS.] - -More important events were yet to take place before the signal of -deliverance could be expected. It was the young men who had grown up -amid the desolate associations of the Restoration who were to lead to -victory the new movement of which Prudhon and Gros had been the -forerunners. The dictatorship over art of that Classical school which -had been taken over from the seventeenth century was limited to a single -generation--from the birththroes of the Revolution to the fall of the -Napoleonic Empire. For although many of David's pupils survived until -the middle of the century, yet they were merely academic big-wigs, who, -compared with the young men of genius who were storming their positions, -represent that mediocrity which had indeed attained to external honours, -but had remained stationary, fast bound to antiquated rules. The future -belonged to the young, to a youth which from the standpoint of our own -days seems even younger than youth commonly is, richer, fresher, more -glowing and fiery--the Generation of 1830, the "_vaillants de dix-huit -cent trente_," as Thophile Gautier called them in one of his poems. - -[Illustration: _Photo, Levi._ - - GROS. THE BATTLE OF EYLAU.] - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE GENERATION OF 1830 - - -During the years which elapsed between 1820 and 1848 France produced a -great and admirable school of art. After the convulsions of the -Revolution and the wars of the Empire, that generation had arisen, -daring and eager for action, which de Musset describes in his -_Confessions d'un Enfan du Sicle_. And these young men, born between -the thunders of one battle and another, who had grown up in the midst of -greatness and glory, had to experience, as they ripened into manhood, -the ignominy of Charles X's reign, the period of clerical reaction. They -saw monasteries re-erected, laws of medival severity made against -blasphemy and the desecration of churches and saints' days, and the -doctrine of the divine origin of the monarchy proclaimed anew. "And when -young men spoke of glory," says de Musset, "the answer was, 'Become -priests!' And when they spoke of honour, the answer was, 'Become -priests!' And when they spoke of hope, of love, of strength and life, -ever the same answer, 'Become priests!'" The only result of this -pressure was to intensify all the more the impulse towards freedom. The -political and intellectual reaction could only have the effect of -impelling the poetic and artistic emotions of young and unquiet spirits -into opposition, on principle, to all that was established, into a fiery -contempt for public opinion, into the apotheosis of unrestrained passion -and unfettered genius. The French Romanticists were anti-Philistines who -regarded the word "bourgeois" as an insult. For them Art was the one -supreme consideration; it was to them a light and a flame, and its -beauty and daring the only things worth living for. For those who put -forward such demands as these, the "eunuchism of the Classical"--an -expression of George Sand's--could never suffice. They dreamed of an art -of painting which should find its expression in blood, purple, light, -movement, and boldness; they held in sovereign contempt the correct, -pedantic, colourless tendency of their elders. An inner flame should -glow through and liberate the forms, absorb the lines and contours, and -mould the picture into a symphony of colour. What was desired and sought -for, in poetry and in music, in plastic art and in painting, was colour -and passion: colour so energetic, that drawing was, as it were, consumed -by it; passion so vehement, that lyrical poetry and the drama were in -danger of becoming feverish and convulsive. A movement which reminds one -of the Renaissance took possession of all minds. It was as though there -were something intoxicating in the very air that one breathed. On a -political background of grey upon grey, consisting of the cowls of the -Jesuits of the Restoration, there arose a flaming, refulgent, blustering -literature and art, scintillating with sparks and bright hues, full of -the adoration of passion and of fervid colour. Romanticism is -Protestantism in literature and art--such is Vitet's definition of the -movement. - -Literature, which, adapting itself to the politics of the government, -had begun in Chateaubriand with an enthusiastic fervour for Catholicism, -Monarchy, and Medivalism, had in the twenties become revolutionary; and -the description of its battles is one of the most glowing chapters in -George Brandes' classic work. There was a revolt against the -pseudo-antique, against the stiff handling of the Alexandrine metre, -against the yoke of tradition. Then arose that mighty race of Romantic -poets who proclaimed with Byronic fire the gospel of nature and passion. -De Musset, the famous child of the century, the idol of the young -generation, the poet with the burning heart, who rushed through life -with such eagerness and haste that at the age of forty he broke down -altogether, worn out like a man of seventy, deliberately wrote bad -rhymes in his first poems, for the purpose of thoroughly infuriating the -Classicists. So, too, he wrote his dramas, in which love is glorified as -a serious and terrible power with which one may not trifle, as the fire -with which one must not play, as the electric spark that kills. So -George Sand, the female Titan of Romanticism, published her novels, with -their subversive tendencies and their sparkling animation of narrative. -Between these two rises the keen bronze-like profile of Prosper Mrime, -who prefers to describe the life of gypsies and robbers, and to depict -the most violent and desperate characters in history. Finally, Victor -Hugo, the great chieftain of the Romantic school, the Paganini of -literature, unrivalled in imposing grandeur, in masterly treatment of -language, and in petty vanity, found submissive multitudes to listen to -him when he rose in fierce and fiery insurrection against the rigid laws -of the bloodless Classical style, and substituted for the actionless and -ill-contrived declamatory tragedies of his time his own romantic dramas, -breathing passion and full of diversified movement. - -The conflict was deadly. The young generation hailed with applause the -new Messiah of letters, and grew intoxicated with the harmony of Hugo's -phrases, which sounded so much fuller and fierier than the measured -speech of Corneille and Racine. The Thtre Franais, recently benumbed -as with the quiet of the grave, became all at once a tumultuous -battlefield. There they sat, when Hugo's _Cromwell_ and _Hernani_ were -produced on the stage, correct, well dressed, gloved, close shaven, with -their neat ties and shirt collars, the representatives of the old -generation, whose blameless conduct had raised them to office and place. -And in contrast to them, in the pit were crowded together the young men, -the "Jeune France," as Thophile Gautier described them, one with his -waving hair like a lion's mane, another with his Rubens hat and Spanish -mantle, another in his vest of bright red satin. Their common uniform -was the red waistcoat introduced by Thophile Gautier--not the red -chosen for their symbol by the men of the Revolution, but the -scarlet-red which represented the hatred felt by these enthusiastic -young men for all that was grey and dull, and their preference for all -that is luminous and magnificently coloured in life. They held that the -contemplation of a beautiful piece of red cloth was an artistic -pleasure. A similar change took place at the same time in ladies' -toilettes. As the Revolution had in ladies' costumes rejected all colour -in favour of the Grecian white, so now dresses once more assumed vivid, -and especially deep red hues; deep red ribbons adorned the hat and -encircled the waist. - -[Illustration: THODORE GRICAULT.] - -Deep red--that was the colour of the Romantic school; the flourishing of -trumpets and the blare of brass its note. Flashes of passion and -ferocity, rivers of sulphur, showers of fire, glowing deserts, decaying -corpses in horrible phosphorescence, seas at night-time in which ships -are sinking, landscapes over which roaring War shakes his brand, and -where maddened nations fall furiously upon one another--such are the -subjects, resonant with shout of battle and song of victory, which held -sway over French Romanticism. At the very time when at Dsseldorf the -young artists of Germany were painting with the milk of pious feeling -their lachrymose, susceptible, sentimental pictures, utterly tame and -respectable; when the Nazarene school were holding their post-mortem on -the livid corpse of old Italian art, and seeking to galvanise it, and -with it the Christian piety of the Middle Ages, into life again; at that -very time there arose in France a young generation boiling over with -fervour, who had for their rallying cry Nature and Truth, but demanded -at the same time, and before all else, contrast, pictorial antithesis, -and passion at once lofty and of tiger-like ferocity. In those very -years, when in Germany, the cartoon style of Carstens having died away, -progress was limited to a timid and unsuccessful pursuit of that revelry -of colour which marked the Quattrocentisti, the French took at once, as -with the seven-leagued boots of the fairy-tale, the great stride onward -towards the Flemings. - -Through Napoleon, France had grown richer, not only in glory, but in art -treasures, gathered together from all countries into Paris, as trophies -of the victorious general. The abundant collections thus accumulated -brought to bear upon that generation the quickening influence of the -best that had been done in the art of painting. Nowhere could one study -either the Venetian colourists or Rubens to greater advantage than in -the Louvre, and it was by virtue of this unrestrained intercourse with -the masters who represent the most perfect blossom of colouring that the -Byronic spirits of 1830 succeeded in giving full expression to the -glowing full-coloured life of things which hovered before their heated -imagination. It is unnecessary to say that this was accompanied by a -great widening of the range of subjects treated. The Romantic school -showed that there were other heroes in history and poetry besides the -Greeks and Romans. They painted everything, if only it possessed colour -and character, flame, passion, and exotic perfume. Romanticism was the -protest of painting against the plastic in art, the protest of liberty -against the academic teaching of the Classical school, the revolution of -movement against stiffness. - -[Illustration: GRICAULT. THE WOUNDED CUIRASSIER.] - -It was in the studio of Gurin, the tame and timid Classicist, that the -young assailants grew up, "the daubers of 1830," who called the Apollo -Belvidere a shabby yellow turnip, and who spoke of Racine and Raphael as -of street arabs. They were tired of copying profiles of Antinous. The -contemplation of a picture by Girodet was wearisome to them. It was -_Thodore Gricault_, a hot, hasty passionate nature, of Beethoven-like -unruliness and of heaven-storming boldness, who spoke the word of -deliverance. - -He was a Norman, sturdily built and serious in manner. Even while he was -studying in Gurin's studio he had already grasped some of the ideas -which Gros had in his mind, and, although not his pupil, Gricault may -be said to have continued his work, or at least would have been able to -do so had he lived longer. Like him, he had from his youth up -contemplated, full of wonder, the rolling sea and the thunder-laden -skies; like him, he had a predilection for fine horses; and, being of a -somewhat melancholy disposition, he preferred to treat of the darker -aspects of life. His aspiration was to paint the surging sea, proud -steeds rushing past at a gallop, suffering and striving humanity, great -deeds, pathos and frenzy in every form. His first works were splendid -horsemen, whose every muscle twitches with nervous movement. During his -short stay in Charles Vernet's studio he had already taken an interest -in cavalry, and begun the studies of such subjects, which he continued -to the day of his death. Afterwards, while he was working under Gurin -and before his visit to Italy in 1817, he often went to the Louvre, -copied pictures and studied Rubens, to the great annoyance of his -teacher, who with horror beheld him entering upon so perilous a path. - -[Illustration: GRICAULT. CHASSEUR.] - -Here again he followed in the steps of Gros, whose portrait of General -Fournier Sarlovse was hung in the Salon of 1812 close by Gricault's -"Mounted Officer." This picture, a portrait of M. Dieudonn, an officer -in the Chasseurs d'Afrique, crossing the battlefield sword in hand on a -rearing horse, was the first work exhibited by Gricault, then -twenty-one years of age. It was an event. Gros found himself supported, -if not surpassed, by a beginner who had his own enthusiasm for colour -and movement, for profiles broadly and boldly delineated. In 1814 -followed the "Wounded Cuirassier," staggering across the field of battle -and dragging his horse behind him. These were no longer warriors seated -on classical steeds foaming with rage, but real soldiers in whom there -was nothing of the Greek statue. Then Gricault went to Italy, but in -this case also it was not to pursue archological studies in the -museums, but to see the race of the _barberi_ during carnival. To this -time belong those studies of horses, for the possession of which -collectors vie with one another to-day, sketches made in the open air, -out in the street or in the stables. "The Horses at the Manger" and -"Horses fighting" were among the pearls of the collection of French -drawings in the Paris Exhibition of 1889. - -In 1819 he completed his greatest picture, that which most people alone -call to mind--not quite fairly--when his name is mentioned--"The Raft of -the Medusa." What a tragedy is there represented! For twelve days the -unfortunate wretches have been on the deep, starving, in utter despair -and ready to lift their hands against each other. They were a hundred -and fifty, now they are but fifteen. One old man holds upon his knees -the corpse of his son; another tears his hair out, left alone in life -after seeing all his dear ones perish. In the foreground lie dead bodies -which the waves have not yet swept away. But far away in the distance a -sail appears. One points it out to another: yes, it is a sail! A mariner -and a negro mount upon an empty barrel and wave their handkerchiefs in -the air. Will they be seen? The anxiety is terrible. And ever higher and -higher the grey waves roll on. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - GRICAULT. THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA.] - -[Illustration: GRICAULT. THE START.] - -How must such a scene have impressed a generation which for long years -had seen nothing in the Salon but dry mythology and painted statues! -Gricault was the first to free himself from the tyranny of the -plaster-of-Paris bust, and once again to put passion and truth to nature -in the place of cold marble. Just as he commissioned the ship's -carpenter who had constructed the raft and was one of the saved to make -him a model of it, so also he moved into a studio close to the hospital, -for the purpose of studying the sick and dying, of sketching dead bodies -and single limbs. It must be admitted that one would wish for a yet -firmer grasp of the subject. In form, Gricault still belongs to the -school of David. A good deal of Classicism shows itself in the fact that -he thought it necessary to depict the majority of the figures naked, in -order to avoid "unpictorial" costumes. There is still something academic -in the figures, which do not seem to be sufficiently weakened by -privation, disease, and the struggle with death; but what man can free -himself at one stroke from the influence of his time and environment? -Even in the colouring there lingers some touch of the Classical school. -It offends no one, a fact to be insisted on in comparing him with the -Nazarenes; but as yet it plays no part in expressing the meaning of the -picture. From the distance, indeed, whence the rescuing ship is drawing -near, a bright light shines forth upon a scene otherwise depicted in -dull brown. Save for this, the intention of the picture is not expressed -by means of colour, and it even shows some retrogression as compared -with Gricault's earlier works. He had begun with Rubens, yet these -studies in colouring did not last. In the "Wounded Cuirassier" of 1814 -dark tones took the place of the former cheerfulness, and so in the -"Raft of the Medusa" he imagined the tragedy could be represented only -in sombre hues. He spread over the whole scene a monotonous unpleasant -brown shade, and in his endeavour to lay all weight upon human emotion -he went so far as almost to suppress the sea, which nevertheless played -the chief part in the drama, and whose deep blue would have afforded a -splendid contrast. Discoveries are not to be made all at once, but only -when their hour is come. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - EUGNE DELACROIX.] - -The next step in French art was to be that of reinstating the -significance of colour in the full rights conquered for it by Titian, so -that it should no longer be merely a tasteful tinting of the figures, -but should become truly that which gives its temper to the picture. It -was not reserved for Gricault to effect this. A trip to London, which -he made in 1820, in company with his friend Charlet, was the last event -of his life. There the sportsman awoke in him once more, and he painted -the "Race for the Derby at Epsom." Soon after his return he was thrown -from his horse while riding, but lingered on for two years longer, -suffering from a spinal complaint. With a few more years in which to -develop he should have been one of the great masters of France, but he -died when scarcely in his thirty-second year. - -Yet he lived long enough to observe, in the Salon of 1822, the dbut of -one of his comrades from Gurin's studio. A greater than himself, to -whom with dying voice he had given a few words of advice, arose as the -intellectual heir of the young painter so prematurely carried off, and -carried to its issue the struggle which he had begun. It was on 26th -April 1799, at midday, that the first genuine painter's eye of the -century saw the light, at Charenton Saint-Maurice. Gricault had made a -beginning, but it was the impetuous, powerful genius of _Eugne -Delacroix_ which entered in and completed his work. What Gros had dimly -perceived, but had not dared to express, what Gricault had barely had -time with a courageous hand to point out, a hand too soon stiffened in -death--the modern poetry of colour, of fever, and of quivering -emotion--it was reserved for Delacroix to write. - -"That child will grow up to be a famous man; his life will be extremely -laborious, but also extremely agitated, and always exposed to -opposition." Thus had a madman prophesied of the boy one day when he and -his nurse were taking a walk near the lunatic asylum at Charenton. And -he was right. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DELACROIX. DANTE'S BARK.] - -Delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in Gurin's studio, -but he became the latter's antipode. Even in his student years he took -counsel, not of the antique, but of Rubens and Veronese; and when -Gricault was painting his "Raft of the Medusa," Delacroix belonged to -the little band of enthusiastic admirers which gathered round the young -master. He served as model for the half-submerged man to the left in the -foreground of that picture. After busying himself at first almost -entirely with caricatures, and studies of horses, and with Madonnas in -the Classical style, he exhibited in 1822 his "Dante's Bark," in a -pictorial sense the first characteristic picture of the century. One is -inclined even to-day to repeat David's exclamation when he caught sight -of the work, the first great epoch-making life-utterance of the -revolutionary Romanticists: "_D'o vient-il? Je ne connais pas cette -touche-la._" There were thoughts in it which had not been conceived and -expressed in the same manner since the time of Tintoretto. Dante and -Virgil, ferried by Phlegyas over Acheron, are passing among the souls of -the damned, who grasp hold of the boat with the energy of despair. A -theme taken from a medival author; an antique figure, that of Virgil, -but seen through the prism of modern poetry. While the Florentine, stiff -with horror, gazes upon the swimming figures which cling to the boat -with teeth and nails, Virgil, tranquil and serious, turns on them a face -which the emotions of life can no longer affect. - -The work obtained a decisive success. A carpenter in Delacroix's house -had made for the young painter an inartistic frame of four boards. When -he went to the exhibition and looked for his picture in the side-rooms -he could not find it. The frame had fallen to pieces during removal, but -the picture had been hung in an honourable place in the Louvre, in a -rich frame ordered for it by Baron Gros. "You must learn drawing, my -young friend, and then you will become a second Rubens," was the salute -which this remarkable man, whose theory ever gave the lie to his -practice, gave the young master. Naturally Delacroix would not now have -been admitted into the school of David, or would have been placed there -in the lowest rank--with Rubens and a few other immortals, who drew no -better than he did. He was absolutely opposed to all the exact, regular, -well-balanced, colourless traditions which held sway in David's school -with their pedantic erudition and _bourgeois_ discretion. The principle -of the Classicists was the Greek type of beauty, and the translation of -sculpture into painting. In Delacroix's picture there was no longer -anything of that sort. Gricault had already broken away from the -academic stencilling of form, and had substituted natural expression, -life, and emotion for conventional types; Delacroix now set aside the -sullen colouring of the Classical school, and its painted statues made -way for the colour-symphonies of the Venetians. - -These reforming qualities found in his second work, a few years later, a -much fuller expression than in the "Dante's Bark." At that time the -Greeks, that heroic nation, struggling and dying for its religion and -independence, had excited everywhere the deepest sympathy and -enthusiasm. Delacroix was the very man to be inspired by such a theme. -From the agitation caused by the martyrdom of Greece, and from his -taste for Byron's poetry, resulted in 1824 the celebrated "Massacre of -Chios," on which he was already employed in 1821, before the completion -of his "Dante's Bark," and in which his power of expression as well as -of colour was carried much further than in the earlier picture. In the -"Dante's Bark" there were still, both in form and colour, reminiscences -of the great Florentine masters; as, for instance, in the female figure -in the foreground, which is almost an exact reproduction of Michael -Angelo's "Night." The event depicted was comparatively quiet and -tranquil, and the well-balanced composition would have done honour to -the most rigorous follower of David. The only novelty lay in the -treatment of colour, and in the substitution of the individual and -characteristic for the typical and ideal. But undoubtedly it was now -possible not only to produce in colour more powerful chords, but also in -expression to strike notes more dramatic, for the academic -plaster-of-Paris heads of the David school had depicted human emotion -only in icy immobility. Delacroix had put all these possibilities into -the new picture. The pyramidal configuration has resolved itself into an -unconstrained grouping of figures. Here we have for the first time the -artistic spirit intoxicated with colour, the "Orlando Furioso of -colourists," the pupil of Rubens, Delacroix. An entire world of deep -feeling and of painfully passionate poetry, an entire world of tones, -which the master under whose eyes he painted his "Dante" could not have -conceived, lies enclosed within the frame of this picture. The figures, -sitting, kneeling, partly reclining, with their half-starved bodies and -their gloomy, brooding, hopeless faces; the desperate struggle between -the conquerors and their victims in the far distance; the contrast -between this scene of horror and the luminous splendour of the -atmosphere, and the wealth of colour in the whole, made and still make -this fine painting one of the most impressive pictures in the Louvre. It -is a work which flames in glow of colour more than any that had appeared -in France since the days of Rubens. The English had been his teachers. -"It is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt," -Gricault had previously written from London. Delacroix's work had -already been sent off to the Salon when Constable's first pictures were -just arriving there, and the impression which they made upon him was so -powerful that, at the very last moment, and in the Louvre itself, he -gave his picture a brighter and more luminous colouring. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DELACROIX. HAMLET AND THE GRAVE-DIGGERS.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DELACROIX. TASSO IN THE MAD-HOUSE.] - -And indeed it was not till now that the Classicists perceived how great -an opponent had arisen against them. Not only did the aged Gros call the -"Massacre of Chios" "_le massacre de la peinture_," but all the critics -talked about barbarism, and prophesied that on this path French painting -would hasten to its destruction. The prize of the Salon was awarded, not -to the "Massacre," but to Sigalon's "Locusta," an unimportant work of -compromise, though very clever and well studied in draughtsmanship. It -was said that Delacroix's picture was lacking in symmetrical -arrangement, that he showed too great a contempt for the beautiful, that -indeed he appeared systematically to prefer the ugly--that is to say, he -was blamed for the very qualities wherein lay his importance as a -reformer. Accustomed as they had been for many years to an art in which -intellect, correctness, and moderation held sway, not one of the critics -was in a position to perceive all at once the value of this fiery -spirit. Delcluze, the indefatigable defender of the sacred dogmas of -the Classical school, characterised "dramatic expression and composition -marked by action" as the reef whereon the grand style of painting must -inevitably be wrecked. The modern schools of art, he taught as late as -1824, exist, flourish, and have their being only by the utilisation of -what we can learn from the Greeks. Even acknowledging the progress in -colour which the work showed, it nevertheless belonged, he said, to an -inferior genus, and all its excellences in colouring could not outweigh -the ugliness of its form. - -Therewith began the battles of the Romantic school, and all the daring -of Thophile Gautier, Thiers, Victor Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire, -Brger-Thor, Gustave Planche, Paul Mantz, and others had to be called -upon in order to storm the heights held by the batteries of the -Classical critics. Count Forbin gave proof of no less courage when he -bought the picture, torn to shreds as it was by hostile criticism, for -the State, at the price of six thousand francs. This enabled Delacroix -to visit England. He spent the time from spring to autumn of 1825 in -London, where he consorted amicably with all the artists of the day. And -he took an interest not only in English art, but also in literature and -the drama. His preference for Shakespeare, Byron, and Walter Scott, who -were already his favourite poets, found new sustenance. An English opera -made him acquainted with Goethe's _Faust_; and henceforth these poets -entered into the foreground of his works. A picture of "Tasso" (the poet -in a cell of the madhouse, through the window of which two grinning -lunatics look in upon him) in 1826, the "Execution of the Doge Marino -Faliero" and the "Death of Sardanapalus," both after Byron, in 1827, and -"Faust in his Study" in 1828, followed the "Massacre"--all of them -obviously the works of a painter who loved bright, glowing colour, had -studied Rubens and had recently returned from England. In 1828 was -published, in seventeen plates, his cycle of illustrations to _Faust_, -to accompany a translation of the poem into French; and this was -followed by a number of lithographs on Shakespearian subjects. - -And here we may notice a singular exchange of parts. When the word -"Romantic" was first heard in Germany it had originally much the same -sense as "Roman." The German Romanticists were moved to enthusiasm by -Roman Catholicism and Roman church painting. But when Romanticism -reached France, the word came to mean exactly the opposite: a preference -for the German and English spirit as compared with the Greek and Latin, -and an enthusiasm for the great Anglo-Saxon and German poets, -Shakespeare and Goethe, in whom, contrasting with Racine's correctness, -were to be found unrestrained genius and glowing passion. This influence -of poetry over art may easily become dangerous, if painters sponge, so -to speak, upon the poet, as the Dsseldorf school did, and make use of -his work only for the purpose of enabling works, in themselves -valueless, to keep their heads, artistically speaking, above water, by -means of their extrinsic poetical interest. But Delacroix had no need of -any such support. He was not the poets' pupil, but their brother. He did -not study them in order to illustrate their works, but was imbued with -their spirit and possessed by their souls. He lived with them; he did -not borrow his subjects from them, but rather made use of them to -express in his own powerful language the strongest emotions of the human -heart. Nor did he ever forget that painting must, before all, be -painting. Endowed as he was with a poet's soul, he conceived things as a -painter, not laboriously translating passages from the poets, but simply -thinking in colour. What the musician hears, what the poet imagines, he -saw. The scenes of which he read appeared at once before his eyes as -sketches, in great masses of colour. For him, composition, action, and -colour ever united together into one inseparable whole. - -[Illustration: DELACROIX. ENTRY OF THE CRUSADERS INTO CONSTANTINOPLE.] - -The journey to Morocco, which he made in the spring of 1832, in company -with an embassy sent by Louis Philippe to the Emperor Muley Abderrahman, -is noteworthy for a further progress in his ability as a colourist and a -new broadening of his range of subjects. When he returned to the port -of Toulon, on 5th July 1832, he had seen Algiers and Spain, and had -assimilated an abundance of sunshine and colour. It is in his Oriental -pictures that his painting first reaches its zenith, just as Victor -Hugo's mastery over language was at its highest point in his -_Orientales_. Goethe, in his _West-stliches Divan_, celebrated what is -quiet and contemplative in the Oriental view of life. Obermann sang of -the land of legend, of buried treasures, of Aladdin and the wonderful -lamp; but for Byron (who was practically the first to introduce into -Europe the perfume and colour of the East), for Hugo, and for Delacroix, -it was the distant, bright-hued, barbaric land of the rising sun, the -land of sanguinary warfare and overthrow, the home of light and colour. -Here it was that the French Romanticists found the world that realised -their dreams of colour. The East became for them what Rome had been for -the Classical school. From the feeble and misty sun of Paris, and from -the grey skies of the Boulevard des Italiens, they turned to Africa. - -His enthusiasm for this newly discovered world resounds, full and clear, -in Delacroix's letters. "Were I to leave the land in which I have found -them," he wrote, during his stay in Morocco, of the men whom he saw -about him there, "they would seem to me like trees torn up by the roots. -I should forget the impressions I have received, and should be able only -in an incomplete and frigid manner to reproduce the sublime and -fascinating life which fills the streets here, and attracts one by the -beauty of its appearance. Think, my friend, what it means to a painter -to see lying in the sunshine, wandering about the streets and offering -shoes for sale, men who have the appearance of ancient consuls, of the -reincarnated spirits of Cato and Brutus, who lack not even that proud, -discontented look which those lords of the world must have had. They -possess nothing save a blanket in which they walk, sleep, and are -buried, and yet they look as dignified as Cicero in his curule chair. -What truth, what nobility in these figures! There is nothing more -beautiful in the antique. And all in white, as with Roman senators or at -the Greek Panathena." - -His palette was thus further enriched in lucid tints, the contrasts he -formerly delighted in became less sharp and glaring, the gloomy -background hitherto preferred was superseded by a bright serenity and a -golden lustre. The colour-effect of his "Algerian Women" has been not -unaptly compared to the impression produced by a glance into an open -jewel casket. In his "Convulsionaries of Tangier" he has depicted with -wild, demoniac energy the religious frenzy of a Turkish sect. Green, -blue, red, and violet hues unite to produce an effect as of a sounding -flourish of trumpets, recalling the music of the janizaries. The "Entry -of the Crusaders into Constantinople" resembles an old delicately tinted -carpet, full of powerful, tranquil harmony. Even in his old age he -wrote: "The aspect of that country will be for ever before my eyes; the -types of that vigorous race will move in my memory as long as I live; in -them I truly found the antique beauty again." - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DELACROIX. JESUS ON LAKE GENNESARET.] - -The contemplation of such scenes induced Delacroix to undertake the -representation of antique subjects, which he had hitherto avoided, not -because he disliked the antique, but because of the aversion he felt for -David's treatment of it. During his sojourn in Africa he had come to the -conclusion that the painting of scenes from ancient history should not -be based upon the imitation of statues and bas-reliefs, as with David -and his pupils; but that it should be imbued with the movement and -passion of modern life, since the ancient Greeks were men of flesh and -blood like ourselves. Therefore it is that he snatches the marble mask -from the faces of David's puppets. Flemish blood begins to move in the -Greek statues, Flemish passion to break through their inflexible rhythm. -Paintings such as the "Justice of Trajan" of 1840 represent the antique -in a thoroughly personal and modern paraphrase, just as Shakespeare or -Byron had seen it. The mad "Medea" is, from the point of view of colour, -certainly the chief work of this group. - -It was of course impossible that a man so highly endowed with emotional -pathos should pass untouched the tragedy of the life of Christ and the -sufferings of the Christian martyrs. By the Revolution religious themes -had been absolutely excluded from representation, and up to this time -the young innovators of the Restoration period had also felt an -aversion for them. Their ideas were as little attuned to Catholic as to -academic tradition. Delacroix was the first to treat once more of -biblical subjects, so far as they are imbued with dramatic and -passionate movement. Like Rubens, he regarded the lives of the saints, -the story of the Gospels, and the tragedy on Golgotha as a poetical -narrative like any other. His Mary, like that of the Flemish painters, -is a sorrowing woman, the embodiment of unending grief. - -Alongside of these easel pictures he produced, during a period of more -than twenty-five years, a long list of monumental and decorative works; -and they too were the most inventive, the boldest, and the most original -which monumental painting produced during this epoch, not in France -only, but in Europe. In this sphere also, where, under the pressure of -old traditions and conventional types, it is so difficult to avoid -plagiarism, Delacroix maintained his individuality. In 1835, at the -suggestion of his friend Thiers, he was commissioned to paint the -interior of the Chamber of Deputies in the Palais Bourbon--the most -important commission which had fallen to the lot of any French artist -since Gros painted the cupola of the Pantheon. Not long afterwards he -decorated with verve and enthusiasm the ceiling of the Louvre, choosing -for his subject the "Triumph of Apollo." In the Library of the -Luxembourg he had recourse to the _Divina Commedia_, and treated in a -masterly manner the theme so familiar and sympathetic to him. In his -works there is something of the joyous and sportive energy of Rubens' -allegorical pictures, but not the least trace of imitation. He -understood decorative painting in the sense of the great old masters, -Giulio Romano and Veronese, not as wall didactics and lectures on -archology; he knew that descriptive prose has nothing whatever to do -with the walls of a building, but that the sole aim of such paintings is -to fill the house with their solemn grandeur, to make the whole building -resound as it were with sacred organ music. Between 1853 and 1861 came -also the wall paintings in the Church of Saint Sulpice, and one would -almost think that Delacroix finished them in feverish excitement, to -show for the last time how enormous a store of passion and power still -lay in the soul of a sexagenarian. Shortly after their completion, on -13th August 1863, he died, who was, in the words of Silvestre, "the -painter of the genuine race, who had the sun in his head and a -thunderstorm in his heart, who in the course of forty years sounded the -entire gamut of human emotion, and whose grandiose and awe-inspiring -brush passed from saints to warriors, from warriors to lovers, from -lovers to tigers, from tigers to flowers." - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DELACROIX. HORSES FIGHTING IN A STABLE.] - -In these words Delacroix is very aptly characterised. His range of -subjects included everything: decorative, historical, and religious -painting, landscape, flowers, animals, sea pieces, classical antiquity -and the Middle Ages, the scorching heat of the south and the mists of -the north. He left no branch of the art of painting untouched; nothing -escaped his lion's claws. But there is one bond uniting all: to all the -figures for which he won the citizenship of art he gave passion and -movement. His predominant quality is a passion for the terrible, a kind -of insatiability for wild and violent action. His over-excited -imagination heaps pain, horror, and pathos one upon another. The critics -called him "the tattooed savage who paints with a drunken broom." There -is nothing pretty or lovable about his art; it is a wild art. He -depicted passion wherever he found it, in the shape of wild animals, -stormy seas, or battling warriors; and he sought it in every sphere, in -nature no less than in poetry and the Bible. Hardly any painter--not -even Rubens--has depicted with equal power the passions and movements of -animals: lions in which he is own brother to Barye; fighting horses, in -which he stands side by side with Gricault. No other artist painted -waves more grand, wind-beaten, foaming, dashing, towering on high. -Looking at them, one divines all the horrors concealed beneath the roar -of the blue surface, horrors which were as yet so insufficiently -suggested in Gricault's "Raft of the Medusa." In his historical -pictures there reigns now terror and despair, as in the "Massacre of -Chios"; now gloomy horror, as in the "Medea"; now feverish movement, as -in the "Death of the Bishop of Lige." He passes from Dante to -Shakespeare, from Goethe to Byron, but only to borrow from them their -most moving dramatic situations--Hamlet at Yorick's grave, his fight -with Laertes, Macbeth and the Witches, Lady Macbeth, Gretchen, -Angelica, the Prisoner of Chillon, the Giaour, and the Pasha. All time -is his domain, all countries are open to him; he hurries through the -broad fields of imagination, a lordly reaper of all harvests. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - DELACROIX. MEDEA.] - -And at the same time, in all his great human tragedies, he compels the -elements to obey him as if they were his slaves. The passions of men set -heaven and earth in motion. The agonising cries of victims find in his -paintings an echo in the sullen shadows and the leaden, heavy clouds of -the sky. The gloomy shores which Dante's boat is approaching are as -desolate as the spirits who wander through the night. But where -splendour and glory reign, as in the "Entry of the Crusaders into -Constantinople," the air, too, glistens and shines as though saturated -with dust of gold. In his pictures a human soul which was great and full -of meaning, and which possessed such combustibility that it took fire of -itself, expressed itself recklessly, with the volcanic strength of an -elemental power. - -This proud self-reliance explains also how it was that this painter of -unruly genius was, as a man, very far from being a revolutionist. For -Delacroix the outer world had no existence; that world alone existed -which was within him. After his picture of "The Barricades" in 1831 he -avoided all political allusions, painted, read, and led a tranquil, -measured, uniform life. In society polite and reserved, of aristocratic -coldness, gentlemanly in appearance, and well-bred; in his speech curt, -mordant, emphatic, and occasionally witty, he could nevertheless show -himself, when he chose, an amiable, original talker, full of piquant -ideas. Moreover, he was a great writer and critic, whose essays in the -_Revue des Deux Mondes_ have the perfect classic stamp. Nevertheless, he -was always displeased when any one put him forward as the chief of -official Romanticism, and saluted him as the Victor Hugo of painting. -Surrounded as he was by young assailants of tradition who would allow no -merit to anything old, he found pleasure in acknowledging his admiration -for Racine, whom he knew by heart, and whom, when need was, he defended -against the younger generation. He was too diplomatic to stir up against -himself unnecessarily the hatred of those whom the long-haired Samsons -of Romanticism called Philistines. - -So far as in him lay, his quiet and methodical life should suffer no -interruption. Worshipper though he was of light and colour, he was -almost always shut up in his gloomy studio, and it was only when he -found himself brush in hand that the reserved man became the passionate, -vibrating painter. Then the memories with which his study of the poets -had stored his mind grew in his fantasy into grand pictures glowing with -life. By these visions he was excited, set on fire, and filled with -enthusiasm. His studio was open but to few, for the intrusion of -visitors chilled his inspiration, and he found it difficult to recover -the proper frame of mind. Not till evening did he take his first meal, -for he thought he could work with greater intensity when hungry. During -a period of forty years he lived in his various studios, quiet and -solitary, inventing, drawing, and painting without intermission, his -door always bolted, so that when it suited him he could give out that he -was ill of a fever. Every morning before work he drew an arm, a hand, or -a piece of drapery after Rubens. He had formed the habit of taking -Rubens to himself when other people were drinking their coffee. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DELACROIX. THE EXPULSION OF HELIODORUS.] - -Indeed, when one speaks of Delacroix, the name of Rubens rises almost -involuntarily to one's lips; and yet there is a profound difference -between him and the great Flemish master. Rubens has the same passion, -the same ever-active fancy; yet all his pictures rest in triumphant -repose, while every one of Delacroix's seems to resound as with a cry of -battle. Looking at Rubens' works you feel that he was a happy, healthy -man; but by the time you have seen half a score of Delacroix's it is -borne in upon you that the life of the artist was one of strife and -suffering. Rubens was the very essence of strength, Delacroix was a sick -man; the former full of fleshly joyous sensuality, the latter consumed -by a feverish internal fire. - -His portrait of himself in the Louvre, with its pale forehead, its large -dark-rimmed eyes, its lean, hollow face, its parchment-like skin -stretched tightly over the bones, explains his pictures better than any -critical appreciation. Delacroix was one of the _mes maladives_, the -spirits sick unto death, to whom Baudelaire addresses himself in his -_Fleurs du Mal_. Delicate from his youth up, thoroughly nervous by -nature, he prolonged his sickly existence throughout his life by sheer -energy of will. Even in his childhood he passed through serious -illnesses, and later on he suffered in turn from his stomach, throat, -chest, and kidneys. Like Goethe in his old age, he felt well only when -the temperature was high. He was short in stature. A leonine head, with -a lion's mane, surmounted a body that seemed almost stunted. With his -eyes flashing like carbuncles, and his disordered prickly moustache, his -was the fascinating ugliness of genius. - -It was only by the strictest dieting in his quiet retreat at Champrosay -that he prolonged his life for the last few years. In his youth he -hovered like a butterfly from flower to flower; when grown old and -hypochondriacal he withdrew into solitary retirement, work was the only -medicine for diseased conditions of all kinds, to which he found himself -daily more and more a victim. Only thus could this sickly man, doomed -from his very birth, come to produce no less than two thousand -pictures--a number all the more astonishing as Delacroix, even when his -health permitted him to work at his easel, by no means possessed Rubens' -sovereign facility of production. The fever of work alternated, in his -case, with the extremest exhaustion. There was something morbid, -nervous, over-excited in all he did. "Even work," he writes, "is merely -a temporary narcotic, a distraction; and every distraction, as Pascal -has said in other words, is only a method which man has invented to -conceal from himself the abyss of his suffering and misery. In sleepless -nights, in illness, and in certain moments of solitude, when the end of -all things discloses itself in its utter nakedness, a man endowed with -imagination must possess a certain amount of courage, not to meet the -phantom half-way, not to rush to embrace the skeleton." - -The feverish disposition which he brought with him into the world was -heightened by the acrimonious feuds in which, as a painter, he was -forced to engage, and which left great bitterness behind them in his -mind. His life and his art were in accord, in as much as both were -battles. It is not easy to live when one is always ill; not easy to meet -with recognition when one proclaims the exact opposite of that which for -a generation past all the world has held to be true. And Delacroix took -not a single step to meet his opponents half-way. He did not trouble -himself for a single moment to please the public; and therefore the -public did not come to him. Controversies such as that which took place -over the "Massacre of Chios" continued decade after decade, and the -exhibition of each of his pictures was the signal for a battle. "No work -of his," writes Thor, "but called forth deafening howls, curses, and -furious controversy. Insults were heaped upon the artist, coarser and -more opprobrious than one would be justified in applying to a sharper." -At Charenton, where he was born, is the Bedlam of France. Hence the -epithet continually hurled at him by the critics, who called him the -runaway from Charenton. - -Until the year 1847 his pictures could without difficulty be excluded -from the Salon. He irritated people by his violence, by the abruptness -of his compositions, by his arrangement of figures with a view to pathos -at the expense of plastic elegance; he displeased by the incompleteness -of his works, which were regarded as sketches, not finished paintings. -When Louis Philippe ordered a picture from his brush, it was on the -express condition that it should be as little a Delacroix as possible. -There was general ill-humour among the academicians when, at Thiers' -suggestion, he was commissioned to decorate the Palais Bourbon. And -Delacroix, ambitious and sensitive as he was, was deeply hurt by every -mortification of this kind, and affected by every gust of criticism as -by a change of wind. Continually denounced in the newspapers, attacked, -wounded, delivered over to the wild beasts, as he called it, he never -had a moment of rest--he who, with his irritable temperament and fragile -health, needed rest more than any man. It was not until almost all his -works were brought together in the Universal Exhibition of 1885 that it -became evident how great an artist this Delacroix was, whom his country -for forty years had not understood, and to whom the Institute had closed -its doors to the last. Yet he was no sooner dead than all with one voice -proclaimed him a genius; his smallest drawing is to-day worth its weight -in gold, while during his lifetime he seldom got more than two thousand -francs for his largest paintings. His sketches, great works in small -frames, have for the most part found their way to America. The sale of -the pictures he left behind him produced three hundred and sixty -thousand francs. - -Delacroix, therefore, was victorious, but not as Rubens was; and his -ceiling of the Louvre, with the "Triumph of Apollo," one of his most -remarkable works, strikes one almost as an allegory of his own life. -What especially attracted and inspired the artist in this painting were -the spasms and convulsions of the misshapen monsters which the god -expels from the earth--the serpent twisting itself in movements of pain -and fury, raising its head on high, hissing rage, and vomiting venom and -blood. The god himself, who in the midst of a sea of light ascends into -heaven in a golden chariot drawn by radiant steeds, shows in his sturdy -limbs and attitude ready for defence, and in his wrathful face, no trace -of the proud majesty and joyous splendour which Greece connected with -the name of Apollo. He is a mortal who has fought and conquered, not a -god who triumphs in tranquil power. He is Delacroix, not Rubens; a -Titan, not an Olympian god. - -The artistic power in Delacroix could in no wise submit to the -confinement imposed by the French spirit of his time. It was not -possible for a single man, though endowed with the most splendid -courage, to overthrow in a moment all the traditions of French art. Any -one who knows the French must feel that David's Latin style could not so -suddenly disappear out of their art, that it was not possible at a blow -to banish all that had hitherto held sway and to replace it by its -opposite. Ever since Poussin they had sought in Roman antiquity the -formul of their art. The predilection which the Parisians have even -to-day for the representation of Racine's and Corneille's tragedies, the -admiration which even the most extreme Naturalists bestow upon Poussin -and Lesueur, prove abundantly how deep Classicism is rooted in the flesh -and blood of the French people. Brandes has remarked, very acutely, -that, strictly speaking, even Romanticism was on French soil in many -respects a Classical phenomenon, a product of French Classical rhetoric. -"They never saw the dances of the elves, never heard the delicate -harmony of their roundelays." In Victor Hugo, the great opponent of -Corneille, Corneille himself was re-embodied. He too is a draughtsman, -constructs his poems like architectural works, chisels the form, -polishes the verse, and confines his colouring within powerfully -conceived Michelangelesque outlines. - -[Illustration: J. A. D. INGRES. _L'Art._] - -Once the first eager impulse of the Romantic school had subsided, these -old Classical tendencies showed themselves anew and with all the greater -vehemence. Even Hugo's dramas, with their predilection for all that is -exuberant and monstrous, with their overflowing lyricism and sonorous -pathos, became in the long run wearisome. He, who had hitherto been the -idol of the young generation, was now called the Pater Bombasticus of -the literature of the world. - -Classicism found its poet and its muse. An unknown but very worthy young -man, not endowed with wealth of imagination, but imbued with the most -honourable intentions, came to Paris from the provincial town where he -had grown to manhood, with a manuscript in his pocket. And Franois -Ronsard's _Lucrce_, a tragedy from the antique, in its style sober and -severe, reminding one of Racine, was represented amid thunders of -applause, shortly after Hugo had been hissed off the stage. Enthusiastic -admirers saw in it a glorious return to the great tragic drama of -France, an emanation from the spirit of Corneille, and praised its -clear, measured, and at once "classic and familiar" language. Together -with its poet, the Classical reaction found its actress. In 1838 a young -untrained child made her dbut at the Thtre Franais--a Jewish girl -who had sung in the streets to the accompaniment of her harp. Rachel -appeared upon the boards, and restored its former power of attraction to -the old Classical repertoire, to the very tragedies which the Romantic -school had banished from the theatre amid mockery and derision. _The -Cid_, _Mrope_, _Chimne_, and _Phdre_ recovered their place upon the -stage. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - INGRES. THE MAID OF ORLEANS AT RHEIMS.] - -Painting took the same course. In opposition to the young painters who -had burst into the arena with their gay-coloured uniforms, their gilded -helmets and waving banners, _Ingres_ came forth in the great tournament -of Romanticism in the character of the Black Knight. An old gentleman, a -man who in all his being belonged to the generation that was passing -away, who was fifty years of age at the time of the Revolution of July, -stations himself suddenly as the angel of the flaming sword, or, in the -phrase of his opponents, as the gendarme of Classicism, at the gates of -the Academy, barring them against every suspicious-looking person. And -the young men, eccentric, eager for action as they were, who had -recently fought with so much fury, had to retreat before him. Golden -sunshine and glow of colour were once more tabooed, and their -representative heroes, Veronese, Rubens, and Delacroix, regarded as -flickering Will o' the Wisps, whom every aspiring beginner should avoid -as serpents and firebrands. One day when Ingres was taking his pupils -through the Louvre he said, on entering the Rubens gallery: "_Saluez, -messieurs, mais ne regardez pas._" The acrimony of the strife was so -great that it extended even to the personal relations of the rival -chiefs, and Ingres was attacked by convulsive spasms whenever he heard -the name of the painter of the "Massacre of Chios." When in 1855 he had -had a separate room prepared for his own pictures in the Universal -Exhibition of that year, and observed Delacroix in the distance, just -before the opening ceremony, he asked the attendant: "Has not somebody -been here?--there is a smell of brimstone." "Now the wolf is in the -sheepfold" was his observation when Delacroix was elected to the -Institute. He regarded him as the "hangman," as the Robespierre of -painting. "I used to love that young man, but he has sold himself to the -evil one" (Rubens), said he, in righteous indignation, to his pupils. - -[Illustration: INGRES. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF AS A YOUTH.] - -"This famous thing, the Beautiful," Delacroix had once written, "must -be--every one says so--the final aim of art. But if it be the only aim, -what then are we to make of men like Rubens, Rembrandt, and, in general, -all the artistic natures of the North, who preferred other qualities -belonging to their art? Is the sense of the beautiful that impression -which is made upon us by a picture by Velasquez, an etching by -Rembrandt, or a scene out of Shakespeare? Or again, is the beautiful -revealed to us by the contemplation of the straight noses and correctly -disposed draperies of Girodet, Grard, and others of David's pupils? A -satyr is beautiful, a faun is beautiful. The antique bust of Socrates is -full of character, notwithstanding its flattened nose, swollen lips, and -small eyes. In Paul Veronese's 'Marriage at Cana' I see men of various -features and of every temperament, and I find them to be living beings, -full of passion. Are they beautiful? Perhaps. But in any case there is -no recipe by means of which one can attain to what is called the ideally -beautiful. Style depends absolutely and solely upon the free and -original expression of each master's peculiar qualities. Wherever a -painter sets himself to follow a conventional mode of expression he will -become affected and will lose his own peculiar impress; but where, on -the contrary, he frankly abandons himself to the impulse of his own -originality, he will ever, whether his name be Raphael, Michael Angelo, -Rubens, or Rembrandt, be sure master of his soul and of his art." - -As compared with the principles thus laid down, Ingres represents the -revulsion towards that formalism which had borne sway over the greater -part of the history of French art. "Painting is nothing more than -drawing," said Poussin. "Had God intended to place colour at the same -height as form," wrote Charles Blanc, "He would not have failed to -furnish His masterpiece, Man, with all the hues of the humming-bird." -Once more, instead of the glowing colour of the Romantic school, -absorbing the form into itself, the firm stroke of the outline was set -forth; instead of its pathos, breathing forth passionate emotion, men -returned to study the chill tranquillity of stone. Once more dramatic -composition and mastery over movement were held in abhorrence, as -incompatible with that pursuit of plastic beauty which was the highest -goal of art. The only point in question was, how to avoid the -one-sidedness of Classicism. David, as a child of the Revolution, had -naturally been limited to Ancient Rome; but now that the legitimate -monarchy had been re-established there was no reason why one should not -revere, not only pagan, but also Christian Rome, and in Raphael and -Michael Angelo the maturest blossom of the latter. Thus the Classical -school was enriched by Ingres with features of greater vivacity. He -entered into a direct relationship with the great Italian masters, while -David had none save with the rigid Roman antique. By him the Classical -severity of David was relaxed, the refractory sharpness of the outlines -relieved by a treatment of form which had the effect of making every -figure appear to be worked in metal. - -[Illustration: INGRES. BERTIN THE ELDER. - - (_By permission of M. Jules Bapst, the owner of the picture._)] - -Ingres was born in 1781, under the _Ancien Rgime_. As a young man he -lived through the triumphs of the Empire and the Classical school, and -it was only natural that he should become David's pupil. In 1796 he -entered his studio, and studied there with such assiduity that he never -noticed what was taking place in that of Gros. When he went to Italy he -studied there the masters whom his own teacher had arrogantly despised. -He learned from the Cinquecento how to draw and model more accurately, -more firmly, and at the same time with a more intimate grasp of the -subject than was usual in the school of David. This innovation made him -a progressive Classicist, and gave him, during the early years of the -Restoration, almost the appearance of an assailant and revolutionary. -Himself the incarnation of the academic spirit, he had to resign himself -to see his first works rejected by the Salon, a fact which did not deter -him from continuing to work obstinately at his easel. "_Je compte sur ma -vieillesse; elle me vengea._" And this revenge was granted him in the -fullest measure. - -When one has seen the outward appearance of a man, one knows his -character, his spirit, and his genius. Ingres' portrait of himself -contains the analysis of his art. He was quite a small man, of a swarthy -complexion, with features sharp and as if cast in bronze. His thick -black hair stood up stubbornly on end, so that he had to grease it -carefully every day. Under hair of this kind there is almost always an -obstinate brain. The jaws projected, as is the case with men endowed -with a strong will. The eyes were large and piercing, with that bold -eagle-glance which fills parents with fond hopes, but does not touch the -hearts of young women. When he appeared to be excited, it was only the -excitement of work expressing itself in him. This little man, in his -large cloak, seemed to say when he stood at his easel, pencil in hand: -"I shall be a great painter, for I am determined to be one." He kept his -word. Strength of will, hard work, study, obstinacy, patience--these are -the elements of which Ingres' talent is compounded. "_Vouloir, c'est -pouvoir_," was his motto. One would think Buffon had had him in mind in -that passage in which he defines genius as patience. The -trinity-in-unity of his qualities consisted of correctness, balance, -exactness; qualities which go to make rather a great architect or -mathematician than an interesting painter. - -Ingres' range of subjects was unusually wide. Pictures on themes taken -from antiquity ("Oedipus and the Sphinx" and "Virgil reading the -neid"); costume pictures ("Henry IV and his Children" and the "Entry of -Charles V into Paris"); religious paintings (Madonnas, "Christ giving -the Keys to St. Peter," and "St. Symphorian"); nude female figures (the -"Odalisque," the "Liberation of Angelica," and "The Source"); allegories -("The Apotheosis of Homer" and "The Apotheosis of Napoleon"); pictures -of public functions ("Bonaparte as First Consul" and "Napoleon on the -Throne"); and even a painting taken from the life ("Pius VII in the -Sistine Chapel"), are included in the list. Yet, notwithstanding his -astonishing diversity of themes, there is hardly an artist more -one-sided in his principles. Ingres thought exclusively of purely -plastic art: beauty of form and harmony of line alone attracted him; he -was insensible to the charm of colour. His standpoint was the Institute -of Rome; the Italian Cinquecento the exclusive object of his worship. He -carried this study as far as plagiarism, and as director of the Roman -Academy made free with the intellectual property of the Cinquecento -masters, as if they had lived only on his account. - -When Delacroix was painting the "Expulsion of Heliodorus" in Saint -Sulpice, he put forth the whole strength of his creative genius to -avoid all reminiscence of Raphael's fresco. Ingres' power of invention -consisted in discovering, with a weird certainty, whether the subject of -which he wished to treat had already been painted by an Italian or other -Classical master. The picture "Jupiter and Thetis," of 1811, is put -together after a design on a Greek vase, and represents in its studied -archaism the ginetan period of his art. The "Vow of Louis XIII," of -1824, was his confession of faith as regards the Cinquecento. The motive -was taken from the Madonna di Foligno, the curtains from the Madonna di -San Sisto, the floating angels from the Madonna del Baldacchino, and the -candlesticks as well as the little angels with the inscribed tablet are -from the same source. It is all beautiful, of course, for it is all -Raphael; only, it would have been more rational if Ingres had lived in -the time of Raphael instead of in the nineteenth century. One would take -the picture to have been painted under Raphael's eyes, and it bears to -his works the same relation as Raphael's earlier pictures do to -Perugino's. The "Christ giving the Keys to St. Peter" is also put -together out of elements derived from the school of Urbino. In his "St. -Symphorian," which was belauded as the _ne plus ultra_ of style, he -turned by way of variety to the imitation of Michael Angelo: the action -is violent, the muscles swollen. The "Apotheosis of Homer" is an -admirable lecture in archology, a sitting of the great academy of -genius, in which the poses are so fine and the heads so full of marble -idealism that in comparison with it Raphael's "School of Athens" has the -effect of the wildest naturalism. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - INGRES. STUDY FOR THE ODALISQUE IN THE LOUVRE.] - -Thus Father Ingres stands forth as a cold, stiff, academic painter, as a -doctrinaire who has not progressed much further than the much-reviled -David. He represents, as Th. Rousseau said, only to a moderate degree -the good old art which we have lost. In the words of Diaz: "Let him be -shut up with me in a tower, without engravings, and I wager that his -canvas will remain untouched, whilst I shall succeed in producing a -picture." He possessed an arid ability which leaves one cold in presence -of even his most important works. How lifeless is the effect produced by -his paintings of nude single figures, his "Odalisque" and his "Freeing -of Andromeda," which brought him especial fame! Ingres could not paint -flesh, and in this respect he is indicative of an enormous retrogression -as compared with Prudhon. The striving after sculpturesque beauty, and, -in connection therewith, the repression of all individuality, became in -him almost a religion. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - INGRES. THE SOURCE.] - -One finds it difficult to-day to account for the fame which once -belonged to his picture of "The Source," the nude figure of a standing -girl pouring water out of an urn that rests on her left shoulder and is -steadied by her right arm raised over her head. The picture undoubtedly -exhibits qualities of draughtsmanship which in recent days Ingres alone -possessed in so high a degree. But when, in pursuit of his Classical -conception, he had eliminated every touch of nature, he proceeded to -destroy the rest of the impression by the cold violet tones which are -not only condemned by colourists, but which even Raphael would have -considered false and ugly. Here, as in all his female figures, he -attains to a certain grace, but it is an animal, expressionless grace. -Skilful as he was in delineating the muscles of the human body, he was -yet absolutely incapable of painting heads expressive of feeling or -emotion. He depicted the form in itself, the abstract, typical, absolute -form. He was dominated only by a love for the _beaut suprme_, so that -when he was in presence of nature he could not refrain from purifying -and generalising. Everywhere we see beautiful lines, bodies modelled -with admirable skill, but we never enter into any closer relationship -with his figures. They do not live our life or breathe our atmosphere; -they have not our thoughts: they are foreign to all that is human. Jean -Auguste Dominique Ingres, Member of the Institute, Senator, etc., the -stylist held in honour as a superior being, the high-priest of pure form -and outline, will in all times command the esteem, and in some respects -the admiration, of the student of the history of art; the enthusiasm, -never. - -[Illustration: _Baschet_. - - INGRES. OEDIPUS AND THE SPHINX.] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - INGRES. PAGANINI.] - -And yet, notwithstanding all this, I am an enthusiastic admirer of -Ingres. Indeed, it has happened to me, in the collection of engravings -at the Louvre, to catch myself saying: "Ingres! great, beloved Master! I -have much to ask your pardon; for you were one of the greatest and most -refined spirits to whom the century has given birth." For I doubt -whether any one down to the present time has rightly understood the -mysterious figure of Ingres, the man who in his youth was enraptured by -"_l'esprit, la grce, l'originalit de Vataux et la dlicieuse couleur -de ses tableaux_," and who, at a later time, not because of failing -powers but deliberately and of set purpose, adopted a calmer system of -colour tones; of this Classicist _par excellence_, who is counted among -the greatest artists, in the familiar and graceful style, in the history -of art. - -Ingres is one of the rare masters whom even their opponents are forced -to admire. In the stern, sculpturesque modelling of his naked figures he -displays remarkable power. His painting, also, has a curiously intimate -appeal, due to its cool, metallic harmonies of colour--light blue, rose, -and pale yellow in particular. - -But above all Ingres commands attention by his portraits. From his first -residence at Rome, that is, from the beginning of the century, he -painted portraits which imprint themselves on the memory like medals -struck in metallic sharpness in the style of Mantegna. Here too he is -unequal, at times cold and commonplace, but usually quite admirable. In -these paintings, cast as it were in bronze, there is something that -comes from the fresh original source of all art; they have that vein of -realism by which the vigorous idealism of Raphael is distinguished from -the conventional idealism of a professor of historical painting. Here -one finds real treasures, creations of remarkable vital power, and in -admirable taste. They show that Ingres, apparently so systematic, had a -profound love for living nature, and they ensure the immortality of his -name. His historical pictures are works which compel our esteem, but his -portraits are splendid creations which can truly stand comparison with -the great old masters. - -So far back as 1806 there appeared in the Salon his likeness of Napoleon -I, with his bloodless, corpse-like face, enchased with such art that -Delcluze called it a Gothic medal. The Emperor is seated like a wax -figure upon the throne, surrounded by the attributes of majesty--stiff, -motionless as a Byzantine idol. It was followed in 1807 by the portrait -of Mme. Devauay, which even to-day impresses the beholder most -pleasingly, notwithstanding the pedantic style in which it is painted. -One feels in it fire and youthfulness, the enthusiasm and ardour of a -new convert, who has for the first time discovered in nature beauties -other than those he had learnt to see in the Academy. Moreover, he -possessed a very distinguished and personal taste in drawing. The face -is of exquisite grace, the eyes tenderly seductive and delicately -veiled. Ingres is already announced as he was afterwards to be. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - INGRES. MLLE. DE MONTGOLFIER.] - -In Holbein's portraits the whole German community of his time has been -handed down to us; in Van Dyck's, the aristocracy of England under -Charles I. So also Ingres has depicted for us, with all its failings and -all its virtues, the middle-class hierarchy of Louis Philippe's reign, -which felt itself to be the first estate, the summit of the nation, felt -sure of the morrow, was proud of itself, of its intelligence and energy, -which pursued with correctness its moral course of life, revered order -and hated all excess--including that of the colourist. The same spirit -animated this splendid _bourgeois_ of art. His "Bertin the Elder" is -justly his most celebrated, enduring work; not the mere painted -petrifaction of a newspaper potentate, but one of those portraits which -bring a whole epoch home to the mind. It tells of the triumph of the -_bourgeoisie_ under the Monarchy of July more fully and clearly than -does Louis Blanc's _Histoire de Dix Ans_. In the best of humours, with -the four-square solidity of a knowledge of his own worth, which is full -of character, this modern newspaper demi-god sits on his chair as on a -throne, the throne of the _Journal des Dbats_, like a _bourgeois_ -Jupiter Tonans, with his hands on his knees. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - INGRES. THE FORESTIER FAMILY.] - -But however highly one must estimate the importance of such a work, -Ingres is nevertheless at his highest, not in his painted likenesses, -but in his portrait drawings. In the former the hard colouring is still, -at times, offensive. Almost always the flesh looks like wood, the dress -like metal, blue robes like steel. His drawings, from which this defect -is absent, are to be admired without criticism. Ingres lived in his -youth, at Rome, as a drawer of portraits. For eight _scudi_ he did the -bust, for twelve the whole figure, raging inwardly the while at being -kept from "great art" by such journey-work. There is a story told of -him, that when one day an Englishman knocked at his door and asked, -"Does the draughtsman who makes the small portraits live here?" he shut -the door in his face, with the words: "No; he who lives here is a -painter." To-day these small masterpieces of which he was ashamed sell -for their weight in gold. In the Paris Exhibition of 1889 there was Mme. -Chauvin with her Chinese eyes; Mme. Besnard on the terrace of the Pincio -with her broad hat and her elegant sunshade; Mrs. Henting with her -innocent smile of an "_honnte femme_"; Mrs. Cavendish, an affected -young blonde, with her overladen travelling dress and her crazy -coiffure. Strange, that a man like Ingres should rave so about new -fashions and pretty toilettes! - -In these pieces an artistic eye which was now inexorable, now tender and -full of fancy, has looked on nature, and, in flowing pencil-strokes, has -caught with spirit and with the certain touch of direct feeling the real -fulness of life in what he saw. These drawings, especially the portrait -of Paganini and "The Forestier Family," show that Father Ingres -possessed not only a highly cultivated intelligence and an iron strength -of will, not only the genius of industry, but also a heart, a genuine, -warm, and fine-feeling heart; that he was in his innermost being by no -means the cold academician, the stiff doctrinaire he appears in his -large pictures, and which he became by his opposition to the Romantic -school. Here we have an enchanter such as the Primitives were and the -Impressionists are, like Massys and Manet, like Drer and Degas, like -all who have looked Nature in the face. And while these drawings, at -once occasional and austere, place him as a draughtsman on a level with -the greatest masters in the history of art, they also show him, the -reactionary, to be at the same time a man of progress, the connecting -link between the great art of the first half and the familiar art which -rules over the second half of the nineteenth century. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -JUSTE-MILIEU - - -As is usually the case, the heroes were succeeded by a generation less -heroic and more practical. In this, art was in keeping with the -deliberate and tranquil course of the state itself, which had fallen -back again into the old groove, and with the homely, Philistine -character assumed in the course of years by the citizen monarchy of the -tricolour. The _bourgeoisie_ which had effected the Revolution of 1830 -was soon appalled at its own temerity. Even in literature it inclined -towards a temperate and lukewarm mediocrity. It was astonished to find -itself admiring Casimir Delavigne. It found in Auber and Scribe its -ideal of music and comedy, as in Guizot, Duchtel, Thiers, and Odilon -Barrot its ideal of politics. The intellectual exaltation which had gone -before and followed after the Revolution of July had calmed down, and -that which was to rise out of the Revolution of February was as yet -latent. The same elder generation which had looked upon Napoleon -Bonaparte's stony Csarian eye, when, like a god of war, unapproachable -in his power he rode by at the head of his staff, now saw the Roi -Citoyen, the long-exiled ex-school-master, homely and fond of law and -order, as every day at the same hour he passed alone on foot and in -plain clothes through the streets of Paris, the famous umbrella in his -hand, rewarding each "Vive le Roi!" with a friendly smile and a grateful -hand-shake. The umbrella became the symbol of this deedless monarchy, -and the word "Juste-milieu," which Louis Philippe had once employed to -indicate the course to be followed, became the nickname of all that was -weak and without energy, lustreless and undignified, in the age. The -golden mean was triumphant in politics, literature, and painting. - -The artists who gave this period its peculiar stamp constitute, as -compared with the heaven-assaulting generation of 1830, only, as it -were, a collateral female branch of that elder male line of good -painting. To reconcile opposite tendencies, to avoid harshness, in -short, to bring about an artistic compromise between Ingres and -Delacroix, was the end towards which their efforts were chiefly -directed. - -_Jean Gigoux_, a remarkable artist, has the merit of having given the -most effective support which Delacroix received in his battle against -the _beaut suprme_ of the Classical school. When, in the Universal -Exhibition of 1889 at Paris, his picture of "The Last Moments of -Leonardo da Vinci," painted in 1835, emerged from the seclusion of a -provincial museum, its healthy fidelity to nature was the cause of -general astonishment. The personages indeed wear costly costumes, and -are surrounded by wealth and magnificence, but they themselves are -common, ugly human beings. Here there is no trace of idealism, not even -in the sense of Gricault, who, notwithstanding his love of truth, -remained faithful to the heroic type. The faces are, with religious -devotion, painted exactly after nature by a man who evidently loved the -youthful works of Guercino and had zealously studied Drer. At the same -time was exhibited the portrait of the Polish "General Dwernicki," -painted in 1833, whom also Gigoux depicts as a man, not as a hero. War -has made him not lean but fat, and in Gigoux's picture his red nose and -prominent stomach are reproduced with cruel fidelity to nature. It is a -declaration of war against every kind of idealism. Even in his religious -paintings in Saint Germain l'Auxerrois he held fast to this principle, -and this circumstance gives him a place to himself, apart from all the -productions of his contemporaries. In a period which, with the solitary -exception of Delacroix, was still absolutely devoted to the doctrine -_Exagrer la beaut_, his works are of a healthy, soul-refreshing -ugliness. - -A portion of Delacroix's charm in colour descended to _Eugne Isabey_. -He is certainly not a great artist, but a delightful, sympathetic -individuality, a painter who affords one pleasure even at this day. Amid -the group of Classicists of his time he has the effect of a beautiful -patch of colour, of a palette on which shades of tender blue, mauve, -lilac, brilliant green, silver-grey, red faded by sunshine, and -opalescent mother-of-pearl combine in subtle harmony. His pretty, -picturesquely costumed ladies are grouped together in luminous gardens, -sheltered by delicate half-shadows, or ascend and descend the castle -stairs, letting their long trains sweep behind them, and toying -gracefully with fan or sunshade; while gallant cavaliers do them homage, -and with bent head whisper sweet nothings in their ears. The slender -greyhound plays a special part in these aristocratic comedies; its -straight lines give a counterpoise to the soft flowing costumes of his -figures. Isabey is altogether in his element when he has to portray a -ceremony requiring rich attire. Then he binds together, as it were, a -bouquet sparkling with colour, shot with the hues of ample damask folds -and heavy gold-embroidered silk. Now his colouring is _chic_, -capricious, and coquettish, now it is that of the most delicate faded -Gobelin tapestry. If he has to paint a sea-view, he rumples the waves -about like a ball-dress and pranks the ships up in bridal attire. His -very storms have a festal appearance, like the anger of a beautiful -woman. One must not look for life in his pictures; they are to the truth -much what Gounod's _Faust_ is to Goethe's. Watteau is his spiritual -ancestor; but he is not so full of life and wit as the painter of the -gallant world of the eighteenth century. He does not depict his -contemporaries, but the life of a vanished age; yet he has the same -predilection for scenes of high life, and a studied, mannered -gracefulness which is often charming and always pleasant to the eye. He -shares with Delacroix the latter's broad style, freedom from constraint, -and delight in colour. But where Delacroix is rough and violent, Isabey -is caressing and insinuating: they are not brothers, but distant -cousins. And, like Delacroix, he had no imitators; he went on his bright -and delightful path in solitude, and remained without companions in the -little gilded house, lit up with fantastic lanterns, which he assigned -to be the coquettish home of charming beings of both sexes. - -[Illustration: ARY SCHEFFER. _L'Art._] - -A curious position, half-way between the Romantic and the Classical -schools, was occupied by _Ary Scheffer_, who was, a generation ago, the -favourite of the greater part of the aristocracy of Europe, but is now -known, to the German public at least, only because he is said to have -painted "with snuff and green soap"--a phrase of Heine's, which, -however, gives a very false impression of him. A German-Dutchman by -birth, a Classicist by training, Scheffer in his youth came also in -contact with the leading spirits of the Romantic school; and these -various influences, of race, education, and intercourse, are clearly -reflected in the faces of his figures. His forms are thoroughly classic -and generalised; only the expression of the face is ideal, while the eye -is romantic, and, Scheffer's German blood making itself -felt--sentimental. It was precisely this mid-way position which his -contemporaries found so much to their liking. They called his painting a -great art full of style, uniting the sentiment of ideal beauty with a -captivating power of expression. But history cares but little for these -men of compromise, and regards this indecision as the chief defect of -his genius. Scheffer's draughtsmanship is dry and hard, his colouring -without tenderness or charm. These failings are ill-assorted with the -attitudes and physiognomy of his figures, which have always an -affectation of weakness, exhaustion, and moral suffering. He is a -sentimental Classicist, and his subjects the antithesis of the -Grco-Roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique. His "Suliote -Women" was already, in sentiment, form, and colour, only a subdued and -weakened reminiscence of the "Massacre of Chios." At a later time he -entirely forsook historical subjects (such as "Gaston de Foix" and -others), and attached himself with enthusiasm to the Gospels and to the -works of the poets, especially of one poet. When he had recourse to the -Bible as a source of inspiration, he selected tender episodes, the -sadness of which he transmuted into tearfulness. So also, when he -represented scenes from _Faust_ or _Wilhelm Meister_, he gave to -Goethe's animated and impassioned characters something melancholy, -suffering, and contemplative. Heine said of his "Gretchen": "You are no -doubt Wolfgang Goethe's Gretchen, but you have read all Friedrich -Schiller." Even before her fall, before she is in love, Marguerite is -pensive and sad like a fallen angel. Mignon, Francesca da Rimini, and -St. Monica were also favourite figures for his delicate and -contemplative spirit. He alone in French art inclines a little, in his -tearful sentimentality, to the Romantic school of Dsseldorf. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - ARY SCHEFFER. MARGUERITE AT THE WELL.] - -_Hippolyte Flandrin_ was the French counterpart of the German Nazarenes. -He is an example of how Ingres' teaching resulted in stiff -conventionality. Ingres was a dangerous master to follow. His pupils -formed round him a small, faithful, and submissive band, swore like -those of Cornelius by the master's doctrines, and for that very reason -never attained to any distinctive character of their own. None of them -possessed Ingres' many-sided talent. His empire, like that of Alexander -the Great, was divided among his successors, each of whom governed his -own little realm with greater or less ability. Hippolyte Flandrin -devoted himself to religious painting, which in his hands for the first -time regained a greater importance in French art; but he followed much -more slavishly than Ingres in the paths of the Italian masters of the -fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This painter, worthy of respect, -full of conviction, learned and of sterling worth, but colourless and -cold, who decorated the churches of St. Vincent de Paul and St. Germain -des Prs, has enriched the history of art by no new gift. An -indefatigable worker, but endowed with little intellectual power, he -went no further than to follow out strictly the rules which Ingres -taught his pupils and had himself acquired from the old masters. After -Flandrin, as winner of the Prix de Rome in 1831, had become intimately -acquainted with the art treasures of Italy, he seldom met with any -difficulty. His cartoons are flowingly and correctly executed with a -firm hand, like the fair copy of a school essay. Of draughtsmanship he -knew all that is to be learned; he remembered much, arranged his -reminiscences, and thought little for himself. He was a miniature copy -of his master, at once more poorly endowed and more fanatical, a purely -mathematical genius; his art is a cold geometrical knowledge, the -adaptation of anatomical studies to conventional forms, an arrangement -of groups and draperies in strict accordance with celebrated exemplars. -Had not the primitive Italian masters, the painters of the ancient -Christian catacombs, the saintly Fra Angelico, and the mosaic artists of -Ravenna done their work long before him, Flandrin's paintings would -never have seen the light, any more than those of the Nazarene school. -In both cases one can assign almost every face and figure to its -original in the pictures of the Italian masters. Only a certain blond, -tender, slightly melancholy, modern face of a Christian maiden is -Flandrin's peculiar property. He transferred these same ascetic and pure -principles to portrait painting, and thereby acquired for himself a -large practice as the painter of the _femme honnte_. These women -conversed with him and blushed in his presence; in his pictures we find -grace and delicacy, eyes sparkling or meek, tenderness and mocking -laughter, all translated into a nun-like, unapproachable appearance, -which under the Second Empire gained the greater approbation among -ladies, since it was seldom found in real life. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - CHASSERIAU. APOLLO AND DAPHNE.] - -Alongside of this Overbeck, endowed with greater artistic powers than -his German congener, there stands as the French Cornelius _Paul -Chenavard_, a man who revolved in his fertile brain philosophical -conceptions deeper almost than those of the German master. He dreamed of -broad, symbolical, decorative pieces, embracing all time and all space, -wherein all the cosmogonies of the universe should be united. Like -Cornelius, he wished to be a Michael Angelo, but he succeeded no better -than the German. He spent fifteen years in the churches and museums of -Italy, pencil in hand, accumulating a vast collection of studies, from -which his great painted history of the world was to be built up. But -when he went back to Paris his materials from the old masters had grown -upon him to such an extent that he never recovered his individuality. -For four years he worked with feverish diligence, and completed eighteen -cartoons, each six metres in height and four in breadth, intended for -the walls of the Pantheon. So far as colour is concerned, they have -attained no greater success than the Campo Santo frescoes of Cornelius. -Chenavard could draw much better than the German, but was not much -better as a painter; the works of both have a literary rather than an -artistic value. - -Brief and brilliant was the career of _Thodore Chassriau_, who shot -across the heavens of art like a gleaming meteor, first as a devotee of -form, in Ingres' sense of the word, and afterwards, like Delacroix, as -an enthusiastic lover of sunshine and the clear light of Africa. Born in -1819 at St. Domingo, he followed his teacher Ingres in 1834 to the Villa -Medici; but even in his first picture, the "Susanna" of 1839, now in the -Louvre, he proved himself by no means an orthodox pupil. "He has not the -least understanding for the ideas or the changes which have entered into -art in our time, and knows absolutely nothing of the poets of recent -days. He will live on as a reminiscence and a reproduction of certain -ages in the art of the past, without having created anything to hand -down to the future. My wishes and my ideas do not in the least -correspond with his." In these words Chassriau has himself pointed out -what it was that distinguished him from Ingres. Unfortunately he -produced but little. Personally a very elegant, _blas_ gentleman, he -plunged on his return from Italy into the whirlpool of Parisian life. He -was remarkably ugly; but his black, piercing eyes made him the idol of -the ladies, and he hurried through life with such haste that he broke -down altogether at the age of thirty-six. Beyond various decorative -paintings for the church of Saint Mry and for the Salle des Comptes in -the Palais d'Orsay, only a few Eastern pictures, and, best and most -characteristic, a couple of lithographs, remain to represent his work. -In these delicate mythological compositions a chord is struck which -found no echo until, a generation later, it was heard again in the work -of the French New Idealists and the English Pre-Raphaelites: there -speaks in them a Romantic Hellenism, a something dreamily mystic, which -makes him a remarkable link between Delacroix and the most refined -spirit in the modern school, Gustave Moreau. It was purely an act of -gratitude in Moreau when he affixed the dedication "To Thodore -Chassriau" to his fine picture of "The Young Man and Death." - -_Lon Benouville_ will be remembered only for his picture of the "Death -of St. Francis," in the Louvre, a good piece of work in the manner of -the Quattrocento. _Lon Cogniet_ deserves to be mentioned because in the -fifties he brought together in his studio so many foreign pupils, -especially Germans. He enjoyed above all others the reputation of being -able to initiate beginners both quickly and with certainty into the -peculiar mysteries of craftsmanship. All that a master can teach, and -that can be learned from his example, was to be obtained from this kind -and fatherly instructor. Even after he had long given up painting, his -grateful pupils used to meet together yearly at a banquet given in the -patriarch's honour. As an artist he belongs to the list of the great men -who have paid for overpraise in their lifetime by oblivion after their -death. His "Massacre of the Innocents" of 1824--a woman who, mad with -terror, thinks to hide herself and her child from the assassins of -Bethlehem under an open stairway--could give pleasure only in a time -which hailed with enthusiasm Ary Scheffer's heads resembling plaster -busts full of expression. Occasionally, too, he painted landscapes--the -chimerical, vague creations of a man who had lived but little in the -open air. His finest picture, "Tintoretto Painting his Dead Daughter by -Lamplight," of 1843, the engravings of which once enraptured France and -Germany, has to-day a somewhat insipid effect, and shows whither his -genius was leading him--in technique a coarser Schalcken, in sentiment a -weaker Delaroche. - -[Illustration: - - COGNIET. TINTORETTO PAINTING HIS DEAD DAUGHTER.] - -Delaroche was the Titian of Louis Philippe's age, the spoiled child of -the Juste-milieu, one of the most insignificant and at the same time one -of the most famous painters of the century; and in this double capacity -is an interesting proof that in art the "Vox populi" is seldom the "Vox -Dei." What a difference between him and the great spirits of the -Romantic school! They were enthusiastic poets; their predilection for -Medivalism was concerned only with its sthetic charm, with the -twilight shadows of its picturesque churches, the sounding presage of -its bells, the motley processions of that world gleaming bright with -uninterrupted colour. And what further allured their imaginative powers -was the unruly character of certain epochs, the destructive war of wild -factions, and the blazing, consuming power of passion. The historical -motive, as such, was with them only a pretext for launching forth into -flashing orgies of colour, according to the example, which they followed -merely in externals, of the Venetian and Flemish masters. They knew, as -genuine painters, that only in the pigment on their palette slumbers -that power of exciting emotion by means of which the art of painting -touches the chords of men's souls. Enthusiasts of colour and of passion, -they raved about the poets merely because the latter more readily -enabled them, by means of the fierce vehemence of the awakened powers of -nature, to invest with form the feverish, agitated, and terrible dreams -of their fantasy. So it was that Delacroix told of conflagration, of -battle and warfare, of murder and pillage, of the bitterness and pains -of love. At the same time, no doubt, he studied the vari-coloured -costumes of past ages--his drawings show as much--but he made use of -them simply as a storehouse of bright hues, as a lexicon by means of -which he might embody his visions of colour. To manufacture historical -vignettes and play the part of a teacher of history would have been in -his eyes a thing to be held in contempt as the work of subservient -illustrators. Yet perhaps it was by taking this very course that far -greater successes were to be attained, so far as the verdict of the -multitude is considered. - -The decade following upon 1820 was a season of brilliant blossom for the -art of writing history in France. By his _History of the English -Revolution_, in 1826, Guizot won for himself a place in the foremost -rank of French authors. He began in 1829 his famous lectures at the -Sorbonne, and commenced in 1832 the publication of his _Sources of -French History_. Even before him, Augustin Thierry had written in 1825 -his _History of the Conquest of England by the Normans_, followed by -_Stories from the Merovingian Times_, and was now engaged in the -preparation of his great work, the _History of the Origin and Progress -of the Third Estate_. Not unworthy to be compared with these writers, -and soon to stand beside them, were two young men working in -collaboration--Mignet and Thiers--who came to the front in 1823-24 with -their _History of the Revolution_. At the impulse thus given, historical -societies and unions had arisen in every province of France, and were -developing an ever-increasing activity. - -What learning had begun, poetry carried further. A number of writers, -young and old, began to consider what poetic use might be made of the -materials which these investigations had brought to light, and few years -had passed before the number of historical romances and dramas was -hardly to be computed. Vitet, the elder Dumas, and de Vigny put -historical tragedy in the place of classical, and the modern novel of -George Sand, Balzac, and Beyle was ousted by the historical romance. -During the same years was completed the process by which grand opera -forsook fantastic for historical subjects, such as Auber's _Muette de -Portici_ and Rossini's _Guillaume Tell_. - -[Illustration: COGNIET. THE MASSACRE OF THE INNOCENTS.] - -Art also sought to turn to account the new materials furnished by -historical science, and sthetic minds hastened to enumerate the -advantages which were to be expected of it. On the one hand--and this -was nothing new--the artist, whose curse it was to be born in an -inactive and colourless age, would find here all that he sought, for -history offered him the contemplation of a magnificent life, full of -movement. On the other hand--and this was the chief point--painting -might also fulfil an important mission on behalf of culture, if by -virtue of its more easily understood method it could supplement the -science of history, and by recalling the great memories of the past keep -alive that patriotism which in unfavourable conjunctures is so -frequently found wanting. Guizot recommended French history, "the -history of chivalry," to painters, as the first and most important -source of inspiration. "We want historians in the art of painting," -wrote Vitet; and his cry was not unheard. - -While the Romanticists had seen in the old costumes nothing more than -elements out of which a dashing colour-symphony could be obtained, -troubling themselves little about the meaning or the narrative import of -their pictures, their successors went over, bag and baggage, into the -camp of the historians. In the place of pure painting, there arose an -art laden with scientific documents, which busied itself in -reconstructing former times with antiquarian exactness. While the former -had produced nought but genuinely artistic colour-improvisations, so now -a didactic aim, together with historical accuracy, became the main -consideration. The painter was commissioned as a chronicler, an official -of the state, to console citizens for the lamentable present by an -appeal to the glorious past. He became a professor of history, a -theatrical costumier who rummaged records, chose masks, cut out dresses, -arranged scenic backgrounds, for no other purpose than to depict -correctly and legibly on the canvas an historical event. And Mme. Tout -le Monde found in these pictures exactly what she required. On the one -hand, the didactic aim of historical painting, with its long -explanations in the catalogues, answered precisely to the needs of the -educated middle classes. Under the picture there was always a pretty -card on which was printed this or that quotation from some historical -writer. One read the description, and then satisfied one's self that -the corresponding picture was really there and that it was in keeping -with the description. One recalled to mind the lessons in history one -had learned at school, and was pleased to be reminded in so pleasant a -fashion that before the nineteenth century people did not wear trousers -and frock-coats, but knitted hose and mantles. On the other hand, there -still survived enough of the Romantic unruliness to allow one to be -shocked in a decorous and moderate manner, and with the help of the -catalogue a picture might be permitted to make one's flesh creep in an -agreeable way. - -For the average painter of mediocre ability historical exercises of this -sort must also have been very alluring, inasmuch as they made no demand -upon specially artistic qualities--upon any peculiar aptitude of the -fancy, eye, or palette. The historian must indeed possess the power of -combination, but much more that of sober investigation; too much -imagination or too great a sense of humour would be dangerous to him. So -also the historical painter required neither fancy, sentiment, nor power -of perception; a certain capacity for compiling facts was all that was -necessary. It was enough to ferret out of some popular book on history -the story of a murder, and to possess a work upon costumes. By such -means, men of a certain ability could easily manage, with the help of -the studio technique founded by the Romantic school, to put together the -most imposing show-pieces. And even the critics allowed themselves -frequently to be so far misled as to give to those models who were -decked out in the finest costumes, and labelled with the names of the -most celebrated personages, precedence over their more modest -companions. Consequently it happened that in the time of the citizen -monarchy a great number of painters entirely devoid of talent, whose -only merit was that they attached to this or that chapter of universal -history pictures showing some laboured animation, became in the -twinkling of an eye leaders of the schools. - -[Illustration: PAUL DELAROCHE. _L'Art._ - - "Paul Delaroche la funbre mine - S'entour avec plaisir de cadavres et d'os - Jane Grey, Mazarin, hros et hroine - Chez lui tout meurt ... except ces tableaux."] - -_Eugne Devria_ was the first and most important painter deliberately -to enter upon this course. When his picture of the "Birth of Henry IV" -was exhibited in the Salon of 1827 his appearance was welcomed as that -of a new Veronese, and his work joyfully saluted as the first historical -picture in which the local colour of the epoch represented was -accurately observed. Henceforth Devria dressed always in the style of -Rubens, and his house became the headquarters of the Romantic school. He -was perhaps the only member of this group in whom some breath of -Delacroix's spirit survived, but unfortunately he never found again -either the Venetian tone or the male accent of his youth, and though he -painted many more pictures he never contributed a second notable work to -art. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DELAROCHE. THE ASSASSINATION OF THE DUKE OF GUISE.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - DELAROCHE. THE PRINCES IN THE TOWER.] - -Shortly afterwards _Camille Roqueplan_ began to alter his manner. Up to -that time he had been exclusively a painter who, like Watteau and -Terborg, listened with a voluptuous shudder to the piquant rustle of -silk, velvet, and satin dresses; now he devoted himself to depicting -with perspicuity various scenes from history, renounced his airy and -radiant fantasies, and became, in his "Scene from the Massacre of St. -Bartholomew," nothing but a tedious schoolmaster. - -_Nicolaus Robert Fleury_, the painter of "Charles V in the Monastery of -St. Just," of the "Massacre of St. Bartholomew," of the "Religious -Conference at Poissy," and of other historical anecdotes, carefully -conceived and laboriously executed, devoted himself, like Lessing, to -the propagation of noble ideas. His pictures were manifestoes against -religious fanaticism, and philanthropic discussions concerning the -trials and persecutions of the freethinkers. In order to give them the -stamp of historical verisimilitude, he buried himself with the zeal of -an archivist in the study of the period to be represented; often -directly transferred into his pictures figures from Diepenbeeck or -Theodor van Thulden; and having the faculty of seizing in old paintings -those tones of colour which belong rather to the epoch than the master, -he succeeded in giving his works a certain documentary and archaic -character for which, on his first appearance, he obtained ample credit. - -_Louis Boulanger_, after his "Mazeppa" of 1827, was a famous painter. -But the highest success was that attained by Paul Delaroche, inasmuch as -he understood better than any other, not only how to cater for the -cultured public by the didactic nature and historical accuracy of his -pictures, but also how to touch the heart by means of a lachrymose -sentimentality. - -_Paul Delaroche_ belongs, by the date of his birth, to the eighteenth -century. Being one of Gros' pupils, he had never borne the yoke of the -Classical school in its fullest weight, and therefore had never had -occasion to revolt against it. When the Romanticists came to the front, -he had gone or rather been dragged along with them, for to his -circumspect nature Romanticism was an abomination, and his cool and -deliberative spirit felt itself much more at home in the society of the -Classicists. The works of the historians opened to him a welcome outlet -by which to avoid a rupture with either party, and Delaroche found his -vocation. He assumed the rle of a peacemaker between the quarrelling -brothers, placed himself as mediator between Montagues and Capulets, and -thus became--like Casimir Delavigne in literature--the head of that -"School of Common Sense" on whose banner glittered in golden letters -Louis Philippe's motto of the Juste-milieu. Ingres was cold, reserved, -and colourless; Delaroche aspired to an agreeable, sparkling, highly -seasoned, bituminous art of painting. Delacroix was genial and sketchy; -Delaroche inscribed carefulness and exactness on his banner. The former -had given offence by his boldness; Delaroche won the conservatives over -to himself by his well-bred bearing and moderate attitude. People -thought Delacroix too wild and poetical; Delaroche took care to give -them only a touch of the eagerness of Romanticism, and set himself to -reduce the passionate vehemence of Delacroix to rational, Philistine -limits, and to soften down his native unruliness into sentimental -pathos. This position which he assumed as a mediator made him the man of -his age. The life of Delacroix was a long struggle. But for the -commissions entrusted to him by the state he might have died of -starvation, for his sales to dealers and lovers of art brought him -scarcely five hundred francs a year. His studio held many pictures, -leaning mournfully against each other in corners. Delaroche, on the -other hand, was overwhelmed with praise and commissions. The -representatives of eclecticism in philosophy and of the Juste-milieu in -politics found themselves compelled to praise an artist who was neither -revolutionary nor reactionist, neither Romantic nor Classical, who had -bound himself over neither to draughtsmanship nor to colouring, but -united both elements in vulgar moderation. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - DELAROCHE. STRAFFORD ON HIS WAY TO EXECUTION.] - -[Illustration: THOMAS COUTURE. _L'Art._] - -Already in his first notable works, in 1831, "The Princes in the Tower" -and "Oliver Cromwell," he has fully assumed his lukewarm manner. He -might have represented the murder of the princes, but fearing that the -public would not stand it, he preferred merely to suggest the -approaching death of the weeping and terrified children by placing in -front of the bed a small dog, which is looking uneasily towards the -door, where the red light of torches indicates the approach of the -assassins,--a Dsseldorf picture with improved technique. It is just the -same with his melodramatic and lachrymose "Cromwell." It would be hardly -possible to represent one of the greatest figures in universal history -in a more paltry manner, and to this day it is not quite certain whether -the picture was intended to be serious or humorous. The great statesman -in whom was embodied the political and ecclesiastical revolution of -England must have been extremely busy on the day of Charles I's funeral, -and have had better things to do than stealthily to open the coffin and -contemplate, with a mixture of childish curiosity and sentimental pity, -the corpse of the king whom he had fought and conquered. Eugne -Delacroix had treated this subject in a sketch, in which Cromwell, at -the funeral of Charles, gazes in quiet contempt upon the weak monarch -who had not known how to keep either his crown or his head. As a work of -art this little water-colour is worth ten times as much as Delaroche's -great, long-meditated, carefully executed painting. From the very -beginning he had no sense for the passionate or dramatic. From the first -day, had the tailor who prepared costumes struck work, his artistic -greatness would have fallen away to nothing; from the commencement he -produced nothing but large, clumsily conceived illustrations for -historical novels. Planch pointed out long ago that all the costumes -are glaringly new, that all the victims look as if they had got -themselves up for a masked ball, that this sort of painting is much too -clean and pretty to give the argument the appearance of probability. -Thophile Gautier, who had proclaimed the powerful originality of -Delacroix, fumed with rage against these "saliva-polished -representations, this art for the half-educated, disguised in false, -Philistine realism, this art of historical illustration for the familiar -use of the _bourgeois_." To rank timorous, half-hearted talent higher -than reckless and awe-inspiring genius--this was in Gautier's eyes the -sin against the Holy Ghost, and he sprang like a tiger upon the -popularity of talents such as these. He could, as he himself said, have -swallowed Delaroche, skin, hair, and all, without remorse; meanwhile, -the public raised him upon the shield as its declared favourite. - -He won the intellectual middle class over to himself with a rush, as he -industriously went on rummaging in manuals of French and English history -for royal murders and battle-deaths of kings. With his "Richelieu," -"Mazarin," and "Strafford," but especially with his "Execution of Lady -Jane Grey" and "Murder of the Duke of Guise in the Castle of Blois," he -made hits such as no other French artist of his time could put to his -account. Just then, in his youthful work, _The States-General at Blois_, -Ludovic Vitet had put the murder of the Duke of Guise upon the stage. -Nothing could be better-timed than to transform this operatic scene into -colour. The historians of civilisation admired the historical accuracy -of the courtiers' dress, all the upholstery of the room, the lofty -mantelpiece, the carved wardrobes, the praying-stool with the -altar-piece over it, the canopy-bed with its curtains of red silk -embroidered with lilies and the king's initials in gold. Playgoers -compared the scene with that which they had witnessed on the stage in -Vitet's piece, and the comparison was not unfavourable to the painter. -For Delaroche, in order to be as far as possible in keeping with the -stage representation, was accustomed to commission Jollivet, the chief -mechanician of the Opera House, to prepare for him small models of -rooms, in which he then arranged his lay-figures. - -That is the further great difference between Delaroche and Delacroix, -between the vagrant painter of history and the artist. The latter had -the gift of the inner vision, and only painted things which had -intellectually laid hold upon him and had assumed firm shape in his -imagination. It was while the organ was playing the _Dies ir_ that he -saw his "Piet" in a vision--that mighty work which in power of -expression almost approaches Rembrandt. "Is not Tasso's life most -interesting?" he writes. "You weep for him, swaying restlessly from side -to side on your chair, when you read the story of his life; your eyes -assume a threatening aspect, and you grind your teeth with rage." Such -passionate emotion was wholly unknown to Delaroche; he painted deeds of -murder with the wildness of Mieris. Delacroix everywhere grasps what is -essential, and gives to every scene its poetical or religious character. -A couple of lines are for him sufficient means wherewith to produce a -deep impression. In presence of his pictures one does not think of -costumes; one sees everywhere passion overflowing with love and anger, -and is intoxicated with the harmony of sentiment and colour. Delaroche, -like Thierry, had merely a predilection for the historical anecdote -which, dramatically pointed, keeps the beholder in suspense, or else, -simply narrated, amuses him. The colour and spirit of events had no -power over his imagination; he merely apprehended them with a cool -understanding, and put them laboriously together in keeping with it. -Delacroix sought counsel from nature; but in the moment of creation, in -front of the canvas, he could not bear direct contact with it. "The -influence of the model," he wrote, "lowers the painter's tone; a stupid -fellow makes you stupid." Delaroche draped his models as was required, -made them posture and pull faces, and while he was painting, laboriously -screwed them up to the pathos demanded by the situation. Such a method -of procedure must necessarily become theatrical. - -Just as in his historical pictures he endeavoured to transform -Delacroix's passion into operatic scenes, so he perfected his position -as a man of compromise by imitating the academic style in his -"Hemicycle." Here it was Ingres' laurels which robbed him of his sleep. -The fame which this picture has acquired is mainly due to Henriquel -Dupont's fine engraving. It does not attain to any kind of solemn or -serious effect. One might imagine one's self in some entirely prosaic -waiting-room, where all the great men of every age have agreed to meet -together for no matter what ceremonial purpose; one sees there a -carefully chosen collection of costumes of all epochs, with well-studied -but expressionless portraits of the leaders of civilisation. Here also -Delaroche has not risen above respectable mediocrity, and his -characteristics remain, as ever, thoroughly middle-class. - -[Illustration: COUTURE. THE LOVE OF GOLD.] - -His likeness of Napoleon is perhaps that which shows most clearly how -paltry a soul this painter possessed. It is not Devastation in human -shape, not the man in whom his officers saw the "God of War" and of whom -Mme. de Stal said, "There is nothing human left in him." The intellect -of that Corsican, with his great thoughts striding as in seven-leagued -boots, thoughts each of which would give any single German writer -material for the rest of his life, was hidden to the inquisitive glance -of a painter who had never seen in the whole of human history anything -more than a series of petty episodes. And one who is not able to paint a -good portrait is not justified in intruding into other regions of art. - -For similar reasons the religious paintings with which he busied himself -in his last days have likewise enriched art with no new element. They -are a Philistine remodelling of the Biblical drama, in the same style as -his historical pictures. In the end he appears himself to have become -conscious how little laborious compilations of this kind have in common -with art, and since with the best will in the world he could produce -nothing better than he had painted in the thirties, he lost all pleasure -in his vocation and abandoned himself to gloom and pessimism, from which -death set him free in 1856. - -_Thomas Couture_, who after Delaroche was most in vogue as a teacher in -the fifties, was of greater importance as an artist, and in his "Romans -of the Decadence" produced a work which, from the point of view of the -Juste-milieu, is worthy of consideration even to-day. He was a -remarkable man. His parents, shoemakers at Senlis, seem to have regarded -the thick-headed, slowly developing boy as a kind of idiot, and are said -to have treated him with no excessive gentleness. He was sent away from -school because he could not understand the simplest things, and studied -without success in the studios of Gros and Delaroche. And yet, after he -had made his dbut in the Salon of 1843 with the "Troubadour," a fine -picture in the style of Devria, his "Orgie Romaine" of 1847 made him at -one stroke the most celebrated painter in France. Pupils thronged to him -from every quarter of the globe, and he left a deep and enduring -impression upon every one of them. A very short, corpulent, -broad-shouldered, thick-set, proletarian figure, with thick disorderly -hair, a blouse, a short pipe, and a gruff manner, he used to stride -through the lines of his pupils, who regarded him with wonder on account -of his ability as a teacher and his remarkable powers. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - COUTURE. THE ROMANS OF THE DECADENCE.] - -Yet, when a few years had elapsed, no one heard of him again. After his -"Love of Gold" and a couple of portraits, he felt that he was -unfruitful, and gave up the battle. "The Falconer," an excellent -picture, with charming qualities of colour, was the last work to give -any proof of Couture's technical mastery. He fell out with Napoleon, who -wished to employ him; made many enemies by his writings, especially -among the followers of Delacroix, whom he criticised beyond measure; and -finally, embittered, and abandoning all artistic work, he buried himself -in his country place at Villers de Bel, near Paris. Thither Americans -and Englishmen used to come to order pictures of him, and were much -astonished to hear that the old gardener's assistant, as they took him -to be, sitting on the grass and mending shoes or old kettles, was -Couture. The news of his death in 1879 caused general astonishment; it -was as if one long buried had come to life again. It had meanwhile -become evident that even his "Romans of the Decadence" was only a work -of compromise, the whole novelty of which consisted in forcing the -results attained by the Romantic school in colouring into that bed of -Procrustes, the formul of idealism. The work is undoubtedly very -noble in colouring, but what would not Delacroix have made of such a -theme! or Rubens, indeed, whose Flemish "Kermesse" hangs not far from it -in the Louvre. Couture's figures have only "absolute beauty," nothing -individual; far less do they exhibit the unnerved sensuality of Romans -of the decline engaged in their orgies. They are merely posing, and find -their classical postures wearisome. They are not revelling, they do not -love; they are only busied in filling up the space so as to produce an -agreeable effect, and in disposing themselves in picturesque groups. -Even the faces have been vulgarised by idealism: everything is as noble -as it is without character. There is something of the hermaphrodite in -Couture's work. His art was male in its subjects, female in its results. -His "Decadence" was the work of a decadent, a decadent of Classicism. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - COUTURE. THE TROUBADOUR. - - (_By permission of M. Charles Sedelmeyer, the owner of the picture._)] - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -THE POST-ROMANTIC GENERATION - - -Four years after Couture painted his "Roman Orgy," Napoleon III ascended -the throne, and the Parisian orgy began. It was a remarkable spectacle -that the capital offered in those days--a spectacle of fairy-like, -flashing and sparkling splendour. Even to-day, when Republican Paris -endeavours as much as possible to obliterate every memory of the Empire, -Napoleon's spirit lives in the external appearance of the city and -hovers over every conspicuous point. Augustus might say that he had -found his capital a city of plaster and lime, and left it one of stone -and bronze; Napoleon has the right to maintain that he raised palaces -where there had been barracks. - -Notwithstanding all the imprecations uttered against his rule, the most -thorough-going Republicans reluctantly concede to him the possession of -one good quality: he knew how to bring prosperity to the shop; "_il -faisait marcher le commerce_." One hears it said that the beautiful city -on the Seine is but the shadow of what it then was. "_Le niveau a -baiss!_" says the Parisian, when he calls to mind the gorgeous days of -the Empire. The extravagant elegance, the magnificent luxury, which used -to roll in superb carriages along the Boulevards and the Champs Elyses -towards the Bois de Boulogne, and exhibited itself in the evening in the -boxes of the theatres; the lustre which emanated from the Court, and the -concourse of all the nabobs of the world,--all this must in those days -have given to Parisian life a sparkling splendour, a something -stupefying and intoxicating, an alacrity of enjoyment which had no -parallel elsewhere. To the respectable, pedantic _bourgeoisie_ which -ruled under Louis Philippe had succeeded a new generation of men of the -world, which drank to the lees all the refined pleasures that a modern -great city has to offer. The gentlefolk of the Empire understood the art -of living better, cultivated and exhausted it after a more inventive -fashion, than any generation that had gone before. In the Tuileries sat -the man of the Second of December, the connoisseur and promoter of all -refined tastes. In his person the age was embodied, that age depicted by -Zola in _La Cure_, in the passage where he describes the halls, -illumined as if by enchantment, of the imperial palace. There, all the -splendour of over-civilisation glitters and gleams, with its bright eyes -and sparkling jewels, with its breath of intoxicating perfumes floating -from naked shoulders and arms and half-veiled voluptuous bosoms; while -the green, sphinx-like eye of Napoleon III rests indifferently on the -alabaster sea of white shoulders bowing before him, as he reviews all -that he has possessed and all that he can yet enjoy. Dumas' _Dame aux -Camlias_, _Diane de Lys_ and _Le Demi-monde_, Barrire's _Filles de -Marbre_, Augier's _Mariage d'Olympe_, give the impress of the period -upon literature, and the single phrase "The Lady of the Camelias" -conjures up a world of forms and of scenery. _La Nouvelle Babylone_ is -the title of the fine book in which Joseph Pelletan depicted the -mysterious Paris of those years, the great city which cherished in its -bosom the lowest and highest extremes of a refined world of pleasure, -and was at the same time an inexhaustible fountain of arduous work. - -One would have imagined that these new conditions of Imperial France -would have left their impress, in some way or other, upon the art of -painting also; just as in the works of Rembrandt, Frans Hals, Jan Steen, -Terborg, Ostade, Pieter de Hooch, and Van der Meer of Delft the entire -seventeenth century is reflected, clearly and with animation, treated -with charming familiarity or else with grandiose effect, in its spirit, -its manner of feeling, its habits and costumes. What a domain painting -would have had; from the official festivals and the bustle of public -life down to the complete delineation of the family home! Literature had -entered into this course a quarter of a century before, and had shown -the path--a path leading to new worlds. But in French art French society -is not reflected. Not a single painter has left us a picture of this -splendid Paris, dancing on a volcano and yet so amiably delightful. -Classicism and historical painting still held the field, as if turned to -stone, and show, in essentials, hardly any modification. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - ALEXANDRE CABANEL.] - -So far back as in 1833, Charles Lenormant wrote of the school of David: -"Even the great painter Ingres was not able to rejuvenate a school which -was breaking up from old age, or to restore their full resonance to the -slackened and worn-out chords; his only office was to give the old -synagogue honourable burial. Take away this last scion of the Classical -school, and the curtain may fall--the farce is ended." He might have -said the same thing forty years later, for with Cabanel and Bouguereau -Classicism has limped on, almost unchanged, to our own days. Its art was -a correct, conventional picture-stencilling, which might just as well -have flourished a generation earlier. Classicism--which in David was -hard and Spartan, in Ingres cold and correct--has become pretty in -Cabanel and Bouguereau, and is completely dissolved in the scent of -roses and violets. Only a certain perfume of the _demi-monde_ brings the -persons who appear as Venus, as naiads, as Aurora or Diana, into -complete accord with the epoch which produced them. For Ingres the -female body itself was the exclusive canon of beautiful form; now the -swelling limbs begin to stretch themselves voluptuously forth. Ingres -still treats the human eye as it was treated in ancient sculpture, as -something animal, soulless, and dead; now it begins to twinkle -provocatively. A modern refined taste plays round the classical scheme. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - CABANEL. THE SHULAMITE.] - -[Illustration: BOUGUEREAU. BROTHERLY LOVE.] - -_Alexandre Cabanel_, the incarnation of the academician, was, under -Napoleon III, the head of the cole des Beaux Arts. He was a fortunate -man. Born at Montpellier, the city of professors, nourished from his -earliest youth on academic milk, winner of the Grand Prix de Rome in -1845, awarded the first medal at the Universal Exhibition of 1855, he -went on his way, laden with orders and offices, amid the tumultuous -applause of the public. Among the artists of the nineteenth century none -attained in so high a degree all those honours which lie open to a -painter in our days. Yet, as an artist, he remained all his life on the -plane of the school of Ingres. Even his "Death of Moses," the first -picture which he sent from Rome to the Salon, was entirely pieced -together out of Raphael and Michael Angelo. After that he laid himself -out to provide England and America with those women, more or less fully -attired, who bore sometimes biblical, sometimes literary names: Delilah, -the Shulamite woman, Jephthah's daughter, Ruth, Tamar, Flora, Echo, -Psyche, Hero, Lucretia, Cleopatra, Penelope, Phdra, Desdemona, -Fiammetta, Francesca da Rimini, Pia dei Tolomei--an endless procession. -But the only variety in this poetical seraglio lay in the inscriptions -on the labels; the way in which the figures were represented was always -the same. His works are pictures blamelessly drawn, moderately well -painted, which leave one cold and untouched at heart. They possess that -unusual polish and that dexterity of exposition which, like good manners -in society, create a favourable impression, but are insufficient in -themselves to make a man a pleasant companion. Nowhere is there anything -that takes hold upon the soul, nowhere any touch to prove that the -artist has felt anything in his painting, or force the beholder to feel -for himself. The unvarying faces of his figures, with their eternal -dark-rimmed eyes, resemble not living human beings but painted plaster -casts. One would take his "Cleopatra," apathetically observing the -operation of the poison, to be stuffed, like the panther at her feet. -One seeks in vain for a figure that is sincere or interesting, for a -face alluring in its truth to nature. His "Venus" of 1862 made him the -favourite painter of the Tuileries, and the insipid, rosy tints of that -picture became more and more feeble in the course of years, until his -works resembled wearisome cartoons, coloured by no matter what process. -He was Picot's pupil, it is true, but in reality Ingres was his -grandfather, a grandfather far, far greater than himself, whose -portraits alone show the entire littleness of Cabanel. All his life long -Ingres was in his portraits a fresh, animated, and admirable realist. -Cabanel indeed also painted in his earliest days likenesses of ladies -which were full of serious grace, uniting a powerful fidelity to nature -with considerable elegance. But his success was fatal to him. Moreover, -as a portrait-painter, he became the depicter of society, and society -ruined him. In order to please his distinguished customers, he devoted -himself far more than is good for portrait-painting to smooth rosy -flesh, large glassy eyes, and dainty fine hands, and over-idealised his -sitters till they lost every appearance of life. - -[Illustration: LEFBURE. TRUTH. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright._)] - -_William Bouguereau_, who industriously learnt all that can be -assimilated by a man destitute of artistic feeling but possessing a -cultured taste, reveals even more clearly, in his feeble mawkishness, -the fatal decline of the old schools of convention. He has been compared -to Octave Feuillet, who also never extricated himself from the scented -atmosphere of distinguished society; but the comparison is unjust to -Feuillet. Bouguereau is in his Madonna-painting a perfumed Ary Scheffer, -in his Venus-pictures a greater Hamon; and in his perfectly finished and -faultless stencilling style of beauty he became from year to year more -and more insupportable. His art is a kind of painting on porcelain on a -large scale, and he gives to his Madonnas and his nymphs the same smooth -rosy tints, the same unreal universalised forms, until at last they -become a _juste-milieu_ between Raphael's "Galatea" and the wax models -one sees in hairdressers' shops. Only in one sense can his religious -painting be called modern; it is an elegant lie, like the whole of the -Second Empire. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - HENNER. SUSANNA AND THE ELDERS.] - -Close by Bouguereau's "Venus" in the Luxembourg hangs the well-known -colossal figure of a beautiful nude woman with unnaturally -over-developed thighs, which by the shining mirror in its uplifted right -hand proclaims itself to be "Truth." _Jules Lefbure_, the painter of -this picture, is also completely a slave to tradition; he came from -Cogniet's studio, and won the Prix de Rome in 1861. But he at least -possesses more taste, elegance, and character; his painting of the nude -is more distinguished, truer, and more powerful. He is in the broader -sense of the word a worshipper of nature, and was so in his youth -especially. His "Sleeping Girl" of 1865 and his "Femme couche" of 1868 -are smooth and honest studies from the nude, of delicate, sure -draughtsmanship, and have therefore not become antiquated even to-day. -Unfortunately he did not find this masculine accent again, when at a -later time he grouped ideal figures together to make pictures of them. -His "Diana surprised" of 1879 was a very clever composition of -well-ordered lines, possessing even fine details, especially one or two -charming heads, but as a whole it is lifeless and uninteresting. Like -Bouguereau, he lacks power, and, notwithstanding his distinction and his -capacity for arrangement, he is not painter enough to be truthfully -entitled a "painter of the nude." - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - HENNER. THE SLEEPER.] - -In general, French art, however willingly it took to this sphere during -the period we are considering, is rich indeed in well-drawn documents, -but poor in works which, considered as painting, can bear the most -distant comparison with Fragonard and Boucher. The Revolution had put an -end to the joyous flesh-painting of French art. At the close of the -eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century the painter of -tender and life-like flesh-colour was not the reformer David, but the -despised Prudhon. The former found his ideal in statues, and turned -flesh to stone. The latter, a direct descendant of Correggio, gave -expression to life with a tender mellowness. Ingres was again, like -David, a very mediocre flesh-painter, and the Romanticists entered this -sphere but seldom. Delacroix indeed has in his "Massacre" a couple of -excellent touches, but they are isolated phenomena in his work. After -1850 the approved system was to give nude female figures the appearance -of being made of terra-cotta, biscuit, or ivory. The forgotten art of -painting velvety, soft flesh, and of making it vibrate in light, had to -be learned over again, and to this meritorious task _Henner_ devoted -himself--the modern Correggio from Alsace, who stands to Cabanel in the -same relation as Prudhon to David. Even Henner in his later days has -become very much a mannerist, and has done some very bad work. To-day he -prefers a heavy, pasty, buttery style of painting, with faces which look -as if they had been pickled in oil, and have an unreal expression; his -contrasts of light and shade, once so delicate, have become raw and -forced. Yet beside Cabanel he still appears the true poet of female -flesh-painting, the dreamy graceful depicter of refined sensuality. -Prudhon's delicate ideal and his language of vibrating tenderness are -revived in Henner. His "Nymph resting" in the Luxembourg has the same -soft _morbidezza_, the same delightful mystery, in which Prudhon before -him had enveloped the sweetness of smiling faces and the beauty of -female forms. He too chose the Lombards as his guides. After winning the -Prix de Rome in 1858, he sent to the Salon of 1865 a "Susanna," which -already shows his ability as a flesh-painter and his relationship to -Correggio. And a Lombard he has remained all his life. One could with -difficulty find a more delicate and smooth study of the nude than his -"Biblis" of 1867. - -[Illustration: PAUL BAUDRY.] - -Since that time another tendency highly characteristic of Henner has -shown itself in his work. In his endeavour to render the tint and tender -softness of flesh as delicately as possible, he sought at the same time -for light which should intensify the clear tone of the nude body. These -he found in that time of evening, which one might call Henner's hour, -when the landscape, overshadowed by the twilight, gradually loses -colour, and only a small blue space in the sky or a silent forest-lake -still for a moment preserves the reflection of vanishing daylight. In -this tranquil harmony of nature after sunset, the white pallor of the -human body seems to have absorbed all the daylight and to be giving it -forth again, while the surrounding landscape is already merging into -colourless shadow. This is Henner's "second manner," and he raised it -into a system. Every year since then there has appeared in the Salon one -of those pale nymphs, standing out so mistily against the dark green of -an evening landscape, or one of those Virgilian eclogues, in which the -gloaming rests caressingly upon nude white bodies. And by this method of -painting flesh and of throwing light upon it, Henner has won for himself -an important place in modern art. - -_Paul Baudry_, the powerful decorator of the Grand Opera House at Paris, -marks the close of this tendency. In his work the endeavours of all -those talented artists who sought to found a new school of "ideal -painting" upon the basis of the study of the Italian Classicists came to -a crowning height; and at the same time Baudry took a further step -onward, in that he vivified the classical scheme with a yet more marked -cast of "modernity." - -His first picture, on the murder of Marat, was feeble. What David had -executed smoothly and forcibly in his dead "Marat," Baudry spoiled in -his "Charlotte Corday." The bath, the night-table with the inkstand on -it, the map on the wall, and all the fittings of the room, are painted -with the greatest finish, but the young heroine in her petrified -idealism has no more life in her than there is in the furniture. - -His "Pearl and Wave," which is hung in the Luxembourg close to Cabanel's -and Bouguereau's "Birth of Venus," gave proof of progress. A deep-blue -wave, towering on high and crowned with foam, has washed a charming -woman ashore like a costly pearl. She seems to have just awakened out of -slumber, and her roguish, moistly gleaming eyes are smiling. Saucily she -leans forward her fair-haired head under her bended arms, and stretches -out in easy motion her youthfully slender yet fully proportioned body. -Bouguereau's and even Cabanel's female beauties are waxen and spoiled by -retouching, but Baudry's Cypris is a living being, and preserves some of -the individual charm of the model. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - BAUDRY. CHARLOTTE CORDAY.] - -It is this breath of realism which gives their attractiveness to -Baudry's pictures in the Paris Opera House. He cannot indeed be ranked -as a truly great master of decorative painting, as the Fragonard of the -nineteenth century; he was too eclectic. The five years, from 1851 to -1856, which as winner of the Prix de Rome he spent in the Villa Medici, -were the happiest of his life. He saw in the Italian galleries neither -Holbein nor Velasquez, neither Rembrandt nor Botticelli nor Caravaggio. -He saw nothing and revered nothing save the pure tradition of the -Cinquecento, which was to him the Alpha and Omega of art. He dreamed of -great decorative works which should place him on an equality with those -old masters. It was therefore joyful news to him when, at the suggestion -of his old comrade Charles Garnier, he was commissioned to adorn the -Opera House. Baudry was then thirty-five years old, in possession of -his full powers, and yet he thought it necessary to go back to Italy to -interrogate the masters of the Renaissance anew. For a full year he -worked ten hours daily in the Sistine Chapel. As soon as he knew Michael -Angelo by heart, he betook himself to England to copy Raphael's -cartoons, and then in 1870 for the third time to Italy, before he felt -himself capable of covering the five hundred square metres of canvas. -The task took him four years, and when it was exhibited at the Palais -des Beaux-Arts in 1874, prior to being placed in its final -resting-place, there was general astonishment at a single man's power to -produce so much and such great work. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - BAUDRY. TRUTH.] - -To-day his praise cannot be sounded so high. The place to which he -aspired, by the side of the great masters of the Renaissance, will not -fall to Baudry's lot; he is hardly to be reckoned even among the great -French masters of the nineteenth century. To rise even so far he lacked -the first and most essential gift--originality. He was a model pupil in -his youth, and a pupil he remained all his life. He always saw nature -through the medium of art, and never had the courage to take a fresh -breath and plunge into its fountain of youth. Between him and reality -there was ever the prism of the old pictures that he loved; brush in -hand, he devoted himself, turn by turn, and with equal enthusiasm, to -Michael Angelo, Titian, Correggio, Bronzino, and even Ingres. As soon as -he returned from Italy for the first time, as holder of the Prix de -Rome, he exhibited several pictures which were altogether Titian in -colouring, altogether Raphael in style. Each of them, even the most -important, calls some other painting to one's mind. His "Fortune and the -Child" is a variation upon Titian's "Divine and Earthly Love"; his -"Death of a Vestal Virgin" a reminiscence of the "Death of Peter -Martyr"; his "Warrior" in the Opera House is the painted double of -Rude's "Marseillaise." How many gestures, attitudes, and figures could, -by a close analysis, be shown to be borrowed in turn from Veronese, -Andrea del Sarto, Correggio, or Raphael! His works are a synthesis of -the favourite forms of the Cinquecento; they are the testament of the -Cinquecento masters. He was a Parisian Primaticcio, a posthumous member -of the old school of Fontainebleau. In him was embodied the last smile -of the Renaissance, the results of which he assimilated and reduced to -formul. He lacked creative imagination, and his pictures are wanting in -individual character. The nervous movement and sinewy stretchings of his -young men's bodies would never have been painted but for Donatello's -"David." Of his women, the powerful and muscular are descended from -Michael Angelo's "Eve," the more slender and elegant come down from -Rosso. His palette, with its blue and white tints, is bright and -flowery, but it is no less artificial than his composition. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - BAUDRY. THE PEARL AND THE WAVE. - - (_By permission of Mr. W. H. Stewart, the owner of the picture._)] - -Nevertheless, it would be unjust to speak of Baudry's work as merely -faded Classicism, or as Michael Angelo and water. He was not merely a -pupil of the Italians; he contributed something Parisian of his own, -something pretty, mannered, refined, graceful, seductive, and smiling, -and felt himself independent enough to give to his conventional figures -this sprightly addition of genuinely modern nervosity. The -birth-certificates of his young men were drawn up in Florence, those of -his young women in Rome, three hundred and fifty years ago; yet there is -in the latter something of the _Parisienne_, in the former something of -the modern dandies who know the fevered life of the Boulevards. In his -delightful art there is French wit, there is a touch of the piquant, of -the feminine, of the ambiguous, which almost amounts to indecency. One -can still recognise the charming model in the figures of his dancers and -Muses; you can see that Music's or Poetry's waist was laced up in a -close-fitting corset before she sat for the picture. One may meet these -women at any moment, trailing their dresses along the sidewalks of the -Boulevards, or riding negligently in their carriages back from the Bois -de Boulogne. And still more modern than the wasp-like form of the body -is the character of the face and the smile on the lips. Thus Baudry has -given a new shade to the manner in which one can obtain inspiration from -the old masters. To all that he borrowed he added a personal and -charming note. He possesses an elegance and grace which are neither -Correggio's, nor Raphael's, nor Veronese's, but French and Parisian. His -Muses and Cupids, his "Comedy" and his "Judgment of Paris," are -documents of the French spirit in the nineteenth century, and--together -with a few small and fine portraits on a green or blue background _ la_ -Clouet, among which that of his friend About takes the first rank--they -will always assure him an important place in the history of French art. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - BAUDRY. CYBELE. - - (_By permission of the Marquise Arconati-Visconti, the owner of the - picture._) ] - -[Illustration: BAUDRY. LEDA.] - -Another artist who worked with Baudry at the decoration of the Grand -Opera House was _lie Delaunay_, who painted in a hall leading out of -the foyer three large pictures on the myths of Apollo, Orpheus, and -Amphion, and was at that time less appreciated than he deserved. -Delaunay was born in the same year as Baudry, and, like him, was a -Breton. In their genius also they are very similar. He shared in -Baudry's admiration of the masters of the Renaissance, but his worship -was less for the Cinquecento than the fourteenth century. It was in -Flandrin's studio that he prepared himself for his entry into the cole -des Beaux Arts. His first picture, in 1849, "Christ healing a Leper," -was, with respect to its Roman manner of conceiving form and its -bronze-like firm draughtsmanship, still entirely in the style of Ingres. -It was not till he went to Italy in 1856, as winner of the Prix de Rome, -that he turned from the works of the Roman school to those of the early -Renaissance masters, to whom he was attracted by their rigorous study -of form and their manly severity. His sketch books were filled with -drawings after Paolo Uccello, Filippo Lippi, Pollajualo, Ghirlandajo, -Botticelli, Gozzoli, and Signorelli. It was just at this time that -French sculpture was making its significant revolt against the antique -and in favour of Donatello, Verrocchio, and Della Robbia; that the Prix -de Florence was founded, and that Paul Dubois' "Florentine Singer" -appeared. Delaunay became as a pupil of the Quattrocento masters one of -the greatest draughtsmen of the century, a healthy Naturalist in the -sense in which the Primitives were so, with a concise and firm power of -design which only Ingres amongst modern French painters shares with him. -The bodies of his nude male figures are strained in nerve and muscle -like those of Donatello; they have the essential elegance and powerful -rhythm of Dubois' statues. Even the two pictures which he sent from -Italy to the Salon, "The Nymph Hesperia fleeing from the Pursuit of -sacus," and the "Lesson on the Flute" in the Museum at Nantes, were -works of great taste and sincerity, studied with respectful and patient -devotion to nature, without striving after sentimental effect and -without conventional reminiscences. When in 1861 he returned from Rome, -he completed the frescoes in the church of St. Nicholas in Nantes, -which, in their strict severity, remind one of Signorelli's Cycle at -Orvieto. In 1865 appeared in the Salon his "Plague at Rome," which -afterwards passed into the Luxembourg, and which is not devoid of tragic -accent. In that collection hangs also his "Diana" of 1872, a proud nude -figure drawn with firm and manly lines, and full of grave dignity, after -the manner of Feuerbach. At the same time as his "Diana" he exhibited -his portrait of a Mlle. Lechat, seated like one of Botticelli's Madonnas -in front of a trellis of roses--in the style of the old masters, and yet -modern, naturalistic, and in excellent taste. Thenceforth he took his -place among the first portrait painters of his time. There is an -inexorable love of truth, a something bronze-like and stony in his -pictures, finished as they are with the firm impress of medals. -Instances of this may be found in his fine portrait of Mme. Toulmouche, -whom he has represented in a white summer costume, with black gloves, -seated in the midst of cheerful landscape; and also in several male -heads drawn with that firmness of modelling which Bronzino in his best -days alone possessed. After the completion of the Opera paintings he -finished, in 1876, twelve decorative pictures for the great hall of the -Council of State in the Palais Royal. His last works, which remained -unfinished, were designs for the Pantheon--scenes from the life of St. -Genevive--in which he followed in the footsteps of the great fresco -colourists of Upper Italy, Gaudenzio Ferrari and Pordenone. lie -Delaunay was no original genius, and as a pupil of the painters of the -Quattrocento has not enriched the history of art in any way, but he -stands forth, in a time which cared for nothing but external effect, as -a very loyal, serious, and honest artist, whose works all bear the stamp -of a healthy, manly spirit. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - BAUDRY. EDMOND ABOUT.] - -Though in the works of these masters the Classicism of Ingres passes -away, in part enfeebled and in part imbued with modern elements and -vivified by a more direct study of nature, yet on the whole Paul -Delaroche dominates this period also. Historical painting takes the -highest places in the Salon, and shows itself altered only in this -respect, that, instead of Delaroche's tameness of style, we have -sensational subjects, arguments which revel in scenes of horror and -display of corpses. Literature had already entered upon this path. Even -Mrime in his last novel, _Lokis_, was clearly the forerunner of that -tendency in taste which Taine characterised by the words, "_Depuis dix -ans une nuance de brutalit complte l'lgance_." Flaubert himself, in -his _Salambo_, was to some extent carried away by the stream. Consider, -for instance, the descriptions of Gisko crawling, a maimed, shapeless -stump, out of the ditch into Matho's tent, and of how his head is sawn -off; of the tortures inflicted by the Carthaginian people upon the -captured Matho; or of how the mercenaries are starved to death in the -rocky valley where they were imprisoned. Vying with this tendency of -literature, painting attained in its chosen themes an over-excitation -which reached the limits of the possible. While Delaroche had only in a -very timid manner led the way to the tragedies of history, the younger -artists hunted up all the most horrible deeds of blood to be found in -the great Book of Martyrs of the story of man, and elaborated them on -gigantic canvases. It would be quite impossible to draw up a catalogue -of all the murders at that time perpetrated by French art. They might be -arranged under various headings, as biblical, historical, political -murders; murders in connection with robbery, and murders arising out of -revenge; with subdivisions corresponding to the means employed, as -poison, the dagger, the halter, broadsword and rapier, the bowstring, -strangling, burning, etc. This was the time when, on account of this -dominance of the "_Genre froce_," the public used to call the Salon the -Morgue. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DELAUNAY. DIANA.] - -_Toudouze_ painted the "Fall of Sodom" with a dozen copper-coloured -Abyssinians, larger than life, rolling on the ground in convulsions, -while Lot's wife, dying and half-consumed by fire, gnashes her teeth as -she raises the corpse of her child over her head. In a picture of -_George Becker's_ were represented the corpses of King Saul's sons, -delivered over by David to the Gibeonites, hanging alongside of each -other in a dark forest scene on a cross-shaped framework, like butcher's -meat from the shambles. Their mother stands beneath the scaffold, -swinging a knotted club to protect the corpses from an antediluvian -vulture. In a painting by _Brhan_, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, gives a -banquet, and by way of dessert has his guests the Scythian leaders -massacred by his mercenaries. In one by _Matthieu_, Heliogabalus has hit -upon a yet happier idea, for at the conclusion of the meal he sets -half-starved lions and tigers upon his guests. _Aim Morot_ depicted in -a large picture "The Wives of the Ambrones" in the battle of Aqu -Sexti. They are hurling themselves like a horde of furies upon the -Roman horsemen who are attacking the camp. Half-naked, or entirely so, -with their hair flowing behind them, they throw themselves upon the -Romans, catch hold of the swords by the blade, tear their eyes out, and -are trampled beneath the horses' hoofs. Especially popular were the -voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the Csars. Nero -in particular suited the atmosphere of the period; his ghost haunted the -novel, the stage, sculpture, and painting, and there seemed to be a -general agreement to immortalise him and the morally monstrous -personality of Locusta. In a picture by _Sylvestre_ he is represented -with florid cheeks, glowing with fat, and gloating over the mortal agony -of a slave lying on the ground, upon whom Locusta has tested the poison -intended for Britannicus. _Aublet_ varied the same theme by making a -negro lad the victim, while several corpses of negroes lying in the -background suggest that the Emperor was not quite satisfied with -Locusta's first experiments. Round Nero, the more entirely to fill his -magnificent Golden House, the charming shades of his congenial comrades -in crime weave their flitting dances. _Pelez_ depicted the strangling of -the Emperor Commodus by the gladiator to whom the Empress had entrusted -the task, and painted with tender interest the marks caused by suffusion -of blood which the athlete's hand had left upon the unhappy prince's -neck. A very familiar figure is that of Seneca, with distorted features, -uttering his last words of wisdom while the blood pours from his opened -veins. After the madness of the Csars comes the atrocious history of -the Merovingian kings. _Luminais_, the painter of Gauls and barbarians, -represented in his large picture "Les nervs de Jumiges" the sons of -King Clovis II, who, after the muscles of their knees have been -destroyed by fire, are set helplessly adrift in a boat on the Seine. -Then followed torture scenes from the time of the Inquisition, and -saints burning at the stake. The conception which this post-Romantic -generation had of the East was of cruelty and voluptuousness mixed, a -thing pieced together out of white bodies, purple streams of blood, and -brown backgrounds. Here, the favourite Sultana contemplates the severed -head of her rival, which stares at her out of its glassy eyes; there, -eunuchs are making ready to strangle a woman condemned to death. In -works such as these the genius, powerful in composition, of Benjamin -Constant, celebrates its triumphs. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DELAUNAY. BOYS SINGING.] - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - DELAUNAY. MADAME TOULMOUCHE.] - -Yet, notwithstanding all the means of allurement furnished by such -themes, these paintings almost invariably fail to produce the -anticipated effect. Not that it is the brutality of the subjects that -makes them unpleasant. Art in all times has busied itself with the -horrible. How voluptuously does Dante depict the horrors of Hell! What -imagination was ever peopled with figures more dreadful than those -conceived by Shakespeare? Cruelty and death have a poetry of their own: -why should Art prudishly abstain from depicting them? Only, if the -result is to be a good picture, the subject must be in strict congruity -with the talent employed upon it, and in the majority of these works -this conformity is lacking. The subjects alone had become more savage -and brutal. In the manner of treatment there is none of the wild effect -which the Neapolitans of the seventeenth century gave to their scenes of -martyrdom. Spirits truly wild, like Delacroix and Caravaggio, are not to -be met with every day. The painters who launched out upon these -bloodthirsty themes took absolutely no inward "enjoyment in tragical -subjects," but simply painted them as if after precepts learned at -school. And as they were also deficient in that knowledge of nature -which is acquired only by direct study of life, not one of them was in a -position to give to his historical scenes that naturalistic weight which -alone gives to such themes a character of convincing probability. True, -these pictures compel respect on account of their unusual ability. These -naked bodies, twisting themselves in the most varying postures of pain, -give proof by their correct draughtsmanship of the most painstaking -anatomical studies, yet after all they are nothing more than inverted -Laocons. The Classical spirit haunts them still, and a discordant -effect is produced when subjects so full of wild passion are tranquilly -depicted according to cold conventional rules. Over all these figures -and scenes, even the most horrible, lies the veil of a Classical -embellishment, which deprives them altogether of that directness which -lays hold on the imagination. The pictures are good studies of costume, -and make an admirable impression by their resplendent glow of colour; -they are show-pieces, brilliant stage effects, as happily conceived as -any of Sardou's. But the recipe for their production is still that of -the school of Delaroche: avoidance of all extremes, generalised forms, -careful composition, crude lukewarmness, or the affectation of daring. -Scarce one of these painters has given to his wild subject an equal -wildness of treatment; not one has raised himself from the paltry level -of Delaroche to the artistic height of Delacroix. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - SYLVESTRE. LOCUSTA TESTING IN NERO'S PRESENCE POISON PREPARED FOR - BRITANNICUS.] - -_Laurens_ alone, surnamed by his comrades "the Benedictine," because his -predilection was for forgotten themes from ecclesiastical history, -constitutes in a certain sense an exception to the rule. He too belongs -to the group of historical painters whose theory is that a picture -should represent an historical fact with absolute accuracy. But he is -more masculine than Delaroche. His personages are truer to nature, or, -if one will, less banal; the general effect is warmer and fuller of -life; he has a greater power of attracting attention. There is nothing -great in his work, but there is no cold pedantry: the art of combination -is more adroit, so that one is less aware of calculation, and may -sometimes observe a grim earnestness. He really loves the terrible, -while the others merely made use of it for the manufacture of what are -nothing more than tableaux. To the Inquisition especially he was -indebted for notable successes, and at times he was able to depict its -dark scenes of horror in a very subtle manner. When he heaps up, in -front of a church, corpses to which the priests have refused burial; -when he disinters popes in order to place them in the dock before their -accusers; when he opens coffins to reveal the decomposed features of -some erstwhile beauty, he sets even blunted nerves on the stretch; and -as he has therein attained the goal he had proposed to himself, his art -is not without its justification. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - LUMINAIS. LES NERVS DE JUMIGES.] - -Among the younger generation, _Rochegrosse_, an artist of daring genius, -appeared for a while to have taken to such themes by free choice, and -not solely through the traditions of the studio. One seemed to observe -in his works a truly emotional temperament flaming behind the trammels -of conventionality, and was almost inclined to rank him among the -spirits of storm and stress who trace their descent from Delacroix. -After his first picture, in which "Vitellius" is represented dragged -through the streets of Rome and ill treated by the populace, he achieved -success with a scene taken from the destruction of Troy. Here -"Andromache," raging with impotent anguish, is struggling against a -number of Greeks who have snatched her child from her arms to throw it -down from the ramparts. This brutal strife is depicted with the highest -naturalistic power. Neither the heroine nor the warriors belong to the -ideal figures of the style of compromise. Andromache is of a fulness of -form almost approaching corpulence, and the Greeks remind one of Indians -on the warpath. Mangled corpses complete the picture, and on the bare -wall to the left, over the stairs, hang dead bodies abandoned to -corruption and the birds of prey. In his third picture he took for his -theme the horrors of the barbarous and ferocious Peasants' War in the -fourteenth century, as Mrime had described them in his book entitled -_La Jacquerie_; and his work is all the more effective as there lurks in -the subject a certain grim modern touch which reminds one of the Social -Democracy, of the insurrection of the Commune, of something which might -happen even to-day. The insurgents break into the hall, where the ladies -of the castle have taken refuge with their children. One alone stands -erect, the grandmother in her nun-like widow's dress, and stretches her -arms behind her with a gesture of energy, as if to shield the younger -ones at her back. The foremost intruder ironically takes off his cap. -Another lifts up on his pike the fair-haired, bleeding head of the lord -of the castle; a third has similarly transfixed his reeking heart. -Others are pressing in from without, breaking the window panes with -their weapons, which are yet dripping with blood. Beneath frightful -figures are seen, the most horrible that of a woman standing on the -window-sill, her hands propped upon her knees, gazing with insane -laughter upon the mortal terror of the aristocratic ladies. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - LAURENS. THE INTERDICT.] - -In his subsequent pictures Rochegrosse did not go so far afield. His -"Murder of Julius Csar" was a work of art in white upon white, full of -crude imagination, with white walls, white reflections of light, white -togas, and dark red blotches of blood. His grass-eating "Nebuchadnezzar" -proved that from the sublime to the ridiculous there is often only a -step. Between times he painted archological trifles for ladies of -literary culture, such as the "Battle of the Sparrows" of 1890; but in -his great "Fall of Babylon" he has proved once more what he can do. No -doubt it is not a fine work: it is a mere decorative piece, but an -astonishingly spirited performance. The scene is the palace of the -Babylonian kings, the decorative construction of which the recovered -monuments and the recent scientific investigations had rendered it -possible to reproduce. Rochegrosse consulted with the zeal of an -archologist all the treasures of the Louvre and the British -Museum,--Assyrian friezes, ornaments, and costumes,--and then set forth -in these surroundings the famous banquet at which the Prophet Daniel -explained the words "Mene, Tekel, Peres." The day begins to break; in -the distance the army of the Medes advancing to attack the palace has -burst open the gate; Belshazzar leaves the table in terror, and takes to -his weapons; the naked women, still intoxicated, stretch their limbs, or -remain lazily indifferent lying on the ground; around is a dazzling -confusion of mosaics, of polychrome architecture, of fantastic images of -animals, of glittering tapestries shot with many hues and pleasing to -the eye; of flowers, vases, fruits, pastry, and nude bodies of women. -The grey light of morning strives to overcome that of the -half-extinguished lamps, and rests with leaden weight upon the gigantic -still-life below. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - REGNAULT. SALOME. - - (_By permission of M. Georges Petit, the owner of the copyright._)] - -If some portion of Delacroix's wild genius appears to have descended -upon Rochegrosse, yet was _Henri Regnault_, as a colourist, the greatest -of Delacroix's heirs--even allowing for the exaggerated renown which -came to him in France, from the fact that he was the last to fall in the -war of 1870. His portrait of "General Prim" of 1869, which, rejected by -the sitter, came eventually to the Louvre, is somewhat reminiscent of -Velasquez and Delacroix, but is nevertheless, with those of Gricault, -amongst the finest equestrian portraits of the century. In his "Salome" -he has depicted a black-haired girl with twitching feet, resting upon a -stool after her dance, and contemplating with the cruelty of a tigress -the platter which she holds ready for the head of John the Baptist, -while her glowing red mouth with its dazzling teeth smiles like that of -an innocent child. In her he has embodied with infernal subtlety the -demon of voluptuous wantonness, and has composed a symphony in yellow -of seductive and dazzling charm. She is attired in transparent -gold-inwoven robes, which have a caressing congruity with the -resplendent texture of the background. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - REGNAULT. THE MOORISH HEADSMAN.] - -His "Moorish Headsman" is a symphony in red. In his pale rose-red garb -the tall Moor stands in majestic dignity, wipes a few drops of blood -from the blade of his sword, and glances with careless indifference--a -type of the dreamy cruelty of Oriental fatalism--without anger and -without pity, without hatred and without satisfaction, upon the severed -head with its distorted eyes, which, rolling down a couple of steps, has -stained the white marble with purple patches of blood. "I will cause the -genuine Moors to rise again, at once rich and great, terrible and -voluptuous,"--so the voice of Delacroix speaks out of this picture by -Regnault. His paintings, like those of his master, have the effect of -splendid Oriental costumes; they are shot with every hue, they lighten -and glisten, they are inwoven with magnificent arabesques of gold and -silver, with sparkling embroideries and precious stones. The "Orlando -Furioso" of art lives once more in these fascinating harmonies, in the -power, splendour, and lustre of the colouring. Just as Baudry at the -close of the Classical period produced in his paintings for the Opera -House the noblest work after the idealist formul, so Regnault in his -"Salome" and his "Prim" has completed the last defiant works of the -formul of Romanticism. - -We have thought it advisable to follow this development of the art of -painting down to its close, just as in treating of the older periods we -have proceeded, not upon chronological principles, but upon those of -historical style. Now that the old art has been followed to the grave, -it will be all the easier, later on, to perceive clearly how the new -arose slowly out of its invisible depths. And as France since 1830 has -become the high school of art for other nations, those paths have at the -same time been indicated along which the art of painting was proceeding -during these years in other countries. - -[Illustration: HENRI REGNAULT GENERAL PRM] - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -THE HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF PAINTING IN BELGIUM - - -Belgian art had gone through the same history as French art since David. -When the French patriarch came to Brussels to pass the remainder of his -days there in honour, he found the ground already well prepared. The -Classicists had long since made their way into art, and the old Flemish -tradition was dying out. Lens and Herreyns are the last colourists in -the sense of the good old time, but they are associated with the good -old time only through the qualities of their colouring. As a degenerate -descendant of Van Dyck, _Lens_ painted with a feeble brush sweet, -insipid, sugary work for boudoirs and _prie-dieu_ chairs; and had lost -his feeling for nature to such a degree that he gave the aged the same -flesh tint as children, and men the full breasts of hermaphrodites. -_Herreyns_, appointed director of the Antwerp Academy in 1800, was more -masculine; and although likewise conventional and wanting in -individuality, he was none the less a painter of breadth and boldness. -He was most enraptured with a model with a copper-coloured skin and -knotted muscles, or with pretty and ruddy children, and fat nurses with -swelling breasts. This bold worker embodied in his own person the art of -a great epoch, but did nothing to renew it. These painters, indeed, only -mixed for a new hash the crumbs fallen from the table at which giants -had once sat. They looked backwards instead of around them, and lighted -their modest little lamp at the sun of Rubens. France was the only -country where art followed the great changes of culture in the age. -Hence Flemish painting had been crossed with French elements long before -David's arrival. And Paris was for the artists of 1800 what Italy had -been for those of 1600. They made their pilgrimage in troops to the -studio of Suve, who had originally come from Bruges, but had lived -since 1771 on the Seine. There, and there only, recipes for the -composition of great figure pictures were to be obtained. And thus art -completed what the Empire had in a political sense begun. The artistic -barriers fell as the geographical ones had done before, and the Belgian -painters went back to Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and Bruges as men -annexed by France. - -David on his arrival needed only to shake the tree and the fruit fell -ripe into his lap. He entered Flanders like a conqueror, and left the -signs of ravage behind him on his triumphal progress. In Brussels a -court gathered round him as round a banished king, and a gold medal was -struck in memory of his arrival. He took Flemish art in his powerful -hands and crushed it. For, needless to say, he saw nothing but barbarism -in the genius of Rubens, and inoculated Flemish artists with a genuine -horror of their great prince of painters. He continued to teach in -Brussels what he had preached in Paris, and became the father-in-law of -a deadly tiresome Franco-Belgian school, to which belonged a succession -of correct painters; men such as Duvivier, Ducq, Paelinck, Odevaere, and -others. For the aboriginal, sturdy, energetic, and carnal Flemish art -was prescribed the mathematical regularity of the antique canon. The old -Flemish joyousness of colour passed into a consumptive cacophony. And -then was repeated in Belgium the tragedy which Classicism had played in -France. Everything became a pretext for draperies, stiff poses, -sculptural groupings, and plaster heads. Phdra and Theseus, Hector and -Andromache, Paris and Helen, were, as in Paris, the most popular -subjects. And so great a confusion reigned, that a sculptor from whom a -wolf was ordered included the history of Romulus and Remus gratuitously. - -The only one whose works are still partially enjoyable is _Navez_. He -was, like Ingres in France, the last prop of this art, chiselled, as it -were, out of stone; and even after the fall of Classicism he remained in -esteem, because, like Ingres, he knew how to steer a prudent course -between David, the Italians, and a certain independent study of nature. -A touch of realism was mingled with his mania for the Greeks; only to a -limited extent did he correct "ugly" nature; he would have ventured to -represent Socrates with his negro nose and Thersites with his hump, and, -again, like Ingres he has left behind him enduring performances as a -portrait painter. His correct, cold, and discreet talent grew warm at -the touch of human personality, and his drawings, in particular, prove -that he had warmth of feeling as an artist. As his biographer tells us, -he seldom laid down the sketch-book in which he fixed his impressions as -he talked. Every page was filled with sketches of a group, a figure, or -a gesture seen in the street and rapidly dashed off, "as realistically -as even Courbet could desire." And these he transferred, when he painted -in the "noble style." - -As Navez had importance as an artist, so had _Matthias van -Bree_--Herreyns' successor in the directorate of the Antwerp -Academy--importance as a teacher. He worked in Belgium, like Gros in -Paris, only in another way. While Gros as an artist was the forerunner -of Romanticism, and as a teacher an orthodox Classicist, Van Bree is -tedious as an artist, but as a teacher he fanned in the young generation -a glowing love for old Flemish art. No one spoke of Rubens, Van Dyck, -and the great art of the seventeenth century with so much warmth and -understanding; and whilst with the charcoal in his hand he composed -buckram cartoons, he dreamt of a youth who should arise to renew the old -Flemish tradition. - -Before long this young man had grown up. He had seen the artistic -treasures of Antwerp and Paris. Here Rubens had delighted his eyes, and -there Paul Veronese. As he admired both in the Louvre, he heard behind -him the voice of the young Romanticists who, like him, had an enthusiasm -for colour and movement, and blasphemed the stiff, colourless old David. -_Gustav Wappers_, also, had paid toll to Classicism, and painted in 1823 -a "Regulus" after the well-known recipe. All the greater was the -astonishment when, in 1830, he came forward with his "Burgomaster van -der Werff": "Burgomaster van der Werff of Leyden, at the siege of the -town in 1576, offers his own body as food to the famished citizens." The -very subject could not fail to create enthusiasm in the great body of -the people, excited as they were by ideas of liberty: the brilliant -method of presentation did this no less. What the old Van Bree looked -for, the return to the splendour of colour and sensuous fulness of life -of the old masters, was achieved in this picture. In the same year, when -Belgium had won her nationality and independence once more, a painter -also ventured to break away from the French formul of Classicism, and -to treat a national theme in the manner of those painters who in former -centuries had been the glory of Flanders. Wappers was greeted as a -national hero; his part it was to bring to an issue with the brush that -good fight which others had fought with the musket and sabre. His -picture was a sign of the delivery of Flemish art from the French house -of bondage. Whilst older men were horrified, as the followers of the -school of Delaroche were afterwards horrified at the "Stone-breakers" of -Courbet, the younger generation looked up to Wappers as a Messiah. -Everything in the Brussels Salon faded before the freshness of the new -work; a springtide in painting seemed to be at hand, and the wintry -rigidity of Classicism was warmed by a burst of sunshine, the old gods -trembled and felt their Olympus quake. Gustav Wappers was held to be the -leader of a new Renaissance. In him the great era of the seventeenth -century was to be continued. The iridescence of silken stuffs, the whole -colour and festal joyousness of the old masters, were found once more. -As in France there rose the shout, "An Ingres, a Delacroix!" so there -resounded in Belgium the battle-cry, "A Navez, a Wappers!" The picture -was bought by King William II of Holland, and in 1832 Wappers was made -Professor of the Antwerp Academy. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - GUSTAV WAPPERS.] - -The Exhibition of 1834 confirmed him in his new position as head of a -school. This was a genuine triumph, which he gained by his "Episode in -the Belgian Revolution of 1830." A scene out of the blood-stained days -of the street fights in Brussels--that glorious final chapter of the -struggle of the Belgian people for freedom from the French yoke--was -nothing less than an event in which every one had recently taken part. -At a period when so few realised how closely the great masters of the -past were bound to their own time and imbibed from it their strength and -nourishment, this new painter, in defiance of all theories, had drawn -boldly from life. This picture was regarded as "a hymn of jubilation for -what was attained and a threnody for the sacrifice it had cost." And the -neighbourhood of the church, where he had laid the action, stamped it -almost as the votive picture of the Belgian people for its dead. On the -right an artisan standing aloft upon a newly thrown up earthwork is -reading to his attentive comrades the rejected proclamation of the -Prince of Orange. On the left a reinforcement is coming up. In the -foreground boys are tearing up the pavement or beating the drum; and -here and there are enacted various tragical family scenes. Here a young -wife with a child on her arm clings with all the strength of despair to -her husband, who resists her and finally tears himself from her grasp -and hurries to the barricade--the cry of love is drowned amid the clash -of arms. There, supported on the knee of his grey-headed father, rests a -handsome young fellow with closing eyes and the death-wound in his -heart. It seems as though the Horatian _dulce et decorum est_ might be -said to wander over his features and to glorify them. For patriotism as -well as for mere sentiment, here are noble scenes enough and to spare. -Not only all Brussels, but all Belgium, made a pilgrimage to Wappers' -creation. Every mother beheld her lost son in the youth in the -foreground whose life has been sacrificed; every artisan's wife sought -her husband, her brother, or her father amongst the figures of the -fighting-men on the barricades. All the newspapers were full of praise, -and a subscription was set on foot to strike a medal in commemoration of -the picture. If, up to this time, Wappers had been merely praised as the -renewer of Belgian art, he was now placed alongside of the greatest -masters. Thiers induced him to exhibit in Paris the much discussed work, -the fame of which had passed beyond the boundaries of Belgium. The -"Episode" made a triumphal tour of all the great towns of Europe before -it found its home in the Muse Moderne; and Wappers' fame abroad -increased yet more his celebrity in Flanders. Thanks to him, the -neighbouring nations began to interest themselves in the Belgian school. -All were united in admiration of "the mighty conception and the -harmonious scheme of colour." The German _Morgenblatt_ published a study -of him in 1836. Wappers counted as the leading painter of his country. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - WAPPERS. THE SACRIFICE OF BURGOMASTER VAN DER WERFF AT THE SIEGE OF - LEYDEN.] - -Yet the same year brought him his first rivals. His entry on the stage -had given strength to a group of young painters belonging to the same -courageous movement, and the Brussels Salon of 1836 concentrated their -efforts. _Nicaise de Keyzer_ made his appearance in heavy armour. As -early as 1834 he had come forward with a great picture, a Crucifixion, -in which he desired to compete with Rubens, as it seemed, in the -latter's most special province. Yet the work merely testified to its -author's excellent memory: the majority of the heads, gestures, and -draperies had been made use of in old pictures in precisely the same -fashion. Consciously or not, he had copied fragments direct, and welded -them together in a new composition. If, in spite of this, the name of de -Keyzer already flew from mouth to mouth, he owed it to the nimbus of -romance which irradiated his person. The story went that an Antwerp lady -on one of her walks had seen a young man drawing in the sand, while his -flock was at pasture not far off. She stepped up and offered him a -pencil, and he, a new Cimabue, began forthwith to sketch a picture of -the Madonna. The drawing was so beautiful (so the tale ran) that the -lady would have held it a sin to allow the genius to end his days as a -shepherd. He came to town, received instruction, and learned to paint. A -little idyll illuminated by the amiability of a lady was quite enough to -prepare a friendly reception for De Keyzer. And since he, like a -tractable, modest young man, hearkened attentively to criticism, he -satisfied all desires when, in 1836, he came forward with his "Battle of -the Spurs at Courtrai, 1302." In its quiet elegance the work answered to -the peaceful mood which prevailed once more after the days of revolt and -political insurrection. He was given special credit for clearness of -composition and antiquarian exactness. De Keyzer had chosen the moment -when the Count of Artois was expiring on the knees of a Flemish soldier; -another Fleming had his arm raised to protect his general from the -approaching French. For the rest, there is a lull in the fight, though -the battlefield in the background is indicated with the minuteness of an -historian: none of those carnages of blood and smoke of which the world -was grown once more weary, but a correct, well-disciplined battle, a -skilful composition of fine gestures, helmets, cuirasses, and halberts. -Even the Count's spur, says Alvin, is drawn after the original, the only -remaining spur out of seven hundred which lay scattered on the field -after the day of Courtrai. - -In the same year _Henri Decaisne_ completed his "Belges Illustres." The -famous past was supposed to give its blessing to the great present. The -artist, who in Paris had painted portraits with success, had been -esteemed there by Lamartine, and celebrated by Alfred de Musset in a -brilliant article in the _Revue des Deux Mondes_, now gratified a long -cherished desire of the Belgian national pride when he united the heroes -of the land in an ideal gathering. - -Soon afterwards _Gallait_ and _Bifve_ trod the stage of Belgian -painting. In point of size their pictures surpassed all that that age, -accustomed as it was to vast canvases, had yet witnessed. "The -Abdication of Charles V" measured twenty feet; it was hung in the Salon -Carr of the Louvre above Paul Veronese's "Marriage at Cana." An entire -court of great ladies and gentlemen, clad in velvet and brocade, move in -the gorgeous hall of state of a king's castle. The solemn moment is -represented when Charles V, erect and dominating the entire assembly, -cedes the government of his possessions to Philip: and here is a mine of -profound criticism of the philosophy of history. This old man, with one -foot in the grave, whose forceful head still bears, like a Caryatid, the -heavy burden of empire, embodies the splendour, fame, and might of -bygone days. Faltering, he steps down from the throne, as though -hesitating at the last moment whether he should appoint as his successor -this son whom he both loves and fears; and, lifting to heaven his tired, -sunken eyes, he commends unto God the future of the realm. Philip, the -only one in the assembly entirely clothed in black, who receives the -gift of dominion with an icy coldness, is transformed by the able -exegesis of the critics into the satanic demon conjuring up the powers -of hell. The picture even gives a glimpse into the future. For as he -speaks Charles leans his left hand upon the shoulder of another young -man, William of Orange. This indicates that soon the nation will wrest -their independence from the double-tongued Jesuitical policy of Philip. -To the left of this central group, robed in velvet and silk, stand the -ladies around Margaret, the sister of the Emperor; she, in the garb of a -nun, sits in her chair as in a _prie-dieu_. To the right, near the -throne, are pages and priests, and amidst them Egmont and Horn, standing -aloof and silent, look upon the scene. "The Abdication" had a grand -success. It confirmed the hopes which had been set on Gallait ever since -the completion of his "Tasso," and it was proudly ranked amongst those -works which did special honour to the young nation. Wappers saw himself -eclipsed, and Louis Gallait took the lead. - -[Illustration: WAPPERS. THE DEATH OF COLUMBUS.] - -_Edouard de Bifve's_ "Treaty of the Nobles" formed the historical -supplement to this work; after the triumph of the kingdom came the -triumph of the people. The picture represents the signing of the -defensive league, against the Inquisition and other breaches of -privilege, which the nobility of the Netherlands entered into in 1566, -in the Castle of Cuylenburg, near Brussels; it was hailed by the -_Berliner Staatszeitung_ as "a landmark in the chronicle of historical -painting." - -This heroic era of Belgian painting was brought to a close in 1848 by -_Ernest Slingeneyer_, who, as early as 1842, obtained a brilliant -success with his "Sinking of the French Battleship _Le Vengeur_." His -"Battle of Lepanto" was the last great historical picture, and the -entire vocabulary of admiration known to art criticism was showered upon -it by the Brussels press. - -Even a new period of religious painting seemed about to dawn. German -art, up to that time little regarded in Belgium, had since the fifties -been discussed with considerable detail in the journals, and such names -as Overbeck, W. Schadow, Veit, Cornelius, and Kaulbach had speedily -acquired a favourable reputation. An exhibition of German cartoons -instituted in Brussels in 1862 served--strangely enough--to sustain this -high appreciation. The young nation believed that it could not afford to -lag behind France and Germany, and commissioned two Antwerp painters, -Guffens and Swerts, who had early made themselves familiar with the -technique of fresco, to found a Belgian school of monumental painting. -To this end they entered into a correspondence with the German artists, -and, after long studies in Italy and Germany, adorned with frescoes the -Church of Notre Dame in St. Nicolas in East Flanders, St. George's -Church in Antwerp, the town halls of Courtrai and Ypres, a few churches -in England, and the Cathedral of Prague; and on these frescoes Herman -Riegel, in 1883, published a book in two volumes. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - DE KEYZER.] - -At the present day this religious fresco painting, which handed on the -doctrine of the German Nazarenes--the doctrine that nothing remained to -the nineteenth-century artist except to imitate the old Italians as well -as he could--can no longer command such exhaustive disquisition. And not -it alone: the whole "Belgian artistic revival of 1830" appears in a -somewhat dubious light. After the disconsolate wilderness of Classicism -this period marked an advance. Every Salon brought some new name to -light. The State had contributed a big budget for art, and extended its -protecting hand over the "great painting" which was the glory of the -young nation. What could not be got into the Muse Moderne, founded in -1845, was divided amongst the churches and provincial museums. The -number of painters and exhibitions increased very noticeably. Beside the -great triennial exhibitions in Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent, there were -others in the smaller towns, such as Mons and Mechlin. The Belgian -painters of 1830 appear, no doubt, as great men, when one considers to -what a depth art had sunk before their advent. Wappers especially -widened the horizon, by breaking the formula of Classicism and renewing -the tradition of the brilliant colourists of the seventeenth century. De -Bifve, De Keyzer, Slingeneyer, severally contributed to the Belgian -Renaissance. The old Flemish race knew itself once more in this fond -quest of beautiful and radiant colouring. The historical painting had -even a certain actual interest. Standing so near to the glorious -September days when the country won its independence, the painters -wished to draw a parallel between the glorious present and the great -past, and to waken patriotic memories by the apotheosis of popular -heroes. And yet the Muse Moderne of Brussels is not one of those -collections in which one willingly lingers. The works in the old museum, -hard by, have remained fresh and living and in touch with us; those in -the new gallery seem to be divided from us by centuries. For the -mischief with pictures which do not remain for ever young is precisely -this--they grow old so very soon. Posterity speaks the language of cold -criticism; and those powers must be great which are even favoured with a -verdict. The luxuriant wreaths of laurel which fall upon the living are -no guarantee of enduring fame, while in the crowns awarded after death -every leaf is numbered. In how few of these once lauded works there -dwells the power to speak in an intelligible language to a generation -which tests them, not for their patriotism, but for their intrinsic art. -The Belgian school of 1830 has left behind it the trace of respectable -industry, but a supreme work is what it has not brought forth. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - DE KEYZER. THE BATTLE OF WOERINGEN.] - -How hard it is to see anything epoch-making in Wappers' "Van der Werff." -How theatrically the figures are posturing, how improbable is the -composition, and what an unwholesome dose of sentimentality is to be -found in that burgomaster, who is offering himself as a prey to the -multitude! The heads are those of troubadours. And these jerkins brought -fresh out of the wardrobe, these neatly ironed white ruffles, all this -rich velvet and glittering pomp, how little it resembles the torn rags -of a half-starved people after a nine months' siege! His revolutionary -picture of 1834 is an unfortunate transposition into a sentimental key -of the "Freedom on the Barricades" by Delacroix. Here also are -play-actors rather than men and women of the people. This old man who is -kissing the banner, the wife who winds her arms about her husband as -Venus does about Tannhuser, the pale girl who has fallen in a faint, -the warrior who, with his eyes turned up to Heaven, is breaking his -sword--these are figures out of a melodrama, not revolutionaries -storming the barricades, nor famishing artisans fighting for their very -existence. And the thin, spick-and-span colouring is in just as striking -a contrast with the forceful action of the scene. An idyll could not be -carried out with more prettiness of manner than is this picture which -represents the rising of a people. The artisans are as white as -alabaster. A light rouge rests upon the cheeks of the women, as when -Boucher paints the faltering of virtue. And afterwards Wappers' course -went further and further down hill. Only in these two early works, in -which he responded to a political movement by an artistic endeavour, -does he seem, in a certain sense, individual and powerful. All the -others are stereotyped productions which, having nothing to do with the -Belgian national movement, have all the more to do with the Parisian -_cole du bon sens_. Even his "Christ in the Grave," painted in 1833, -and now in St. Michael's Church at Louvain, with its artificial grace -and pietistical sentimentality, might have been painted by Ary Scheffer. -The pathetic scenes from English and French history of the sixteenth and -seventeenth centuries which followed this merely reflect that painting -of historical anecdote which was invented by Delaroche. Agnes Sorel and -Charles VII, Abelard and Eloise, Charles I taking leave of his children, -Anne Bullen's parting from Elizabeth, Peter the Great presenting to his -ministers the model of a Dutch ship, Columbus in prison, Boccaccio -reading the _Decameron_ to Joanna of Naples, the brothers De Witt before -their execution, Andr Chnier in the prison of Saint-Lazare, Louis XVII -at Simon the shoe-maker's, the poet Camoens as a beggar, Charles I going -to the scaffold--all are subjects treated by others before him in -France, and neither in their conception nor their technique have they -anything original. In the last-mentioned picture, exhibited in Antwerp -in 1870, he attained the limit of sugary affectation: a young girl has -sunk on her knees, and, with dreamily uplifted eyes, offers to the -Stuart King who is going to his death--a rose! Wappers is merely a -reflex of French Romanticism, although he cannot be brought into direct -comparison with any Parisian master. The passion of Delacroix stirred -him but little: nothing points to a relationship between him and that -great spirit. One is rather reminded of Alfred Johannot, whom he -resembles in his entire gamut of emotion as in his treatment and -selection of subjects. In both may be found elegance of line, Byronic -emphasis, histrionic gestures, and the same stage properties borrowed -from the theatre; never the genuine movement of feeling, only empty and -distorted grimaces. - -Of the others who appeared with him the same may be said. All Belgian -matadors of the forties and fifties came to grief, and are interesting -in the history of art only as symptomatic phenomena, as members of that -school of Delaroche which encompassed the world. They abandoned the -antique marble, the chlamys, and the leaden forms of the Classicists, to -set in their place a motley picture of the Middle Ages, made up of -cuirasses, mail-shirts, fleshings, and velvet and silken doublets. One -convention followed the other, and pedantic dryness was replaced by -melancholy sentimentalism. As skilled practitioners they understood the -sleights of their art, but never rose to individual creation. Amongst -many painters there was not a single artist. - -As regards _De Keyzer_, it seems as if throughout his whole life he had -wished to remain true to the memory of his benefactress: a simpering -feminine trait runs with enervating sweetness through all his works, -even through that "Battle of the Spurs" which founded his reputation. -According to old writers, the athletic bodies of the Flemings were the -terror of the French chivalry at Courtrai. De Keyzer has made of them -mere plaster figures, and the pale, meagre colouring is in keeping with -the languid conception. In the battles of Woeringen, of Senef, and -Nieuwpoort, which followed on this picture, and were executed for the -Belgian and Dutch Government, he succeeded still less in overcoming his -affectation; and he first found the fitting province for his mild and -correct talent when in later years he began to render little anecdotes -of the Emperor Maximilian or Justus Lipsius out of the studio of Rubens -or Memlinc. For these there was need of little but a certain superficial -play of colour and an elegant painting of textures. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - SLINGENEYER. THE AVENGER.] - -_Ernest Slingeneyer_ is stronger and more masculine. Yet what an -unrefreshing chaos of blue, red, saffron, and citron-yellow is that -"Sea-fight at Lepanto"! Slingeneyer felt that the _chiaroscuro_ with -which Wappers saturated his "Episode" was not in keeping with this -action under open sky. But rightly as he felt this, he had not the -strength to solve the problem of open-air painting. What a barbaric -effect these red, brown, and yellow bodies make in their motley -theatrical pomp! How the composition of the picture savours of -apotheosis! As for his later work, his thirteen gigantic pictures, -"_gloires de la Belgique_," in the great hall of the Brussels Academy, -like De Keyzer's mural paintings above the staircase of the Antwerp -Museum, they would never have been painted had they not had Delaroche's -hemicycle as their forerunner. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - LOUIS GALLAIT.] - -And _Gallait's_ "Abdication of Charles V"--one fails to understand how -it was possible that so much able disquisition was suggested by this -picture. How slight a smattering of the erudition of a stage manager is -necessary for the representation of such a scene: the throne on one -side; before it the lords and gentlemen in a semicircle, to the left -front the ladies to make a fine effect for the eye, and in the -background balconies with curious spectators, to widen out the -spectacle. It is all pure theatre; an icy ceremony with prettily got up -supernumeraries. All the heads have the discreditable appearance of -family portraits painted after death, and then washed over with a faint -conventional tinge of red. The whole thing is like a huge piece of -still-life, which an adroit painter has put together out of a mixture of -heads, gold, jewels, mantles, and perukes. Delaroche seems to have -contributed the composition, Devria the sumptuous costumery; and as for -the colouring, Isabey, with his sunbeams shimmering in gold and silver, -may not improbably have had something to do with that. What was -spontaneous in Wappers is replaced in Gallait by cold calculation. Once -and once only did this correct and frigid painter give evidence of a -certain dramatic vein; it was when in 1851 he painted "The Brussels -Guild of Marksmen paying the Last Honours to Egmont and Horn." With a -brutal audacity the decapitated heads are set to their bodies. Bloodless -and livid, with clotted and tangled beards, they both really look as if -they had been studied direct from nature. But the rest of the picture, -the surrounding of theatrical attractions, parade costumes, and false -pathos, is all the less in keeping with this study of death. How -Zurbaran or Caravaggio would have treated the theme! They would have -veiled the unessential figures in darkness, and irradiated the heads -only with a trenchant light. What Gallait has made of it is the final -tableau of an opera of costume. The two sergeants of Alva who are on -guard, and the men who are showing their reverence, tread the stage like -bad actors, scrupulously arrayed and making pathetic gestures. Their -action has been studied from drawing-school copies; no genuine cry of -passion ever breaks through. Heads, hands, and outlines have all a -sickly idealism; a studious and sedulously polished manner of painting -has ruined the intrinsic spirit of the work as a whole. Thophile -Gautier was right when he wrote of Gallait: "_Tout le talent_ _qu'on -peut acqurir avec du travail, du got, du jugememt, et de la volont, -M. Gallait le possde._" Gallait's "Last Obsequies," hung in that same -Salon of 1850 which contained Courbet's "Stone-breakers," and the words -of recognition accorded to it, were the last obsequies given to the -parting genius of historical painting. A few years went by, and -Gallait's fame died away. After 1851 he painted fourteen other great -historical pictures ("Egmont's Last Moments," "Johanna the Mad by the -Corpse of her Husband," "Alva at the Window during the Execution of the -two Counts," etc.), and, occasionally, sentimental _genre_ pictures, -such as "The Oblivion of Sorrow" in the Berlin National Gallery; in this -a small boy is playing the fiddle for the consolation of his sister, who -had sunk upon the high-road exhausted by hunger. He also painted many -portraits. But nothing gave him a niche in the memory of his -contemporaries. "The Pest at Tournai," painted in 1882, was a work -extremely creditable to his old age; it was nevertheless a picture which -appeared to another generation merely as a phantom; and when, on 20th -November 1887, the announcement of his death passed through the land, it -came unexpectedly, like that of a person already believed to have been -long dead. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - GALLAIT. EGMONT'S LAST MOMENTS.] - -Finally, _Edouard de Bifve_, who in 1842 shared Gallait's triumph in -Germany, and was afterwards named in the same breath with him, is the -man who marks the complete corruption of this tendency. If the sturdy -Wappers, the emasculate De Keyzer, and the eclectic Gallait tricked out -their pathetic heroes with noble heads like that of the Antinous, and -offered their contemporaries an adroit theatrical art, a parade, and a -hollow pathos, the incapable Bifve never got beyond the painting of -_tableaux vivants_ laboriously presented. Terrible and of Shakespearian -impressiveness is the scene in which the half-famished Ugolino hurls -himself upon his son in an appalling ecstasy of frenzy, a curse against -God and man upon his lips. Upon the canvas, six metres wide, which -Bifve in 1836 devoted to this theme, there is represented an old -gentleman, who, though certainly a little pale, contrives to maintain in -perfection the punctilious bearing of a cavalier, and in the midst of -his fasting cure has picturesquely draped round his shoulders an ermine -mantle, as if he had been asked out to dinner. Before him stands a young -man, possessing that graceful outline beloved of Paul Delaroche. -Devria, Ary Scheffer, and Johannot were better painters of such -monumental illustrations of the classics. As yet the shivering art of -Belgium had learnt only to warm itself at the Parisian fireside. Even -Bifve's "League of the Nobles of the Netherlands," despite its national -subject-matter, was no more than a lucky hit, which he owed to his long -residence in Paris. And how tiresomely is the scene played out! One -would wish to catch the mutterings of insurrection from these men who -personify the Belgian people; but Bifve's picture is restful and -dignified. Egmont and Horn, the lions of the occasion, are conducting -themselves like honest citizens who are bored at a party. Seated in his -chair, the handsome Egmont thinks merely of showing his fine profile to -the ladies in the gallery, and Horn, who steps towards the table to make -his signature, does it with the elegance of a lover inscribing verses in -a young lady's album. Three brothers with clasped hands swear the -well-known oath to die together. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - EDOUARD BIFVE.] - -It is a little irony in the history of art that in 1842 these two same -pictures set all Germany in tumult, and diverted the whole stream of -painting into a new course. But how was it possible that the German -painters stood before them as if struck by lightning? It must be -remembered that for a whole generation Germany had seen nothing but -coloured cartoons, and that the enthusiasm for Franco-Belgian art had -been so prepared that the least touch was enough to set it in flames. - -[Illustration: _Bruyllant, Brussels._ - - BIFVE. THE LEAGUE OF THE NOBLES OF THE NETHERLANDS.] - -Since the wars of liberation Germany had been very reserved in her -attitude towards the French. Until the year 1842 original works of the -French and Belgian school had never been hung in any German exhibition. -But in spite of this, a high, even enthusiastic, appreciation of French -and Belgian painting was being spread, especially amongst the younger -generation. Even in engravings and lithographs after French pictures it -was believed that qualities of colour were discoverable which were -wanting in German painting. Heine and other authors, who had wandered to -Paris, "the lofty tower of Freedom," to escape from the depressing -condition of German affairs, had done what in them lay for the -dissemination of this cult. The rising generation of the forties had -been driven by Heine's notices of the Salon into an almost hostile -attitude towards the dominant art schools of Germany, the schools of -Dsseldorf and Munich. The stylists on the Isar and the sentimental -elegiac painters on the Rhine met with the same antipathy from the -younger generation. The appearance of the two Belgian historical -pictures, which were really nothing more than offshoots of the great -French school, gave nourishment of doubled strength to this tendency to -seek salvation in Paris. The German painters were startled out of -contentment with their beloved cartoons, and to many a man it seemed as -if the scales had fallen from his eyes. They perceived what an admirable -thing it is that a painter should be able to paint. What they could have -learnt long before from any good old picture, and in their turbulent -enthusiasm for ideas had not learnt, was made suddenly clear to them by -these new paintings. They came to the conclusion that it was impossible -for God Almighty to have poured light and colour over the objective -world with the intention that painters should transform it into a world -of shadowless contours. They recognised that the style of cartoon work -had led away from all painting, and that it was therefore necessary to -do honour once more to the despised handiwork and technique of art, as -the fundamental condition of its well-being. However much the sthetic -party might warn them not to renounce "the Reformation of painting, -which had been begun and perfected forty years before," and not "with -modern technique to sink back into the pre-Cornelian, ornamental model -painting," the demand for colour, which had been so long neglected, -asserted its rights more and more loudly. King Ludwig's saying was -repeated as though it were a new revelation: "The painter must be able -to paint." Colour was the battle-cry of the day, the battle-cry of -youth, to whom the world belongs. In place of the ideal of contour came -the ideal of hue and pigment. Cartoons, in the sense of the old cartoon -school, no one would draw any longer. To paint pictures, finished -pictures, was the tendency of the day. And since painting is to be -learnt from the living only, and such as could paint lived in Germany no -longer, they packed their trunks, and set out to learn from the -"go-ahead neighbour." As Rome had been hitherto, so was Paris now, the -high school of German art. "To Paris!" and "Painting!" were the cries -throughout all Germany. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -THE REVOLUTION OF THE GERMAN COLOURISTS - - -From 1842 dates the pilgrimage of the German artists to Paris, Antwerp, -and Brussels. In Delaroche, Cogniet, and Couture, in Wappers and -Gallait, they believed they could discover the secrets of art which were -hidden from German teachers. The history of art can scarcely offer -another example of such a sudden overthrow of dogmas hitherto dominant -by dogmas directly opposed to them. During the first half of the century -the painters of Germany were pious men, humorous, witty, and intelligent -men; they had a sharply cut profile, and so enchained the multitude by -their human qualities that nobody remarked how little they understood of -their craft, or that they were too superior to learn to draw correctly, -held colour unchaste, and made virtues of all their failings. The next -generation was condemned to learn painting during the whole of its -natural life. The former were "problematic natures": beings who united -with a Titanic force of will an actual achievement which is hardly worth -mentioning; who regarded the mere handicraft of art as beneath their -dignity; who, in their revelations to mankind, were resolved to burden -their spirit as little as possible with any sensuous expression of their -genius, and, above all, meant not to degrade themselves by the manual -labour of learning to paint, and thereby wasting their valuable time. -The latter were not ashamed of painting. By devoting themselves with -vehemence to the colouring and technique of oil-painting, they -accomplished the necessary revolution against the abstract idealism of -the school of Cornelius. In their opulence of ideas the draughtsmen of -cartoons had made a notch in the history of art by casting the technical -tradition overboard. To have reinstated this as far as they could, with -the aid of the French, is the peculiar merit of the generation of 1850. -"_Rgle gnrale: si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd, vous -pouvez le complimenter en franais._" So runs the motto--not -complimentary to Germany, but quite unassailable--which Edmond About -prefixed to his notices on the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855. - -_Anselm Feuerbach_ was the first distinguished German artist who made -the journey to Paris with a proper knowledge of the necessity of this -step. In Germany he was the greatest representative of that Classicism -of which the principal master in France was Ingres, and the continuator -Thomas Couture. And he succeeded in accomplishing that which the German -Classicists of the beginning of the century strove after in vain. Whilst -they contented themselves with suggestions and an indeterminate -symbolisation of poetical ideas after the Greek writers, German -Classicism achieved in Feuerbach's "Symposium of Plato" a great, noble, -and faultless work, which will live. He moved upon classic ground more -naturally and freely and with more of the Hellenic spirit than even the -French. For the classic genius was begotten in him, and not inoculated -from without. In the _Vermchtniss_ the son calls his father's book the -prophetic seal of his own original being. He inherited the classic -spirit from the enthusiastic scholar, the subtile author of the Vatican -Apollo, to whom the genius of Greece had so fully and completely -revealed itself. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - ANSELM FEUERBACH. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -A remarkable nature: philologer and dreamer, German and Greek, one who -rejoiced in beauty and in the life of the senses, and whose proud muse -strayed through life solitary and with leaden weights upon her -feet,--such was Anselm Feuerbach, and by that division of his being he -was ruined. Equipped with a superior education, an appearance of -singular nobility, and with proud family traditions, he emerged like a -shining meteor in Dsseldorf, when he began his career at the age of -sixteen, brilliant, precocious, and already a favourite amongst women. -This was in 1845. He ran through all the schools in Germany, Belgium, -and France. In regard to the living, he believed himself to be indebted -to the French alone, and eagerly claimed the merit of having been the -first to seek them out. But it was in Italy that he had passed through -his novitiate as an artist. A glorious hour it must have been when -Feuerbach, full-blooded and dedicated to the worship of beauty, entered -Venice in 1855, in company with that cheerful and convivial poet Victor -Scheffel. In the town of the lagoons, whither he had come on a -commission from the Court of Karlsruhe to copy the Assumption of Titian, -Feuerbach made the second determining step of his life. The third he -made when his stipendium was withdrawn, and, full of youthful -confidence in his luck and his good star, he undertook his journey to -Rome. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - FEUERBACH. HAFIZ AT THE WELL.] - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - FEUERBACH. PIETA.] - -He was handsome, small, and refined, and rather pale and spare--of that -delicacy which in highly bred families is found in the last heirs with -whom the race dies out--and he had dark locks which clustered wildly -round his head. The moulding of his features was feminine, and his -complexion southern; his eyes, shadowed by long lashes, were brown, -sometimes fiery, sometimes sad and earnest, and his glance was swift. He -loved to sing Italian songs to the guitar in his fine, deep voice, and -Boecklin and Reinhold Begas would join in. - -The impressions he received in Italy were formative of his life. For he -learnt to understand the divine simplicity and noble dignity of antique -art better than Couture was capable of understanding them; and he -achieved a simple amplitude to which the French Classicism had never -risen. - -From his first works, to which the Dsseldorf egg-shell is still -sticking, down to the "Symposium of Plato"--what a route it is, and -through what phases he passes. "Hafiz at the Well," surrounded by -voluptuous, half-naked girls, painted at Paris in 1852, was his first -eminent achievement. In subject it is a late fruit from Daumer's study -of Hafiz: as a work of art it is one of the most genuine products of the -school of Couture. No other German artist has surrendered himself so -entirely to the French. With a large brush, never losing sight of the -complete effect, Feuerbach has painted his canvas, almost for the sake -of showing that he has assimilated everything that was to be learnt in -Paris. The same influence preponderates in the "Death of Pietro -Aretino," done in 1854. But, side by side with the Parisian master, the -later Venetians have an unmistakable share in this work. The capacity -to grasp things in a monumental largeness is already announced. -Evidently Feuerbach has studied Paul Veronese, and realised how high he -stands above the French painters. At the same time he has examined the -other Venetians for their technique, and discovered something which has -appealed to him in Bordone's colouring. But "Dante walking with -high-born Ladies of Ravenna," finished at Rome in 1857, was the ripest -fruit of his Venetian impressions. In sunny warmth of colour, fine -golden tone, and quiet simplicity of pictorial treatment, no modern has -come so near to Palma and Bordone. And in "Dante's Death," of 1858, -there predominates a still greater depth and golden glow, a grave and -devout beauty. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - FEUERBACH. IPHIGENIA.] - -In the following works, however, Feuerbach, with a conscious purpose, -denies himself the quality to which the Dante pictures owe a principal -part of their powerful effect: the mild glow, the sunny beaming of -colour. He confines himself to a cool scheme of tone, reduced to grey, -almost to the point of colourlessness; to a glimmer of leaden blue, a -moonlight pallor. At the same time he has concentrated the whole life of -his figures in their inward being, whilst every movement has been taken -from their limbs. Even the expression of spiritual emotion in the eyes -and features has been subdued in the extreme. The "Piet," both the -"Iphigenias," and the "Symposium of Plato" are the world-renowned -proofs of the height of classic inspiration which he touched in Italy. -Measure, nobility, unsought and perfected loftiness characterise the -"Piet," that mother of the Saviour who bows herself in silent agony -over the body of her Divine Son, and those three kneeling women, whose -silent grief is of such thrilling power, precisely because of its -emotionlessness. For "Iphigenia" Feuerbach has given of his best. She is -in both examples--the first of 1862, the second of 1871--a figure -sublime beyond human measure, grand like the figure of the Greek -tragedy. But the "Symposium of Plato" will always assert its high value -as one of the finest pictorial creations of an imagination nourished on -the great art of the ancients, and filled brimful with the splendour of -the antique world. There is nothing in it superfluous, nothing -accidental. The noblest simplicity of speech, a Greek rhythm in all -gradations, the beautiful lines of bas-relief, decisive colour and -stringent form--that is the groundwork of Feuerbach's art. And through -it there speaks a spirit preoccupied with greatness and heroism. Thus he -created his "Medea" in the Munich Pinakothek, that picture of -magnificent, sombre melancholy that affects one like a monologue from a -Sophoclean tragedy. Thus he painted his "Battle of the Amazons," one of -the few "nude" pictures of the century which possesses the perfectly -unconcerned and unsexual nudity of the antique. Italy had set him free -from all the insincere and calculated methods which had deformed French -art since Delaroche; it had set him free from all theatrical sentiment, -by which he had accustomed himself to understand everything that was -forced in costume, pigment, pose and movement, light and scenery. In the -place of the ordinary treatment from the model, with its set gestures -and grimaces, he gave an expression of form which was great, simple, and -plastic. His study seems to have been an incessant exercise of the eye, -to see and to hold fast to the essential, to the great lines of nature -as of the human body. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - FEUERBACH. PORTRAIT OF A ROMAN LADY.] - -In the full possession of these powers, which he acquired amid the -elementary simplicity and heroic majesty of Roman landscape by constant -intercourse with the great painters of the past, he determined in the -summer of 1873 to accept an invitation from the Vienna Academy. His -friends rejoiced. At last this worker, who had been abandoned in a -foreign land, seemed to have found in his native country a place which -offered him a new life. He was but little more than forty: yet all was -so soon to be over. From Rome he came to the restless capital which had -just lived through the birththroes of a new epoch; from the side of -Michael Angelo to the side of Makart! The sketches for a series on the -wars of the Titans, which he began after his arrival, promised the -greatest things. They display a sureness and majesty which find no -parallel in the German art of those years. But they were destined never -to be completed. - -Feeling himself, like Antus, strong only on Roman soil, he lost his -power in Vienna. Reserved, innately delicate, a mystical, ideal nature -like that of Faust, and one which only with reluctance permitted to a -stranger a glimpse of its inner being; in his life, as in his art, -high-bred and simple, hating both as painter and as man everything -overstrained or sentimental; in his judgment harsh, severe, and -uncompromising, lonely and proud, he was but little adapted to make -friends for himself. The indifference with which his study for the "Fall -of the Titans" was received in the Vienna Exhibition wounded him -mortally. Vienna, which is so much disposed to laughter, laughed. -Criticism was rough and unfavourable. He left Vienna and went to Venice. -The tragical fate of a party of voyagers, drowned as they were playing -and singing together on a night journey to the Lido, gave him the motive -for his last picture, "The Concert," which was found unfinished after -his death, and came into the possession of the Berlin National Gallery. -On 4th January 1882 he died, alone in a Venetian hotel. - - "Hier ruht Anselm Feuerbach, - Der im Leben manches malte, - Fern vom Vaterlande, ach, - Das ihn immer schlecht bezahlte." - -So runs the epitaph which he made for himself. And posterity might alter -it into-- - - "Hier ruht ein deutscher Maler, - Bekannt im deutschen Land; - Nennt man die besten Namen, - Wird auch der seine genannt." - -However, one must not go too far. In familiar conversation Feuerbach -once said of himself that when the history of art in the nineteenth -century came to be written, mention would be made of him as of a meteor. -So isolated, and so much out of connection with the artistic striving of -his contemporaries, did he believe himself to be, that he held himself -justified in saying: "Believe me, after fifty years my pictures will -possess tongues, and tell the world what I was and what I meant." In -truth, he owes his resurrection less to his pictures than to the -_Vermchtniss_. A book has opened the eyes of Germany to Feuerbach's -greatness, and since that time the worship of Feuerbach has gone almost -into extremes. Throughout his lifetime--like almost every great artist -who has died before old age--he was handled by the Press without much -comprehension. The critics blamed his grey tones, the connoisseurs -complained of his unpatriotic subjects or missed the presence of -anecdote. His admirers were the refined, quiet people who do not praise -at the top of their voices. He never met with recognition, and that -poisoned his life. It is generous of posterity to make up for the want -of contemporary appreciation. But when he is set up as a pioneer, whose -work pointed out the art of the future, the judgment becomes one which a -_later_ posterity will subscribe to only with hesitation. - -[Illustration: FEUERBACH. MOTHER'S JOY.] - -Feuerbach presents a problem for psychological rather than artistic -analysis. Whoever has read the _Vermchtniss_ feels the personal element -in these works, sees in them the confessions of a proud, unsatisfied, -and suffering soul, and in their author no son of the Renaissance born -out of due season, but a modern who has been agitated through and -through by the _dcadent_ fever. In his book Feuerbach appears as one of -the first who felt to his inmost fibre all the intellectual and -spiritual contradictions which are bred by the nineteenth century, and -who cherished them even with a sort of tenderness, as contributing to a -high and more subtilised condition of soul. He was one of the first who, -in the same way as Bourget and Verlaine, studied moral pathology under -the microscope, and who, with a tired soul and worn-out feelings, sought -for the last refinement of simplicity. And this weary resignations seems -also to speak from his pictures. Not one of the old painters has this -modern melancholy, this air of dejection which hovers over his works. -Even the ladies round Dante are filled with that sadness which comes -over youth on the evenings of sultry summer days, when it is struck by a -presentiment of the transitoriness of earthly things. It is as if these -figures would all some day or other vanish into the cloister, or, like -Iphigenia, sit lonely upon the shore of a sea, whither no ship should -ever come to release them. And it is certainly not by chance that -Iphigenia had such a hold upon the artist; he repeatedly set himself to -render her figure afresh, and, later, Medea steps beside her as the -impersonation of the still more intense sense of desertion which filled -the artist's spirit. The woman of Colchis, who sits shivering on the -shore of the sea, chilled through and through by the consciousness of -her abandonment; the daughter of Agamemnon, who in spirit is seeking the -land of the Greeks, with the boundless sea spreading wide and grey -before her, like her own yearning,--both are images of the lonely -Feuerbach, who, like Hlderlin, the Werther of Greece, flies to a dreamy -Hellas as to a happy shore, to find peace for his sick spirit. His -"Symposium of Plato" has not that exuberant sensuousness, that mixture -of _esprit_ and voluptuousness, of temperance and intemperance, which -marks the Athenian life under Pericles; nor has it the Olympian -blitheness with which Raphael would have executed the subject. A breath -of monkish asceticism is over every joy, subduing it. These Greeks have -tasted of the pains which Christianity brought into the world. Or take -his "Judgment of Paris" in Hamburg. Nude women life-size, Loves, -southern landscape, gay raiment, golden vessels, brilliant ornament, -beauty--those are the elements of the picture; and how little have such -words the power to render the impression! But Feuerbach's three -goddesses have an uneasiness, as if each one of them knew beforehand -that she would not receive the apple; Paris is sitting just as -cheerlessly there. And by borrowing his loves from Boucher, Feuerbach -has shown the more sharply the opposition between the Hellenic legend -which he interprets and the funereal mien with which he does it. The -blitheness of the antique spirit is tempered by the sadness of the -modern mind. He tells these old myths as never a Greek and never a -master of the Renaissance would have told them. Olympus is filled with -mist, with the colouring of the North, with the melancholy of a later -and more neurotic age, the moods of which are for that very reason more -rich in _nuances_--an age which is at once graver and more disturbed by -problems than was the old Hellas. Feuerbach's pictures are octaves in -the language of Tasso, but of a repining lyrical mood which Tasso would -not have given them. The brightest sunshine laughed over the Greece of -the Renaissance; over that of Feuerbach there rests a rainy, overcast -November mood. Even works of his like the "Children on the Sea-shore" -and the "Idyll" reveal a pained and suffering conception of nature, that -tender and subdued spirit that Burne-Jones has; it is as if these -blossoms of humanity were there to waste away in buds that never come to -fruition, as if it were no longer possible to breathe into creation the -true joyousness of youth. Even the five girls, making music out of -doors, in the picture "In Spring," look like young widows, putting the -whole tenderness of their souls into elegiac complaints for their lost -husbands. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - FEUERBACH. MEDEA.] - -To this resigned and mournful expression must be added the uncomfortable -motionlessness of his figures. They do not speak, and do not laugh, and -do not cry; they know no passions and sorrows which express themselves -by the straining of the limbs. Everything bears the impress of sublime -peace, of that same peace by which the works of Gustave Moreau, Puvis de -Chavannes, and Burne-Jones are to be distinguished from the ecstatic and -sentimental tirades of the Romanticists. In Feuerbach's works this is -the stamp of his own nature. The antique beauty becomes shrouded in a -mysterious veil; and life is illuminated as by a mournful light, which -rests over bygone worlds. What heart-rending keenness is often in the -effect of the melancholy tinge of these subdued bluish tones! That -colour is the genuine expression of the temperament reveals itself -clearly enough in Feuerbach. When he began his career, his head full of -ideals and his heart full of hopes, his pictures exulted in a Venetian -splendour, in full and luxuriant golden harmonies; as "joy after joy -was shipwrecked in the stream of time" they became leaden, sullen, and -corpse-like. As Frans Hals in his last days, when his fellow-creatures -allowed him only the bare necessities of life, accorded to the figures -in his pictures only so much colour as would give them the appearance of -living human beings; as Rembrandt's magical golden tone changed in the -sad days of his bankruptcy into a sullen, monotonous brown, so a deep -sadness broods over the pictures of Feuerbach,--something that savours -of memory and remorse, the mournful atmosphere and dark mood of evening -which the bat loves. Even as a colourist he has the melancholy lassitude -of the end of the century. - -That is what distinguishes him from his contemporaries. The other -idealists of those years painted their pictures without hesitation and -with the facility of a professor of calligraphy; they remembered, -arranged their reminiscences, and rubbed their hands with -self-complacency when they came near their model. They did not yet feel -the throb of the nineteenth century, and impersonality was their note. -Feuerbach, the neurotic brooder, was a personality. After a long -mortification, the human spirit, the living, suffering, human spirit, -celebrated its renaissance in his works. Under its influence the jejune -painting of prettiness practised by others was changed to modern -pessimism and sorrowful resignation. The more he gave way to these moods -the more modern he became, the more he was Feuerbach and the further he -departed from the works of art which were regarded by his contemporaries -and himself as eternal exemplars. He has been reproached with oddities -and strange eccentricities. The critics reminded him how far he departed -from the lines of his models; indignantly they asked him why he, the -pale, delicate, sick, neurotic, and overstrained man, the uncertain, -faltering, and tortured spirit, did not paint like the blithe, -improvising Raphael, like the jubilant and convivial Veronese, like the -sensuous, exuberant Rubens. And Feuerbach himself becomes perplexed. -Like Gros in France, he is conscious both of his strength and his -weakness. He does not stand sovereign above the old painters, like -Boecklin and those other idealists of the present. He runs through life -in ever fresh astonishment at the novelty which is revealed to him in -the works of earlier centuries. The nerves of this latter day vibrate, -the blood of the nineteenth century throbs in him--yet he has the wish -to imitate. The history of every one of his works is a fight, a -desperate struggle, between the individuality of the artist, his own -inward feeling, and the "absolute Beauty" which hovered beyond him cold -and unpliable. - -In his first drawings he begins boldly; one knows his hand and says: -"Only Feuerbach can have done that." And then one is able to trace, step -by step, and from sketch to sketch, what pains he takes that the -finished picture may be as little of a Feuerbach as possible. The -personal and individual element in the drawings is lost, what is -Feuerbachian in the composition, the personal contribution of the -artist, is effaced, and finally there is produced in the picture the -marvellous look of having been painted by a genuine old Venetian as a -ghost. And Feuerbach felt the dissonance. He feels that he fully -expresses himself no more, and also that he does not reach the level of -the old masters. He adds borrowed, conventional figure, like the Boucher -Cupids in the "Judgment of Paris"--figures against which every fibre of -his being revolts--just to arrive at an outward resemblance to the old -pictures, an impression of exultation and joyousness and the spirit of -the Renaissance. And when he stands opposite his work he seems to -himself like a gravedigger in a harlequin's jacket. He scrutinises -himself in despair, and one day comes to feel that his power of -production is exhausted. Splendid and unapproachable, from the walls of -the galleries, the art of the classic masters stares him in the face; -and he enters into a dramatic life-and-death struggle with it. He will -not be Feuerbach, and cannot become a Classic. The curtain falls and the -tragedy is over. Such destinies have been before in the world, no doubt; -but in our time they have multiplied, and seem so much the sadder -because they never come to the average man, but only to great and -peculiarly gifted natures. - -[Illustration: _Albert, Munich._ - - FEUERBACH. DANTE WALKING WITH HIGH-BORN LADIES OF RAVENNA.] - -These matters--a silent historical sermon--one reads, with the help of -the _Vermchtniss_, out of Feuerbach's works. There "his pictures -possess tongues"; there comes out of them a sound like the cry of a -human heart; the whole tragedy of his career becomes present--what he -succeeded in doing and what remained unapproachable. Yet later -generations, which will judge him no longer psychologically, but only as -an artist, generations with which he no longer stands in touch through -his ethical greatness, will they also feel this in the presence of his -finished pictures? To them will he be pioneer or imitator, forerunner or -continuator? Will he take his place by Boecklin and Watts, or by Couture -and Ingres? It is perhaps a happy chance that in the history of art one -sometimes stumbles upon personalities that mock at all chemical -analysis. Feuerbach, at any rate, is a great figure in the German art of -these years. His is a high-bred, aristocratic art, free from any -illustrative undertone, and from loud and motley colour. It is true that -his figures also pose, but never clumsily or without expression, never -theatrically. At a time when declamation was universal he did not -declaim, at least he never did so with a forced pathos; and it is -principally this which gives him a very high and special place amongst -the German painters of the transitional period. He is always simple, -grave, majestic. Everything that he does has style, and that makes him -so peculiar in an art which is so often petty. - -[Illustration: HENNEBERG. THE RACE FOR FORTUNE. - - (_By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -But a different judgment is formed when one compares him with the French -and the old masters. A meteor Feuerbach was not; for he stood on the -ground of the Couture school, and raised himself later to yet greater -simplicity, going back to purer sources, to the Venetians and the -Romans. He is more austere and manly than Couture, but he is, as he -stands in his finished pictures, a Roman of the Cinquecento, who has -been in Venice; not an original genius of the nineteenth century, like -Boecklin. Boecklin paints the antique figures in their eternal fulness -and youth; but he is quite modern in sentiment and in his highly -developed technique. Feuerbach in regard to technique stands now on -French soil, now on Venetian or Roman; and in his sentiment he is an -imitator of the Cinquecentists, or, if you will, a phenomenon of -atavism. His writings and drawings show him concerned with the present, -his paintings with the past. The modern temperament, artistically -restrained, breaks out no more, the nerves have no rle, no human sound -is forced from his figures. He learnt through the spectacles of the -great old masters to look away from everything petty in life, but he -never laid those spectacles down. This modern man, who was so neurotic -as a writer, sought as a painter, for the sake of the ideal, to have no -nerves at all. Before many of his pictures one wishes for a fire; they -make an effect so cold that one shivers. The quality in them which calls -for boundless admiration is his splendid artistic earnestness. There -speaks out of them a sacred peace. Yet, when he is set up as a pioneer, -it must never be forgotten that he is not self-sufficient as, shall we -say, Millet, but has attained his majesty of conception only in the -leading-strings of masterpieces of a great period, and precisely in the -leading-strings of those masterpieces from the numbing influence of -which modern art was forced to set itself free, before it could come to -the consciousness of itself. - -[Illustration: GUSTAV RICHTER. PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.] - -Together with Feuerbach--and having, like him, previously received -enlightenment as to colouring at the Antwerp Academy--_Victor Mller_, -of Frankfort, had gone to Couture in 1849. He resided until 1858 on the -banks of the Seine, and was especially influenced by Delacroix, and -perhaps also a little affected by Courbet. At least his "Wood Nymph"--a -voluptuous woman lying in a wood--which first made him known in Germany -in 1863, seems but little removed from the healthy realism and exuberant -vigour of the master of Ornans. Otherwise, like Delacroix, he has -occupied himself almost exclusively with Shakespeare. "Hamlet at the -Grave of Yorick," "Ophelia," "Romeo and Juliet," "Hero and Leander," -were pictures of a deep, sonorous glow of colour; the characters in them -were seized with great intellectual concentration, and the surrounding -landscape filled with that sombre poetry of nature which in the hands of -Delacroix so mystically heightens the impression of human tragedies. -Victor Mller was of a bold, uncompromising talent, full of southern -glow and wild Romanticism; a powerful, forcible realist, who never -sought the empty, sentimental, ideal beauty known to his age. In a -period dominated almost from end to end by a jejune and rounded beauty, -he gives pleasure by a healthy, refreshing "ugliness." All the heads in -his pictures were painted after nature with a religious devoutness; -painted by a man who openly loved the youthful works of Riberas and -Caravaggio. And just as surprising is the power of expression, the deep -and earnest sentiment, which he attained in gestures and physiognomy. -While Makart, in his balcony scene from _Romeo and Juliet_, never got -away from a hollow, theatrical affectation, Mller's picture glows -throughout with a sensuous passion that saps the blood. A new Delacroix -seemed to have been born; an extraordinary talent seemed to be rising -above the horizon of our art, but Germany had to follow to the grave her -greatest offshoot of Romanticism before he had spoken a decisive word, -just as she lost Rethel, the greatest son of the cartoon era, in the -flower of his age. - -Of the others who made the pilgrimage to Paris with Feuerbach and -Mller, not one has a similar importance as an artist. Their merit was -that they made themselves comparatively able masters of technique, and -taught the new gospel when they returned to Germany. To their -superiority in technique and colour, given them by a sound French -schooling, they owed their brilliant success in the fifties. They were, -at the time, the best German painters, and great at a time when ability -was novel and infrequent. As soon as it became customary and -commonplace, there remained little to raise them above the average. - -[Illustration: RICHTER. A GIPSY.] - -That is true of the entire Berlin school of the fifties and sixties. The -most independent of the many artists who journeyed from the Spree to the -Seine is, probably, _Rudolf Henneberg_, who died young. His technique he -owed to Couture, in whose studio he worked from 1851, and his -subject-matter to the German classical authors. Born a Brunswicker, he -felt himself specially attracted by his countryman Brger, and became a -Northern ballad painter with French technique. Movement, animation, -wildness, and a certain romantic eeriness, proper to the Northern -ballad--these are Henneberg's prominent features, as they are Brger's. -His pictures have a bold caprice and a peculiarly powerful and sombre -poetry. The hunting party storm past irresistibly, like a whirlwind, in -his "Wild Hunt," the illustration to Brger's ballad, which in 1856 won -him the gold medal in Paris. - - "Und hinterher bei Knall and Klang - Der Tross mit Hund und Ross und Mann." - -A Dsseldorfian Romanticism, from the Wolf's Glen, is united to -Couture's nobleness of colouring in his "Criminal from Lost Honour," of -1860. And a part--even if only a small one--of the spirit which created -Drer's "The Knight, Death, and the Devil" lives in his masterpiece "The -Race for Fortune," a picture breathed on by the spirit of sombre, -medival Romanticism, which made his name the most honoured in the -Exhibition of 1868. - -[Illustration: SCHRADER. CROMWELL AT WHITEHALL.] - -The negation of power, an almost feminine painter of no distinctive -character, a new edition of Winterhalter, was _Gustav Richter_. His -popularity is connected with the fisher-boys and odalisques, the -reproduction of which every sempstress at one time used to wear on her -brooch, while in printed colours they added splendour to all the bonbon -and handkerchief boxes. The accomplished workmanship and sparkling -treatment of material which he acquired in Paris made him in 1860, after -Eduard Magnus had made his exit, the most famous painter of feminine -beauty. A pleasure-loving man of the world, elegant in appearance, fame, -honour, and distinction were showered upon him, and he became the -shining spoilt darling of society, the central point of an extensive and -animated convivial intercourse. His works were carried out in a style -which, at that time, had not been learnt in Berlin, and had an air of -Court life which was held to be exceedingly fashionable. It was later -that the banal emptiness and insipid taste of his toilette portraits -first became obvious, and that their everlastingly sweet and doll-like -smirk, and their kind and winning eyes, always the same, began to grow -tiresome. In all his life-size chromolithographs there is a distinction -of build and appearance, which in the originals was perhaps to have been -desired, although the originals unquestionably looked like something -that was more human and individual. In riper years, after the happiness -of family life had been given him, he executed works which assure his -name a certain endurance; this he did in some of his family -portraits,--for instance, in those of his boys and his wife. To this -last period belongs the ideal portrait of the Baroness Ziegler as Queen -Louisa, which became such a popular picture in Prussia. But Richter's -"great" compositions, which once charmed the visitors at exhibitions, -are now forgotten. In "Jairus's Daughter"--admired in 1856 as a fine -performance in colouring--what strikes one now that its colouring has -long been surpassed is the inadequacy and theatricality of its -characterisation, the outward show, and the banality of this handsome -young man who performs his miracle with a declamatory pose. The -"Building of the Pyramids," painted for the Maximilianeum in Munich, -with its swarming crowd of dark-coloured people, and the royal pair come -to inspect with an endless train, is a gigantic ethnographical -picture-sheet, which did not repay the expenditure of twelve long years -of work. - -In Paris _Otto Knille_ learnt to approach huge canvas and wall spaces -with fearlessness, and by executing the many monumental commissions -which fell to his share in Prussia, he put this French talent to usury -in a manner which was as blameless as it was uninteresting. Some good -paintings by _Julius Schrader_, such as the historical pictures with -which his fame is associated, have remained fresh for a longer period. -The "Death of Leonardo da Vinci," as well as the "Surrender of Calais to -Edward III," "Wallenstein and Seni at their Astrological Studies," "The -Dying Milton," and "Charles I parting from his Children," are only a -collection of what the Parisian studios had transmitted to him. -Delaroche and the illustrative and theatrical painting of history, -having gone the rounds in Belgium, in the next decade demanded their -sacrifice in Germany. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - LESSING. THE HUSSITE SERMON.] - -Here also similar political and literary conditions were prescribed. A -backward people, uncontent with itself, pined for deeds and glory. -Through the presentment of the great dramas of the past the spirit of -the present was to be quickened, as a relaxed body by massage. Here also -the knowledge of history levelled the ground for painting, as it did in -France. While, in the imagination of the Romanticists, different ages -melted dreamily into each other, and the Hohenstauffen period, because -of its tender melancholy character, gave the keynote for all German -history, the scientific writing of history had, since the thirties, -entered as a power into literature. Schlosser began his -_Universal-historische Uebersicht der Geschichte der alten Welt_, which -swelled to nine volumes, and represented with a completeness hitherto -unapproached the civilisation of antiquity. His history of the -eighteenth century was a still greater departure, for, after the example -of Voltaire, he included manners, science, and literature in his account -of political events. On the uncompromising subjectivity of Schlosser -followed the scientific objectivity of Ranke, who, a master of the -criticism of sources, delineated with delicate, silver-point portraits -the Papacy after the Reformation, the French Court, the policy of the -princes of the age of the Reformation, Cromwell, and the heroes of the -rising power of Prussia. Luden, Giesebrecht, Leo, Hurter, Dahlmann, -Gervinus, and many others began their great labours. German painting, -like French, sought to take advantage of the results of these scientific -investigations; and Schnaase was the first who, in the _Kunstblatt_ in -1834, described historical painting as the pressing demand of the age, -and the cultivation of the historical sense in such a disconsolate epoch -as a "truly religious necessity." Soon afterwards Vischer began to -preach historical painting as a new gospel. History, he says, is the -revelation of God. His Being is revealed in it as much as in the sacred -writings of religion. Historical painting is therefore the completion -and full exemplification of those principles which, five centuries back, -in Giotto, led to the movement of the new Christian painting. It is -called forth by the development of all forms of life and knowledge, and -is the last and highest step which sacred painting is able to reach: it -is the final completion of sacred painting itself. "Who represents the -Holy Ghost with more dignity? He who paints Him as a dove upon a sheaf -of sunbeams, or he who places before me a great and lofty man, a Luther -or a Huss in the flame of divine enthusiasm?" - -Something of the sort had been in the mind of Strauss when he advocated -the worship of genius as a substitute for religion. The infidel -idealistic painting and satire had been followed by a religious art -which evaporated in Nazareanism; pure history in boots and spurs was -next preached as a religion. "We stand," says Hotho in his history of -German and Netherlandish painting, "with our knowledge, culture, and -insight, on a summit from which we overlook the whole past. The Orient, -Greece and Rome, the Middle Ages, the Reformation, and modern times, -with their religion, literature, and art, their deeds and their life, -spread like a universal panorama before us; and it is one that we must -grasp with a universal feeling for the distinctiveness of every people, -of every epoch, and of every character. In this fashion to bury one's -self in the past, to get at the most essential meaning of its life by -knowledge, to awaken what is dead, and by art to renew what is vanished, -and thus to elevate the present to the level of the still living, -kindred Mnemosyne of the past, such is the vivifying work of our time; -and to that work its best powers must be devoted." - -[Illustration: CARL PILOTY.] - -The first who worked with these principles in Germany was _Lessing_. He -was a great landscape painter, and a clever and amiable man, whose house -in Karlsruhe was for many years a meeting-place for the polite world, -and every beginner, every young man of talent, visited it to seek -protection. During the winter of 1832-33 Menzel's _Geschichte der -Deutschen_ fell into his hands. In it he read the story of Huss and the -Hussites, and with "The Hussite Sermon" he soon afterwards began the -sequence of pictures which had as their theme the battle between Church -and State, the struggle of the Popes with the Emperors, the conflict -between binding tradition and free personal conviction--a sequence to be -viewed in connection with the opposition between authority and freedom -which had actually arisen through Strauss' _Life of Jesus_. "Huss before -the Council," "Huss on his Way to the Stake," "The Burning of the Papal -Ban," were found on their appearance exceedingly seasonable by the -orthodox, Protestant side. For people were determined to see in them, at -one time, the protests of a Protestant against the Catholic art -tendencies of the Nazarenes, at another, biting epigrams on the Catholic -and pietistic bias, ruling in Prussia under Friedrich Wilhelm IV. They -are of historical interest in so far as Lessing, before the period of -French influence, anticipated in them the path on which the German -historical painting--whose centre through Piloty came to be -Munich--moved in the following years. - -[Illustration: PILOTY. GIRONDISTS ON THE ROAD TO THE GUILLOTINE. - - (_By permission of the Berlin Photographic Co., owners of the - copyright._)] - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - PILOTY. UNDER THE ARENA.] - -_Piloty's_ glory is to have planted the banner of colour on the citadel -of the idealistic cartoon drawers. True, it was only the discarded -fleshings of Delaroche; but since he possessed, side by side with a -solid ability, pedagogic capacities of the first rank, and thus brought -to German art, in his own person, all the qualities which it had wanted -during half a century, his appearance was none the less most important -in its consequences. Even to-day, beside Kaulbach's "Jerusalem" and -Schnorr's "Deluge" in the new Pinakothek, his "Seni" is indicative of -the beginning of a new period. Before him the most celebrated men of -the Munich school made a boast of not being able to paint, and looked -down upon the "colourers" with a contemptuous shrug; so here everything -was attained which the young generation had admired in Gallait and -Bifve. This astounding revelation of colour was in 1855 praised in -Germany as something unheard of and absolutely perfect. There was no -more of the petty, motley, bodyless painting which had hitherto been -dominant. The manner in which the grey of morning falls upon the -murdered man in the eerie chamber, the way the clothes and the silken -curtains glimmer, were things which enchanted artists, whilst the lay -public philosophised with the thoughtful Seni over the greatness of -heroes and the destiny of the world. At one bound Piloty took rank as -the first German "painter"; he was the future, and he became the leader -to whom young Munich looked up with wonder. Before him no one had known -how to paint a head, a hand, or a boot in such a way. No one could do so -much, and by virtue of this technical strength he founded such a school -as Munich had never yet seen. The consequence of his advent was that the -town could soon boast of many painters who thoroughly understood their -business. What an academical professor can give his pupils (thorough -groundwork in drawing and colour), that the young generation received -from Piloty, who at his death might have said with more right than -Cornelius: "We have left a better art than we found." He who discovered -and guided so many men of talent, left behind him when he died a -well-drilled generation of painters; and far beyond the boundaries of -Munich they assure him the honourable title of a preceptor of Germany. -The Munich movement does not offer the example of passionate and -embittered battles, like those which the Parisian Romanticists -maintained against the Classicists of the school of David. The guard did -not die, but surrendered, and retired into an _otium cum dignitate_. -Without a contest the ground was left to the new generation, which was -united by no bond of tradition with that which had just been driven from -the field; it was left to an unphilosophic, unpoetic generation, whose -only endeavour was to bind together the threads of technical art which -had been torn by unalterable circumstances. - -This revolution was accomplished with almost unnatural swiftness. In the -lifetime of Cornelius himself the Franco-Belgian dogma of colour reached -its end and summit in Makart, with whom colour is an elementary power, -overflowing and levelling everything with the might of absolutism. In -the same year that Cornelius died "The Pest in Florence" made its tour -through the world. Already Schwind and Steinle, those two children of -Vienna, had separated themselves from the thoughtful stringency of form -and plastic clearness of their German comrades, by a certain coloured -and lyrically musical element in their work. And now also it was an -Austrian who again habituated the colour-blind eyes of the Germans to -the splendour of pigment. Michael Angelo's expression of form, as it had -been imitated by Cornelius, was opposed by the colour-symphonies of the -Venetians: drapery and jewels, brocade and velvet, and the voluptuous -forms of women. - -[Illustration: HANS MAKART.] - -_Hans Makart_ was a genius most picturesque in his mode of life. Whether -this life was enacted in his studio, fitted up like a ballroom, in the -Ring-Strasse, converted into a stage, or upon his canvas, everything was -transformed for him into decoration gleaming with colour. And through -this delight in colour the most important impulses were given in the -most diverse provinces of life. Against the dowdy lack of taste and the -harsh gaiety of ladies' fashions in that era he set his distinguished -costume pictures, carried out in iridescent satin tones; and the -enterprising modistes translated them into fact. The Makart hat, the -Makart roses, the Makart bouquet--very old-fashioned, no doubt, at the -present time--were disseminated over the world. Under the influence of -Makart the whole province of the more artistic trades was regarded from -a pictorial point of view. Oriental carpets, heavy silken stuffs, -Japanese vases, weapons and inlaid furniture, became henceforth the -principal elements of decoration. The fashionable world surrounded -itself with brilliant colours; papers were supplemented by _portires_ -and Gobelins, ceilings were painted, and gay umbrellas stood in the -fireplace. The bald, honest city-alderman style gave way, and a bright -triumph of colour took its place. In the studio of the master were the -finest blossoms of all epochs of art; richly ornamented German chests of -the Renaissance stood near Chinese idols and Greek terra-cotta, Smyrna -carpets and Gobelins, and old Italian and Netherlandish pictures were -mingled with antique and medival weapons. And amid this rich still-life -of splendid vessels, weapons, sculpture, and costly stuffs and costumes, -which crowded all the walls and corners, there rose to the surface as -further pieces of decoration a velvet coat, a pair of riding breeches, -and a smart pair of Wallenstein boots. Their wearer was a little man -with a black beard, two piercing dark eyes, and one of those splendid -broad-browed heads which are universally accepted as the sign of genius. - -Makart's pictures are similar studies of still-life out of which human -figures rise to the surface. One hears the rustle of silk and satin, and -the crackle of costly robes of brocade; one sees velvet door-hangings -droop in heavy folds, but the figures which have their being in the -midst are merely bodies and not souls, flesh and no bones, colour and no -drawing. Sometimes he draws better and sometimes worse, but never well. -And therefore he seems unspeakably small by the side of the old -Venetians, who in such representation combined a highly developed -knowledge of form with luxuriant brilliancy of colour. But even his -colour, that flaunting, piquant, bituminous painting derived from -Delaroche, which once threw all Germany into ecstasies, no longer awakes -any cordial enthusiasm; and the fault is only partially due to the rapid -decay, the sadly dilapidated appearance of his pictures. There is not -much more remaining of them than of that shining festal procession which -for a forenoon set the streets of Vienna in uproar. Tone and colouring -have not become finer and more mellow with the years, as in old -Gobelins, but ever more spotty and dead. And even if they had remained -fresh, would they yet appeal to the present generation, so much more -discriminating in their appreciation of colour? - -Makart, so much lauded as a painter of flesh, was never really able to -paint flesh at all. His feminine flesh tints are often bloodlessly -white, and often tinged by an unpleasant, sugary rose hue. The fresh -fragrance of life is not to be found in his figures, for they have been -begotten, not by contact with nature, but by commerce with old pictures. -He was often reproached with immorality by the prudish critics of -earlier years; Heaven knows how stagnant and stereotyped this nudity -seems in the present day, and how tame this sensuousness, even when -one's thoughts do not happen to have been raised to the great, carnal, -and divine sensuousness of Rubens. Like Robert Hamerling, allied to him -by his intoxication in colour, Makart had a great momentary success; -but, like the former, the brilliancy of his work has swiftly paled, and -it is now seen how poor and sickly was the theme hidden behind the -lavish instrumentation. Because a correct and solid anatomy was wanting -to his creations from their birth upwards, they can live no longer now -that their blooming flesh is withered. In fact, Makart's painting was a -weakly and superficial art. He had a sense for nothing but what was -external. It is said that in Chile there are huge and splendid faades -on which are written _Museo Nacional_, _Theatro Nacional_, and there is -nothing behind. And so for Makart the world was a house with a splendid -faade glowing with colour, but without dwelling-rooms in which the -sorrow and joy of humanity make their abode. His men do not think and do -not live; they are only lay figures for splendid garments, or materially -circumscribed spaces of rosy flesh colour; they make a stuffed, -brainless, animal effect. All his women heave up their eyes in the same -meaningless fashion, and have a vapid, doll-like trait about their white -teeth, laid bare as if for the dentist. It makes no difference whether -they are meant to be portraits or merely embody a feminine plastic -lyricism. It was not wise of Makart to paint a portrait. He might drape -his original after Palma Vecchio, after Rubens or Rembrandt, as -Semiramis or a Japanese; his intellectual incapacity remained always the -same; the poetry of the psychical nature evaporated from his art. - -[Illustration: MAKART. THE ESPOUSALS OF CATTERINA CORNARO.] - -But all that cannot alter the fact that Makart takes a very high place -amongst his contemporaries, in that epoch dominated by the historical -painting, and not yet arrived at an original conception of nature. -Poussin said of Raphael: if you compare him with the moderns he is an -eagle, but if you place him by the Greeks he is a sparrow. So when one -thinks of Veronese or Rubens, one finds on Makart the feathers of a -sparrow, but amongst his contemporaries in Germany he seems like an -eagle. While all those from whom he derived, those Pilotys, Gallaits, -and Delaroches, were no more than skilled historians in painting, -Makart, though much tamer and smaller, has a relationship with Delacroix -in his sovereign artistry. That joy in the purely pictorial which -expressed itself in the festal procession in the Ring-Strasse and in the -furnishing of his studio was, moreover, the ground-principle of his art. -With the navet of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all -historical truth; with absolute want of respect for books of history he -has committed anachronisms at which any critic would be irritated. -Revelling in splendid revelations of colour, all that he concerned -himself about was that his costumed figures should render a fine harmony -of hues. So exclusively was his eye organised for colour that every -picture was first conceived by him on the palette as a luxuriant mass of -colour, and he invented afterwards the theme which was proper for it. If -Delaroche transformed painting into the flat, sober, and scientifically -pedantic illustration of history, Makart gave it again a bright and -splendid play of colour. The Nazarenes were philosophers and -theosophers, the Romanticists revelled in lyrical sentiment. Kaulbach -was a philosophic historical student of the Hegelian school, Piloty a -prosaic and declamatory professor of history, Makart was the first -German _painter_ of the century. His personages weary themselves out in -the enjoyment of their own dazzling outward personality. Free as the -ancients with their gods and legends, he pours forth his Cupids, -beautiful women, genii, Bacchantes, and historical figures, and at the -same time draws into his kingdom of art all nature with its variety of -plants, flowers, and fruits, all civilisation with its fulness of -splendid vessels and jewels, of shining stuffs, emblems, weapons, and -masks. All that he created breathes the nave, sensuous satisfaction of -the genuine painter. - -"The Pest in Florence" undoubtedly had its origin in Boccaccio's -description of the great epidemic which visited the town on the Arno; -but the picture is a free fantasy of sensuous enjoyment and naked flesh, -a colour symposium in which there really lives an atom of the flaming -vital energy of Rubens. - -Take "The Espousals of Catterina Cornaro," that gay procession of -representatives from Cyprus and Venice, of dignified men, of procurators -of St. Mark, of women in foreign garb, of bright colour, who crowd round -their young mistress, the queen of the feast, rejoicing amid the -splendid architecture of the piazza. To the anger of the historian, he -removes the scene from the fifteenth century to the blossoming period of -the sixteenth, when the creations of Sansovino, Titian, and Veronese -adorned the Queen of the Adriatic. "The Entry of Charles V into Antwerp" -derived only its external impulse from Drer's Diary. The picture with -the naked girls strewing flowers might almost as well represent the -triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon. In the magic land by the Nile -it is not the history of civilisation and ethnography that attracts him, -nor the monumental world of the pyramids and the temples of the gods, -but the sensuous glow of southern nature and the still-life and artistic -accessories out of which the beautiful serpent Cleopatra is seen to -rise. Female bodies, animals, and fruits, set in the midst of rich, -luxuriant landscapes, painted with oil and bitumen, such are the -elements of which his pictures of the old world of legend--the hunt of -the Amazons and of Diana--are composed. - -With these capacities Makart was scenical painter _par excellence_. His -Abundantia pictures in the Munich Pinakothek and the ceiling-pieces of -the Palais Tumba in Vienna are among his best creations. There lives in -them something of the Olympian blitheness of the ancients, of that easy -joyousness which since Tiepolo seemed to have been buried in melancholy -reflection and constrained brooding. They fulfil their purpose, as an -invitation to the enjoyment of life, precisely because they carry no -intrinsic thought to burden the sensuous display. Moreover, the unctuous -and gorgeous colouring, with the animated contrasts of warm brown and -light blue, mediated by the deep, glowing Makart red, corresponds to the -mood they have been designed to awaken--one which called forth the joy -of life, luxuriant, full-blooded, and foaming over. The great, fiery red -flower, which sprouts out of the ground at the feet of the nymph in -"Spring," was the last thing touched by Makart's brush, the last flare -of the marvellous colour-demon by which he was possessed. - -[Illustration: MAKART. THE FEAST OF BACCHUS.] - -Was _possessed_! For Makart's whole artistic endeavour had something -unconscious. One might say in a variant reading from Lessing: "If Makart -had been born without a brain he would nevertheless have been a great -painter." It is as if one who lies buried in Antwerp had once more felt -the instinct of production, and let himself down into the great head of -the little Salzburger; and the head, being a somewhat imperfect medium, -only stammered out the intentions of the sublime master. There is -something remarkable in the career of this son of the poor servant, on -whom fortune showered with full hands all it had to offer a child of the -nineteenth century, and who in the midst of his splendour in Vienna -remained always the same harmless child of nature that he had been in -Munich, when, after receiving his first hundred florins, he drove in a -cab the two steps from Oberpollinger to the Academy. - -One must take him as he is--a product of nature. Makart was a scene -painter, and that not in his scenical pictures only; but he was an -inspired scene painter, of an enviable facility, who poured forth in -play what others fabricate with pains. His merit it is to have announced -to the Germans afresh, in an overwhelming style, that revelation of -colour which had been forgotten since the Venetians and Rubens. He has -not advanced the history of art, as such. What he gave had been given -better before. But the history of German art in the nineteenth century -has to honour in him the most perfect representative of the period in -which colour-blindness was succeeded by exuberance of colour, and the -cartoon style by the delight in painting. - -[Illustration: GABRIEL MAX. _Graphische Kunst._] - -Beside Makart, the child of nature, _Gabriel Max's_ seems a calculating, -tormented, unhealthy talent. In the manner in which Makart did his work -there lay a certain elementary, logical necessity; in Max there is a -great deal of speculation and over-refinement. Makart's home was the -town on the lagoons. Max is by education and temperament a disciple of -Piloty--that is to say, a painter of disasters; by birth he was a -Bohemian. And that resulted in his case in a very interesting mixture. -When he exhibited his first pictures it was as if one heard a refined -music after the tom-tom of Piloty. In his "Martyr on the Cross," which -appeared in the spring of 1867 in the Munich Kunstverein, he first -struck that bitter-sweet, half-torturing, half-ensnaring tone in which -he afterwards continued to sound. It is dawn; a soft grey light rests, -beaming mildly, over the lonely Campagna. Here stands a cross on which a -girl-martyr has ended her struggles. A young Roman coming home from a -feast is so thrilled by the heavenly peace in the expression of the -unhappy girl's face that he lays a crown of roses at the foot of the -cross, and becomes a convert to the faith for which she has suffered. -The mysterious mortuary sentiment in the subject is strengthened by the -almost ghostly pallor of the colouring. Everything was harmonised in -white, except that one dark lock, falling across the pale forehead with -great boldness, sounded like a shrill dissonance in the soft harmony, -like a wild scream; it had come there apparently quite by chance, but -was nevertheless calculated to a hair's breadth. The terribly touching -vision of the martyr aroused in every visitor to the Kunstverein a -shudder of delight. It was even a fine variation, and one which invited -pity, that the victim should not have been a hero, as in conventional -catastrophes, but a soft and sweet girl, made for love and never for the -cross. And it was the more absorbing, too, because it was impossible to -say whether the young Roman was looking up to the beautiful woman with -the desecrating sensuality of a _dcadent_ or with the fervid ecstasy of -a convert. The same horrified fascination was wakened again and again in -the presence of the later pictures of the painter. Almost every one -contained a scene of martyrdom, in which the tormented and sinking -heroine was a helpless child or a weak and defenceless woman. The -passion for tragic subjects brought into full swing by the historical -painters was directed in Max against the purest and tenderest, the most -chaste and the most lovely. The type was always the same, with its -Bohemian nose and one eye larger than the other, by which was attained a -curiously visionary or hysterically enthusiastic expression. And the -pictorial treatment corresponded to it: there was always a flesh-tint of -poignant mortal pallor, a white clinging drapery, a black veil, a light -grey background, all harmonised in one very delicate chord. - -Goethe's Gretchen made the beginning. In the Zwinger she lifted up her -eyes in frightened anguish to the countenance of the Madonna. She sat in -her cell, her face altered by madness and lit up with a wild laughter, -and in a reverie passed her hand through Faust's locks. Or as a phantom -she wandered in the Walpurgis night, in her long, flowing shroud, with a -blood-red stripe round her throat. This picture, exhibited with electric -light, was especially effective. Max had brought into the earnest -corpse-like eyes an expression that was terribly demoniacal, and had -been attained to the same degree by no earlier illustrator of _Faust_. A -raven, pecking at the lost ring, was her ghostly escort. - -Max showed great invention in hitting upon such things. Brger's -_Pfarrertochter von Taubenhain_ gave him the material for his -"Child-murderess"--a young girl who, by the bank of a lonely pool, -overgrown with reeds, stabs her child to the heart with a needle, and in -a sudden rush of maternal love presses a kiss on the stiff little body -before committing it to the water. Here the sombre, disconsolate -character of the landscape accorded finely with the action, and the pale -body of the child made an exceedingly bright, pungent spot of colour on -the dark-green rushes. "The Lion's Bride" illustrated Chamisso's ballad -of the jealous lion who killed his mistress before her wedding, because -he would not give her over to another. Majestically he lies behind her, -with one paw on the arm of the slain, and the other struck into her -thigh. The stones of the floor are reddened with her blood. But far more -frequently than blood Max employed the tints of corruption, the true -_nature morte_. In its colour-values and subtle shades the dead human -body, just at the point where corruption begins, was better suited to -the painter's pallid scale of colour than the light and brutally -effective red of freshly poured-out blood. Among these paintings of -mortification must be reckoned "Ahasuerus by the Body of a Child" and -"The Anatomist"; the latter meditatively regards at the dissecting-table -the corpse, covered with white linen, of a young girl who has committed -suicide. In his "Raising of Jairus's Daughter" the effect of -mortification was most cleverly heightened by a small detail, which made -an extraordinary impression: this was a fly on the naked arm of the -girl, put there to remind the spectator of the unconsciousness of the -body. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - MAX. A NUN IN THE CLOISTER GARDEN.] - -The secrets of death are always certain of their effect on the nerves; -but by means of the broken hearts of women, with annihilated hopes and -agonised hysterical sufferings, he succeeded again in calling forth a -bitter-sweet sympathy. "Mary Magdalene" and "The Maid of Orleans" were -the masterpieces of this group. The underlying idea of the picture -"Light" is that a blind young Christian girl, at the portal of the Roman -catacombs, offers lamps to the entering Christians for the illumination -of their dark way. The blind woman as the giver of light! Even in his -youth, with cruel irony, he had had sung by a blind quartet the song, -"_Du hast die schnsten Augen_." A touch of Delaroche is in the other -young martyr, who, between the bloodthirsty beasts of the Roman circus, -looks up amazed to the rows of spectators, from the midst of which a -young Roman has flung her a rose as a last greeting. In the next moment -she will be lying on the earth torn to shreds by the beasts. - -As he succeeded here in giving a presentiment of the horrible, so in -another group of pictures Max attained a yet more demoniacal charm by -the ghostly. He had early made himself familiar with Schopenhauer and -Buddha and the Indian fakirs; the mystical and spiritualistic movement -had just at that time been set going by the writings of Carl Du Prels. -Justinus Kerner and the prophetess of Prevorst were the order of the -day. Max became the painter of hypnotism and spiritualism. "The Spirit's -Greeting" made a special sensation: the young girl at the piano, in this -picture, is interrupted in her playing by the touch of a materialised -ghostly hand, which stretches towards her from a soft cloudy mist. The -mixture of horror, joy, devotion, and ecstasy in the face of the young -player was very effective. In order to render effects of the kind he -made extensive studies from the hypnotised model, and in this way he -sometimes reached an extraordinary intensity of expression. He took a -decided position with regard to another question which at the time was -very acute--vivisection. This he did in the picture of the man of -science from whom an allegorical female figure, "The Genius of Pity," -takes away a little dog doomed to be dissected, showing by a pair of -scales that the human heart has more weight than the human -understanding. - -All this goes to show that Max is the opposite of artless. He knows how -to calculate an effect on the nerves with extreme subtlety, and most -skilfully at times to give his pictures the attraction of the freshly -printed newspaper. He appeals to compassion rather than imagination. He -would set the heart beating violently. He triumphs generally by his -subjects, and his effects are much purer in those few works in which he -renounces the piquant adjunct of the demoniacal, the tragical, and the -mystical, and becomes merely a painter. Amongst those works is to be -reckoned that beautiful "Madonna" on the altar, painted in 1886, and so -tenderly illustrating the verses of Heine-- - - "Und wer eine Wachshand opfert, - Dem heilt an der Hand die Wund, - Und wer ein Wachsherz opfert, - Dem wird das Herz gesund." - -And so too does that charming "Spring Tale" of 1873, which breathes only -of gaiety, happiness, and peace; a young girl sits under the blossoming -bushes, and listens enraptured to the warbling of a nightingale. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - MAX. THE LION'S BRIDE.] - -Those pictures, the "mood" of which grows out of the landscape -around--"The Nun in the Cloister Garden," "Adagio," "The Spring Tale," -and "Autumn Dance"--give Max a very high and peculiar place in the work -of his period. He appears in them as a tender poet who expresses his -emotions through a pictorial medium; as an adorer of nature of a soft -melancholy and subtle delicacy, which are to be found in like manner -only in the works of the Englishmen Frederick Walker, George Mason, and -George H. Boughton. Nature sings a hymn to the soul of the painter, and -through his figures it is breathed forth in low, vibrating cadences. A -tender landscape of earliest spring gave the ground-tone to his charming -picture "Adagio." Young trees with trembling stems raise their slender -crowns into the pale blue sky flecked with clouds. As yet the branches -are almost naked; only here and there appears the embroidery of fresh -yellowish green. And in this soft, tender nature which shyly reveals -itself as with a slight shudder after its long winter sleep, there are -seated two beings: a boy and his young mother--she looks almost a -child--dreamily meditating. Their eyes look strangely into vacancy, as -though their thoughts are wandering. Nature works on them, and a -melancholy _Warte nur balde_ runs through their souls. A spring -landscape of blissful gaiety, where nightingales warble, butterflies sip -at the flowers, and sunbeams play coquettishly round the budding -rosebushes, is the Setting of the "Spring Tale." Everything laughs and -rejoices, shines and scents the air in the early sunlight. Pearls of dew -sparkle on the meadows, gnats hum and leaves murmur. She thinks of him. -All the joy of a first love-dream sets her heart quivering with a -delicious tremor. In her heart as in nature it is spring. Yet even as a -landscape painter Max generally has that tender, suffering trait which -runs through his creative work elsewhere. Twilight, autumn, pale sky and -dead leaves have made the deepest impression on his spirit. Thin, -half-stunted trees, in the leaves of which the evening wind is playing, -grow upon an undulating, poverty-stricken soil. The landscape spreads -around with a kind of lyrical melancholy: a region which gives no -exuberant assurance of being beautiful, but which, in its poverty, -attunes the mind to melancholy; a region, however, which knows not of -storms and loneliness, but is the peaceful dwelling of quiet and -resigned men. These beings belong to no age; their costume is not -modern, but neither is it taken from any earlier period. They do not act -and they tell no story; they dream their time away meditatively and -gravely. Max has divested them of everything fleshly and vulgar, so that -only a shadow of them remains, a soul that vibrates in exquisite, dying, -elusive chords. "The Autumn Dance" is such an unearthly picture, and one -of indefinable magic. Children and women are dancing, yet one feels them -to be religious dreamers whom a melancholy world-weariness and a -yearning after the mystical have drawn together to this secret and -sequestered corner of the earth. The pale, transparent air, the tender -tints of the dresses, delicate as fading flowers, the flesh tint giving -the figures something ghostly and ethereal--it all strikes a note at -once blythe and sentimental, happy and sad. "The Nun in the Cloister -Garden" is in point of landscape one of his finest productions. In the -cloister garden, despite the budding spring, there reigns a disconsolate -dreariness. On the thin grass sits a young nun, who follows dreamily the -gay fluttering of two butterflies, which flit around at her feet. A -black dress, harshly and abruptly crossed by a white cape, envelops the -youthfully delicate form. The dying sapling on which she is leaning -bends helplessly against the stubborn paling to which it is fastened -with iron clamps. The weather-stained wall stretches along in a dreary -monotonous grey. An old sundial relentlessly indicates the slow dragging -hours. But the deep blue heaven, in which a pair of larks poise -exulting, looks in across the wall, from which a scrubby growth climbs -shivering in the breeze. - -[Illustration: _Graphische Kunst._ - - MAX. LIGHT.] - -In such pictures, too, Max has a morbid inclination to a mystical -delicacy of sentiment. He gives what is real an exquisite subtlety which -transplants it into the world of dreams, and his tender sense of pain -perhaps appeals only to spirits of an sthetic temper. He is the -antithesis of robust health; and yet there lies in the excess of nervous -sensibility--in the pathological trait in his art--precisely the quality -which inspires the characteristic delicacy of his earlier works. Here is -no pupil of Piloty, but our contemporary. In their anmic colour his -pictures have the effect of a song of high, fine-drawn, and tremulous -violin tones, at once dulcet and painful. With their refinement and -polish, their subtle taste and intimate emotion, so wonderfully mingled, -they reach the music of painting. They paint the invisible, they revel -in dreams. In a period which played only _fortissimo_, and was at pains -to drum on all the senses at once with a distorting passion, Max was, -next to Feuerbach, the first who prescribed for his compositions -_dolce_, _adagio_, and _mezza voce_; who sought for the refined, subdued -emotions in place of the _emotions fortes_. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - MAX. THE SPIRIT'S GREETING.] - -[Illustration: _Grphische Kunst._ - - MAX. ADAGIO.] - -These pictures, the more subdued the better, make him the forerunner of -the most modern artists, and assure his name immortality much more -certainly than the great figure resting on an historical or literary -basis. Their delicate black, green, and white simplicity has a nobleness -of colouring which stands quite alone in the German painting of the -century, and this, together with their refined musical sentiment, is -probably to be set rather to the account of his Bohemian blood than of -his Munich training. And whilst in the heads of his figures elsewhere a -certain monotonous vacuity disturbs one's pleasure, he appears here as a -psychic painter of the highest mark; one who analysed with the most -subtle delicacy all the fleeting _nuances_--so hard to catch--of -melancholy, silent resignation, yearning, and hopelessness. Only the -figures of the English new pre-Raphaelites have the same sad-looking, -dove-like eyes, the same spiritual lips, tremulous as though from -weeping. There must have been a divine moment in his existence when he -first filled the loveliest form with the expression of the holiest -suffering, the sweetest reverie, the deepest devotion, and the most rapt -ecstasy. And if later, when people could not weary of this expression, -he took to producing it without real feeling and by purely stereotyped -means, that is, at any rate, a weakness of temperament which he shares -with others. - -Gabriel Max is an individuality, not of the first rank indeed, but he is -one; and there are not many painters of the nineteenth century of whom -that can be said. He has often underlined too heavily, printed too much -in italics, and done more homage to crude than to fine taste. But he -has, in advance of his contemporaries, in whose works the good was so -seldom new, the priceless virtue that he always gave something new, if -not something good. His art was without ancestry, an entirely personal -art; something which no one had before Max, and which after him few will -produce again. A province which had not yet been trodden, the province -of the enigmatic and ghostly, was opened up by him; he set foot in it -because he is a philosophic brooder, fascinated by the magic of the -uncanny. His studio is like a chapel in which a mysterious service for -the dead is being held, or the chamber of an anatomist, rather than the -workroom of a painter. The investigation of dead birds occupied him -after his Prague days just as much as the sounding of the life of the -human spirit. He lived at the time with his parents in an old, ghostly -house, and roamed about a great deal in the picture gallery of the -Strahow foundation; and here in lonely nights and mysterious -picture-rooms there arose that grave and sombre spirit which runs -through his work. As a child at the death of his father he had his first -"vision." His earliest picture, which he finished while at the Prague -Academy, and sold afterwards to the Art Union there for ninety florins, -showed that he had begun to move on his later course: "Richard the -Lion-heart steps to the Corpse of his Father and it bleeds." He was thus -inwardly ripe when, in 1863, he came to Piloty in Munich, and, equipped -with the technique of the latter, refined in so delicate a manner on the -traditional painting of disasters. And if a conscious design on the -nerves of the multitude frequently entered into his work, it was, as a -rule, veiled by captivating beauty and excellence of painting. His older -good pictures fascinate the most jaded eye by their remarkably tender -sentiment, and the mystical spirituality of his soft and lovely girlish -heads has been reached by few in his century. He is at the same time a -colourist of complete individuality, who made pigments the subtilised -and ductile means of expression for his visionary moods of soul. He has -brought into the world a numerous stock of works prepared for the -market; and he has not disdained to paint glorified wonders of the fair, -like the Christ's head upon the handkerchief of Veronica, whose eyes -seem to be closed by their lids and are looking out at the same time -wide open. But much as he sinned, he always remained an artist. A -curious, interesting, characteristic mind, one of the few who ventured -even forty years ago to give themselves out as children of their time, -in the firmament of German, and indeed of European art, he appears as a -star shining by its own and not by borrowed light, as one whose -incommensurable magnitude it is that his talent cannot be compared with -any other. That is what gives him his artistic importance. - -[Illustration: - - MAX. A WINTER'S TALE.] - -All the less room can be claimed by the many who, likewise following in -their subject-matter the lines of Piloty, get no further than the -traditional catastrophe. Not Munich only, but all Germany, lay for more -than a decade after the middle of the century under the shadow of -historical painting, which here, as in other countries, came as the -logical product of an unhappy time, dissatisfied with its own existence -when Germany was merely a geographical expression, and in the pitiable -misery of that age of state-confederations, dreamt of a better future at -singing contests, athletic tournaments, and rifle meetings. The more -poverty-stricken the time was in real action, the more vehement was the -desire to read of action in books or to see it on canvas; and in this -respect historical painting rendered at that time important political -services, which are to be acknowledged with gratitude; just as the -historical drama, the historical ballad and the historical novel were, -all and several, means for the expression of the deep-seated longing of -a backward people for political labours, for deeds and for fame. - -But the artistic yield was not greater than elsewhere. - -When the learned in the thirties laid it down in doctrinaire fashion -that, with the destruction of religious fervour begun by science, the -old traditionary sacred painting would fall away of itself and the -painting of profane history take its place, they overlooked from the -very beginning the fact that, so long as the much discussed worship of -genius had not actually become a reality the painting of history had to -fight against insuperable obstacles. What constitutes the prime -condition of all art--that its contents must be some fact vivid in -consciousness--should, at any rate, determine its limitations, and ought -to have confined the historical picture to the nearest universally known -subjects. And what happened was just the contrary. - -When Delaroche had skimmed the cream, his successors were forced to -search in the great martyr book of history for events which were more -and more unknown and indifferent. Piloty took from ancient history "The -Death of Alexander the Great," "The Death of Csar," "Nero at the -Burning of Rome," and "The Triumphal Progress of Germanicus"; and from -medival history, "Galileo in his Prison observing the Periodic Return -of a Solar Ray," and "Columbus sighting Land"; from the history of the -Thirty Years' War, "The Foundation of the Catholic League by Duke -Maximilian of Bavaria," "Seni before the Body of Wallenstein" (the -morning before the battle at the White Mountain, Seni has come to carry -away Wallenstein's body), "Wallenstein on the way to Eger," and "The -News of the Battle at the White Mountain"; from English history, "The -Death Sentence of Mary Stuart"; and from French history, "The Girondists -on their Way to the Scaffold." - -After these pictures were painted and had had their success the turn -came, in the years immediately following, for subjects growing steadily -more and more dreary. And as Goethe held the historical to be "the most -ungrateful and dangerous field," so it now appeared as though laurels -were to be gathered there only. From the political dismemberment of the -present, German artists were glad to seek refuge as far back as possible -in the past, and they flung themselves on the new province with such -fiery zeal that, after a few decades, there was a really appalling -number of historical pictures, illustrating every page of Schlosser's -great history of the world. _Max Adamo_ painted "The Netherlandish -Nobles before the Tribunal of Alva," "The Fall of Robespierre in the -National Convention," "The Prince of Orange's Last Conversation with -Egmont," "Charles I meeting Cromwell at Childerley," "The Dissolution of -the Long Parliament," and "Charles I receiving the Visit of his Children -at Maidenhead"; _Julius Benczur_: "The Departure of Ladislaus Hunyadi," -and "The Baptism of Vajk," afterwards King Stephen the Holy of Hungary; -_Josef Fluggen_: "The Flight of the Landgravine Elizabeth," "Milton -dictating Paradise Lost," and "The Landgravine Margarethe taking leave -of her Children"; by _Carl Gustav Hellquist_ there were "The Death of -the wounded Sten Sture after the Battle of Bogesund in the Mlarsee," -"The Embarkment of the Body of Gustavus Adolphus," and the forced -contribution of "Wisby and Huss going to the Stake." _Ernst Hildebrand_ -had the Electress of Brandenburg secretly taking the sacrament in both -kinds, and Tullia driving over the corpse of her father; _Frank -Kirchbach_ displayed "Duke Christopher the Warrior"; _Ludwig von -Langenmantel_: "The Arrest of the French Chemist Lavoisier under the -Reign of Terror," and "Savonarola's Sermon against the Luxury of the -Florentines"; _Emanuel Leutze_: a "Columbus before the Council of -Salamanca," "Raleigh's Departure," "Cromwell's Visit to Milton," "The -Battle of Monmouth," and "The Last Festival of Charles I"; _Alexander -Liezenmayer_: "The Coronation of Charles Durazzo in Stuhlweissenburg," -and "The Canonisation of the Landgravine Elizabeth of Thringen"; -_Wilhelm Lindenschmit_: "Duke Alva at the Countess of Rudolstadt's," -"Francis I at Pavia," "The Death of Franz Von Sickingen," "Knox and the -Scottish Image-breakers," "The Assassination of William of Orange," -"Walter Raleigh visited in his Cell by his Family," "Luther before -Cardinal Cajetan," "Anne Boleyn giving her Child Elizabeth to the care -of Matthew Parker," and "The Entrance of Alaric into Rome"; _Alexander -Wagner_: "The Departure of Isabella Zapolya from Siebenbrgen," "The -Entry into Aschaffenburg of Gustavus Adolphus," "The Wedding of Otto of -Bavaria," "The Death of Titus Dugowich," "Matthias Corvinus with his -Hunting Train," and many more of the same description. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - MAX. MADONNA.] - -Was it at all possible to make works of art out of such material? -Perhaps it was. The real artist can do anything. What he touches becomes -gold, for he has the hand of Midas. But just as certain it is that the -"historical painting," carried on by a joint-stock company, almost never -got any further than stage pathos, tailoring, and glittering splendour -of material. Like many another thing which the nineteenth century -brought to birth, it was an artistic error, which countless persons paid -for by the waste of their lives. The older art knew nothing of such a -reconstruction of the past. If historical subjects were painted, the -artists were almost throughout contemporaries of the subject that was to -be treated; seldom did the materials belong to an epoch already past. -But in both cases the work was done by immediate intuition, since even -in the treatment of matters long gone by the painters never dreamed of -painting them in the spirit of past times. They might depict Jews, or -Greeks, or Romans, but they always represented their own countrymen in -the surroundings and costume of their own time. The scientific -nineteenth century made the first demand for historical accuracy. In -dress and furniture this could be attained with the assistance of a -cabinet of engravings and a work on costume. Whoever went to work in a -very scientific spirit could even borrow from a museum the genuine -costumes of Egmont and Wallenstein. But it was all the harder -artistically to quicken into life the men themselves who had felt, -lived, and suffered in the past. The painter could not proceed otherwise -than by draping a modern, professional model, having consulted -portraits, drawings, or busts, and having sought the aid of a peruke and -false beard. An entirely realistic reproduction of this masquerade, -however, made only too evident the contrast between the splendid old -garment and the member of the proletariat who was dressed up in it. For, -granted that men of the present have much in common with those of the -past, every period has none the less its own type, even its own -gestures, which no costume can make one forget. And speaking merely of -general humanity, there is no question that a statesman at all times -looked different from a professional model. In a very bad suit of -clothes, but in one which, at any rate, fitted him, and in which he was -able to behave himself naturally, the poor fellow came to the studio, to -feel, for a few hours, in satin hose and a velvet doublet, like a -carnival figure. Who was to give him the easy knightly bearing to play -his part suitably to the occasion? It was not possible in this way ever -to attain the naturalness and fulness of life of the old painters. In -Terborg's "Peace of Westphalia" everything is genuine and true and -simple; here wig and woollen beard have got the upper hand. And if the -painter proceeded not as a theatrical tailor, but as an historian of -civilisation, the result was an archaic dryness. For then he was merely -thrown back on the great masters of those periods in which the action -took place, and, while he enlarged and coloured old busts or engraved -portraits, his art was only second-hand. - -And so the only way out of the difficulty was to use the model, but to -idealise him by generalising and sinking the individual in the -universally human, noble, and heroic. In this way the remarkable family -likeness of all these heads becomes comprehensible, and it is still -further heightened by that preference for a monotonous type of beauty -which, from the period of Classicism, entered, as it were, into the -blood of these painters. The human physiognomy, in reality so various, -had then only one mask for the many characters which life creates. There -was a fear of "ugliness," as if it were a spot of dirt, and the -personages portrayed received, one and all, an icy trait of "the -Beautiful." The various Egmonts, Wallensteins, and Charles the Firsts of -Gallait and Bifve, Delaroche, and Piloty have not the blood of human -beings, they have not the scars which are made by fate, but are all -alike in their Byronic turn of the head. One knows the so-called -character-heads--Luther gazing upwards with the look of one strong in -faith, Columbus discovering America, and Milton in whose head are -seething all the thoughts which dying men are wont to have in their last -moments,--one knows them as thoroughly by heart as one knows all the -opened folios and overturned settles, the picturesquely draped tapestry -reserved for tragic funereal service, and that little box, covered with -brass and catching the flashing lights, which constitutes in Belgium, -France, and Germany the iron casket of all historical pieces. In the -place of the inward Shakespearian truth of the figures, peculiar to the -old masters, is the outward truth of costume; and the historical -"property man," whose highest aim is to "dress" the great moments of -universal history in the prescribed manner, has stepped into the place -of the artist. In the works of the old masters the historical figures -stand out with sincerity as characters of flesh and blood, despite the -want of "local colour," whilst in the moderns the costumes certainly are -correct, but the figures are so much the less credible and vital. -"Beautiful may be the folds of the garment, but more beautiful must be -that which they contain." - -Clothes do not make people, and costumes heighten no passions. Thus -difficulties were heaped on difficulties, when impassioned situations -and moments of dramatic intensity were to be painted. Whoever has -reached that height of artistic power where the artist may with impunity -put his model out of his head--like Delacroix, grand, volcanic, stormy, -and excited to a fever heat by his inspiration,--that man will be -capable of giving the effect of truth to such scenes, and of running -through the whole gamut of emotion with a crushing power of conviction. -But the joint-stock historical painter had to get his models to pull -faces, and then no less laboriously to render with his oils those -grimaces so laboriously produced. Hence the monotonous and petrified -histrionic ecstasy of these pictures, the noble indignation put on for -show, and that distressing gesticulation. As the actor gives emphasis to -his words far more by gestures than is the case in ordinary life, so -here also the artificially impassioned air of the heads was -conventionally interpreted by corresponding motions of the arms. And -thus the closing tableau was made ready: the dancers lay their hands on -their hearts with tender and deep feeling; the tenor heroes sing that -they are prepared to die; the tyrants let their deep basses vibrate, and -the orchestra rages, to close with a shattering chord at the moment when -the hero sets his foot upon the chest of the traitor; then come the -Bengal lights, and then the curtain falls. What a spectacle!--but, alas, -a spectacle and nothing more. All the emotions are artificial; they are -opera emotions: the painters are only clever fellows, manufacturers of -librettos and gay canvas; they show a great deal of knowledge and -dexterity, but they have only a head and no heart. Stage requisites and -professional models can never take the place of the free, creative force -of imagination. - -And if German pictures of this sort have an effect almost more insincere -and theatrical than the French, the reason probably is that -gesture--that external aid to the expression of feeling--is always more -natural to the Latin than the Teutonic races, and has therefore, of -itself, an effect of affectation in every German picture. We know that -Bismarck, the Teuton incarnate, even in the most excited of -parliamentary speeches, never made any other movement than to rap -nervously with his pencil. "The German only becomes impassioned when he -lies." The most genuine masters of German blood have felt that right -well, and they have been honest enough to say it out. A pervading trait -of old German art is simplicity, the avoidance of everything impassioned -even in the grandest conception, such as Drer has. If in Leonardo's -"Last Supper" terror, indignation, curiosity, and sorrow are reflected -by twelve heads and twenty-four hands in movements of agitation which -are always new, in Drer's woodcut all the limbs and senses of the -disciples are paralysed at the sorrowful revelation of the Saviour; it -seemed to them desecration to break the solemn, oppressive stillness by -noisy utterances of opinion and hasty gestures. And the same thing is to -be remarked in every similar picture of Rembrandt's; here too are only -quiet and subdued movements, delicate suggestions and silence. The -effect is great and sublime, the features of the Saviour earnest and -expressive, but His mien is without any ecstatic emphasis such as a -painter of Romance blood would have given Him. Only in the nineteenth -century--partly through imitation of the Italians in Cornelius and -Kaulbach, and then through imitation of the French in Piloty and his -disciples--has this impassionedness, so opposed to German nature, -entered into German art; and it has borrowed from the opera the -distortions by which it has expressed the agitations of the spirit. No -one works with impunity against the grain of his temperament. -Exaggerated and violent movements, "ostentatious gestures of false -dignity," have replaced the natural expressions of life. - -Less pose, parade, and theatricality, more ease, truth, and quietude; -less insipid, generalised "beauty," more forcible, characteristic -"ugliness": if art was not to be drowned in a surge of phrases, this was -the path to be taken; and the transition was accomplished in "the -historical picture of manners." - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -THE VICTORY OVER PSEUDO-IDEALISM - - -Immediately upon the epoch-making labours of the historians followed the -first romances that were archological and dealt with the history of -civilisation; and hand in hand with these literary productions there was -developed--by the side of historical painting proper, in France, -Belgium, and Germany--a tendency to represent the life of the past, not -in its grand dramatic action, but in its familiar concerns. In the one -case there was history in its state uniform, in the other history in -undress. And while the former class of painters saw the past only in a -condition of unrest and violent movement, the latter began to enter into -the details of daily life, and to represent it as it flowed by in times -of peace. Those who had the romantic bias turned to the old artistic -crafts. As yet that bias consisted only in an enthusiasm for the -tasteful civilisation of a bygone age, with its polished charm of -luxurious household appointments and pleasing costume. Rooms were filled -with Gobelins and rich stuffs, handsome furniture and old pictures. By -the rapid sale of their productions painters were placed in a position -to acquire for themselves at the second-hand dealers all the beautiful -things they painted. They placed their dressed-up models in front of -their tapestries, and between their cabinets and tables. Stress was laid -on historical accuracy in the representation of the usages and costumes -of the past, not on dramatic action, and in this respect the historical -picture of manners, as opposed to historical painting, marked an advance -towards intimacy of feeling. The latter still worked from the abstract. -The painter read a book and looked out for telling passages. He -idealised models, to lend his picture the character of "great art." It -was always the illustration of underlying ideas. - -In this new kind of picture, on the contrary, the conception of a work -of art was given, by the perfected representation of any part of the -visible world, were it only the corner of a studio elaborately and -artificially arranged. The historical picture of manners no longer -depicted "the meeting of hostile forces," but either the heroes of -history or the nameless men of the past in their daily act and deed, and -so accustomed the public gradually to interest themselves in people who -did not act with histrionic passion, but conducted themselves quietly -and soberly like men of the present time. The place of the dramatic was -taken by those phases of life which are pleasant and smooth. At the same -time there was no need to be thrown back on conventional idealisation, -and it was possible to bring people dressed up for the occasion directly -into the picture, just as they sat there, since the contrast between the -professional model and the old-fashioned dress made itself less felt on -this smaller scale of art. Thus was achieved the transition from the -heroic historical art of the first half of the nineteenth century to -that familiar and more human art of the second half, which no longer -fled for help to the past, but sought a simpler ideal in reality. - -First of all in France, from the side of the solemnly earnest group of -Academicians, there stepped forward certain artists who moved in the old -world quite at their ease, and began to paint simple little pictures -from the daily life of antiquity, instead of the great ostentatious -canvases of David and Ingres. In literature their parallels are Ponsard -and Augier, who in their comedies brought antique life upon the stage, -the one in _Horace et Lydie_, the other in _La Cigu_ and _Le Joueur de -Flte_. - -_Charles Gleyre_ approached nearest to the strict academical style of -Ingres. Not even by a tour in the East did he allow himself to be led -away from the Classical manner, and as head of a great and leading -studio he recognised it as the task of his life to hand on to the -present generation the traditions of the school of Ingres. Gleyre was a -man of sound culture, who during a sojourn in Italy which lasted for -years, had examined Etruscan vases and Greek statues with unintermittent -zeal, studied the Italian classics, and copied all Raphael. Having come -back to Paris, he never drew a line without having first assured himself -how Raphael would have proceeded in the given case. And this striving -after purity of form has robbed his works ("Nymph Echo," "Hercules at -the Feet of Omphale," and the like) almost entirely of ease, freshness, -and naturalness. Gleyre became, like Ary Scheffer, a victim to style. He -had in him--his "Evening" of 1843 is sufficient to show it--a tender, -dreamy, and contemplative spirit. The feelings to which he wished to -give expression were his own, and the more fragrant, romantic, and -vaporously indistinct they were, the more did they suffer from the stiff -academical line in which he so mercilessly bound them. Only in his -"Orpheus torn by the Bacchantes" has he raised himself to a certain -neo-Greek elegance. - -_Louis Hamon_ stands at the end of this path, which led gradually from -the strictness of form characteristic of the idealism of Ingres to -incidents thought out in perfectly modern fashion and laid in a -primitive era only because of the advantages of costume offered by the -antique. The grace of his pictures is modern; their Classicism is a -disguise. To robust natures his art can make but little appeal. He has -deprived nature of her strength and marrow, and painting of its peculiar -qualities, transforming them into a coloured dream, a tinted mist. In -Hamon's modelling there is an uncertainty, in his colour a sickly -weakness and meagre effeminacy, which give to his figures and landscapes -the appearance of being dissolved in vapour. Everything firm is taken -from them; the stones look like wadding, the plants like soap, the -figures like china dolls which would fly into the air at the least gust -of wind. Nevertheless there are times when his confectionery has a -sympathetic grace. What distinguishes him is something simple, pure, -youthful, fresh, and childlike. His colour is lighter and more delicate -than Gleyre's. None but blended colours such as light blue and light -yellow mingle in the harmony of white tones. The severe antique style -has been given a pretty _rococo_ turn: his Greek girls, women, and -children are like figures of Svres porcelain; the scenes in which he -groups them are pleasing,--sports of fancy brought forward in a Grecian -garb, of an affected sensuousness and a coquettish grace. His prettiest -picture was probably "My Sister's not at Home"--Greece seen through a -gauze transparency in the theatre. - -[Illustration: _Gaz des Beaux-Arts._ - - HAMON. MY SISTER'S NOT AT HOME. - - (_By permission of Messrs. Boussod, Valadon & Co., the owners of the - copyright._)] - -_Lon Grme_ has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the -antique; being a pupil of Delaroche, however, he has treated not -mythological but historical episodes of antiquity. His "Cock-fight," -"Phryne before the Areopagus," "The Augurs," "The Gladiators," -"Alcibiades at the House of Aspasia," and "The Death of Csar," together -with pictures from Egypt, are his most characteristic works: Ingres and -Delaroche upon a smaller scale. He shares with the one his learnedly -pedantic composition, and with the other his taste for anecdote. It may -be remarked that in these same years Emile Augier was active in -literature, but that Augier, living in the same epoch of modern life, is -far more powerful and animated in his Classical pieces. Grme's art is -an intelligent, frigid, calculating art. In execution he does not rise -above a petty study of form and an academic discipline. His drawing is -accurate, and he has even succeeded in giving his figures a certain -natural truth which is in advance of the generalisation of the classic -ideal; yet from first to last he is wanting in every quality as a -painter. His pictures of the East are hard landscapes, in which men or -animals, harder still--unfortunate, eternally petrified beings--stand -out abruptly. He draws and stipples, he works like an engraver in line, -and goes over what he has painted again and again with a fine and feeble -brush. He has an eye for form, but the effect of light upon the body -escapes him. His pictures therefore give the impression of china, and -his colour is hard and dead. What distinguishes him is a watchful -observation, a chilling correctness, enclosing everything in -characterless outlines. And this marble coldness remained with him later -when, moving with the development of historical painting, he gradually -took to working on more tragical subjects. Even the most violent -subjects are depicted with a dainty grace, and with a smile he serves up -decapitated heads, prepared with a painting _ la maitre d'htel_, upon -a gold-rimmed porcelain plate as smooth as glass. - -Another painter of archological _genre_ is _Gustave Boulanger_, who -after extensive studies in Pompeii gave a vogue to those antique -interiors and scenes of Pompeian street life now associated with the -name of Alma-Tadema. - -Direct descendants of Delaroche and Robert Fleury were those who threw -themselves enthusiastically into treating the physiognomy of the -sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and devoted the most ardent study -to the weapons, costumes, and furniture of those epochs. They never -wearied in representing Franois I and Henri IV in the most varied -situations of life, nor in searching the biographies of great artists -and scholars for episodes worth painting. Especially popular subjects -were those of celebrated painters at their meeting with contemporaries -of high station: Raphael and Michael Angelo coming across each other in -the Vatican, Murillo as a boy, the young Ribera found drawing in the -street by a Cardinal, Bellini in his studio amid all manner of precious -objects, Charles V and Titian, Michael Angelo tending his servant, and -others of the same kind. The number of painters who were active in this -province is as great as the number of anecdotes which are told of -distinguished men. They spread themselves over various countries, like -the swarms of insects hatched on a summer's day amid luxuriant -vegetation, and thereby they render the task of selection more difficult -to the historian. In France there worked _Alexander Hesse_, _Camille -Roqueplan_, and _Charles Comte_; in Belgium, _Alexander Markelbach_ and -_Florent Willems_. Markelbach, a pupil of Wappers, in addition to -episodes from English history, specially devoted himself to painting the -shooting festivals of the old Netherlandish city guards, in which -enterprise the Doelen pieces of Frans Hals did him excellent service in -the matter of costume. Florent Willems, who, as a restorer, saturated -himself with the manner of the old masters, was particularly popular on -account of the smooth finish he gave to his modish ladies, cavaliers, -soldiers, painters, soubrettes, and patrician matrons of the sixteenth -and seventeenth centuries. All the richly coloured satin, brocade, and -velvet costumes of these personages, together with the tapestry, the -curtains, and the furniture of their dwellings, he had the secret of -reproducing in such a fashion that he was long esteemed a modern -Terborg. Amongst the Germans, _L. von Hagn_ was the most delicate of -these artists, and the graceful comedies of real life which he painted, -transplanting them into the Italian Renaissance or the French _rococo_ -period, have often great distinction of colouring. _Gustav Spangenberg_, -after the lucky but isolated success he had made with "The Track of -Death," devoted himself to the Reformation period; and _Carl Becker_ to -the Venetian Renaissance, from which he occasionally made an excursion -into the German. These and many others could be discussed with more -particularity if their pictures, smooth as coloured prints, and neatly -finished in their own paltry way, were not so much below the standard of -galleries. For them also the incident to be represented, with the -personages concerned in it, was the principal matter, and not pure -painting. These fetters upon true art were first shaken off by the hands -of the following painters. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - GRME. THE COCK-FIGHT.] - -Of the generation of the eminent Flemish artists of 1830 _Hendrik Leys_ -is the one whose fame has been most enduring. Born in Antwerp on 18th -February 1815, at first destined for the priesthood, and then in 1829 -admitted to the studio of Ferdinand de Braekeleers, he had made his -dbut in the beginning of the thirties with a pair of historical -pictures. These indeed revealed little of the power which he evinced -later, but they furnished some indication of what he was aiming at. Here -were none of the skirmishes--so popular at the time--in which blood -flows as from the pipes of a fountain; the combatants fought with -decorum and moderation, and less from conviction than to justify the -helmets and cuirasses which had been fetched from the wardrobe. In both -of them, on the other hand, the background--a medival town with -tortuous alleys, lanterns, and picturesque taverns--was most lovingly -treated. Here was revealed a thoroughly German delight in minute detail. -Instead of subordinating the accessories as others did, with the object -of throwing the principal personages into relief, Leys represented an -entire corner of the world at once, giving full distinctness to the -smallest things, down to the implements of daily life, the grasses and -flowers of the landscape, and the variegated corner-stones of the old -house-fronts, whose picturesque porches and lattices bulge into the -crooked lanes. His next picture, "The Massacre of the Lwen -Magistrates," was a still further departure from precedent, since--quite -in Callot's manner--it mingled with the principal drama a mass of -grotesque episodes. The born _genre_ painter was announced by these -traits; and not less striking was the form of the art, which was a -thorough departure from the manner of the "painters of the grand style." - -The resuscitation of a national art, which had been the life-long aim of -Gustav Wappers, who was twelve years his senior, was what Leys also set -up as the goal of his artistic endeavours. But their ways divided. -Wappers was principally inspired by Rubens, while Leys attached himself -at first to the Dutch painters. A visit made to Amsterdam in 1839 had -helped him to an understanding of Rembrandt and Pieter de Hoogh. He -followed them when, in 1845, he painted his "Wedding in the Seventeenth -Century"--a rich display of gleaming hangings, golden plate, and -red-plush furniture, amid which move handsomely dressed people, wedding -guests, and violin players. The effort to approach Pieter de Hoogh or -Jan van der Meer is apparent in the management of light; the treatment -of drapery reminds one of Mieris and Metsu. Another pair of anecdotic -pictures from the seventeenth century allow one to follow the progress -by which Leys, under the influence of Dutch models, gradually developed -that power and mastery of colouring, that completeness of pictorial -effect, and that soft treatment of subdued light which were justly -admired in his first works. In particular, certain works founded on the -legends of painters and monarchs--Rubens, Rembrandt, or Frans Floris -visited in their studio by some personage of high station--made him the -lion of the Paris Salon. In 1852 he stood at the summit of his fame; he -was recognised as one of the first of painters, both in Belgium and in -other countries, and was everywhere loaded with honours. Then he cast -his slough and entered on his "second manner." - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - HENDRIK LEYS.] - -After he had followed Rembrandt for more than a decade he turned from -him to cast himself suddenly into the arms of the German masters of the -sixteenth century, and, according to his own saying, "from that time -forward to become an artist." During a tour through Germany, in 1852, he -had become familiar with Drer and Cranach; in Dresden, Wittenberg, and -Eisenach there hovered round him the great figures of the Reformation -period. Half-effaced memories of his countrymen, the brothers Van Eyck -and Quentin Matsys, became once more fresh, and drove him decisively -forward on his new course. "The Festival at Otto Venius's" and "Erasmus -in his Study" were the first steps in this direction, and when soon -afterwards he came forward with his costume pictures, "Luther as a -Chorister in Eisenach" and "Luther in his Household at Wittenberg," -every one was enraptured with the exquisite truthfulness of his -portrayal of archaic life. At the World's Exhibition of 1855 he had -another magnificent success with three pictures executed in old German -style. These were "The Mass in Honour of the Antwerp Burgomaster Barthel -de Haze," "The Walk before the Gate," and "New Year's Day in Flanders." -His return from Paris, where he was the only foreigner except Cornelius -who had received the great gold medal, took the form of a triumphal -progress in Antwerp, where he was greeted with illuminations, torchlight -processions, and laurel wreaths made in gold. He was held to be the most -eminent master since Quentin Matsys, the Jan van Eyck of the nineteenth -century. In the Brussels Salon he appeared as a prince of art, before -whom criticism made obeisance, and for whose pictures special shrines -were erected. He was striking, not merely as an artist, but as a man: -his stately figure was known to every one in Antwerp, and was pointed -out to strangers as one of the sights of the place. In 1867, when he -again received the medal in Paris, the Antwerp Cercle Artistique had a -medal struck to commemorate an event of such importance in Belgian art. -His decease, on 25th August 1869, threw the whole town into mourning; -the windows in the town hall, where he had painted his last pictures, -were hung with black, and the announcement of his death pasted up on -great placards at the street corners. "_Leys is ons_" ran the phrase in -the speech made by the burgomaster over his open grave. To-day his -statue stands on the Boulevard Leys, and his house is noted down in -Baedecker, like those of Matsys and Floris, Rubens and Jordaens. - -Leys was thus a favourite child of fortune. Enthusiastic applause -showered him with fame and laurels. But it is natural that posterity -should find a good deal to cancel in these titles of honour. - -[Illustration: _Seemann, Leipzig._ - - LEYS. A FAMILY FESTIVAL.] - -Through Leys the history of art was not enriched with anything new. His -delicate art--severe in outline--which goes back directly to the -peculiar manner of the fifteenth century, is in itself not without -merit. But how much of it belongs to the nineteenth century? To what -extent has the painter stood independent and on his own peculiar ground? -He could draw a Van Eyck which might be taken for an original. He seems -like an old master gone astray by chance amongst the moderns. His -knowledge of the sixteenth century is marvellous. In fact, he was a -visionary who saw the past as clearly as though he had lived in the -midst of it. The men he paints are his contemporaries. He has drawn them -from life in the year of grace 1493, and they make no gesture nor -grimace which might not be four hundred years old. Yet that means that -he was not an original genius, but merely one who gave an adroit -reproduction of a formula already in existence. And much as he affected -to be the contemporary of Lucas Cranach and Quentin Matsys, he had not -their simplicity: where they painted life he painted the shadow of their -realism. Surrounded by old pictures, breviaries, and missals, he -contented himself with copying the still forms of Gothic miniatures -instead of living nature. He went so deeply into the pictures of the -Antwerp town hall that he followed the old masters in their very errors -of perspective; and though even the most childish confusion between -foreground and background does not disturb one's pleasure in them, -because they knew no better, it is an affectation in him, with his -modern knowledge, intentionally to make the same mistakes. Instead of -being an imitator of nature, he is an imitator of their imitation--a -_gourmet_ in pictorial archaism. - -[Illustration: LEYS. THE ARMOURER.] - -Yet it was exactly this uncompromising archaism which was of importance -for his time, and amongst his contemporaries it gives him significance -as a reformer. He is the only one amongst them who really represents the -Flemish race. Wappers was merely a Fleming from Paris, who shook off the -yoke of the Greeks to bear that of the French. Delaroche lived again in -Louis Gallait, the pupil of David. Their works had the sentiment of -French tragedies, and an artificial neatness which completely departed -from the truth of nature; the figures were combed and washed and brushed -and polished, the gestures were histrionic, the colours toned in a -stereotyped fashion to effect a pleasing _ensemble_. Leys endeavoured to -be true. In his pictures he had no wish to express ideas, but merely to -bring back a fragment of "the good old time" in all its brightness of -life and colour. And whilst as a colourist he was bent upon avoiding -uniformity of tone and giving everything its natural character, as a -draughtsman, too, he set up, in opposition to the more patrician fluency -of others, the citizen-like angularity of an art uninfluenced by the -Cinquecento. As in Cranach, Drer, and Holbein, one finds in his -pictures profiles that are vividly true; harsh and often unwieldy heads, -wrinkled faces, and heavy, massive shoulders resting on stunted bodies. -The human form, with fat stomach and great horny hands, seems almost -deformed. Everything which the struggle for existence has made of the -image of God is expressed in the works of Leys for the first time since -David. Even his "Massacre of the Lwen Magistrates" showed sharp, -naturalistic physiognomies in the midst of its confused composition, and -his "Barthel de Haze," fifteen years after, fully exemplified this -striving after characteristic and truthful expression. None of his -contemporaries has shown himself more cool and indifferent to -conventional and graceful profile and "beauty" in the drawing of heads. -Hatred of the academic model made Leys bring art back to its sources. -The hideousness, so often childish, in primitive pictures was dearer to -him than all Raphael. By this emphasising of the characteristic in -attitude and the expression of the face he shows himself, although he -painted historical subjects, the very antipode of the painter of the -historical school, and, at the same time, one of those who effected the -transition which led to the modern style. In setting up quaintness and -far-fetched archaism against the mannerism of the idealists, Leys -accustomed the eye again to recognise that there was something truer -than nobility of line and aristocratic pose; and, as he appealed to the -old masters as accomplices, it was impossible for sthetic criticism to -be offended. - -[Illustration: LEYS. MOTHER AND CHILD.] - -In France the transition from the absolutely beautiful to the -characteristic, from types to individuals, was brought about from -various sides. On the one side Romanticism had opposed to the antique -style that of the Flemish painters. On the other side, within Classicism -itself, there had been a change from the antique and the Cinquecento to -the early Italian renaissance. A new world was opened to sculpture by -the "Florentine Singer" of Paul Dubois. The more artists buried -themselves in the study of those early pioneers of realism, Donatello, -Verrochio, della Robbia, and the other masters of the Quatrocento, the -more they found themselves fascinated by the sparkling animation of -these creations, and sought to transfer it freely into their own work. -The fifteenth century, with the energetic force of its figures, its -close grasp of nature, and its pithy characterisation, which did not -even shrink from ugliness, induced painters to go back more than they -had formerly done to the sources of real life and to bring something of -its directness into their creations. lie Delaunay began to look on -nature with an eye less bent on making abstractions and regarding all -things from the standpoint of style; he began to apprehend more clearly -her individual peculiarities and to reproduce them more truly than had -been done by the frigid school which cast everything into the mould of -Classicism. But _Ernest_ _Meissonier_ went a step further when by his -_rococo_ pictures he set the Dutch tradition on a level with the Flemish -and Early Italian as a formative influence. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - MEISSONIER. THE MAN AT THE WINDOW.] - -A picture must either be very big or very small if it is to attract -attention amid the bustle of exhibitions. This was probably the -consideration which led Meissonier to his peculiar class of subjects, -and induced him to come forward with minute Netherlandish cabinet-pieces -at the time when the Romanticists were issuing their huge manifestoes. -He came of a family of petty tradespeople, and in his youth he is said -to have taken over his father's business, a trade in colonial produce. -Every morning at eight o'clock punctual he was at the shop desk, and -kept the books and copied business letters, and in this way accustomed -himself to that painstaking and uniform carefulness which was -characteristic of him to the end of his life. His teacher, Cogniet, was -without influence on him. Even in his youth, when there went forth the -battle-cry of "A Guelf, a Ghibelline! A Delacroix, an Ingres!" -Meissonier sat quietly in the Louvre and copied Jan van Eyck's Madonna -from Autun. And a Netherlandish "little master" did he remain all his -days. He first earned his bread as an illustrator, but after 1834 he -began to exhibit all manner of pieces from the time of Louis XIV and -Louis XV--the "Bourgeois hollandais rendant Visite au Bourgmestre" of -1834, the "Chess Players of Holbein's Time," 1835, the "Monk at the -Sickbed," 1838, the "English Doctor" and the "Man Reading," 1840. The -Salon of 1841 was for him what that of 1824 had been for Delacroix and -Ingres, and that of 1831 for Delaroche: the cradle of his fame. "The -Chess Party" (17 cm. high and 11 cm. broad) was the most celebrated -picture of the exhibition. The great Netherlandish "little masters" of -the seventeenth century, till then scarcely known and little -appreciated, were brought out for comparison. "Has Terborg or Mieris or -Meissonier done the greater work?" was the question. People marvelled at -the sharpness of this short-sighted eye which had a perception for the -smallest details. "Good heavens! look at the way that's been done," said -the Philistine, taking a magnifying glass; and felt himself a -connoisseur if the curator at his elbow called out, "Not too near!" Even -his first pictures had an accuracy and finish which defies description. -It seemed as if a most admirable Netherlandish painter in miniature -scale had arisen. The execution of his design in colours was as slow, -careful, and laborious as were his preparatory studies for costume: -every touch was altered and altered again; many a picture which was -almost ready was thrown aside, scraped out, and completely recast. Not -hot-headed enthusiasts, but "connoisseurs," has Meissonier conquered in -this fashion. Those readers, philosophers, card-players, drinkers, -smokers, flute-players and violin-players, engravers, painters and -amateurs, horsemen and farm-servants, brawlers and bravoes, from the -seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, which he painted year after year, -were soon the most coveted pictures in every superior private -collection. In 1884 he was able to celebrate his jubilee as an artist -with an exhibition of one hundred and fifty pictures of the kind. And as -they would have gone dirt cheap if they had been bought for their weight -in gold, the public accustomed itself to buy them for their weight in -thousand-franc notes. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - MEISSONIER. A MAN READING.] - -The present age no longer looks up to these exercises of patience with -the same vast admiration, but it should not therefore be forgotten what -Meissonier was for his time. - -To begin with, though painted at a time when painting was regarded as an -auxiliary, and an invaluable one, to history, his pictures tell no -story. These personages of Meissonier's take part in no comedy; they -occupy themselves, some in smoking, some in drinking, others in playing -cards, and others again in doing nothing whatever. Whether they made -their entry as musketeer or philosophers, as lackeys or gallants, as -scholars or _bonvivants_, they did not pose and had no ambition to seem -men of wit and spirit, they plunged into no adventurous deeds and -related no anecdotes: they were content to be well painted. And so -amongst all the French painters of the historical picture of manners -Meissonier was the one who had the secret of giving his works an -entirely peculiar _cachet_ of striking and realistic truth to nature. -His figures, marvellously painted, and at the same time animated and -natural in expression, wear the costume of our ancestors with the utmost -self-possession, and fit into their modish _rococo_ surroundings as if -they had been poured into a mould. Meissonier reached the truth of -nature in the total effect of his pictures by first in reality arranging -his interiors, and the still-life they contained, as a congruous whole. -The rooms, window niches, and firesides which he reproduced in his -pictures were in his own house and his studios, with every detail ready -to hand. He bought bronzes, trinkets, and ornaments, genuine productions -of the _rococo_ period, by the hundred thousand, and kept them by him. -His models were obliged, for weeks and often for months, actually to -wear the velvet and silken costumes in which he made use of them; then -he painted them with the greatest fidelity to nature, and without -troubling himself about anecdotic incident. What he rendered was not a -story invented and put together piecemeal, but a wholesome piece of -reality, pictorially conceived. And if this was primarily composed of -costumes and furniture belonging to the eighteenth century, the -transition to the natural treatment of modern life was at the same time -made possible, and was accomplished by Meissonier himself, at a later -period, in his battle pieces. - -[Illustration: _Gaz. des Beaux-Arts._ - - MEISSONIER. READING THE MANUSCRIPT.] - -But he had only painted men: the physiognomy of the feminine Sphinx -remained for him an eternal riddle. A wide field was here offered to his -followers. Fauvelet, Chavet, and Brillouin stepped into Meissonier's -shoes, and gave his _rococo_ fine gentlemen their better halves. The -first two made simple imitations. Brillouin devoted himself to the comic -_genre_: he arranged his pictures prettily, was a good observer, and -painted tolerably well. The last of these Meissonierists is Vibert, -chiefly known in the present day by his cardinals and other scarlet -dignitaries, whom he represents in water-colours and oils with a certain -touch of malice. He paints them gouty, gluttonising, or tipsy, in one or -more cases in every picture--which does not contribute to make his works -interesting. But originally he had a sympathetic superior talent, and -will always claim a modest place in the group of the modern "little -masters." His "Gulliver Bound," and also the Spanish and Turkish scenes -which occupied him after a tour in the East, are extremely pleasing and -delicately painted costume pieces, gleaming in sunlight; and in their -sparkling, capricious workmanship they sometimes almost verge on -Fortuny. - -On the German side of the Rhine _Adolf Menzel_ was the great pioneer of -truth. The history of German art must do him honour as one who first had -the genius and courage to break away from conventional forms of -phrasing, and bring the truth of nature into art: at first, as in the -case of Meissonier, it was nature in masquerade; but it was nature seen -and rendered with all the sincerity of a man to whom the art of pose was -wanting from the very first. - -[Illustration: _Cassell & Co._ - - MEISSONIER. POLCINELLO.] - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MEISSONIER. A READING AT DIDEROT'S. - - (_By permission of Baron Edmond de Rothschild, owner of the picture, - and of M. Georges Petit, owner of the copyright._)] - -Even in the thirties, at a time when "The Sorrowing Royal Pair" and the -"Leonora" by Lessing, "The Soldier and his Child," "The Sick Councillor," -and "The Sons of Edward" by Hildebrandt, and "The Lament of the Jews" by -Bendemann, together with the works of Cornelius, met with the enthusiastic -applause of the million, Menzel looked into the world with a sharp glance, -undisturbed by idealism; and what enabled him to do this was his -unwavering and thoroughly Prussian healthiness, which knew no touch of -sentimentalism--a certain coldness and hardness, that sensible, reflective -North German trait, which often expresses itself in these days (when -German art has become subtle and superior) by a crude naturalism in the -Berlin painting. In the beginning of the century, however, it set the -Berlin painting, as art of the healthy human understanding, in salutary -contrast to the sickliness of Munich and Dsseldorf. Even eighty years ago -the people of Berlin were too acute and practical to be Romanticists. The -artists whom Menzel found active and honoured at his arrival were Schadow -and Rauch, and beside them, as representatives of the _grande peinture_, -Begas and Wach. But even these, who were most under the influence of the -sentimental tendency, were justly recognised by the thorough-going -Romanticists on the Rhine as never having given an unqualified homage to -their flag. A clear, realistic method was dominant in the art of Berlin. -And in this respect it was as much a corrective--and one by no means to be -undervalued--against the inflated sentiment of Munich as against the weak -and sickly sentimentalism of Dsseldorf, with its knights and monks and -noble maidens. Even Cornelius, who had been called to Berlin by Frederick -William IV--that King of the Romanticists on the throne of the eminently -unromantic Hohenzollerns--found himself helpless against the ruling taste. -And here only, in the stronghold of sharply accentuated common sense, -where the old Prussian sobriety set bounds to the twilight kingdom of -Romanticism, could Adolf Menzel attain to greatness. His Berlinism kept -him from lingering in empty space. To the taste of to-day, formed from -Fontainebleau, he will seem too much a creature of the understanding and -too little a creature of feeling. Boecklin hit him off admirably when, on -being asked what he thought of Menzel, he answered: "He is a great -scholar." A comparison between him and Mommsen especially suggests -itself--a great scholar, a mordant satirist, and a brilliant journalist. -But this sober scepticism, this cool spirit of investigation, this -"heartlessness" observing all things with the eye of a judge in a court of -judicial inquiry, were what cleared the ground for modern art. No one has -done more than Menzel for those rulers in the kingdom of dreams who from -pure dreaming have never been able to learn anything. He has helped to set -them steadily on their feet, and to accustom their sight, vitiated by -idealism, once more to truth and nature. - -[Illustration: _L'Art._ - - MEISSONIER. A HALT.] - -[Illustration: _Mansell._ - - MEISSONIER. A CAVALIER.] - -Menzel was almost the only one in Germany who could draw and paint in -the time before the French influence had made itself felt. The struggle -for existence had forced him to learn. In the year of Bismarck's birth -there was born in Breslau the man destined to glorify, first the -greatness of the old kingdom of the Fredericks, and then that of new -imperial Prussia. Cast out at an early age on the inhospitable -wilderness of life, he came to Berlin, poor and lonely, and not so much -for the sake of art as for gain. There he sat in his cheerless attic, -without a servant; and wrapped up in his plaid, with a coffee-pot on one -side and a pencil on the other, he looked out over the roofs of the vast -town, the most brilliant epoch of which he was predestined to depict and -to conquer by his art. Since it brought in profit sooner than anything -else, he had made himself familiar with the technique of reproduction; -and having devoted himself in particular to the newly discovered art of -lithography, he turned out _mnus_, New Year cards, vignettes for -occasional poems, etc., and in things of this sort displayed a genuine -affinity of spirit with Chodowiecki and Gottfried Schadow. From his -twelfth year onwards he had not only assured his own existence, but even -supported his family by such work; and in the hours he spent over it he -laid the groundwork for becoming the master of masters amongst the -moderns. Menzel is not merely a man who owed to himself everything which -he afterwards became, who learnt to draw by his own unassisted -endeavours, who mastered oil-painting without a teacher, and went -further in it than any one of his generation--a man who found out -entirely by himself new methods and combinations in water-colours and -gouache; but if it is asked who was the greatest German illustrator, the -man who did most in Germany to advance the art of woodcut engraving, the -one German historical painter of the century who was entirely original, -who really knew a bygone period so exactly that he could venture on -painting it, the name of Menzel is invariably uttered. - -[Illustration: _Baschet._ - - ADOLF MENZEL, 1837.] - -Even in the twelve simple lithographs which appeared in 1837, "Memorable -Events from Prussian History in the Brandenburg Era," the "scholar" -Menzel stands ready as the actual historian of the Prussian kingdom. In -an age which took its pleasure in a vaporous, sentimental enthusiasm for -the medival splendour of the empire, he was the one who as a youth of -twenty pointed to the corner-stones of Prussian history in the -Brandenburg times; he was the only man of his age who refused to blow -the horn of the mawkish Romanticists, and still less that of the -impassioned historical painters who came after them. For his were no -theatrically tricked out scenes of tragedy, no touching situations; they -had nothing poetical; and just as little were they tedious pictures of -ceremonies or spectacular pieces. Striking characterisation and -sparkling vividness were united here to the most painstaking study of -nature and history, carried down to the peculiarities of costume and -weapons. History was not arranged in accordance with academic formul, -but delineated as if from life with absorbing truthfulness. Everything -was expressed simply and sincerely, without exciting passages, and -without conventional sentiment pumped out of models. Every epoch had its -historical physiognomy, and costume was reduced to its proper -subordinate place. - -Franz Kugler was the first who understood this sincere and pithy art. - -The Life of Napoleon had appeared, at that time, in Paris, with -illustrations by Horace Vernet, and it had a considerable sale in -Germany also. This gave a Berlin publisher the idea of a similar German -work, and Kugler commissioned Menzel to illustrate his biography of -Frederick the Great. It is almost impossible to pay sufficient honour to -the influence which this book on Frederick has had on German art. It -made an epoch in the history of wood engraving. The technique of this -craft had been completely forgotten in Germany ever since the beginning -of the century, or used only for the production of rough trade-marks for -tobacco; Menzel had to invent it afresh and teach an engraving school of -his own before the four hundred masterly plates of the book were made -possible. - -But it became more revolutionary still for the sthetic ideas of the -time. Menzel had not set himself to produce a sequence of pictures, -displaying events and heroes in the most ideal situations possible, but -made it his business to sift the entire life of Frederick the Great to -its minutest particulars. And here began that philological study of -records which Menzel has carried on with the strenuous labour of an -archivist down to the present day. Old Fritz had been caught by -Chodowiecki in the way in which he has since lived in the popular -imagination: as the old man on horseback, with his bent shoulders and -his crutch-stick, holding a review, and as the philosopher, the -statesman, the warrior and hero in the most manifold situations. Menzel, -in whom the spirit of Chodowiecki lived again, only needed to begin -where the latter left off. Stepping on the antiquarian material of -Chodowiecki, he worked his way into the great period on which Frederick -and Voltaire have set the stamp of their spirit, as Mommsen worked his -way into Roman history. He read through whole libraries; he copied all -attainable portraits. With scientific pedantry he did not forget to -study the buttons and the cut of the trousers in the uniforms, and did -not rest until he knew the old grenadiers as a corporal knows his men. -Using these labours as preparation, he proceeded to call up old Fritz -and his time with the objectivity of an historian, just as they were, -and not as they had better have been. Sureness of treatment even in the -finest details, accurate mastery of the surroundings, and everything -which had made Meissonier's appearance so important for France, was -attained at one stroke for Germany. But the very simplicity of what was -offered--both in style and technique--prevented Menzel from being at the -beginning accepted in his own country as an "historical painter." He was -blamed for disregarding "beauty," and it was said that a "higher" -artistic perception was sealed from him. On the other hand, the book -laid the foundation of Menzel's position in France, and was, moreover, -the work on which, for a long time, the appreciation of modern German -art in foreign countries was based. - -[Illustration: MENZEL. FREDERICK THE GREAT AND HIS TUTOR.] - -[Illustration: MENZEL. THE ROUND TABLE AT SANS-SOUCI.] - -Thenceforth Menzel had a kind of monopoly in this subject, and when in -1840 Frederick William IV had the works of the great king published in -an _dition de luxe_, Menzel, amongst others, was entrusted with the -illustration. Every one of the thirty volumes contains portraits of -Frederick's contemporaries which were engraved by Mandel and others -after original pictures of the period. Menzel had an apparently -subordinate task. He was commissioned to make two hundred drawings for -wood engraving; these, however, do not appear on separate pages, but -were destined to be incorporated in the text as tail-pieces, vignettes, -and the like. This was the great work which occupied him during the -forties; and in these headings and tail-pieces to the works of Frederick -the Great he showed, for the first time, that he was not merely a -learned investigator of sources, but was full of brilliant _aperus_. -One has to read Frederick the Great before one can do full justice to -the acuteness and ready resource, the subtlety and pungency of the -artist's pencil. All sthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art -are scattered like dust before these creations, in which the most -fantastic ideas are embodied with the whole force of the realistic power -of our days. - -When he had done honour to the military comrades of the great ruler in -his work of wood engraving, "Heroes of War and Peace in the Time of King -Frederick," and thus made the epoch his own through a decade of busy -labour, Menzel, draughtsman though he was, turned round and became the -painter of Frederick the Great. In the history of art there have never -been two names more intimately connected with each other. Menzel was a -strenuous worker, who never knew the passion for woman, either because -he had no time for it, or because he despised women after being despised -by them as a poor, hard-featured student of art; a man whose great bald -head appeared at Berlin subscription-balls amid groups of brilliant -cavaliers and queens of beauty, fashion, and grace, surrounded by the -rustle of their silks and in the whirlpool of a dancing throng, gleaming -with colour and sparkling with gold and jewels; and appeared there -simply because this world interested him as something to be painted. He -was a recluse who went into society solely to make observations for his -art, and when there was chary of speech and much feared. He was always a -busy experimentalist, so that his two hands gradually became equally -dexterous; at the age of eighty he could still sketch with firm and -accurate strokes while travelling in a railway carriage. - -Though he had hitherto devoted himself to drawing, he had also by his -own independent study made himself familiar with the technique of oils; -and he now became such a master of colour as few were at that time. In -the middle of the century were painted those two masterpieces which now -hang in the Berlin National Gallery, "The Round Table at Sans-Souci" and -"The Concert of Frederick the Great." These are historical pictures, the -authority and importance of which cannot be shaken by even the most -modern of critics. If what is called the spirit of an age has ever been -embodied in pictures, it is embodied here, where the master-minds of the -eighteenth century are assembled at their genial round table. The scene -is the oval dining-room of the castle. The meal is over, and there -reigns a genial after-dinner mood, champagne sparkles in the glasses and -a smart rivalry of wit is in progress. Afternoon has crept on, and a -cold, subdued daylight floods the room, in which every fragment of the -architecture, from the inlaid floor to the gilded capitals of the -pillars and the stucco of the arched ceiling, every piece of furniture -and every chandelier, bears the wayward grace of the high-_rococo_ -period; all is comprehended with the most intimate knowledge. In the -second picture a fine candlelight is glimmering over the scene. -Frederick is just beginning to play the flute, and the musicians of the -string quartet pause, to strike in again after the solo. The Court is -grouped to the left: the ladies in gilded easy-chairs, and their -cavaliers behind them. The tapers of the chandelier and the sconces -branching from the wall shed over everything their prismatic, broken -light reflected by the mirrors, and fill the fantastic, capricious, -graceful, comfortable apartment, here with streaming brightness, there -with a finely modulated twilight. Only Menzel could have conjured up in -so convincing a manner the brilliancy of this Court festival of the -past. - -[Illustration: _Hanfstngl._ - - MENZEL. FREDERICK THE GREAT ON A JOURNEY.] - -Here is that exactness which an historical picture must have if it makes -any claim to intrinsic worth. Whilst the ordinary historical painters -were content to transmute dressed-up models into types of the -universally human, and to put historical labels on their frames, Menzel -succeeded in really penetrating a bygone age in an artistic spirit, and -in making it live again for the present generation. He did not burrow to -discover another dim historical personage every year, but confined -himself to one hero--to the figure of the Prussian hero-king, familiar -to every child, and still living in the popular imagination; and he -learnt to master the time of this favourite hero as if he had been old -Fritz himself. Menzel had never heard him blowing on his flute, and -never sat at table with him in Sans-Souci, but the painting of these -scenes comes out true and life-like in the artist's work, because the -past history of his country had become as vivid to him as his own age. -His "Battle of Hochkirch" rises to tragical grandeur, precisely because -everything that is outwardly impassioned is far from him. His "Frederick -the Great on a Journey," where the king is inspecting territories alter -the war and ordering the rebuilding of demolished houses, his -"Frederick's Meeting with Joseph II in Niesse," and all the other -pictures of the sequence, by their marvellous naturalness and intense -vividness, and by their freedom from pompous phrasing, stand alone in an -age dominated by empty sentiment. Menzel, who never laid his sketch-book -down from the time he was twelve years old, found a subject of pictorial -interest in everything that he saw around him, until finally he acquired -the power of moving with natural self-possession in a period that was -not his own. By the roundabout way through the _rococo_ period he has -taught us to understand ourselves. In his pictures an apparently -paradoxical problem has been solved. An intense feeling for modern -reality waked to new life the past, that same past which no one had -approached with success by the way of idealism. - -[Illustration: MENZEL. ILLUSTRATION TO KUGLER'S HISTORY OF FREDERICK - THE GREAT.] - -And if we look over the whole development of modern art it strikes us as -a remarkable fact that the most concrete spirits, the most thorough -masters of technique, like Meissonier and Menzel, were precisely those -who ventured to advance into the present. When they had crossed the -province of the _rococo_ period, avoided by all scholastic art, they had -arrived again at the epoch when Mengs and David had interrupted the -natural course of the history of art, one hundred years before. About -1750 the fateful movement towards the antique had been accomplished; in -1820 the Middle Ages had the upper hand; in 1830 the Cinquecento was in -the ascendant with Cornelius and Ingres; in 1840 the seventeenth century -was awakened through Delacroix and Wappers; and in 1850, after "the -courses of the centuries were sphered"--to use the phrase of -Cornelius--Meissonier and Menzel painted things which had not appeared -worth representing to the painters of 1750, blinded, as they were, by -the glory of the antique. Not less striking is it that the nearer the -historical subject came to the present the truer to nature did the -picture become, and the more did it outwardly change in its features. It -has shrivelled from the huge scale of David and Cornelius to the -miniature scale of Meissonier and Menzel, and to some extent it thus -leaves its further development to be guessed. At no distant time the -historical picture will be overthrown, and the picture from modern life, -hitherto but shyly handled and on the smallest scale, will swell to life -size. History itself, serious history, clings merely to the rock-bed of -old costume. One generation had used it with an abstract purpose as a -substratum for philosophical ideas; others had made scenical pieces with -its aid; a third generation turned it over for piquant traits and -anecdotes. The last and greatest generation had finally come to handle -it quite familiarly and humanly and without affected dignity. Their -works protested against all idealism; and this expressed itself, in -drawing, by their making use of the true instead of the "beautiful" -line; in colour, by a fresher tint corresponding with nature rather than -with the conventional ideal of beauty. - -[Illustration: MENZEL. PORTRAIT OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.] - -[Illustration: MENZEL. REIFSPIEL.] - -Nobility of line was paramount in Gallait and Piloty, movement with -grand, kingly gestures, lofty dignity, aristocratic bearing, -knightliness, and a conventional piling up of rich stuffs, alluring to -the eye. Leys, Menzel, and Meissonier were the first who sacrificed -beauty to truth, or, more properly, who perceived that a beauty without -truth is not really beautiful. They came gradually and by an indirect -way to this knowledge as they studied German and Netherlandish masters -instead of the Italians, and set up the angular, natural outlines of the -Germans against the grace of the Latin masters, which had become banal -through a lengthy course of imitation. And thus a return was made to the -manner of our true ancestors, which had been forgotten during half a -century. The place of the Antinous heads of Gallait was taken by -physiognomies of vigorous characterisation; gesticulating heroes made -way for peaceful, quiet persons, who did not consider themselves under -an obligation to acquire artistic citizenship by a parade of attitude, -but appeared in their picture as they were in reality. Impassioned -movement yielded quietly to arms hanging downwards and natural postures. -Even the traditional rules of concave and convex composition were broken -so that the free play of life might more easily come to its rights. Not -less did all three show themselves true painters by preferring -rightness of observation and truth and delicacy of reproduction to -anecdote and richness of invention, and by feeling the need of painting -figures in their real surroundings. Instead of the conventional velvet -and brocade stuffs, and the folios everywhere and nowhere in place, the -settles and the brass caskets, there was a naturally painted fragment of -reality, authentically reflecting the whole atmosphere of the period. -The treatment of nature, hitherto idealistic and arbitrary, became -synthetic and naturalistic. There was no more abstraction, but direct -observation of the man and his _milieu_. And if, for the time being, -this _milieu_ was a _rococo milieu_, artificially reconstructed so that -it could be realistically transferred to the picture, Menzel and -Meissonier, even on account of this realism, would have to be reckoned -as outposts of the modern tendency, and as having very decided points of -contact with it; and this, even if they had not themselves actually -become the pioneers of modernity, forcing their way through against the -literary and historical movement. It is owing to their works in the past -that the preference of the public turned less and less to compositions -of fine sentiment, even though grounded on more attentive observation, -and that artists began to regard reality as the most important element, -the point of departure for every picture. Thus life itself came to be -painted, and preparation was made for the coming demand of a new -generation, who wished no more to see old heroes, but themselves, in the -mirror of art. - -[Illustration: WHEN WILL GENIUS AWAKE? MENZEL.] - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - -CHAPTER I - - -General: - - Rouquet: L'tat des Arts en Angleterre Paris, 1755. - - H. Walpole: Anecdotes of Painting in England. With Illustrations. 5 - vols. London, Strawberry Hill, 1762-71. New Edition, London, Ward, - Lock & Co., 1879. - - James Dalloway: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre. Paris, 1807. - - Edward Edwards: Anecdotes of Painters who have resided or been born in - England. London, 1808. - - J. D. Fiorillo, Geschichte der Malerei in Grossbritannien, vol. v. - Gttingen, 1808. - - W. Carey: Progress of the Fine Arts in England and Ireland during the - Reigns of George II, III, IV. London, 1826. - - William Fletcher: History of Painting in England. London, 1838. - - G. Hamilton: Gallery of English Artists. London and Paris, 1839. - - Edward Edwards: The Fine Arts in England. London, 1840. - - W. B. Taylor: The Origin, Progress, and Present Condition of the Fine - Arts in Great Britain and Ireland. 2 vols. London, 1841. - - G. Lombardi: Saggio dell' Istoria Pittorica d'Inghilterra. Firenze, - 1843. - - J. Dalloway: Anecdotes of Painting in England, with some Account of - the Principal Artists. 3 vols. London, 1849. - - John Ruskin: Modern Painters. 5 vols. London, 1851-60. - - G. F. Waagen: Treasures of Art in Great Britain. London, 1854. - - Prosper Mrime: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre, "Revue des Deux - Mondes," 1857. - - T. Silvestre: L'Art, Les Artistes, etc., en Angleterre. London, 1857. - - C. de Pesquidoux: L'cole Anglaise, 1672-1851. tudes biographiques et - critiques. Paris, 1858. - - Our Living Painters: their Lives and Works. London, 1859. - - T. Silvestre: Les Artistes Anglais, "L'Artiste," vol. vi, p. 81. - Paris, 1859. - - W. Thornbury: British Artists from Hogarth to Turner. 2 vols. London, - 1860-61. - - J. Milsand: L'esthtique anglaise. tude sur M. John Ruskin. Trad. - fran. Paris, 1864. - - R. and S. Redgrave: A Century of Painters of the English School. 2 - vols. London, 1866. New Edition, 1890. - - W. F. Rae: The History of Painting in England, "The Fine Arts - Quarterly Review," vol. i, p. 241; vol. ii, p. 64. 1866-67. - - W. C. Monkhouse: Masterpieces of English Art, with Sketches of some - Deceased Painters of the English School. London, 1869. - - F. T. Palgrave: Gems of English Art. Plates. London, 1869. - - Sarah Tytler: Modern Painters and their Paintings. London, 1873. - - Frederick William Fairholt: Homes, Works, and Shrines of English - Artists. London, Virtue & Co., 1873. - - Frederick Wedmore: The Rise of Naturalism in English Art, "Macmillan's - Magazine," March and June 1876. - - John Ruskin: Lectures on Art, delivered before the University of - Oxford, 1870. London, Macmillan, 1876. - - English Painters of the Georgian Era: Hogarth to Turner. Biographical - Notices of the Artists. With 48 permanent photographs of their most - celebrated pictures. London, Low, 1876. - - Frederick Wedmore: Studies on English Art. London, Richard Bentley & - Son, 1876. - - English Painters of the Victorian Era: Mulready to Landseer. - Illustrated with 48 photographs of their most popular works. With - biographical notices. London, Low, 1877. - - James Dafforne: Modern Art. A series of line engravings from the works - of distinguished painters of the English and Foreign Schools, selected - from galleries and private collections in Great Britain. 60 plates, - with descriptive text by J. D. London, 1877. - - Samuel Redgrave: A Dictionary of Artists of the English School. New - Edition. London, 1878. - - The Reflection of English Character in English Art, "The Quarterly - Review," January 1879. - - Allan Cunningham: The Lives of the Most Eminent British Painters. - Revised edition, annotated and continued to the Present Time by Mrs. - Charles Heaton. 3 vols. London, Bell, 1879. - - Frederick Wedmore: Studies on English Art. Second Series. (Romney, - David Cox, G. Cruikshank, W. Hunt, Prout, B. Jones, A. Moore.) London, - Bentley, 1880. - - George H. Shepherd: A Short History of the British School of Painting. - London, Sampson Low, 1881. - - Living Painters of France and England. Plates. London, 1882. - - E. Chesneau: La peinture anglaise. Paris, 1882. - - J. Faber: La peinture anglaise. "Fdration artistique," 1883. 11-15. - - N. D'Anvers: An Elementary History of Modern Painting. New Edition. - London, Sampson Low, 1883. - - Wilfrid Meynell: Some Modern Artists and their Work. (Leighton, - Boughton, Tadema, Watts, etc.) With portraits and illustrations. - London, Cassell & Co., 1883. - - Modern Artists. Illustrated Biographies of Modern Artists, published - under the direction of F. G. Dumas. (Leighton, Millais, Herkomer, - Hook, etc.) 2 vols. London and Paris, 1882-84. - - Feuillet de Conches: Histoire de l'cole anglaise de peinture jusqu' - Sir Thomas Lawrence et ses mules. Paris, Leroux, 1883. - - H. J. Wilmot-Buxton and S. R. Khler: English and American Painters. - Plates. London, 1883. - - John Ruskin: The Art of England. Lectures given in Oxford. Orpington, - Kent, 1883-84. - - Artists at Home. Photographed by J. R. Mayall. With Biographical - Notices by F. G. Stephens. London, 1884. - - Lord Ronald Gower; Great Historic Galleries of England. London, - Sampson Low. - - J. Comyns Carr: Papers on Art. London, Macmillan & Co., 1885. - (Contains studies of Reynolds, Gainsborough, Rossetti, etc.) - - Allan Cunningham: Great English Painters. Selected Biographies from - Allan Cunningham's Lives of Eminent British Painters. Edited by - William Sharp. London, 1886. - - J. E. Hodgson: Fifty Years of British Art. (Manchester Exhibition, - 1887.) Manchester and London, John Heywood, 1887. - - Charles Heaton: A Concise History of Painting. London, Bell & Daldy, - 1873. Second Edition, 1888. - - The Pictorial Record of the Royal Jubilee Exhibition at Manchester, - 1887. By Walter Tomlinson. With special articles by Thomas W. Harris, - Charles Estcourt, and Joseph Nodal. Edited by John H. Nodal. With - Illustrations. Manchester, 1888. - - Walter Armstrong: The Nineteenth Century School in Art, "Nineteenth - Century," April, 1887. - - Walter Armstrong: Fine Art at the Royal Jubilee Exhibition at - Manchester, 1887. 1888. - - William Hoe: English Artists of the Day. A Technical Directory. - London, 1888. - - William Tirebuck: Great Minds in Art. (Studies of Wilson, Wilkie, - Landseer, and others.) London, 1888. - - Harry Quilter: French and English Art, "Universal Review," 1888 and - 1890. - - W. E. Henley: A Century of Artists. A Memorial of the Glasgow - International Exhibition, 1888. With Illustrations. Glasgow, 1889. - - Hermann Helferich: Ueber die Kunst in England, "Kunst fr Alle," iv, - 1888, pp. 161, 177. - - Paul Meyerheim: Die englische Malerie in den letzten 50 Jahren, "Nord - und Sd," 1889, p. 17. - - J. A. Crowe, Continental and English Painting, "Nineteenth Century," - April 1890. - - T. de Wyzewa: Les grands peintres de l'Espagne et de l'Angleterre. - Histoire sommaire de la peinture japonaise. Illustrations. Paris, - 1891. - - T. H. Shepherd: Short History of the British School of Painting. - London, 1891. - - Robert de la Sizeranne: La peinture anglaise contemporaine. Paris, - 1895. - - G. Temple: The Art of Painting in the Queen's Reign. London, 1898. - - Richard Muther: Die englische Malerei im 19 Jahrhundert. Berlin, 1902. - - _See also_ H. Thomas Buckle: History of Civilisation in England. - - H. Taine: Notes sur l'Angleterre. Paris, 1872. - - H. Taine: Histoire de la Littrature Anglaise. - - Periodicals: "Art Journal," "Portfolio," and "Magazine of Art," - _passim._ - -Hogarth: - - W. Hogarth: Analyse de la beaut. 2 vols. Paris, 1805. - - John Nichols: Biographical Anecdotes of W. Hogarth. London, 1781. - Second Edition, 1785. - - G. C. Lichtenberg: Erklrung der Hogarth'schen Kupferstiche, mit - verkleinerten Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Gttingen, 1794-1831. - - W. Hogarth: Complete Works, Including the Analysis of Beauty. London, - 1837. - - Francis Wey: W. Hogarth. Londres il y a cent ans. Paris, 1859. - - J. Hannay: Complete Works of Hogarth. Plates. London, 1860. - - G. A. Sala: W. Hogarth, Painter, Engraver, and Philosopher. - Illustrations. London, 1866. - - C. Justi: W. Hogarth, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," vii, 1872. - - A. Dobson: Hogarth. London, Low, New and Enlarged Edition, 1903. - (Illustrated Biographies of Great Artists.) - - Th. Gautier: Guide de l'amateur, 1882. - - Hogarth's Shrimp Girl, "Portfolio," 1886, p. 105. - - F. Rabbe in the compilation, "Les artistes clbres." - - _Reproductions:_ - - The Original and Genuine Works of W. Hogarth. Atlas fol. London, 1790. - - Graphic Illustrations of Hogarth: from Pictures, Drawings, etc. 2 - vols. Royal 8vo. London, 1794-99. - - The Works of W. Hogarth: from the original plates, restored by James - Heath, R.A. Atlas fol. London, 1822. - - The Works of W. Hogarth: reproduced from the original engravings in - permanent photographs. With an Essay on Hogarth by Charles Lamb. 2 - vols. Royal 8vo. London, 1872. - - J. Ireland and J. Nichols: Hogarth's Works, with Life and Anecdotal - Descriptions of his Pictures. 3 vols. London. No date. - -Reynolds: - - J. Northcote: The Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds. London. 1818. - - Joseph Farrington: Memoirs of Sir Joshua Reynolds, with some - Observations on his Talent and Character. London, 1839. - - Edm. Wheatley: A Descriptive Catalogue of all the Prints, etc., from - Original Portraits and Pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds. London, 1825. - New Edition, 1850. - - Th. Reynolds: Life of Joshua Reynolds, by his Son. London, 1839. - - Joshua Reynolds: Discourses on the Fine Arts. Edinburgh, 1840. - - Joshua Reynolds: Discourses, illustrated by Explanatory Notes and - Plates by J. Burnet. London, 1842. - - Edm. Malone: The Literary Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Seven - Editions. London, 1794-1824. New Editions by H. W. Beechey. London, - 1846 and 1851. - - W. Cotton: Sir Joshua Reynolds and his Works, edited by John Burnet. - London, 1856. New Edition, 1859. - - J. Timbs: Anecdotal Biography. (Hogarth, Reynolds, etc.) 1860. - - Ch. Rob. Leslie and Tom Taylor: Life and Times of Sir Joshua Reynolds. - London, 1865. - - Reynolds and the Portrait Painters of the Last Century: "Blackwood's - Magazine," November 1867. - - Sidney Colvin: Joshua Reynolds, "Portfolio," 1873, pp. 66-82. - - J. C. Collins: Sir Joshua Reynolds as a Portrait Painter. An Essay, - with 20 Portraits. London, 1874. - - Edw. Hamilton: A Catalogue Raisonn of the Engraved Works of Joshua - Reynolds, 1755-1820. London, 1874. - - Frederick Wedmore: Sir Joshua Reynolds, "Temple Bar," July 1876. - - F. S. Pulling; Sir Joshua Reynolds. London, Sampson Low, 1880. - - Th. Gautier; Guide de l'amateur, 1882. - - F. G. Stephens: English Children as painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds. - London, 1884. - - Th. Duret: Sir Joshua Reynolds et Gainsborough aux expositions de la - Royal Academy et de la Grosvenor Gallerie, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," - 1884, i 327. (The same reprinted and enlarged. Paris, 1885.) - - Various articles in the "Athenum," 1883 and 1884. - - Helen Zimmern: Sir Joshua Reynolds, in "Westermanns Monatsheften," May - 1884. - - William Martin Conway: The Artistic Development of Reynolds and - Gainsborough. London, Seeley & Co., 1886. - - Ernest Chesneau: Joshua Reynolds. With 18 Illustrations. Paris, 1887 - (in the compilation "Les artistes clbres"). - - Lady Blennerhasset: Joshua Reynolds' Discourses, "Allgemeine Zeitung," - 1889. - - Ed. Leisching: Zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Knste. - Akademische Reden von Sir J. R., Uebersetzt u. mit Einleitung, - Anmerkungen, Register u. Textvergleichung versehen von Dr. E. L. - Leipzig, 1893. - - C. Phillips: Sir Joshua Reynolds. With 9 Illustrations from Pictures - by the Master. London, 1894. - - W. Armstrong: Sir Joshua Reynolds. With 78 Photogravures and 6 - Lithographic Facsimiles in colour, 1900; Popular edition, with 52 - Plates. London, 1905. - - Lord Ronald Gower: Sir Joshua Reynolds. His Life and Art (with - Illustrations). British Artists' Series, 1902. - - J. Sime: Reynolds. London, 1904. - - F. Benoit: Reynolds. Paris, 1904. - -Gainsborough: - - Rob. Pratt: Sketch of the Life and Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough. - London, 1788. - - George William Fulcher: Life of Thomas Gainsborough. London, 1856. - - Sidney Colvin: Thomas Gainsborough, "Portfolio," 1872, pp. 169, 178. - - J. Comyns Carr: Thomas Gainsborough, "The English Illustrated - Magazine," December 1884. - - George M. Brock-Arnold: Gainsborough. London, Sampson Low, 1889. - - Walter Armstrong in the compilation, "Les artistes clbres." - - Mrs. Bell: Thomas Gainsborough: a Record of his Life and Works, with - Illustrations, etc. London, 1897. - - W. Armstrong: Gainsborough and his Place in English Art. With 62 - Photogravures and 10 Lithographic Facsimiles in colour. London, 1898. - Popular edition (with 48 Plates), 1904. - - Lord Ronald Gower: Thomas Gainsborough (with Illustrations). British - Artists' Series, 1903. - - _Reproductions:_ - - Studies of Landscapes by Thomas Gainsborough. Engraved from the - Originals by L. Francia. London, 1810. - - Studies of Figures by Gainsborough, in exact imitation of the - originals, by Richard Lane. London, 1825. - - Selected Works of Thomas Gainsborough. One hundred engravings in - mezzotint. Fol. London, 1876. - -Wilson: - - The Works of Richard Wilson, R.A., Landscape Painter. A volume of - engravings. Fol. No date. - - T. Wright: Some Account of the Life of Richard Wilson. London, 1824. - - -CHAPTER II - -General: - - Georg Brandes: Hauptstrmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts, Bd. - i, 2 Aufl. Leipzig, 1887. - - Wilhelm Weigand: Essays. (Voltaire, Rousseau, zur Psychologie des 19 - Jahrhunderts, etc.) Mnchen, 1892. - -Goya: - - Thophile Gautier: Cabinet de l'amateur, 1842. - - Laurent Matheron: Biographie de Fr. Goya. Paris, 1858. - - Carderera: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1860 and 1863. - - P. Lefort: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1867. - - Charles Yriarte: Goya, sa biographie, etc. Paris, 1867. - - D. F. Zapater y Gomez: Goya, noticias biograficas. Zaragoza, 1868. - - Paul Lefort: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1875, ii 506; 1876, i 336; ii - 500. Reprinted and enlarged under the title of Francisco Goya, tude - biographique et critique, suivie de l'essai d'un catalogue raisonn de - son oeuvre grav et lithographi. Paris, 1877. - - Charles Yriarte: Goya, Aquafortiste, "L'Art," 1877, ii 3, 33, 56, 78. - - P. G. Hamerton: Fr. Goya, "Portfolio." 1879, 67-99. - - Muoz y Manzano: Francesco de Goya y Lucientes, "Revista - contemporanea," September 1883. - - Lucien Solvay: L'Art Espagnol. Paris, 1887. (Bibliothque - internationale de l'Art.) - - Con. de la Viaza: Goya, su tiempo, su vida, sus obras. Madrid, 1887. - - P. Lafond: Goya. Paris, 1902. - - W. Rothenstein: Goya (with Illustrations). London, 1900. - - Valerian von Loga: Francisco de Goya. Berlin, 1903. - - Richard Muther in der Sammlung der Kunst, 1904, Berlin. - - _More Recent Reproductions:_ - - Los Desastres de la Guerra. Colleccion de 80 laminos. Madrid, 1863. - - Los Proverbios. Colleccion de 18 laminos. Madrid, 1864. - - Los Caprichos. Gravures fac-simil de M. Segui y Riera. Notice - biographique et tude critique par Ant. de Nait. Barcelone, 1887. - -French Art in the Eighteenth Century: - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII sicle. Paris, 1850. 3rd - Edition, Paris, 1880. - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: La femme au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1889. - - Charles Blanc: Les Peintres des Ftes galantes. (Watteau, Lancret, - Pater, Boucher.) Paris, 1854. - - Arsne Houssaye: Histoire de l'Art Franais du XVIII sicle. - Portraits. Paris, 1860. - - E. B. de la Chavignerie: Les Artistes Franais du XVIII sicle oublis - ou ddaigns. Paris, 1865. - - A. v. Wurzbach: Die franzsischen Maler des 18 Jahrh. Stuttgart, 1879. - - Auguste Nicaise: L'cole franaise au XVIII sicle. Chalons-sur-Marne, - 1883. - - Paul Seidel: Friedrich d. Gr. u. die franzsische Kunst seiner Zeit. - Berlin, 1892. - -Watteau: - - Figures de diffrents caractres de paysage et d'tudes dessines - d'aprs nature par A. Watteau. 2 vols., 350 pl. Paris. No date. - - D'Argenville: Abrg de la vie des plus fameux peintres. Paris, 1762. - - Mariette: Abecedario. Published in the archives of French Art by - Chennevires. 1852, etc. - - Caylus: La vie d'Antoine Watteau. Read on 3rd February 1748 before the - Paris Academy. Cited by Goncourt, L'Art du XVIII sicle, 1850. - - Julienne in the preface to his book of plates, 1755. - - Cellier: Antoine Watteau, son enfance, ses contemporains. - Valenciennes, 1867. - - Edmond de Goncourt: A. Watteau. Paris, 1860. By the same author, - Catalogue raisonn de l'oeuvre peint, dessin et grav d'A. Watteau. - Paris, 1875. - - Theodor Volbehr: Antoine Watteau, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des - 18 Jahrh. Mnchen, 1885. - - Emil Hannover: A. Watteau. Kopenhagen, 1887. Deutsch von Alice - Hannover. Berlin, 1889. - - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1889. - - Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1889, i 5, 177, 455; ii 5, 129, - 222. Reprinted 1892. - -Boucher: - - P. Mantz: Franois Boucher, Lemoyne et Natoire (with engravings from - their works). Paris, 1880. - - Andr Michel in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1889. - -Lancret: - - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes clbres." - -Pater: - - G. Dargenty in "Les artistes clbres." - -Fragonard: - - Baron Roger Portalis: Honor Fragonard, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, - 1887. - - Felix Naquet in "Les artistes clbres." 1893. - - C. Mauclair: Fragonard, Biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre - reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904. - -Baudouin: - - Ch. Normand in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1892. - -Greuze: - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII sicle. - - Charles Blanc: Histoire de peintres des toutes les coles, ii. - - Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l'Art pendant la Rvolution, p. 517. - - Charles Normand in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1892. - -Quentin La Tour: - - Clement de Ris: L'oeuvre de Maurice Quentin de Latour, "Gazette des - Beaux Arts," 1882, ii 251. - - Champfleury in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1886. - - H. Lapauze. With 87 Plates. Paris, 1885. La Tour et son oeuvre au - Muse de Saint-Quentin, 1905. - -Liotard: - - F. Guye: Jean tienne Liotard, 1702-91. Zofingen, 1890. - -Chardin: - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L'Art du XVIII sicle. - - G. Dargenty: "L'Art," 1883, ii 3. - - H. de Chennevires: Chardin au Muse du Louvre, "Gazette des Beaux - Arts," 1889, i 121. - - Charles Normand in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1892. - - G. Schfer: Chardin ... Biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre - reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904. - -Cornelis Troost: - - A Ver Huell: Cornelis Troost en zn Werken. Arnhem, 1873. - -Changes of Taste in Germany: - - Hermann Hettner: Literaturgeschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts, Bd. iii. - Braunschweig, 1879. - -Chodowiecki: - - W. Engelmann: Daniel Chodowieckis smmtliche Kupferstiche. Leipzig, - 1857. - - Alfred Woltmann: Hogarth und Chodowiecki. From Vier Jahrhunderte - niederlndisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878. - - Ferdinand Meyer: Daniel Chodowiecki der Peintre-graveur. Berlin, 1888. - - W. von Oettingen. Berlin, 1895. - - L Kmmerer: Bd. 21 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, - 1897. - - See Selection from the artist's finest engravings, in photography, by - A. Frisch. Berlin, 1885. - - D. Chodowiecki: Von Berlin nach Danzig, eine Knstlerfahrt im Jahre - 1783. 108 Facsimiledrucke nach Ch.'s Zeichnungen. Berlin, 1883. - -Tischbein: - - Aus meinem Leben. An Autobiography, published by G. G. W. Schiller. - Leipzig, 1861. - - Fr. v. Alten: Ans Tischbeins Leben und Briefwechsel. Leipzig, 1872. - - Edmond Michel: tude biographique sur les Tischbein. Lyon, 1881. - -Pesne: - - Paul Seidel: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1891. - - Paul Seidel: Die Berliner Kunst unter Friedrich Wilhelm I. - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1888, p. 185. - -Anton Graft: - - R. Muther: Anton Graff, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 - Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1881. - - Julius Vogel: A. G., mit 60 Tafeln. Leipzig, 1898. - -Joseph Vernet: - - Amede Durande: Joseph, Carl, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et - biographie. Paris, 1863. - - L. Lagrange: J. Vernet et la peinture au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1864. - - A. Genevay: "L'Art," 1876, iii 254, 307; iv 61. - - Albert Maire: Les Vernet in "Les artistes clbres." - -Hubert Robert: - - C. Gabillot in "Les artistes clbres." - -Canaletto: - - Rudolph Meyer: Die beiden Canaletti. Dresden, 1878. - -Francesco Guardi: - - Paul Leroi: "L'Art," 1878, i 103. - -Gessner: - - Heinrich Wlfflin: Salomon Gessner. Frauenfeld. 1889. - -Oudry und Desportes: - - Charles Normand in "Les artistes clbres." - -Riedinger: - - Georg Aug. Wilh. Thienemann: Leben und Wirken J. El. Riedingers. - Leipzig, 1856. - - -CHAPTER III - -German Art in General: - - Raczynski: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, bersetzt von K. - Hagen. 3 Bde. Text, 1 Bd. Tafeln. Berlin, 1836. - - Anton Hallmann: Kunstbestrebungen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1842. - - Thophile Gautier: Les Beaux Arts en Europe, 1855. Paris, 1855. - - A. Hagen: Die deutsche Kunst in unserm Jahrhundert. Berlin, 1857. - - E. Frster: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Leipzig, 1863. - - Anton Springer: Die bildende Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1858. - - J. Grard: Considrations sur l'art allemand, ses principes et - tendances propos de l'exposition de Munich. Bruxelles, 1859. - - Hermann Riegel: Geschichte des Wiederauflebens der deutschen Kunst - seit Carstens. Hannover, 1876. - - Friedr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, Studien und - Erinnerungen. Nrdlingen, Beck, 1877-81. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: The Schools of Modern Art in Germany. With - numerous Illustrations. London, Seeley, 1880. - - A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1881. - Neue Ausgabe als Einleitung zu den Albertschen Heliogravuren der - Galerie Schack. Mnchen, 1889. - - Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, unter Mitwirkung von - Fachgenossen, herausgegeben von R. Dohme. Leipzig, Seemann, 1881 ff. - - D. Duncker, Moderne Meister. Charakteristiken aus Kunst und Leben. - Berlin, 1883. - - Franz Reber: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, mit Excursen ber - die parallele Kunstentwicklung der brigen Lnder. 3 Bde. 3 Aufl. - Leipzig, 1884. - - Anton Springer: Die Wege und Ziele der gegenwrtigen Kunst, in seinen - Bildern aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. 2 Aufl. Bonn, 1886. - - Adolf Rosenberg: Die Mnchener Malerschule seit 1871. Leipzig, 1887. - - Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Malerei. Bd. 2 und 3, - Deutschland. Leipzig, 1888 ff. - - Hermann Becker: Deutsche Maler von Carstens bis auf die neuere Zeit. - Leipzig, 1888. - - L. Pfau in "Kunst und Kritik," Bd. 1. Stuttgart, 1888, pp. 445-535. - - Friedrich Pecht: Geschichte der Mnchener Kunst. Mnchen, 1889. - - Hubert Janitscheks, final chapter in his Geschichte der Deutschen - Malerei. Berlin, Grote, 1890. - - M. de la Mazelire: La peinture allemande au XIX sicle. Paris, 1900. - - Cornelius Gurlitt: Die deutsche Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Berlin, - 1899. - - Max Schmid: Kunstgeschichte des 19 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1904. - - Friedrich Haack: Die Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, 1905. - - Periodicals chiefly: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," Leipzig, 1866. - "Die Kunst fr Alle," Mnchen, 1886. "Die Kunst unserer Zeit" - (specially the work of H. E. v. Berlepsch and Corn. Gurlitt), Mnchen, - 1890. "Der Kunstwart," Dresden, 1887. "Die Gegenwart" (articles by - Floerke, Lichtwark, Gurlitt, etc.), Berlin, 1872 ff. "Die Nation" - (articles by Helferich, Elias, etc.), Berlin, 1883 ff. "Die Freie - Bhne" (articles by Helferich, B. Becker, etc.), Berlin, 1888 ff. "Die - preussischen Jahrbcher" (articles by Carl Neumann, etc.). All cited - in particular in the appropriate place. - -The Classical Reaction: - - Hermann Helferich: Classicitt, "Freie Bhne," 1890. - - Carl Neumann: Christian Rauch, Betrachtungen ber Ursprung und Anfnge - der modernen deutschen Plastik, "Preuss. Jahrbcher," Bd. 64, 1889. - - Heinr. v. Stein: Die Entstehung der neueren Aesthetik. Stuttgart, - 1886. - -The Theories of Grard de Lairesse: - - Carl Lemcke in his Study of Adriean van der Werff in "Kunst and - Knstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande," vol. ii. Leipzig, 1878. - -Winckelmann: - - Carl Justi: Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke, seine Zeitgenossen. - Bd. 1, Leipzig, 1866; Bd. 2, Leipzig, 1872. - -The Influence of Archological Studies upon Art: - - K. Bernh. Stark: Handbuch der Archaeologie, Bd. 1. Leipzig, 1879. - -Lessing: - - Danzel-Guhrauer: Lessings Leben und Werke. Leipzig. No date. - - Heinr. Fischer: Lessings Laokoon und die Gesetze der bildenden Kunst. - Berlin, 1887. - -Goethe's Relations to the Plastic Arts: - - H. Hettner: Goethes Stellung zur bildenden Kunst seiner Zeit, - "Westermanns Monatshefte," 20, 83. - - H. Hettner in his "Deutsche Literaturgeschichte," ii 457. - - R. v. Eithelberger: Goethe als Kunstschriftsteller, in seinen - gesammelten kunsthistorischen Schriften. Wien, 1884. Bd. 3, pp. - 221-261. - - Gustav Ebe: Goethes Beziehungen zur bildenden Kunst, "Gegenwart," - xxvii. Heft 16 und 18. - - C. Urlichs: Ueber Goethes Verhltniss zur alten Kunst. - "Goethe-Jahrbuch," iii. - - Hermann Uhde: Goethe, J. G. Quandt und der schsische Kunstverein. - Stuttgart, Cotta, 1877. - - A. Heusler: Goethe und die italienische Kunst. Basel, Reich, 1891. - - E. Dobbert: Goethe und die Berliner Kunst, "Nationalzeitung," 1891, 1 - und 3 Febr. - - Bode: Goethes Asthetik. Berlin, 1901. - - Julius Vogel: Aus Goethes rmischen Tagen. Leipzig, 1906. - -Mengs: - - Bianconi: Elogio storico del Cavaliere Anton R. Mengs. Pavia, 1759. - - Mengs: Gedanken ber die Schnheit und ber den Geschmack in der - Malerei. Zrich, 1765. Seine smmtlichen hinterlassenen Schriften. - Bonn, 1843-44. - - Franz Reber in "Kunst und Knstler Deutschl. u. der Niederlande," - 1878. - - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xiv, 1879, pp. 33 - u. 72. - - Woermann: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1894. - -Angelica Kauffmann: - - Giov. Gher. de Rossi: Vita di Angelica Kauffmann. Firenze, 1810. - German by A. Weinhart, Bregenz, 1814. - - J. E. Wessely in "Kunst und Knstler Deutschlands und der - Niederlande," 1878. - - A. W. Grube: Angelika Kauffmann. Bregenz, 1889. - - Wilh. Schram: Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann. Brnn, 1890. - - Fr. A. Grard: Angelica Kauffmann. London, 1892. - - _See also_ F. Guhl: Die Frauen in der Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1858. - -Oeser: - - Alphons Drr: A. F. Oeser, Ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 - Jahrh. Leipzig, Drr, 1879. - -Carstens: - - Karl Ludwig Fernow: Leben des Knstlers J. A. Carstens. Leipzig, 1806. - Neuherausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. Hannover, 1867. - - Hermann Grimm: Ausgewhlte Essays zur Einfhrung in das Studium der - neueren Kunst. 2 Aufl. Berlin, 1883, p. 216. - - F. v. Alten: A. F. Carstens. Schleswig, 1865. - - H. Grimm: Ueber Knstler und Kunstwerke, i. Berlin, 1865, pp. 73-95. - - Schne: Beitrge zur Lebensgeschichte des Malers Carstens. Leipzig, - 1866. - - Fr. Eggers: Vier Vortrge aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, - 1867, p. 1. - - Carstens' Werke, in Kupferstichen von W. Mller, herausgegeben von - Hermann Riegel. Leipzig, Bd. 1, 1869; Bd. 2, 1874; Bd. 3, 1884. - - Jul. Lange: Nutids Kunst. Kopenhagen, 1873, pp. 1-15. - - Fr. Pauli: A. Carstens. Berlin, 1876. - - Hermann Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze, p. 200, - "Carstensiana." Braunschweig, 1877. - - Alfr. Woltmann, from Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher - Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878, p. 169. - - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. III Reihe. - Nrdlingen, 1881, p. 31 ff. - - August Sach: Asmus Jacob Carstens' Jugend und Lehrjahre nach - urkundliche Quellen. Halle, 1881. - - D. Schnittgen: A. J. Carstens, "Christliches Kunstblatt," 1882, 12. - - Hermann Lcke in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. - -The Painter Mller: - - C. Seuffert: Maler Mller. Berlin, 1877. - - Sauer in "Deutscher Nationallitteratur," Bd. 81. - - Mller's article against Carstens is in Schiller's Horen, 1797, iii - 21, iv 4. - -Luise Seidler: - - Hermann Uhde: Erinnerungen aus dem Leben der Malerin Luise Seidler, - aus handschriftliche Nachlass zusammengestellt und bearbeitet, 2 - Auflage. Berlin, Hertz, 1876. - -Wchter: - - Dav. Friedr. Strauss: Kleine Schriften. Leipzig, 1862, pp. 333-360. - - A. Haakh: Beitrge aus Wrttemberg zur neueren deutschen - Kunstgeschichte. Stuttgart, 1863, pp. vii ff., 10 ff., 133 ff. - -Schick: - - Dav. Friedr. Strauss: Kleine Schriften, pp. 361-396. - - Fr. Eggers: "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1858, pp. 129-137. - - A. Haakh: Beitrge aus Wrtternberg zur neueren deutschen - Kunstgeschichte, pp. xiv ff., 23-31, 59-312. - - H. Kindt: Zu Gottlieb Schicks 100 jhrigem Geburtstag. Gegenwart, - 1879, 31. - - Winterlin: Wrttenbergische Knstler. Stuttgart, 1895. - -Genelli: - - H. Riegel: Deutsche Kunststudien. Hannover, 1868, pp. 291 ff. - - M. Jordan: Bonaventura Genelli, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," v - pp. 1-19. - - H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze. Braunschweig, - 1877, pp. 148-170. - - L. v. Donop: Briefe von Bonaventura Genelli und Karl Rahl, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xii pp. 25 ii.; xiii pp. 115 ff. - Letters from Schwind to Genelli, do. xi p. 11. - - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, II Reihe. - Nrdlingen, 1879, pp. 271-304. - - A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. - 9-40. - - O. Berggruen: Die Gallerie Schack in Mnchen. Wien, 1883. Also in "Die - graph. Knste," iv, 1881, 1. - - O. Baisch: Einzelheiten aus Genellis Leben und Briefwechsel, - "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xviii pp. 257-262. - - -CHAPTER IV - -French Art in General: - - Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres franais au XIX sicle. Paris, - 1845. - - Gustave Planch; Portraits d'artistes. Paris, 1853. - - Gustave Planch: tudes sur l'cole franaise, 1831-52. Paris, 1855. - - A. de la Forge: La Peinture contemporaine en France. Paris, 1856. - - T Silvestre: Histoire des Artistes vivants franais et trangers. - Paris, 1857. - - Thodore Pelloquet: Dictionnaire de poche des Artistes contemporains. - Paris, 1858. - - L. Laurent-Pichat: L'Art et les Artistes en France. Paris, 1859. - - Moritz Hartmann; Bilder und Bsten. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1860. - - Ch. Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861. - - Olivier Merson: La Peinture en France. Paris, 1861. - - E. Chesneau: La Peinture Franaise au XIX sicle. Les Chefs d'cole, - L. David Gros, Gricault, Decamps, Meissonier, Ingres, H. Flandrin, E. - Delacroix. Paris, 1862. New Edition, Paris, 1883. - - Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres de toutes les coles. Paris, - 1861-76. - - L. Pfau: Franzsische Maler und Bilder, in "Freie Studien." Stuttgart, - 1866. Enlarged in "Kunst und Kritik," Bd. 1, pp. 115-444. Stuttgart, - 1888. - - Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865. - Second Edition, 1867. - - Julius Meyer: Geschichte der modernen franzsischen Malerei seit 1789. - Leipzig, 1867. - - Julius Meyer: Die franzsische Malerei seit 1848, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," ii pp. 13, 32, 56, 119. Leipzig, 1867. - - A. Bonnin: tudes sur l'art contemporain. Les coles franaises et - trangres en 1867. Paris, 1868. - - P. G. Hamerton: Contemporary French Painters. London, 1868. - - H. O'Neil: Modern Art in England and France. London, 1869. - - P. G. Hamerton: Painting in France. London, 1869. - - W. B. Scott: Gems of French Art, with an Essay on the French School. - Plates. London, 1871. - - M. Chaumelin: L'Art contemporain. La Peinture l'Exposition - universelle de 1867. Salon de 1868, 1869, 1870. Paris, 1873. - - Th. Gautier: Portraits contemporains. Paris, 1874. - - Pierre Petroz: L'Art et la critique en France depuis 1822. Paris, - 1875. - - L. Dussieux: Les Artistes franais l'tranger. Paris, Lecoffre fils - et Cie, 1876. - - R. Mnard: French Artists of the Present Day. Notices of some - Contemporary Painters. 12 engravings. London, 1876. - - Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876. - - Jules Claretie: L'Art et les Artistes Franais contemporains, avec un - avant-propos sur le Salon de 1876. Paris, 1876. Deuxime srie, Paris, - 1881. - - Philippe Burty: Matres et petits matres. Paris, 1877. - - Marquet de Vasselot: Recherches sur l'art franais. Architecture, - Peinture, Sculpture. Paris, 1878. - - Lucien Double: Promenade travers deux sicles et quatorze salons. - Paris, 1878. - - G. Berger: L'cole Franaise de Peinture. Paris, 1879. - - Victor Champier: Les Beaux Arts en France et l'tranger. Paris, - 1879. - - E. Bellier de la Chavignerie et L. Auvray; Dictionnaire gnrale des - Artistes de l'cole Franaise. Paris, 1880. - - Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et Statuaires Romantiques. Paris, 1880. - - Maurice du Seigneur: L'Art et les artistes au Salon de 1880. Paris, - 1880. - - Marquet de Vasselot: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, 1880. - - George Lafenestre: L'Art vivant, la Peinture et la Sculpture aux - Salons de 1868 1877. Paris, 1881. - - E. Leclerq: Caractres de l'cole franaise moderne de Peinture. - Paris, 1881. - - F. Gosselin: Histoire anecdotique des Salons de peinture depuis 1673. - Paris, Dentu, 1881. - - L. de Pesquidoux: L'Art au XIX sicle. L'Art dans les deux mondes, - Peinture et Sculpture. 2 vols. Paris, 1881. - - Eugne Montrasier. Les artistes modernes: 1. Les peintres de genre; 2. - Les peintres militaires et les peintres de nu. 40 Biogr., 40 Tables. 2 - vols. Paris, 1881. - - Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Kunst. 1 Abtheilung. Die - franz. Kunst Leipzig, 1882. - - H. Houssaye: L'Art franais depuis dix ans. Paris, 1882. - - Henri de Clenzion: L'Art national en France. Paris, 1882-83. - - F. Henriet: Peintres contemporains. Paris, A. Levy, 1883. - - Raf. Sinset et Jules d'Auriac: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, - 1884. - - V. Fournal: Les artistes contemporains franais, peintres, sculpteurs. - With 176 Illustrations. Tours, Mame et fils, 1884. - - Jean Gigoux: Causeries sur les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1885. - - Albert Wolff: La capitale de l'Art. Second Edition. Paris, 1886. - - Victor d'Halle: Histoire de la peinture en France. Paris, 1886. - - Paul Marmottan: L'cole franaise de peinture (1789-1830). Paris, - 1886. - - J. Comyns Carr: Art in Provincial France. 1883. - - Henri Jouin: Matres contemporains. Paris, 1887. - - Charles Bigot: Peintres franais contemporains. Paris, 1888. - - C. H. Stranahan: A History of French Painting. New York, 1888. - - La peinture franaise l'exposition centennaire de 1889. Ouvrage - publi sous la direction de Antonin Proust. Paris, 1890. - - Les Chefs d'oeuvres de l'Art au XIX sicle. 5 vols. Paris, 1890 ff. - - 1. L'cole franaise de David Delacroix, par Andr Michel. - 2. L'cole franaise de Delacroix H. Regnault, par Alfred de - Lostalot. - 3. La peinture franaise actuelle, par Paul Lefort. - 4. Les coles trangres aux XIX sicle, par Th. de Wyzewa. - 5. La Sculpture et la Gravure en France au XIX sicle, par Louis - Gonse. - - Richard Muther, Ein Jahrhundert franzsischer Malerei. Berlin, 1901. - - A. Julius Meier-Grfe: Der Entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst. - (With Illustrations and a volume of Plates.) Stuttgart, 1904. - - Periodicals specially to be noted: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," Paris, - 1865. "L'Art," Paris, 1875. - -The Art of the Revolution Period: - - Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l'art pendant la revolution. Paris, 1863. - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la socit franaise pendant - la rvolution. Paris, 1854. New Edition, 1889. - - Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la socit franaise pendant - le Directoire. Paris, 1855. - - Anton Springer: Die Kunst whrend der franzsischen Revolution, Bilder - aus der neueren Kuntsgeschichte. Bonn, 1886. - - Paul Marmottan: L'cole franaise de peinture 1789-1850. Paris, 1886. - - Carl v. Ltzow: Die franzsische Kunst vor 100 Jahren, "Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst," xxiv, 1889, p. 181. - -Madame Vige-Lebrun: - - Her Autobiography: Souvenirs de ma vie. Paris, 1835-37. - - Sophia Beale: Elisabeth Louise Vige-Lebrun, "Portfolio," 1891, 89. - - Charles Pillet in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1892. - -Vien: - - H. Cozik: Vien, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris. No date. - - Elie Roy: Vien et son temps. Paris. No date. - -David: - - P. A. Coupin: Essai sur J. L. David. Paris, 1827. - - E. J. Delcluze: Louis David. Paris, 1855. - - Jules David: Le peintre Louis David (1748-1825), souvenirs et - documents indits. Paris, Havard, 1879. - - C. A. Regnet in "Kunst und Knstler Spaniens, Frankreichs, und - Englands." Leipzig, 1880. - - G. Nieter: Le peintre David, "Revue gnrale," March 1881. - - "L'Art," 1889, ii p. 46. - - C. Brun: Louis David und die franzsische Revolution. Zrich, 1886. - - Charles Normand in "Les artistes clbres." - - L. Rosenthal: David. Paris, 1904. - - -CHAPTER V - -The Parallel Movement in Literature: - - Georg Brandes, Haupstrmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts. Vol. - ii, Die deutsche romantische Schule. Leipzig, 1887. - - Georg Haim: Die romantische Schule. Berlin, 1871. - - Hermann Hettner: Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang mit - Goethe und Schiller. Braunschweig, 1850. - -On the Nazarenes in General: - - Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1886. - - Alfred Woltmann: Cornelius und seine Genossen in Rom. Aus Vier - Jahrhunderte, etc. Berlin, 1878, pp. 208 ff. - - Fr. Haack: Die deutschen Romantiker in der bildenden Kunst des 19 - Jahrhunderts. Erlangen, 1901. - -Overbeck: - - A. v. Zahn: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," vi, 1871, pp. 217-235. - - J. R. Beavington-Atkinson, Overbeck (Great Artists). London, Low, - 1882. - - Margaret Howitt: Friedrich Overbeck. Sein Leben u. Schaffen, etc. - 1886. - - Amongst minor works: J. N. Sepp: Friedrich Overbeck, Gedchtnissrede. - Augsburg, 1869.--Franz Binder: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. - Mnchen, 1870.--H. Holland: Zu Friedrich Overbeck's Heimgang, - 1870.--G. Fr. v. Hertling: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Kln, - 1875. - -Fhrich: - - Autobiography in the "Libussa." Prag, 1844. New Edition, Vienna, - Sartori, 1876. - - R. Zimmermann: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," vii, 1868, pp. 189, - 209. - - F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh., iii. Nrdlingen, 1881, pp. - 64-108. - - Lucas v. Fhrich: "Graphische Knste," viii pp. 1-16, 25-64. Also - separate. - - C. v. Ltzow, from Fhrichs Nachlass, "Zeitschrift fr bildende - Kunst," xvii, 1882, p. 33. - - Die Fhrich-Ausstellung in Frankfurt: "Zeitschrift fr bildende - Kunst," 1885, xx, Beiblatt, 32. - - L. R. von Kurz: T. von Fhrich. Graz, 1902. - -Veit: - - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke; also in "Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst," xv 2. - - Martin Spahn: Philipp Veit. (With 92 Illustrations.) Bielefeld, 1901. - - The Frescoes in the Casa Bartholdy: - - L. v. Donop: Die Wandgemlde der Casa Bartholdy in der - Nationalgalerie. Berlin, 1888. - -Steinle: - - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, "Graph. Knste," iv. 3 and 4. - - Constantin v. Wurzbach: Ed. Steinle, ein Madonnenmaler unserer Zeit. - Biographische Studie. Wien, 1879. - - Veit Valentin: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1888, xxiii 1 and 33. - - L. Christiani: Plaudereien ber Kunstinteressen der Gegenwart. Berlin, - 1871. - - A. Reichensperger: Erinnerungen an Steinle. Frankfurt, 1887. - - A. M. von Steinle: E. von Steinle und August Reichensperger. Kln, - 1890. - - _Reproductions:_ - - Ausgewhlte Werke E. v. Steinles. Frankfurt, 1888. - - Ed. Steinles Bilder zu Parcival. Frankfurt, 1884. - -Schnorr: - - M. Jordan: Aus Julius Schnorrs Lehr-und Wanderjahren, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 1867, pp. 1 ff. - - H. Riegel, "Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze." Braunschweig, - 1877, pp. 210-248. - - M. Jordan: Ausstellung von Werken Julius Schnorrs in der Berliner - Nationalgalerie, 1878. - - Veit Valentin in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." - - Friedrich Haack in "Das 19 Jahrhundert in Bildnissen." Berlin. - Photographische Gesellschaft, 1901. - - Briefe aus Italien von Julius Schnorr v. Carolsfeld, geschrieben in - den Jahren 1817-1827. - - Ein Beitrag zur Gesch. seines Lebens und der Kunstbestrebungen seiner - Zeit, herausgegeben von Franz Schnorr v. Carolsfeld. Gotha, 1886. - - _Compare_ "Bibel in Bildern." Leipzig, 1852-62. - - Zeichnungen von Jul. Schnorr v. Carolsfeld, mit Einleitung von Jordan. - Leipzig, Drr, 1878. - - -CHAPTER VI - -The Art of Munich under King Ludwig I.: - - Alfred Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher - Kunstgeschichte." Berlin, 1878, pp. 260 ff. - - Hans Reidelbach: Knig Ludwig I und seine Kunstschpfungen. Mnchen, - 1888. - -Cornelius: - - Herm. Riegel: Cornelius, der Meister der deutschen Malerei. Hannover, - 1866. - - M. Carrire: Denkrede auf Cornelius. Leipzig, 1867. - - A. Teichlein: Betrachtungen ber Riegels Buch, "Cornelius, der Meister - der deutschen Malerei," "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," ii. 1867, - pp. 128 ff., 189 ff. - - Alfred Frhr. v. Wolzogen: Peter v. Cornelius. Berlin, 1867. - - Max Lohde: Gesprche mit Cornelius, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," - III 1, 30, 84. 1868. - - W. Lbke: Kunsthistorische Studien. Stuttgart, 1869. - - Ernst Frster: Peter Cornelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und - Wirken. 2 vols. Berlin, 1874. - - Herm. Grimm: Berlin und P. v. Cornelius (Die Cartons von P. v. - Cornelius, Cornelius und die ersten 50 Jahre nach 1800), in "15 - Essays." Berlin, 1875. - - V. Kaiser: Cornelius und Kaulbach in ihren Lieblingswerken. Basel, - 1876. - - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh., Bd. 1. Nrdlingen, 1877. - - A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher Kunst." - Berlin, 1878, pp. 208-259. - - Fr. Pecht: P. v. Cornelius. "Gartenlaube," 1879, 29. - - M. Carrire in "Deutscher Plutarch," Bd. vii. Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1-56. - - A. Rosenberg: Cornelius im Lichte der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1881, I. - - A. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, P. v. Cornelius, "Die graph. - Knste," 1881, 4, 2. - - Rossmann: Briefe von Peter Cornelius. Grenzboten, 1882, 16. - - G. Portig: Die sixtinische Madonna und die Camposanto Cartons von - Cornelius. Leipzig, 1882. - - V. Valentin in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh." Leipzig, 1883-85. - - Herm. Riegel: Peter Cornelius, Festschrift zu des grossen Knstlers - 100 Geburtstage. Berlin, 1883. - - Carl v. Ltzow: Zur Erinnerung an P. v. Cornelius, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," 19, 1. - - Der 100 Geburtstag von Cornelius, "Allegemeine Zeitung," 1883, B. 130. - - Cornelius, ein Maler von Gottes Gnaden. Hamburg, 1884. - - H. Grimm: Cornelius betreffend, "Deutsche Rundschau," March 1884. - - L. v. Urlichs: Beitrge zur Kunstgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885, p. 119. - Cornelius in Mnchen und Rom. - - A. Frantz in "Kunst und Literatur." Berlin, 1888, pp. 1-60. - -Kaulbach: - - Guido Grres: Das Narrenhaus von W. Kaulbach. Mnchen. No date. - - Max Schasler: Die Wandgemlde Wilhelm von Kaulbachs im Treppenhause - des Neuen Museums zu Berlin. Berlin, 1854. - - W. v. Kaulbachs Shakespeare-Galerie, by M. Carrire. Berlin, 1856. - - V. Kaiser: Kaulbachs Bilderkreis der Weltgeschichte. Berlin, 1879. - - Ed. Dobbert: Die monumentale Darstellung der Reformation durch - Rietschel und Kaulbach. "Sammlung gemeinverstndlicher - wissenschaftlicher Vortrge," No. 74. Berlin, 1869. - - A. Teichlein: Zur Charakteristik W. v. Kaulbachs, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," xi, 1876, pp. 257-264. - - V. Kaiser: Macbeth und Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare's Dichtungen und in - Kunstwerken von Cornelius und Kaulbach. Basel, Schweighauser, 1876. - - A. Woltmann, from "Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher - Kunstgeschichte." Berlin, 1878, pp. 288-316. - - Fr. Pecht: "Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts," ii. Nrdlin gen, - 1879, pp. 54-109. - - Kaulbachs Wandgemlde im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin, in - Kupfer gestochen von G. Eilers, H. Merz, J. L. Raab, A. Schultheiss. - Mit erluterndem Text herausgegeben unter den Auspicien des Meisters. - Neue Ausgabe. Berlin, A. Duncker, 1879. - - Hans Mller: W. Kaulbach. Berlin, 1893. - - -CHAPTER VII - -The Dsseldorfers: - - W. Schadow: Gedanken ber folgerichtige Ausbildung des Malers, - "Berliner Kunstblatt," 1828, pp. 264-273. - - A. Fahne: Die Dsseldorfer Malerschule, 1835-36. Dsseldorf, 1837. - - H. Pttmann: Die Dsseldorfer Malerschule und ihre Leistungen seit der - Errichtung des Kunstvereins in Jahre 1829. Leipzig, 1839. - - Fr. v. Uechtritz: Blicke in das Dsseldorfer Knst- und Knstlerleben. - Dsseldorf, 1839. - - Wolfg. Mller v. Knigswinter: Dsseldorfer Knstler ans den letzten - 25 Jahren. Leipzig, 1854. - - W. v. Schadow: Der moderne Vasari, Erinnerungen aus dem Knstlerleben. - Berlin, 1854. - - R. Wiegmann: Die knigliche Kunstakademie zu Dsseldorf, ihre - Geschichte, Einrichtung und Wirksamkeit und die Dsseldorfer Knstler. - Dsseldorf, 1854. - - J. Hbner: Schadow und seine Schule, Festrede bei Enthllung des - Schadowdenkmals zu Dsseldorf, 1869. Bonn, 1869. - - M. Blanckarts: Dsseldorfer Knstler, Nekrologe aus den letzten zehn - Jahren. Stuttgart, 1877. - - K. Woermann: Zur Geschichte der Dsseldorfer Kunstakademie. - Dsseldorf, 1880. - - A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. Grenzboten, 1881, 1 1 ff. - - Mor. Blanckarts: Der Knstlerverein Malkasten in Dsseldorf, - "Allgemeine Kunstchronik," 1883, 47. - - A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. - - Schaarschmidt: Geschichte der Dsseldorfer Kunst, 1902. - -Bendemann: - - Die Ausstellung der Werke von E. Bendemann in der knigliche - Nationalgalerie v. 3 Nov. bis 15 Dez. 1890. Berlin, 1890. - - L. Bund: Ed. Bendemann, "Illustrirte Zeitung," 1881, 2014. - -Hbner: - - M. Blanckarts: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1883, 13. - - Reumont, "Archiv. storico italiano," xi 2. - - A. Ehrhardt, "Z. f. Museologie," 1883, 23, "Allg. Kunstchronik," 1883, - 46. - -Mintrop: - - Ferd. Laufer: Th. Mintrop, der Ackersknecht und Maler, "Allg. - Kunstchronik," 1883, 32. - - -CHAPTER VIII - -Rethel: - - Wolfgang Mller v. Knigswinter: Alfred Rethel. Bltter der - Erinnerung. Leipzig, 1861. - - Friedr. Theodor Vischer: Altes und Neues. Drittes Heft. Stuttgart, - 1882, pp. 1-24. - - Kaulen: Der Historienmaler A. Rethel, "Deutsches Kunstblatt," 1883, ii - 21. - - Veit Valentin: A. Rethel, eine Charakteristik, "Aesthet. Schriften I." - Berlin, 1892. - - Max Schmid: Bd. 32 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, - 1898. - -Schwind: - - L. v. Fhrich: Moriz v. Schwind, Eine Lebensskizze. Leipzig, 1871. - - Ed. Ille: Dem Andenken M. Schwinds. Mnchen, 1871. - - A. W. Mller: M. v. Schwind. Eisenach, 1871. - - Hermann Dalton: "Sechs Vortrge." St. Petersburg, 1872. - - Ludwig Hevesi: M. Schwind. "Gegenwart," 1872. - - H. Holland: M. v. Schwind. Stuttgart, 1873. - - A. v. Zahn: Zur Charakteristik M. v. Schwinds, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," vii 1873, p. 287. - - F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh. Nrdlingen, 1877, i 195-231. - - Bauernfeld: Moriz Schwind zum Gedchtniss, "Nord und Sd," iii, 1877, - p. 353. - - Bernh. Schdel: Briefe von Moriz Schwind, "Nord und Sd," xiv, 1880, - p. 23; xv, 1881, p. 357. - - Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 41-73. - - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack. Wien, 1883. Mit Radirungen. - - Alph. Drr: Ein halbvergessenes Werk von Schwind (Wandmalereien in - Hohenschwangau) in der Festschrift zu Ehren Anton Springers. Leipzig, - 1885, pp. 231-239. - - Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke. Leipzig, 1888. - - Briefwechsel zwischen Schwind u. Ed. Mrike, mitgeth. v. J. Baechtold. - Leipzig, 1890. - - H. W. Riehl: Studien und Charakteristiken. Stuttgart, 1891. - - Friedrich Haack: Bd. 31 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. - Bielefeld, 1898. - - Otto Grantoff, in "Muthers Sammlung Die Kunst." Berlin, 1903. - - Julius Naue: Worte u. Wirken v. M. von Schwind. (With a Portrait and 3 - Illustrations.) Mnchen, 1904. - - _Reproductions:_ - - Aschenbrdel, Bildercyclus von M. v. Schwind. Holzschnittausgabe nach - den Theaterschen Stichen, mit Text von H. Lcke. 1873. - - Die sieben Raben u. die schne Melusine, zuletzt unter dem Titel - "Deutsche Mrchen" bei Neff in Stuttgart erschienen. - - Operncyclus im Foyer des k. k. Opernhauses in Wien. 14 Compositionen - von Moritz Schwind. Mit Text von Ed. Hanslick. Mnchen, 1880. - - Almanach von Radirungen mit Erklrungen. Text von Feuchtersleben. - Zrich, 1844. - - Schwinds Wandgemlde in Hohenschwangau. 46 Compositionen nach den - Aquarellentwrfen gestochen von J. Naue und K. Walde. Leipzig. - - Schwind-Album. Mnchen, 1880. - - -CHAPTER IX - -Grard: - - Charles Lenormant: Franois Grard, peintre d'histoire. Essai de - biographie et de critique. Paris, 1847. - - Adam: L'oeuvre du Baron Grard. Paris, 1852-57. - - Correspondance de Franois Grard, peintre d'histoire. Publie par - Henri Grard, son neveu, et prcde d'une Notice sur la vie de Grard - par Adolphe Viollet le Duc. Paris, 1867. - - Charles Ephrussi: Franois Grard d'aprs les lettres publies par M. - le baron Grard, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1890, ii 449. 1891, i 57, - 201. - -Prudhon (besides Jul. Meyer, Renouvier, and Rosenberg): - - Voiart: Notice historique sur la vie et les oeuvres de P. P. Prudhon, - peintre. Paris, 1824. Quatremre de Quincy: Notice lue l'Institut, 2 - Octobre 1824. - - Eug. Delacroix: "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1857. - - Charles Clement (chief work): Prudhon, sa vie, ses oeuvres, et sa - correspondance, first in 1867-68, then in "Gazette des Beaux Arts," - 1872, with 30 Illustrations. Paris, Didier & Co., 3rd Edition, 1880. - - Edm. et J. de Goncourt: L'Art au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1875. New - Edition, 1882, vol. ii, p. 385. - - Edm. de Goncourt: Catalogue raisonn de l'oeuvre peint, dessin et - grav de Prudhon. Paris, 1876. - - Ph. Burty: L'oeuvre de P. P. Prudhon, "L'Art," 1877, i p. 33. - - Alfred Sensier: Le Roman de Prudhon, "Revue internationale de l'Art et - de la Curiosit," 15 Dec. 1869. - - Arsne Houssaye: Artiste, Janvier-Juin 1877. Article in "L'Art," 1877, - i p. 33. - - Charles Gueullette: Mlle. Constance Mayer et Prudhon, "Gazette des - Beaux Arts," 1878, p. 476. 1879, p. 268. - - Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres, vol. iii. - - Aug. Schmarsow in "Kunst und Knstler der ersten Hlfte des 19 - Jahrhunderts," published by Robert Dohme, vol. ii. Leipzig, Seemann, - 1886. - - Pierre Gauthiez: Prudhon in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1891. - - Almost all the works of Prudhon are photographed by Braun of Dornach. - -Gros (besides Charles Blanc, Jul. Meyer, and Rosenberg): - - Jean Baptiste Delestre (pupil of Gros): Gros, sa vie et ses ouvrages. - With Illustrations. 2nd Edition. Paris, 1867. - - J. Tripier le Franc: Histoire de la vie et de la mort du baron Gros, - le grand peintre. Paris, 1880. - - Eugne Delacroix: "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1848. Also in a separate - reprint. - - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'cole. 3rd Edition, 1883, pp. 58-126. - - On Gros' paintings in the Pantheon: Ph. de Chennevires in the - "Gazette des Beaux Arts," xxiii pp. 168-174. - - G. Dargenty: Les Chefs-d'oeuvre de Gros, "L'Art," 1886, ii p. 121, and - 1889, ii p. 100. - - Richard Graul in "Kunst und Knstler der ersten Hlfte des 19 - Jahrhunderts," vol. 2. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886. - - G. Dargenty: Le baron Gros. Paris, 1887, in "Les artistes clbres." - - The chief pictures of Gros are photographed by Braun of Dornach. - - -CHAPTER X - -On the Parallel Movement in Literature: - - Georg Brandes: Die Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts in ihren - Hauptstrmungen, 2 Auflage Bd. 5. Leipzig, 1883. - -On the Romantic Movement in General: - - E. Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques (Huet, Boulanger, - Prault, Delacroix, Th. Rousseau, Millet, etc.). Paris, Charavay - frres, 1879. - -Gricault: - - Charles Blanc: Th. Gricault, 1845. - - Charles Clement: Th. Gricault, tude biographique et critique, avec - le catalogue raisonn. Paris, 1868. New Edition, 1879. - -Delacroix: - - E. Galichon: Les Peintures de M. E. Delacroix Saint-Sulpice, - "Gazette des Beaux Arts," xi, 1861, p. 511. - - Amde Cantaloube: Eugne Delacroix, l'homme et l'artiste. Paris, - 1864. - - Henri de Cleurion: L'oeuvre de Delacroix. Paris, 1865. - - Piron: E. Delacroix, sa vie et ses oeuvres. Paris, 1865. - - Adolphe Moreau: E. Delacroix et son oeuvre. Paris, 1873. - - Lettres de E. Delacroix (1815-1863), recueillies et publies par Phil. - Burty. Paris, Quantin, 1879. - - Alfred Robaut: Peintures dcoratives de E. Delacroix. Le Salon du roi - au Palais legislatif. Paris, A. Levy, 1879. - - Alfred Robaut: Peintures dcoratives de E. Delacroix, "L'Art," 1880, - 279. - - M. Vachon: E. Delacroix l'cole des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885. - - Ph. Burty: Eugne Delacroix Alger, "L'Art," 1880, 422. - - Ernest Chesneau: Eugne Delacroix, "L'Art," 1882, 382. - - Ernest Chesneau: L'oeuvre complet de E. Delacroix, comment par E. - Chesneau. Paris, 1885. - - G. Dargenty: Eug. Delacroix par lui-mme. Paris, 1885. - - Henri Guet: L'oeuvre de E. Delacroix, "Le Salon" de 1885, etc. Paris, - 1885. - - Maurice Tourneux: Eug. Delacroix, devant ses contemporains, ses - crits, ses biographes, ses critiques. Paris, 1886. (Bibliothque - internationale de l'Art, Sr. II, vol. vi.) - - Vron: Eugne Delacroix. Paris, 1887. - - _See_ Eugne Delacroix: Journal de E. D. (With Introductory Study, - etc., by M. Paul Flat and Ren Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, - 1903. - -Ingres: - - A. Magimel: Oeuvres de J. A. I., graves par A. Rveil. [102 - Copperplates.] Paris, 1851. - - Charles Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861. - - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'cole. Paris, 1868, p. 253. - - Henri Delaborde: Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux. Paris, 1870. - - Charles Blanc: Ingres, sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, 1870. - - Amaury Duval: L'atelier d'Ingres. Souvenirs. Paris, 1878. - - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais. Paris, 1878, p. 139. - - R. Balze: Ingres, son cole, son enseignement du dessin: avec des - notes recueillies par P. et A. Flandrin, Lehman, Delaborde, etc. - Paris, Pillet et Dumoulin, 1880. - - Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880, p. - 259. - - Eugne Montrosier; Peintres modernes: Ingres, H. Flandrin, Robert - Fleury. Paris, Baschet, 1883. - - August Schmarsow in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." Leipzig, - 1886. - - Jules Mommeja in "Les artistes clbres." - - -CHAPTER XI - -Ary Scheffer: - - Blanche de Saffray: Ary Scheffer. Paris, 1859. - - Antoine Etex: Ary Scheffer, tude sur sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, - 1859. - - Miss Grote: Memoir of the Life of A. Scheffer. 2nd Edition. London, - 1860. - - L. Vitet: L'oeuvre de Ary Scheffer reproduit en Photographie par - Bingham. Paris, 1860. - - Charles Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages, vol. i. Paris, 1861. - - Hofstede de Groot: Ary Scheffer, ein Charakterbild. Berlin, 1870. - - M. E. Im-Thurn; Scheffer et Decamps. Nmes, 1876. - -Johannot: - - Charles Lenormant: Les Johannot, Beaux Arts et Voyages, vol. i. Paris, - 1861. - -Flandrin: - - F. A. Gruyer: Les Conditions de la Peinture en France et les Peintures - Murales de H. Flandrin. Paris, 1862. - - J. B. Poucet: Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1864. - - A. Galimard: Examen des Peintures de l'Eglise de St. Germain des Prs. - Paris, 1864. - - Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865, p. - 191. - - Anon.: Hippolyte Flandrin, A Christian Painter of the Nineteenth - Century. London, 1875. - - M. de Montrond: H. Flandrin, tude biographique et historique. 3rd - Edition, with plates. Paris, Lefort, 1876. - - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'cole, p. 297. - - Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 263. - - Henri Delaborde: Lettres et penses d'Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, - 1877. - - Eng. Montrosier: Peintres modernes; Ingres, Flandrin, Robert-Fleury. - Paris, 1882. - - Hermann Helferich: Etwas ber franzsische Neuidealisten, "Kunst fr - Alle," 1892. - - Louis Flandrin: Hippolyte Flandrin, sa vie et son oeuvre, etc. Paris, - 1902. - -Chenavard: - - Abel Peyrouton: Paul Chenavard et son oeuvre. Paris, 1887. - - L. Riesener: Les cartons de M. Chenavard, "L'Art," 1878, i 179. - - Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 191. - - Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 299. - - Th. Chassriau: - - Arthur Baignires: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1886, i 209. - -Cogniet: - - "Chronique des Arts," 1880, 37. - - Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1881, i 33. - - Lon Bonnat: "Chronique des Arts," 1883, 8. Also separate. - - Ernest Vinet: Lon Cogniet. Paris. Without date. - - H. Delaborde: Notice sur la vie de L. Cogniet. Paris, 1881. - -Devria: - - J. Guiffrey: Achille et Eugne Devria, "L'Art," 1883, p. 422. - -Delaroche: - - Oeuvre de Paul Delaroche: reproduit en photographie par Bingham, - accompagn d'une Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godd. Paris, 1858. - - Henri Delaborde: tudes sur les Beaux Arts, vol. ii. Paris, 1857. - - Charles Blanc: P. Delaroche in "Histoire des peintres." - - Charles Lenormant in "Beaux Arts et Voyages." Paris, 1861. - - J. Runtz-Rees: P. Delaroche. London, 1880. - - Adolf Rosenberg in "Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." - -Couture: - - Mthodes et Entretiens d'atelier, par Thomas Couture. Paris, 1868. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. - 163. - - H. Billung: "Kunst-Chronik," 1879, 30. - - "L'Art," xvii p. 24. 1879. - - Paul Leroy: "L'Art," 1880, 298. Also separate. - - Clara Biller: Zur Erinnerung an Thomas Couture, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," xvi, 1881, p. 101. - - H. C. Angel: Th. Couture, "American Art Review," 1881, 24. - - -CHAPTER XII - -Cabanel: - - Georges Lafenestre: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1889, i 265. - -Bouguereau: - - Artistes modernes. "Dictionnaire illustr des Beaux Arts." Paris, - 1885. Parts I-V. - -Baudry: - - Emile Bergerat: Peintures dcoratives de Paul Baudry au grand foyer de - l'Opra. Avec preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875. - - Edmond About: Paul Baudry, "L'Art," 1876, iv 169. - - Jules Claretie: L'art et les artistes contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. - 49. - - Edmond About: Peintures dcoratives de Paul Baudry. Photogr. Goupil. - Paris, 1876. - - G. Berger: Les peintures de Paul Baudry dans le Foyer de l'Opra, - "Chronique des Arts," 1879. - - Charles Ephrussi: L'exposition des oeuvres de M. P. Baudry, "Gazette - des Beaux Arts," 1882, ii 132. - - G. Dargenty: Paul Baudry propos de l'exposition de ses oeuvres - l'orangerie des Tuileries, "Courrier de l'Art," 28, 1883. - - Dubufe: Paul Baudry, "La nouvelle Revue," 15 Juli 1883. - - Henri Delaborde: Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. P. Baudry. - Paris, 1886. - - Ernest Toudouze: P. Baudry, Notes intimes. Bordeaux, 1886. - - Charles Ephrussi: Paul Baudry, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1887. - - Richard Graul: Paul Baudry, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xxii, - 1887, pp. 1 and 65. - - A. Bonnin: Paul Baudry. Vannes, 1889. - -Benjamin Constant: - - Victor Champier: Benjamin Constant, "Art Journal," August 1883. - - F. Naquet: "L'Art," XLVIII, 237. 1890. - -Laurens: - - Ferdinand Fabre: Le roman d'un peintre. Paris, 1878. - -Regnault: - - H. Cazalis: Henri Regnault, sa vie et son oeuvre. Paris, 1871. - - H. Baillire: H. Regnault. Paris, 1871. - - Arthur Duparc: Correspondence de Henri Regnault. Paris, 1873. - - Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876, p. 347. - - Roger-Ballu: Le monument de Henri Regnault l'cole des Beaux Arts. - "L'Art," 1876, iii 176. - - Philip G. Hamerton: Modern Frenchmen, 5 biographies. London, 1878, p. - 334. - - A. Angelier: tude sur Henri Regnault. Paris, Boulanger, 1879. - - Hermann Billung: Henri Regnault, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," - 1880, xv 93. "L'Art," 1886, ii 48. - - Roger Marx: Henri Regnault, in "Les artistes clbres." Paris, 1886. - - Gustave Larroumet: Henri Regnault, 1848-1871. Paris, 1889. - - -CHAPTER XIII - -The Historical School in Belgium: - - Principal work: Camille Lemonnier: Histoire des beaux-arts en - Belgique. Cinquante ans de libert. Bruxelles, 1881, vol. iii. Neue - Ausgabe. 1906. - - Likewise: Von Hasselt: La Belgique, in "L'Art moderne en Allemagne," - iii. Paris, 1841. - - Felix Bogaerts: Esquisse d'une histoire des Arts en Belgique depuis - 1640 jusqu' 1830. Anvers, 1841. - - L. Pfau: Die zeitgenssische Kunst in Belgien, "Freie Studien." - Stuttgart, 1866. - - F. Reber: Die belgische Malerei, "Deutsche Revue," vii, 1882, p. 219. - "Patria Belgica," tome iii, Les Expositions de tableaux depuis 1830. - Bruxelles, 1875. - - Annuaire de l'Acadmie royale des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux Arts, - passim. - - J. A. Wauters: La peinture flamande, 3 d. Paris, Quantin, 1891. - - Compare also the final chapter in Max Rooses' "Geschichte der - Malerschule Antwerpens," deutsch von Reber. 2 Ausgabe. Mnchen, 1889. - -M. J. van Bree: - - L. Gerrits: Levensbeschrijving van M. J. van Bree. Antwerp, 1852. - -Wappers: - - Hermann Billung: Gustav Wappers, historisches Taschenbuch, 5 Folge, x. - 1880, p. 111. - -De Keyzer: - - Henri Hymans: Nicaise de Keyzer. Bruxelles, 1891. - - Guffens and Swerts: - - Hermann Riegel: Geschichte der Wandmalerei in Belgien seit 1856. Nebst - Briefen von Cornelius, Kaulbach, Overbeck, Schnorr, Schwind, u. A. an - Gottfried Guffens und Jan Swerts. Berlin, Wasmuth, 1883. - -Gallait: - - A. Teichlein: L. Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland. Mnchen, - 1853. - - Henne, Louis Gallait: Annales de l'Acadmie d'arch. de Belgique, 1890, - 4. - - Nekrolog in "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1890. - -Bifve: - - Obituary in "L'Art moderne," 7, 1881. - - "Journal des Beaux Arts," 1881, 4. - - -CHAPTER XIV - -The Germans in Paris: - - Edmond About: Voyage travers l'exposition des Beaux Arts, 1855, p. - 56. - -Feuerbach: - - Ein Vermchtniss von Anselm Feuerbach. 2 Auflage. Wien, 1885. 4 Aufl, - 1897. - - Fr. Pecht: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," viii, 1873, p. 161. - - Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, 1877, - pp. 238-268. - - Katalog der Ausstellung des Knstlerischen Nachlasses in der Berliner - Nationalgalerie, mit Biographie von Max Jordan. Berlin, 1880. - - Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 93-116. - - O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack in Mnchen. Wien, 1883. Mit - Radirungen. (Also in "Graphische Knste," 1880, iii 1.) - - A. Wolf: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xv Beiblatt, 15. - - W. v. Seidlitz: A. Feuerbach, im 4 Heft der "Stichausgabe moderner - Meister der Dresdener Galerie." - - Marc Schssler: Zum Gedchtniss an A. Feuerbach. Nrnberg, 1880. - - H. Grimm in "15 Essays," 3 Folge. Berlin, 1882, p. 337. - - Feuerbachs Handzeichnungen. Mnchen, Hanfstngl, 1888. - - Carl Neumann: A. Feuerbach, "Preussische Jahrbcher," Bd. 62, 1888. - - C. Allgeyer: A. Feuerbach, "Nord und Sd," 1888. - - Emil Hannover: A. Feuerbach, "Tilskueren." Copenhagen, 1890. - - Hauptwerk: Karl Allgeyer, Anselm Feuerbach, sein Leben und seine - Kunst. 2 Aufl. besorgt von Karl Neumann. Berlin, 1902. - -The Berlin School since 1850: - - A. Rosenberg: Die Berliner Malerschule 1819-1879, "Studien und - Kritiken." Berlin, 1879. - -R. Henneberg: - - H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze. Braunschweig, - 1877, p. 367. - -Gustav Richter: - - Ludwig Pietsch: G. Richter, "Westermanns Monatshefte," 1883, Oct. and - Nov. - -Steffeck: - - Nekrolog in "Kunstchronik," 1890, 31. - - L. v. Donop: Ausstellung der Werke Karl Steffecks in der Berliner - Nationalgalerie. Berlin, Mittler, 1890. - - Historical painting in General: - - Ernst Guhl: Die neuere geschichtliche Malerei und die Akademien. - Stuttgart, 1848. - - R. v. Eitelberger: Geschichte und Geschichtsmalerei, Mittheilungen des - sterreichischen Museums, 1883, 208. - -Lessing: - - R. Redtenbacher: Erinnerungen an Carl Fr. Lessing, "Zeitschrift fr - bildende Kunst," xvi, 1881, p. 33. - -Piloty: - - F. Pecht: "Westermanns Monatshefte," 1882, April. - - Karl Stieler: Die Pilotyschule. Berlin, 1881. - - F. Pecht: "Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts." III Reihe. Nrdlingen, 1881. - - C. A. Regnet: Mnchener Knstlerbiographien, Bd. 2. - - A. Rosenberg: Die Hauptstrmungen in der bildenden Kunst der - Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1880. - - H. Helferich, Neue Kunst. Berlin, 1887. - - Peter Jessen: Piloty und die deutsche Kunst, "Gegenwart," xxxi 1. - -Makart: - - C. Landsteiner: H. Makart und Robert Hamerling. Wien, 1873. - - C. v. Ltzow; Makarts Entwrfe fr den Wiener Festzug, "Zeitschrift - fr bildende Kunst," 1879, 7. - - S. Feldmann: Hans Makarts neuestes Bild, "Die Gegenwart," 1881, 24. - - B. Worth: Hans Makart and his Studio, "Art Journal," 1881, 7. - - Makart-Album, in 10 Lieferungen, Holzschnitte, und Lichtdrucke, mit - Text. Wien, Bondy, 1883. - - H. Makart als Architekt. "Wochenblatt fr Architekten," 1884, 89, 90. - - Mrs. Schuyler van Rensselaer: Hans Makart, "Portfolio," 1886, pp. - 36-49. - - Carl v. Ltzow: "Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst," xxi, 1886, pp. 181, - 214. - - Robert Stiassny: H. Makart und seine bleibende Bedeutung, "Sammlung - kunstgewerblicher und kunsthistorischer Vortrge," Nr. 12. Leipzig, - 1886. - -Max: - - Friedrich Pecht: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1879, xiv 225, 375. - - Agathon Klemt: "Graphische Knste," ix 1-12, 25-36. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: Gabriel Max, "Art Journal," 1881, 6. - - Adolf Kohut: Gabriel Max, "Westermanns Monatshefte," 1883, Mai. - - Nic. Mann: Gabriel Max, Eine Kunsthistorische Skizze. 2 Aufl. Leipzig, - 1891. - - -CHAPTER XV - -Gleyre: - - Charles Clement: Gleyre; tude biographique. Paris, 1878. - - Paul Mantz: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1875, i 233. - - Fr. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Genve, 1874 ("Bibliothque universelle," - vol. 50). - - E. Montgut: Ch. Gleyre, "Revue des Deux Mondes," 1878. - - Hofmeister: Das Leben des Kunstmalers Karl Gleyre. Zrich, 1879. - - Ch. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Lausanne, 1880. - -Hamon: - - Walther Fol: Jean Louis Hamon, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1875, i 119. - - Georges Lafenestre, "L'Art," 1875, i 394. - -Grme: - - Charles Timbal: "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1876, ii 228, 334. - -Leys: - - Hermann Billung: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xv 333, 370. 1880. - - Ludwig Pfau: "Freie Studien," p. 262. - -Meissonier: - - Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d'cole, p. 241. - - Otto Mndler: "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," 1866. - - Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1869, p. - 237. - - Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, pp. - 23, 120. - - Roger-Ballu: "1807," le Meissonier de M. Alexander T. Stewart. - "L'Art," 1875, i 14. - - Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876, p. 420. - - J. Claretie: E. Meissonier. Paris, 1881. - - John W. Mollet: Meissonier, in "The Great Artists." London, 1882. - - H. Heinecke: E. Meissonier, "Westermanns Monatshefte," January 1885. - - Lionel Robinson: J. L. E. Meissonier, his Life and Work. "Art Annual" - for 1887. - - Ch. Bigot: Peintres franais contemporains. Paris, 1888. - - L. Gonse: Meissonier, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1891, i 177. - - G. Larroumet: Meissonier. (Study followed by a Biography by Philippe - Burty.) Paris, 1893. - - Grard: Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Ses souvenirs--Ses entretiens. - (With a study of his life and work by M. O. Grard; with Plates and a - Catalogue of the artist's work.) Paris, 1897. - - E. Hubbard: Meissonier. New York, 1899. - - Formentin: C. Meissonier: sa vie, son oeuvre. Paris, 1901. - -Menzel: - - Bruno Meyer: Adolf Menzel, "Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst," xi, 1, - 41. 1876. - - Alfred Woltmann: Das Preussenthum in der neueren Kunst, "Nord und - Sd," 1877, p. 109. - - Ludwig Pietsch: A. Menzel, "Nord und Sd," 1879, p. 439. - - Duranty: Adolphe Menzel, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1880, ii 105. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: Adolph Menzel, "Art Journal," May 1882, ff. - - J. Beavington-Atkinson: Menzel's Illustrations to the Works of - Frederick the Great, "Art Journal," November 1883. - - L. Gonse: Illustrations d'Adolphe Menzel pour les oeuvres de Frdric - le Grand, "Gazette des Beaux Arts," 1882, i 596. - - Das Werk A. Menzels. Text by Jordan and Dohme. Mnchen, 1885, ff. - - Cornelius Gurlitt: A. Menzel, "Die Kunst unserer Zeit," 1892. - - Sondermann: Adolph Menzel, Monographie. Magdeburg, 1896. - - Knackfuss: Menzel. (With 141 Illustrations), Knstler Monographien, - vii. Bielefeld, 1895. - - H. von Tschudi: Das Werk Adolf Menzels. Berlin, 1905. - - Julius Meyer-Grfe: Der junge Menzel. 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Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm -concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared -with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project -Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. -unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily -keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: - - www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/43792-8.zip b/43792-8.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 61a581e..0000000 --- a/43792-8.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/43792-h.zip b/43792-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 09d2d98..0000000 --- a/43792-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/43792-h/43792-h.htm b/43792-h/43792-h.htm index d88d0ae..33b58fb 100644 --- a/43792-h/43792-h.htm +++ b/43792-h/43792-h.htm @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ <head> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= - "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + "text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <title> The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of Modern Painting Volume 1 by Richard Muther. @@ -157,48 +157,7 @@ </style> </head> <body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 -(of 4), by Richard Muther - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The History of Modern Painting, Volume 1 (of 4) - Revised edition continued by the author to the end of the XIX century - -Author: Richard Muther - -Release Date: September 22, 2013 [EBook #43792] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING, VOL I *** - - - - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 43792 ***</div> <p class="center col f200 ptb2">THE HISTORY OF<br /> MODERN PAINTING</p> @@ -258,9 +217,9 @@ century.—Sturm-und-Drang period in literature.—Rousseau.—Goeth and etchings.—France: Antoine Watteau frees himself from “baroque” influences, and directs the tendency of French art towards the Low Countries.—Pastel: Maurice Latour, Rosalba Carriera, Liotard.—Society painters: -Lancrat, Pater.—The decorative painters: Franois Lemoine, Franois +Lancrat, Pater.—The decorative painters: François Lemoine, François Boucher, Fragonard.—“Society” turns virtuous.—Jean Greuze.—Middle-class -society and its depicter, Jean Baptiste Simon Chardin.—Germany: +society and its depicter, Jean Baptiste Siméon Chardin.—Germany: Lessing frees the drama from the classical yoke of Boileau, and, following the English, produces in “Minna” the first domestic tragedy.—Daniel Chodowiecki as the portrayer of the German middle class.—Tischbein goes back to @@ -271,11 +230,11 @@ French style.—Disappearance of “nature choisie” in painting.&m Robert.—Joseph Vernet.—Salomon Gessner.—Ludwig Hess.—Philip Hackert.—Johann Alexander Thiele.—Antonio Canale.—Bernardo Canaletto.—Francesco Guardi.—Don Petro Rodriguez de Miranda.—Don Mariano Ramon -Sanchez.—The animal painters: Franois Casanova, Jean Louis de Marne, Jean +Sanchez.—The animal painters: François Casanova, Jean Louis de Marne, Jean Baptiste Oudry, Johann Elias Riedinger.—An event in the history of art: in place of the prevailing Cinquecento and the “sublime style of painting” degraded at the close of the seventeenth century, a simple and sincere art -succeeds throughout the whole of Europe.—Return to what Drer and the +succeeds throughout the whole of Europe.—Return to what Dürer and the Little Masters of the sixteenth century and the Dutch of the seventeenth century originated</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page41">41</a></td></tr> @@ -286,7 +245,7 @@ century originated</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page41">41</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>The influence of the antique at the end of the eighteenth century shows no advance, but an unnatural retrograde movement, and notes in Germany the beginning of the same decadence which had happened in Italy with the -Bolognese, in France with Poussin, and in Holland with Grard de Lairesse.—The +Bolognese, in France with Poussin, and in Holland with Gérard de Lairesse.—The teachings of Winckelmann, Anton Rafael Mengs, Angelica Kauffmann.—The younger generation carries out the classical programme in the value it sets upon technical traditions.—Asmus Jacob Carstens.—Buonaventura Genelli</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page80">80</a></td></tr> @@ -297,12 +256,12 @@ sets upon technical traditions.—Asmus Jacob Carstens.—Buonaventura G <tr><td class="tcl"><p>In France also the classical tendency in art was no new thing, but a revival of the antique which was restored to life by the foundation of the French -Academy in Rome in 1663.—Influence of archological studies.—Elizabeth -Vige-Lebrun.—The Revolution heightens the enthusiasm for the antique, +Academy in Rome in 1663.—Influence of archæological studies.—Elizabeth +Vigée-Lebrun.—The Revolution heightens the enthusiasm for the antique, and once more gives Classicism an appearance of brilliant animation.—Jacques Louis David.—His portraits and his pictures in relation to contemporary -history.—David as an archologist.—Jean Baptiste Regnault.—Franois -Andr Vincent.—Gurin</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page98">98</a></td></tr> +history.—David as an archæologist.—Jean Baptiste Regnault.—François +André Vincent.—Guérin</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page98">98</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt2 f120" colspan="2">BOOK II</td></tr> @@ -314,7 +273,7 @@ Andr Vincent.—Gurin</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page98">98</a></ <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Influence of literature.—Wackenroder.—Tieck.—The Schlegels.—Instead of the antique, the Italian Quattrocento appears as the model for the schools.—Frederick -Overbeck.—Philip Veit.—Joseph Fhrich.—Edward Steinle—Julius +Overbeck.—Philip Veit.—Joseph Führich.—Edward Steinle—Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld.—Their pictures and their drawings</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page117">117</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI</td></tr> @@ -325,11 +284,11 @@ Schnorr von Carolsfeld.—Their pictures and their drawings</p></td> <td cla <tr><td class="tcc pt1" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE DSSELDORFERS</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE DÜSSELDORFERS</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>On the Rhine, a school of painting instead of a school of drawing.—Wilhelm Schadow, Carl Friedrich Lessing, Theodor Hildebrandt, Carl Sohn, Heinrich -Mcke, Christian Koehler, H. Plddemann, Eduard Bendemann, Theodor +Mücke, Christian Koehler, H. Plüddemann, Eduard Bendemann, Theodor Mintrop, Friedrich Ittenbach, Ernest Deger.—Why their pictures, despite technical merits, have become antiquated</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page157">157</a></td></tr> @@ -345,7 +304,7 @@ pictures and drawings</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page167">167</a></td>< <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM IN FRANCE</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Last years of the David school wearisome and without character, except in portrait -painting.—Franois Grard, the “King of Painters and Painter of Kings”; +painting.—François Gérard, the “King of Painters and Painter of Kings”; his portraits of the Empire and Restoration periods.—Commencement of the revolt: Pierre Paul Prudhon; his pictures and the story of his life; Constance Mayer.—Revival of colouring.—Antoine Jean Gros and his pictures of contemporary @@ -355,8 +314,8 @@ life; discrepancy between his teaching and his practice</p></td> <td class="tcrb <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE GENERATION OF 1830</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><p>The revolt of the Romanticists against Classicism in literature and art.—Thodore -Gricault and his early works.—“The Raft of the Medusa.”—Eugne Delacroix: +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>The revolt of the Romanticists against Classicism in literature and art.—Théodore +Géricault and his early works.—“The Raft of the Medusa.”—Eugène Delacroix: protest against the conventional, and renewed importance of colour.—Delacroix’s pictures; influence of the East upon him.—His life and struggles.—The Classical reaction.—J. A. D. Ingres and the opposition to Romanticism.—His @@ -367,16 +326,16 @@ classical pictures.—Excellence of his portraits and drawings</p></td> <td <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">JUSTE-MILIEU</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Moderation the watchword of Louis Philippe’s reign, in politics, literature, and -art.—Jean Gigoux, a follower of Delacroix and an inexorable realist.—Eugne +art.—Jean Gigoux, a follower of Delacroix and an inexorable realist.—Eugène Isabey.—Middle position occupied by Ary Scheffer between the Classical and the Romantic schools; decline of his popularity.—Hippolyte Flandrin, as a religious painter a French counterpart to the Nazarenes.—Paul -Chenavard, compared to Cornelius.—Thodore Chassriau; his short -and brilliant career.—Lon Benouville.—Lon Cogniet and his pictures.—Transition +Chenavard, compared to Cornelius.—Théodore Chassériau; his short +and brilliant career.—Léon Benouville.—Léon Cogniet and his pictures.—Transition from the Romantic school to the historical painters.—The great writers of history: renewed activity in this field: historical tragedies and romances.—Art takes a similar course: popularity and facility of historical -painting.—Eugne Devria; Camille Roqueplan.—Nicolaus Robert Fleury; +painting.—Eugène Devéria; Camille Roqueplan.—Nicolaus Robert Fleury; Louis Boulanger.—Paul Delaroche; his popularity and its causes; his defects as a painter.—Delaroche’s pictures.—Thomas Couture</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page255">255</a></td></tr> @@ -386,9 +345,9 @@ as a painter.—Delaroche’s pictures.—Thomas Couture</p></td> <t <tr><td class="tcl"><p>France under the Second Empire; the society of the period not represented in French art.—Continuation of the old traditions without essential change.—Alexandre -Cabanel.—William Bouguereau.—Jules Lefbure.—Henner.—Paul -Baudry: his pictures; decoration of the Grand Opera House.—lie Delaunay: -his pictures, decorative painting, and portraits.—The “Genre froce”; +Cabanel.—William Bouguereau.—Jules Lefébure.—Henner.—Paul +Baudry: his pictures; decoration of the Grand Opera House.—Élie Delaunay: +his pictures, decorative painting, and portraits.—The “Genre féroce”; predilection for the horrible in art.—Numerous painters of this school.—Laurens.—Rochegrosse and his pictures.—Henri Regnault</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page278">278</a></td></tr> @@ -397,7 +356,7 @@ and his pictures.—Henri Regnault</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page2 <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE HISTORICAL SCHOOL OF PAINTING IN BELGIUM</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><p>Belgium to 1830.—David and his school.—Navez, Matthias van Bree.—Gustav -Wappers, Nicaise de Keyzer, Henri Decaisne, Gallait, Bifve.—Ernest +Wappers, Nicaise de Keyzer, Henri Decaisne, Gallait, Bièfve.—Ernest Slingeneyer, Guffens and Swerts.—The Exhibition of Belgian pictures in Germany</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> @@ -405,7 +364,7 @@ Germany</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page301">301</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">THE REVOLUTION OF THE GERMAN COLOURISTS</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Anselm Feuerbach, Victor Mller.—The Berlin school: Rudolf Henneberg, Gustav +<tr><td class="tcl"><p>Anselm Feuerbach, Victor Müller.—The Berlin school: Rudolf Henneberg, Gustav Richter, Knille, Schrader, and others.—The Munich school: Piloty, Hans Makart, Gabriel Max.—The historical painters and the end of the illustrative painting of history</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page317">317</a></td></tr> @@ -416,7 +375,7 @@ painting of history</p></td> <td class="tcrb"><a href="#page317">317</a></td></t <tr><td class="tcl"><p>The Historical Picture of Manners as opposed to Historical Painting, an advance in the direction of intimacy of feeling.—The Antique Picture of Manners: -Charles Gleyre, Louis Hamon, Grme, Gustave Boulanger.—The Picture of +Charles Gleyre, Louis Hamon, Gérôme, Gustave Boulanger.—The Picture of Costume from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.—France: Charles Comte, Alexander Hesse, Camille Roqueplan.—Belgium: Alexander Markelbach, Florent Willems.—Germany: L. v. Hagn, Gustav Spangenberg, Carl @@ -441,9 +400,9 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Gainsborough</span>: The Sisters</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page38">38</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Greuze</span>: The Milkmaid</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page58">58</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Chardin</span>: The House of Cards</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page64">64</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Watteau</span>: Fte Champtre</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Watteau</span>: Fête Champêtre</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page74">74</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Angelica Kauffmann</span>: Portrait of a Lady as a Vestal</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page86">86</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Elizabeth Vige-Lebrun</span>: Portrait of the Painter with her Daughter</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Elizabeth Vigée-Lebrun</span>: Portrait of the Painter with her Daughter</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page100">100</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Cornelius</span>: “Let there be Light”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page144">144</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Schwind</span>: The Wedding Journey</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page182">182</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl"><span class="sc">Regnault</span>: General Prim</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page300">300</a></td></tr> @@ -463,8 +422,8 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bendemann, Eduard</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Lament of the Jews</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page165">165</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bifve, Edouard</span>.</td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Bifve</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page314">314</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bièfve, Edouard</span>.</td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Bièfve</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page314">314</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The League of the Nobles of the Netherlands</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page315">315</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Bouguereau, William Adolphe</span>.</td></tr> @@ -481,11 +440,11 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">Children of the Night</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page92">92</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Priam and Achilles</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page93">93</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chardin, Jean Simon</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chardin, Jean Siméon</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Himself</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page63">63</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Grace before Meat</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page65">65</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chassriau, Thodore</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chassériau, Théodore</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Apollo and Daphne</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page259">259</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Chodowiecki, Daniel</span>.</td></tr> @@ -495,7 +454,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">The Morning Compliment</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page70">70</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Artist’s Nursery</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page71">71</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Cogniet, Lon</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Cogniet, Léon</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Tintoretto Painting his Dead Daughter</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page261">261</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Massacre of the Innocents</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page263">263</a></td></tr> @@ -514,14 +473,14 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">David, Jacques Louis</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of David</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page102">102</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Madame Rcamier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Madame Récamier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page103">103</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Oath of the Horatii</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page105">105</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Rape of the Sabines</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page107">107</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Helen and Paris</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page109">109</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Belisarius asking Alms</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page111">111</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Death of Marat</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page113">113</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Delacroix, Eugne</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Delacroix, Eugène</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Delacroix</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page226">226</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Dante’s Bark</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page227">227</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Hamlet and the Grave-diggers</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page230">230</a></td></tr> @@ -538,7 +497,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">The Princes in the Tower</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page267">267</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Strafford on his Way to Execution</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page269">269</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Delaunay, lie</span>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Delaunay, Élie</span>.</td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Diana</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page293">293</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Boys Singing</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page294">294</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Madame Toulmouche</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page295">295</a></td></tr> @@ -553,8 +512,8 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">Medea</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page327">327</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Dante Walking with High—born Ladies of Ravenna</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page329">329</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fhrich, Joseph.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Fhrich</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Führich, Joseph.</span></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Führich</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page126">126</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">From the “Legend of St. Gwendolin”</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page127">127</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Ruth and Boaz</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page128">128</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Departure of the Prodigal Son</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page129">129</a></td></tr> @@ -578,21 +537,21 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">Odysseus and the Sirens</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page96">96</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Genelli</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page97">97</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grard, Franois.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Grard</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Gérard, François.</span></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Gérard</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page190">190</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Mlle. Brongniart</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page191">191</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Madame Visconti</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page192">192</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Cupid and Psyche</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page193">193</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Madame Rcamier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page194">194</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Madame Récamier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page194">194</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Gricault, Thodore.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Gricault</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Géricault, Théodore.</span></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Géricault</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page221">221</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Wounded Cuirassier</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page222">222</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Chasseur</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page223">223</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Raft of the Medusa.</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page224">224</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Start</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page225">225</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Grme, Lon.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Gérôme, Léon.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Cock-fight</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page367">367</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Gessner, Salomon.</span></td></tr> @@ -648,7 +607,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">The Rake’s Progress (Plate II.)</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page14">14</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Rake’s Progress (Plate VII.)</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page15">15</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Rake’s Progress (Plate VIII.)</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page16">16</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Marriage la Mode (Plate V.)</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page17">17</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Marriage à la Mode (Plate V.)</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page17">17</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Enraged Musician</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page18">18</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Gin Lane</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page19">19</a></td></tr> @@ -680,7 +639,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Laurens, Jean Paul.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Interdict</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page298">298</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Lefbure, Jules.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Lefébure, Jules.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Truth</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page283">283</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Lessing, Carl Friedrich.</span></td></tr> @@ -694,7 +653,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">Mother and Child</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page372">372</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Luminais, Evariste.</span></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Les nervs de Jumiges</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Les Énervés de Jumièges</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page297">297</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Makart, Hans.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Makart</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page341">341</a></td></tr> @@ -714,7 +673,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Mayer, Constance.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Mayer</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page201">201</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Dream of Happiness</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page202">202</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">The Tomb of Prudhon and Constance Mayer at Pre-Lachaise</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">The Tomb of Prudhon and Constance Mayer at Père-Lachaise</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page203">203</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Meissonier, Ernest.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Man at the Window</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page373">373</a></td></tr> @@ -768,7 +727,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">La Nuit</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page207">207</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">L’enjouir</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page208">208</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Marguerite</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page209">209</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Les Petits Dvideurs</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page210">210</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Les Petits Dévideurs</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page210">210</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Vintage</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page211">211</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Virgin</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page212">212</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Christ Crucified</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page213">213</a></td></tr> @@ -824,7 +783,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">From the Story of the Seven Ravens</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page179">179</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">A Hermit leading Horses to a Pool</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page181">181</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Nymphs and Stag</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page184">184</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">Rbezahl</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">Rübezahl</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page185">185</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Fairies’ Song</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page187">187</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Slingneyer, Ernest.</span></td></tr> @@ -844,7 +803,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="j2">Book Illustration</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page134">134</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Violin Player</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page135">135</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Sylvestre, Joseph Nol.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Sylvestre, Joseph Noël.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Locusta Testing in Nero’s Presence the Poison prepared for Britannicus</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page296">296</a></td></tr> @@ -861,7 +820,7 @@ first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half</p> <tr><td class="tcl pt1" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Watteau, Antoine.</span></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">Portrait of Watteau</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page56">56</a></td></tr> - <tr><td class="j2">La Partie Carre</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page57">57</a></td></tr> + <tr><td class="j2">La Partie Carrée</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page57">57</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Music Party</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page73">73</a></td></tr> <tr><td class="j2">The Return from the Chase</td> <td class="tcr"><a href="#page74">74</a></td></tr> </table> @@ -932,7 +891,7 @@ the same time the German manner is most directly opposed to the Romance. They disdain to ingratiate themselves into men’s minds by outward grace of form, but win the heart by their deep religious feeling and intimate sensibility. They are German to the core, racial even to the stiffness of -the German character, but full of feeling and truth to life. Drer in +the German character, but full of feeling and truth to life. Dürer in his woodcuts and copper engravings is “<i>inwendig voller figur</i>”; in them he offers the “concentrated, homely treasure of his heart.” Holbein is great by the incomparably real art of his portraits. The century of that @@ -1076,7 +1035,7 @@ on a foundation of the established canonical works of old, is not their own but borrowed. In others, on the contrary, who, apart from the dominating tendency, had the courage rather to be insignificant, and yet remain themselves, observing with their own eyes nature which surrounded them, or -navely abandoning themselves to the disposition of their artistic fantasy, +naïvely abandoning themselves to the disposition of their artistic fantasy, in them will be seen the essential vehicles of the modern spirit. And then it will be apparent that the art of the nineteenth century as well as that of every earlier period had its peculiar garment, even if for official occasions @@ -1148,7 +1107,7 @@ was hardly suitable.</p> <p>To the cold Classicism represented by Pope, there succeeded in English literature—far earlier than was the case elsewhere—the delineation of what was immediately contemporary. At the same time that Mdlle. de -Scudry—when it was a question of describing the court of the +Scudéry—when it was a question of describing the court of the Great King, the society of Louis <span class="sc">XIV</span>—felt herself bound to translate her theme into the antique and write a <i>Cyrus</i>, the English novel had taken its motives from actual life. Defoe’s <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> is the first book in @@ -1188,7 +1147,7 @@ come over to England with the “glorious revolution,” with William of and Queen Anne; whilst in Holland itself the French invasion of 1672 had caused a reaction to the courtly idea, against which the English took up an attitude of conscious and rigid protest. This opposition is clearly expressed -by the English sthetic writers.</p> +by the English æsthetic writers.</p> <p>The most important name to be mentioned is that of Shaftesbury. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span> @@ -1199,7 +1158,7 @@ means of his pensions, a race of flattering Court painters. Our civil liberty affords us a sufficient foundation, and our liberty leads us to <i>absolute verity</i> in art.</p> -<p>Thus did Shaftesbury enunciate his leading sthetic doctrine; it was +<p>Thus did Shaftesbury enunciate his leading æsthetic doctrine; it was his constant message, and it was constantly repeated with great emphasis: “All beauty is truth.” “The search after truth leads you to nature.” “Truth is the mightiest thing in the world, since it exercises sovereign rights @@ -1243,7 +1202,7 @@ with the help of education, for that to be overcome? And so Shaftesbury’s <span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span> view of art comprised a third, and very dangerous, element; namely, that to fulfil the most serious mission of that culture which had ensued from the -free and natural conditions in England—even in the realm of sthetics—the +free and natural conditions in England—even in the realm of æsthetics—the painter, like the poet, must appear as the moral teacher of his age. @@ -1312,13 +1271,13 @@ berouged—moved Hogarth; in the company of wine-bibbers, in gambling hells, in rooms of poets, in cellars of highwaymen, in the death-chambers of fallen maidens. “The Harlot’s Progress,” which he produced in a series of pictures, brought him his first success. He then published further series of similar -careers over crooked courses—“The Rake’s Progress,” “Marriage la Mode.” +careers over crooked courses—“The Rake’s Progress,” “Marriage à la Mode.” He painted the rabble of London, their society and their morals; those who went in cotton and rags and those in satin and silk. In his writings he censures the old painters plainly because in their historical style they had quite passed over the middle classes. And he went with great knowledge to these new subjects. In the National Gallery, which possesses the originals of “Marriage - la Mode,” one is astounded at the technical qualities of Hogarth’s painting. +à la Mode,” one is astounded at the technical qualities of Hogarth’s painting. Whoever has been misled by the engraved reproductions, and looks for bad, distorted drawing, may here learn to know him as a painter in the fullest sense of the @@ -1367,13 +1326,13 @@ set off. The inartistic part of him was that he followed the -sthetic theories +æsthetic theories of the age, and looked upon art as merely a means to ends alien to itself. With him painting was an instrument to disseminate the inventions of his poetic-satiric humour; it was a form of speech to him. He is not unjustly called on that account a -comedian of the pencil, the Molire of painting. We look at other pictures, +comedian of the pencil, the Molière of painting. We look at other pictures, but his we read. The commentaries on them are in some respects the rendering back of the pictures into their proper element. Lessing called the drama his pulpit; with Hogarth his art was a pulpit. He wanted, like @@ -1421,7 +1380,7 @@ tears, seeks him out again in the madhouse.</p> <p>The third and most famous series was completed many years after the “Rake”—in 1745. Hogarth has admittedly taken particular pains with -the six oil paintings of “Marriage la Mode,” which have been placed in the +the six oil paintings of “Marriage à la Mode,” which have been placed in the National Gallery; and these painted novels reveal in strength and beauty of execution the high-water mark @@ -1483,7 +1442,7 @@ characterised his art, in these words—</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:428px" src="images/img035.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">HOGARTH.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MARRIAGE LA MODE, PLATE V.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MARRIAGE À LA MODE, PLATE V.</td></tr></table> <p class="noind">Hogarth painted stirring and humorous scenes, full of effective morality, with which he sought to cheer, terrify, and improve humanity. His five-act @@ -1649,7 +1608,7 @@ preliminary all that fell into his hands in the way of woodcuts and copper engravings. One of the earliest drawings which remain from his childhood represents the interior of a library. At the age of nineteen he came to London to a well-known master, Hudson, the favourite painter -with the gentry of the day, who required 120 with a pupil. He was already +with the gentry of the day, who required £120 with a pupil. He was already convinced that only in London could he find the means to attain fame, and even as early as 1744 he took a fine establishment and kept open house in order to attract attention. He was soon in a position to complete his artistic @@ -1730,7 +1689,7 @@ persons sat for Reynolds, and after that about one hundred and fifty people were painted by him annually; and this brought him in a -yearly income of about 16,000.</p> +yearly income of about £16,000.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: left; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:340px; height:489px" src="images/img042.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -1828,7 +1787,7 @@ of Johnson or Burke.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span></p> -<p>They are sthetic treatises and essays in the history of art, of an enduring +<p>They are æsthetic treatises and essays in the history of art, of an enduring value. Originating from a vast insight, and expressed in a precise style, they treat of the laws of classic art, the variation in styles, the causes of the finest bloom in art. Certainly @@ -1863,8 +1822,8 @@ the great, caressed by sovereign powers and celebrated by distinguished poets, ... the loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere, general, and unmixed sorrow.” He was buried with great pomp in St. Paul’s Cathedral. The pictures left unfinished at his death -fetched at auction 37,000; the whole fortune which he left is estimated -at 80,000.</p> +fetched at auction £37,000; the whole fortune which he left is estimated +at £80,000.</p> <p>The biography of <i>Thomas Gainsborough</i> reads quite differently.</p> @@ -1903,7 +1862,7 @@ birthplace, he trained himself. At the age of ten he was a painter.</p> <p>A sojourn of four years in London seems to have added little to his ability. Elegant in his manners, lively in his conversation, a born gentleman, he might have become completely the man of fashion. But he was far too diffident, -with his nave simplicity, to force himself amongst the stars of the +with his naïve simplicity, to force himself amongst the stars of the world of art in London, far too distinguished and retiring to join in the race after the favour of the public, and so at the age of eighteen he returned to his native place with the unencouraging prospect of playing the part of a @@ -2087,7 +2046,7 @@ boards, as it were, she had, when still a child, joined her parents on their Thespian pilgrimages, and had had many engagements in the provinces, at Birmingham, Manchester, and Bath, before she was recruited by the playwright Sheridan for the Drury Lane company in London. She made her -<i>dbut</i> there on 10th October 1782, and was hailed forthwith as the greatest +<i>début</i> there on 10th October 1782, and was hailed forthwith as the greatest actress of her time. Lady Macbeth was her great part; in that she was painted both by Romney and Lawrence. Reynolds painted her as the Tragic Muse. A diadem encircles her hair, she sits upon a throne, the throne rests @@ -2172,7 +2131,7 @@ the praise of having set the English school, which had hitherto possessed no perfected tradition of painting, technically on firm feet. He was the founder of a scientific technique of painting derived from the ancients,—the Lenbach of the eighteenth century. Upon the mixture of colours, the gradations -of light and shade, technically and sthetically, no artist has pondered more +of light and shade, technically and æsthetically, no artist has pondered more <span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span> than he, who knew the great Netherlanders, Rubens, Van Dyck, and Rembrandt, as well as, or better than, his particular favourites, the Italians. @@ -2262,7 +2221,7 @@ charm to which those of the President of the Academy never attained. Gainsboroug too, at his death murmured the name of an old master. “We are all going to Heaven, and Van Dyck is of the company.” But what distinguishes him from Reynolds, and gives him a character of greater originality, is just his -nave independence of the ancients, which resulted partly from the different +naïve independence of the ancients, which resulted partly from the different nature of his education in art. Reynolds had lived for two years in Rome and explored all the principal cities of Italy, had visited Flanders and Holland, learnt to wonder at Rembrandt, and developed an enthusiasm for <i>chiaroscuro</i>. @@ -2522,7 +2481,7 @@ walls of his studio. After his death his widow held a sale, at which fifty-six landscapes were sold. Gainsborough must be accounted -one of the moderns, so nave and +one of the moderns, so naïve and intimate is the impression which his pictures produce. He, who passed his whole youth in the idyllic loveliness @@ -2622,7 +2581,7 @@ full of <i>Sturm und Drang</i>. Men did homage to every kind of extravagance, and went into ecstasies over virtue. The sarcasm of scoffers went hand in hand with the deepest sentimental feeling for nature; superstition flourished by the side of enlightenment and learning; in the <i>salons</i> of the aristocracy courtly -abbs file past with the greatest thinkers, glowing with a holy zeal for the +abbés file past with the greatest thinkers, glowing with a holy zeal for the rights of man. And, in the midst of all this contradiction, there exists that simple, virtuous middle class which is preparing to make the ascent which will lead it to power.</p> @@ -2632,7 +2591,7 @@ lead it to power.</p> <tr><td class="tcc f90">PORTRAIT OF GOYA.   BY HIMSELF.</td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc f90 pb2"><i>From: “Los Capriccios.”</i></td></tr></table> -<p>One may imagine oneself in a salon of the <i>ancien rgime</i>, in which wit +<p>One may imagine oneself in a salon of the <i>ancien régime</i>, in which wit is lord, and laughter and merriment reign. Into that salon enters abruptly a rough plebeian, with none of the fine tact of that company, yet a great, aristocratic spirit, a man who despised such a society and would make the @@ -2696,7 +2655,7 @@ arising in Germany, in comparison with which those of Rome and Sparta would be convents of nuns.” In a loud voice <i>Ficsco</i> proclaims itself on the very title-page to be a “republican” tragedy. <i>Intrigue and Love</i> even aims full at the rottenness and corruption of the actual time. It can be traced—and -Brandes has done it in his <i>Haupstrmungen</i>—how in the literature of the age, +Brandes has done it in his <i>Haupströmungen</i>—how in the literature of the age, the life of sensibility and idealism prevailing in the previous century gradually dwindles, and in its stead quite modern progressive views—religious, political, and social—surge up in an ever-increasing wave. The authors were the @@ -2717,7 +2676,7 @@ and tumult, the one artist of the age of the race of Prometheus, to which belonged the young Goethe and the young Schiller, -should be born in the most medival +should be born in the most mediæval country in Europe, on Spanish soil. Against an art that was more catholic than @@ -2756,7 +2715,7 @@ piety, becomes in Goya revolutionary, free, modern.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE MAJA CLOTHED.</td></tr></table> <p>Goya is, in his whole nature, a modern man, a restless, feverish soul; -nervous as a <i>dcadent</i>; temperament to his finger-tips. His style in portraiture, +nervous as a <i>décadent</i>; temperament to his finger-tips. His style in portraiture, his art of composition, his whole method,—all speak to our artists to-day in a language easily understood, and on many of them the influence of Goya is unmistakable. He is one of the most fascinating figures of the beginning of @@ -2863,7 +2822,7 @@ drollest Director of an Academy that man can imagine! Goya, the peasant youth, with his bull neck and matador-like strength, lived at the Spanish <span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span> Court in the midst of the enervated scions of a dissolute aristocracy, who, with -their sickly and anmic features, indolent and impotent, skulked through life, +their sickly and anæmic features, indolent and impotent, skulked through life, young men prematurely old. Naturally he was the idol of the women, hated by the courtiers on account of his caustic wit, a terror to all husbands because of his perpetual intrigues, and at the same time feared as the best @@ -2890,7 +2849,7 @@ therefore, in the Museo del Prado, is simply tedious, a bad academical study. His frescoes in San Antonio de la Florida, at Madrid, exhibit a pretty, decorative motive—considerable movement, grace, and spirit. But amongst them are angels who sit there most irreverently, and, with a -laugh of challenge, throw out their legs <i> la</i> Tiepolo. The chief picture +laugh of challenge, throw out their legs <i>à la</i> Tiepolo. The chief picture represents St. Antony of Padua raising a man from the dead. But all that interested him in it were the lookers-on. On a balustrade @@ -2994,7 +2953,7 @@ pictures. It is an attentive observer, who depicts with sensitive devotion the harmonious lines of the irradiating, young, human body so worthy of celebration. The transparent stuff that covers the body of “La Maja clothed” reveals all that it hides; in the other picture the unveiled nudity sings the -high pan of the flesh. The drawing is sure, the modelling of a marvellous +high pæan of the flesh. The drawing is sure, the modelling of a marvellous tenderness. The heaving bosom, the slender limbs, the tantalising eyes—every @@ -3024,7 +2983,7 @@ to-day. Very characteristic also of the changed aspect <span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span> of the age are his designs for the famous tapestry in Santa Barbara, with -which he made his dbut at Madrid. They are very crude in decoration. +which he made his début at Madrid. They are very crude in decoration. Two or three neat young girls, with big, black, moist eyes, here and there pleasing details—a couple of men carrying a wounded @@ -3037,7 +2996,7 @@ bold a step as to make use of character scenes in decorative painting at a time when everywhere else, without exception, -<i>ftes champtres</i> predominated.</p> +<i>fêtes champêtres</i> predominated.</p> <p>In his oil paintings he went much further in this direction. @@ -3136,7 +3095,7 @@ ingeniously left blank—that sufficed to give life and character to his figures.</p> -<p>The “Misres de la Guerre” +<p>The “Misères de la Guerre” are intrinsically more serious. All the scenes of terror that occurred in Spain as a sequel to @@ -3196,7 +3155,7 @@ century, had had its birthplace in the Italy of Leo <span class="sc">X</span>. T the Italian Renaissance had suffused France ever since the appearance of Rosso and Primaticcio. Rome had been the cradle of Simon Vouet and Nicolas Poussin. France endeavoured, in rich decoration and masterly -swing of lines, to overtop the Italians, whose formul were studied partly in +swing of lines, to overtop the Italians, whose formulæ were studied partly in Rome and partly in the Palace of Fontainebleau, that Rome <i>in petto</i>. Those religious pictures @@ -3263,7 +3222,7 @@ to show the upper classes their own image reflected in the mirror of art.</p> channel—of the Netherlands—was by birth and training a Fleming. His birthplace, Valenciennes, although French territory since the Peace of Nymeguen, resembled in its whole character a Flemish town. In the church -here he first saw any of Rubens’ pictures. Here, through Grin, he +here he first saw any of Rubens’ pictures. Here, through Gérin, he became instructed in Flemish traditions. Rubens and Teniers are the two masters from whom his own art sprang. During the years when the war of the Spanish Succession had changed the French frontier provinces into a @@ -3276,7 +3235,7 @@ at a table in front of a farmyard, while on the other side half-drunken men and women are going home. Louis <span class="sc">XIV</span> had made before the pictures of Teniers his well-known <i>mot</i>: “<i>Otez moi ces magots</i>.” Now, through Watteau, the <i>magot</i> makes its entrance into French art. Thus in his chief picture in -this manner, “La Vraie Gaiet,” the figures are unmistakably after Teniers. +this manner, “La Vraie Gaieté,” the figures are unmistakably after Teniers. The men are short and sturdy, entirely Flemish. Only the costumes have changed with the mode. But the women are not in the least Flemish. The clean caps and tidy kerchiefs, the freshly ironed aprons, and neat little feet @@ -3296,7 +3255,7 @@ of Love,” of the Dresden and Madrid Galleries, to invite to the embarkatio for the Island of Cythera. Watteau acquired something from everyone he studied, and yet resembles none. After having hitherto sought his personages on the highways and in camps, he was now to become the painter -of <i>ftes galantes</i>, the painter of “Society.” For in his shepherds and shepherdesses +of <i>fêtes galantes</i>, the painter of “Society.” For in his shepherds and shepherdesses there lives the elegance of France. The gods of the Renaissance, in whom no one any longer believed, glided into the costumes of Harlequin and Pierrette. In lieu of the great and the pathetic there came the small, @@ -3311,9 +3270,9 @@ mannerism into which the French art of the seventeenth century, based on the Italian Renaissance, had dwindled. As it is said in an old poem—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Pare la Franoise, un jour Dame Nature</p> +<p>“Parée à la Françoise, un jour Dame Nature</p> <p class="i05">Eut le desir coquet de voir sa portraiture.</p> -<p class="i05">Que fit la bonne mre? Elle enfanta Watteau.”</p> +<p class="i05">Que fit la bonne mère? Elle enfanta Watteau.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>Watteau became for French art what, a hundred years before, Rubens @@ -3384,7 +3343,7 @@ pleasing movements, and refined elegance.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:686px; height:502px" src="images/img079.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">WATTEAU.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">LA PARTIE CARRE.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">LA PARTIE CARRÉE.</td></tr></table> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:192px; height:231px" src="images/img080.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -3392,9 +3351,9 @@ pleasing movements, and refined elegance.</p> <p>Even the decorative painters abandoned more and more the much-worn paths of the Italians. -<i>Franois Lemoine</i> gave them, by Rubens’ aid, the +<i>François Lemoine</i> gave them, by Rubens’ aid, the transition to a manner peculiarly French, elegant, -sensuous, charming. His pupil, <i>Franois Boucher</i>, +sensuous, charming. His pupil, <i>François Boucher</i>, followed him. Like the sons of the seventeenth century, he made exhaustive use of mythological subjects and was often a superficial artist, and in his later @@ -3442,7 +3401,7 @@ understood, with a refined and unique understanding, how to turn life into a feast. Silk trains rustle over the parquet, silk shoes trip, eyes gleam, diamonds flash, white bosoms heave. Tall cavaliers advance to their sprightly partners, gossip and smiles fly around, Knights of Malta and -abbs hang over the chairs and pay their court. Yes, this autumn of the old +abbés hang over the chairs and pay their court. Yes, this autumn of the old French culture was of a marvellous beauty for the fortunate, and those fortunate ones knew, as no other generation has ever done, how to enjoy life with serenity, in a fairy glamour of rooms gleaming with Venetian chandeliers, where @@ -3468,7 +3427,7 @@ spirit of the age, and art too must become virtuous, and work for the amelioration of the world. Thus Diderot upheld the sentimental and -emotional subject against the <i>ftes +emotional subject against the <i>fêtes galantes</i> of the <i>rococo</i> painter. Boucher derived his inspiration from the slough of prostitution; only a moral upheaval @@ -3496,12 +3455,12 @@ his cheese or his oranges in a church porch, lies nearer to the original perfection of mankind than the most subtle erudition of the -most ingenious of the encyclopdists. +most ingenious of the encyclopædists. Amongst nature’s noblemen one must seek for the secret of virtue, which has been lost by the aristocracy in the stream of civilisation. -Thus beneath the gis of Rousseau’s +Thus beneath the ægis of Rousseau’s philosophy the Third Estate makes its entry into French salons. From the man of the people society @@ -3527,11 +3486,11 @@ that noble society had imagined him.</p> penitence had ensued. It was considered that the aim of art must be to instruct and elevate, not merely to amuse; it should set an example to raise and inspire the good, to serve as a warning for the bad. “<i>Rendre la vertu aimable, le vice -odieux, le ridicule saillant, voil le projet de tout honnte homme qui prend la plume, +odieux, le ridicule saillant, voilà le projet de tout honnête homme qui prend la plume, le pinceau ou le ciseau.</i>” In these words Diderot formulated his programme. It was his wish that the corrupt man, when he went to an exhibition, should feel pricks of conscience at the pictures and read in them his own condemnation. -“<i>Si ses pas le conduisent au Salon, qu’il craigne d’arrter ses regards sur la +“<i>Si ses pas le conduisent au Salon, qu’il craigne d’arrêter ses regards sur la toile.</i>” Educational effects, “moral stories told in pictures,” that is the keynote of Diderot’s demands upon the painter, and of the accomplishment of Greuze in answer to this claim. He is the French Hogarth, whether he paints @@ -3607,7 +3566,7 @@ as any other the can-can of life, becomes, in its second half, sad of soul, enthusiastic over the reward of justice, the punishment of transgressors, -over honour and the navet of innocence. +over honour and the naïveté of innocence. Time after time do his contemporaries praise precisely that sense of virtue in the art of Greuze. @@ -3661,7 +3620,7 @@ will always be associated with these girl types, just as that of Leonardo is with the dreamy, smiling sphinx-like head of Mona Lisa. In them he has given an unsurpassable expression to the ideal of innocence at the end of the eighteenth century, and provided in them a new thrill of beauty for his contemporaries. -And a <i>blas</i> society which had indulged in every licence bathed +And a <i>blasé</i> society which had indulged in every licence bathed itself with passionate delight in the unknown mystery of this surging flood. Yes, after the stimulating champagne of <i>rococo</i>, people had even come to delight in simple black bread. And so, out of <i>bourgeoisie</i> itself, a school of @@ -3726,8 +3685,8 @@ so harmoniously with the time-worn, sombre brown of the wainscoting, and the white table-cloth was flooded with the silvery green which poured in from a little skylight. In this peaceful and harmoniously toned chamber were laid those small domestic scenes, which he so loved to paint, and which -were called by the French, in contrast to the <i>Ftes Galantes</i>, “<i>Amusements -de la Vie Prive</i>.” The clock ticks, the lamp burns, water is boiling on the +were called by the French, in contrast to the <i>Fétes Galantes</i>, “<i>Amusements +de la Vie Privée</i>.” The clock ticks, the lamp burns, water is boiling on the homely tiled stove. There is an effect in every one of his pictures, as though he had lived them himself, as if they were reminiscences of something dear to him and familiar. In contrast to Greuze he shunned all @@ -3735,7 +3694,7 @@ critical moments, and depicted only the quiet life of custom, everyday life as it befell in a constant, regular routine. There are no hasty movements with him, no catastrophes nor complications; he has a preference for “still life” in the world of men, just as in nature. He is <i>par excellence</i> -the painter of <i>Intimitt</i> (intimate life); which is not the same as <i>a genre</i> +the painter of <i>Intimität</i> (intimate life); which is not the same as <i>a genre</i> painter. Painters who in the manner of <i>genre</i> have depicted domestic scenes in rooms are to be found in every school; but how few have known how to depict the poetry of the family life with such truth, with such @@ -3832,7 +3791,7 @@ root of family life and bestowed upon it the subtlest gifts of observation and generous comprehension, while none the less his domesticity never became commonplace.</p> -<p>His contemporary, <i>tienne Jeurat</i>, painted scenes at country fairs, and +<p>His contemporary, <i>Étienne Jeurat</i>, painted scenes at country fairs, and <i>Jean Baptiste le Prince</i> pictures of guardrooms and similar subjects. In Holland <i>Cornelis Troost</i> went on parallel lines with him. He depicted the life of his age and of his nation—comic scenes, banquets, weddings, @@ -3875,7 +3834,7 @@ copies of Versailles.</p> cries the young Goethe, in his essay on German style and art, “I could not sufficiently protest; they have caught the eyes of the women with theatrical poses, false complexions, and gaudy costumes; the wood engravings of manly -old Albrecht Drer, at whom tyros scoff, are more welcome to me.... Only +old Albrecht Dürer, at whom tyros scoff, are more welcome to me.... Only where intimacy and simplicity exist is all artistic vigour to be found, and woe to the artist who leaves his hut to squander himself in academic halls of state.”</p> @@ -3916,9 +3875,9 @@ too reasonable and prosaic, a genuine Nicolai, he has in other plates an enchanting freshness, and—which should not be forgotten—is more of an artist than Hogarth, since he is neither moralist nor satirist. His object, without any moral after-thought, was the true and kindly observation of life -as displayed in the world around him. He took the wholly nave delight of +as displayed in the world around him. He took the wholly naïve delight of the genuine artist in turning everything he saw into a picture. These -chronicles of his have some, it may be but a particle, of the spirit of Drer. +chronicles of his have some, it may be but a particle, of the spirit of Dürer. Simultaneously, the young <i>Tischbein</i> delved into the past of the nation, the age of Conradin and the Hohenstaufen, with the intention of finding there the simplicity which the academic pictures had come to lack; and, later on, @@ -3973,7 +3932,7 @@ of everyday life.</p> <p>In Berlin, ever since 1709, <i>Antoine Pesne</i> had been for half a century the centre of artistic life, and in his works the revolution may be traced. Something familiar and intimate takes the place of that stately pomp. The princes, -hitherto, had liked to be represented in medival armour or antique equipment; +hitherto, had liked to be represented in mediæval armour or antique equipment; Pesne painted them in the costume of the time. And in his portraits of his friends and his family circle he has been still more unconstrained. There is the charming picture of 1718, in the New Palace at Potsdam, which shows @@ -3991,8 +3950,8 @@ the Swiss, took the lead with his simple, domestic, honest, real portraits. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span> It was a happy disposition of fate that Graff’s activity just corresponded with the great period of the awakening of intellectual life in Germany, that Lessing -and Schiller, Bodmer and Gessner, Wieland and Herder, Brger and Gellert, -Christian Gottfried Krner and Lippert, Moses Mendelssohn and Sulzer, and a +and Schiller, Bodmer and Gessner, Wieland and Herder, Bürger and Gellert, +Christian Gottfried Körner and Lippert, Moses Mendelssohn and Sulzer, and a long succession of other poets and scholars of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century, found in him a portrait painter whose quick and agile hand left us their features in the truest and most authentic manner. @@ -4003,7 +3962,7 @@ heads, how adroit and infallible the technique!</p> a most independent, picturesque, and sensitive artist, who, if only for his pictures of children, deserves a place of honour in the history of art in the eighteenth century. In the portrait of his two boys, in the Dresden Gallery, -the navet of child-life is observed with such tenderness and rendered with +the naïveté of child-life is observed with such tenderness and rendered with such vigour as only Reynolds understood. The boys are sitting close together on the ground. One, in a brown frock, is holding a book on his knees, which the other, in a red frock, with a whip in his hand, is looking at. The thoughtful @@ -4034,7 +3993,7 @@ birth to Thomson’s <i>Seasons</i> and Gainsborough’s landscapes, aft expression in France and Germany, and dissipated the prevailing taste in gardens. The seventeenth century—with the exception of the Dutch—had set nature in order with the garden shears. As Lebrun in his historical -compositions endeavoured to outdo the Italians, so Lentre’s garden style +compositions endeavoured to outdo the Italians, so Lenôtre’s garden style exemplified the perfection and exaggeration of the gardens of the Italian Renaissance, which themselves again were laid out on the plan of the old Roman gardens from existing descriptions. A garden reminded one more @@ -4067,14 +4026,14 @@ be <i>nature choisie</i>, a selection of objects that “are capable of producing agreeable impressions”; his aim “<i>le -beau vrai qui est reprsent -comme s’il existait rellement +beau vrai qui est représenté +comme s’il existait réellement et avec toutes les perfections qu’il peut recevoir</i>.” The <span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span> eighteenth century went back from this “noble,” improved nature, step by step to the divine beauty of unimproved nature; just as those -masters untouched by the Romans, Drer and Altdorfer, Titian and +masters untouched by the Romans, Dürer and Altdorfer, Titian and Rubens, Brouwer and Velasquez, had painted her. The great Watteau, too, was here for the most part in advance of his age, in that, instead of the stiffly designed stage scenery of Poussin, he gave Elysian landscapes,—abodes @@ -4132,14 +4091,14 @@ mother, nature.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:855px; height:696px" src="images/img101.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">WATTEAU.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">FTE CHAMPTRE.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">FÊTE CHAMPÈTRE.</td></tr></table> <p>Goethe, the pupil of Rousseau, presages, in his whole conception of nature, something of the manifestation of the school of Fontainebleau. He had something of Daubigny when, as Werther, he lies on the bank of the stream <span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span> and looks down thoughtfully at the worms and small insects. He makes -one think of Dupr or Corot when he says: “As nature declines upon autumn, +one think of Dupré or Corot when he says: “As nature declines upon autumn, within me and around me it grows autumn”; or, “I could not now draw so much as a stroke, and I have never been a greater painter than at the present moment”; or, “Never have I been happier, nor has my perception @@ -4165,7 +4124,7 @@ bits of nature. People took no more trouble, in Rousseau’s phrase, “to dishonour nature by seeking to beautify her,” but laid out gardens in harmony with Goethe’s remark in <i>Werther</i>: “A feeling heart, not a scientific art of gardening, suggested the plan.” Close to Versailles, near the box-tree -patterns of Lentre, lay the Petit Trianon, with its pond, its brook, and its +patterns of Lenôtre, lay the Petit Trianon, with its pond, its brook, and its dairy, where the unfortunate Marie Antoinette used to dream. And if painting still loitered on its preliminary return to nature, that only implied that the great artists—they only came in 1830!—were not yet born. Great @@ -4223,14 +4182,14 @@ drawing is sober, the atmosphere of his pictures clear and fresh; he cannot be tedious in his composition. In Dresden there lived Johann Alexander -Thiele, who roamed through Thringen +Thiele, who roamed through Thüringen and Mecklenburg as a landscape painter. Even in Italy landscapes <span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span> were the most independent performances which the eighteenth century had brought forth there. There worked in Rome the Netherlander, Vanvitelli, who depicted in graceful water-colours Roman and Neapolitan -street life; and Giovanni Paolo Pannini, the <i>peintre des ftes publiques</i>, +street life; and Giovanni Paolo Pannini, the <i>peintre des fêtes publiques</i>, in whose pictures groups of richly coloured figures moved through splendid palaces. Venice was the home of the Canaletti. In <i>Antonio Canale’s</i> town pictures of Venice, Rome, and London there is at once so subtle @@ -4279,7 +4238,7 @@ Sanchez</i> his small views of towns and harbours.</p> <p>And, as in England, hand in hand with that came paintings of animals.</p> -<p>In France, <i>Franois Canova</i> was working, the painter of huge battle scenes +<p>In France, <i>François Canova</i> was working, the painter of huge battle scenes and small pictures of animals; <i>Jean Louis de Marne</i>, who was famous for his cattle, market scenes, village pictures, and the like; and the great <i>Jean Baptiste Oudry</i>, who painted with breadth and freedom animals alive and dead, @@ -4297,7 +4256,7 @@ century the Dutch alone had maintained their isolation. They who entered fresh into art, and had to break with no tradition, gave at that time the first expression to the new spirit, in that they resolutely recalled art from its courtly surroundings to the humbler dwellings of the middle classes. -They <i>painted</i> what Drer and the “little masters” had only graved upon wood +They <i>painted</i> what Dürer and the “little masters” had only graved upon wood <span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span> blocks and copper plates. Still, they wished to paint these things less for their own sakes than because so intimate a light was shed upon them. Through @@ -4368,11 +4327,11 @@ would anyone dare to mention Mengs and Carstens in the same breath with these giants?</p> <p>The close of the eighteenth century was a period of antiquarian revival. -The ruins of Pstum had been brought to light, Greek vases and Roman +The ruins of Pæstum had been brought to light, Greek vases and Roman monuments had become known to the public by the works of Hamilton and Piranesi. In 1762 Stuart and Revett published their splendid work on the <i>Antiquities of Athens</i>. To a German, however, was to fall the honour of -becoming the hero of the archological period. The <i>History of Ancient Art</i>, +becoming the hero of the archæological period. The <i>History of Ancient Art</i>, by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, appeared in 1764, and this writer devoted his literary energies to the hymning of the glories of the re-discovered treasures of antiquity. In the realm of pictorial art he may also be looked upon as the @@ -4389,7 +4348,7 @@ he must lend to nature in order to give dignity and propriety to his imitation,& writes Solomon Gessner in 1759. In 1762 Hagedorn of Dresden deplored, in his <i>Treatise on Painting</i>, that “Terburg and Metsu never showed us fair Andromache amongst her industrious women, instead of Dutch sempstresses.” In -1766 Lessing wrote his <i>Laocon</i>, and, like Winckelmann, saw in the sculpture +1766 Lessing wrote his <i>Laocoön</i>, and, like Winckelmann, saw in the sculpture of the Greeks the ideal to be imitated. From this point forward he despised landscape and <i>genre</i> painting, and especially everything which illustrates intimate emotions and actions, and would confine the composition of pictures to @@ -4436,7 +4395,7 @@ the outward semblance of the antique. He preferred a cold ideal manner to what was natural, and held Greek art the absolutely valid model. From it should be derived a fixed canon, a table of accepted laws, to be the standard for the artist of our own days, and of every age. The <i>Prize Essays</i>, -which he published with Heinrich Meyer in the <i>Propylen</i>, and later in the +which he published with Heinrich Meyer in the <i>Propyläen</i>, and later in the <i>Jena Literary Journal</i>, required the treatment of subjects exclusively from the Hellenic legendary cycles, “whereby the artist should become accustomed to come out from his own age and surroundings”; the composition of pictures @@ -4464,19 +4423,19 @@ be surpassed.” In a letter to Goethe, in the year 1800, Schiller wrote: “The antique was a manifestation of its age which can never return, and to force the individual production of an individual age after the pattern of one quite heterogeneous, is to kill that art which can only have a dynamic origin -and effect.” Madame de Stal, in her book on <i>Germany</i>, says: “If nowadays +and effect.” Madame de Staël, in her book on <i>Germany</i>, says: “If nowadays the fine arts should be confined to the simplicity of the ancients, we should not then be able to attain to the original strength which distinguished them, while we should lose that intimate, composite feeling for life which is especially found in us. Simplicity in art would easily turn with the moderns into coldness and affectation, whereas with the ancients it was full of life.” In 1797 -Counsellor Hirth published in Schiller’s <i>Hor</i> his well-known treatise on +Counsellor Hirth published in Schiller’s <i>Horæ</i> his well-known treatise on <i>Beauty in Art</i>, which, in opposition to the inanimate type of beauty of Winckelmann, upheld the characteristic as the first principle in art. Most remarkable, however, is the breadth of historical outlook which was peculiar to Herder, and the stern actuality with which in his <i>Plastik</i>, and in the <i>Vierten</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span> -<i>Kritischen Wldchen</i>, he turned against “those pitiful critics, those wretched +<i>Kritischen Wäldchen</i>, he turned against “those pitiful critics, those wretched and narrow rules of art, that bitter-sweet prattle of universal beauty, through which the younger generation is being ruined, which is nauseating to the master, and which, nevertheless, the rabble of connoisseurs takes in its mouth @@ -4513,14 +4472,14 @@ the whole order of nature and history.”</p> <p>These sentences, however, stood in isolation, or else they came too late. Immediately after it had been heralded by the literary movement, after the -archologists had verbally announced its aim, formulated its principles and +archæologists had verbally announced its aim, formulated its principles and laws, German art turned into the new paths. “It happened for the first time in the history of art,” wrote Goethe, “that important talents took pleasure in disciplining themselves by the past, and so founding a new epoch in art.”</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Des Deutschen Knstler’s Vaterland,</p> +<p>“Des Deutschen Künstler’s Vaterland,</p> <p class="i05">Ist Griechenland, ist Griechenland”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -4652,7 +4611,7 @@ Greek Prussian nor, later, Meister Ephraim was clear as to the difference between sculpture and painting, they practically recommended the painter to work after plastic models.</p> -<p>The fact that Lessing, in discussing the limits of painting in his <i>Laocon</i>, +<p>The fact that Lessing, in discussing the limits of painting in his <i>Laocoön</i>, took a work of sculpture as his starting-point, proves that to him the laws and conditions of both arts were valued as the same. They denounced the confusion of the art of painting with poetry, and instead advocated the confounding @@ -4668,15 +4627,15 @@ pictorial apprehension; a vain and exclusively reproductive ideality deprived his figures of the last remnant of truth to nature which he had formerly understood how to give them. It is difficult to believe that Winckelmann’s paroxysm of friendship should have burst out, upon the completion of the “Parnassus,” -into this pan: “During the whole of the new age a more beautiful work +into this pæan: “During the whole of the new age a more beautiful work has not appeared in painting; even Raphael would have bowed his head.” <span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span> -The whole is nothing more than a <i>mlange</i> of plagiarism and <i>banal</i> reminiscences, +The whole is nothing more than a <i>mélange</i> of plagiarism and <i>banal</i> reminiscences, without soul or perception, without freshness or individuality; a mere plastic warehouse, and not even a painted antique group, but a daubed compilation of solitary statues, colder and more lifeless than any Baltoni ever painted. There was an audacious, strong aim, genial strength and an -overwhelming flow of fantasy in the contemporary works of the great <i>dcorateur</i> +overwhelming flow of fantasy in the contemporary works of the great <i>décorateur</i> Tiepolo; here there is a mere work of intellect which with philological aid builds up the composition entirely of borrowed materials. The only thing which even still points in this work to the good old times is a more @@ -4788,7 +4747,7 @@ the <i>rococo</i>, so the younger generation broke with its technique, whilst th left the academy in open dissatisfaction, and threw off in contempt the whole paraphernalia of technical traditions.</p> -<p><i>Carstens</i> plays the momentous rle in German art as the first who trod this +<p><i>Carstens</i> plays the momentous rôle in German art as the first who trod this path. He has more individuality than Mengs; <i>antiquarianising</i> with him is not exclusively an external derivation and a cold imitation: he lives in the antique; the world of the Greek poets is his spiritual home, and their profound @@ -4804,7 +4763,7 @@ was already sown in the youth’s soul. He heard talk of the dwarf intellige of the age; how the studios of inferior artists were full of gaping visitors, whilst the halls of the Vatican stood deserted. “Learn the taste for beauty in the antique,” the cooper’s apprentice learns from Webb’s works. “Let -us meditate upon the style of the painter’s art in the ‘Laocon,’ with regard +us meditate upon the style of the painter’s art in the ‘Laocoön,’ with regard to the fighter. Notice the sublimity in the divine character of Apollo. Let us stand hushed before the exquisite beauty of the Venus di Medici. These are the extreme incentives of the art of drawing.... The Belvedere Apollo @@ -4817,7 +4776,7 @@ on a flowery plot, the shadow of the orange trees covers me;—there, unmole I gaze at a group full of the highest feminine beauty. Niobe, my beloved, beautiful mother of beautiful children, thou fairest among women, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span> -how I love thee!” So dreamed Asmus Jacob in the wine-cellar at Eckernfrde, +how I love thee!” So dreamed Asmus Jacob in the wine-cellar at Eckernförde, or in his solitary chamber by the dim light of his lamp, as he had been seized with giddiness before all the great and marvellous revelations of art which this book had afforded him. In his enraptured fantasy he painted @@ -4861,7 +4820,7 @@ At a period whose creative power found its highest expression in philosophy and poetry, the painter strove for the reputation only of being the <i>poet</i> of his pictures. And Carstens encountered the old tragedians and philosophic writers with a fine, poetic understanding. “The Greek Heroes with Cheiron,” -“Helen at the Skan Gate,” “Ajax,” “Phœnix and Odysseus in the Tent of +“Helen at the Skæan Gate,” “Ajax,” “Phœnix and Odysseus in the Tent of Achilles,” “Priam and Achilles,” “The Fates,” “Night with her Children,” “Sleep and Death,” “The passage of Megapenthes,” “Homer before the People,” “The Golden Age”—all these prints have really something of the @@ -4875,17 +4834,17 @@ noble simplicity and quiet harmony of Greek art.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">CHILDREN OF THE NIGHT.</td></tr></table> <p>It can be understood, then, that such subjects should be in the highest -degree interesting to an archologist. When Carstens, in April 1795, was +degree interesting to an archæologist. When Carstens, in April 1795, was organising the famous exhibition of his collected works in Rome, Fernow published in Wieland’s <i>Deutscher Merkur</i> a discourse in which he celebrated him as the creator of a new epoch. From the very first, however, an equally -resolute opposition was excited in artistic circles. The painter Mller, nicknamed +resolute opposition was excited in artistic circles. The painter Müller, nicknamed “The Devil’s Miller,” who at that time wandered about Rome as a cicerone, proves that Winckelmann’s principles, even at the threshold of the century, by no means met with universal acceptance. The <i>Writing of Herr -Mller, Painter in Rome, upon the Exhibition of Herr Professor Carstens</i>, with +Müller, Painter in Rome, upon the Exhibition of Herr Professor Carstens</i>, with the motto <i>Amicus Plato, Amicus Socrates, magis amica veritas</i>, was published -in 1797 in Schiller’s <i>Hor</i>. Carstens imitated; he worked rather by reminiscence +in 1797 in Schiller’s <i>Horæ</i>. Carstens imitated; he worked rather by reminiscence and understanding than by fantasy. Isolated figures do not bring their individuality to an expression. Then he pointed out the models, discussed the lack of colour, and proved numerous sins of the draughtsman @@ -4900,7 +4859,7 @@ exactly, since it is only from nature that the ideal springs, and consequently nothing can be great and beautiful in the representation which is not right and true. In almost similar words, later on, Koch, in his <i>Thoughts on Painting</i>, and with him the majority of artists, has censured Carstens. And posterity -cannot but allow them to be in the right as against the archologists.</p> +cannot but allow them to be in the right as against the archæologists.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:599px; height:453px" src="images/img123.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -4941,7 +4900,7 @@ encouragement such as were granted to no old master, and if, in spite of that, he never rose above the cares of life, that is only a proof of the limitations and partiality of his art. He had lost all decorative facility; still more was the inheritance of oil painting first naturally mislaid by him, and by draughtsmanship -alone not even Drer nor Rembrandt could have lived.</p> +alone not even Dürer nor Rembrandt could have lived.</p> <p>This deficiency in technique must even debar him from claiming any higher signification than that of a clever dilettante. He is not an artist who @@ -5037,26 +4996,26 @@ technically healthy again, an impulse replete with life from abroad.</p> <p class="center chap2">THE CLASSICAL REACTION IN FRANCE</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">In</span> France also modern art began with a stream of antiquarianism -which flowed from the same archological source. De Brosses +which flowed from the same archæological source. De Brosses published a history of the Roman Republic, and wrote on Herculaneum. Leroy produced his <i>Ruines des plus anciens monuments de la -Grce</i> in 1758. Shortly afterwards the <i>Recueils d’Antiquit</i> of Caylus and +Grèce</i> in 1758. Shortly afterwards the <i>Recueils d’Antiquité</i> of Caylus and Hamilton were published. The former undertook his great journeys, and -presented the Academy of Inscriptions with a succession of archological +presented the Academy of Inscriptions with a succession of archæological treatises. He is perhaps the first since Batteux and Coypel who again makes of the modern painter a positive demand for a quiet beauty of lines -after the “<i>manire simple et noble du bel antique</i>.” The architects begin to +after the “<i>manière simple et noble du bel antique</i>.” The architects begin to take counsel of Vitruvius, and to work after some model borrowed from the -antique. Soufflot rebuilt the Pantheon, and produced the Temple of Pstum.</p> +antique. Soufflot rebuilt the Pantheon, and produced the Temple of Pæstum.</p> <p>Even in 1763 Grimm could write: “For some years past we have been making keen inquiry for antique ornaments and forms. The predilection for -them has become so universal that now everything is to be done <i> la Grecque</i>. +them has become so universal that now everything is to be done <i>à la Grecque</i>. The interior and exterior decorations of houses, furniture, dress material, and goldsmiths’ work all bear alike the stamp of the Greeks. The fashion passes -from architecture to millinery: our ladies have their hair dressed <i> la Grecque</i>, +from architecture to millinery: our ladies have their hair dressed <i>à la Grecque</i>, our fine gentlemen would think themselves dishonoured if they did not hold -in their hands <i>une bote la Grecque</i>.” Even Diderot’s preference for the +in their hands <i>une boîte à la Grecque</i>.” Even Diderot’s preference for the ethical and emotional, as Greuze had painted it—and as Diderot himself had dramatised it—veered round at the commencement of the sixties into an enthusiasm for the antique. After 1761 he carried on in the salons a war @@ -5068,14 +5027,14 @@ be employed in relief, or even as statues. The new taste demanded pure and simple lines, the beauty of sculpture; it went back to the antique. When a French translation of Winckelmann appeared in 1765 he spoke out, on the occasion of a review of the book, clearly and plainly: “<i>Il me semble qu’il -faudrait tudier l’antique pour apprendre voir la nature</i>.” In the same vein -Watelet pronounced on Boucher: “<i>Jamais artiste n’a plus ouvertement tmoign -son mpris pour la vraie beaut telle qu’elle a t sentie et exprime par les statuaires</i> +faudrait étudier l’antique pour apprendre à voir la nature</i>.” In the same vein +Watelet pronounced on Boucher: “<i>Jamais artiste n’a plus ouvertement témoigné +son mépris pour la vraie beauté telle qu’elle a été sentie et exprimée par les statuaires</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span> -<i>de l’ancienne Grce</i>.” Thus the change in the artistic outlook was heralded +<i>de l’ancienne Grèce</i>.” Thus the change in the artistic outlook was heralded long before the curtain went up upon the events of 1789.</p> -<p><i>Madame Vige-Lebrun</i>, the French Angelica Kauffmann, possessed of a +<p><i>Madame Vigée-Lebrun</i>, the French Angelica Kauffmann, possessed of a tender, soft, sympathetic talent, is perhaps the truest representative of this gracious, entirely French transition style, over which like a breath, but only like a breath, hovers the antique. She has in her portraits, in an especially refined @@ -5085,7 +5044,7 @@ of attitude in their simple white robe, the scarf thrown modestly over the shoulders, they had effected a return to antique simplicity. Boucher, moved to the depths of his consciousness by Diderot, resolved to paint a picture taken from ancient history. Greuze painted “Severus and Caracalla,” Fragonard -“Chœreas and Callirhe.” Hubert Robert grew more and more archological, +“Chœreas and Callirhöe.” Hubert Robert grew more and more archæological, and played in his landscapes with ancient remains and classical ruins. Vien became enthusiastic over antique gems, and thought he must draw the conclusion, from the noble calm of these figures, that the amiable coquetry and capricious @@ -5103,7 +5062,7 @@ earthquake which was announced in thunder from Paris. Soon they beheld the earth crack and burst asunder, as that time came when the air was filled with the smoke of powder, when the first notes of the Marseillaise rang out, and in the Place de la Concorde, where to-day the loveliest fountains -in the world are playing, blood ran from a dozen guillotines. That “<i>aprs +in the world are playing, blood ran from a dozen guillotines. That “<i>après nous le deluge</i>” of the Marquise de Pompadour had become a dire, prophetic truth, and in that flood of blood and horrors the artistic ideal of the eighteenth century was also washed away. The Revolution gave the death-blow to @@ -5130,7 +5089,7 @@ of proving their thesis, and their ideas aroused deep echoes in men’s hear <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:743px; height:956px" src="images/img131.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">ELISABETH VIGE-LEBRUN.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">ELISABETH VIGÉE-LEBRUN.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">PORTRAIT OF THE PAINTER WITH HER DAUGHTER.</td></tr></table> <p>The sentiment of Rome had entered into the people as a thing of flesh and @@ -5145,21 +5104,21 @@ Voltaire and Rousseau.” It was evident then that France, so soon as she ha freed herself from her kings, so soon as she had spoken the word “Republic,” must take the <i>Roman</i> Republic as her pattern. People lived in an atmosphere of antiquity; the great citizens of Rome and Athens were ranged with the -French National Convention; Scvola, Scipio, Cato, Cincinnatus, were +French National Convention; Scævola, Scipio, Cato, Cincinnatus, were the idols of the populace. The speakers in the council cited the ancients in -preference; Madame Vige-Lebrun gave <i>soupers la Grecque</i>. “Everything +preference; Madame Vigée-Lebrun gave <i>soupers à la Grecque</i>. “Everything was ordered according to the <i>Voyage d’Anacharsis</i>—garments, viands, amusements, and the table, all were Athenian. Madame Lebrun herself was Aspasia; -M. l’Abb Barthlmy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath on his head, -recited a poem; M. de Cabiers played the golden lyre as Memnon, and young +M. l’Abbé Barthélémy, in a Greek dress with a laurel wreath on his head, +recited a poem; M. de Cabierès played the golden lyre as Memnon, and young boys waited at table as slaves. The table itself was set entirely with Greek utensils, and all the viands were actually those of ancient Greece.” Children were given Greek and Roman names. People called themselves “Romans.” “<i>Mais, je l’aimais, Romains!</i>” cried Coulon at the death of Mirabeau. Paris is Rome. In the theatre the bust of Brutus is set opposite that of Voltaire, and the -actor says: “<i>O buste rver de Brutus, d’un grand homme, transport dans Paris -tu n’as point quitt Rome</i>.” And as with the bust of Brutus in the theatre, that -of Mucius Scvola appears in the cafs, which Parisian journalists, still full +actor says: “<i>O buste réveré de Brutus, d’un grand homme, transporté dans Paris +tu n’as point quitté Rome</i>.” And as with the bust of Brutus in the theatre, that +of Mucius Scævola appears in the cafés, which Parisian journalists, still full of remembrances of ancient history studied in the gymnasium, liken to the Lyceum and the Porch. In every case ancient Rome is set up as the exemplar. The Parisian collection of engravings on copper possesses a reproduction @@ -5171,7 +5130,7 @@ past, with all its grandeur, its simplicity, and its ruthlessness. Political and social forms did not suffice; even the implements and costume of the ancients were again brought into honour. Furniture put on antiquarian shapes; the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span> -walls were decorated <i> la Grecque</i>. The lively frivolity of <i>rococo</i>, with its +walls were decorated <i>à la Grecque</i>. The lively frivolity of <i>rococo</i>, with its freaks and fancies, was no longer adapted to the boudoir of the age of revolution, now transformed into the political council-room. Twists and curves were no longer permitted: everything had to be straightforward, @@ -5212,7 +5171,7 @@ Fragonard, who was only fifty-nine in 1789, and lived till 1806, saw himself hooted in spite of his “Chœreas.” He, the true representative of frivolous tenderness, of fair and roseate hues, had lost every right to exist in the new world, and ended his life by a sad death when, after the Reign of Terror, there -was no longer a place for <i>ftes galantes</i>. A delightful portrait of himself, which +was no longer a place for <i>fêtes galantes</i>. A delightful portrait of himself, which he painted in the first period of the Revolution, shows us an old man, clothed entirely in black, softly melancholy, standing in a formal, dusky-brown salon. On the table on which his arm rests lies a guitar, at his feet a portfolio of @@ -5305,21 +5264,21 @@ Napoleon—this reaction of military simplicity against the effeminacy of <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:659px; height:440px" src="images/img135.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">DAVID.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MADAME RCAMIER.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MADAME RÉCAMIER.</td></tr></table> <p>David, at the outbreak of the Revolution, no longer a young man, but forty years old, was the terrible painter of the age, its despotic dictator. As a deputy in the Convention he not only ruled over painting, but also imposed his taste upon sculpture, ivory work, goldsmiths’ work, and decoration. He designed the new costumes for the deputies and ministers. As organiser of -public ftes, he brought to life again the whole of republican Rome. He was +public fêtes, he brought to life again the whole of republican Rome. He was one of those rare artists who are the men of their hour. To a new plebeian race, to whose feverishly excited patriotism the soft, luxurious, aristocratically reprehensible art of <i>rococo</i> must seem as a mockery of all the rights of men, he showed, for the first time, the man, the hero who died for an idea or for his country; and he gave this man huge and elastic muscles, like those of a gladiator who struggles in the arena. He was a second Hercules, cleansing the -Augan stables; with his own strong shoulders he thrust back the petulant +Augæan stables; with his own strong shoulders he thrust back the petulant band of painters who had tarried too long in the island of Cythera. He applied art to the heroism of the day, gave it the martial attitude of patriotism, inspired it with the spirit of Robespierre, St. Just, and Danton. The more @@ -5347,11 +5306,11 @@ at first to concern itself not only with imitation and philological retrospect, but with the free expression of the characteristically modern spirit. German art had no new pronouncement to make through the medium of the antique; it followed, on the other hand, the programme of an artistically barren -scholar who forgot that archology is not art, recommended imitation as the +scholar who forgot that archæology is not art, recommended imitation as the path to perfection, and perpetually reminded the artists who followed him how widely they deviated from the correct lines of the model. “Afterwards they rebuke it, and say it is not antique and consequently not good art,” as Albrecht -Drer had complained of such people. In the earnest sentiment, the exalted +Dürer had complained of such people. In the earnest sentiment, the exalted Roman spirit, the declaiming over rugged, masculine virtues, freedom and patriotism, that found expression in David’s first pictures, there lived something of the Catonian spirit of the Terror; and that still gives them historical @@ -5380,9 +5339,9 @@ of the “first Martyr of Liberty,” it was hung in the Convention cham Corday. David was presiding at the Jacobin Club when the news was brought him, and he embraced the citizen who had arrested the girl. Deputations of the people appeared in the Convention to express their grief for the heavy -loss. Suddenly a voice was heard to cry: “<i>O es tu, David? Tu as transmis - la posterit l’image de Lepelletier mourant pour la patrie, il te reste encore un -tableau faire.</i>” Silence succeeded in the Assembly. Then David started +loss. Suddenly a voice was heard to cry: “<i>Où es tu, David? Tu as transmis +à la posterité l’image de Lepelletier mourant pour la patrie, il te reste encore un +tableau à faire.</i>” Silence succeeded in the Assembly. Then David started up: “<i>Je le ferai.</i>” On 11th October he informed the Convention that his “Marat” was finished. “The people asked for their murdered man back again, longed to look once more on the features of their truest friend. They @@ -5398,7 +5357,7 @@ on the side of the bath, still holds a paper in a convulsive grip; the other hangs down limp and dead to the ground. Over this head, with the half-closed eyelids, and the mouth distorted from the death-throes, Caravaggio would have rejoiced, there is such keen naturalism in every stroke of the -brush. Like Gricault, in later times, David was then a regular visitor at the +brush. Like Géricault, in later times, David was then a regular visitor at the Morgue, attended at executions, and took an interest in the convulsive muscular movements of the guillotined. And the colour, too, like the drawing, is of a naturalistic strength to which he never again attained. The light falls @@ -5430,7 +5389,7 @@ them, too, he is neither rhetorical nor cold, but full of fire and the freshness youth. Face to face with his model, he forgot the Greeks and Romans, saw life alone, was rejuvenated in the youth-giving fount of nature, and painted—almost alone of the painters of his generation—the truth. Here -his effect, when otherwise he was lacking in all navet, is actually nave and +his effect, when otherwise he was lacking in all naïveté, is actually naïve and intimate. The best painters have never treated flesh better. He had an aversion to palette tones, and sought after nature with unexampled attention. The fine pearl-grey of his colouring is as delicate as it is distinguished; in his @@ -5440,22 +5399,22 @@ an ardent Revolutionist, he was, as it were, created to be the portrayer of those men of an austerity like Cato’s, and those women with their free, masculine, proud gaze; that valiant generation that felt within itself a desire to begin civilisation again and found religion anew. The portrait of Lavoisier -and his wife reminds one in its refinement of Madame Vige-Lebrun. The +and his wife reminds one in its refinement of Madame Vigée-Lebrun. The chemist is sitting by a table covered with instruments; his wife, in an elegant light gown, bends attentively over him. The picture dates from 1788, and it still looks like some good work of the age of Louis <span class="sc">XVI</span>. Again, how intimate -is the effect of the marvellous portrait of Michael Grard and his family. The +is the effect of the marvellous portrait of Michael Gérard and his family. The good man, in his shirt-sleeves, seems to feel really at home; a small boy is leaning against his knee, a girl is playing on the clavicorde. There is not the slightest suggestion of pose or a conventional type of beauty in this stout old -gentleman sitting so comfortably in his <i>bourgeois nglig</i>, and with honest eyes +gentleman sitting so comfortably in his <i>bourgeois négligé</i>, and with honest eyes gazing out so inquisitively round him. In a few other pictures the spiritual life of women is portrayed with remarkable tenderness. One of the earliest <span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span> -is the exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law, Madame Pcoult, in +is the exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law, Madame Pécoult, in 1783; then, in 1790, the portrait of the Marquise d’Orvilliers, with that expression of dreamy languor which plays round the eyes of the beautiful -woman. The Louvre possesses, in the portrait of Madame Rcamier, perhaps +woman. The Louvre possesses, in the portrait of Madame Récamier, perhaps the most charming and attractive woman’s portrait that David ever painted. The beautiful Juliette lies stretched on a divan of antique pattern. She wears a white dress, her soft rosy feet are bare. The arrangement of the room @@ -5502,7 +5461,7 @@ visited David’s studio, accompanied by the Empress, his ministers, and his staff. The Court drew up, and the Emperor moved up and down in front of the picture, hat in hand, for more than half an hour, examining it in all its details. Finally, with one of those dramatic effects of which he was so fond, -he lightly raised his hat: “<i>C’est bien, trs bien; David, je vous salue</i>.”</p> +he lightly raised his hat: “<i>C’est bien, très bien; David, je vous salue</i>.”</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:683px; height:564px" src="images/img143.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -5528,9 +5487,9 @@ this Louis David was. He appeared in these pictures as an artist who stood compl within his age, who shared its passions and was permeated by its greatness; he even appeared as a <i>charmeur</i> who handled the phenomena of colour and light as few others have done. It is true, David showed himself in this -favourable light at the exhibition only because the entirely archological +favourable light at the exhibition only because the entirely archæological side of his talent was not represented. For at the bottom of his heart he too -was an archologist. Many of his works, such as “The Death of Socrates,” +was an archæologist. Many of his works, such as “The Death of Socrates,” “Brutus,” “The Oath in the Tennis Court,” and “The Rape of the Sabines,” are specimens of a barren theory.</p> @@ -5546,12 +5505,12 @@ only possible to create a type of it by comparison and through composition. The human being of art ought always to be a copy of that perfect being, primitive man, whom the Roman sculptors had still before their eyes, but who had deteriorated in the course of ages. Thus in France, too, the -sensuous art of painting was converted into an abstract science of sthetics. +sensuous art of painting was converted into an abstract science of æsthetics. The classic ideal weighed upon French art and prescribed for all alike the same “heroic style,” the same elevation, the same marble coldness and -monotony of colour. <i>Jean-Baptiste Regnault</i>, and <i>Franois Andr Vincent</i>, whose +monotony of colour. <i>Jean-Baptiste Regnault</i>, and <i>François André Vincent</i>, whose studios were most frequented after David’s, worshipped the same gods. After -David’s departure, <i>Gurin</i>, in particular, endeavoured to bequeath to the +David’s departure, <i>Guérin</i>, in particular, endeavoured to bequeath to the students those genuinely academic rules which his pupil, Delacroix, has summed up in these words: “In order to make an ideal head of a negro, our teachers make him resemble as far as possible the profile of Antinous, and @@ -5595,21 +5554,21 @@ who cast the pictures of Boucher out of the Louvre, and whose pupils used to shoot bread-crumbs at Watteau’s masterpiece, -the “Voyage Cythre,” +the “Voyage à Cythère,” yet conveyed with him into the new age, as an inheritance from <i>rococo</i>, its prodigious knowledge. The good old traditions of the technique of French painting were little shaken by him and his school. The Academy described by -Quatremre as the “eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices,” +Quatremère as the “eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices,” was indeed overthrown, but David became immediately the head of a new one. This age of absorption in politics developed an art to correspond, more disciplined than ever, girt round by an iron cuirass; and this art, notwithstanding multifarious phases, at no time lost its touch, technically, with the acquisitions of former epochs, but evolved itself in its various directions from one centre, distracted from its path by -nothing brought into it from outside. Gricault, Delacroix, Courbet, and +nothing brought into it from outside. Géricault, Delacroix, Courbet, and Manet, widely as they differ from one another, are links in one chain of evolution. Art comes from knowledge. This maxim, which David held in honour, has remained to the present day a dominant force in French art, @@ -5645,7 +5604,7 @@ following along new lines, the art of France did not thereby suffer as regards the quality of its execution; in spite of all Classicism it remained the disciplined art of the schools. These favourable preliminaries were lacking in Germany. It was not allotted to German painting to grow up in -nave contentment with the technical inheritance of its forefathers, but, on +naïve contentment with the technical inheritance of its forefathers, but, on the contrary, at the entrance of its new career it broke so completely with its predecessor—the art of the eighteenth century—that it could no longer adopt even its technical traditions. It arose out of the negation of earlier art, an @@ -5699,14 +5658,14 @@ of German art; and the spirit of the past powerfully inspired them. Whilst for Lessing and Winckelmann “Gothic” art only meant barbarian art, the wonders of Nuremberg were now observed with fresh eyes. In a sort of intoxication of art the friends wandered through churches, -stood by the graves of Albrecht Drer and Peter Vischer, and a vanished +stood by the graves of Albrecht Dürer and Peter Vischer, and a vanished world rose before them. The spires and turrets behind falling walls and ramparts, the old, stately, patrician houses, which jutted out their oriel windows, as it were with curiosity, into the crooked streets, were peopled to their imagination with picturesque figures in bonnet and hose from that great time when Nuremberg was “the living, swarming school of native art,” when “an exuberant, artistic spirit” governed within its walls, when Master Hans -Sachs and Adam Kraft and Peter Vischer and Albrecht Drer and Willibald +Sachs and Adam Kraft and Peter Vischer and Albrecht Dürer and Willibald Pirkheymer were alive. Shortly after that they came to Dresden, and devoted themselves in the gallery there to an enthusiastic cult of the Madonna. The <i>Herzensergiessungen eines Kunstliebenden @@ -5718,7 +5677,7 @@ this tender production of a visionary youth the spirit of Romantic art found expression.</p> -<p>Winckelmann was an archologist; +<p>Winckelmann was an archæologist; Wackenroder, an enthusiast of the Middle Ages; on the one side knowledge only, on the other all feeling; @@ -5740,7 +5699,7 @@ art, and offer it the homage of an “eternal and boundless love.” Thi to art, of which he himself was full, he found nowhere in his times. The age of enlightenment was to him an undevout and inartistic age. Only in his wanderings through the uneven streets of Nuremberg did the deepest -yearning of his soul seem satisfied. He applied himself to medival, and +yearning of his soul seem satisfied. He applied himself to mediæval, and especially to German art. His standpoint is the same which the young Goethe had adopted when he intervened with Herder for “German style and art,” and dedicated his pamphlet on German architecture to the shade of Erwin @@ -5829,13 +5788,13 @@ by unnoticed. From the monasteries, churches, guild halls, and castles which the French had plundered, countless masses of paintings of every sort were extricated. A great deal perished; nearly all, however, that had hitherto been kept as heirlooms, and for the most part almost inaccessible, -now became movable, attainable property. The brothers Boissere began +now became movable, attainable property. The brothers Boisserée began their celebrated collection, which is to be seen to-day in the Munich <i>Pinakothek</i>. -While hitherto one had, at the most, known of Drer, now one +While hitherto one had, at the most, known of Dürer, now one touched upon an age which lay behind the Reformation, an age in which Catholicism was flourishing, in which “not great artists but nameless monks represented art,” and it was soon all fire and ardour over the sweetness, -navet, and faith of these pictures. Fernow had still pronounced generally +naïveté, and faith of these pictures. Fernow had still pronounced generally <span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> against the capacity of the “Catholic religion, with its Jewish-Christian mythology and martyrology,” to satisfy the demands of a pure taste in art. @@ -5861,8 +5820,8 @@ as the true profession of faith of the young school. Where previously Augustus William had described in his sonnets the Io, Leda, and Cleopatra of the Dresden Gallery, it was now the Madonna who received the homage of the gallant poet. By Frederick, Christianity was recommended to the artist -as a formal model and a source of sthetic enjoyment,—as it was, at the -same time, by Chateaubriand as <i>prdilection d’artiste</i>.</p> +as a formal model and a source of æsthetic enjoyment,—as it was, at the +same time, by Chateaubriand as <i>prédilection d’artiste</i>.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:700px; height:258px" src="images/img156.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> @@ -5878,25 +5837,25 @@ abandoned the classic ideal for ever, and Schenkendorf cried imperiously: “We would see no more pagan pictures on any German walls.” French “frivolity” was contrasted with German seriousness, German Christianity with the free-thought of the French; there was a return from the cold philosophy -of enlightenment to the vigorous feeling of medival faith.</p> +of enlightenment to the vigorous feeling of mediæval faith.</p> <p>Frederick Schlegel, the author of <i>Lucinde</i>, who had written as lately as 1799:—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“Mein einzig Religion ist die,</p> -<p class="i05">Dass ich liebe ein schnes Knie,</p> -<p class="i05">Volle Brust und schlanke Hften,</p> -<p class="i05">Dazu Blumen mit sssen Dften,”</p> +<p class="i05">Dass ich liebe ein schönes Knie,</p> +<p class="i05">Volle Brust und schlanke Hüften,</p> +<p class="i05">Dazu Blumen mit süssen Düften,”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">was converted to Catholicism. Schelling wrote his <i>Philosophy of Revelation</i>; -Grres, the editor of the <i>Rothen Blut</i>, ended as the author of the <i>Christian +Görres, the editor of the <i>Rothen Blut</i>, ended as the author of the <i>Christian Mystic</i>.</p> <p>Here set in the period of the Nazarenes. What Schlegel had said was to become true, that the German artist has either no character at all or he must -have the character of the medival masters, true-hearted and thoughtful, +have the character of the mediæval masters, true-hearted and thoughtful, innocent withal, and somewhat maladroit. In architecture the Hellenic school is succeeded by the Gothic, painting passes from the reverence of the Greek statues to that of old Italian pictures.</p> @@ -5916,11 +5875,11 @@ Greek statues to that of old Italian pictures.</p> the centre of influence, only they no longer made pilgrimages, like the Classicists, to ancient but to Christian Rome. <i>Overbeck</i> -of Lbeck came in 1810 with Pforr of Frankfort -and Vogel of Zrich; the Dsseldorfer, +of Lübeck came in 1810 with Pforr of Frankfort +and Vogel of Zürich; the Düsseldorfer, Cornelius, followed in 1811, <i>Schadow</i> and <i>Veit</i> of Berlin in 1815, <i>Schnorr von Carolsfeld</i> -of Leipzig in 1818, the Viennese <i>Fhrich</i> and +of Leipzig in 1818, the Viennese <i>Führich</i> and <i>Steinle</i> in 1827 and 1828. In all of them there lived the perception that in such a serious age men should be of high moral @@ -5929,7 +5888,7 @@ religious capacity of their lives.</p> <p>There still stands to-day, on a secluded hillock of the Monte Pincio a small church, -whose faade is adorned with the statues of St. Isidore, the patron of +whose façade is adorned with the statues of St. Isidore, the patron of husbandmen, and of St. Patrick, apostle of Ireland. A court with weather-beaten cloisters and an old well separates the church from the monastery which lies behind it, where the cells of the monks, Irish and Italian Franciscans, @@ -5942,7 +5901,7 @@ frescoes, and which, formerly a refectory, is used to-day as a theological lecture-room. This was the room where Overbeck and his friends in the first period after their arrival stood for one another as models. -Lethire, the director of the +Lethière, the director of the French Academy, had obtained permission for them to install themselves in the deserted @@ -5954,7 +5913,7 @@ three scudi monthly.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:419px" src="images/img158.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">JOSEPH FHRICH.   <i>Graphische Kunst.</i></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">JOSEPH FÜHRICH.   <i>Graphische Kunst.</i></td></tr></table> <p>“We led a truly monastic life,” relates Overbeck; “held @@ -6031,7 +5990,7 @@ heaven.”</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 375px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:325px; height:416px" src="images/img159.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx f80">FHRICH.  FROM THE “LEGEND OF ST. GWENDOLIN.”</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx f80">FÜHRICH.  FROM THE “LEGEND OF ST. GWENDOLIN.”</td></tr></table> <p>It is obvious that between the ascetics of the monastery and the Classicists direct friction must ensue. To them the “ever repeated and @@ -6047,7 +6006,7 @@ Niebuhr touched glasses with Thorwaldsen “to the health of old Jupiter.” Only Cornelius joined in; the others started and looked upon the young -Dsseldorfer as a heretic.</p> +Düsseldorfer as a heretic.</p> <p>This positive Christian standpoint, which allowed art to be esteemed @@ -6061,7 +6020,7 @@ to him a continual subject of contempt. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> Religion no more bestows talent for the arts than it gives taste. He spoke with irony of the “valiant artists and ingenious friends of -art who had resort to the honourable, nave, yet somewhat coarse +art who had resort to the honourable, naïve, yet somewhat coarse taste” of the fourteenth and fifteenth-century masters. He constantly employed of them the expression “star-gazing.” He had already mockingly remarked of Wackenroder’s <i>Herzensergiessungen</i> what an @@ -6081,12 +6040,12 @@ of the Middle Ages, and to praise the latter only when it imitated the antique. Speaking as a man of Mengs’ school, and merely proposing Hellenic art as a canon instead of early Italian, he had, after all, no right to be angry if Frederick Schlegel opposed classical models with -medival. Otherwise, however, even to-day little can be added to Goethe’s +mediæval. Otherwise, however, even to-day little can be added to Goethe’s animadversions.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:594px; height:365px" src="images/img160.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FHRICH.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FÜHRICH.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">RUTH AND BOAZ.</td></tr></table> <p>As with Carstens, so with the Nazarenes, we are warned by the idealistic @@ -6109,7 +6068,7 @@ religion.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:591px; height:429px" src="images/img161.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FHRICH.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FÜHRICH.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE DEPARTURE OF THE PRODIGAL SON.</td></tr></table> <p>In a certain sense they even show an advance in art. They found @@ -6139,7 +6098,7 @@ technique.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:680px; height:486px" src="images/img162.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FHRICH.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FÜHRICH.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">JACOB AND RACHEL.</td></tr></table> <p>The Nazarenes abandoned on principle the employment of the model, @@ -6155,7 +6114,7 @@ deemed it a sacrilege to have depicted her as purely womanly. They therefore only occasionally sat to one another for studies of drapery, and, for the rest, “in order not to be naturalistic,” painted their pictures from imagination in the seclusion of their cells. As the Catholicism of Schlegel -was an anmic system, so the painters, too, deprived their figures of blood +was an anæmic system, so the painters, too, deprived their figures of blood and being in order to leave them only the abstract beauty of line. They are beings who are exalted above everything, even above correctness of drawing, and who must expire of a lack of blood in their veins. The @@ -6190,7 +6149,7 @@ a factor again in the development of the German nation. It must not be used, wrote Cornelius in his -famous letter to Grres, as +famous letter to Görres, as a mere plaything, or to tickle the senses, not merely for the delectation and @@ -6284,7 +6243,7 @@ that time still free.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">BOOK ILLUSTRATION.</td></tr></table> <p>When the pictures had been unveiled in 1819 a festival of German -artists was held in Rome. Rckert, Bunsen, the Humboldts, the Herzes +artists was held in Rome. Rückert, Bunsen, the Humboldts, the Herzes were there; Cornelius, Veit, and Overbeck had arranged the transparencies. “The centre of all,” writes the Danish romantic Atterbom, was the Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, “the idol of every German artist, whose @@ -6329,10 +6288,10 @@ Gallery at Mayence.</p> <p>Overbeck, the only one who could not tear himself from Rome, remained, till his death in 1869, the “Young German Raphael,” as his father -had called him in a letter from Lbeck in 1811: a devout, religious +had called him in a letter from Lübeck in 1811: a devout, religious poet, pure of soul and of fine culture, as one-coloured and one-sided as he was mild and tender. At the outset he knew, at least, how to extract -from the old masters a certain nave piety without positive character, +from the old masters a certain naïve piety without positive character, whereas later he lost himself more and more in the arid formalism of dead dogmas. @@ -6342,7 +6301,7 @@ such as the “Entry of Christ into Jerusalem” and the “Weeping over the Body of Christ”—both in the -Marienkirche at Lbeck, in +Marienkirche at Lübeck, in the “Miracle of Roses,” in Santa Maria Degli Angeli at Assisi, in the “Christ on @@ -6362,7 +6321,7 @@ composition and type a complete imitation of the Florentine Raphael; his “Lamentation of Christ” in -the Lbeck Marienkirche is +the Lübeck Marienkirche is <span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> reminiscent of Perugino; his “Burial” would never have existed but for Raphael’s picture in the Borghese Gallery. His sentiment coincided @@ -6412,14 +6371,14 @@ of the soul was lost, or through the obduracy of the material did not attain a right expression, here their spiritual and emotional qualities can be better valued.</p> -<p>Joseph Fhrich, one of the most staunchly convinced champions +<p>Joseph Führich, one of the most staunchly convinced champions of these reactionary tendencies, has become, entirely owing to his extensive <span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> activity as a draughtsman, somewhat more familiar to our modern knowledge than most of his contemporaries. He had begun as a draughtsman. As a student of the Prague Academy he was an enthusiast for Schlegel, Novalis, and Tieck; and even before his journey to Rome he -had etched fifteen plates for Tieck’s <i>Genoveva</i>. It was Drer who +had etched fifteen plates for Tieck’s <i>Genoveva</i>. It was Dürer who exercised the deciding influence upon his further development. He had been led to him through Wackenroder, and had copied his “Marienleben” in 1821. “Here I saw,” he says in his Autobiography, “a form before @@ -6430,7 +6389,7 @@ grace. In contrast with that absence of character which prevailing academic art mistakes for beauty I saw here a keen and mighty characterisation which dominated the figures through and through, making them, as it were, into old acquaintances.” The strong and godly German -middle age took then in Fhrich’s heart the same place which the +middle age took then in Führich’s heart the same place which the Italian Quattrocento had filled in Overbeck’s range of thought. And this old-German tendency was only temporarily interrupted by his sojourn in Rome. After he came to Rome in 1826 he became a @@ -6455,18 +6414,18 @@ impressions of his youth, and so found himself again.</p> <p>As a boy, in his little native village of Kratzau, in Bohemia, he had tended the cows in summer time and had acquired a certain sincere -knowledge of nature and shepherd-life. He had to thank Drer for his +knowledge of nature and shepherd-life. He had to thank Dürer for his preference for the idyllic and patriarchal family scenes in Sacred History, and these tendencies found pleasing expression in pictures like “Jacob and Rachel,” or “The Passage of Mary across the Mountains.” No matter that the figures in “Jacob and Rachel” are taken out of the early pictures of Pinturicchio and Raphael, they are still interwoven, -with their background of landscape, into an idyll of great navet and +with their background of landscape, into an idyll of great naïveté and charm. More especially, however, did the qualities which he owed to -Drer acquire value—a sturdy characterisation, a nave art in telling the +Dürer acquire value—a sturdy characterisation, a naïve art in telling the story, and a great wealth of fresh traits, straight from nature—in the serial compositions of his old age. There is no sentimental vagueness, -nothing academical. Fhrich had a keen eye for what was intimate, +nothing academical. Führich had a keen eye for what was intimate, familiar; a tender sense of the individualities of landscape in woodland and meadow, of the charm of everyday life as well as of the animal world; and though an idealist, he knew how to assimilate ingeniously @@ -6493,7 +6452,7 @@ figures of fable. His “Loreley,” in the Schack Gallery, as she looks a Medusa-like destroyer, from the tall cliff; his watchman who looks dreamily into space over the houses of the old town; his violin player on his tower who plays, forgetful of the world,—these have something musical, -poetical, that freshness of sentiment and unsought navet which as an +poetical, that freshness of sentiment and unsought naïveté which as an inheritance of his Viennese home was also peculiar in such a high degree to Schwind.</p> @@ -6502,7 +6461,7 @@ after colour.” There lives in his works a refined feeling for colour that, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span> in his water-colours, rarely forsakes him. Take, for instance, the fresh, tinted pen-drawings, engraved by Schaffer, in which he displayed with the -navet of Memlinc the life of St. Euphrosyne; the five aquarelles of +naïveté of Memlinc the life of St. Euphrosyne; the five aquarelles of Grimm’s “Snow-White and Rose-Red”; or his illustrations to Brentano’s poems, such as the <i>Chronicle of the Wandering Student</i>, and the <i>Fairy Tale of the Rhine and Radlauf the Miller</i>, in which he developed a delight in @@ -6527,12 +6486,12 @@ strokes.</p> <p>Strangest to the present-day taste have become the drawings of Cornelius. His plates to Goethe’s <i>Faust</i> have, indeed, a certain austere strength of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span> -conception, which he learnt from Drer; but also faults of drawing, +conception, which he learnt from Dürer; but also faults of drawing, exaggerations, crudities, and errors in perspective, which he did not find -in Drer.</p> +in Dürer.</p> <p>In his second work, the Nibelungen cycle, an intentional old-German -angularity, with an unintentional modern clumsiness, has effected a <i>msalliance</i> +angularity, with an unintentional modern clumsiness, has effected a <i>mésalliance</i> even less attractive.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -6551,7 +6510,7 @@ even less attractive.</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">More</span> than seventeen hundred years ago there reigned a Roman emperor who loved art passionately. He looked upon it from an intellectual altitude which few have reached, and he valued it as the monumental -consummation of Grco-Roman culture. Standing upon a plane of intellectual +consummation of Græco-Roman culture. Standing upon a plane of intellectual elevation, himself gifted with artistic intuition, he knew of no higher enjoyment for a ruler than the cultivation of the architectural and other forms of art. It was he who opened up to the energy of artists a field such as has @@ -6592,12 +6551,12 @@ art, and thus fulfilled a noble mission. The king’s splendid enthusiasm fo the ideal significance of art, which he hoped would lead the German people, then seeking to work out its individuality, from out of its Philistine narrow-mindedness to nobler and greater things—this enthusiasm will redound to his -enduring honour. Schiller’s idea of educating humanity by sthetic means +enduring honour. Schiller’s idea of educating humanity by æsthetic means had in him grown into a living and powerful sentiment.</p> <p>All that it was possible to accomplish in the cause of art, on the basis of existing development, his endeavours have fully realised. In the course of -twenty-three years he spent more than 3,000,000 from his privy purse, and +twenty-three years he spent more than £3,000,000 from his privy purse, and made Munich what it is, the principal art centre of Germany; changed it from a Bœotia into an Athens; founded its art collections, and erected the buildings which give the town its character. Then he offered those new walls @@ -6615,8 +6574,8 @@ living soul of art in those days posterity will no more acknowledge than it does in the case of the age of Hadrian.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Wie bei Bartholdy als Kind, so in Massimis Villa als Jngling</p> -<p class="i05">Teutshes Fresco wir sehn, aber in Mnchen als Mann,”</p> +<p>“Wie bei Bartholdy als Kind, so in Massimis Villa als Jüngling</p> +<p class="i05">Teutshes Fresco wir sehn, aber in München als Mann,”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">sang King Ludwig. Now, after two generations, it can be seen that fresco-painting @@ -6639,7 +6598,7 @@ almost make one believe in a kind of metempsychosis; as though the spirit of the great Florentine master, that giant of the Renaissance, had been restored to humanity. At that very period the Italian art of the Cinquecento enjoyed the exclusive favour of the German scholars. It alone was worthy of imitation; -in it the sthetic philosophers +in it the æsthetic philosophers sought for rules and laws to govern the development of art. And as they thought that all the qualities @@ -6757,7 +6716,7 @@ they produced nothing better than caricatures of Michael Angelo, that they expressed themselves in shallow phrases, that their religious pictures are cold and inflated, and that their mythological presentations with naked figures impress us as bombastic and repellent. Houbraken, in his biography of -Grard de Lairesse, wrote: “A whole book could be filled with the description +Gérard de Lairesse, wrote: “A whole book could be filled with the description of his innumerable pictures and panels, ceilings and frescoes.” To-day we dismiss this unattractive mannerist in a few lines. What his contemporaries <span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> @@ -6834,7 +6793,7 @@ very same mannerism into which the Dutchmen had fallen three hundred years earlier,—the only difference being that he surpassed them in erudition. But although this quality would no doubt have greatly helped him had he written books, we cannot take it into account in discussing his artistic merits, -any more than we can judge Grard de Lairesse by his literary achievements. +any more than we can judge Gérard de Lairesse by his literary achievements. Nay, more, as he had elected to confine himself to painting, his erudition became a curse to him, bringing him to disregard beauty of form in a manner as yet unknown in the history of art. Not only was he filled with ardour for the @@ -6949,8 +6908,8 @@ It was much easier to copy their lord and master, whose name was on their lips, but not a spark of whose genius was in their heads, with every sort of mannerism. “When nature once produces a new birth she does so with a lavish hand. Talents, talents enough for centuries!” In these words -Cornelius himself did honour to his pupils—to Carl Herrmann, Strhuber, -Hermann Anschtz, Hiltensperger, and Lindenschmit the elder, the mention +Cornelius himself did honour to his pupils—to Carl Herrmann, Strähuber, +Hermann Anschütz, Hiltensperger, and Lindenschmit the elder, the mention of whose names evokes a painful memory of the arcades in the palace garden at Munich.</p> @@ -6988,7 +6947,7 @@ equally into insignificance. But if we come to accept the problem of art criticism as a matter of psychology -rather than of sthetics, if +rather than of æsthetics, if we search for the relations between the work of art and the soul of its author, we @@ -7064,8 +7023,8 @@ Hogarth should unfortunately have been caught in the toils of the Cornelian school. But this comparison does little justice to Hogarth. There is nothing in the illustrations of Kaulbach which many other artists could not have improved upon. In his “Reynard the Fox” he adapted, for the benefit of -the German public, Grandville’s <i>Scnes de la Vie prive et publique des Animaux</i>, -published in 1842. His illustrations for <i>ditions de luxe</i> (“The Women of +the German public, Grandville’s <i>Scènes de la Vie privée et publique des Animaux</i>, +published in 1842. His illustrations for <i>éditions de luxe</i> (“The Women of Goethe,” etc.) marked the first steps of the road which ended in Thuman. And Thuman stands higher than Kaulbach. The faint, unaccented drawing, the oval “beauty” of heads, declamatory and expressionless, the academic @@ -7088,24 +7047,24 @@ what he should have glorified.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“All die Meister Kunstbahnbrecher, wie die Herren selbst sich nennen,</p> -<p class="i05">Wahrlich Widderkpfe sind sie, Mauern damit einzurennen.</p> +<p class="i05">Wahrlich Widderköpfe sind sie, Mauern damit einzurennen.</p> <p class="i05">Mit dem Loche in der Mauer ist’s noch lange nicht geschehen,</p> <p class="i05">Da muss erst der Held erscheinen, siegreich dadurch einzugehen.</p> <p class="i05">Gegen jenes Ungeheuer ziehen sie zu Feld mit Phrasen,</p> -<p class="i05">Wie die sieben Schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekmpft den Hasen.</p> -<p class="i05">Voran zieht der edle Ritter Schnorr, der Knste Don Quixote,</p> +<p class="i05">Wie die sieben Schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekämpft den Hasen.</p> +<p class="i05">Voran zieht der edle Ritter Schnorr, der Künste Don Quixote,</p> <p class="i05">Seine Rosinante setzt er, statt des Pegasus in Trotte;</p> <p class="i05">Heiliger Hess, sein Sancho Pansa, Du nicht liebst das offene Streiten,</p> -<p class="i05">Und du lsst dich sachte, sachte, ’rab von Deinem Esel gleiten.</p> +<p class="i05">Und du lässt dich sachte, sachte, ’rab von Deinem Esel gleiten.</p> <p class="i05">Was ist denn so grosses Neues in der Neuen Kunst geschehen?</p> -<p class="i05">Nichts, als was sie nicht der aften, lngst vergangnen abgesehen.</p> -<p class="i05">Wnde ich auch Lorbeerkrnze all um diese Alltagsfratzen,</p> -<p class="i05">Wrden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle Glatzen.”</p> +<p class="i05">Nichts, als was sie nicht der aften, längst vergangnen abgesehen.</p> +<p class="i05">Wände ich auch Lorbeerkränze all um diese Alltagsfratzen,</p> +<p class="i05">Würden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle Glatzen.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span></p> -<p>This is the commentary written by Kaulbach himself; and Thophile +<p>This is the commentary written by Kaulbach himself; and Théophile Gautier called the suite <i>un carnaval au soleil</i>. “The king in his youth spent millions in order to elevate art,” says Schwind; “and now in his old age he pays another thousand pounds in order to be laughed at for it.” Heine’s @@ -7136,10 +7095,10 @@ it had to be learnt again right from the beginning.</p> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:258px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img0.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p class="center chap">CHAPTER VII</p> -<p class="center chap2">THE DSSELDORFERS</p> +<p class="center chap2">THE DÜSSELDORFERS</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">On</span> the Rhine there existed a school of painting instead of a school of -drawing, a fact which at that time placed Dsseldorf next in importance +drawing, a fact which at that time placed Düsseldorf next in importance to Munich. Wilhelm Schadow, its first director, was lacking in any personal distinction as an artist, but he had received from his great father a tendency towards perfection of technique, which brought him and his @@ -7149,11 +7108,11 @@ exercise an authoritative influence. In Rome he was the only one of the Nazarenes amenable to the French influence, while the others nervously held aloof from the members of the French Academy. And this formal bent of his talent later gave him the qualifications of a sound teacher. Immediately -upon his arrival at Dsseldorf, in November 1826, he was escorted by a stately -throng of students: Carl Friedrich Lessing, Julius Hbner, Theodor Hildebrandt, -Carl Sohn, H. Mcke, and Christian Koehler, who were afterwards +upon his arrival at Düsseldorf, in November 1826, he was escorted by a stately +throng of students: Carl Friedrich Lessing, Julius Hübner, Theodor Hildebrandt, +Carl Sohn, H. Mücke, and Christian Koehler, who were afterwards joined by Eduard Bendemann, Ernest Deger, and others. These became -the mainstay of the celebrated Old Dsseldorf School, which was soon supported +the mainstay of the celebrated Old Düsseldorf School, which was soon supported by the jubilant enthusiasm of its contemporaries. At the Berlin exhibitions the new school of painting passed from one triumph to the other. Young men fresh from school suddenly made names that were honoured @@ -7167,7 +7126,7 @@ result of a sudden burst of ardour, and the disillusion had now followed upon the enthusiasm. In 1810, with the French bayonets gleaming outside the windows, and the French kettledrums drowning the sound of his voice, Fichte delivered at the Berlin University his famous speeches which sounded -the rveill for Germany. At the same time Kleist wrote his <i>Hermannschlacht</i>: +the réveillé for Germany. At the same time Kleist wrote his <i>Hermannschlacht</i>: Napoleon was to be treated as Hermann had treated Varus. “<i>Was blasen die Trompeten, Husaren heraus</i>,” pealed through the air; the song of “<i>Got, der Eisen wachsen liess</i>” rose heavenwards in brazen accords. And @@ -7183,7 +7142,7 @@ object of a fanatical adoration. Men lost themselves in the old storehouses of faded German reminiscences, and fled for inspiration to the times of a consolidated German Empire. This return to the ruins of the past was a protest against the grey, colourless present. The patriotic frenzy of the -poets of freedom changed into enthusiasm for the vanished glories of medival +poets of freedom changed into enthusiasm for the vanished glories of mediæval Germany. They remembered with longing and yearning the days when the robber-knights ruled town and country from their strongholds. Schenkendorff sang hymns inspired by the old cathedrals, rummaged with holy horror @@ -7206,8 +7165,8 @@ wilfulness, dreamily winsome, like summer evenings on the Rhine. Uhland sang, as once had sung the knightly poets with the golden harps—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Von Gottesminne, von khner Helden Muth,</p> -<p class="i05">Von lindem liebesinne, von ssser Maiengluth.”</p> +<p>“Von Gottesminne, von kühner Helden Muth,</p> +<p class="i05">Von lindem liebesinne, von süsser Maiengluth.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">To this day we seem to peep between the weather-beaten castles, standing @@ -7215,7 +7174,7 @@ on their grey rocks along the Rhine Valley, into the realm of romance as into an enigma propounded by mountain and dale. Rhine and romance!</p> <p>No spot in Germany was better fitted to become the cradle of a romantic -art than Dsseldorf, the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of the +art than Düsseldorf, the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of the green river. In the fifteenth century, in addition to the school of Florence, where flowed a rich current of political and human life, where great buildings, monuments, and frescoes kept architects and sculptors and painters uniformly @@ -7228,24 +7187,24 @@ their pictures. In the same manner, in the nineteenth century, we find in contrast with the Munich school, with its numerous architectural products, its massive statuary, and the epic-dramatic fresco painting of Cornelius—“wedding the German to the Greek, and Faust to Helen”—that lyrico-sentimental -Dsseldorf school of painting which embraced Madonnas and +Düsseldorf school of painting which embraced Madonnas and prophets, knights and robbers, gipsies and monks, water-nymphs and nuns with the same languishing tenderness. In matter and technique it completes the art of Cornelius and the Nazarenes; that of the Munich master by its encouragement of oil-painting; that of the Nazarenes by the stress which it -lays upon the more worldly side of medival life, upon chivalry, and in a less -degree upon that other pillar of medivalism the Church. The Nazarenes -are archological and ascetic; the Dsseldorf school is insipid in a modern +lays upon the more worldly side of mediæval life, upon chivalry, and in a less +degree upon that other pillar of mediævalism the Church. The Nazarenes +are archæological and ascetic; the Düsseldorf school is insipid in a modern way, feeble, colourless, and sentimental.</p> <p>Count Raczynski and Friedrich von Uechtritz have given us interesting -descriptions of life at Dsseldorf at that time, and their story reads like a +descriptions of life at Düsseldorf at that time, and their story reads like a chapter of Tacitus’ <i>Germania</i>. “<i>Grand dieu! Bons et affectueux allemands!</i>” exclaimed a Parisian critic of the Count’s book in sad emotion, and held up this virtuous German life, as an example worthy of imitation, to his compatriots, the decadents of fashionable artistic Paris, fallen into modern luxury. Undisturbed by the hum of a big city, and without any -communication with its surroundings, the Dsseldorf colony of artists lived +communication with its surroundings, the Düsseldorf colony of artists lived its life of seclusion. The painters saw none but painters. They herded together in the studios, and the sole recreation in the intervals of their work was a visit to another studio. The whole of the day was devoted to painting; @@ -7259,7 +7218,7 @@ allowed no questions of the day to interfere with the calmness of their artistic life. Few of them ever read a newspaper. In the year of revolution, 1830, their sole interest in the events around them was concentrated in the fear that a war might disturb their idyllic life. The end of the day’s work saw -them in summer-time bent on a pilgrimage to the Stockkmpchen, to refresh +them in summer-time bent on a pilgrimage to the Stockkämpchen, to refresh themselves with a cup of buttermilk, to play at bowls, or to enjoy a race among the cabbage patches of the garden. In winter they made a point of meeting at seven o’clock every Saturday night at the inn for a literary @@ -7267,7 +7226,7 @@ reading. Each taking his part they recited the dramas of Tieck, of Calderon, and Lopez; or Uechtritz read extracts from German history, the Crusades, the period of the emperors, the riots of the Hussites. Every Sunday night there met at Schadow’s a very distinguished intellectual circle, -consisting of Judge Immermann (the reformer of the stage at Dsseldorf), +consisting of Judge Immermann (the reformer of the stage at Düsseldorf), Felix Mendelssohn the composer, Kortum, author of the <i>Jobsiade</i>, and Assessor <span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> von Uechtritz, with their ladies. But the great gala-days were the theatrical @@ -7277,18 +7236,18 @@ gathered their liveliest suggestions. Some of them went even so far as to take part in amateur performances, conducted by Immermann, and given in Schadow’s house, under the auspices of the whole of the distinguished society. And thus the pictures of this school were not conceived under -the influence of life, but of the theatre. The Dsseldorf artists were youths +the influence of life, but of the theatre. The Düsseldorf artists were youths whose productions were not rooted in life, but in reading and culture; youths who always moved in good society, and who had passed through the great ordeals of life, but only on “the boards representing the universe.”</p> -<p><i>Theodor Hildebrandt</i> became the Shakespeare of Dsseldorf. The translation +<p><i>Theodor Hildebrandt</i> became the Shakespeare of Düsseldorf. The translation of the works of the English poet by Schlegel had been published some -time earlier, and Immermann, in Dsseldorf, had been the first to offer Shakespeare +time earlier, and Immermann, in Düsseldorf, had been the first to offer Shakespeare a home on the German stage. The performances of his tragedies were regarded as red-letter days. During the three years of Immermann’s leadership (1834-37), <i>Hamlet</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, <i>King John</i>, <i>King Lear</i>, <i>The Merchant of -Venice</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and <i>Julius Csar</i> were performed on fifteen +Venice</i>, <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, <i>Othello</i>, and <i>Julius Cæsar</i> were performed on fifteen occasions in all.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> To give the titles of these plays is at once to characterise the subject-matter of Hildebrandt’s paintings. He very often had a hand in the staging of the plays, and is said to have shown a remarkable histrionic @@ -7297,11 +7256,11 @@ his inspiration, as in his “Pictures from Faust” and his “Bewa Water Nymph,” where he honoured Goethe, and in his “Brigands,” where he may have been inspired by one of the many variations on <i>Rinaldo Rinaldini</i> that flooded the market at the time, or perhaps also by Byron, whose influence -was very marked on the Dsseldorf school.</p> +was very marked on the Düsseldorf school.</p> <p>Goethe’s <i>Frauengestalten</i>, more especially the Leonoras, were reproduced -in oils by old father <i>Sohn</i>. <i>Eduard Steinbruck</i> painted Genevives, Red Riding -Hoods, Elves, and Undines, after Tieck and Fouqu; <i>H. Stilke’s</i> “Pictures +in oils by old father <i>Sohn</i>. <i>Eduard Steinbruck</i> painted Genevièves, Red Riding +Hoods, Elves, and Undines, after Tieck and Fouqué; <i>H. Stilke’s</i> “Pictures from the Crusades” introduced Walter Scott to the German public. Uhland’s first ballads had brought into fashion the damsels who from the ramparts of their castles wave a sad farewell to the lonely shepherds; the ancestral tombs, @@ -7311,7 +7270,7 @@ Shepherdess</i>—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> <p>“Und halt ich dich in den Armen</p> -<p class="i05">Auf freien Bergeshhn,</p> +<p class="i05">Auf freien Bergeshöhn,</p> <p class="i05">Wir sehn in die weiten Lande</p> <p class="i05">Und werden doch nicht gesehn,”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> @@ -7329,7 +7288,7 @@ in German art.</p> <p class="i05">Die Jungfrau sah ich nicht.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">After Brger he painted a Leonora—of course in so-called medival costume, +<p class="noind">After Bürger he painted a Leonora—of course in so-called mediæval costume, in order “to avoid the unpicturesque attire in fashion during the Seven Years’ War”; and at the same time as Hildebrandt, “A Mourning Brigand,” who, in the full light of the evening sun, sits brooding on a rock over the depravity @@ -7354,11 +7313,11 @@ Hebrew elegies are easily traced back to theatrical inspirations. With the exception of the frescoes of the Casa Bartholdy, the subjects of which were selected with an eye to the religious belief of their purchaser, the Nazarenes found all the subject-matter they wanted in the New Testament. The -Passion of Our Lord was unable to inspire the Dsseldorf school. As compared +Passion of Our Lord was unable to inspire the Düsseldorf school. As compared to the few Christian paintings by W. Schadow, and the dreamy Madonnas of Deger, Ittenbach, and little Perugino Mintrop, we find a far greater number of scenes from the Old Testament, which at the time gave birth to numerous -dramas. Hbner, always inclined to idyllic and melancholy scenes, painted +dramas. Hübner, always inclined to idyllic and melancholy scenes, painted Ruth and Boaz, his first great picture, which established his reputation. After Klingemann had utilised the whole life of Moses by turning it into a theatrically effective sequence, Christian Koehler scored a success with his “Moses @@ -7366,7 +7325,7 @@ hidden in the Bulrushes” and his “Finding of Moses,” and then, Raupach’s “Semiramis,” abandoned his biblical heroines for Oriental ones. Theodor Hildebrandt took Tieck’s “Judith” as an inspiration for his picture of this Jewish heroine. Kehren’s “Joseph reveals Himself to his Brethren” -was begun after the opera <i>Joseph in Egypt</i> had been performed at Dsseldorf. +was begun after the opera <i>Joseph in Egypt</i> had been performed at Düsseldorf. Bendemann, in 1832, played his trump card with his “Lament of the Jews,” now in the Cologne Museum, after Byron had made his propaganda, suggested by the sad lives of the children of Israel, and Friedrich von Uechtritz had @@ -7374,10 +7333,10 @@ caused his drama, <i>The Babylonians in Jerusalem</i>, to be performed, ending a it does with the sending of the Jews into captivity in Babylon—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Wein’ ber die die weinen fern in Babel,</p> +<p>“Wein’ über die die weinen fern in Babel,</p> <p class="i05">Ihr Tempel brach, ihr Land ward, ach! zur Fabel!</p> <p class="i05">Wein’! es erstart der heil ’gen Harfe Ton,</p> -<p class="i05">Im Haus Jehovas haust der Sptter Hohn.”</p> +<p class="i05">Im Haus Jehovas haust der Spötter Hohn.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">And his oil-paintings of a later date, “Jeremiah on the Ruins of Jerusalem” @@ -7386,8 +7345,8 @@ it does with the sending of the Jews into captivity in Babylon—</p> Jews into Captivity in Babylon” (1872), in the Berlin National Gallery, were variations on the same theme.</p> -<p>The productions of the Dsseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony -with the programme issued by Pttmann in his book. Pictorial representations +<p>The productions of the Düsseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony +with the programme issued by Püttmann in his book. Pictorial representations may be taken from two ranges, History or Poetry; the painter may choose an historical fact as a subject for representation, or reproduce in visible form the rhythmically shaped fancy of a stranger. History shows him figures @@ -7409,7 +7368,7 @@ catastrophe.”</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE SORROWING ROYAL PAIR.</td></tr></table> <p>Thus the scale of sorrow from sad melancholy to painful suffering became -the speciality of the Dsseldorf school. At the foot of the scale we +the speciality of the Düsseldorf school. At the foot of the scale we find the pictures which “represent the common, yet keen sorrow of parents at the death or the sad future of their children.” Lessing’s “Royal Pair” mourn the death of their daughter; Hagar grieves because @@ -7430,11 +7389,11 @@ the children—</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p class="noind">Job grieves at the downfall of his -house; Hbner’s “Ruth,” because +house; Hübner’s “Ruth,” because her weeping mother-in-law entreats her to depart; Stilke’s “Pilgrim in the Desert,” because his horse -has died of thirst; Plddeman’s +has died of thirst; Plüddeman’s “Columbus,” because he knows himself to be unworthy of the grace of God which enabled him @@ -7464,7 +7423,7 @@ the present, just as between the Germany of to-day and the Germany of 1830. Men of the younger generation, who were still at school when Bismarck spoke his word of blood and iron, can hardly understand how this modern, realistic Germany can have been, two generations ago, a sentimental -Germany. Now the significance of the Dsseldorf school in the +Germany. Now the significance of the Düsseldorf school in the history of civilisation lies in the fact that they are the real representatives of that age of @@ -7504,13 +7463,13 @@ their knapsacks.</p> “The greatness of Michael Angelo” may not have been Bendemann’s, and Sohn’s carnations are far removed from “the melting colouring of Titian.” But as opposed to the one-sidedness to which fresco painting at Munich was -given up, the encouragement of oil-painting at Dsseldorf must be looked +given up, the encouragement of oil-painting at Düsseldorf must be looked upon as praiseworthy. These painters were the first in Germany to try again to learn how to paint in oils. The extreme artistic clumsiness that had reigned under Cornelius was followed by a period in which, under Schadow, earnest studies and serious work were devoted to an effort again to master a technical medium. Their friendly emulation led to surprising progress, which -assured to the Dsseldorf school a technical superiority over all the other +assured to the Düsseldorf school a technical superiority over all the other German schools of the period.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -7523,7 +7482,7 @@ pressure of that mechanical idealism which makes all their productions so utterly unattractive to us. The ideal “line of beauty” has turned the figures into bloodless shadows and washed-out theatrical forms. As philosophy <span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> -was to Cornelius, so to the Dsseldorfers was poetry their Noah’s Ark. +was to Cornelius, so to the Düsseldorfers was poetry their Noah’s Ark. The interest aroused by the poet was their ally; the breath of the wind that set their boat afloat; the general poetical tendency made up for the deficiency in artistic interest. Had it not been @@ -7553,7 +7512,7 @@ they are subject to may be interpreted with the assistance of the plaster bust: honour, fidelity, love. And as sentiment and heroism are national virtues of the Germans, they are bound to show sentimental expression whilst killing their adversaries. Even the brigands are generalised lay figures. The -Dsseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender, vaguely graceful swing +Düsseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender, vaguely graceful swing of outline that anxiously avoided all manly and strong, energetic and characteristic expression, all that could remind one of nature. They rejected Leonardo da Vinci’s advice, to tug at the nipple of Mother Nature, but looked @@ -7579,18 +7538,18 @@ night. Two or three consecutive performances of one play remain a rarity.</p> <p class="center chap2">THE LEGACY OF GERMAN ROMANTICISM</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">It</span> was reserved for two younger men to reach the aim that hovered in the -far distance before Cornelius and the Dsseldorfians. And, by one of +far distance before Cornelius and the Düsseldorfians. And, by one of fortune’s remarkable freaks, the greatest German monumental painter of the -nineteenth century came from the Dsseldorf, the greatest Romanticist from +nineteenth century came from the Düsseldorf, the greatest Romanticist from the Munich school.</p> <p><i>Alfred Rethel</i> was twenty-four years old when he received the commission to paint the frescoes in the <i>Kaisersaal</i> at Aachen, and had previously worked -in the Dsseldorf Academy, and then with Veit at Frankfort. But the -pictures are suggestive neither of his Dsseldorfian nor of his Nazarene +in the Düsseldorf Academy, and then with Veit at Frankfort. But the +pictures are suggestive neither of his Düsseldorfian nor of his Nazarene training. The deeds of Charlemagne, the ancestor of the German Imperial dynasties, are nobly, and, at the same time, vigorously embodied in them. -Rethel had studied the harsh strength of his Albrecht Drer, but only as a +Rethel had studied the harsh strength of his Albrecht Dürer, but only as a kindred spirit studies his kin. Neither Cornelius nor Schnorr has depicted the old German heroic might and the vanished imperial grandeur, the great past, the iron Middle Ages, with such notable traits. How plain in his heroic @@ -7627,7 +7586,7 @@ have been the man to create a monumental German art. A tragic destiny! Heinrich von Kleist, the greatest German poet of the post-classical age, who was chosen for so high a vocation, the creation of a new dramatic style, shot himself; and the giant, Alfred Rethel, was to end in madness. Barely forty years -old was he when he walked by the warder’s side in the courtyard at Dsseldorf, +old was he when he walked by the warder’s side in the courtyard at Düsseldorf, picking up flint-stones, a poor, simple madman. Only two series of designs ensure, apart from the frescoes at Aix, the immortality of his name: “Hannibal’s Passage over the Alps,” and the “Dance of Death.” As a draughtsman, @@ -7651,7 +7610,7 @@ burst over the soil of Europe, Rethel’s fantasy reaped a rich harvest. He drew his “Dance of Death,” represented Death the Leveller, who drives poor fools behind the barricades. The ghostly and spectral, that horror of death that breaks in upon us in the midst of life, had been the propensity of German -art since Drer and Holbein. Like them, Rethel loved the world of the +art since Dürer and Holbein. Like them, Rethel loved the world of the diabolical, and similarly chose for his embodiment of it the sturdy, simple contours of the old German wood engravings. Death as the hero of revolution makes a commencement. There he rides as the town-executioner, a cigar @@ -7682,7 +7641,7 @@ twist and turn.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE EMPEROR OTTO AT THE TOMB OF CHARLEMAGNE.</td></tr></table> <p>There is something of Th. A. Hofmann’s wild fantasy of the ague-fit in -this picture,—something morbid, satanic, that suggests Flicien Rops; yet, +this picture,—something morbid, satanic, that suggests Félicien Rops; yet, at the same time, something so pithy and virile, and in form so compressed, well-balanced, and correct, that it brings the old Germans, too, to our recollection. And the reconciliation with which the series ends is pathetic. In @@ -7734,11 +7693,11 @@ wit.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">RETHEL.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">HANNIBAL’S PASSAGE OVER THE ALPS.</td></tr></table> -<p>When an sthetic once hailed him as “the creator of an original, German +<p>When an æsthetic once hailed him as “the creator of an original, German kind of ideal, romantic art,” Schwind repeated very slowly, weighing each word: “’An original, German kind of ideal, romantic art.’ My dear sir, to me there are only two kinds of pictures, the sold and the unsold; and to me -the sold are always the best. Those are my entire sthetics.” Or a noble +the sold are always the best. Those are my entire æsthetics.” Or a noble amateur comes to him with the request that he would take him just for a few days into his school, and instruct him especially in his masterly art of drawing in pencil. Whereupon Schwind: “It does not require a day for that, my dear @@ -7753,8 +7712,8 @@ and a few thoughts in my head as well; then I sit down here and begin to draw. And now you know all that I can tell you.” Again he asks “to be decorated with an order,” because he “is ashamed to mix in such a naked <span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> -condition with his bestarred confrres,” and after the bestowal of the desired -decoration he says: “I wore it only once, at the last New Year’s leve, but I +condition with his bestarred confrères,” and after the bestowal of the desired +decoration he says: “I wore it only once, at the last New Year’s levée, but I vowed at the same time that six horses should not drag me there again. Before, there was at any rate a beautiful queen there, and then the court ladies laughed at one; but amongst men only, the stupidity of it is not to be endured.” @@ -7764,7 +7723,7 @@ the most delicate pictures and then growls, “What am I to do with the thin if nobody buys them?” when he indulges in outbursts of wrath, and a minute later has forgotten again the abusive words which the others spitefully bring up against him years afterwards,—then here, too, his happy humour forces -its way everywhere, that divine navet which forms the soul of his and of all +its way everywhere, that divine naïveté which forms the soul of his and of all true art.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -7787,10 +7746,10 @@ the resurrection of the Middle Ages, misunderstood, and grasped sentimentally, and as it were by stencil. He was spiritually permeated by that which had given Romanticism the capacity to exist: the sense of that forgotten and imperishable world of beauty which it has again discovered. The others -sought for the “blue flower,” Schwind found it; resuscitated in all its fary +sought for the “blue flower,” Schwind found it; resuscitated in all its faëry beauty that “fair night of enchantment which holds the mind captive.” He incorporated the romantic idea in painting as Weber did in music, and his works, -like the <i>Freischtz</i>, will live for ever. Many a man listened to him holding +like the <i>Freischütz</i>, will live for ever. Many a man listened to him holding forth upon water-nymphs, gnomes, and tricksy kobolds, as of beings of whose existence he appeared to have no doubt whatever. On one occasion, while out walking near Eisenach in the Annathal, a friend laughingly observed to @@ -7831,9 +7790,9 @@ sense. He was a painter of love—a breath of Walter von der Vogelweide&rsqu ideal perfection of womanhood pervades his pictures.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Durchssset und geblmet sind die reinen Frauen,</p> +<p>“Durchsüsset und geblümet sind die reinen Frauen,</p> <p class="i05">Es ward nie nichts so Wonnigliches anzuschauen,</p> -<p class="i05">In Lften, auf Erden, noch in allen grnen Auen.”</p> +<p class="i05">In Lüften, auf Erden, noch in allen grünen Auen.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <p>Schwind, too, painted frescoes, and in them he is very unequal. All his @@ -7870,7 +7829,7 @@ angel’s wings.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:346px; height:423px" src="images/img209.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">MORITZ SCHWIND.   <i>Graphische Knste.</i></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">MORITZ SCHWIND.   <i>Graphische Künste.</i></td></tr></table> <p>Schwind, like Rethel, is numbered among the few artists of that period who were able to preserve their absolute simplicity against the great painters @@ -7945,7 +7904,7 @@ and fairy-tale, which Count Schack has collected in his private gallery for the quiet and devout enjoyment of thousands, he has given us his best work as a painter.</p> -<p>Yet even <i>his</i> pictures have the failings of his time. Compared with Drer, +<p>Yet even <i>his</i> pictures have the failings of his time. Compared with Dürer, he seems like a gifted amateur; there are manifold empty, dead spaces to be observed among his figures; their action is at times misconceived and puppet-like; and his sense of colour was always limited. One may be permitted @@ -7975,7 +7934,7 @@ the “blue flower” pours forth the whole of its sense-benumbing perfume. Count von Gleichen; the boy’s miraculous horn; the mountain spirit -Rbezahl, wandering along through +Rübezahl, wandering along through the wild mountain forest; the hermits; the elves’ dance; the erlking; the knight and the water nymph,—they @@ -7993,7 +7952,7 @@ master was an innocent, harmless, and joyous being.</p> <p>His works, in comparison with those of his contemporaries, who were devising systems by means of which art should be brought back to the classical, -bear the stamp of nave creations in which no hypocrisy, no decorative +bear the stamp of naïve creations in which no hypocrisy, no decorative nothingness finds expression. As against the erudite treatises of the Cornelius school, they preached for the first time the doctrine, that in works of art what is important is not the quantity of learning displayed therein, but the @@ -8009,7 +7968,7 @@ masters; he spoke the language of his time.</p> <p>He was one of the first who at that time laid aside the prejudice against modern costume, and in his “Symphony” turned to artistic account, in -one fantastic whole, even Franz Lachner’s frockcoat and Frulein Hetzenecker’s +one fantastic whole, even Franz Lachner’s frockcoat and Fräulein Hetzenecker’s modern society toilette. “If you may paint a man hidden in an iron stove—what is called a knight in armour—you may still more permissibly paint a man in a frockcoat. In general, one can paint what one will, @@ -8026,11 +7985,11 @@ Journey” he raised all reality into the poetry of purest romance, so is hi Romanticism saturated with a sense of reality charged with memories of home. Out of his fairy-tale pictures is breathed a charming fragrance of the long-vanished days of earth’s first springtide, and yet for that very reason -a breath of the most modern Dcadence. He is distinguished from Mares +a breath of the most modern Décadence. He is distinguished from Marées and Burne-Jones, from Puvis de Chavannes and Gustave Moreau, by a very unmodern attribute—he is bursting -with health. He is still navely +with health. He is still naïvely childlike, free from that elegiac melancholy, that temper of weary resignation, which the end of the nineteenth @@ -8116,7 +8075,7 @@ like a delicate vapour; and quite especially in his illustrations—so far a word may be employed with respect to him, for he never illustrated, he gave shape to his own thoughts, and that only which moved his innermost being he brought fully formed before one’s eye. The <i>Bilderbogen</i> and the <i>Fliegende -Bltter</i> of Munich obtained from him witty and humorous inventions, such +Blätter</i> of Munich obtained from him witty and humorous inventions, such as “The Almond Tree,” “Puss in Boots,” “The Peasant and the Donkey,” “Herr Winter,” and “The Acrobat Games.” His fairest legacy consists of three cyclic works: “Cinderella,” “The Seven Ravens,” and “The Beautiful @@ -8180,7 +8139,7 @@ round the walls runs a frieze, depicting the legend of the “Beautiful Melusina.” It is Schwind’s monument. With him German Romanticism perished; reality itself had now become so marvellous. When, in 1850, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> -Hbner had to paint a figure of Germania +Hübner had to paint a figure of Germania for a page in King Ludwig’s album, he depicted a queenly woman, prone on the ground, with her face in @@ -8261,7 +8220,7 @@ has a single idea,” as Schwind said in his drastic way. The Muse of Schwind, the last Romanticist, was a chaste, pensive, soulful maiden; while that -of Piloty, the first colourist, was a noisy, bloodthirsty Megra. Yet one +of Piloty, the first colourist, was a noisy, bloodthirsty Megæra. Yet one can have no doubt as to the necessity of this evolutionary change.</p> <p>Schwind himself is among the masters “who have been, and are, and shall @@ -8305,14 +8264,14 @@ as possible of the art of foreign countries.</p> <p>In the very years when the first railways were ousting the old mail-coaches the mutual interchange of endeavour and ability between the various nations was slower and scantier than ever before. How German artists had wandered -abroad in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in that great age when Drer +abroad in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in that great age when Dürer crossed the Alps on Pirkheymer’s pony, and when Holbein obtained from -Erasmus letters of introduction for England! With what joy Drer, in his +Erasmus letters of introduction for England! With what joy Dürer, in his letters and in his journal, gives an account of the recognition accorded him in artistic circles in Italy and the Dutch cities! Nearly all the German painters had, in the course of their long wanderings, made acquaintance with either the Netherlands or Italy. They knew exactly what was going on in the -world around them. Drer and Raphael used to send drawings to each other, +world around them. Dürer and Raphael used to send drawings to each other, “so as to know each other’s handwriting.” It was only in the first half of the nineteenth century that the Germans, once proud in the consciousness of possessing the finest comprehension of, and the greatest receptivity for, foreign @@ -8333,7 +8292,7 @@ the ineradicable national failing of that of France.</p> <p>With some such ideas in their heads the majority of the German painters, in the autumn of 1843, found themselves confronted by Gallait’s “Abdication -of Charles <span class="sc">V</span>” and Bifve’s “Agreement of the Dutch Nobility”; two Belgian +of Charles <span class="sc">V</span>” and Bièfve’s “Agreement of the Dutch Nobility”; two Belgian <span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> pictures which at that time were going the round of the exhibitions in all the larger towns of Germany. And it was not long before the belief in the old @@ -8364,45 +8323,45 @@ powerful development which was shortly to take place in French art. A legion of characterless pupils issuing from David’s studio wearied the world with their aimless works, and hurled their thunderbolts against all rising talent. The austere catalogue of the Salon was a pell-mell of Belisarii, -Tlmaques, Phdras, Electras, Brutuses, Psyches, and Endymions. Girodet -and Gurin wearied themselves in putting on canvas the chief scenes in the +Télémaques, Phædras, Electras, Brutuses, Psyches, and Endymions. Girodet +and Guérin wearied themselves in putting on canvas the chief scenes in the classical tragedies at that time so frequently performed—Pygmalion and Galatea, the Death of Agamemnon, and the like—and painted portraits -between times; Girodet’s dry and poor, Gurin’s solemnly vacant. The +between times; Girodet’s dry and poor, Guérin’s solemnly vacant. The universal note was that of tedium.</p> -<p><i>Franois Grard</i> alone, the “King of Painters and Painter of Kings,” +<p><i>François Gérard</i> alone, the “King of Painters and Painter of Kings,” survives, at least in his portraits. Like David he is redeemed only by his -portrait painting, and his successes in that direction eclipse even Mme. Vige-Lebrun, +portrait painting, and his successes in that direction eclipse even Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, the amiable, gifted, and graceful painter of Marie Antoinette’s days. At the outbreak of the Revolution she had left France. Everywhere extolled -and welcomed with open arms, she painted Mme. de Stal in Switzerland, and +and welcomed with open arms, she painted Mme. de Staël in Switzerland, and at Naples Lady Hamilton, the famous beauty of the time of the Directory. But when, in 1810, she returned to Paris, she had been forgotten. The day on which Marie Antoinette picked up her brush for her, as Charles <span class="sc">V</span> had done for Titian, was to remain the happiest in her life. She belonged to the Ancien -Rgime, and although her death did not take place till 1842, at the age of +Régime, and although her death did not take place till 1842, at the age of eighty-seven, her work was already over in 1792. In her old age she busied herself in writing memoirs of the splendour of her youthful days, from the -famous mythological dinner in the Rue de Clry, where her husband appeared +famous mythological dinner in the Rue de Cléry, where her husband appeared in the character of Pindar and recited his translation of Anacreon’s odes, to the triumphs which accompanied her journey round Europe.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 320px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:270px; height:307px" src="images/img226.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">FRANOIS GRARD.   <i>L’Art.</i></td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">FRANÇOIS GÉRARD.   <i>L’Art.</i></td></tr></table> -<p>Grard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure, and +<p>Gérard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure, and filled it well, especially in his youth. When, in the Exhibition of Portrait Painting held at Paris in 1885, there appeared the likeness of Mlle. Brongniart, -from the collection of Baron Pichon, painted by Grard in 1795, at the age +from the collection of Baron Pichon, painted by Gérard in 1795, at the age of twenty-five, there was general astonishment at the familiar and intimate grasp of character it displayed. The portrait of this young girl standing in her white dress, so tranquil and without pose, has in the firmness of its <span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span> draughtsmanship the austere charm and dignity of a Bronzino. And later none could give to the aristocracy of Europe a nobler or more natural bearing -than did Grard, who became their tried and trusted depicter: yet in his last +than did Gérard, who became their tried and trusted depicter: yet in his last days he descended into theatrical exaggeration. Endowed as he was with all the captivating qualities of a cultured man of the world, @@ -8417,14 +8376,14 @@ the salons, the born painter of the great world, his house the centre of a distinguished circle of society. Not a celebrity, not an emperor or king, but wished to be painted by -Grard. And just as he had been the chosen +Gérard. And just as he had been the chosen portrait painter of the Bonaparte family, so after the Restoration he was still the official favourite of the Court. Josephine took the fashionable painter under her high protection, Napoleon’s marshals defiled before him, and the aristocracy which returned with Louis <span class="sc">XVIII</span> vied with one another for his favour.</p> -<p>Grard’s three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those +<p>Gérard’s three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those who in the first quarter of the century played any part in France upon the political, military, or literary stage. A man of supple talent and fine tastes, he completely satisfied the desires of a society which, after the storm of the @@ -8435,8 +8394,8 @@ people whom he painted are no longer “citizens,” as with David, but generals, princesses; and their surroundings allow of no doubt as to whether they are to be addressed as Sir, as Your Serene Highness, or as Your Excellency. No one knew how to flatter in so tactful a manner, particularly in portraits -of ladies. It was to him, therefore, that Mme. Rcamier had recourse when -she was dissatisfied with David’s likeness of her. Grard’s, which she destined +of ladies. It was to him, therefore, that Mme. Récamier had recourse when +she was dissatisfied with David’s likeness of her. Gérard’s, which she destined for Prince Augustus of Prussia, one of her admirers, gave the “fair Juliette” the fullest satisfaction. In the former she was represented reposing on a couch, austere and without charm, like a tragic muse. Here she sits in a @@ -8453,9 +8412,9 @@ about babies and the stork.</p> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:378px; height:558px" src="images/img228.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Gaz. des Beaux-Arts.</i></td> <td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Gaz. des Beaux-Arts.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRARD.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRARD.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">MADAME VISCONTI.</td> -<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRARD.</td> +<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRARD.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">MLLE. BRONGNIART.</td></tr></table> <p>The background, too, that colonnade “leading nowhither,” is characteristic @@ -8481,7 +8440,7 @@ Revolution, under the influence of which all extravagant pomp, not only in life, but even in portrait painting, was replaced by an ascetic sobriety. -Grard, the Court painter of the +Gérard, the Court painter of the Bourbons, who on their return had “learnt nothing and forgotten nothing,” reintroduced the gorgeous pillar @@ -8493,16 +8452,16 @@ the simple, neutral-toned background of the Italians.</p> <p>David, by the way, never forgave -Mme. Rcamier for having preferred +Mme. Récamier for having preferred his pupil to himself. When, in 1805, -after the completion of Grard’s likeness +after the completion of Gérard’s likeness of her, she approached David on the subject of finishing his, he answered drily: “Madame, artists have their caprices as well as women; now it is <i>I</i> who will not.”</p> -<p>As an historical painter Grard was +<p>As an historical painter Gérard was an imitator of the mannerist Girodet. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> Paintings such as “Daphnis and @@ -8566,10 +8525,10 @@ dreamed of embracing, when he held but its skeleton in his hands.</p> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:440px; height:578px" src="images/img230.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Gaz. des Beaux-Arts.</i></td> <td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Cassell & Co.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRARD.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRARD.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">CUPID AND PSYCHE.</td> -<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRARD.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MADAME RCAMIER [DETAIL].</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRARD.</td> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">MADAME RÉCAMIER [DETAIL].</td></tr></table> <p>And meanwhile, away from the broad high-road, and almost unnoticed, was living that painter whom David contemptuously called “the Boucher of @@ -8612,7 +8571,7 @@ with girl-like tenderness. His parents used often to send him out with the other poor children of the little town to gather faggots for the winter in the wood belonging to the neighbouring Benedictine monastery. There the handsome, sprightly boy -with the large melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest, Pre +with the large melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest, Père Besson, who made him a chorister and gave him some instruction. Here, in the old abbey of Cluny, surrounded by venerable statues carved in wood, by old pictures of saints and artistic miniatures, he recognised his vocation. @@ -8743,7 +8702,7 @@ mysterious visitor of his studio.</p> <p>To keep the wolf from the door, Prudhon was obliged for some years to draw vignettes on letter-sheets for the Government offices, business cards for -tradesmen, and even little pictures for <i>bonbonnires</i>. For this the representatives +tradesmen, and even little pictures for <i>bonbonnières</i>. For this the representatives of high art held him in contempt. Greuze alone treated him amicably, and even he held out no hopes for his future. “You have a family and you have talent, young man; that is enough in these days to bring about @@ -8789,7 +8748,7 @@ pictures, sketches, pastels, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> all of which have the same piquant charm, the same elegant grace, the same joyous and merry expression. In her he had found his type, as his namesake -Rubens did in Hlne Fourment. Constance Mayer became the muse of his +Rubens did in Hélène Fourment. Constance Mayer became the muse of his delicate, graceful work. And she too died before his eyes, having cut her throat with a razor.</p> @@ -8878,8 +8837,8 @@ exile. Solitary, tortured by remorse of conscience, and with continual thoughts of suicide, he lived on only for his recollections of her, in tender converse with the memorials she had left, insensible to the renown which began gradually to gather round his name. The completion of the “Unfortunate Family,” -which Constance had left unfinished on her easel, was his last <i>tte--tte</i> with -her, his last farewell. He left his studio only to visit her grave in Pre-Lachaise, +which Constance had left unfinished on her easel, was his last <i>tête-à-tête</i> with +her, his last farewell. He left his studio only to visit her grave in Père-Lachaise, or to wander alone along the outer boulevards. An “Ascension of the Virgin” and a “Christ on the Cross” were the last works of the once joyous painter of ancient mythology: the Mater Dolorosa and the Crucified—symbols @@ -8956,7 +8915,7 @@ scene.</p> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:342px; height:230px" src="images/img239.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"></td></tr> <tr><td class="caption">THE TOMB OF PRUDHON AND CONSTANCE<br /> -MAYER AT PRE-LACHAISE.</td></tr></table> +MAYER AT PÈRE-LACHAISE.</td></tr></table> <p>In general, Prudhon was not a tragic painter; his preference was for the more joyous, light and dreamy, delicately veiled myths of the ancients. His @@ -9040,7 +8999,7 @@ Prudhon. His heads of women charm one by the mysterious language of their eyes, by their familiar smile, and by their dreamy melancholy. No one knew better how to catch the fleeting expression in its most delicate shades, how to grasp the very mood of the moment. How piquant is his smiling -Antoinette Leroux with her dress <i> la</i> Charlotte Corday, her coquettish extravagant +Antoinette Leroux with her dress <i>à la</i> Charlotte Corday, her coquettish extravagant hat, and all the amusing “chic” of her toilette! Madame Copia, the wife of the engraver, with her delicately veiled eyes, has become in Prudhon’s hands the very essence of a beautiful soul. A languishing weariness, a remarkable @@ -9063,7 +9022,7 @@ in the name of the graceful against David’s formal stiffness. He sought to demonstrate that human beings do not in truth differ very widely to-day from those in whom Leonardo and Correggio delighted, that they are fashioned out of delicate flesh and blood, not out of marble and stone. Standing beside -David, he appealed to the art of colour. But as with Andr Chnier, a spirit +David, he appealed to the art of colour. But as with André Chénier, a spirit congenial to his, it was long before he attained success. His modesty and his rustic character could effect nothing against the dictatorial power of David, on whom had been showered every dignity that Art could offer. People @@ -9078,7 +9037,7 @@ who, without wishing it or knowing of it, was preparing the way for the overthro of David’s school. He was born 17th March 1771, at Paris, where <span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span> his father was a miniature painter. His vocation was determined in the -studio of Mme. Vige-Lebrun, who was a friend of his parents. In the Salon of +studio of Mme. Vigée-Lebrun, who was a friend of his parents. In the Salon of 1785, which contained David’s “Andromache beside the Body of Hector,” he chose his instructor. He was then the handsome youth of fifteen represented in his portrait of himself at Versailles, with delicate features, full of @@ -9096,7 +9055,7 @@ for the Prix de Rome, and this failure was the making of him.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">LA NUIT.</td></tr></table> <p>He went to Italy on his own account, and was an eye-witness of the war -which Napoleon was there waging. There he beheld scenes in which archology +which Napoleon was there waging. There he beheld scenes in which archæology had no part. For when Augereau’s foot-soldiers carried the bridge of Arcola by assault, they had little thought of imitating an antique bas-relief. Gros observed armies on the march, and saw their triumphant entry into @@ -9117,7 +9076,7 @@ of works of art to Paris, he had abundant opportunities of admiring critically the works of the sixteenth and seventeenth century masters. The two impressions thus received had a decisive effect upon his life. Gros became the great colourist of the Classical school, the singer of the Napoleonic -epos. Compared with David’s marmoreal Grco-Romans, Gros’ figures seem +epos. Compared with David’s marmoreal Græco-Romans, Gros’ figures seem to belong to another world; his pictures speak, both in purport and in technique, a language which must more than once have astonished his master.</p> @@ -9133,7 +9092,7 @@ the Dictator’s impetuous heroism; and he made a sketch of the General storming the bridge of Arcola at the head of his troops, ensign in hand. It pleased Napoleon, who saw in it something of the -dmonic power of the future +dæmonic power of the future conqueror of the world; and when the picture was exhibited in Paris in 1801 @@ -9163,7 +9122,7 @@ mythology, but he did not feel at home there. His field was that living history which the generals and soldiers of France were making. He won for contemporary military life its citizenship in art. David, wishing to remain true to “history” and to “style,” had depicted contemporary events -with reluctance. What Grard and Girodet had produced was interesting as +with reluctance. What Gérard and Girodet had produced was interesting as a protest on the part of reality against classical convention, but on the whole it was unsatisfying and wearisome. Gros, the famous painter of the “Plague of Jaffa” and of the “Battle of Eylau,” was the first to attain to high renown in @@ -9207,7 +9166,7 @@ Classical contemporaries, excites a sensation of pleasure.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 460px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:409px; height:362px" src="images/img246.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="captionx">PRUDHON.   LES PETITS DVIDEURS.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="captionx">PRUDHON.   LES PETITS DÉVIDEURS.</td></tr></table> <p>Gros’ heroes know, as David’s do, that they are @@ -9242,10 +9201,10 @@ which Vien and David presided was given in honour of the painter. Girodet read a poem, of which the conclusion ran as follows—</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>“Et toi, sage Vien, toi, David, matre illustre,</p> -<p class="i05">Jouissez de vos succs; dans son sixime lustre,</p> -<p class="i05">Votre lve, dj de toutes parts cit,</p> -<p class="i05">Auprs de vous vivra dans la postrit.”</p> +<p>“Et toi, sage Vien, toi, David, maître illustre,</p> +<p class="i05">Jouissez de vos succès; dans son sixième lustre,</p> +<p class="i05">Votre élève, déjà de toutes parts cité,</p> +<p class="i05">Auprès de vous vivra dans la postérité.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -9264,7 +9223,7 @@ mangled limbs and corrupting flesh he, the Conqueror, the Master, the Emperor, comes to a halt, pale, his eyes turned towards the cities burning on the horizon, in his grey overcoat and small cocked hat, at the head of his staff, indifferent, inexorable, merciless as Fate. “<i>Ah! si les rois pouvaient contempler ce -spectacle, ils scraient moins avides de conqutes.</i>” The classical posturing which +spectacle, ils scraient moins avides de conquêtes.</i>” The classical posturing which still lingered, a disturbing element, in the Plague picture, has been put aside <span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> completely. The conventional @@ -9281,7 +9240,7 @@ It was, beyond all controversy, the chief work in the Salon of 1808, rich in remarkable pictures; neither -Grard’s “Battle of Austerlitz,” +Gérard’s “Battle of Austerlitz,” nor Girodet’s “Atala,” nor David’s Coronation piece endangered Gros’ right to @@ -9303,11 +9262,11 @@ monuments forty centuries contemplate your actions,” constitutes, in 1810, the coping-stone of the cycle. Gros alone at that time understood the epic grandeur of war. He became, also, the portrait painter of the great men from whom its -events proceeded. His picture of General Massna, with its meditative, +events proceeded. His picture of General Masséna, with its meditative, slily tenacious expression, is the genuine portrait of a warrior; and how well is heroic, simple daring depicted in the likeness of General Lasalle, without the commonplace device of a mantle puffed out by the wind! -His portrait of General Fournier Sarlovse, at Versailles, has a freshness +His portrait of General Fournier Sarlovèse, at Versailles, has a freshness of colouring, the secret of which no one else possessed in those days except the two Englishmen, Lawrence and Raeburn. Gros was far in advance of his age. A painter of movement rather than of psychological analysis, @@ -9491,7 +9450,7 @@ standpoint of our own days seems even younger than youth commonly is, richer, fresher, more glowing and fiery—the Generation of 1830, the “<i>vaillants de -dix-huit cent trente</i>,” as Thophile Gautier +dix-huit cent trente</i>,” as Théophile Gautier called them in one of his poems.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span></p> @@ -9517,11 +9476,11 @@ called them in one of his poems.</p> a great and admirable school of art. After the convulsions of the Revolution and the wars of the Empire, that generation had arisen, daring and eager for action, which de Musset describes in his <i>Confessions d’un Enfan -du Sicle</i>. And these young men, born between the thunders of one battle +du Siècle</i>. And these young men, born between the thunders of one battle and another, who had grown up in the midst of greatness and glory, had to experience, as they ripened into manhood, the ignominy of Charles <span class="sc">X</span>’s reign, the period of clerical reaction. They saw monasteries re-erected, laws of -medival severity made against blasphemy and the desecration of churches +mediæval severity made against blasphemy and the desecration of churches and saints’ days, and the doctrine of the divine origin of the monarchy proclaimed anew. “And when young men spoke of glory,” says de Musset, “the answer was, ‘Become priests!’ And when they spoke of honour, @@ -9557,7 +9516,7 @@ art—such is Vitet’s definition of the movement.</p> <p>Literature, which, adapting itself to the politics of the government, had begun in Chateaubriand with an enthusiastic fervour for Catholicism, Monarchy, -and Medivalism, had in the twenties become revolutionary; and +and Mediævalism, had in the twenties become revolutionary; and the description of its battles is one of the most glowing chapters in George Brandes’ classic work. There was a revolt against the pseudo-antique, against the stiff handling of the Alexandrine metre, against the yoke of tradition. @@ -9572,7 +9531,7 @@ serious and terrible power with which one may not trifle, as the fire with which one must not play, as the electric spark that kills. So George Sand, the female Titan of Romanticism, published her novels, with their subversive tendencies and their sparkling animation of narrative. Between these two -rises the keen bronze-like profile of Prosper Mrime, who prefers to describe +rises the keen bronze-like profile of Prosper Mérimée, who prefers to describe the life of gypsies and robbers, and to depict the most violent and desperate characters in history. Finally, Victor Hugo, the great chieftain of the Romantic school, the Paganini of literature, unrivalled in imposing grandeur, @@ -9584,23 +9543,23 @@ breathing passion and full of diversified movement.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 390px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:342px; height:441px" src="images/img257.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">THODORE GRICAULT.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">THÉODORE GÉRICAULT.</td></tr></table> <p>The conflict was deadly. The young generation hailed with applause the new Messiah of letters, and grew intoxicated with the harmony of Hugo’s phrases, which sounded so much fuller and fierier than the measured speech -of Corneille and Racine. The Thtre Franais, recently benumbed as with +of Corneille and Racine. The Théâtre Français, recently benumbed as with the quiet of the grave, became all at once a tumultuous battlefield. There they sat, when Hugo’s <i>Cromwell</i> and <i>Hernani</i> were produced on the stage, correct, well dressed, gloved, close shaven, with their neat ties and shirt collars, the representatives of the old generation, whose blameless conduct had raised them to office and place. And in contrast to them, in the pit were crowded -together the young men, the “Jeune France,” as Thophile Gautier described +together the young men, the “Jeune France,” as Théophile Gautier described them, one with his waving hair like a lion’s mane, another with his Rubens hat and Spanish mantle, another in his vest of bright red satin. Their common <span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> uniform was the red waistcoat -introduced by Thophile Gautier—not +introduced by Théophile Gautier—not the red chosen for their symbol by the men of the Revolution, but the scarlet-red which @@ -9628,7 +9587,7 @@ phosphorescence, seas at night-time in which ships are sinking, landscapes over which roaring War shakes his brand, and where maddened nations fall furiously upon one another—such are the subjects, resonant with shout of battle and song of victory, which held sway over French Romanticism. At -the very time when at Dsseldorf the young artists of Germany were +the very time when at Düsseldorf the young artists of Germany were painting with the milk of pious feeling their lachrymose, susceptible, sentimental pictures, utterly tame and respectable; when the Nazarene school were holding their post-mortem on the livid corpse of old Italian art, and @@ -9682,22 +9641,22 @@ of movement against stiffness.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:414px; height:569px" src="images/img258.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:412px; height:565px" src="images/img259.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRICAULT.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRICAULT.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE WOUNDED CUIRASSIER.</td> -<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRICAULT.</td> +<td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRICAULT.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">CHASSEUR.</td></tr></table> -<p>It was in the studio of Gurin, the tame and timid Classicist, that the +<p>It was in the studio of Guérin, the tame and timid Classicist, that the young assailants grew up, “the daubers of 1830,” who called the Apollo Belvidere a shabby yellow turnip, and who spoke of Racine and Raphael as of street arabs. They were tired of copying profiles of Antinous. The contemplation -of a picture by Girodet was wearisome to them. It was <i>Thodore -Gricault</i>, a hot, hasty passionate nature, of Beethoven-like unruliness and +of a picture by Girodet was wearisome to them. It was <i>Théodore +Géricault</i>, a hot, hasty passionate nature, of Beethoven-like unruliness and of heaven-storming boldness, who spoke the word of deliverance.</p> <p>He was a Norman, sturdily built and serious in manner. Even while he -was studying in Gurin’s studio he had already grasped some of the ideas -which Gros had in his mind, and, although not his pupil, Gricault may be +was studying in Guérin’s studio he had already grasped some of the ideas +which Gros had in his mind, and, although not his pupil, Géricault may be said to have continued his work, or at least would have been able to do so had he lived longer. Like him, he had from his youth up contemplated, full of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> @@ -9726,24 +9685,24 @@ studies of such subjects, which he continued to the day of his death. Afterwards, while he was working -under Gurin and before his +under Guérin and before his visit to Italy in 1817, he often went to the Louvre, copied pictures and studied Rubens, to the great annoyance of his teacher, who with horror beheld him entering upon so perilous a path.</p> <p>Here again he followed in the steps of Gros, whose portrait of General -Fournier Sarlovse was hung in the Salon of 1812 close by Gricault’s “Mounted -Officer.” This picture, a portrait of M. Dieudonn, an officer in the Chasseurs +Fournier Sarlovése was hung in the Salon of 1812 close by Géricault’s “Mounted +Officer.” This picture, a portrait of M. Dieudonné, an officer in the Chasseurs d’Afrique, crossing the battlefield sword in hand on a rearing horse, was -the first work exhibited by Gricault, then twenty-one years of age. It was +the first work exhibited by Géricault, then twenty-one years of age. It was an event. Gros found himself supported, if not surpassed, by a beginner who had his own enthusiasm for colour and movement, for profiles broadly and boldly delineated. In 1814 followed the “Wounded Cuirassier,” staggering across the field of battle and dragging his horse behind him. These were no longer warriors seated on classical steeds foaming with rage, but real -soldiers in whom there was nothing of the Greek statue. Then Gricault -went to Italy, but in this case also it was not to pursue archological studies in +soldiers in whom there was nothing of the Greek statue. Then Géricault +went to Italy, but in this case also it was not to pursue archæological studies in the museums, but to see the race of the <i>barberi</i> during carnival. To this time belong those studies of horses, for the possession of which collectors vie <span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> @@ -9769,16 +9728,16 @@ anxiety is terrible. And ever higher and higher the grey waves roll on.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:713px; height:500px" src="images/img260.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> <td class="tcr f90"><i>Seemann, Leipzig.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRICAULT.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRICAULT.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE RAFT OF THE MEDUSA.</td></tr></table> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:685px; height:505px" src="images/img261.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRICAULT.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRICAULT.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE START.</td></tr></table> <p>How must such a scene have impressed a generation which for long years -had seen nothing in the Salon but dry mythology and painted statues! Gricault +had seen nothing in the Salon but dry mythology and painted statues! Géricault was the first to free himself from the tyranny of the plaster-of-Paris bust, and once again to put passion and truth to nature in the place of cold marble. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> @@ -9786,7 +9745,7 @@ Just as he commissioned the ship’s carpenter who had constructed the raft and was one of the saved to make him a model of it, so also he moved into a studio close to the hospital, for the purpose of studying the sick and dying, of sketching dead bodies and single limbs. It must be admitted that one would -wish for a yet firmer grasp of the subject. In form, Gricault still belongs to +wish for a yet firmer grasp of the subject. In form, Géricault still belongs to the school of David. A good deal of Classicism shows itself in the fact that he thought it necessary to depict the majority of the figures naked, in order to avoid “unpictorial” costumes. There is still something academic in the @@ -9799,7 +9758,7 @@ part in expressing the meaning of the picture. From the distance, indeed, whence the rescuing ship is drawing near, a bright light shines forth upon a scene otherwise depicted in dull brown. Save for this, the intention of the picture is not expressed by means of colour, and it even shows some retrogression -as compared with Gricault’s earlier works. He had begun with +as compared with Géricault’s earlier works. He had begun with Rubens, yet these studies in colouring did not last. In the “Wounded Cuirassier” of 1814 dark tones took the place of the former cheerfulness, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> @@ -9818,7 +9777,7 @@ their hour is come.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:258px; height:341px" src="images/img262.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Seemann, Leipzig.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">EUGNE DELACROIX.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">EUGÈNE DELACROIX.</td></tr></table> <p>The next step in French art was to be that of reinstating the significance of colour in the @@ -9826,7 +9785,7 @@ full rights conquered for it by Titian, so that it should no longer be merely a tasteful tinting of the figures, but should become truly that which gives its temper to the picture. It -was not reserved for Gricault to effect this. A trip to London, which he +was not reserved for Géricault to effect this. A trip to London, which he made in 1820, in company with his friend Charlet, was the last event of his life. There the sportsman awoke in him once more, and he painted the “Race for the Derby at Epsom.” Soon after his return he was thrown from @@ -9835,15 +9794,15 @@ spinal complaint. With a few more years in which to develop he should have been one of the great masters of France, but he died when scarcely in his thirty-second year.</p> -<p>Yet he lived long enough to observe, in the Salon of 1822, the dbut of -one of his comrades from Gurin’s studio. A greater than himself, to whom +<p>Yet he lived long enough to observe, in the Salon of 1822, the début of +one of his comrades from Guérin’s studio. A greater than himself, to whom with dying voice he had given a few words of advice, arose as the intellectual heir of the young painter so prematurely carried off, and carried to its issue the struggle which he had begun. It was on 26th April 1799, at midday, that the first genuine painter’s eye of the century saw the light, at Charenton Saint-Maurice. -Gricault had made a beginning, but it was the impetuous, powerful -genius of <i>Eugne Delacroix</i> which entered in and completed his work. What -Gros had dimly perceived, but had not dared to express, what Gricault had +Géricault had made a beginning, but it was the impetuous, powerful +genius of <i>Eugène Delacroix</i> which entered in and completed his work. What +Gros had dimly perceived, but had not dared to express, what Géricault had barely had time with a courageous hand to point out, a hand too soon stiffened in death—the modern poetry of colour, of fever, and of quivering emotion—it was reserved for Delacroix to write.</p> @@ -9867,9 +9826,9 @@ right.</p> <p class="pt2"> </p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span></p> -<p>Delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in Gurin’s studio, +<p>Delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in Guérin’s studio, but he became the latter’s antipode. Even in his student years he took -counsel, not of the antique, but of Rubens and Veronese; and when Gricault +counsel, not of the antique, but of Rubens and Veronese; and when Géricault was painting his “Raft of the Medusa,” Delacroix belonged to the little band of enthusiastic admirers which gathered round the young master. He served as model for the half-submerged man to the left in the foreground of that @@ -9878,12 +9837,12 @@ studies of horses, and with Madonnas in the Classical style, he exhibited in 1822 his “Dante’s Bark,” in a pictorial sense the first characteristic picture of the century. One is inclined even to-day to repeat David’s exclamation when he caught sight of the work, the first great epoch-making life-utterance of the -revolutionary Romanticists: “<i>D’o vient-il? Je ne connais pas cette touche-la.</i>” +revolutionary Romanticists: “<i>D’où vient-il? Je ne connais pas cette touche-la.</i>” There were thoughts in it which had not been conceived and expressed in the same manner since the time of Tintoretto. Dante and Virgil, ferried by Phlegyas over Acheron, are passing among the souls of the damned, who grasp hold of the boat with the energy of despair. A theme taken from a -medival author; an antique figure, that of Virgil, but seen through the +mediæval author; an antique figure, that of Virgil, but seen through the prism of modern poetry. While the Florentine, stiff with horror, gazes upon the swimming figures which cling to the boat with teeth and nails, Virgil, tranquil and serious, turns on them a face which the emotions of life can no @@ -9904,7 +9863,7 @@ absolutely opposed to all the exact, regular, well-balanced, colourless traditio which held sway in David’s school with their pedantic erudition and <i>bourgeois</i> discretion. The principle of the Classicists was the Greek type of beauty, and the translation of sculpture into painting. In Delacroix’s picture there was -no longer anything of that sort. Gricault had already broken away from +no longer anything of that sort. Géricault had already broken away from the academic stencilling of form, and had substituted natural expression, life, and emotion for conventional types; Delacroix now set aside the sullen colouring of the Classical school, and its painted statues made way for the colour-symphonies @@ -9967,7 +9926,7 @@ glow of colour more than any that had appeared in <span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span> France since the days of Rubens. The English had been his teachers. “It -is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt,” Gricault had +is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt,” Géricault had previously written from London. Delacroix’s work had already been sent off to the Salon when Constable’s first pictures were just arriving there, and the impression which they made upon him was so powerful that, at the very @@ -9995,7 +9954,7 @@ systematically to prefer the ugly—that is to say, he was blamed for the ve qualities wherein lay his importance as a reformer. Accustomed as they had been for many years to an art in which intellect, correctness, and moderation held sway, not one of the critics was in a position to perceive all at once the -value of this fiery spirit. Delcluze, the indefatigable defender of the sacred +value of this fiery spirit. Delécluze, the indefatigable defender of the sacred dogmas of the Classical school, characterised “dramatic expression and composition marked by action” as the reef whereon the grand style of painting must inevitably be wrecked. The modern schools of art, he taught as late as @@ -10005,7 +9964,7 @@ the work showed, it nevertheless belonged, he said, to an inferior genus, and all its excellences in colouring could not outweigh the ugliness of its form.</p> <p>Therewith began the battles of the Romantic school, and all the daring of -Thophile Gautier, Thiers, Victor Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire, Brger-Thor, +Théophile Gautier, Thiers, Victor Hugo, Sainte-Beuve, Baudelaire, Bürger-Thoré, Gustave Planche, Paul Mantz, and others had to be called upon in order to storm the heights held by the batteries of the Classical critics. Count Forbin gave proof of no less courage when he bought the picture, torn to @@ -10037,7 +9996,7 @@ an enthusiasm for the great Anglo-Saxon and German poets, Shakespeare and Goethe, in whom, contrasting with Racine’s correctness, were to be found unrestrained genius and glowing passion. This influence of poetry over art may easily become dangerous, if painters sponge, so to speak, upon the poet, -as the Dsseldorf school did, and make use of his work only for the purpose +as the Düsseldorf school did, and make use of his work only for the purpose <span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> of enabling works, in themselves valueless, to keep their heads, artistically speaking, above water, by means of their extrinsic poetical interest. But @@ -10068,7 +10027,7 @@ he returned to the port of Toulon, on 5th July 1832, he had seen Algiers and Spain, and had assimilated an abundance of sunshine and colour. It is in his Oriental pictures that his painting first reaches its zenith, just as Victor Hugo’s mastery over language was at its highest -point in his <i>Orientales</i>. Goethe, in his <i>West-stliches Divan</i>, celebrated +point in his <i>Orientales</i>. Goethe, in his <i>West-östliches Divan</i>, celebrated what is quiet and contemplative in the Oriental view of life. Obermann sang of the land of legend, of buried treasures, of Aladdin and the wonderful lamp; but for Byron (who was practically the first to introduce into @@ -10095,7 +10054,7 @@ have had. They possess nothing save a blanket in which they walk, sleep, and are buried, and yet they look as dignified as Cicero in his curule chair. What truth, what nobility in these figures! There is nothing more beautiful in the antique. And all in white, as with Roman senators or at the Greek -Panathena.”</p> +Panathenæa.”</p> <p>His palette was thus further enriched in lucid tints, the contrasts he formerly delighted in became less sharp and glaring, the gloomy background @@ -10165,7 +10124,7 @@ in a masterly manner the theme so familiar and sympathetic to him. In his works there is something of the joyous and sportive energy of Rubens’ allegorical pictures, but not the least trace of imitation. He understood decorative painting in the sense of the great old masters, Giulio Romano and Veronese, -not as wall didactics and lectures on archology; he knew that descriptive +not as wall didactics and lectures on archæology; he knew that descriptive prose has nothing whatever to do with the walls of a building, but that the sole aim of such paintings is to fill the house with their solemn grandeur, to make the whole building resound as it were with sacred organ music. Between @@ -10203,13 +10162,13 @@ battling warriors; and he sought it in every sphere, in nature no less than in poetry and the Bible. Hardly any painter—not even Rubens—has depicted with equal power the passions and movements of animals: lions in which he is own brother to Barye; fighting horses, in which he stands side by -side with Gricault. No other artist painted waves more grand, wind-beaten, +side with Géricault. No other artist painted waves more grand, wind-beaten, foaming, dashing, towering on high. Looking at them, one divines all the horrors concealed beneath the roar of the blue surface, horrors which were as -yet so insufficiently suggested in Gricault’s “Raft of the Medusa.” In his +yet so insufficiently suggested in Géricault’s “Raft of the Medusa.” In his historical pictures there reigns now terror and despair, as in the “Massacre of Chios”; now gloomy horror, as in the “Medea”; now feverish movement, -as in the “Death of the Bishop of Lige.” He passes from Dante +as in the “Death of the Bishop of Liège.” He passes from Dante to Shakespeare, from Goethe to Byron, but only to borrow from them their most moving dramatic situations—Hamlet at Yorick’s grave, his fight with <span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span> @@ -10322,7 +10281,7 @@ internal fire.</p> <p>His portrait of himself in the Louvre, with its pale forehead, its large dark-rimmed eyes, its lean, hollow face, its parchment-like skin stretched tightly over the bones, explains his pictures better than any critical appreciation. -Delacroix was one of the <i>mes maladives</i>, the spirits sick unto death, to whom +Delacroix was one of the <i>âmes maladives</i>, the spirits sick unto death, to whom Baudelaire addresses himself in his <i>Fleurs du Mal</i>. Delicate from his youth up, thoroughly nervous by nature, he prolonged his sickly existence throughout his life by sheer energy of will. Even in his childhood he passed through @@ -10363,7 +10322,7 @@ his opponents half-way. He did not trouble himself for a single moment to please the public; and therefore the public did not come to him. Controversies such as that which took place over the “Massacre of Chios” continued decade after decade, and the exhibition of each of his pictures was -the signal for a battle. “No work of his,” writes Thor, “but called forth +the signal for a battle. “No work of his,” writes Thoré, “but called forth deafening howls, curses, and furious controversy. Insults were heaped upon <span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span> the artist, coarser and more opprobrious than one would be justified in applying @@ -10426,7 +10385,7 @@ suddenly disappear out of their art, that it was not possible at a blow to banish all that had hitherto held sway and to replace it by its opposite. Ever since Poussin they -had sought in Roman antiquity the formul +had sought in Roman antiquity the formulæ of their art. The predilection which the Parisians have even to-day for the representation of Racine’s and Corneille’s @@ -10456,20 +10415,20 @@ literature of the world.</p> <p>Classicism found its poet and its muse. An unknown but very worthy young man, not endowed with wealth of imagination, but imbued with the most honourable intentions, came to Paris from the provincial town where -he had grown to manhood, with a manuscript in his pocket. And Franois -Ronsard’s <i>Lucrce</i>, a tragedy from the antique, in its style sober and severe, +he had grown to manhood, with a manuscript in his pocket. And François +Ronsard’s <i>Lucrèce</i>, a tragedy from the antique, in its style sober and severe, reminding one of Racine, was represented amid thunders of applause, shortly after Hugo had been hissed off the stage. Enthusiastic admirers saw in it a glorious return to the great tragic drama of France, an emanation from the spirit of Corneille, and praised its clear, measured, and at once “classic and familiar” language. Together with its poet, the Classical reaction -found its actress. In 1838 a young untrained child made her dbut at the -Thtre Franais—a Jewish girl who had sung in the streets to the accompaniment +found its actress. In 1838 a young untrained child made her début at the +Théâtre Français—a Jewish girl who had sung in the streets to the accompaniment <span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> of her harp. Rachel appeared upon the boards, and restored its former power of attraction to the old Classical repertoire, to the very tragedies which the Romantic school had banished from the theatre amid mockery and derision. -<i>The Cid</i>, <i>Mrope</i>, <i>Chimne</i>, and <i>Phdre</i> recovered their place upon +<i>The Cid</i>, <i>Mérope</i>, <i>Chimène</i>, and <i>Phèdre</i> recovered their place upon the stage.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -10527,7 +10486,7 @@ artistic natures of the North, who preferred other qualities belonging to their art? Is the sense of the beautiful that impression which is made upon us by a picture by Velasquez, an etching by Rembrandt, or a scene out of Shakespeare? Or again, is the beautiful revealed to us by the contemplation of the straight -noses and correctly disposed draperies of Girodet, Grard, and others of David’s +noses and correctly disposed draperies of Girodet, Gérard, and others of David’s pupils? A satyr is beautiful, a faun is beautiful. The antique bust of Socrates is full of character, notwithstanding its flattened nose, swollen lips, and small eyes. In Paul Veronese’s ‘Marriage at Cana’ I see men of various features @@ -10574,7 +10533,7 @@ metal.</p> <tr><td class="captionx">(<i>By permission of M. Jules Bapst, the owner of the picture.</i>)</td></tr></table> <p>Ingres was born in 1781, under the -<i>Ancien Rgime</i>. As a young man he +<i>Ancien Régime</i>. As a young man he lived through the triumphs of the Empire and the Classical school, and it was only natural that he should become @@ -10616,7 +10575,7 @@ consisted of correctness, balance, exactness; qualities which go to make rather a great architect or mathematician than an interesting painter.</p> <p>Ingres’ range of subjects was unusually wide. Pictures on themes taken -from antiquity (“Œdipus and the Sphinx” and “Virgil reading the neid”); +from antiquity (“Œdipus and the Sphinx” and “Virgil reading the Æneid”); costume pictures (“Henry <span class="sc">IV</span> and his Children” and the “Entry of Charles <span class="sc">V</span> into Paris”); religious paintings (Madonnas, “Christ giving the Keys to St. Peter,” and “St. Symphorian”); nude female figures (the “Odalisque,” @@ -10650,7 +10609,7 @@ Classical master. The picture is put together after a design on a Greek vase, and represents in its studied archaism -the ginetan period of his +the Æginetan period of his art. The “Vow of Louis <span class="sc">XIII</span>,” of 1824, was his confession of faith as regards the Cinquecento. @@ -10672,7 +10631,7 @@ the Keys to St. Peter” is also put together out of elements derived from the school of Urbino. In his “St. Symphorian,” which was belauded as the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of style, he turned by way of variety to the imitation of Michael Angelo: the action is violent, the muscles swollen. The “Apotheosis of -Homer” is an admirable lecture in archology, a sitting of the great academy +Homer” is an admirable lecture in archæology, a sitting of the great academy of genius, in which the poses are so fine and the heads so full of marble idealism that in comparison with it Raphael’s “School of Athens” has the effect of the wildest naturalism.</p> @@ -10725,7 +10684,7 @@ incapable of painting heads expressive of feeling or emotion. He depicted the form in itself, the abstract, typical, absolute form. He was dominated -only by a love for the <i>beaut suprme</i>, +only by a love for the <i>beauté suprême</i>, so that when he was in presence of nature he could not refrain from purifying and generalising. Everywhere @@ -10783,7 +10742,7 @@ doubt whether any one down to the present time has rightly understood the mysterious figure of Ingres, the man who in his youth was enraptured -by “<i>l’esprit, la grce, l’originalit de Vataux et la dlicieuse couleur de +by “<i>l’esprit, la grâce, l’originalité de Vataux et la délicieuse couleur de ses tableaux</i>,” and who, at a later time, not because of failing powers but deliberately and of set purpose, adopted a calmer system of colour tones; of this Classicist <i>par excellence</i>, who is counted among the greatest artists, in @@ -10812,10 +10771,10 @@ esteem, but his portraits are splendid creations which can truly stand compariso with the great old masters.</p> <p>So far back as 1806 there appeared in the Salon his likeness of Napoleon <span class="sc">I</span>, -with his bloodless, corpse-like face, enchased with such art that Delcluze +with his bloodless, corpse-like face, enchased with such art that Delécluze called it a Gothic medal. The Emperor is seated like a wax figure upon the throne, surrounded by the attributes of majesty—stiff, motionless as a -Byzantine idol. It was followed in 1807 by the portrait of Mme. Devauay, +Byzantine idol. It was followed in 1807 by the portrait of Mme. Devauçay, which even to-day impresses the beholder most pleasingly, notwithstanding the pedantic style in which it is painted. One feels in it fire and youthfulness, the enthusiasm and ardour of a new convert, who has for the first time discovered @@ -10856,7 +10815,7 @@ Blanc’s <i>Histoire de Dix Ans</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span> In the best of humours, with the four-square solidity of a knowledge of his own worth, which is full of character, this modern newspaper demi-god sits -on his chair as on a throne, the throne of the <i>Journal des Dbats</i>, like a +on his chair as on a throne, the throne of the <i>Journal des Débats</i>, like a <i>bourgeois</i> Jupiter Tonans, with his hands on his knees.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -10881,7 +10840,7 @@ painter.” To-day these small masterpieces of which he was ashamed sell for their weight in gold. In the Paris Exhibition of 1889 there was Mme. Chauvin with her Chinese eyes; Mme. Besnard on the terrace of the Pincio with her broad hat and her elegant sunshade; Mrs. Henting with her innocent -smile of an “<i>honnte femme</i>”; Mrs. Cavendish, an affected young blonde, +smile of an “<i>honnête femme</i>”; Mrs. Cavendish, an affected young blonde, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> with her overladen travelling dress and her crazy coiffure. Strange, that a man like Ingres should rave so about new fashions and pretty toilettes!</p> @@ -10896,7 +10855,7 @@ industry, but also a heart, a genuine, warm, and fine-feeling heart; that he was in his innermost being by no means the cold academician, the stiff doctrinaire he appears in his large pictures, and which he became by his opposition to the Romantic school. Here we have an enchanter such as the Primitives were -and the Impressionists are, like Massys and Manet, like Drer and Degas, like +and the Impressionists are, like Massys and Manet, like Dürer and Degas, like all who have looked Nature in the face. And while these drawings, at once occasional and austere, place him as a draughtsman on a level with the greatest masters in the history of art, they also show him, the reactionary, to be at the @@ -10920,12 +10879,12 @@ by the citizen monarchy of the tricolour. The <i>bourgeoisie</i> which had effec the Revolution of 1830 was soon appalled at its own temerity. Even in literature it inclined towards a temperate and lukewarm mediocrity. It was astonished to find itself admiring Casimir Delavigne. It found in Auber and -Scribe its ideal of music and comedy, as in Guizot, Duchtel, Thiers, and +Scribe its ideal of music and comedy, as in Guizot, Duchâtel, Thiers, and Odilon Barrot its ideal of politics. The intellectual exaltation which had gone before and followed after the Revolution of July had calmed down, and that which was to rise out of the Revolution of February was as yet latent. The same elder generation which had looked upon Napoleon Bonaparte’s stony -Csarian eye, when, like a god of war, unapproachable in his power he rode +Cæsarian eye, when, like a god of war, unapproachable in his power he rode by at the head of his staff, now saw the Roi Citoyen, the long-exiled ex-school-master, homely and fond of law and order, as every day at the same hour he passed alone on foot and in plain clothes through the streets of Paris, the @@ -10944,18 +10903,18 @@ between Ingres and Delacroix, was the end towards which their efforts were chiefly directed.</p> <p><i>Jean Gigoux</i>, a remarkable artist, has the merit of having given the most -effective support which Delacroix received in his battle against the <i>beaut -suprme</i> of the Classical school. When, in the Universal Exhibition of 1889 +effective support which Delacroix received in his battle against the <i>beauté +suprême</i> of the Classical school. When, in the Universal Exhibition of 1889 at Paris, his picture of “The Last Moments of Leonardo da Vinci,” painted in 1835, emerged from the seclusion of a provincial museum, its healthy <span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> fidelity to nature was the cause of general astonishment. The personages indeed wear costly costumes, and are surrounded by wealth and magnificence, but they themselves are common, ugly human beings. Here there is no trace -of idealism, not even in the sense of Gricault, who, notwithstanding his love +of idealism, not even in the sense of Géricault, who, notwithstanding his love of truth, remained faithful to the heroic type. The faces are, with religious devotion, painted exactly after nature by a man who evidently loved the -youthful works of Guercino and had zealously studied Drer. At the same +youthful works of Guercino and had zealously studied Dürer. At the same time was exhibited the portrait of the Polish “General Dwernicki,” painted in 1833, whom also Gigoux depicts as a man, not as a hero. War has made him not lean but fat, and in Gigoux’s picture his red nose and prominent @@ -10964,10 +10923,10 @@ war against every kind of idealism. Even in his religious paintings in Saint Germain l’Auxerrois he held fast to this principle, and this circumstance gives him a place to himself, apart from all the productions of his contemporaries. In a period which, with the solitary exception of Delacroix, was still absolutely -devoted to the doctrine <i>Exagrer la beaut</i>, his works are of a healthy, soul-refreshing +devoted to the doctrine <i>Exagérer la beauté</i>, his works are of a healthy, soul-refreshing ugliness.</p> -<p>A portion of Delacroix’s charm in colour descended to <i>Eugne Isabey</i>. He +<p>A portion of Delacroix’s charm in colour descended to <i>Eugène Isabey</i>. He is certainly not a great artist, but a delightful, sympathetic individuality, a painter who affords one pleasure even at this day. Amid the group of Classicists of his time he has the effect of a beautiful patch of colour, of a palette on @@ -11033,7 +10992,7 @@ chief defect of his genius. Scheffer’s draughtsmanship is dry and hard, hi colouring without tenderness or charm. These failings are ill-assorted with the attitudes and physiognomy of his figures, which have always an affectation of weakness, exhaustion, and moral suffering. He is a sentimental Classicist, -and his subjects the antithesis of the Grco-Roman ideal to which he does +and his subjects the antithesis of the Græco-Roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique. His “Suliote Women” was already, in sentiment, form, and colour, only a subdued and weakened reminiscence of the “Massacre of Chios.” At a later time he entirely forsook historical subjects (such as @@ -11053,7 +11012,7 @@ were also favourite figures for his delicate and contemplative spirit. He alone in French art inclines a little, in his tearful sentimentality, to -the Romantic school of Dsseldorf.</p> +the Romantic school of Düsseldorf.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:347px; height:548px" src="images/img294.jpg" alt="" /></td> @@ -11088,7 +11047,7 @@ first time regained a greater importance in French art; but he followed much more slavishly than Ingres in the paths of the Italian masters of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. This painter, worthy of respect, full of conviction, learned and of sterling worth, but colourless and cold, who decorated -the churches of St. Vincent de Paul and St. Germain des Prs, has enriched the +the churches of St. Vincent de Paul and St. Germain des Prés, has enriched the history of art by no new gift. An indefatigable worker, but endowed with little intellectual power, he went no further than to follow out strictly the rules which Ingres taught his pupils and had himself acquired from the old @@ -11111,7 +11070,7 @@ pictures of the Italian masters. Only a certain blond, tender, slightly melancho modern face of a Christian maiden is Flandrin’s peculiar property. He transferred these same ascetic and pure principles to portrait painting, and thereby acquired for himself a large practice as the painter of the <i>femme -honnte</i>. These women conversed with him and blushed in his presence; +honnête</i>. These women conversed with him and blushed in his presence; in his pictures we find grace and delicacy, eyes sparkling or meek, tenderness and mocking laughter, all translated into a nun-like, unapproachable appearance, which under the Second Empire gained the greater approbation among @@ -11154,7 +11113,7 @@ Campo Santo frescoes of Cornelius. Chenavard could draw much better than the German, but was not much better as a painter; the works of both have a literary rather than an artistic value.</p> -<p>Brief and brilliant was the career of <i>Thodore Chassriau</i>, who shot across +<p>Brief and brilliant was the career of <i>Théodore Chassériau</i>, who shot across the heavens of art like a gleaming meteor, first as a devotee of form, in Ingres’ sense of the word, and afterwards, like Delacroix, as an enthusiastic lover of sunshine and the clear light of Africa. Born in 1819 at St. Domingo, he @@ -11165,14 +11124,14 @@ or the changes which have entered into art in our time, and knows absolutely nothing of the poets of recent days. He will live on as a reminiscence and a reproduction of certain ages in the art of the past, without having created anything to hand down to the future. My wishes and my ideas do not in the -least correspond with his.” In these words Chassriau has himself pointed +least correspond with his.” In these words Chassériau has himself pointed out what it was that distinguished him from Ingres. Unfortunately he produced -but little. Personally a very elegant, <i>blas</i> gentleman, he plunged on +but little. Personally a very elegant, <i>blasé</i> gentleman, he plunged on his return from Italy into the whirlpool of Parisian life. He was remarkably ugly; but his black, piercing eyes made him the idol of the ladies, and he hurried through life with such haste that he broke down altogether at the age of thirty-six. Beyond various decorative paintings for the church of Saint -Mry and for the Salle des Comptes in the Palais d’Orsay, only a few Eastern +Méry and for the Salle des Comptes in the Palais d’Orsay, only a few Eastern pictures, and, best and most characteristic, a couple of lithographs, remain to represent his work. In these delicate mythological compositions a chord is struck which found no echo until, a generation later, it was heard again in the @@ -11180,12 +11139,12 @@ work of the French New Idealists and the English Pre-Raphaelites: there speaks in them a Romantic Hellenism, a something dreamily mystic, which makes him a remarkable link between Delacroix and the most refined spirit in the modern school, Gustave Moreau. It was purely an act of gratitude in Moreau -when he affixed the dedication “To Thodore Chassriau” to his fine picture +when he affixed the dedication “To Théodore Chassériau” to his fine picture of “The Young Man and Death.”</p> -<p><i>Lon Benouville</i> will be remembered only for his picture of the “Death of St. +<p><i>Léon Benouville</i> will be remembered only for his picture of the “Death of St. Francis,” in the Louvre, a good piece of work in the manner of the Quattrocento. -<i>Lon Cogniet</i> deserves to be mentioned because in the fifties he brought +<i>Léon Cogniet</i> deserves to be mentioned because in the fifties he brought together in his studio so many foreign pupils, especially Germans. He enjoyed above all others the reputation of being able to initiate beginners both quickly and with certainty into the peculiar mysteries of craftsmanship. All that a @@ -11217,8 +11176,8 @@ most famous painters of the century; and in this double capacity is an interesti proof that in art the “Vox populi” is seldom the “Vox Dei.” What a difference between him and the great spirits of the Romantic school! They <span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> -were enthusiastic poets; their predilection for Medivalism was concerned -only with its sthetic charm, with the twilight shadows of its picturesque +were enthusiastic poets; their predilection for Mediævalism was concerned +only with its æsthetic charm, with the twilight shadows of its picturesque churches, the sounding presage of its bells, the motley processions of that world gleaming bright with uninterrupted colour. And what further allured their imaginative powers was the unruly character of certain epochs, the destructive @@ -11275,7 +11234,7 @@ Rossini’s <i>Guillaume Tell</i>.</p> <p>Art also sought to turn to account the new materials furnished by historical -science, and sthetic minds hastened +science, and æsthetic minds hastened to enumerate the advantages which were to be expected of it. On the one hand—and this was nothing new—the @@ -11329,10 +11288,10 @@ might be permitted to make one’s flesh creep in an agreeable way.</p> <tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcc f90"><i>PAUL DELAROCHE.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f80"> -“Paul Delaroche la funbre mine<br /> +“Paul Delaroche à la funèbre mine<br />  S’entour avec plaisir de cadavres et d’os<br /> -Jane Grey, Mazarin, hros et hroine<br /> - Chez lui tout meurt ... except ces tableaux.” +Jane Grey, Mazarin, héros et héroine<br /> + Chez lui tout meurt ... excepté ces tableaux.” </td></tr></table> <p>For the average painter of mediocre ability historical exercises of this sort @@ -11357,7 +11316,7 @@ pictures showing some laboured animation, became in the twinkling of an eye leaders of the schools.</p> -<p><i>Eugne Devria</i> was the first and most +<p><i>Eugène Devéria</i> was the first and most important painter deliberately to enter upon this course. When his picture of the “Birth of Henry <span class="sc">IV</span>” was exhibited in the Salon of @@ -11365,7 +11324,7 @@ of Henry <span class="sc">IV</span>” was exhibited in the Salon of of a new Veronese, and his work joyfully saluted as the first historical picture in which the local colour of the epoch represented was -accurately observed. Henceforth Devria +accurately observed. Henceforth Devéria dressed always in the style of Rubens, and his house became the headquarters of the Romantic school. He was perhaps the only @@ -11432,7 +11391,7 @@ along with them, for to his circumspect nature Romanticism was an abomination, and his cool and deliberative spirit felt itself much more at home in the society of the Classicists. The works of the historians opened to him a welcome outlet by which to avoid a rupture with either party, and Delaroche -found his vocation. He assumed the rle of a peacemaker between the quarrelling +found his vocation. He assumed the rôle of a peacemaker between the quarrelling brothers, placed himself as mediator between Montagues and Capulets, and thus became—like Casimir Delavigne in literature—the head of that “School of Common Sense” on whose banner glittered in golden letters Louis @@ -11483,7 +11442,7 @@ the weeping and terrified children by placing in front of the bed a small dog, which is looking uneasily towards the door, where the red light of torches indicates the approach of the -assassins,—a Dsseldorf picture with improved +assassins,—a Düsseldorf picture with improved technique. It is just the same with his melodramatic and lachrymose “Cromwell.” It would be hardly possible to represent one of @@ -11496,7 +11455,7 @@ ecclesiastical revolution of England must have been extremely busy on the day of Charles <span class="sc">I</span>’s funeral, and have had better things to do than stealthily to open the coffin and contemplate, with a mixture of childish curiosity and sentimental pity, the corpse of the king -whom he had fought and conquered. Eugne Delacroix had treated this +whom he had fought and conquered. Eugène Delacroix had treated this subject in a sketch, in which Cromwell, at the funeral of Charles, gazes in quiet contempt upon the weak monarch who had not known how to keep either his crown or his head. As a work of art this little water-colour @@ -11505,10 +11464,10 @@ executed painting. From the very beginning he had no sense for the passionate or dramatic. From the first day, had the tailor who prepared costumes struck work, his artistic greatness would have fallen away to nothing; from the commencement he produced nothing but large, clumsily conceived -illustrations for historical novels. Planch pointed out long ago that all the +illustrations for historical novels. Planché pointed out long ago that all the costumes are glaringly new, that all the victims look as if they had got themselves up for a masked ball, that this sort of painting is much too clean and -pretty to give the argument the appearance of probability. Thophile Gautier, +pretty to give the argument the appearance of probability. Théophile Gautier, who had proclaimed the powerful originality of Delacroix, fumed with rage against these “saliva-polished representations, this art for the half-educated, disguised in false, Philistine realism, this art of historical illustration for the @@ -11543,7 +11502,7 @@ for him small models of rooms, in which he then arranged his lay-figures.</p> between the vagrant painter of history and the artist. The latter had the gift of the inner vision, and only painted things which had intellectually laid hold upon him and had assumed firm shape in his imagination. It was -while the organ was playing the <i>Dies ir</i> that he saw his “Piet” in a vision—that +while the organ was playing the <i>Dies iræ</i> that he saw his “Pietà” in a vision—that mighty work which in power of expression almost approaches Rembrandt. “Is not Tasso’s life most interesting?” he writes. “You weep for him, swaying restlessly from side to side on your chair, when you read the story @@ -11589,7 +11548,7 @@ remain, as ever, thoroughly middle-class.</p> <p>His likeness of Napoleon is perhaps that which shows most clearly how paltry a soul this painter possessed. It is not Devastation in human shape, not the man in whom his officers saw the “God of War” and of whom Mme. -de Stal said, “There is nothing human left in him.” The intellect of that +de Staël said, “There is nothing human left in him.” The intellect of that Corsican, with his great thoughts striding as in seven-leagued boots, thoughts each of which would give any single German writer material for the rest of his life, was hidden to the inquisitive glance of a painter who had never seen in @@ -11615,8 +11574,8 @@ His parents, shoemakers at Senlis, seem to have regarded the thick-headed, slowly developing boy as a kind of idiot, and are said to have treated him with no excessive gentleness. He was sent away from school because he could not understand the simplest things, and studied without success in the studios -of Gros and Delaroche. And yet, after he had made his dbut in the Salon -of 1843 with the “Troubadour,” a fine picture in the style of Devria, his +of Gros and Delaroche. And yet, after he had made his début in the Salon +of 1843 with the “Troubadour,” a fine picture in the style of Devéria, his “Orgie Romaine” of 1847 made him at one stroke the most celebrated painter in France. Pupils thronged to him from every quarter of the globe, and he left a deep and enduring impression upon every one of them. A very short, @@ -11654,7 +11613,7 @@ it was as if one long buried had come to life again. It had meanwhile become evident that even his “Romans of the Decadence” was only a work of compromise, the whole novelty of which consisted in forcing the results attained by the Romantic school in colouring into that bed of Procrustes, -the formul of idealism. The work is undoubtedly very noble in colouring, +the formulæ of idealism. The work is undoubtedly very noble in colouring, but what would not Delacroix have made of such a theme! or Rubens, indeed, whose Flemish “Kermesse” hangs not far from it in the Louvre. Couture’s figures have only “absolute beauty,” nothing individual; far less @@ -11698,10 +11657,10 @@ the right to maintain that he raised palaces where there had been barracks.</p> thorough-going Republicans reluctantly concede to him the possession of one good quality: he knew how to bring prosperity to the shop; “<i>il faisait marcher le commerce</i>.” One hears it said that the beautiful city on the Seine is but -the shadow of what it then was. “<i>Le niveau a baiss!</i>” says the Parisian, +the shadow of what it then was. “<i>Le niveau a baissé!</i>” says the Parisian, when he calls to mind the gorgeous days of the Empire. The extravagant elegance, the magnificent luxury, which used to roll in superb carriages along -the Boulevards and the Champs Elyses towards the Bois de Boulogne, and +the Boulevards and the Champs Elysées towards the Bois de Boulogne, and exhibited itself in the evening in the boxes of the theatres; the lustre which emanated from the Court, and the concourse of all the nabobs of the world,—all this must in those days have given to Parisian life a sparkling splendour, @@ -11713,7 +11672,7 @@ has to offer. The gentlefolk of the Empire understood the art of living better, cultivated and exhausted it after a more inventive fashion, than any generation that had gone before. In the Tuileries sat the man of the Second of December, the connoisseur and promoter of all refined tastes. In his person the age was -embodied, that age depicted by Zola in <i>La Cure</i>, in the passage where he +embodied, that age depicted by Zola in <i>La Curée</i>, in the passage where he describes the halls, illumined as if by enchantment, of the imperial palace. There, all the splendour of over-civilisation glitters and gleams, with its bright eyes and sparkling jewels, with its breath of intoxicating perfumes floating from @@ -11721,8 +11680,8 @@ naked shoulders and arms and half-veiled voluptuous bosoms; while the green, sphinx-like eye of Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span> rests indifferently on the alabaster sea of <span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> white shoulders bowing before him, as he reviews all that he has possessed -and all that he can yet enjoy. Dumas’ <i>Dame aux Camlias</i>, <i>Diane de Lys</i> -and <i>Le Demi-monde</i>, Barrire’s <i>Filles de Marbre</i>, Augier’s <i>Mariage d’Olympe</i>, +and all that he can yet enjoy. Dumas’ <i>Dame aux Camélias</i>, <i>Diane de Lys</i> +and <i>Le Demi-monde</i>, Barrière’s <i>Filles de Marbre</i>, Augier’s <i>Mariage d’Olympe</i>, give the impress of the period upon literature, and the single phrase “The Lady of the Camelias” conjures up a world of forms and of scenery. <i>La Nouvelle Babylone</i> is the title of the fine book in which Joseph Pelletan depicted @@ -11798,7 +11757,7 @@ provocatively. A modern refined taste plays round the classical scheme.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span></p> <p><i>Alexandre Cabanel</i>, the incarnation of the academician, was, under -Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span>, the head of the cole des Beaux Arts. He was a fortunate +Napoleon <span class="sc">III</span>, the head of the École des Beaux Arts. He was a fortunate man. Born at Montpellier, the city of professors, nourished from his earliest youth on academic milk, winner of the Grand Prix de Rome in 1845, awarded the first medal at the Universal Exhibition of 1855, he went on his way, @@ -11817,7 +11776,7 @@ names: Delilah, the Shulamite woman, Jephthah’s daughter, Ruth, Tamar, Flora, Echo, Psyche, Hero, Lucretia, Cleopatra, -Penelope, Phdra, +Penelope, Phædra, Desdemona, Fiammetta, Francesca da Rimini, Pia dei Tolomei—an endless procession. @@ -11887,7 +11846,7 @@ every appearance of life.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:379px; height:917px" src="images/img319.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90">LEFBURE.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">LEFÉBURE.</td> <td class="tcr f90">TRUTH.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Goupil, the owners of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> @@ -11915,7 +11874,7 @@ be called modern; it is an elegant lie, like the whole of the Second Empire.</p> <p>Close by Bouguereau’s “Venus” in the Luxembourg hangs the well-known colossal figure of a beautiful nude woman with unnaturally over-developed thighs, which by the shining mirror in its uplifted right hand proclaims itself -to be “Truth.” <i>Jules Lefbure</i>, the painter of this picture, is also completely +to be “Truth.” <i>Jules Lefébure</i>, the painter of this picture, is also completely a slave to tradition; he came from Cogniet’s studio, and won the Prix de Rome in 1861. But he at least possesses @@ -11925,7 +11884,7 @@ distinguished, truer, and more powerful. He is in the broader sense of the word a worshipper of nature, and was so in his youth especially. His “Sleeping -Girl” of 1865 and his “Femme couche” +Girl” of 1865 and his “Femme couchée” of 1868 are smooth and honest studies from the nude, of delicate, sure draughtsmanship, and have therefore @@ -12133,7 +12092,7 @@ works are a synthesis of the favourite forms of the Cinquecento; they are the testament of the Cinquecento masters. He was a Parisian Primaticcio, a posthumous member of the old school of Fontainebleau. In him was embodied the last smile of the Renaissance, the results of which he assimilated -and reduced to formul. He lacked creative imagination, and +and reduced to formulæ. He lacked creative imagination, and his pictures are wanting in individual character. The nervous movement and sinewy stretchings of his young men’s bodies would never have been painted but for Donatello’s “David.” Of his women, the powerful and @@ -12174,7 +12133,7 @@ He possesses an elegance and grace which are neither Correggio’s, nor Raph nor Veronese’s, but French and Parisian. His Muses and Cupids, his “Comedy” and his “Judgment of Paris,” are documents of the French spirit in the nineteenth century, and—together with a few small and fine portraits on a -green or blue background <i> la</i> Clouet, among which that of his friend About +green or blue background <i>à la</i> Clouet, among which that of his friend About takes the first rank—they will always assure him an important place in the history of French art.</p> @@ -12197,14 +12156,14 @@ history of French art.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">EDMOND ABOUT.</td></tr></table> <p>Another artist who worked with Baudry at the decoration of the Grand -Opera House was <i>lie Delaunay</i>, who painted in a hall leading out of the foyer +Opera House was <i>Élie Delaunay</i>, who painted in a hall leading out of the foyer three large pictures on the myths of Apollo, Orpheus, and Amphion, and was at that time less appreciated than he deserved. Delaunay was born in the same year as Baudry, and, like him, was a Breton. In their genius also they are very similar. He shared in Baudry’s admiration of the masters of the Renaissance, but his worship was less for the Cinquecento than the fourteenth century. It was in Flandrin’s studio that he prepared himself for his entry -into the cole des Beaux Arts. His first picture, in 1849, “Christ healing +into the École des Beaux Arts. His first picture, in 1849, “Christ healing a Leper,” was, with respect to its Roman manner of conceiving form and its bronze-like firm draughtsmanship, still entirely in the style of Ingres. It was not till he went to Italy in 1856, as winner of the Prix de Rome, that he turned @@ -12223,7 +12182,7 @@ which only Ingres amongst modern French painters shares with him. The bodies of his nude male figures are strained in nerve and muscle like those of Donatello; they have the essential elegance and powerful rhythm of Dubois’ statues. Even the two pictures which he sent from Italy to the Salon, “The -Nymph Hesperia fleeing from the Pursuit of sacus,” and the “Lesson on +Nymph Hesperia fleeing from the Pursuit of Æsacus,” and the “Lesson on the Flute” in the Museum at Nantes, were works of great taste and sincerity, studied with respectful and patient devotion to nature, without striving after sentimental effect and without conventional reminiscences. When in @@ -12272,11 +12231,11 @@ Palais Royal. His last works, which remained unfinished, were designs for the Pantheon—scenes from the life of St. -Genevive—in which he followed +Geneviève—in which he followed in the footsteps of the great fresco colourists of Upper Italy, Gaudenzio Ferrari and -Pordenone. lie Delaunay +Pordenone. Élie Delaunay was no original genius, and as a pupil of the painters of the Quattrocento has not enriched the history of art in any way, but he stands @@ -12291,9 +12250,9 @@ this period also. Historical painting takes the highest places in the Salon, and shows itself altered only in this respect, that, instead of Delaroche’s tameness of style, we have sensational subjects, arguments which revel in scenes of horror and display of corpses. Literature had already entered upon this path. -Even Mrime in his last novel, <i>Lokis</i>, was clearly the forerunner of that +Even Mérimée in his last novel, <i>Lokis</i>, was clearly the forerunner of that tendency in taste which Taine characterised by the words, “<i>Depuis dix ans -une nuance de brutalit complte l’lgance</i>.” Flaubert himself, in his <i>Salambo</i>, +une nuance de brutalité complète l’élégance</i>.” Flaubert himself, in his <i>Salambo</i>, was to some extent carried away by the stream. Consider, for instance, the descriptions of Gisko crawling, a maimed, shapeless stump, out of the ditch into Matho’s tent, and of how his head is sawn off; of the tortures inflicted by @@ -12311,7 +12270,7 @@ under various headings, as biblical, historical, political murders; murders in connection with robbery, and murders arising out of revenge; with subdivisions corresponding to the means employed, as poison, the dagger, the halter, broadsword and rapier, the bowstring, strangling, burning, etc. This -was the time when, on account of this dominance of the “<i>Genre froce</i>,” the +was the time when, on account of this dominance of the “<i>Genre féroce</i>,” the public used to call the Salon the Morgue.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -12337,7 +12296,7 @@ mother stands beneath the scaffold, swinging a knotted club to protect the corpses from an antediluvian vulture. In a painting -by <i>Brhan</i>, Cyaxares, King of +by <i>Bréhan</i>, Cyaxares, King of the Medes, gives a banquet, and by way of dessert has his guests the Scythian leaders massacred @@ -12346,10 +12305,10 @@ by his mercenaries. In one by upon a yet happier idea, for at the conclusion of the meal he sets half-starved lions and tigers -upon his guests. <i>Aim Morot</i> +upon his guests. <i>Aimé Morot</i> depicted in a large picture “The Wives of the Ambrones” in the -battle of Aqu Sexti. They +battle of Aquæ Sextiæ. They are hurling themselves like a horde of furies upon the Roman horsemen who are attacking the @@ -12359,7 +12318,7 @@ them, they throw themselves <span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> upon the Romans, catch hold of the swords by the blade, tear their eyes out, and are trampled beneath the horses’ hoofs. Especially popular were -the voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the Csars. +the voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the Cæsars. Nero in particular suited the atmosphere of the period; his ghost haunted the novel, the stage, sculpture, and painting, and there seemed to be a general agreement to immortalise him and the morally monstrous personality of @@ -12377,12 +12336,12 @@ blood which the athlete’s hand had left upon the unhappy prince’s ne very familiar figure is that of Seneca, with distorted features, uttering his last words of wisdom while the blood pours from his opened veins. After -the madness of the Csars comes the +the madness of the Cæsars comes the atrocious history of the Merovingian kings. <i>Luminais</i>, the painter of Gauls and barbarians, represented in -his large picture “Les nervs de -Jumiges” the sons of King Clovis II, +his large picture “Les Énervés de +Jumièges” the sons of King Clovis II, who, after the muscles of their knees have been destroyed by fire, are set helplessly adrift in a boat on the @@ -12446,7 +12405,7 @@ weight which alone gives to such themes a character of convincing probability. True, these pictures compel respect on account of their unusual ability. These naked bodies, twisting themselves in the most varying postures of pain, give proof by their correct draughtsmanship of the most painstaking anatomical -studies, yet after all they are nothing more than inverted Laocons. The +studies, yet after all they are nothing more than inverted Laocoöns. The Classical spirit haunts them still, and a discordant effect is produced when subjects so full of wild passion are tranquilly depicted according to cold conventional rules. Over all these figures and scenes, even the most horrible, @@ -12495,7 +12454,7 @@ to himself, his art is not without its justification.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> <td class="tcr f90"><i>L’Art.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">LUMINAIS.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">LES NERVS DE JUMIGES.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">LES ÉNERVÉS DE JUMIÈGES.</td></tr></table> <p>Among the younger generation, <i>Rochegrosse</i>, an artist of daring genius, appeared for a while to have taken to such themes by free choice, and not solely @@ -12515,7 +12474,7 @@ corpses complete the picture, and on the bare wall to the left, over the stairs, hang dead bodies abandoned to corruption and the birds of prey. In his third picture he took for his theme the horrors of the barbarous and ferocious <span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> -Peasants’ War in the fourteenth century, as Mrime had described them in his +Peasants’ War in the fourteenth century, as Mérimée had described them in his book entitled <i>La Jacquerie</i>; and his work is all the more effective as there lurks in the subject a certain grim modern touch which reminds one of the Social Democracy, of the insurrection of the Commune, of something which might @@ -12539,18 +12498,18 @@ upon the mortal terror of the aristocratic ladies.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE INTERDICT.</td></tr></table> <p>In his subsequent pictures Rochegrosse did not go so far afield. His -“Murder of Julius Csar” was a work of art in white upon white, full of crude +“Murder of Julius Cæsar” was a work of art in white upon white, full of crude imagination, with white walls, white reflections of light, white togas, and dark red blotches of blood. His grass-eating “Nebuchadnezzar” proved that from the sublime to the ridiculous there is often only a step. Between times he -painted archological trifles for ladies of literary culture, such as the “Battle of +painted archæological trifles for ladies of literary culture, such as the “Battle of the Sparrows” of 1890; but in his great “Fall of Babylon” he has proved once <span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> more what he can do. No doubt it is not a fine work: it is a mere decorative piece, but an astonishingly spirited performance. The scene is the palace of the Babylonian kings, the decorative construction of which the recovered monuments and the recent scientific investigations had rendered it possible to -reproduce. Rochegrosse consulted with the zeal of an archologist all the +reproduce. Rochegrosse consulted with the zeal of an archæologist all the treasures of the Louvre and the British Museum,—Assyrian friezes, ornaments, and costumes,—and then set forth in these surroundings the famous banquet at which the Prophet Daniel explained the words “Mene, Tekel, Peres.” The @@ -12590,7 +12549,7 @@ rejected by the sitter, came eventually to the Louvre, is somewhat reminiscent of Velasquez and Delacroix, but is nevertheless, with -those of Gricault, amongst the +those of Géricault, amongst the finest equestrian portraits of the century. In his “Salome” he has depicted a black-haired girl with @@ -12639,8 +12598,8 @@ and precious stones. The more in these fascinating harmonies, in the power, splendour, and lustre of the colouring. Just as Baudry at the close of the Classical period produced in his paintings for the Opera House the noblest -work after the idealist formul, so Regnault in his “Salome” and his “Prim” -has completed the last defiant works of the formul of Romanticism.</p> +work after the idealist formulæ, so Regnault in his “Salome” and his “Prim” +has completed the last defiant works of the formulæ of Romanticism.</p> <p>We have thought it advisable to follow this development of the art of painting down to its close, just as in treating of the older periods we have @@ -12654,7 +12613,7 @@ art of painting was proceeding during these years in other countries.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:704px; height:866px" src="images/img337.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">HENRI REGNAULT.</td> -<td class="tcr f90 pb2">GENERAL PRM.</td></tr></table> +<td class="tcr f90 pb2">GENERAL PRÍM.</td></tr></table> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span></p> @@ -12687,7 +12646,7 @@ little lamp at the sun of Rubens. France was the only country where art followed the great changes of culture in the age. Hence Flemish painting had been crossed with French elements long before David’s arrival. And Paris was for the artists of 1800 what Italy had been for those of 1600. They -made their pilgrimage in troops to the studio of Suve, who had originally +made their pilgrimage in troops to the studio of Suvée, who had originally come from Bruges, but had lived since 1771 on the Seine. There, and there only, recipes for the composition of great figure pictures were to be obtained. And thus art completed what the Empire had in a political sense begun. The @@ -12711,7 +12670,7 @@ and carnal Flemish art was prescribed the mathematical regularity of the antique canon. The old Flemish joyousness of colour passed into a consumptive cacophony. And then was repeated in Belgium the tragedy which Classicism had played in France. Everything became a pretext for -draperies, stiff poses, sculptural groupings, and plaster heads. Phdra and +draperies, stiff poses, sculptural groupings, and plaster heads. Phædra and Theseus, Hector and Andromache, Paris and Helen, were, as in Paris, the most popular subjects. And so great a confusion reigned, that a sculptor from whom a wolf was ordered included the history of Romulus and Remus @@ -12761,7 +12720,7 @@ were by ideas of liberty: the brilliant method of presentation did this no less. What the old Van Bree looked for, the return to the splendour of colour and sensuous fulness of life of the old masters, was achieved in this picture. In the same year, when Belgium had won her nationality and independence once -more, a painter also ventured to break away from the French formul of +more, a painter also ventured to break away from the French formulæ of Classicism, and to treat a national theme in the manner of those painters who in former centuries had been the glory of Flanders. Wappers was greeted as a national hero; his part it was to bring to an issue with the brush that good @@ -12832,7 +12791,7 @@ time, Wappers had been merely praised as the renewer of Belgian art, he was now placed alongside of the greatest masters. Thiers induced him to exhibit in Paris the much discussed work, the fame of which had passed beyond the boundaries of Belgium. The “Episode” made a triumphal tour of all the -great towns of Europe before it found its home in the Muse Moderne; and +great towns of Europe before it found its home in the Musée Moderne; and Wappers’ fame abroad increased yet more his celebrity in Flanders. Thanks to him, the neighbouring nations began to interest themselves in the Belgian school. All were united in admiration of “the mighty conception and the @@ -12890,10 +12849,10 @@ Lamartine, and celebrated by Alfred de Musset in a brilliant article in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, now gratified a long cherished desire of the Belgian national pride when he united the heroes of the land in an ideal gathering.</p> -<p>Soon afterwards <i>Gallait</i> and <i>Bifve</i> trod the stage of Belgian painting. In +<p>Soon afterwards <i>Gallait</i> and <i>Bièfve</i> trod the stage of Belgian painting. In point of size their pictures surpassed all that that age, accustomed as it was to vast canvases, had yet witnessed. “The Abdication of Charles <span class="sc">V</span>” measured -twenty feet; it was hung in the Salon Carr of the Louvre above Paul Veronese’s +twenty feet; it was hung in the Salon Carré of the Louvre above Paul Veronese’s “Marriage at Cana.” An entire court of great ladies and gentlemen, clad in velvet and brocade, move in the gorgeous hall of state of a king’s castle. The solemn moment is represented when Charles <span class="sc">V</span>, erect and dominating @@ -12927,7 +12886,7 @@ Louis Gallait took the lead.</p> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">WAPPERS.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE DEATH OF COLUMBUS.</td></tr></table> -<p><i>Edouard de Bifve’s</i> “Treaty of the Nobles” formed the historical supplement +<p><i>Edouard de Bièfve’s</i> “Treaty of the Nobles” formed the historical supplement to this work; after the triumph of the kingdom came the triumph of the people. The picture represents the signing of the defensive league, against the Inquisition and other breaches of privilege, which the nobility of the Netherlands @@ -12972,7 +12931,7 @@ light. After the disconsolate wilderness of Classicism this period marked an advance. Every Salon brought some new name to light. The State had contributed a big budget for art, and extended its protecting hand over the “great painting” which was the glory of the young nation. What could not -be got into the Muse Moderne, founded in 1845, was divided amongst the +be got into the Musée Moderne, founded in 1845, was divided amongst the churches and provincial museums. The number of painters and exhibitions increased very noticeably. Beside the great triennial exhibitions in Brussels, Antwerp, and Ghent, there were others in the smaller towns, such as Mons and @@ -12983,7 +12942,7 @@ especially widened the horizon, by breaking the formula of Classicism and renewing the tradition of the brilliant colourists of the seventeenth century. -De Bifve, De Keyzer, Slingeneyer, +De Bièfve, De Keyzer, Slingeneyer, severally contributed to the Belgian Renaissance. The old Flemish race knew itself once more in this fond quest @@ -12997,7 +12956,7 @@ the glorious present and the great past, and to waken patriotic memories by the apotheosis of popular heroes. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> -And yet the Muse Moderne of Brussels is not one of those collections in +And yet the Musée Moderne of Brussels is not one of those collections in which one willingly lingers. The works in the old museum, hard by, have remained fresh and living and in touch with us; those in the new gallery seem to be divided from us by centuries. For the mischief with pictures @@ -13031,7 +12990,7 @@ siege! His revolutionary picture of 1834 is an unfortunate transposition into a sentimental key of the “Freedom on the Barricades” by Delacroix. Here also are play-actors rather than men and women of the people. This old man who is kissing the banner, the wife who winds her arms about her husband -as Venus does about Tannhuser, the pale girl who has fallen in a faint, the +as Venus does about Tannhäuser, the pale girl who has fallen in a faint, the warrior who, with his eyes turned up to Heaven, is breaking his sword—these are figures out of a melodrama, not revolutionaries storming the barricades, nor famishing artisans fighting for their very existence. And the thin, spick-and-span @@ -13044,7 +13003,7 @@ course went further and further down hill. Only in these two early works, in which he responded to a political movement by an artistic endeavour, does he seem, in a certain sense, individual and powerful. All the others are stereotyped productions which, having nothing to do with the Belgian national -movement, have all the more to do with the Parisian <i>cole du bon sens</i>. Even +movement, have all the more to do with the Parisian <i>École du bon sens</i>. Even his “Christ in the Grave,” painted in 1833, and now in St. Michael’s Church at Louvain, with its artificial grace and pietistical sentimentality, might have been painted by Ary Scheffer. The pathetic scenes from English and French @@ -13054,7 +13013,7 @@ Agnes Sorel and Charles <span class="sc">VII</span>, Abelard and Eloise, Charles his children, Anne Bullen’s parting from Elizabeth, Peter the Great presenting to his ministers the model of a Dutch ship, Columbus in prison, Boccaccio reading the <i>Decameron</i> to Joanna of Naples, the brothers De Witt before their -execution, Andr Chnier in the prison of Saint-Lazare, Louis <span class="sc">XVII</span> at Simon +execution, André Chénier in the prison of Saint-Lazare, Louis <span class="sc">XVII</span> at Simon the shoe-maker’s, the poet Camoens as a beggar, Charles <span class="sc">I</span> going to the scaffold—all are subjects treated by others before him in France, and neither in their conception nor their technique have they anything original. In the last-mentioned @@ -13143,7 +13102,7 @@ appearance of family portraits painted after death, and then washed over with a faint conventional tinge of red. The whole thing is like a huge piece of still-life, which an adroit painter has put together out of a mixture of heads, gold, jewels, mantles, and perukes. Delaroche seems to have contributed -the composition, Devria the sumptuous costumery; and as for the colouring, +the composition, Devéria the sumptuous costumery; and as for the colouring, Isabey, with his sunbeams shimmering in gold and silver, may not improbably have had something to do with that. What was spontaneous in Wappers is replaced in Gallait by cold calculation. Once and once only did this correct @@ -13171,11 +13130,11 @@ through. Heads, hands, and outlines have all a sickly idealism; a studious and sedulously polished manner of painting has ruined the intrinsic spirit of the work as -a whole. Thophile Gautier was right +a whole. Théophile Gautier was right when he wrote of Gallait: “<i>Tout le talent</i> <span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> -<i>qu’on peut acqurir avec du travail, du got, du jugememt, et de la volont, -M. Gallait le possde.</i>” Gallait’s “Last Obsequies,” hung in that same +<i>qu’on peut acquérir avec du travail, du goût, du jugememt, et de la volonté, +M. Gallait le possède.</i>” Gallait’s “Last Obsequies,” hung in that same Salon of 1850 which contained Courbet’s “Stone-breakers,” and the words of recognition accorded to it, were the last obsequies given to the parting genius of historical painting. A few years went by, and Gallait’s fame died @@ -13203,32 +13162,32 @@ to have been long dead.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:333px; height:372px" src="images/img352.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Bruyllant, Brussels.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="caption">EDOUARD BIFVE.</td></tr></table> +<tr><td class="caption">EDOUARD BIÈFVE.</td></tr></table> -<p>Finally, <i>Edouard de Bifve</i>, who in 1842 shared Gallait’s triumph in Germany, +<p>Finally, <i>Edouard de Bièfve</i>, who in 1842 shared Gallait’s triumph in Germany, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> and was afterwards named in the same breath with him, is the man who marks the complete corruption of this tendency. If the sturdy Wappers, the emasculate De Keyzer, and the eclectic Gallait tricked out their pathetic heroes with noble heads like that of the Antinous, and offered their contemporaries an adroit theatrical art, a parade, and a hollow pathos, the -incapable Bifve never got beyond the painting of <i>tableaux vivants</i> laboriously +incapable Bièfve never got beyond the painting of <i>tableaux vivants</i> laboriously presented. Terrible and of Shakespearian impressiveness is the scene in which the half-famished Ugolino hurls himself upon his son in an appalling ecstasy of frenzy, a curse against God and man upon his lips. Upon the -canvas, six metres wide, which Bifve in 1836 devoted to this theme, there is +canvas, six metres wide, which Bièfve in 1836 devoted to this theme, there is represented an old gentleman, who, though certainly a little pale, contrives to maintain in perfection the punctilious bearing of a cavalier, and in the midst of his fasting cure has picturesquely draped round his shoulders an ermine mantle, as if he had been asked out to dinner. Before him stands a young -man, possessing that graceful outline beloved of Paul Delaroche. Devria, +man, possessing that graceful outline beloved of Paul Delaroche. Devéria, Ary Scheffer, and Johannot were better painters of such monumental illustrations of the classics. As yet the shivering art of Belgium had learnt only to -warm itself at the Parisian fireside. Even Bifve’s “League of the Nobles of +warm itself at the Parisian fireside. Even Bièfve’s “League of the Nobles of the Netherlands,” despite its national subject-matter, was no more than a lucky hit, which he owed to his long residence in Paris. And how tiresomely is the scene played out! One would wish to catch the mutterings of insurrection -from these men who personify the Belgian people; but Bifve’s picture is +from these men who personify the Belgian people; but Bièfve’s picture is restful and dignified. Egmont and Horn, the lions of the occasion, are conducting themselves like honest citizens who are bored at a party. Seated in his chair, the handsome Egmont thinks merely of showing his fine profile @@ -13259,7 +13218,7 @@ was enough to set it in flames.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:679px; height:473px" src="images/img353.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> <td class="tcr f90"><i>Bruyllant, Brussels.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">BIFVE.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">BIÈFVE.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE LEAGUE OF THE NOBLES OF THE NETHERLANDS.</td></tr></table> <p>Since the wars of liberation Germany had been very reserved in her attitude @@ -13273,7 +13232,7 @@ and other authors, who had wandered to Paris, “the lofty tower of Freedom, to escape from the depressing condition of German affairs, had done what in them lay for the dissemination of this cult. The rising generation of the forties had been driven by Heine’s notices of the Salon into an almost hostile -attitude towards the dominant art schools of Germany, the schools of Dsseldorf +attitude towards the dominant art schools of Germany, the schools of Düsseldorf and Munich. The stylists on the Isar and the sentimental elegiac painters on the Rhine met with the same antipathy from the younger generation. The appearance of the two Belgian historical pictures, which were really nothing @@ -13291,7 +13250,7 @@ with the intention that painters should transform it into a world of shadowless contours. They recognised that the style of cartoon work had led away from all painting, and that it was therefore necessary to do honour once more to the despised handiwork and technique of art, as the fundamental condition -of its well-being. However much the sthetic party might warn them not +of its well-being. However much the æsthetic party might warn them not to renounce “the Reformation of painting, which had been begun and perfected forty years before,” and not “with modern technique to sink back into the pre-Cornelian, ornamental model painting,” the demand for colour, @@ -13339,14 +13298,14 @@ revolution against the abstract idealism of the school of Cornelius. In their opulence of ideas the draughtsmen of cartoons had made a notch in the history of art by casting the technical tradition overboard. To have reinstated this as far as they could, with the aid of the French, is the peculiar merit of the -generation of 1850. “<i>Rgle gnrale: si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd, -vous pouvez le complimenter en franais.</i>” So runs the motto—not complimentary +generation of 1850. “<i>Règle générale: si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd, +vous pouvez le complimenter en français.</i>” So runs the motto—not complimentary to Germany, but quite unassailable—which Edmond About prefixed to his notices on the Paris Universal Exhibition of 1855.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 460px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:414px; height:513px" src="images/img356.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx">ANSELM FEUERBACH.   PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.</td></tr></table> <p><i>Anselm Feuerbach</i> was the first distinguished German artist who made the @@ -13361,7 +13320,7 @@ after the Greek writers, German Classicism achieved in Feuerbach’s “Symposium of Plato” a great, noble, and faultless work, which will live. He moved upon classic ground more naturally and freely and with more of the Hellenic spirit than even the French. For the classic genius was begotten -in him, and not inoculated from without. In the <i>Vermchtniss</i> the son calls +in him, and not inoculated from without. In the <i>Vermächtniss</i> the son calls his father’s book the prophetic seal of his own original being. He inherited the classic spirit from the enthusiastic scholar, the subtile author of the Vatican Apollo, to whom the genius of Greece had so fully and completely @@ -13373,7 +13332,7 @@ strayed through life solitary and with leaden weights upon her feet,—such was Anselm Feuerbach, and by that division of his being he was ruined. Equipped with a superior education, an appearance of singular nobility, and with proud family traditions, he emerged like a shining -meteor in Dsseldorf, when he began his career at the age of sixteen, +meteor in Düsseldorf, when he began his career at the age of sixteen, brilliant, precocious, and already a favourite amongst women. This was in 1845. He ran through all the schools in Germany, Belgium, and France. In regard to @@ -13438,7 +13397,7 @@ learnt to understand the divine simplicity and noble dignity of antique art better than Couture was capable of understanding them; and he achieved a simple amplitude to which the French Classicism had never risen.</p> -<p>From his first works, to which the Dsseldorf egg-shell is still sticking, +<p>From his first works, to which the Düsseldorf egg-shell is still sticking, down to the “Symposium of Plato”—what a route it is, and through what phases he passes. “Hafiz at the Well,” surrounded by voluptuous, half-naked girls, painted at Paris in 1852, was his first eminent achievement. In @@ -13501,7 +13460,7 @@ of spiritual emotion in the eyes and features has been subdued in the extreme. -The “Piet,” +The “Pietà,” both the “Iphigenias,” <span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> and the “Symposium @@ -13511,7 +13470,7 @@ height of classic inspiration which he touched in Italy. Measure, nobility, unsought and perfected loftiness characterise -the “Piet,” that +the “Pietà,” that mother of the Saviour who bows herself in silent agony over the body of her Divine @@ -13570,7 +13529,7 @@ arrival, promised the greatest things. They display a sureness and majesty which find no parallel in the German art of those years. But they were destined never to be completed.</p> -<p>Feeling himself, like Antus, strong only on Roman soil, he lost his power +<p>Feeling himself, like Antæus, strong only on Roman soil, he lost his power in Vienna. Reserved, innately delicate, a mystical, ideal nature like that of Faust, and one which only with reluctance permitted to a stranger a glimpse of its inner being; in his life, as in his art, high-bred and simple, hating both @@ -13611,7 +13570,7 @@ did he believe himself to be, that he held himself justified in saying: “Believe me, after fifty years my pictures will possess tongues, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> tell the world what I was and what I meant.” In truth, he owes his resurrection -less to his pictures than to the <i>Vermchtniss</i>. A book has opened the +less to his pictures than to the <i>Vermächtniss</i>. A book has opened the eyes of Germany to Feuerbach’s greatness, and since that time the worship of Feuerbach has gone almost into extremes. Throughout his lifetime—like almost every great artist who has died before old age—he was handled by @@ -13630,11 +13589,11 @@ will subscribe to only with hesitation.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">MOTHER’S JOY.</td></tr></table> <p>Feuerbach presents a problem for psychological rather than artistic -analysis. Whoever has read the <i>Vermchtniss</i> feels the personal element in +analysis. Whoever has read the <i>Vermächtniss</i> feels the personal element in these works, sees in them the confessions of a proud, unsatisfied, and suffering <span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span> soul, and in their author no son of the Renaissance born out of due season, -but a modern who has been agitated through and through by the <i>dcadent</i> +but a modern who has been agitated through and through by the <i>décadent</i> fever. In his book Feuerbach appears as one of the first who felt to his inmost fibre all the intellectual and spiritual contradictions which are bred by the nineteenth century, and who cherished them even with a sort of tenderness, @@ -13657,7 +13616,7 @@ the shore of the sea, chilled through and through by the consciousness of her abandonment; the daughter of Agamemnon, who in spirit is seeking the land of the Greeks, with the boundless sea spreading wide and grey before her, like her own yearning,—both are images of the lonely Feuerbach, who, like -Hlderlin, the Werther of Greece, flies to a dreamy Hellas as to a happy +Hölderlin, the Werther of Greece, flies to a dreamy Hellas as to a happy shore, to find peace for his sick spirit. His “Symposium of Plato” has not that exuberant sensuousness, that mixture of <i>esprit</i> and voluptuousness, of temperance and intemperance, which marks the Athenian life under @@ -13695,7 +13654,7 @@ into elegiac complaints for their lost husbands.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:672px; height:335px" src="images/img365.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> -<td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td></tr> +<td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">FEUERBACH.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">MEDEA.</td></tr></table> @@ -13785,7 +13744,7 @@ gifted natures.</p> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">DANTE WALKING WITH HIGH-BORN LADIES OF RAVENNA.</td></tr></table> <p>These matters—a silent historical sermon—one reads, with the help of the -<i>Vermchtniss</i>, out of Feuerbach’s works. There “his pictures possess tongues”; +<i>Vermächtniss</i>, out of Feuerbach’s works. There “his pictures possess tongues”; there comes out of them a sound like the cry of a human heart; the whole tragedy of his career becomes present—what he succeeded in doing and what remained unapproachable. Yet later generations, which will judge him no @@ -13826,7 +13785,7 @@ of the Cinquecentists, or, if you will, a phenomenon of atavism. His writings and drawings show him concerned with the present, his paintings with the past. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> The modern temperament, artistically restrained, breaks out no more, the -nerves have no rle, no human sound is forced from his figures. He learnt +nerves have no rôle, no human sound is forced from his figures. He learnt through the spectacles of the great old masters to look away from everything petty in life, but he never laid those spectacles down. This modern man, who was so neurotic as a writer, sought as a painter, for the sake of the ideal, to @@ -13845,7 +13804,7 @@ could come to the consciousness of itself.</p> <tr><td class="captionx">GUSTAV RICHTER.   PORTRAIT OF HIMSELF.</td></tr></table> <p>Together with Feuerbach—and having, like him, previously received -enlightenment as to colouring at the Antwerp Academy—<i>Victor Mller</i>, of +enlightenment as to colouring at the Antwerp Academy—<i>Victor Müller</i>, of Frankfort, had gone to Couture in 1849. He resided until 1858 on the banks of the Seine, and was especially influenced by Delacroix, and perhaps also a little affected by Courbet. @@ -13875,7 +13834,7 @@ poetry of nature which in the hands of Delacroix so mystically heightens the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> -impression of human tragedies. Victor Mller was of a bold, uncompromising +impression of human tragedies. Victor Müller was of a bold, uncompromising talent, full of southern glow and wild Romanticism; a powerful, forcible realist, who never sought the empty, sentimental, ideal beauty known to his age. In a period dominated almost from end to end by a jejune and @@ -13885,7 +13844,7 @@ painted by a man who openly loved the youthful works of Riberas and Caravaggio. And just as surprising is the power of expression, the deep and earnest sentiment, which he attained in gestures and physiognomy. While Makart, in his balcony scene from <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>, never got away from a -hollow, theatrical affectation, Mller’s picture glows throughout with a sensuous +hollow, theatrical affectation, Müller’s picture glows throughout with a sensuous passion that saps the blood. A new Delacroix seemed to have been born; an extraordinary talent seemed to be rising above the horizon of our art, but Germany had to follow to the grave her greatest offshoot of Romanticism @@ -13893,7 +13852,7 @@ before he had spoken a decisive word, just as she lost Rethel, the greatest son of the cartoon era, in the flower of his age.</p> <p>Of the others who made the pilgrimage to Paris with Feuerbach and -Mller, not one has a similar importance as an artist. Their merit was that +Müller, not one has a similar importance as an artist. Their merit was that they made themselves comparatively able masters of technique, and taught the new gospel when they returned to Germany. To their superiority in technique and colour, given them by a sound French schooling, they owed @@ -13915,18 +13874,18 @@ in whose studio he worked from 1851, and his subject-matter to the German classical authors. Born a Brunswicker, he felt himself specially attracted by his countryman -Brger, and became a Northern ballad +Bürger, and became a Northern ballad painter with French technique. Movement, animation, wildness, and a certain romantic eeriness, proper to the Northern ballad—these are Henneberg’s prominent -features, as they are Brger’s. His pictures +features, as they are Bürger’s. His pictures have a bold caprice and a peculiarly powerful and sombre poetry. The hunting party storm past irresistibly, like a whirlwind, in his “Wild Hunt,” the <span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> -illustration to Brger’s ballad, which in 1856 won him the gold medal in +illustration to Bürger’s ballad, which in 1856 won him the gold medal in Paris.</p> <table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> @@ -13934,11 +13893,11 @@ Paris.</p> <p class="i05">Der Tross mit Hund und Ross und Mann.”</p> </div> </td></tr></table> -<p class="noind">A Dsseldorfian Romanticism, from the Wolf’s Glen, is united to Couture’s +<p class="noind">A Düsseldorfian Romanticism, from the Wolf’s Glen, is united to Couture’s nobleness of colouring in his “Criminal from Lost Honour,” of 1860. And -a part—even if only a small one—of the spirit which created Drer’s “The +a part—even if only a small one—of the spirit which created Dürer’s “The Knight, Death, and the Devil” lives in his masterpiece “The Race for -Fortune,” a picture breathed on by the spirit of sombre, medival Romanticism, +Fortune,” a picture breathed on by the spirit of sombre, mediæval Romanticism, which made his name the most honoured in the Exhibition of 1868.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> @@ -14120,7 +14079,7 @@ his “Seni” is indicative of the beginning of a new period. Before hi celebrated men of the Munich school made a boast of not being able to paint, and looked down upon the “colourers” with a contemptuous shrug; so here everything was attained which the young generation had admired in Gallait -and Bifve. This astounding revelation of colour was in 1855 praised in +and Bièfve. This astounding revelation of colour was in 1855 praised in Germany as something unheard of and absolutely perfect. There was no more of the petty, motley, bodyless painting which had hitherto been dominant. The manner in which the grey of morning falls upon the murdered man @@ -14194,13 +14153,13 @@ world. Under the influence of Makart the whole province of the more artistic trades was regarded from a pictorial point of view. Oriental carpets, heavy silken stuffs, Japanese vases, weapons and inlaid furniture, became henceforth the principal elements of decoration. The fashionable world surrounded -itself with brilliant colours; papers were supplemented by <i>portires</i> and +itself with brilliant colours; papers were supplemented by <i>portières</i> and Gobelins, ceilings were painted, and gay umbrellas stood in the fireplace. The bald, honest city-alderman style gave way, and a bright triumph of colour took its place. In the studio of the master were the finest blossoms of all epochs of art; richly ornamented German chests of the Renaissance stood near Chinese idols and Greek terra-cotta, Smyrna carpets and Gobelins, and -old Italian and Netherlandish pictures were mingled with antique and medival +old Italian and Netherlandish pictures were mingled with antique and mediæval weapons. And amid this rich still-life of splendid vessels, weapons, sculpture, and costly stuffs and costumes, which crowded all the walls and corners, there rose to the surface as further pieces of decoration a velvet coat, @@ -14245,9 +14204,9 @@ lavish instrumentation. Because a correct and solid anatomy was wanting to his creations from their birth upwards, they can live no longer now that their blooming flesh is withered. In fact, Makart’s painting was a weakly and superficial art. He had a sense for nothing but what was external. It is said -that in Chile there are huge and splendid faades on which are written <i>Museo +that in Chile there are huge and splendid façades on which are written <i>Museo Nacional</i>, <i>Theatro Nacional</i>, and there is nothing behind. And so for Makart -the world was a house with a splendid faade glowing with colour, but without +the world was a house with a splendid façade glowing with colour, but without dwelling-rooms in which the sorrow and joy of humanity make their abode. His men do not think and do not live; they are only lay figures for splendid garments, or materially circumscribed spaces of rosy flesh colour; @@ -14278,7 +14237,7 @@ historians in painting, Makart, though much tamer and smaller, has a relationshi with Delacroix in his sovereign artistry. That joy in the purely pictorial which expressed itself in the festal procession in the Ring-Strasse and in the furnishing of his studio was, moreover, the ground-principle of his art. With -the navet of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all historical +the naïveté of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all historical truth; with absolute want of respect for books of history he has committed anachronisms at which any critic would be irritated. Revelling in splendid revelations of colour, all that he concerned himself about was that his costumed @@ -14298,7 +14257,7 @@ and historical figures, and at the same time draws into his kingdom of art all nature with its variety of plants, flowers, and fruits, all civilisation with its fulness of splendid vessels and jewels, of shining stuffs, emblems, weapons, <span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> -and masks. All that he created breathes the nave, sensuous satisfaction of +and masks. All that he created breathes the naïve, sensuous satisfaction of the genuine painter.</p> <p>“The Pest in Florence” undoubtedly had its origin in Boccaccio’s description @@ -14314,7 +14273,7 @@ of the piazza. To the anger of the historian, he removes the scene from the fifteenth century to the blossoming period of the sixteenth, when the creations of Sansovino, Titian, and Veronese adorned the Queen of the Adriatic. “The Entry of Charles <span class="sc">V</span> into Antwerp” derived only its external impulse from -Drer’s Diary. The picture with the naked girls strewing flowers might +Dürer’s Diary. The picture with the naked girls strewing flowers might almost as well represent the triumphal entry of Alexander into Babylon. In the magic land by the Nile it is not the history of civilisation and ethnography that attracts him, nor the monumental world of the pyramids and the @@ -14422,7 +14381,7 @@ which invited pity, that the victim should not have been a hero, as in conventio catastrophes, but a soft and sweet girl, made for love and never for the cross. And it was the more absorbing, too, because it was impossible to say whether the young Roman was looking up to the beautiful woman with -the desecrating sensuality of a <i>dcadent</i> or with the fervid ecstasy of a convert. +the desecrating sensuality of a <i>décadent</i> or with the fervid ecstasy of a convert. The same horrified fascination was wakened again and again in the presence of the later pictures of the painter. Almost every one contained a scene of martyrdom, in which the tormented and sinking heroine was a helpless child @@ -14446,7 +14405,7 @@ expression that was terribly demoniacal, and had been attained to the same degree by no earlier illustrator of <i>Faust</i>. A raven, pecking at the lost ring, was her ghostly escort.</p> -<p>Max showed great invention in hitting upon such things. Brger’s <i>Pfarrertochter +<p>Max showed great invention in hitting upon such things. Bürger’s <i>Pfarrertochter von Taubenhain</i> gave him the material for his “Child-murderess”—a young girl who, by the bank of a lonely pool, overgrown with reeds, stabs her child to the heart with a needle, and in a sudden rush of maternal love @@ -14487,7 +14446,7 @@ of this group. The underlying idea of the picture “Light” is that a Christian girl, at the portal of the Roman catacombs, offers lamps to the entering Christians for the illumination of their dark way. The blind woman as the giver of light! Even in his youth, with cruel irony, he had had sung -by a blind quartet the song, “<i>Du hast die schnsten Augen</i>.” A touch of +by a blind quartet the song, “<i>Du hast die schönsten Augen</i>.” A touch of Delaroche is in the other young martyr, who, between the bloodthirsty beasts of the Roman circus, looks up amazed to the rows of spectators, from the midst of which a young Roman has flung her a rose as a last greeting. In the next @@ -14537,7 +14496,7 @@ and listens enraptured to the warbling of a nightingale.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:670px; height:437px" src="images/img389.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> -<td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td></tr> +<td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">MAX.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE LION’S BRIDE.</td></tr></table> @@ -14615,11 +14574,11 @@ shivering in the breeze.</p> <p>In such pictures, too, Max has a morbid inclination to a mystical delicacy of sentiment. He gives what is real an exquisite subtlety which transplants it into the world of dreams, and his tender sense of pain perhaps appeals only -to spirits of an sthetic temper. He is the antithesis of robust health; and +to spirits of an æsthetic temper. He is the antithesis of robust health; and yet there lies in the excess of nervous sensibility—in the pathological trait in his art—precisely the quality which inspires the characteristic delicacy of his earlier works. Here is no pupil of Piloty, but our contemporary. In their -anmic colour his pictures have the effect of a song of high, fine-drawn, and +anæmic colour his pictures have the effect of a song of high, fine-drawn, and tremulous violin tones, at once dulcet and painful. With their refinement and polish, @@ -14642,8 +14601,8 @@ in place of the <i>emotions fortes</i>.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:412px; height:520px" src="images/img393.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:414px; height:536px" src="images/img394.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td> -<td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Grphische Kunst.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td> +<td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Gräphische Kunst.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">MAX.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE SPIRIT’S GREETING.</td> <td class="tcl f90 pb2">MAX.</td> @@ -14788,8 +14747,8 @@ And what happened was just the contrary.</p> <p>When Delaroche had skimmed the cream, his successors were forced to search in the great martyr book of history for events which were more and more unknown and indifferent. Piloty took from ancient history “The Death -of Alexander the Great,” “The Death of Csar,” “Nero at the Burning of -Rome,” and “The Triumphal Progress of Germanicus”; and from medival +of Alexander the Great,” “The Death of Cæsar,” “Nero at the Burning of +Rome,” and “The Triumphal Progress of Germanicus”; and from mediæval history, “Galileo in his Prison observing the Periodic Return of a Solar Ray,” and “Columbus sighting Land”; from the history of the Thirty Years’ War, “The Foundation of the Catholic League by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria,” @@ -14817,7 +14776,7 @@ Hunyadi,” and “The Baptism of Vajk,” afterwards King Stephen t of Hungary; <i>Josef Fluggen</i>: “The Flight of the Landgravine Elizabeth,” “Milton dictating Paradise Lost,” and “The Landgravine Margarethe taking leave of her Children”; by <i>Carl Gustav Hellquist</i> there were “The Death of -the wounded Sten Sture after the Battle of Bogesund in the Mlarsee,” “The +the wounded Sten Sture after the Battle of Bogesund in the Mälarsee,” “The Embarkment of the Body of Gustavus Adolphus,” and the forced contribution of “Wisby and Huss going to the Stake.” <i>Ernst Hildebrand</i> had the Electress <span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> @@ -14844,7 +14803,7 @@ Liezenmayer</i>: “The Coronation of Charles Durazzo in Stuhlweissenburg,” and “The Canonisation of the Landgravine -Elizabeth of Thringen”; +Elizabeth of Thüringen”; <i>Wilhelm Lindenschmit</i>: “Duke Alva at the Countess of Rudolstadt’s,” “Francis <span class="sc">I</span> at @@ -14853,14 +14812,14 @@ Pavia,” “The Death of Franz Von Sickingen,” “Knox and th visited in his Cell by his Family,” “Luther before Cardinal Cajetan,” “Anne Boleyn giving her Child Elizabeth to the care of Matthew Parker,” and “The Entrance of Alaric into Rome”; <i>Alexander Wagner</i>: “The Departure of -Isabella Zapolya from Siebenbrgen,” “The Entry into Aschaffenburg +Isabella Zapolya from Siebenbürgen,” “The Entry into Aschaffenburg of Gustavus Adolphus,” “The Wedding of Otto of Bavaria,” “The Death of Titus Dugowich,” “Matthias Corvinus with his Hunting Train,” and many more of the same description.</p> <table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 460px;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:409px; height:579px" src="images/img397.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f90"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx">MAX.   MADONNA.</td></tr></table> <p>Was it at all possible to make works of art out of such material? Perhaps @@ -14918,7 +14877,7 @@ life creates. There was a fear of “ugliness,” as if it were a spot o the personages portrayed received, one and all, an icy trait of “the Beautiful.” The various Egmonts, Wallensteins, and Charles the Firsts of Gallait and <span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> -Bifve, Delaroche, and Piloty have not the blood of human beings, they have +Bièfve, Delaroche, and Piloty have not the blood of human beings, they have not the scars which are made by fate, but are all alike in their Byronic turn of the head. One knows the so-called character-heads—Luther gazing upwards with the look of one strong in faith, Columbus discovering America, and Milton @@ -14976,10 +14935,10 @@ movement than to rap nervously with his pencil. “The German only becomes impassioned when he lies.” The most genuine masters of German blood have felt that right well, and they have been honest enough to say it out. A pervading trait of old German art is simplicity, the avoidance of everything -impassioned even in the grandest conception, such as Drer has. If in Leonardo’s +impassioned even in the grandest conception, such as Dürer has. If in Leonardo’s “Last Supper” terror, indignation, curiosity, and sorrow are reflected by twelve heads and twenty-four hands in movements of agitation which -are always new, in Drer’s woodcut all the limbs and senses of the disciples +are always new, in Dürer’s woodcut all the limbs and senses of the disciples are paralysed at the sorrowful revelation of the Saviour; it seemed to them desecration to break the solemn, oppressive stillness by noisy utterances of opinion and hasty gestures. And the same thing is to be remarked in every @@ -15010,7 +14969,7 @@ and the transition was accomplished in “the historical picture of manners. <p class="center chap2">THE VICTORY OVER PSEUDO-IDEALISM</p> <p class="noind pt1"><span class="chap1 sc">Immediately</span> upon the epoch-making labours of the historians followed -the first romances that were archological and dealt with the history +the first romances that were archæological and dealt with the history of civilisation; and hand in hand with these literary productions there was developed—by the side of historical painting proper, in France, Belgium, and Germany—a tendency to represent the life of the past, not in its grand @@ -15059,7 +15018,7 @@ world quite at their ease, and began to paint simple little pictures from the daily life of antiquity, instead of the great ostentatious canvases of David and Ingres. In literature their parallels are Ponsard and Augier, who in their comedies brought antique life upon the stage, the one in <i>Horace et Lydie</i>, -the other in <i>La Cigu</i> and <i>Le Joueur de Flte</i>.</p> +the other in <i>La Ciguë</i> and <i>Le Joueur de Flûte</i>.</p> <p><i>Charles Gleyre</i> approached nearest to the strict academical style of Ingres. Not even by a tour in the East did he allow himself to be led away from the @@ -15098,7 +15057,7 @@ grace. What distinguishes him is something simple, pure, youthful, fresh, and childlike. His colour is lighter and more delicate than Gleyre’s. None but blended colours such as light blue and light yellow mingle in the harmony of white tones. The severe antique style has been given a pretty -<i>rococo</i> turn: his Greek girls, women, and children are like figures of Svres +<i>rococo</i> turn: his Greek girls, women, and children are like figures of Sèvres porcelain; the scenes in which he groups them are pleasing,—sports of fancy brought forward in a Grecian garb, of an affected sensuousness and a coquettish grace. His prettiest picture was probably “My Sister’s not at Home”—Greece @@ -15112,18 +15071,18 @@ seen through a gauze transparency in the theatre.</p> <td class="tcr f90">MY SISTER’S NOT AT HOME.</td></tr> <tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of Messrs. Boussod, Valadon & Co., the owners of the copyright.</i>)</td></tr></table> -<p><i>Lon Grme</i> has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the antique; +<p><i>Léon Gérôme</i> has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the antique; being a pupil of Delaroche, however, he has treated not mythological but historical episodes of antiquity. His “Cock-fight,” “Phryne before the Areopagus,” “The Augurs,” “The Gladiators,” “Alcibiades at the House of -Aspasia,” and “The Death of Csar,” together with pictures from Egypt, +Aspasia,” and “The Death of Cæsar,” together with pictures from Egypt, are his most characteristic works: Ingres and Delaroche upon a smaller scale. He shares with the one his learnedly pedantic composition, and with the other his taste for anecdote. It may be remarked that in these same years Emile Augier was active in literature, but that Augier, living in the same epoch of modern life, is far more powerful and animated in his Classical pieces. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> -Grme’s art is an intelligent, frigid, calculating art. In execution he does +Gérôme’s art is an intelligent, frigid, calculating art. In execution he does not rise above a petty study of form and an academic discipline. His drawing is accurate, and he has even succeeded in giving his figures a certain natural truth which is in advance of the generalisation of the classic ideal; yet from @@ -15139,10 +15098,10 @@ outlines. And this marble coldness remained with him later when, moving with the development of historical painting, he gradually took to working on more tragical subjects. Even the most violent subjects are depicted with a dainty grace, and with a smile he serves up decapitated heads, prepared -with a painting <i> la maitre d’htel</i>, upon a gold-rimmed porcelain plate as +with a painting <i>à la maitre d’hôtel</i>, upon a gold-rimmed porcelain plate as smooth as glass.</p> -<p>Another painter of archological <i>genre</i> is <i>Gustave Boulanger</i>, who after +<p>Another painter of archæological <i>genre</i> is <i>Gustave Boulanger</i>, who after extensive studies in Pompeii gave a vogue to those antique interiors and scenes of Pompeian street life now associated with the name of Alma-Tadema.</p> @@ -15150,7 +15109,7 @@ scenes of Pompeian street life now associated with the name of Alma-Tadema.</p> themselves enthusiastically into treating the physiognomy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and devoted the most ardent study to the weapons, costumes, and furniture of those epochs. They never wearied in representing -Franois <span class="sc">I</span> and Henri <span class="sc">IV</span> in the most varied situations of life, nor in searching +François <span class="sc">I</span> and Henri <span class="sc">IV</span> in the most varied situations of life, nor in searching the biographies of great artists and scholars for episodes worth painting. Especially popular subjects were those of celebrated painters at their meeting with contemporaries of high station: Raphael and Michael Angelo coming across @@ -15193,13 +15152,13 @@ by the hands of the following painters.</p> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:612px; height:440px" src="images/img405.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90"> </td> <td class="tcr f90"><i>Cassell & Co.</i></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GRME.</td> +<tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">GÉRÔME.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">THE COCK-FIGHT.</td></tr></table> <p>Of the generation of the eminent Flemish artists of 1830 <i>Hendrik Leys</i> is the one whose fame has been most enduring. Born in Antwerp on 18th February 1815, at first destined for the priesthood, and then in 1829 admitted to the -studio of Ferdinand de Braekeleers, he had made his dbut in the beginning +studio of Ferdinand de Braekeleers, he had made his début in the beginning <span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> of the thirties with a pair of historical pictures. These indeed revealed little of the power which he evinced later, but they furnished some indication @@ -15208,7 +15167,7 @@ popular at the time—in which blood flows as from the pipes of a fountain; the combatants fought with decorum and moderation, and less from conviction than to justify the helmets and cuirasses which had been fetched from the wardrobe. In both of them, on the other hand, the background—a -medival town with tortuous alleys, lanterns, and picturesque taverns—was +mediæval town with tortuous alleys, lanterns, and picturesque taverns—was most lovingly treated. Here was revealed a thoroughly German delight in minute detail. Instead of subordinating the accessories as others did, with the object of throwing the principal personages into relief, Leys @@ -15216,7 +15175,7 @@ represented an entire corner of the world at once, giving full distinctness to the smallest things, down to the implements of daily life, the grasses and flowers of the landscape, and the variegated corner-stones of the old house-fronts, whose picturesque porches and lattices bulge into the crooked -lanes. His next picture, “The Massacre of the Lwen Magistrates,” was +lanes. His next picture, “The Massacre of the Löwen Magistrates,” was a still further departure from precedent, since—quite in Callot’s manner—it mingled with the principal drama a mass of grotesque episodes. The born <i>genre</i> painter was announced by these traits; and not less striking was the @@ -15259,7 +15218,7 @@ sixteenth century, and, according to his own saying, “from that time forward to become an artist.” During a tour through Germany, in 1852, he had become familiar -with Drer and Cranach; in Dresden, +with Dürer and Cranach; in Dresden, Wittenberg, and Eisenach there hovered round him the great figures of the Reformation period. Half-effaced memories of @@ -15358,7 +15317,7 @@ in all its brightness of life and colour. And whilst as a colourist he was bent upon avoiding uniformity of tone and giving everything its natural character, as a draughtsman, too, he set up, in opposition to the more patrician fluency of others, the citizen-like angularity of an art uninfluenced by the Cinquecento. -As in Cranach, Drer, +As in Cranach, Dürer, and Holbein, one finds in his pictures profiles that are vividly true; harsh and often @@ -15374,7 +15333,7 @@ made of the image of God is expressed in the works of Leys for the first time since David. Even his “Massacre -of the Lwen Magistrates” +of the Löwen Magistrates” showed sharp, naturalistic physiognomies in the midst of its confused composition, @@ -15394,7 +15353,7 @@ who effected the transition which led to the modern style. In setting up quaintness and far-fetched archaism against the mannerism of the idealists, Leys accustomed the eye again to recognise that there was something truer than nobility of line and aristocratic pose; and, as he appealed to the old -masters as accomplices, it was impossible for sthetic criticism to be offended.</p> +masters as accomplices, it was impossible for æsthetic criticism to be offended.</p> <p>In France the transition from the absolutely beautiful to the characteristic, from types to individuals, was brought about from various sides. On the one @@ -15418,7 +15377,7 @@ even shrink from ugliness, induced painters to go back more than they had formerly done to the sources of real life and to bring something of its directness -into their creations. lie Delaunay began +into their creations. Élie Delaunay began to look on nature with an eye less bent on making abstractions and regarding all things from the standpoint of style; @@ -15632,7 +15591,7 @@ the Berlin painting. In the beginning of the century, however, it set the Berlin painting, as art of the healthy human understanding, in salutary contrast to the sickliness of Munich -and Dsseldorf. Even eighty years ago the +and Düsseldorf. Even eighty years ago the people of Berlin were too acute and practical to be Romanticists. The artists whom Menzel found active and honoured at his arrival were @@ -15646,7 +15605,7 @@ Romanticists on the Rhine as never having given an unqualified homage to their flag. A clear, realistic method was dominant in the art of Berlin. And in this respect it was as much a corrective—and one by no means to be undervalued—against the inflated sentiment of Munich -as against the weak and sickly sentimentalism of Dsseldorf, with its +as against the weak and sickly sentimentalism of Düsseldorf, with its knights and monks and noble maidens. Even Cornelius, who had been called to Berlin by Frederick William IV—that King of the Romanticists on the throne of the eminently unromantic Hohenzollerns—found himself @@ -15702,7 +15661,7 @@ himself familiar with the technique of reproduction; and having devoted himself in particular to the newly discovered art of lithography, he turned out -<i>mnus</i>, New Year cards, vignettes +<i>ménus</i>, New Year cards, vignettes for occasional poems, etc., and in things of this sort displayed a genuine affinity @@ -15747,7 +15706,7 @@ History in the Brandenburg Era,” the “scholar” Menzel stands ready as the actual historian of the Prussian kingdom. In an age which took its -pleasure in a vaporous, sentimental enthusiasm for the medival splendour +pleasure in a vaporous, sentimental enthusiasm for the mediæval splendour of the empire, he was the one who as a youth of twenty pointed to the corner-stones of Prussian history in the Brandenburg times; he was the only man of his age who refused to blow the horn of the mawkish Romanticists, @@ -15757,7 +15716,7 @@ touching situations; they had nothing poetical; and just as little were they tedious pictures of ceremonies or spectacular pieces. Striking characterisation and sparkling vividness were united here to the most painstaking study of nature and history, carried down to the peculiarities of costume and weapons. -History was not arranged in accordance with academic formul, but delineated +History was not arranged in accordance with academic formulæ, but delineated as if from life with absorbing truthfulness. Everything was expressed simply and sincerely, without exciting passages, and without conventional sentiment pumped out of models. Every epoch had its historical physiognomy, and @@ -15782,7 +15741,7 @@ plates of the book were made possible.</p> <tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:328px; height:215px" src="images/img420.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> <tr><td class="captionx f80">MENZEL.  FREDERICK THE GREAT AND HIS TUTOR.</td></tr></table> -<p>But it became more revolutionary still for the sthetic ideas of the time. +<p>But it became more revolutionary still for the æsthetic ideas of the time. Menzel had not set himself to produce a sequence of pictures, displaying events and heroes in the most ideal situations possible, but made it his business to sift the entire life of Frederick the Great to its minutest particulars. And @@ -15823,7 +15782,7 @@ countries was based.</p> monopoly in this subject, and when in 1840 Frederick William <span class="sc">IV</span> had the works of the great king published in -an <i>dition de luxe</i>, Menzel, amongst +an <i>édition de luxe</i>, Menzel, amongst others, was entrusted with the illustration. Every one of the thirty volumes contains portraits of Frederick’s contemporaries @@ -15836,11 +15795,11 @@ pages, but were destined to be incorporated in the text as tail-pieces, vignettes, and the like. This was the great work which occupied him during the forties; and in these headings and tail-pieces to the works of Frederick the Great he showed, for the first time, that he was not -merely a learned investigator of sources, but was full of brilliant <i>aperus</i>. +merely a learned investigator of sources, but was full of brilliant <i>aperçus</i>. <span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> One has to read Frederick the Great before one can do full justice to the acuteness and ready resource, the subtlety and pungency of the artist’s pencil. -All sthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art are scattered like dust +All æsthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art are scattered like dust before these creations, in which the most fantastic ideas are embodied with the whole force of the realistic power of our days.</p> @@ -15893,7 +15852,7 @@ Court festival of the past.</p> <table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> <tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:678px; height:461px" src="images/img423.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Hanfstngl.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr f90" colspan="2"><i>Hanfstängl.</i></td></tr> <tr><td class="tcl f90 pb2">MENZEL.</td> <td class="tcr f90 pb2">FREDERICK THE GREAT ON A JOURNEY.</td></tr></table> @@ -16068,7 +16027,7 @@ MENZEL.</td></tr></table> <div class="list f90"> <p class="pt1a"><b>General:</b></p> -<p>Rouquet: L’tat des Arts en Angleterre Paris, 1755.</p> +<p>Rouquet: L’état des Arts en Angleterre Paris, 1755.</p> <p>H. Walpole: Anecdotes of Painting in England. With Illustrations. 5 vols. London, Strawberry Hill, 1762-71. New Edition, London, Ward, Lock & Co., 1879.</p> @@ -16078,7 +16037,7 @@ Strawberry Hill, 1762-71. New Edition, London, Ward, Lock & Co., 1879.</p> <p>Edward Edwards: Anecdotes of Painters who have resided or been born in England. London, 1808.</p> -<p>J. D. Fiorillo, Geschichte der Malerei in Grossbritannien, vol. v. Gttingen, 1808.</p> +<p>J. D. Fiorillo, Geschichte der Malerei in Grossbritannien, vol. v. Göttingen, 1808.</p> <p>W. Carey: Progress of the Fine Arts in England and Ireland during the Reigns of George II, III, IV. London, 1826.</p> @@ -16101,11 +16060,11 @@ Artists. 3 vols. London, 1849.</p> <p>G. F. Waagen: Treasures of Art in Great Britain. London, 1854.</p> -<p>Prosper Mrime: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre, “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1857.</p> +<p>Prosper Mérimée: Les Beaux-Arts en Angleterre, “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1857.</p> <p>T. Silvestre: L’Art, Les Artistes, etc., en Angleterre. London, 1857.</p> -<p>C. de Pesquidoux: L’cole Anglaise, 1672-1851. tudes biographiques et critiques. +<p>C. de Pesquidoux: L’École Anglaise, 1672-1851. Études biographiques et critiques. Paris, 1858.</p> <p>Our Living Painters: their Lives and Works. London, 1859.</p> @@ -16114,7 +16073,7 @@ Paris, 1858.</p> <p>W. Thornbury: British Artists from Hogarth to Turner. 2 vols. London, 1860-61.</p> -<p>J. Milsand: L’esthtique anglaise. tude sur M. John Ruskin. Trad. fran. Paris, +<p>J. Milsand: L’esthétique anglaise. Étude sur M. John Ruskin. Trad. franç. Paris, 1864.</p> <p>R. and S. Redgrave: A Century of Painters of the English School. 2 vols. London, @@ -16175,7 +16134,7 @@ Sampson Low, 1881.</p> <p>E. Chesneau: La peinture anglaise. Paris, 1882.</p> -<p>J. Faber: La peinture anglaise. “Fdration artistique,” 1883. 11-15.</p> +<p>J. Faber: La peinture anglaise. “Fédération artistique,” 1883. 11-15.</p> <p>N. D’Anvers: An Elementary History of Modern Painting. New Edition. London, Sampson Low, 1883.</p> @@ -16187,10 +16146,10 @@ Watts, etc.) With portraits and illustrations. London, Cassell & Co., 1883.< of F. G. Dumas. (Leighton, Millais, Herkomer, Hook, etc.) 2 vols. London and Paris, 1882-84.</p> -<p>Feuillet de Conches: Histoire de l’cole anglaise de peinture jusqu’ Sir Thomas Lawrence -et ses mules. Paris, Leroux, 1883.</p> +<p>Feuillet de Conches: Histoire de l’école anglaise de peinture jusqu’à Sir Thomas Lawrence +et ses émules. Paris, Leroux, 1883.</p> -<p>H. J. Wilmot-Buxton and S. R. Khler: English and American Painters. Plates. +<p>H. J. Wilmot-Buxton and S. R. Köhler: English and American Painters. Plates. London, 1883.</p> <p>John Ruskin: The Art of England. Lectures given in Oxford. Orpington, Kent, @@ -16234,10 +16193,10 @@ others.) London, 1888.</p> <p>W. E. Henley: A Century of Artists. A Memorial of the Glasgow International Exhibition, 1888. With Illustrations. Glasgow, 1889.</p> -<p>Hermann Helferich: Ueber die Kunst in England, “Kunst fr Alle,” iv, 1888, pp. +<p>Hermann Helferich: Ueber die Kunst in England, “Kunst für Alle,” iv, 1888, pp. 161, 177.</p> -<p>Paul Meyerheim: Die englische Malerie in den letzten 50 Jahren, “Nord und Sd,” +<p>Paul Meyerheim: Die englische Malerie in den letzten 50 Jahren, “Nord und Süd,” 1889, p. 17.</p> <p>J. A. Crowe, Continental and English Painting, “Nineteenth Century,” April 1890.</p> @@ -16257,19 +16216,19 @@ de la peinture japonaise. Illustrations. Paris, 1891.</p> <p>H. Taine: Notes sur l’Angleterre. Paris, 1872.</p> -<p>H. Taine: Histoire de la Littrature Anglaise.</p> +<p>H. Taine: Histoire de la Littérature Anglaise.</p> <p>Periodicals: “Art Journal,” “Portfolio,” and “Magazine of Art,” <i>passim.</i></p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Hogarth:</b></p> -<p>W. Hogarth: Analyse de la beaut. 2 vols. Paris, 1805.</p> +<p>W. Hogarth: Analyse de la beauté. 2 vols. Paris, 1805.</p> <p>John Nichols: Biographical Anecdotes of W. Hogarth. London, 1781. Second Edition, 1785.</p> -<p>G. C. Lichtenberg: Erklrung der Hogarth’schen Kupferstiche, mit verkleinerten -Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Gttingen, 1794-1831.</p> +<p>G. C. Lichtenberg: Erklärung der Hogarth’schen Kupferstiche, mit verkleinerten +Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Göttingen, 1794-1831.</p> <p>W. Hogarth: Complete Works, Including the Analysis of Beauty. London, 1837.</p> @@ -16280,7 +16239,7 @@ Copien derselben v. Riepenhausen. Gttingen, 1794-1831.</p> <p>G. A. Sala: W. Hogarth, Painter, Engraver, and Philosopher. Illustrations. London, 1866.</p> -<p>C. Justi: W. Hogarth, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” vii, 1872.</p> +<p>C. Justi: W. Hogarth, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” vii, 1872.</p> <p>A. Dobson: Hogarth. London, Low, New and Enlarged Edition, 1903. (Illustrated Biographies of Great Artists.)</p> @@ -16289,7 +16248,7 @@ Biographies of Great Artists.)</p> <p>Hogarth’s Shrimp Girl, “Portfolio,” 1886, p. 105.</p> -<p>F. Rabbe in the compilation, “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>F. Rabbe in the compilation, “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b><i>Reproductions:</i></b></p> @@ -16345,7 +16304,7 @@ November 1867.</p> <p>J. C. Collins: Sir Joshua Reynolds as a Portrait Painter. An Essay, with 20 Portraits. London, 1874.</p> -<p>Edw. Hamilton: A Catalogue Raisonn of the Engraved Works of Joshua Reynolds, +<p>Edw. Hamilton: A Catalogue Raisonné of the Engraved Works of Joshua Reynolds, 1755-1820. London, 1874.</p> <p>Frederick Wedmore: Sir Joshua Reynolds, “Temple Bar,” July 1876.</p> @@ -16360,7 +16319,7 @@ London, 1874.</p> et de la Grosvenor Gallerie, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1884, i 327. (The same reprinted and enlarged. Paris, 1885.)</p> -<p>Various articles in the “Athenum,” 1883 and 1884.</p> +<p>Various articles in the “Athenæum,” 1883 and 1884.</p> <p>Helen Zimmern: Sir Joshua Reynolds, in “Westermanns Monatsheften,” May 1884.</p> @@ -16368,11 +16327,11 @@ reprinted and enlarged. Paris, 1885.)</p> London, Seeley & Co., 1886.</p> <p>Ernest Chesneau: Joshua Reynolds. With 18 Illustrations. Paris, 1887 (in the compilation -“Les artistes clbres”).</p> +“Les artistes célèbres”).</p> <p>Lady Blennerhasset: Joshua Reynolds’ Discourses, “Allgemeine Zeitung,” 1889.</p> -<p>Ed. Leisching: Zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Knste. Akademische Reden +<p>Ed. Leisching: Zur Aesthetik u. Technik der bildenden Künste. Akademische Reden von Sir J. R., Uebersetzt u. mit Einleitung, Anmerkungen, Register u. Textvergleichung versehen von Dr. E. L. Leipzig, 1893.</p> @@ -16404,7 +16363,7 @@ British Artists’ Series, 1902.</p> <p>George M. Brock-Arnold: Gainsborough. London, Sampson Low, 1889.</p> -<p>Walter Armstrong in the compilation, “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Walter Armstrong in the compilation, “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>Mrs. Bell: Thomas Gainsborough: a Record of his Life and Works, with Illustrations, etc. London, 1897.</p> @@ -16440,15 +16399,15 @@ No date.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a"><b>General:</b></p> -<p>Georg Brandes: Hauptstrmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts, Bd. i, 2 Aufl. +<p>Georg Brandes: Hauptströmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts, Bd. i, 2 Aufl. Leipzig, 1887.</p> <p>Wilhelm Weigand: Essays. (Voltaire, Rousseau, zur Psychologie des 19 Jahrhunderts, -etc.) Mnchen, 1892.</p> +etc.) München, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Goya:</b></p> -<p>Thophile Gautier: Cabinet de l’amateur, 1842.</p> +<p>Théophile Gautier: Cabinet de l’amateur, 1842.</p> <p>Laurent Matheron: Biographie de Fr. Goya. Paris, 1858.</p> @@ -16461,19 +16420,19 @@ etc.) Mnchen, 1892.</p> <p>D. F. Zapater y Gomez: Goya, noticias biograficas. Zaragoza, 1868.</p> <p>Paul Lefort: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1875, ii 506; 1876, i 336; ii 500. Reprinted -and enlarged under the title of Francisco Goya, tude biographique et critique, suivie -de l’essai d’un catalogue raisonn de son œuvre grav et lithographi. Paris, 1877.</p> +and enlarged under the title of Francisco Goya, Étude biographique et critique, suivie +de l’essai d’un catalogue raisonné de son œuvre gravé et lithographié. Paris, 1877.</p> <p>Charles Yriarte: Goya, Aquafortiste, “L’Art,” 1877, ii 3, 33, 56, 78.</p> <p>P. G. Hamerton: Fr. Goya, “Portfolio.” 1879, 67-99.</p> -<p>Muoz y Manzano: Francesco de Goya y Lucientes, “Revista contemporanea,” September +<p>Muñoz y Manzano: Francesco de Goya y Lucientes, “Revista contemporanea,” September 1883.</p> -<p>Lucien Solvay: L’Art Espagnol. Paris, 1887. (Bibliothque internationale de l’Art.)</p> +<p>Lucien Solvay: L’Art Espagnol. Paris, 1887. (Bibliothèque internationale de l’Art.)</p> -<p>Con. de la Viaza: Goya, su tiempo, su vida, sus obras. Madrid, 1887.</p> +<p>Con. de la Viñaza: Goya, su tiempo, su vida, sus obras. Madrid, 1887.</p> <p>P. Lafond: Goya. Paris, 1902.</p> @@ -16491,131 +16450,131 @@ de l’essai d’un catalogue raisonn de son œuvre grav et litho <p>Los Proverbios. Colleccion de 18 laminos. Madrid, 1864.</p> -<p>Los Caprichos. Gravures fac-simil de M. Segui y Riera. Notice biographique et tude +<p>Los Caprichos. Gravures fac-similé de M. Segui y Riera. Notice biographique et étude critique par Ant. de Nait. Barcelone, 1887.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">French Art in the Eighteenth Century:</span></b></p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII sicle. Paris, 1850. 3rd Edition, +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII siècle. Paris, 1850. 3rd Edition, Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: La femme au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1889.</p> +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: La femme au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1889.</p> -<p>Charles Blanc: Les Peintres des Ftes galantes. (Watteau, Lancret, Pater, Boucher.) +<p>Charles Blanc: Les Peintres des Fêtes galantes. (Watteau, Lancret, Pater, Boucher.) Paris, 1854.</p> -<p>Arsne Houssaye: Histoire de l’Art Franais du XVIII sicle. Portraits. Paris, 1860.</p> +<p>Arsène Houssaye: Histoire de l’Art Français du XVIII siècle. Portraits. Paris, 1860.</p> -<p>E. B. de la Chavignerie: Les Artistes Franais du XVIII sicle oublis ou ddaigns. +<p>E. B. de la Chavignerie: Les Artistes Français du XVIII siècle oubliés ou dédaignés. Paris, 1865.</p> -<p>A. v. Wurzbach: Die franzsischen Maler des 18 Jahrh. Stuttgart, 1879.</p> +<p>A. v. Wurzbach: Die französischen Maler des 18 Jahrh. Stuttgart, 1879.</p> -<p>Auguste Nicaise: L’cole franaise au XVIII sicle. Chalons-sur-Marne, 1883.</p> +<p>Auguste Nicaise: L’école française au XVIII siècle. Chalons-sur-Marne, 1883.</p> -<p>Paul Seidel: Friedrich d. Gr. u. die franzsische Kunst seiner Zeit. Berlin, 1892.</p> +<p>Paul Seidel: Friedrich d. Gr. u. die französische Kunst seiner Zeit. Berlin, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Watteau:</b></p> -<p>Figures de diffrents caractres de paysage et d’tudes dessines d’aprs nature par +<p>Figures de différents caractères de paysage et d’études dessinées d’après nature par A. Watteau. 2 vols., 350 pl. Paris. No date.</p> -<p>D’Argenville: Abrg de la vie des plus fameux peintres. Paris, 1762.</p> +<p>D’Argenville: Abrégé de la vie des plus fameux peintres. Paris, 1762.</p> -<p>Mariette: Abecedario. Published in the archives of French Art by Chennevires. 1852, etc.</p> +<p>Mariette: Abecedario. Published in the archives of French Art by Chennevières. 1852, etc.</p> <p>Caylus: La vie d’Antoine Watteau. Read on 3rd February 1748 before the Paris -Academy. Cited by Goncourt, L’Art du XVIII sicle, 1850.</p> +Academy. Cited by Goncourt, L’Art du XVIII siècle, 1850.</p> <p>Julienne in the preface to his book of plates, 1755.</p> <p>Cellier: Antoine Watteau, son enfance, ses contemporains. Valenciennes, 1867.</p> <p>Edmond de Goncourt: A. Watteau. Paris, 1860. By the same author, Catalogue -raisonn de l’œuvre peint, dessin et grav d’A. Watteau. Paris, 1875.</p> +raisonné de l’œuvre peint, dessiné et gravé d’A. Watteau. Paris, 1875.</p> <p>Theodor Volbehr: Antoine Watteau, ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 Jahrh. -Mnchen, 1885.</p> +München, 1885.</p> <p>Emil Hannover: A. Watteau. Kopenhagen, 1887. Deutsch von Alice Hannover. Berlin, 1889.</p> -<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> +<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1889, i 5, 177, 455; ii 5, 129, 222. Reprinted 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Boucher:</b></p> -<p>P. Mantz: Franois Boucher, Lemoyne et Natoire (with engravings from their works). +<p>P. Mantz: François Boucher, Lemoyne et Natoire (with engravings from their works). Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>Andr Michel in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> +<p>André Michel in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1889.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Lancret:</b></p> -<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Pater:</b></p> -<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>G. Dargenty in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Fragonard:</b></p> -<p>Baron Roger Portalis: Honor Fragonard, sa vie et ses œuvres. Paris, 1887.</p> +<p>Baron Roger Portalis: Honoré Fragonard, sa vie et ses œuvres. Paris, 1887.</p> -<p>Felix Naquet in “Les artistes clbres.” 1893.</p> +<p>Felix Naquet in “Les artistes célèbres.” 1893.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span></p> -<p>C. Mauclair: Fragonard, Biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre reproductions hors +<p>C. Mauclair: Fragonard, Biographie critique illustrée de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Baudouin:</b></p> -<p>Ch. Normand in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> +<p>Ch. Normand in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Greuze:</b></p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII sicle.</p> +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII siècle.</p> -<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire de peintres des toutes les coles, ii.</p> +<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire de peintres des toutes les écoles, ii.</p> -<p>Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l’Art pendant la Rvolution, p. 517.</p> +<p>Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l’Art pendant la Révolution, p. 517.</p> -<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> +<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Quentin La Tour:</b></p> <p>Clement de Ris: L’œuvre de Maurice Quentin de Latour, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1882, ii 251.</p> -<p>Champfleury in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> +<p>Champfleury in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> -<p>H. Lapauze. With 87 Plates. Paris, 1885. La Tour et son œuvre au Muse de Saint-Quentin, +<p>H. Lapauze. With 87 Plates. Paris, 1885. La Tour et son œuvre au Musée de Saint-Quentin, 1905.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Liotard:</b></p> -<p>F. Guye: Jean tienne Liotard, 1702-91. Zofingen, 1890.</p> +<p>F. Guye: Jean Étienne Liotard, 1702-91. Zofingen, 1890.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Chardin:</b></p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII sicle.</p> +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: L’Art du XVIII siècle.</p> <p>G. Dargenty: “L’Art,” 1883, ii 3.</p> -<p>H. de Chennevires: Chardin au Muse du Louvre, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1889, +<p>H. de Chennevières: Chardin au Musée du Louvre, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1889, i 121.</p> -<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> +<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> -<p>G. Schfer: Chardin ... Biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre reproductions +<p>G. Schéfer: Chardin ... Biographie critique illustrée de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Cornelis Troost:</b></p> -<p>A Ver Huell: Cornelis Troost en zn Werken. Arnhem, 1873.</p> +<p>A Ver Huell: Cornelis Troost en zÿn Werken. Arnhem, 1873.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">Changes of Taste in Germany:</span></b></p> @@ -16624,21 +16583,21 @@ hors texte (Les Grands Artistes, etc.), 1904.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Chodowiecki:</b></p> -<p>W. Engelmann: Daniel Chodowieckis smmtliche Kupferstiche. Leipzig, 1857.</p> +<p>W. Engelmann: Daniel Chodowieckis sämmtliche Kupferstiche. Leipzig, 1857.</p> -<p>Alfred Woltmann: Hogarth und Chodowiecki. From Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher +<p>Alfred Woltmann: Hogarth und Chodowiecki. From Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878.</p> <p>Ferdinand Meyer: Daniel Chodowiecki der Peintre-graveur. Berlin, 1888.</p> <p>W. von Oettingen. Berlin, 1895.</p> -<p>L Kmmerer: Bd. 21 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1897.</p> +<p>L Kämmerer: Bd. 21 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1897.</p> <p>See Selection from the artist’s finest engravings, in photography, by A. Frisch. Berlin, 1885.</p> -<p>D. Chodowiecki: Von Berlin nach Danzig, eine Knstlerfahrt im Jahre 1783. 108 +<p>D. Chodowiecki: Von Berlin nach Danzig, eine Künstlerfahrt im Jahre 1783. 108 Facsimiledrucke nach Ch.’s Zeichnungen. Berlin, 1883.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Tischbein:</b></p> @@ -16650,13 +16609,13 @@ Facsimiledrucke nach Ch.’s Zeichnungen. Berlin, 1883.</p> <p>Fr. v. Alten: Ans Tischbeins Leben und Briefwechsel. Leipzig, 1872.</p> -<p>Edmond Michel: tude biographique sur les Tischbein. Lyon, 1881.</p> +<p>Edmond Michel: Étude biographique sur les Tischbein. Lyon, 1881.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Pesne:</b></p> <p>Paul Seidel: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1891.</p> -<p>Paul Seidel: Die Berliner Kunst unter Friedrich Wilhelm I. “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>Paul Seidel: Die Berliner Kunst unter Friedrich Wilhelm I. “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1888, p. 185.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Anton Graft:</b></p> @@ -16668,18 +16627,18 @@ Kunst,” 1888, p. 185.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Joseph Vernet:</b></p> -<p>Amede Durande: Joseph, Carl, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et biographie. Paris, +<p>Amedée Durande: Joseph, Carl, et Horace Vernet, Correspondence et biographie. Paris, 1863.</p> -<p>L. Lagrange: J. Vernet et la peinture au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1864.</p> +<p>L. Lagrange: J. Vernet et la peinture au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1864.</p> <p>A. Genevay: “L’Art,” 1876, iii 254, 307; iv 61.</p> -<p>Albert Maire: Les Vernet in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Albert Maire: Les Vernet in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Hubert Robert:</b></p> -<p>C. Gabillot in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>C. Gabillot in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Canaletto:</b></p> @@ -16691,11 +16650,11 @@ Kunst,” 1888, p. 185.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gessner:</b></p> -<p>Heinrich Wlfflin: Salomon Gessner. Frauenfeld. 1889.</p> +<p>Heinrich Wölfflin: Salomon Gessner. Frauenfeld. 1889.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Oudry und Desportes:</b></p> -<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Riedinger:</b></p> @@ -16707,48 +16666,48 @@ Kunst,” 1888, p. 185.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">German Art in General:</span></b></p> -<p>Raczynski: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, bersetzt von K. Hagen. 3 Bde. +<p>Raczynski: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, übersetzt von K. Hagen. 3 Bde. Text, 1 Bd. Tafeln. Berlin, 1836.</p> <p>Anton Hallmann: Kunstbestrebungen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1842.</p> -<p>Thophile Gautier: Les Beaux Arts en Europe, 1855. Paris, 1855.</p> +<p>Théophile Gautier: Les Beaux Arts en Europe, 1855. Paris, 1855.</p> <p>A. Hagen: Die deutsche Kunst in unserm Jahrhundert. Berlin, 1857.</p> -<p>E. Frster: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Leipzig, 1863.</p> +<p>E. Förster: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst. Leipzig, 1863.</p> <p>Anton Springer: Die bildende Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Leipzig, 1858.</p> -<p>J. Grard: Considrations sur l’art allemand, ses principes et tendances propos de +<p>J. Gérard: Considérations sur l’art allemand, ses principes et tendances à propos de l’exposition de Munich. Bruxelles, 1859.</p> <p>Hermann Riegel: Geschichte des Wiederauflebens der deutschen Kunst seit Carstens. Hannover, 1876.</p> -<p>Friedr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, Studien und Erinnerungen. -Nrdlingen, Beck, 1877-81.</p> +<p>Friedr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, Studien und Erinnerungen. +Nördlingen, Beck, 1877-81.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span></p> <p>J. Beavington-Atkinson: The Schools of Modern Art in Germany. With numerous Illustrations. London, Seeley, 1880.</p> -<p>A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1881. Neue Ausgabe -als Einleitung zu den Albertschen Heliogravuren der Galerie Schack. Mnchen, 1889.</p> +<p>A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1881. Neue Ausgabe +als Einleitung zu den Albertschen Heliogravuren der Galerie Schack. München, 1889.</p> -<p>Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, unter Mitwirkung von Fachgenossen, herausgegeben +<p>Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, unter Mitwirkung von Fachgenossen, herausgegeben von R. Dohme. Leipzig, Seemann, 1881 ff.</p> <p>D. Duncker, Moderne Meister. Charakteristiken aus Kunst und Leben. Berlin, 1883.</p> -<p>Franz Reber: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, mit Excursen ber die parallele -Kunstentwicklung der brigen Lnder. 3 Bde. 3 Aufl. Leipzig, 1884.</p> +<p>Franz Reber: Geschichte der neueren deutschen Kunst, mit Excursen über die parallele +Kunstentwicklung der übrigen Länder. 3 Bde. 3 Aufl. Leipzig, 1884.</p> -<p>Anton Springer: Die Wege und Ziele der gegenwrtigen Kunst, in seinen Bildern aus der +<p>Anton Springer: Die Wege und Ziele der gegenwärtigen Kunst, in seinen Bildern aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. 2 Aufl. Bonn, 1886.</p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg: Die Mnchener Malerschule seit 1871. Leipzig, 1887.</p> +<p>Adolf Rosenberg: Die Münchener Malerschule seit 1871. Leipzig, 1887.</p> <p>Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Malerei. Bd. 2 und 3, Deutschland. Leipzig, 1888 ff.</p> @@ -16757,12 +16716,12 @@ neueren Kunstgeschichte. 2 Aufl. Bonn, 1886.</p> <p>L. Pfau in “Kunst und Kritik,” Bd. 1. Stuttgart, 1888, pp. 445-535.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: Geschichte der Mnchener Kunst. Mnchen, 1889.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: Geschichte der Münchener Kunst. München, 1889.</p> <p>Hubert Janitscheks, final chapter in his Geschichte der Deutschen Malerei. Berlin, Grote, 1890.</p> -<p>M. de la Mazelire: La peinture allemande au XIX sicle. Paris, 1900.</p> +<p>M. de la Mazelière: La peinture allemande au XIX siècle. Paris, 1900.</p> <p>Cornelius Gurlitt: Die deutsche Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Berlin, 1899.</p> @@ -16770,27 +16729,27 @@ Grote, 1890.</p> <p>Friedrich Haack: Die Kunst des 19 Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart, 1905.</p> -<p>Periodicals chiefly: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” Leipzig, 1866. “Die Kunst fr -Alle,” Mnchen, 1886. “Die Kunst unserer Zeit” (specially the work of H. E. v. -Berlepsch and Corn. Gurlitt), Mnchen, 1890. “Der Kunstwart,” Dresden, 1887. +<p>Periodicals chiefly: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” Leipzig, 1866. “Die Kunst für +Alle,” München, 1886. “Die Kunst unserer Zeit” (specially the work of H. E. v. +Berlepsch and Corn. Gurlitt), München, 1890. “Der Kunstwart,” Dresden, 1887. “Die Gegenwart” (articles by Floerke, Lichtwark, Gurlitt, etc.), Berlin, 1872 ff. “Die -Nation” (articles by Helferich, Elias, etc.), Berlin, 1883 ff. “Die Freie Bhne” -(articles by Helferich, B. Becker, etc.), Berlin, 1888 ff. “Die preussischen Jahrbcher” +Nation” (articles by Helferich, Elias, etc.), Berlin, 1883 ff. “Die Freie Bühne” +(articles by Helferich, B. Becker, etc.), Berlin, 1888 ff. “Die preussischen Jahrbücher” (articles by Carl Neumann, etc.). All cited in particular in the appropriate place.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Classical Reaction:</span></b></p> -<p>Hermann Helferich: Classicitt, “Freie Bhne,” 1890.</p> +<p>Hermann Helferich: Classicität, “Freie Bühne,” 1890.</p> -<p>Carl Neumann: Christian Rauch, Betrachtungen ber Ursprung und Anfnge der -modernen deutschen Plastik, “Preuss. Jahrbcher,” Bd. 64, 1889.</p> +<p>Carl Neumann: Christian Rauch, Betrachtungen über Ursprung und Anfänge der +modernen deutschen Plastik, “Preuss. Jahrbücher,” Bd. 64, 1889.</p> <p>Heinr. v. Stein: Die Entstehung der neueren Aesthetik. Stuttgart, 1886.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>The Theories of Grard de Lairesse:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>The Theories of Gérard de Lairesse:</b></p> -<p>Carl Lemcke in his Study of Adriean van der Werff in “Kunst and Knstler Deutschlands +<p>Carl Lemcke in his Study of Adriean van der Werff in “Kunst and Künstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande,” vol. ii. Leipzig, 1878.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Winckelmann:</b></p> @@ -16798,7 +16757,7 @@ und der Niederlande,” vol. ii. Leipzig, 1878.</p> <p>Carl Justi: Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke, seine Zeitgenossen. Bd. 1, Leipzig, 1866; Bd. 2, Leipzig, 1872.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>The Influence of Archological Studies upon Art:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>The Influence of Archæological Studies upon Art:</b></p> <p>K. Bernh. Stark: Handbuch der Archaeologie, Bd. 1. Leipzig, 1879.</p> @@ -16823,9 +16782,9 @@ Schriften. Wien, 1884. Bd. 3, pp. 221-261.</p> <p>Gustav Ebe: Goethes Beziehungen zur bildenden Kunst, “Gegenwart,” xxvii. Heft 16 und 18.</p> -<p>C. Urlichs: Ueber Goethes Verhltniss zur alten Kunst. “Goethe-Jahrbuch,” iii.</p> +<p>C. Urlichs: Ueber Goethes Verhältniss zur alten Kunst. “Goethe-Jahrbuch,” iii.</p> -<p>Hermann Uhde: Goethe, J. G. Quandt und der schsische Kunstverein. Stuttgart, +<p>Hermann Uhde: Goethe, J. G. Quandt und der sächsische Kunstverein. Stuttgart, Cotta, 1877.</p> <p>A. Heusler: Goethe und die italienische Kunst. Basel, Reich, 1891.</p> @@ -16834,73 +16793,73 @@ Cotta, 1877.</p> <p>Bode: Goethes Asthetik. Berlin, 1901.</p> -<p>Julius Vogel: Aus Goethes rmischen Tagen. Leipzig, 1906.</p> +<p>Julius Vogel: Aus Goethes römischen Tagen. Leipzig, 1906.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Mengs:</b></p> <p>Bianconi: Elogio storico del Cavaliere Anton R. Mengs. Pavia, 1759.</p> -<p>Mengs: Gedanken ber die Schnheit und ber den Geschmack in der Malerei. Zrich, -1765. Seine smmtlichen hinterlassenen Schriften. Bonn, 1843-44.</p> +<p>Mengs: Gedanken über die Schönheit und über den Geschmack in der Malerei. Zürich, +1765. Seine sämmtlichen hinterlassenen Schriften. Bonn, 1843-44.</p> -<p>Franz Reber in “Kunst und Knstler Deutschl. u. der Niederlande,” 1878.</p> +<p>Franz Reber in “Kunst und Künstler Deutschl. u. der Niederlande,” 1878.</p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xiv, 1879, pp. 33 u. 72.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xiv, 1879, pp. 33 u. 72.</p> -<p>Woermann: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1894.</p> +<p>Woermann: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1894.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Angelica Kauffmann:</b></p> <p>Giov. Gher. de Rossi: Vita di Angelica Kauffmann. Firenze, 1810. German by A. Weinhart, Bregenz, 1814.</p> -<p>J. E. Wessely in “Kunst und Knstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande,” 1878.</p> +<p>J. E. Wessely in “Kunst und Künstler Deutschlands und der Niederlande,” 1878.</p> <p>A. W. Grube: Angelika Kauffmann. Bregenz, 1889.</p> -<p>Wilh. Schram: Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann. Brnn, 1890.</p> +<p>Wilh. Schram: Die Malerin Angelika Kauffmann. Brünn, 1890.</p> -<p>Fr. A. Grard: Angelica Kauffmann. London, 1892.</p> +<p>Fr. A. Gérard: Angelica Kauffmann. London, 1892.</p> <p><i>See also</i> F. Guhl: Die Frauen in der Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1858.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Oeser:</b></p> -<p>Alphons Drr: A. F. Oeser, Ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 Jahrh. Leipzig, -Drr, 1879.</p> +<p>Alphons Dürr: A. F. Oeser, Ein Beitrag zur Kunstgeschichte des 18 Jahrh. Leipzig, +Dürr, 1879.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Carstens:</b></p> -<p>Karl Ludwig Fernow: Leben des Knstlers J. A. Carstens. Leipzig, 1806. Neuherausgegeben +<p>Karl Ludwig Fernow: Leben des Künstlers J. A. Carstens. Leipzig, 1806. Neuherausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. Hannover, 1867.</p> -<p>Hermann Grimm: Ausgewhlte Essays zur Einfhrung in das Studium der neueren +<p>Hermann Grimm: Ausgewählte Essays zur Einführung in das Studium der neueren Kunst. 2 Aufl. Berlin, 1883, p. 216.</p> <p>F. v. Alten: A. F. Carstens. Schleswig, 1865.</p> -<p>H. Grimm: Ueber Knstler und Kunstwerke, i. Berlin, 1865, pp. 73-95.</p> +<p>H. Grimm: Ueber Künstler und Kunstwerke, i. Berlin, 1865, pp. 73-95.</p> -<p>Schne: Beitrge zur Lebensgeschichte des Malers Carstens. Leipzig, 1866.</p> +<p>Schöne: Beiträge zur Lebensgeschichte des Malers Carstens. Leipzig, 1866.</p> -<p>Fr. Eggers: Vier Vortrge aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1867, p. 1.</p> +<p>Fr. Eggers: Vier Vorträge aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1867, p. 1.</p> -<p>Carstens’ Werke, in Kupferstichen von W. Mller, herausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. +<p>Carstens’ Werke, in Kupferstichen von W. Müller, herausgegeben von Hermann Riegel. Leipzig, Bd. 1, 1869; Bd. 2, 1874; Bd. 3, 1884.</p> <p>Jul. Lange: Nutids Kunst. Kopenhagen, 1873, pp. 1-15.</p> <p>Fr. Pauli: A. Carstens. Berlin, 1876.</p> -<p>Hermann Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze, p. 200, “Carstensiana.” +<p>Hermann Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze, p. 200, “Carstensiana.” Braunschweig, 1877.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span></p> -<p>Alfr. Woltmann, from Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. +<p>Alfr. Woltmann, from Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte. Berlin, 1878, p. 169.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. III Reihe. Nrdlingen, 1881, p. +<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. III Reihe. Nördlingen, 1881, p. 31 ff.</p> <p>August Sach: Asmus Jacob Carstens’ Jugend und Lehrjahre nach urkundliche Quellen. @@ -16908,26 +16867,26 @@ Halle, 1881.</p> <p>D. Schnittgen: A. J. Carstens, “Christliches Kunstblatt,” 1882, 12.</p> -<p>Hermann Lcke in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> +<p>Hermann Lücke in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>The Painter Mller:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>The Painter Müller:</b></p> -<p>C. Seuffert: Maler Mller. Berlin, 1877.</p> +<p>C. Seuffert: Maler Müller. Berlin, 1877.</p> <p>Sauer in “Deutscher Nationallitteratur,” Bd. 81.</p> -<p>Mller’s article against Carstens is in Schiller’s Horen, 1797, iii 21, iv 4.</p> +<p>Müller’s article against Carstens is in Schiller’s Horen, 1797, iii 21, iv 4.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Luise Seidler:</b></p> <p>Hermann Uhde: Erinnerungen aus dem Leben der Malerin Luise Seidler, aus handschriftliche Nachlass zusammengestellt und bearbeitet, 2 Auflage. Berlin, Hertz, 1876.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Wchter:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Wächter:</b></p> <p>Dav. Friedr. Strauss: Kleine Schriften. Leipzig, 1862, pp. 333-360.</p> -<p>A. Haakh: Beitrge aus Wrttemberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Stuttgart, +<p>A. Haakh: Beiträge aus Württemberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Stuttgart, 1863, pp. vii ff., 10 ff., 133 ff.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Schick:</b></p> @@ -16936,34 +16895,34 @@ Nachlass zusammengestellt und bearbeitet, 2 Auflage. Berlin, Hertz, 1876.</p> <p>Fr. Eggers: “Deutsches Kunstblatt,” 1858, pp. 129-137.</p> -<p>A. Haakh: Beitrge aus Wrtternberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte, pp. xiv +<p>A. Haakh: Beiträge aus Württernberg zur neueren deutschen Kunstgeschichte, pp. xiv ff., 23-31, 59-312.</p> -<p>H. Kindt: Zu Gottlieb Schicks 100 jhrigem Geburtstag. Gegenwart, 1879, 31.</p> +<p>H. Kindt: Zu Gottlieb Schicks 100 jährigem Geburtstag. Gegenwart, 1879, 31.</p> -<p>Winterlin: Wrttenbergische Knstler. Stuttgart, 1895.</p> +<p>Winterlin: Württenbergische Künstler. Stuttgart, 1895.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Genelli:</b></p> <p>H. Riegel: Deutsche Kunststudien. Hannover, 1868, pp. 291 ff.</p> -<p>M. Jordan: Bonaventura Genelli, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” v pp. 1-19.</p> +<p>M. Jordan: Bonaventura Genelli, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” v pp. 1-19.</p> -<p>H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze. Braunschweig, 1877, pp. +<p>H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze. Braunschweig, 1877, pp. 148-170.</p> -<p>L. v. Donop: Briefe von Bonaventura Genelli und Karl Rahl, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>L. v. Donop: Briefe von Bonaventura Genelli und Karl Rahl, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xii pp. 25 ii.; xiii pp. 115 ff. Letters from Schwind to Genelli, do. xi p. 11.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, II Reihe. Nrdlingen, 1879, pp. +<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts, II Reihe. Nördlingen, 1879, pp. 271-304.</p> -<p>A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 9-40.</p> +<p>A. F. Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 9-40.</p> -<p>O. Berggruen: Die Gallerie Schack in Mnchen. Wien, 1883. Also in “Die graph. -Knste,” iv, 1881, 1.</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: Die Gallerie Schack in München. Wien, 1883. Also in “Die graph. +Künste,” iv, 1881, 1.</p> -<p>O. Baisch: Einzelheiten aus Genellis Leben und Briefwechsel, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>O. Baisch: Einzelheiten aus Genellis Leben und Briefwechsel, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xviii pp. 257-262.</p> </div> @@ -16972,46 +16931,46 @@ Kunst,” xviii pp. 257-262.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">French Art in General:</span></b></p> -<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres franais au XIX sicle. Paris, 1845.</p> +<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres français au XIX siècle. Paris, 1845.</p> -<p>Gustave Planch; Portraits d’artistes. Paris, 1853.</p> +<p>Gustave Planché; Portraits d’artistes. Paris, 1853.</p> -<p>Gustave Planch: tudes sur l’cole franaise, 1831-52. Paris, 1855.</p> +<p>Gustave Planché: Études sur l’école française, 1831-52. Paris, 1855.</p> <p>A. de la Forge: La Peinture contemporaine en France. Paris, 1856.</p> -<p>T Silvestre: Histoire des Artistes vivants franais et trangers. Paris, 1857.</p> +<p>T Silvestre: Histoire des Artistes vivants français et étrangers. Paris, 1857.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span></p> -<p>Thodore Pelloquet: Dictionnaire de poche des Artistes contemporains. Paris, 1858.</p> +<p>Théodore Pelloquet: Dictionnaire de poche des Artistes contemporains. Paris, 1858.</p> <p>L. Laurent-Pichat: L’Art et les Artistes en France. Paris, 1859.</p> -<p>Moritz Hartmann; Bilder und Bsten. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1860.</p> +<p>Moritz Hartmann; Bilder und Büsten. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1860.</p> <p>Ch. Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861.</p> <p>Olivier Merson: La Peinture en France. Paris, 1861.</p> -<p>E. Chesneau: La Peinture Franaise au XIX sicle. Les Chefs d’cole, L. David -Gros, Gricault, Decamps, Meissonier, Ingres, H. Flandrin, E. Delacroix. Paris, +<p>E. Chesneau: La Peinture Française au XIX siècle. Les Chefs d’École, L. David +Gros, Géricault, Decamps, Meissonier, Ingres, H. Flandrin, E. Delacroix. Paris, 1862. New Edition, Paris, 1883.</p> -<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres de toutes les coles. Paris, 1861-76.</p> +<p>Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres de toutes les écoles. Paris, 1861-76.</p> -<p>L. Pfau: Franzsische Maler und Bilder, in “Freie Studien.” Stuttgart, 1866. Enlarged +<p>L. Pfau: Französische Maler und Bilder, in “Freie Studien.” Stuttgart, 1866. Enlarged in “Kunst und Kritik,” Bd. 1, pp. 115-444. Stuttgart, 1888.</p> -<p>Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865. Second Edition, +<p>Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865. Second Edition, 1867.</p> -<p>Julius Meyer: Geschichte der modernen franzsischen Malerei seit 1789. Leipzig, 1867.</p> +<p>Julius Meyer: Geschichte der modernen französischen Malerei seit 1789. Leipzig, 1867.</p> -<p>Julius Meyer: Die franzsische Malerei seit 1848, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>Julius Meyer: Die französische Malerei seit 1848, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” ii pp. 13, 32, 56, 119. Leipzig, 1867.</p> -<p>A. Bonnin: tudes sur l’art contemporain. Les coles franaises et trangres en 1867. +<p>A. Bonnin: Études sur l’art contemporain. Les Écoles françaises et étrangères en 1867. Paris, 1868.</p> <p>P. G. Hamerton: Contemporary French Painters. London, 1868.</p> @@ -17023,36 +16982,36 @@ Paris, 1868.</p> <p>W. B. Scott: Gems of French Art, with an Essay on the French School. Plates. London, 1871.</p> -<p>M. Chaumelin: L’Art contemporain. La Peinture l’Exposition universelle de 1867. +<p>M. Chaumelin: L’Art contemporain. La Peinture à l’Exposition universelle de 1867. Salon de 1868, 1869, 1870. Paris, 1873.</p> <p>Th. Gautier: Portraits contemporains. Paris, 1874.</p> <p>Pierre Petroz: L’Art et la critique en France depuis 1822. Paris, 1875.</p> -<p>L. Dussieux: Les Artistes franais l’tranger. Paris, Lecoffre fils et Cie, 1876.</p> +<p>L. Dussieux: Les Artistes français à l’étranger. Paris, Lecoffre fils et Cie, 1876.</p> -<p>R. Mnard: French Artists of the Present Day. Notices of some Contemporary Painters. +<p>R. Ménard: French Artists of the Present Day. Notices of some Contemporary Painters. 12 engravings. London, 1876.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Les Artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876.</p> -<p>Jules Claretie: L’Art et les Artistes Franais contemporains, avec un avant-propos sur -le Salon de 1876. Paris, 1876. Deuxime srie, Paris, 1881.</p> +<p>Jules Claretie: L’Art et les Artistes Français contemporains, avec un avant-propos sur +le Salon de 1876. Paris, 1876. Deuxième série, Paris, 1881.</p> -<p>Philippe Burty: Matres et petits matres. Paris, 1877.</p> +<p>Philippe Burty: Maîtres et petits maîtres. Paris, 1877.</p> -<p>Marquet de Vasselot: Recherches sur l’art franais. Architecture, Peinture, Sculpture. +<p>Marquet de Vasselot: Recherches sur l’art français. Architecture, Peinture, Sculpture. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p>Lucien Double: Promenade travers deux sicles et quatorze salons. Paris, 1878.</p> +<p>Lucien Double: Promenade à travers deux siècles et quatorze salons. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p>G. Berger: L’cole Franaise de Peinture. Paris, 1879.</p> +<p>G. Berger: L’école Française de Peinture. Paris, 1879.</p> -<p>Victor Champier: Les Beaux Arts en France et l’tranger. Paris, 1879.</p> +<p>Victor Champier: Les Beaux Arts en France et à l’Étranger. Paris, 1879.</p> -<p>E. Bellier de la Chavignerie et L. Auvray; Dictionnaire gnrale des Artistes de l’cole -Franaise. Paris, 1880.</p> +<p>E. Bellier de la Chavignerie et L. Auvray; Dictionnaire générale des Artistes de l’École +Française. Paris, 1880.</p> <p>Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et Statuaires Romantiques. Paris, 1880.</p> @@ -17060,18 +17019,18 @@ Franaise. Paris, 1880.</p> <p>Marquet de Vasselot: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>George Lafenestre: L’Art vivant, la Peinture et la Sculpture aux Salons de 1868 1877. +<p>George Lafenestre: L’Art vivant, la Peinture et la Sculpture aux Salons de 1868 à 1877. Paris, 1881.</p> -<p>E. Leclerq: Caractres de l’cole franaise moderne de Peinture. Paris, 1881.</p> +<p>E. Leclerq: Caractères de l’École française moderne de Peinture. Paris, 1881.</p> <p>F. Gosselin: Histoire anecdotique des Salons de peinture depuis 1673. Paris, Dentu, 1881.</p> -<p>L. de Pesquidoux: L’Art au XIX sicle. L’Art dans les deux mondes, Peinture et +<p>L. de Pesquidoux: L’Art au XIX siècle. L’Art dans les deux mondes, Peinture et Sculpture. 2 vols. Paris, 1881.</p> -<p>Eugne Montrasier. Les artistes modernes: 1. Les peintres de genre; 2. Les peintres militaires +<p>Eugène Montrasier. Les artistes modernes: 1. Les peintres de genre; 2. Les peintres militaires et les peintres de nu. 40 Biogr., 40 Tables. 2 vols. Paris, 1881.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span></p> @@ -17079,7 +17038,7 @@ et les peintres de nu. 40 Biogr., 40 Tables. 2 vols. Paris, 1881.</p> <p>Adolf Rosenberg: Geschichte der modernen Kunst. 1 Abtheilung. Die franz. Kunst Leipzig, 1882.</p> -<p>H. Houssaye: L’Art franais depuis dix ans. Paris, 1882.</p> +<p>H. Houssaye: L’Art français depuis dix ans. Paris, 1882.</p> <p>Henri de Clenzion: L’Art national en France. Paris, 1882-83.</p> @@ -17087,7 +17046,7 @@ Leipzig, 1882.</p> <p>Raf. Sinset et Jules d’Auriac: Histoire du Portrait en France. Paris, 1884.</p> -<p>V. Fournal: Les artistes contemporains franais, peintres, sculpteurs. With 176 Illustrations. +<p>V. Fournal: Les artistes contemporains français, peintres, sculpteurs. With 176 Illustrations. Tours, Mame et fils, 1884.</p> <p>Jean Gigoux: Causeries sur les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1885.</p> @@ -17096,32 +17055,32 @@ Tours, Mame et fils, 1884.</p> <p>Victor d’Halle: Histoire de la peinture en France. Paris, 1886.</p> -<p>Paul Marmottan: L’cole franaise de peinture (1789-1830). Paris, 1886.</p> +<p>Paul Marmottan: L’école française de peinture (1789-1830). Paris, 1886.</p> <p>J. Comyns Carr: Art in Provincial France. 1883.</p> -<p>Henri Jouin: Matres contemporains. Paris, 1887.</p> +<p>Henri Jouin: Maîtres contemporains. Paris, 1887.</p> -<p>Charles Bigot: Peintres franais contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> +<p>Charles Bigot: Peintres français contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> <p>C. H. Stranahan: A History of French Painting. New York, 1888.</p> -<p>La peinture franaise l’exposition centennaire de 1889. Ouvrage publi sous la direction +<p>La peinture française à l’exposition centennaire de 1889. Ouvrage publié sous la direction de Antonin Proust. Paris, 1890.</p> -<p>Les Chefs d’œuvres de l’Art au XIX sicle. 5 vols. Paris, 1890 ff.</p> +<p>Les Chefs d’œuvres de l’Art au XIX siècle. 5 vols. Paris, 1890 ff.</p> <table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> -<p>1. L’cole franaise de David Delacroix, par Andr Michel.</p> -<p>2. L’cole franaise de Delacroix H. Regnault, par Alfred de Lostalot.</p> -<p>3. La peinture franaise actuelle, par Paul Lefort.</p> -<p>4. Les coles trangres aux XIX sicle, par Th. de Wyzewa.</p> -<p>5. La Sculpture et la Gravure en France au XIX sicle, par Louis Gonse.</p> +<p>1. L’école française de David à Delacroix, par André Michel.</p> +<p>2. L’école française de Delacroix à H. Regnault, par Alfred de Lostalot.</p> +<p>3. La peinture française actuelle, par Paul Lefort.</p> +<p>4. Les écoles étrangères aux XIX siècle, par Th. de Wyzewa.</p> +<p>5. La Sculpture et la Gravure en France au XIX siècle, par Louis Gonse.</p> </div> </td></tr></table> -<p>Richard Muther, Ein Jahrhundert franzsischer Malerei. Berlin, 1901.</p> +<p>Richard Muther, Ein Jahrhundert französischer Malerei. Berlin, 1901.</p> -<p>A. Julius Meier-Grfe: Der Entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst. (With Illustrations +<p>A. Julius Meier-Gräfe: Der Entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen Kunst. (With Illustrations and a volume of Plates.) Stuttgart, 1904.</p> <p>Periodicals specially to be noted: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” Paris, 1865. “L’Art,” @@ -17131,27 +17090,27 @@ Paris, 1875.</p> <p>Jules Renouvier: Histoire de l’art pendant la revolution. Paris, 1863.</p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la socit franaise pendant la rvolution. +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la société française pendant la révolution. Paris, 1854. New Edition, 1889.</p> -<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la socit franaise pendant le Directoire. +<p>Edmond et Jules de Goncourt: Histoire de la société française pendant le Directoire. Paris, 1855.</p> -<p>Anton Springer: Die Kunst whrend der franzsischen Revolution, Bilder aus der neueren +<p>Anton Springer: Die Kunst während der französischen Revolution, Bilder aus der neueren Kuntsgeschichte. Bonn, 1886.</p> -<p>Paul Marmottan: L’cole franaise de peinture 1789-1850. Paris, 1886.</p> +<p>Paul Marmottan: L’école française de peinture 1789-1850. Paris, 1886.</p> -<p>Carl v. Ltzow: Die franzsische Kunst vor 100 Jahren, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>Carl v. Lützow: Die französische Kunst vor 100 Jahren, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xxiv, 1889, p. 181.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Madame Vige-Lebrun:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Madame Vigée-Lebrun:</b></p> <p>Her Autobiography: Souvenirs de ma vie. Paris, 1835-37.</p> -<p>Sophia Beale: Elisabeth Louise Vige-Lebrun, “Portfolio,” 1891, 89.</p> +<p>Sophia Beale: Elisabeth Louise Vigée-Lebrun, “Portfolio,” 1891, 89.</p> -<p>Charles Pillet in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> +<p>Charles Pillet in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1892.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Vien:</b></p> @@ -17163,23 +17122,23 @@ xxiv, 1889, p. 181.</p> <p>P. A. Coupin: Essai sur J. L. David. Paris, 1827.</p> -<p>E. J. Delcluze: Louis David. Paris, 1855.</p> +<p>E. J. Delécluze: Louis David. Paris, 1855.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span></p> -<p>Jules David: Le peintre Louis David (1748-1825), souvenirs et documents indits. +<p>Jules David: Le peintre Louis David (1748-1825), souvenirs et documents inédits. Paris, Havard, 1879.</p> -<p>C. A. Regnet in “Kunst und Knstler Spaniens, Frankreichs, und Englands.” Leipzig, +<p>C. A. Regnet in “Kunst und Künstler Spaniens, Frankreichs, und Englands.” Leipzig, 1880.</p> -<p>G. Nieter: Le peintre David, “Revue gnrale,” March 1881.</p> +<p>G. Nieter: Le peintre David, “Revue générale,” March 1881.</p> <p>“L’Art,” 1889, ii p. 46.</p> -<p>C. Brun: Louis David und die franzsische Revolution. Zrich, 1886.</p> +<p>C. Brun: Louis David und die französische Revolution. Zürich, 1886.</p> -<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Charles Normand in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>L. Rosenthal: David. Paris, 1904.</p> </div> @@ -17189,7 +17148,7 @@ Paris, Havard, 1879.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Parallel Movement in Literature:</span></b></p> -<p>Georg Brandes, Haupstrmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts. Vol. ii, Die +<p>Georg Brandes, Haupströmungen der Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts. Vol. ii, Die deutsche romantische Schule. Leipzig, 1887.</p> <p>Georg Haim: Die romantische Schule. Berlin, 1871.</p> @@ -17199,7 +17158,7 @@ Schiller. Braunschweig, 1850.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>On the Nazarenes in General:</b></p> -<p>Veit Valentin in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> +<p>Veit Valentin in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> <p>Alfred Woltmann: Cornelius und seine Genossen in Rom. Aus Vier Jahrhunderte, etc. Berlin, 1878, pp. 208 ff.</p> @@ -17209,79 +17168,79 @@ Erlangen, 1901.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Overbeck:</b></p> -<p>A. v. Zahn: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” vi, 1871, pp. 217-235.</p> +<p>A. v. Zahn: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” vi, 1871, pp. 217-235.</p> <p>J. R. Beavington-Atkinson, Overbeck (Great Artists). London, Low, 1882.</p> <p>Margaret Howitt: Friedrich Overbeck. Sein Leben u. Schaffen, etc. 1886.</p> -<p>Amongst minor works: J. N. Sepp: Friedrich Overbeck, Gedchtnissrede. Augsburg, -1869.—Franz Binder: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Mnchen, 1870.—H. +<p>Amongst minor works: J. N. Sepp: Friedrich Overbeck, Gedächtnissrede. Augsburg, +1869.—Franz Binder: Zur Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. München, 1870.—H. Holland: Zu Friedrich Overbeck’s Heimgang, 1870.—G. Fr. v. Hertling: Zur -Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Kln, 1875.</p> +Erinnerung an Friedrich Overbeck. Köln, 1875.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Fhrich:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Führich:</b></p> <p>Autobiography in the “Libussa.” Prag, 1844. New Edition, Vienna, Sartori, 1876.</p> -<p>R. Zimmermann: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” vii, 1868, pp. 189, 209.</p> +<p>R. Zimmermann: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” vii, 1868, pp. 189, 209.</p> -<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh., iii. Nrdlingen, 1881, pp. 64-108.</p> +<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh., iii. Nördlingen, 1881, pp. 64-108.</p> -<p>Lucas v. Fhrich: “Graphische Knste,” viii pp. 1-16, 25-64. Also separate.</p> +<p>Lucas v. Führich: “Graphische Künste,” viii pp. 1-16, 25-64. Also separate.</p> -<p>C. v. Ltzow, from Fhrichs Nachlass, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xvii, 1882, p. 33.</p> +<p>C. v. Lützow, from Führichs Nachlass, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xvii, 1882, p. 33.</p> -<p>Die Fhrich-Ausstellung in Frankfurt: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1885, xx, +<p>Die Führich-Ausstellung in Frankfurt: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1885, xx, Beiblatt, 32.</p> -<p>L. R. von Kurz: T. von Fhrich. Graz, 1902.</p> +<p>L. R. von Kurz: T. von Führich. Graz, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Veit:</b></p> -<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke; also in “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke; also in “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xv 2.</p> <p>Martin Spahn: Philipp Veit. (With 92 Illustrations.) Bielefeld, 1901.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>The Frescoes in the Casa Bartholdy:</b></p> -<p>L. v. Donop: Die Wandgemlde der Casa Bartholdy in der Nationalgalerie. Berlin, 1888.</p> +<p>L. v. Donop: Die Wandgemälde der Casa Bartholdy in der Nationalgalerie. Berlin, 1888.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span></p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Steinle:</b></p> -<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graph. Knste,” iv. 3 and 4.</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, “Graph. Künste,” iv. 3 and 4.</p> <p>Constantin v. Wurzbach: Ed. Steinle, ein Madonnenmaler unserer Zeit. Biographische Studie. Wien, 1879.</p> -<p>Veit Valentin: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1888, xxiii 1 and 33.</p> +<p>Veit Valentin: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1888, xxiii 1 and 33.</p> -<p>L. Christiani: Plaudereien ber Kunstinteressen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1871.</p> +<p>L. Christiani: Plaudereien über Kunstinteressen der Gegenwart. Berlin, 1871.</p> <p>A. Reichensperger: Erinnerungen an Steinle. Frankfurt, 1887.</p> -<p>A. M. von Steinle: E. von Steinle und August Reichensperger. Kln, 1890.</p> +<p>A. M. von Steinle: E. von Steinle und August Reichensperger. Köln, 1890.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b><i>Reproductions:</i></b></p> -<p>Ausgewhlte Werke E. v. Steinles. Frankfurt, 1888.</p> +<p>Ausgewählte Werke E. v. Steinles. Frankfurt, 1888.</p> <p>Ed. Steinles Bilder zu Parcival. Frankfurt, 1884.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Schnorr:</b></p> -<p>M. Jordan: Aus Julius Schnorrs Lehr-und Wanderjahren, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>M. Jordan: Aus Julius Schnorrs Lehr-und Wanderjahren, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1867, pp. 1 ff.</p> -<p>H. Riegel, “Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze.” Braunschweig, 1877, pp. +<p>H. Riegel, “Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze.” Braunschweig, 1877, pp. 210-248.</p> <p>M. Jordan: Ausstellung von Werken Julius Schnorrs in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, 1878.</p> -<p>Veit Valentin in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.”</p> +<p>Veit Valentin in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.”</p> <p>Friedrich Haack in “Das 19 Jahrhundert in Bildnissen.” Berlin. Photographische Gesellschaft, 1901.</p> @@ -17293,7 +17252,7 @@ von Franz Schnorr v. Carolsfeld. Gotha, 1886.</p> <p><i>Compare</i> “Bibel in Bildern.” Leipzig, 1852-62.</p> -<p>Zeichnungen von Jul. Schnorr v. Carolsfeld, mit Einleitung von Jordan. Leipzig, Drr, +<p>Zeichnungen von Jul. Schnorr v. Carolsfeld, mit Einleitung von Jordan. Leipzig, Dürr, 1878.</p> </div> @@ -17302,28 +17261,28 @@ von Franz Schnorr v. Carolsfeld. Gotha, 1886.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a"><b>The Art of Munich under King Ludwig I.:</b></p> -<p>Alfred Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte.” +<p>Alfred Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte.” Berlin, 1878, pp. 260 ff.</p> -<p>Hans Reidelbach: Knig Ludwig I und seine Kunstschpfungen. Mnchen, 1888.</p> +<p>Hans Reidelbach: König Ludwig I und seine Kunstschöpfungen. München, 1888.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Cornelius:</b></p> <p>Herm. Riegel: Cornelius, der Meister der deutschen Malerei. Hannover, 1866.</p> -<p>M. Carrire: Denkrede auf Cornelius. Leipzig, 1867.</p> +<p>M. Carrière: Denkrede auf Cornelius. Leipzig, 1867.</p> -<p>A. Teichlein: Betrachtungen ber Riegels Buch, “Cornelius, der Meister der deutschen -Malerei,” “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” ii. 1867, pp. 128 ff., 189 ff.</p> +<p>A. Teichlein: Betrachtungen über Riegels Buch, “Cornelius, der Meister der deutschen +Malerei,” “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” ii. 1867, pp. 128 ff., 189 ff.</p> <p>Alfred Frhr. v. Wolzogen: Peter v. Cornelius. Berlin, 1867.</p> -<p>Max Lohde: Gesprche mit Cornelius, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” III 1, 30, 84. +<p>Max Lohde: Gespräche mit Cornelius, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” III 1, 30, 84. 1868.</p> -<p>W. Lbke: Kunsthistorische Studien. Stuttgart, 1869.</p> +<p>W. Lübke: Kunsthistorische Studien. Stuttgart, 1869.</p> -<p>Ernst Frster: Peter Cornelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und Wirken. 2 vols. +<p>Ernst Förster: Peter Cornelius, ein Gedenkbuch aus seinem Leben und Wirken. 2 vols. Berlin, 1874.</p> <p>Herm. Grimm: Berlin und P. v. Cornelius (Die Cartons von P. v. Cornelius, Cornelius und @@ -17331,32 +17290,32 @@ die ersten 50 Jahre nach 1800), in “15 Essays.” Berlin, 1875.</p> <p>V. Kaiser: Cornelius und Kaulbach in ihren Lieblingswerken. Basel, 1876.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh., Bd. 1. Nrdlingen, 1877.</p> +<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh., Bd. 1. Nördlingen, 1877.</p> -<p>A. Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher Kunst.” Berlin, 1878, +<p>A. Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunst.” Berlin, 1878, pp. 208-259.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span></p> <p>Fr. Pecht: P. v. Cornelius. “Gartenlaube,” 1879, 29.</p> -<p>M. Carrire in “Deutscher Plutarch,” Bd. vii. Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1-56.</p> +<p>M. Carrière in “Deutscher Plutarch,” Bd. vii. Leipzig, 1880, pp. 1-56.</p> <p>A. Rosenberg: Cornelius im Lichte der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1881, I.</p> -<p>A. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, P. v. Cornelius, “Die graph. Knste,” 1881, 4, 2.</p> +<p>A. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack, P. v. Cornelius, “Die graph. Künste,” 1881, 4, 2.</p> <p>Rossmann: Briefe von Peter Cornelius. Grenzboten, 1882, 16.</p> <p>G. Portig: Die sixtinische Madonna und die Camposanto Cartons von Cornelius. Leipzig, 1882.</p> -<p>V. Valentin in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1883-85.</p> +<p>V. Valentin in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrh.” Leipzig, 1883-85.</p> -<p>Herm. Riegel: Peter Cornelius, Festschrift zu des grossen Knstlers 100 Geburtstage. +<p>Herm. Riegel: Peter Cornelius, Festschrift zu des grossen Künstlers 100 Geburtstage. Berlin, 1883.</p> -<p>Carl v. Ltzow: Zur Erinnerung an P. v. Cornelius, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>Carl v. Lützow: Zur Erinnerung an P. v. Cornelius, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 19, 1.</p> <p>Der 100 Geburtstag von Cornelius, “Allegemeine Zeitung,” 1883, B. 130.</p> @@ -17365,97 +17324,97 @@ Berlin, 1883.</p> <p>H. Grimm: Cornelius betreffend, “Deutsche Rundschau,” March 1884.</p> -<p>L. v. Urlichs: Beitrge zur Kunstgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885, p. 119. Cornelius in -Mnchen und Rom.</p> +<p>L. v. Urlichs: Beiträge zur Kunstgeschichte. Leipzig, 1885, p. 119. Cornelius in +München und Rom.</p> <p>A. Frantz in “Kunst und Literatur.” Berlin, 1888, pp. 1-60.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Kaulbach:</b></p> -<p>Guido Grres: Das Narrenhaus von W. Kaulbach. Mnchen. No date.</p> +<p>Guido Görres: Das Narrenhaus von W. Kaulbach. München. No date.</p> -<p>Max Schasler: Die Wandgemlde Wilhelm von Kaulbachs im Treppenhause des Neuen +<p>Max Schasler: Die Wandgemälde Wilhelm von Kaulbachs im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin. Berlin, 1854.</p> -<p>W. v. Kaulbachs Shakespeare-Galerie, by M. Carrire. Berlin, 1856.</p> +<p>W. v. Kaulbachs Shakespeare-Galerie, by M. Carrière. Berlin, 1856.</p> <p>V. Kaiser: Kaulbachs Bilderkreis der Weltgeschichte. Berlin, 1879.</p> <p>Ed. Dobbert: Die monumentale Darstellung der Reformation durch Rietschel und -Kaulbach. “Sammlung gemeinverstndlicher wissenschaftlicher Vortrge,” No. 74. +Kaulbach. “Sammlung gemeinverständlicher wissenschaftlicher Vorträge,” No. 74. Berlin, 1869.</p> -<p>A. Teichlein: Zur Charakteristik W. v. Kaulbachs, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>A. Teichlein: Zur Charakteristik W. v. Kaulbachs, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xi, 1876, pp. 257-264.</p> <p>V. Kaiser: Macbeth und Lady Macbeth in Shakespeare’s Dichtungen und in Kunstwerken von Cornelius und Kaulbach. Basel, Schweighauser, 1876.</p> -<p>A. Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte.” +<p>A. Woltmann, from “Vier Jahrhunderte niederländisch-deutscher Kunstgeschichte.” Berlin, 1878, pp. 288-316.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: “Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts,” ii. Nrdlin gen, 1879, pp. 54-109.</p> +<p>Fr. Pecht: “Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts,” ii. Nördlin gen, 1879, pp. 54-109.</p> -<p>Kaulbachs Wandgemlde im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin, in Kupfer -gestochen von G. Eilers, H. Merz, J. L. Raab, A. Schultheiss. Mit erluterndem Text +<p>Kaulbachs Wandgemälde im Treppenhause des Neuen Museums zu Berlin, in Kupfer +gestochen von G. Eilers, H. Merz, J. L. Raab, A. Schultheiss. Mit erläuterndem Text herausgegeben unter den Auspicien des Meisters. Neue Ausgabe. Berlin, A. Duncker, 1879.</p> -<p>Hans Mller: W. Kaulbach. Berlin, 1893.</p> +<p>Hans Müller: W. Kaulbach. Berlin, 1893.</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER VII</p> <div class="list pt1"> -<p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Dsseldorfers:</span></b></p> +<p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Düsseldorfers:</span></b></p> -<p>W. Schadow: Gedanken ber folgerichtige Ausbildung des Malers, “Berliner Kunstblatt,” +<p>W. Schadow: Gedanken über folgerichtige Ausbildung des Malers, “Berliner Kunstblatt,” 1828, pp. 264-273.</p> -<p>A. Fahne: Die Dsseldorfer Malerschule, 1835-36. Dsseldorf, 1837.</p> +<p>A. Fahne: Die Düsseldorfer Malerschule, 1835-36. Düsseldorf, 1837.</p> -<p>H. Pttmann: Die Dsseldorfer Malerschule und ihre Leistungen seit der Errichtung des +<p>H. Püttmann: Die Düsseldorfer Malerschule und ihre Leistungen seit der Errichtung des Kunstvereins in Jahre 1829. Leipzig, 1839.</p> -<p>Fr. v. Uechtritz: Blicke in das Dsseldorfer Knst- und Knstlerleben. Dsseldorf, 1839.</p> +<p>Fr. v. Uechtritz: Blicke in das Düsseldorfer Künst- und Künstlerleben. Düsseldorf, 1839.</p> -<p>Wolfg. Mller v. Knigswinter: Dsseldorfer Knstler ans den letzten 25 Jahren. +<p>Wolfg. Müller v. Königswinter: Düsseldorfer Künstler ans den letzten 25 Jahren. Leipzig, 1854.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span></p> -<p>W. v. Schadow: Der moderne Vasari, Erinnerungen aus dem Knstlerleben. Berlin, 1854.</p> +<p>W. v. Schadow: Der moderne Vasari, Erinnerungen aus dem Künstlerleben. Berlin, 1854.</p> -<p>R. Wiegmann: Die knigliche Kunstakademie zu Dsseldorf, ihre Geschichte, Einrichtung -und Wirksamkeit und die Dsseldorfer Knstler. Dsseldorf, 1854.</p> +<p>R. Wiegmann: Die königliche Kunstakademie zu Düsseldorf, ihre Geschichte, Einrichtung +und Wirksamkeit und die Düsseldorfer Künstler. Düsseldorf, 1854.</p> -<p>J. Hbner: Schadow und seine Schule, Festrede bei Enthllung des Schadowdenkmals zu -Dsseldorf, 1869. Bonn, 1869.</p> +<p>J. Hübner: Schadow und seine Schule, Festrede bei Enthüllung des Schadowdenkmals zu +Düsseldorf, 1869. Bonn, 1869.</p> -<p>M. Blanckarts: Dsseldorfer Knstler, Nekrologe aus den letzten zehn Jahren. Stuttgart, +<p>M. Blanckarts: Düsseldorfer Künstler, Nekrologe aus den letzten zehn Jahren. Stuttgart, 1877.</p> -<p>K. Woermann: Zur Geschichte der Dsseldorfer Kunstakademie. Dsseldorf, 1880.</p> +<p>K. Woermann: Zur Geschichte der Düsseldorfer Kunstakademie. Düsseldorf, 1880.</p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. Grenzboten, 1881, 1 1 ff.</p> +<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. Grenzboten, 1881, 1 1 ff.</p> -<p>Mor. Blanckarts: Der Knstlerverein Malkasten in Dsseldorf, “Allgemeine Kunstchronik,” +<p>Mor. Blanckarts: Der Künstlerverein Malkasten in Düsseldorf, “Allgemeine Kunstchronik,” 1883, 47.</p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Dsseldorfer Schule. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> +<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Düsseldorfer Schule. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> -<p>Schaarschmidt: Geschichte der Dsseldorfer Kunst, 1902.</p> +<p>Schaarschmidt: Geschichte der Düsseldorfer Kunst, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bendemann:</b></p> -<p>Die Ausstellung der Werke von E. Bendemann in der knigliche Nationalgalerie v. 3 Nov. +<p>Die Ausstellung der Werke von E. Bendemann in der königliche Nationalgalerie v. 3 Nov. bis 15 Dez. 1890. Berlin, 1890.</p> <p>L. Bund: Ed. Bendemann, “Illustrirte Zeitung,” 1881, 2014.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Hbner:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Hübner:</b></p> -<p>M. Blanckarts: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1883, 13.</p> +<p>M. Blanckarts: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1883, 13.</p> <p>Reumont, “Archiv. storico italiano,” xi 2.</p> @@ -17471,7 +17430,7 @@ bis 15 Dez. 1890. Berlin, 1890.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a"><b>Rethel:</b></p> -<p>Wolfgang Mller v. Knigswinter: Alfred Rethel. Bltter der Erinnerung. Leipzig, 1861.</p> +<p>Wolfgang Müller v. Königswinter: Alfred Rethel. Blätter der Erinnerung. Leipzig, 1861.</p> <p>Friedr. Theodor Vischer: Altes und Neues. Drittes Heft. Stuttgart, 1882, pp. 1-24.</p> @@ -17479,94 +17438,94 @@ bis 15 Dez. 1890. Berlin, 1890.</p> <p>Veit Valentin: A. Rethel, eine Charakteristik, “Aesthet. Schriften I.” Berlin, 1892.</p> -<p>Max Schmid: Bd. 32 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898.</p> +<p>Max Schmid: Bd. 32 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Schwind:</b></p> -<p>L. v. Fhrich: Moriz v. Schwind, Eine Lebensskizze. Leipzig, 1871.</p> +<p>L. v. Führich: Moriz v. Schwind, Eine Lebensskizze. Leipzig, 1871.</p> -<p>Ed. Ille: Dem Andenken M. Schwinds. Mnchen, 1871.</p> +<p>Ed. Ille: Dem Andenken M. Schwinds. München, 1871.</p> -<p>A. W. Mller: M. v. Schwind. Eisenach, 1871.</p> +<p>A. W. Müller: M. v. Schwind. Eisenach, 1871.</p> -<p>Hermann Dalton: “Sechs Vortrge.” St. Petersburg, 1872.</p> +<p>Hermann Dalton: “Sechs Vorträge.” St. Petersburg, 1872.</p> <p>Ludwig Hevesi: M. Schwind. “Gegenwart,” 1872.</p> <p>H. Holland: M. v. Schwind. Stuttgart, 1873.</p> -<p>A. v. Zahn: Zur Charakteristik M. v. Schwinds, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” vii +<p>A. v. Zahn: Zur Charakteristik M. v. Schwinds, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” vii 1873, p. 287.</p> -<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrh. Nrdlingen, 1877, i 195-231.</p> +<p>F. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrh. Nördlingen, 1877, i 195-231.</p> -<p>Bauernfeld: Moriz Schwind zum Gedchtniss, “Nord und Sd,” iii, 1877, p. 353.</p> +<p>Bauernfeld: Moriz Schwind zum Gedächtniss, “Nord und Süd,” iii, 1877, p. 353.</p> -<p>Bernh. Schdel: Briefe von Moriz Schwind, “Nord und Sd,” xiv, 1880, p. 23; xv, 1881, +<p>Bernh. Schädel: Briefe von Moriz Schwind, “Nord und Süd,” xiv, 1880, p. 23; xv, 1881, p. 357.</p> -<p>Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 41-73.</p> +<p>Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 41-73.</p> <p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack. Wien, 1883. Mit Radirungen.</p> -<p>Alph. Drr: Ein halbvergessenes Werk von Schwind (Wandmalereien in Hohenschwangau) +<p>Alph. Dürr: Ein halbvergessenes Werk von Schwind (Wandmalereien in Hohenschwangau) in der Festschrift zu Ehren Anton Springers. Leipzig, 1885, pp. 231-239.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span></p> -<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Knstler, und Kunstwerke. Leipzig, 1888.</p> +<p>Veit Valentin: Kunst, Künstler, und Kunstwerke. Leipzig, 1888.</p> -<p>Briefwechsel zwischen Schwind u. Ed. Mrike, mitgeth. v. J. Baechtold. Leipzig, 1890.</p> +<p>Briefwechsel zwischen Schwind u. Ed. Mörike, mitgeth. v. J. Baechtold. Leipzig, 1890.</p> <p>H. W. Riehl: Studien und Charakteristiken. Stuttgart, 1891.</p> -<p>Friedrich Haack: Bd. 31 der Knstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898.</p> +<p>Friedrich Haack: Bd. 31 der Künstlermonographien von Knackfuss. Bielefeld, 1898.</p> <p>Otto Grantoff, in “Muthers Sammlung Die Kunst.” Berlin, 1903.</p> <p>Julius Naue: Worte u. Wirken v. M. von Schwind. (With a Portrait and 3 Illustrations.) -Mnchen, 1904.</p> +München, 1904.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b><i>Reproductions:</i></b></p> -<p>Aschenbrdel, Bildercyclus von M. v. Schwind. Holzschnittausgabe nach den Theaterschen -Stichen, mit Text von H. Lcke. 1873.</p> +<p>Aschenbrödel, Bildercyclus von M. v. Schwind. Holzschnittausgabe nach den Theaterschen +Stichen, mit Text von H. Lücke. 1873.</p> -<p>Die sieben Raben u. die schne Melusine, zuletzt unter dem Titel “Deutsche Mrchen” +<p>Die sieben Raben u. die schöne Melusine, zuletzt unter dem Titel “Deutsche Märchen” bei Neff in Stuttgart erschienen.</p> <p>Operncyclus im Foyer des k. k. Opernhauses in Wien. 14 Compositionen von Moritz -Schwind. Mit Text von Ed. Hanslick. Mnchen, 1880.</p> +Schwind. Mit Text von Ed. Hanslick. München, 1880.</p> -<p>Almanach von Radirungen mit Erklrungen. Text von Feuchtersleben. Zrich, 1844.</p> +<p>Almanach von Radirungen mit Erklärungen. Text von Feuchtersleben. Zürich, 1844.</p> -<p>Schwinds Wandgemlde in Hohenschwangau. 46 Compositionen nach den Aquarellentwrfen +<p>Schwinds Wandgemälde in Hohenschwangau. 46 Compositionen nach den Aquarellentwürfen gestochen von J. Naue und K. Walde. Leipzig.</p> -<p>Schwind-Album. Mnchen, 1880.</p> +<p>Schwind-Album. München, 1880.</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER IX</p> <div class="list pt1"> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Grard:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Gérard:</b></p> -<p>Charles Lenormant: Franois Grard, peintre d’histoire. Essai de biographie et de +<p>Charles Lenormant: François Gérard, peintre d’histoire. Essai de biographie et de critique. Paris, 1847.</p> -<p>Adam: L’œuvre du Baron Grard. Paris, 1852-57.</p> +<p>Adam: L’œuvre du Baron Gérard. Paris, 1852-57.</p> -<p>Correspondance de Franois Grard, peintre d’histoire. Publie par Henri Grard, son -neveu, et prcde d’une Notice sur la vie de Grard par Adolphe Viollet le Duc. +<p>Correspondance de François Gérard, peintre d’histoire. Publiée par Henri Gérard, son +neveu, et précédée d’une Notice sur la vie de Gérard par Adolphe Viollet le Duc. Paris, 1867.</p> -<p>Charles Ephrussi: Franois Grard d’aprs les lettres publies par M. le baron Grard, +<p>Charles Ephrussi: François Gérard d’après les lettres publiées par M. le baron Gérard, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1890, ii 449. 1891, i 57, 201.</p> <p><b>Prudhon</b> (besides Jul. Meyer, Renouvier, and Rosenberg):</p> <p>Voiart: Notice historique sur la vie et les œuvres de P. P. Prudhon, peintre. Paris, 1824. -Quatremre de Quincy: Notice lue l’Institut, 2 Octobre 1824.</p> +Quatremère de Quincy: Notice lue à l’Institut, 2 Octobre 1824.</p> <p>Eug. Delacroix: “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1857.</p> @@ -17574,30 +17533,30 @@ Quatremre de Quincy: Notice lue l’Institut, 2 Octobre 1824.</p> 1867-68, then in “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1872, with 30 Illustrations. Paris, Didier & Co., 3rd Edition, 1880.</p> -<p>Edm. et J. de Goncourt: L’Art au XVIII sicle. Paris, 1875. New Edition, 1882, +<p>Edm. et J. de Goncourt: L’Art au XVIII siècle. Paris, 1875. New Edition, 1882, vol. ii, p. 385.</p> -<p>Edm. de Goncourt: Catalogue raisonn de l’œuvre peint, dessin et grav de Prudhon. +<p>Edm. de Goncourt: Catalogue raisonné de l’œuvre peint, dessiné et gravé de Prudhon. Paris, 1876.</p> <p>Ph. Burty: L’œuvre de P. P. Prudhon, “L’Art,” 1877, i p. 33.</p> -<p>Alfred Sensier: Le Roman de Prudhon, “Revue internationale de l’Art et de la Curiosit,” +<p>Alfred Sensier: Le Roman de Prudhon, “Revue internationale de l’Art et de la Curiosité,” 15 Dec. 1869.</p> -<p>Arsne Houssaye: Artiste, Janvier-Juin 1877. Article in “L’Art,” 1877, i p. 33.</p> +<p>Arséne Houssaye: Artiste, Janvier-Juin 1877. Article in “L’Art,” 1877, i p. 33.</p> <p>Charles Gueullette: Mlle. Constance Mayer et Prudhon, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1878, p. 476. 1879, p. 268.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Histoire des peintres, vol. iii.</p> -<p>Aug. Schmarsow in “Kunst und Knstler der ersten Hlfte des 19 Jahrhunderts,” +<p>Aug. Schmarsow in “Kunst und Künstler der ersten Hälfte des 19 Jahrhunderts,” published by Robert Dohme, vol. ii. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span></p> -<p>Pierre Gauthiez: Prudhon in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1891.</p> +<p>Pierre Gauthiez: Prudhon in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1891.</p> <p>Almost all the works of Prudhon are photographed by Braun of Dornach.</p> @@ -17609,19 +17568,19 @@ published by Robert Dohme, vol. ii. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> <p>J. Tripier le Franc: Histoire de la vie et de la mort du baron Gros, le grand peintre. Paris, 1880.</p> -<p>Eugne Delacroix: “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1848. Also in a separate reprint.</p> +<p>Eugène Delacroix: “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1848. Also in a separate reprint.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’cole. 3rd Edition, 1883, pp. 58-126.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’école. 3rd Edition, 1883, pp. 58-126.</p> -<p>On Gros’ paintings in the Pantheon: Ph. de Chennevires in the “Gazette des Beaux +<p>On Gros’ paintings in the Pantheon: Ph. de Chennevières in the “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” xxiii pp. 168-174.</p> <p>G. Dargenty: Les Chefs-d’œuvre de Gros, “L’Art,” 1886, ii p. 121, and 1889, ii p. 100.</p> -<p>Richard Graul in “Kunst und Knstler der ersten Hlfte des 19 Jahrhunderts,” vol. 2. +<p>Richard Graul in “Kunst und Künstler der ersten Hälfte des 19 Jahrhunderts,” vol. 2. Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> -<p>G. Dargenty: Le baron Gros. Paris, 1887, in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>G. Dargenty: Le baron Gros. Paris, 1887, in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> <p>The chief pictures of Gros are photographed by Braun of Dornach.</p> </div> @@ -17631,27 +17590,27 @@ Leipzig, Seemann, 1886.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">On the Parallel Movement in Literature:</span></b></p> -<p>Georg Brandes: Die Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts in ihren Hauptstrmungen, 2 Auflage +<p>Georg Brandes: Die Literatur des 19 Jahrhunderts in ihren Hauptströmungen, 2 Auflage Bd. 5. Leipzig, 1883.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">On the Romantic Movement in General:</span></b></p> -<p>E. Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques (Huet, Boulanger, Prault, Delacroix, -Th. Rousseau, Millet, etc.). Paris, Charavay frres, 1879.</p> +<p>E. Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques (Huet, Boulanger, Préault, Delacroix, +Th. Rousseau, Millet, etc.). Paris, Charavay frères, 1879.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Gricault:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Géricault:</b></p> -<p>Charles Blanc: Th. Gricault, 1845.</p> +<p>Charles Blanc: Th. Géricault, 1845.</p> -<p>Charles Clement: Th. Gricault, tude biographique et critique, avec le catalogue -raisonn. Paris, 1868. New Edition, 1879.</p> +<p>Charles Clement: Th. Géricault, Étude biographique et critique, avec le catalogue +raisonné. Paris, 1868. New Edition, 1879.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Delacroix:</b></p> -<p>E. Galichon: Les Peintures de M. E. Delacroix Saint-Sulpice, “Gazette des Beaux +<p>E. Galichon: Les Peintures de M. E. Delacroix à Saint-Sulpice, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” xi, 1861, p. 511.</p> -<p>Amde Cantaloube: Eugne Delacroix, l’homme et l’artiste. Paris, 1864.</p> +<p>Amédée Cantaloube: Eugène Delacroix, l’homme et l’artiste. Paris, 1864.</p> <p>Henri de Cleurion: L’œuvre de Delacroix. Paris, 1865.</p> @@ -17659,45 +17618,45 @@ Arts,” xi, 1861, p. 511.</p> <p>Adolphe Moreau: E. Delacroix et son œuvre. Paris, 1873.</p> -<p>Lettres de E. Delacroix (1815-1863), recueillies et publies par Phil. Burty. Paris, +<p>Lettres de E. Delacroix (1815-1863), recueillies et publiées par Phil. Burty. Paris, Quantin, 1879.</p> -<p>Alfred Robaut: Peintures dcoratives de E. Delacroix. Le Salon du roi au Palais legislatif. +<p>Alfred Robaut: Peintures décoratives de E. Delacroix. Le Salon du roi au Palais legislatif. Paris, A. Levy, 1879.</p> -<p>Alfred Robaut: Peintures dcoratives de E. Delacroix, “L’Art,” 1880, 279.</p> +<p>Alfred Robaut: Peintures décoratives de E. Delacroix, “L’Art,” 1880, 279.</p> -<p>M. Vachon: E. Delacroix l’cole des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885.</p> +<p>M. Vachon: E. Delacroix à l’école des Beaux Arts. Paris, 1885.</p> -<p>Ph. Burty: Eugne Delacroix Alger, “L’Art,” 1880, 422.</p> +<p>Ph. Burty: Eugène Delacroix à Alger, “L’Art,” 1880, 422.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Eugne Delacroix, “L’Art,” 1882, 382.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Eugène Delacroix, “L’Art,” 1882, 382.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: L’œuvre complet de E. Delacroix, comment par E. Chesneau. Paris, +<p>Ernest Chesneau: L’œuvre complet de E. Delacroix, commenté par E. Chesneau. Paris, 1885.</p> -<p>G. Dargenty: Eug. Delacroix par lui-mme. Paris, 1885.</p> +<p>G. Dargenty: Eug. Delacroix par lui-même. Paris, 1885.</p> <p>Henri Guet: L’œuvre de E. Delacroix, “Le Salon” de 1885, etc. Paris, 1885.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span></p> -<p>Maurice Tourneux: Eug. Delacroix, devant ses contemporains, ses crits, ses biographes, -ses critiques. Paris, 1886. (Bibliothque internationale de l’Art, Sr. II, vol. vi.)</p> +<p>Maurice Tourneux: Eug. Delacroix, devant ses contemporains, ses écrits, ses biographes, +ses critiques. Paris, 1886. (Bibliothèque internationale de l’Art, Sér. II, vol. vi.)</p> -<p>Vron: Eugne Delacroix. Paris, 1887.</p> +<p>Véron: Eugène Delacroix. Paris, 1887.</p> -<p><i>See</i> Eugne Delacroix: Journal de E. D. (With Introductory Study, etc., by M. Paul -Flat and Ren Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, 1903.</p> +<p><i>See</i> Eugène Delacroix: Journal de E. D. (With Introductory Study, etc., by M. Paul +Flat and René Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, 1903.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Ingres:</b></p> -<p>A. Magimel: Œuvres de J. A. I., graves par A. Rveil. [102 Copperplates.] Paris, +<p>A. Magimel: Œuvres de J. A. I., gravées par A. Réveil. [102 Copperplates.] Paris, 1851.</p> <p>Charles Lenormant: Beaux Arts et Voyages. Paris, 1861.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’cole. Paris, 1868, p. 253.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’école. Paris, 1868, p. 253.</p> <p>Henri Delaborde: Ingres, sa vie et ses travaux. Paris, 1870.</p> @@ -17705,19 +17664,19 @@ Flat and Ren Piot, etc.) 3 vols., 1893-1895. Berlin, 1903.</p> <p>Amaury Duval: L’atelier d’Ingres. Souvenirs. Paris, 1878.</p> -<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais. Paris, 1878, p. 139.</p> +<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français. Paris, 1878, p. 139.</p> -<p>R. Balze: Ingres, son cole, son enseignement du dessin: avec des notes recueillies par +<p>R. Balze: Ingres, son école, son enseignement du dessin: avec des notes recueillies par P. et A. Flandrin, Lehman, Delaborde, etc. Paris, Pillet et Dumoulin, 1880.</p> <p>Ernest Chesneau: Peintres et statuaires romantiques. Paris, 1880, p. 259.</p> -<p>Eugne Montrosier; Peintres modernes: Ingres, H. Flandrin, Robert Fleury. Paris, +<p>Eugène Montrosier; Peintres modernes: Ingres, H. Flandrin, Robert Fleury. Paris, Baschet, 1883.</p> -<p>August Schmarsow in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> +<p>August Schmarsow in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.” Leipzig, 1886.</p> -<p>Jules Mommeja in “Les artistes clbres.”</p> +<p>Jules Mommeja in “Les artistes célèbres.”</p> </div> <p class="center chap2 pt1">CHAPTER XI</p> @@ -17727,7 +17686,7 @@ Baschet, 1883.</p> <p>Blanche de Saffray: Ary Scheffer. Paris, 1859.</p> -<p>Antoine Etex: Ary Scheffer, tude sur sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, 1859.</p> +<p>Antoine Etex: Ary Scheffer, étude sur sa vie et ses ouvrages. Paris, 1859.</p> <p>Miss Grote: Memoir of the Life of A. Scheffer. 2nd Edition. London, 1860.</p> @@ -17738,7 +17697,7 @@ Baschet, 1883.</p> <p>Hofstede de Groot: Ary Scheffer, ein Charakterbild. Berlin, 1870.</p> -<p>M. E. Im-Thurn; Scheffer et Decamps. Nmes, 1876.</p> +<p>M. E. Im-Thurn; Scheffer et Decamps. Nîmes, 1876.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Johannot:</b></p> @@ -17751,27 +17710,27 @@ Flandrin. Paris, 1862.</p> <p>J. B. Poucet: Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1864.</p> -<p>A. Galimard: Examen des Peintures de l’Eglise de St. Germain des Prs. Paris, 1864.</p> +<p>A. Galimard: Examen des Peintures de l’Eglise de St. Germain des Prés. Paris, 1864.</p> -<p>Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865, p. 191.</p> +<p>Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1865, p. 191.</p> <p>Anon.: Hippolyte Flandrin, A Christian Painter of the Nineteenth Century. London, 1875.</p> -<p>M. de Montrond: H. Flandrin, tude biographique et historique. 3rd Edition, with +<p>M. de Montrond: H. Flandrin, Étude biographique et historique. 3rd Edition, with plates. Paris, Lefort, 1876.</p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’cole, p. 297.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’école, p. 297.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 263.</p> -<p>Henri Delaborde: Lettres et penses d’Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1877.</p> +<p>Henri Delaborde: Lettres et pensées d’Hippolyte Flandrin. Paris, 1877.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span></p> <p>Eng. Montrosier: Peintres modernes; Ingres, Flandrin, Robert-Fleury. Paris, 1882.</p> -<p>Hermann Helferich: Etwas ber franzsische Neuidealisten, “Kunst fr Alle,” 1892.</p> +<p>Hermann Helferich: Etwas über französische Neuidealisten, “Kunst für Alle,” 1892.</p> <p>Louis Flandrin: Hippolyte Flandrin, sa vie et son œuvre, etc. Paris, 1902.</p> @@ -17783,11 +17742,11 @@ plates. Paris, Lefort, 1876.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps, p. 191.</p> -<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes franais, p. 299.</p> +<p>Th. Silvestre: Les artistes français, p. 299.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Th. Chassriau:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Th. Chassériau:</b></p> -<p>Arthur Baignires: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1886, i 209.</p> +<p>Arthur Baignières: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1886, i 209.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Cogniet:</b></p> @@ -17795,22 +17754,22 @@ plates. Paris, Lefort, 1876.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1881, i 33.</p> -<p>Lon Bonnat: “Chronique des Arts,” 1883, 8. Also separate.</p> +<p>Léon Bonnat: “Chronique des Arts,” 1883, 8. Also separate.</p> -<p>Ernest Vinet: Lon Cogniet. Paris. Without date.</p> +<p>Ernest Vinet: Léon Cogniet. Paris. Without date.</p> <p>H. Delaborde: Notice sur la vie de L. Cogniet. Paris, 1881.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Devria:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Devéria:</b></p> -<p>J. Guiffrey: Achille et Eugne Devria, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 422.</p> +<p>J. Guiffrey: Achille et Eugène Devéria, “L’Art,” 1883, p. 422.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Delaroche:</b></p> -<p>Œuvre de Paul Delaroche: reproduit en photographie par Bingham, accompagn d’une -Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godd. Paris, 1858.</p> +<p>Œuvre de Paul Delaroche: reproduit en photographie par Bingham, accompagné d’une +Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Goddé. Paris, 1858.</p> -<p>Henri Delaborde: tudes sur les Beaux Arts, vol. ii. Paris, 1857.</p> +<p>Henri Delaborde: Études sur les Beaux Arts, vol. ii. Paris, 1857.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: P. Delaroche in “Histoire des peintres.”</p> @@ -17818,11 +17777,11 @@ Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godd. Paris, 1858.</p> <p>J. Runtz-Rees: P. Delaroche. London, 1880.</p> -<p>Adolf Rosenberg in “Kunst und Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.”</p> +<p>Adolf Rosenberg in “Kunst und Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.”</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Couture:</b></p> -<p>Mthodes et Entretiens d’atelier, par Thomas Couture. Paris, 1868.</p> +<p>Méthodes et Entretiens d’atelier, par Thomas Couture. Paris, 1868.</p> <p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, p. 163.</p> @@ -17832,7 +17791,7 @@ Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godd. Paris, 1858.</p> <p>Paul Leroy: “L’Art,” 1880, 298. Also separate.</p> -<p>Clara Biller: Zur Erinnerung an Thomas Couture, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xvi, +<p>Clara Biller: Zur Erinnerung an Thomas Couture, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xvi, 1881, p. 101.</p> <p>H. C. Angel: Th. Couture, “American Art Review,” 1881, 24.</p> @@ -17847,11 +17806,11 @@ Notice par H. Delaborde et Jules Godd. Paris, 1858.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Bouguereau:</b></p> -<p>Artistes modernes. “Dictionnaire illustr des Beaux Arts.” Paris, 1885. Parts I-V.</p> +<p>Artistes modernes. “Dictionnaire illustré des Beaux Arts.” Paris, 1885. Parts I-V.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Baudry:</b></p> -<p>Emile Bergerat: Peintures dcoratives de Paul Baudry au grand foyer de l’Opra. Avec +<p>Emile Bergerat: Peintures décoratives de Paul Baudry au grand foyer de l’Opéra. Avec preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875.</p> <p>Edmond About: Paul Baudry, “L’Art,” 1876, iv 169.</p> @@ -17860,16 +17819,16 @@ preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875.</p> <p>Jules Claretie: L’art et les artistes contemporains. Paris, 1876, p. 49.</p> -<p>Edmond About: Peintures dcoratives de Paul Baudry. Photogr. Goupil. Paris, +<p>Edmond About: Peintures décoratives de Paul Baudry. Photogr. Goupil. Paris, 1876.</p> -<p>G. Berger: Les peintures de Paul Baudry dans le Foyer de l’Opra, “Chronique des Arts,” +<p>G. Berger: Les peintures de Paul Baudry dans le Foyer de l’Opéra, “Chronique des Arts,” 1879.</p> <p>Charles Ephrussi: L’exposition des œuvres de M. P. Baudry, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1882, ii 132.</p> -<p>G. Dargenty: Paul Baudry propos de l’exposition de ses œuvres l’orangerie des Tuileries, +<p>G. Dargenty: Paul Baudry à propos de l’exposition de ses œuvres à l’orangerie des Tuileries, “Courrier de l’Art,” 28, 1883.</p> <p>Dubufe: Paul Baudry, “La nouvelle Revue,” 15 Juli 1883.</p> @@ -17880,7 +17839,7 @@ preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875.</p> <p>Charles Ephrussi: Paul Baudry, sa vie et son œuvre. Paris, 1887.</p> -<p>Richard Graul: Paul Baudry, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xxii, 1887, pp. 1 and 65.</p> +<p>Richard Graul: Paul Baudry, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xxii, 1887, pp. 1 and 65.</p> <p>A. Bonnin: Paul Baudry. Vannes, 1889.</p> @@ -17898,23 +17857,23 @@ preface de Th. Gautier. Paris, 1875.</p> <p>H. Cazalis: Henri Regnault, sa vie et son œuvre. Paris, 1871.</p> -<p>H. Baillire: H. Regnault. Paris, 1871.</p> +<p>H. Baillière: H. Regnault. Paris, 1871.</p> <p>Arthur Duparc: Correspondence de Henri Regnault. Paris, 1873.</p> <p>Charles Blanc: Les artistes de mon temps. Paris, 1876, p. 347.</p> -<p>Roger-Ballu: Le monument de Henri Regnault l’cole des Beaux Arts. “L’Art,” 1876, +<p>Roger-Ballu: Le monument de Henri Regnault à l’école des Beaux Arts. “L’Art,” 1876, iii 176.</p> <p>Philip G. Hamerton: Modern Frenchmen, 5 biographies. London, 1878, p. 334.</p> -<p>A. Angelier: tude sur Henri Regnault. Paris, Boulanger, 1879.</p> +<p>A. Angelier: Étude sur Henri Regnault. Paris, Boulanger, 1879.</p> -<p>Hermann Billung: Henri Regnault, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1880, xv 93. +<p>Hermann Billung: Henri Regnault, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1880, xv 93. “L’Art,” 1886, ii 48.</p> -<p>Roger Marx: Henri Regnault, in “Les artistes clbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> +<p>Roger Marx: Henri Regnault, in “Les artistes célèbres.” Paris, 1886.</p> <p>Gustave Larroumet: Henri Regnault, 1848-1871. Paris, 1889.</p> </div> @@ -17925,24 +17884,24 @@ iii 176.</p> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Historical School in Belgium:</span></b></p> <p>Principal work: Camille Lemonnier: Histoire des beaux-arts en Belgique. Cinquante -ans de libert. Bruxelles, 1881, vol. iii. Neue Ausgabe. 1906.</p> +ans de liberté. Bruxelles, 1881, vol. iii. Neue Ausgabe. 1906.</p> <p>Likewise: Von Hasselt: La Belgique, in “L’Art moderne en Allemagne,” iii. Paris, 1841.</p> -<p>Felix Bogaerts: Esquisse d’une histoire des Arts en Belgique depuis 1640 jusqu’ 1830. +<p>Felix Bogaerts: Esquisse d’une histoire des Arts en Belgique depuis 1640 jusqu’à 1830. Anvers, 1841.</p> -<p>L. Pfau: Die zeitgenssische Kunst in Belgien, “Freie Studien.” Stuttgart, 1866.</p> +<p>L. Pfau: Die zeitgenössische Kunst in Belgien, “Freie Studien.” Stuttgart, 1866.</p> <p>F. Reber: Die belgische Malerei, “Deutsche Revue,” vii, 1882, p. 219. “Patria Belgica,” tome iii, Les Expositions de tableaux depuis 1830. Bruxelles, 1875.</p> -<p>Annuaire de l’Acadmie royale des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux Arts, passim.</p> +<p>Annuaire de l’Académie royale des Sciences, Lettres, et Beaux Arts, passim.</p> -<p>J. A. Wauters: La peinture flamande, 3 d. Paris, Quantin, 1891.</p> +<p>J. A. Wauters: La peinture flamande, 3 éd. Paris, Quantin, 1891.</p> <p>Compare also the final chapter in Max Rooses’ “Geschichte der Malerschule Antwerpens,” -deutsch von Reber. 2 Ausgabe. Mnchen, 1889.</p> +deutsch von Reber. 2 Ausgabe. München, 1889.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span></p> @@ -17966,13 +17925,13 @@ Jan Swerts. Berlin, Wasmuth, 1883.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gallait:</b></p> -<p>A. Teichlein: L. Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland. Mnchen, 1853.</p> +<p>A. Teichlein: L. Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland. München, 1853.</p> -<p>Henne, Louis Gallait: Annales de l’Acadmie d’arch. de Belgique, 1890, 4.</p> +<p>Henne, Louis Gallait: Annales de l’Académie d’arch. de Belgique, 1890, 4.</p> -<p>Nekrolog in “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1890.</p> +<p>Nekrolog in “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1890.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Bifve:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Bièfve:</b></p> <p>Obituary in “L’Art moderne,” 7, 1881.</p> @@ -17984,38 +17943,38 @@ Jan Swerts. Berlin, Wasmuth, 1883.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a f80"><b><span class="verd">The Germans in Paris:</span></b></p> -<p>Edmond About: Voyage travers l’exposition des Beaux Arts, 1855, p. 56.</p> +<p>Edmond About: Voyage à travers l’exposition des Beaux Arts, 1855, p. 56.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Feuerbach:</b></p> -<p>Ein Vermchtniss von Anselm Feuerbach. 2 Auflage. Wien, 1885. 4 Aufl, 1897.</p> +<p>Ein Vermächtniss von Anselm Feuerbach. 2 Auflage. Wien, 1885. 4 Aufl, 1897.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” viii, 1873, p. 161.</p> +<p>Fr. Pecht: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” viii, 1873, p. 161.</p> -<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nrdlingen, 1877, pp. 238-268.</p> +<p>Fr. Pecht: Deutsche Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts. Nördlingen, 1877, pp. 238-268.</p> -<p>Katalog der Ausstellung des Knstlerischen Nachlasses in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, +<p>Katalog der Ausstellung des Künstlerischen Nachlasses in der Berliner Nationalgalerie, mit Biographie von Max Jordan. Berlin, 1880.</p> -<p>Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 93-116.</p> +<p>Graf v. Schack: Meine Gemäldesammlung. Stuttgart, 1881, pp. 93-116.</p> -<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack in Mnchen. Wien, 1883. Mit Radirungen. (Also -in “Graphische Knste,” 1880, iii 1.)</p> +<p>O. Berggruen: Die Galerie Schack in München. Wien, 1883. Mit Radirungen. (Also +in “Graphische Künste,” 1880, iii 1.)</p> -<p>A. Wolf: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xv Beiblatt, 15.</p> +<p>A. Wolf: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xv Beiblatt, 15.</p> <p>W. v. Seidlitz: A. Feuerbach, im 4 Heft der “Stichausgabe moderner Meister der Dresdener Galerie.”</p> -<p>Marc Schssler: Zum Gedchtniss an A. Feuerbach. Nrnberg, 1880.</p> +<p>Marc Schüssler: Zum Gedächtniss an A. Feuerbach. Nürnberg, 1880.</p> <p>H. Grimm in “15 Essays,” 3 Folge. Berlin, 1882, p. 337.</p> -<p>Feuerbachs Handzeichnungen. Mnchen, Hanfstngl, 1888.</p> +<p>Feuerbachs Handzeichnungen. München, Hanfstängl, 1888.</p> -<p>Carl Neumann: A. Feuerbach, “Preussische Jahrbcher,” Bd. 62, 1888.</p> +<p>Carl Neumann: A. Feuerbach, “Preussische Jahrbücher,” Bd. 62, 1888.</p> -<p>C. Allgeyer: A. Feuerbach, “Nord und Sd,” 1888.</p> +<p>C. Allgeyer: A. Feuerbach, “Nord und Süd,” 1888.</p> <p>Emil Hannover: A. Feuerbach, “Tilskueren.” Copenhagen, 1890.</p> @@ -18030,7 +17989,7 @@ besorgt von Karl Neumann. Berlin, 1902.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>R. Henneberg:</b></p> -<p>H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vortrge und Aufstze. Braunschweig, 1877, p. 367.</p> +<p>H. Riegel: Kunstgeschichtliche Vorträge und Aufsätze. Braunschweig, 1877, p. 367.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gustav Richter:</b></p> @@ -18047,12 +18006,12 @@ Berlin, Mittler, 1890.</p> <p>Ernst Guhl: Die neuere geschichtliche Malerei und die Akademien. Stuttgart, 1848.</p> -<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Geschichte und Geschichtsmalerei, Mittheilungen des sterreichischen +<p>R. v. Eitelberger: Geschichte und Geschichtsmalerei, Mittheilungen des österreichischen Museums, 1883, 208.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Lessing:</b></p> -<p>R. Redtenbacher: Erinnerungen an Carl Fr. Lessing, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” +<p>R. Redtenbacher: Erinnerungen an Carl Fr. Lessing, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xvi, 1881, p. 33.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Piloty:</b></p> @@ -18061,11 +18020,11 @@ xvi, 1881, p. 33.</p> <p>Karl Stieler: Die Pilotyschule. Berlin, 1881.</p> -<p>F. Pecht: “Knstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.” III Reihe. Nrdlingen, 1881.</p> +<p>F. Pecht: “Künstler des 19 Jahrhunderts.” III Reihe. Nördlingen, 1881.</p> -<p>C. A. Regnet: Mnchener Knstlerbiographien, Bd. 2.</p> +<p>C. A. Regnet: Münchener Künstlerbiographien, Bd. 2.</p> -<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Hauptstrmungen in der bildenden Kunst der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, +<p>A. Rosenberg: Die Hauptströmungen in der bildenden Kunst der Gegenwart. Grenzboten, 1880.</p> <p>H. Helferich, Neue Kunst. Berlin, 1887.</p> @@ -18076,7 +18035,7 @@ xvi, 1881, p. 33.</p> <p>C. Landsteiner: H. Makart und Robert Hamerling. Wien, 1873.</p> -<p>C. v. Ltzow; Makarts Entwrfe fr den Wiener Festzug, “Zeitschrift fr bildende +<p>C. v. Lützow; Makarts Entwürfe für den Wiener Festzug, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1879, 7.</p> <p>S. Feldmann: Hans Makarts neuestes Bild, “Die Gegenwart,” 1881, 24.</p> @@ -18086,20 +18045,20 @@ Kunst,” 1879, 7.</p> <p>Makart-Album, in 10 Lieferungen, Holzschnitte, und Lichtdrucke, mit Text. Wien, Bondy, 1883.</p> -<p>H. Makart als Architekt. “Wochenblatt fr Architekten,” 1884, 89, 90.</p> +<p>H. Makart als Architekt. “Wochenblatt für Architekten,” 1884, 89, 90.</p> <p>Mrs. Schuyler van Rensselaer: Hans Makart, “Portfolio,” 1886, pp. 36-49.</p> -<p>Carl v. Ltzow: “Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst,” xxi, 1886, pp. 181, 214.</p> +<p>Carl v. Lützow: “Zeitschrift fir bildende Kunst,” xxi, 1886, pp. 181, 214.</p> <p>Robert Stiassny: H. Makart und seine bleibende Bedeutung, “Sammlung kunstgewerblicher -und kunsthistorischer Vortrge,” Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886.</p> +und kunsthistorischer Vorträge,” Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Max:</b></p> -<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1879, xiv 225, 375.</p> +<p>Friedrich Pecht: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1879, xiv 225, 375.</p> -<p>Agathon Klemt: “Graphische Knste,” ix 1-12, 25-36.</p> +<p>Agathon Klemt: “Graphische Künste,” ix 1-12, 25-36.</p> <p>J. Beavington-Atkinson: Gabriel Max, “Art Journal,” 1881, 6.</p> @@ -18115,15 +18074,15 @@ und kunsthistorischer Vortrge,” Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886.</p> <div class="list pt1"> <p class="pt1a"><b>Gleyre:</b></p> -<p>Charles Clement: Gleyre; tude biographique. Paris, 1878.</p> +<p>Charles Clement: Gleyre; Étude biographique. Paris, 1878.</p> <p>Paul Mantz: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1875, i 233.</p> -<p>Fr. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Genve, 1874 (“Bibliothque universelle,” vol. 50).</p> +<p>Fr. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Genève, 1874 (“Bibliothèque universelle,” vol. 50).</p> -<p>E. Montgut: Ch. Gleyre, “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1878.</p> +<p>E. Montégut: Ch. Gleyre, “Revue des Deux Mondes,” 1878.</p> -<p>Hofmeister: Das Leben des Kunstmalers Karl Gleyre. Zrich, 1879.</p> +<p>Hofmeister: Das Leben des Kunstmalers Karl Gleyre. Zürich, 1879.</p> <p>Ch. Berthoud: Ch. Gleyre. Lausanne, 1880.</p> @@ -18133,23 +18092,23 @@ und kunsthistorischer Vortrge,” Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886.</p> <p>Georges Lafenestre, “L’Art,” 1875, i 394.</p> -<p class="pt1a"><b>Grme:</b></p> +<p class="pt1a"><b>Gérôme:</b></p> <p>Charles Timbal: “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1876, ii 228, 334.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Leys:</b></p> -<p>Hermann Billung: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xv 333, 370. 1880.</p> +<p>Hermann Billung: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xv 333, 370. 1880.</p> <p>Ludwig Pfau: “Freie Studien,” p. 262.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Meissonier:</b></p> -<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’cole, p. 241.</p> +<p>Ernest Chesneau: Les chefs d’école, p. 241.</p> -<p>Otto Mndler: “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” 1866.</p> +<p>Otto Mündler: “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” 1866.</p> -<p>Charles Clement: tudes sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1869, p. 237.</p> +<p>Charles Clement: Études sur les Beaux Arts en France. Paris, 1869, p. 237.</p> <p>Jules Claretie: Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains. Paris, 1873, pp. 23, 120.</p> @@ -18165,15 +18124,15 @@ und kunsthistorischer Vortrge,” Nr. 12. Leipzig, 1886.</p> <p>Lionel Robinson: J. L. E. Meissonier, his Life and Work. “Art Annual” for 1887.</p> -<p>Ch. Bigot: Peintres franais contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> +<p>Ch. Bigot: Peintres français contemporains. Paris, 1888.</p> <p>L. Gonse: Meissonier, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1891, i 177.</p> <p>G. Larroumet: Meissonier. (Study followed by a Biography by Philippe Burty.) Paris, 1893.</p> -<p>Grard: Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Ses souvenirs—Ses entretiens. (With a study of -his life and work by M. O. Grard; with Plates and a Catalogue of the artist’s +<p>Gréard: Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Ses souvenirs—Ses entretiens. (With a study of +his life and work by M. O. Gréard; with Plates and a Catalogue of the artist’s work.) Paris, 1897.</p> <p>E. Hubbard: Meissonier. New York, 1899.</p> @@ -18182,12 +18141,12 @@ work.) Paris, 1897.</p> <p class="pt1a"><b>Menzel:</b></p> -<p>Bruno Meyer: Adolf Menzel, “Zeitschrift fr bildende Kunst,” xi, 1, 41. 1876.</p> +<p>Bruno Meyer: Adolf Menzel, “Zeitschrift für bildende Kunst,” xi, 1, 41. 1876.</p> -<p>Alfred Woltmann: Das Preussenthum in der neueren Kunst, “Nord und Sd,” 1877, +<p>Alfred Woltmann: Das Preussenthum in der neueren Kunst, “Nord und Süd,” 1877, p. 109.</p> -<p>Ludwig Pietsch: A. Menzel, “Nord und Sd,” 1879, p. 439.</p> +<p>Ludwig Pietsch: A. Menzel, “Nord und Süd,” 1879, p. 439.</p> <p>Duranty: Adolphe Menzel, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1880, ii 105.</p> @@ -18198,406 +18157,28 @@ p. 109.</p> <p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span></p> -<p>L. Gonse: Illustrations d’Adolphe Menzel pour les œuvres de Frdric le Grand, “Gazette +<p>L. Gonse: Illustrations d’Adolphe Menzel pour les œuvres de Frédéric le Grand, “Gazette des Beaux Arts,” 1882, i 596.</p> -<p>Das Werk A. Menzels. Text by Jordan and Dohme. Mnchen, 1885, ff.</p> +<p>Das Werk A. Menzels. Text by Jordan and Dohme. München, 1885, ff.</p> <p>Cornelius Gurlitt: A. Menzel, “Die Kunst unserer Zeit,” 1892.</p> <p>Sondermann: Adolph Menzel, Monographie. Magdeburg, 1896.</p> -<p>Knackfuss: Menzel. (With 141 Illustrations), Knstler Monographien, vii. Bielefeld, +<p>Knackfuss: Menzel. (With 141 Illustrations), Künstler Monographien, vii. Bielefeld, 1895.</p> <p>H. von Tschudi: Das Werk Adolf Menzels. Berlin, 1905.</p> -<p>Julius Meyer-Grfe: Der junge Menzel. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> +<p>Julius Meyer-Gräfe: Der junge Menzel. Stuttgart, 1906.</p> </div> <div class="center ptb6"><img style="width:258px; height:35px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img0.jpg" alt="" /></div> <p class="pt2 center f80"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="sc">Morrison & Gibb Limited</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i></p> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The History of Modern Painting, Volume -1 (of 4), by Richard Muther - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF MODERN PAINTING, VOL I *** - -***** This file should be named 43792-h.htm or 43792-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/4/3/7/9/43792/ - -Produced by Marius Masi, Albert Lszl and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions -will be renamed. - -Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no -one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation -(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without -permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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