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diff --git a/43750-8.txt b/43750-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a70f407..0000000 --- a/43750-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,12211 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Ancient Man in Britain, by Donald A. (Donald -Alexander) Mackenzie - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - - - - -Title: Ancient Man in Britain - - -Author: Donald A. (Donald Alexander) Mackenzie - - - -Release Date: September 16, 2013 [eBook #43750] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANCIENT MAN IN BRITAIN*** - - -E-text prepared by Chris Curnow, Mary Akers, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made -available by Internet Archive (http://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 43750-h.htm or 43750-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43750/43750-h/43750-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/43750/43750-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - http://archive.org/details/ancientmaninbrit00mackuoft - - -Transcriber's note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). - - In the text and the Index of this book there are letters - with diacritical marks not available in the Latin-1 - character set used for this e-book: - [=a] represents an a with a macron above it, - [)e] represents an e with a breve above it. - [)i] represents an i with a breve above it, - [)o] represents an o with a breve above it, - [)u] represents an u with a breve above it. - - Please see the end of this book for further notes. - - - - - -ANCIENT MAN IN BRITAIN - - - [Illustration: - - Copyright, 1915, by Charles Scribner's Sons - - HEAD OF A CRÔ-MAGNON MAN - - After the restoration modelled by J. H. McGregor. Reproduced by - permission from _Men of the Old Stone Age_ by Henry Fairfield - Osborn.] - - -ANCIENT MAN IN BRITAIN - -by - -DONALD A. MACKENZIE - -Author of "Egyptian Myth and Legend" -"Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe" "Colour Symbolism" &c. - -With Foreword by G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. - - - - - - - -Blackie And Son Limited -50 Old Bailey, London; Glasgow, Bombay -Printed in Great Britain -1922 - - - - -FOREWORD - - -In his Presidential Address to the Royal Anthropological Institute -this year the late Dr. Rivers put his finger upon the most urgent -need for reform in the study of Man, when he appealed for "the Unity -of Anthropology". No true conception of the nature and the early -history of the human family can be acquired by investigations, -however carefully they may be done, of one class of evidence only. -The physical characters of a series of skulls can give no reliable -information unless their exact provenance and relative age are known. -But the interpretation of the meaning of these characters cannot be -made unless we know something of the movements of the people and the -distinctive peculiarities of the inhabitants of the foreign lands -from which they may have come. No less important than the study of -their physical structure is the cultural history of peoples. The -real spirit of a population is revealed by its social and industrial -achievements, and by its customs and beliefs, rather than by the -shape of the heads and members of its units. The revival of the -belief in the widespread diffusion of culture in early times has, -as one of its many important effects, directed attention to the -physical peculiarities of the mixed populations of important foci -of civilization throughout the world. Such inquiries have not only -enabled the student of human structure to detect racial affinities -where he might otherwise have neglected to look for them, but on the -other hand they have been able to give the investigator of cultural -diffusion evidence of the most definite and irrefutable kind in -corroboration of the reality of his inferences. - -At the present time students are just awakening to the fact that no -adequate idea of the anthropology of any area can be acquired unless -every kind of evidence, somatic and cultural, be taken into account, -and the problems of the particular locality are integrated with those -worldwide movements of men and of civilization of which the people -and culture of that locality form a part. - -The great merit of Mr. Donald Mackenzie's book is due in the main -to the fact that he has taken this wider vision of his subject and -interpreted the history of early man in Britain, not simply by -describing the varieties of head-form or of implements, customs and -beliefs, but rather by indicating how these different categories of -information can be put into their appropriate setting in the history -of mankind as a whole. There is nothing of technical pedantry about -Mr. Mackenzie's writing. He has made himself thoroughly familiar with -the customs and beliefs of the whole world, as his remarkable series -of books on mythology has revealed, and in the process of acquiring -this mass of information he has not sacrificed his common sense and -powers of judgment. He has been able to see clearly through this -amazing jumble of confusing statements the way in which every phase -of civilization in all parts of the world is closely correlated with -the rest; and he has given luminous expression to this clear vision -of the history of man and civilization as it affects Britain. - - G. ELLIOT SMITH. - - The University of London. - - - - -PREFACE - - -This volume deals with the history of man in Britain from the -Ice Age till the Roman period. The evidence is gleaned from the -various sciences which are usually studied apart, including -geology, archæology, philology, ethnology or anthropology, &c., -and the writer has set himself to tell the story of Ancient Man -in a manner which will interest a wider circle of readers than -is usually reached by purely technical books. It has not been -assumed that the representatives of Modern Man who first settled -in Europe were simple-minded savages. The evidence afforded by the -craftsmanship, the burial customs, and the art of the Crô-Magnon -races, those contemporaries of the reindeer and the hairy mammoth -in South-western France, suggests that they had been influenced by -a centre of civilization in which considerable progress had already -been achieved. There is absolutely no evidence that the pioneers were -lacking in intelligence or foresight. If we are to judge merely by -their skeletons and the shapes and sizes of their skulls, it would -appear that they were, if anything, both physically and mentally -superior to the average present-day inhabitants of Europe. Nor were -they entirely isolated from the ancient culture area by which they -had been originally influenced. As is shown, the evidence afforded by -an Indian Ocean sea-shell, found in a Crô-Magnon burial cavern near -Mentone, indicates that much has yet to be discovered regarding the -activities of the early people. - -In writing the history of Ancient Man in Britain, it has been found -necessary to investigate the Continental evidence. When our early -ancestors came from somewhere, they brought something with them, -including habits of life and habits of thought. The story unfolded -by British finds is but a part of a larger story; and if this larger -story is to be reconstructed, our investigations must extend even -beyond the continent of Europe. The data afforded by the "Red Man of -Paviland", who was buried with Crô-Magnon rites in a Welsh cave, not -only emphasize that Continental and North African cultural influences -reached Britain when the ice-cap was retreating in Northern Europe, -but that from its very beginnings the history of our civilization -cannot be considered apart from that of the early civilization of -the world as a whole. The writer, however, has not assumed in this -connection that in all parts of the world man had of necessity to -pass through the same series of evolutionary stages of progress, -and that the beliefs, customs, crafts, arts, &c., of like character -found in different parts of the world were everywhere of spontaneous -generation. There were inventors and discoverers and explorers in -ancient times as there are at present, and many new contrivances -were passed on from people to people. The man who, for instance, -first discovered how to "make fire" by friction of fire-sticks was -undoubtedly a great scientist and a benefactor of his kind. It is -shown that shipbuilding had a definite area of origin. - -The "Red Man of Paviland" also reveals to us minds pre-occupied with -the problems of life and death. It is evident that the corpse of the -early explorer was smeared with red earth and decorated with charms -for very definite reasons. That the people who thus interred their -dead with ceremony were less intelligent than the Ancient Egyptians -who adopted the custom of mummification, or the Homeric heroes who -practised cremation, we have no justification for assuming. - -At the very dawn of British history, which begins when the earliest -representatives of Modern Man reached our native land, the influences -of cultures which had origin in distant areas of human activity came -drifting northward to leave an impress which does not appear to be -yet wholly obliterated. We are the heirs of the Ages in a profounder -sense than has hitherto been supposed. - -Considered from this point of view, the orthodox scheme of -Archæological Ages, which is of comparatively recent origin, leaves -much to be desired. If anthropological data have insisted upon one -thing more than another, it is that modes of thought, which govern -action, were less affected by a change of material from which -artifacts (articles made by man) were manufactured than they were by -religious ideas and by new means for obtaining the necessary food -supply. A profounder change was effected in the habits of early man -in Britain by the introduction of the agricultural mode of life, -and the beliefs, social customs, &c., connected with it, than could -possibly have been effected by the introduction of edged implements -of stone, bone, or metal. - -As a substitute for the Archæological Ages, the writer suggests -in this volume a new system, based on habits of life, which may -be found useful for historical purposes. In this system the terms -"Palæolithic", "Neolithic", &c., are confined to industries. -"Neolithic man", "Bronze Age man", "Iron Age man", and other terms of -like character may be favoured by some archæologists, but they mean -little or nothing to most anatomists, who detect different racial -types in a single "Age". A history of ancient man cannot ignore one -set of scientists to pleasure another. - -Several chapters are devoted to the religious beliefs and customs of -our ancestors, and it is shown that there is available for study in -this connection a mass of evidence which the archæological agnostics -are too prone to ignore. The problem of the megalithic monuments must -evidently be reconsidered in the light of the fuller anthropological -data now available. Indeed, it would appear that a firmer basis than -that afforded by "crude evolutionary ideas" must be found for British -archæology as a whole. The evidence of surviving beliefs and customs, -of Celtic philology and literature, of early Christian writings, and -of recent discoveries in Spain, Mesopotamia, and Egypt, cannot, to -say the least of it, be wholly ignored. - -In dealing with the race problem, the writer has sifted the available -data which throw light on its connection with the history of British -culture, and has written as he has written in the hope that the -growth of fuller knowledge on the subject will be accompanied by the -growth of a deeper sympathy and a deeper sense of kinship than has -hitherto prevailed in these islands of ours, which were colonized -from time to time by groups of enterprising pioneers, who have left -an enduring impress on the national character. The time is past for -beginning a history of Britain with the Roman invasion, and for the -too-oft-repeated assertion that before the Romans reached Britain our -ancestors were isolated and half civilized. - - DONALD A. MACKENZIE. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAP. Page - - I. BRITONS OF THE STONE AGE 1 - - II. EARLIEST TRACES OF MODERN MAN 8 - - III. THE AGE OF THE "RED MAN" OF WALES 19 - - IV. SHELL DEITIES AND EARLY TRADE 35 - - V. NEW RACES IN EUROPE 49 - - VI. THE FAITHFUL DOG 61 - - VII. ANCIENT MARINERS REACH BRITAIN 67 - - VIII. NEOLITHIC TRADE AND INDUSTRIES 79 - - IX. METAL WORKERS AND MEGALITHIC MONUMENTS 87 - - X. CELTS AND IBERIANS AS INTRUDERS AND TRADERS 109 - - XI. RACES OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND 121 - - XII. DRUIDISM IN BRITAIN AND GAUL 140 - - XIII. THE LORE OF CHARMS 157 - - XIV. THE WORLD OF OUR ANCESTORS 167 - - XV. WHY TREES AND WELLS WERE WORSHIPPED 176 - - XVI. ANCIENT PAGAN DEITIES 195 - - XVII. HISTORICAL SUMMARY 209 - - INDEX 231 - - - - -LIST OF PLATES - - - Page - - HEAD OF A CRÔ-MAGNON MAN _Frontispiece_ - - EXAMPLES OF LOWER PALÆOLITHIC INDUSTRIES FOUND IN - ENGLAND 12 - - WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE THIRD INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH 16 - - EXAMPLES OF PALÆOLITHIC ART 56 - - FLINT LANCE HEADS FROM IRELAND 80 - - CHIPPED AND POLISHED ARTIFACTS FROM SOUTHERN ENGLAND 80 - - THE RING OF STENNIS, ORKNEY 96 - - MEGALITHS--KIT'S COTY HOUSE, KENT; TRETHEVY STONE, - CORNWALL 100 - - ENAMELLED BRONZE SHIELD 116 - - EUROPEAN TYPES 124 - - RUINS OF PICTISH TOWER AT CARLOWAY, LEWIS 128 - - A SCOTTISH "BROCH" (MOUSA, SHETLAND ISLES) 132 - - A SARDINIAN NURAGHE 136 - - MEGALITHS--DOLMEN, NEAR BIRORI, SARDINIA; TYNEWYDD - DOLMEN 160 - - ONE OF THE GREAT TRILITHONS, STONEHENGE 172 - - BRONZE URN AND CAULDRON 204 - - BRONZE BUCKLERS OR SHIELDS 224 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - Page - - CHELLEAN _COUP DE POING_ OR "HAND AXE" 14 - - UPPER PALÆOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS 21 - - SKULL OF A CRÔ-MAGNON MAN: FRONT AND SIDE VIEWS 24 - - OUTLINE OF A MAMMOTH 33 - - NECKLACE OF SEA SHELLS 39 - - GEOMETRIC OR "PYGMY" FLINTS 54 - - A NOTABLE EXAMPLE OF LATE MAGDALENIAN CULTURE 58 - - HORN AND BONE IMPLEMENTS 59 - - SKETCH OF A BOAT, AND CRUDE DRAWING OF A SIMILAR BOAT 75 - - MAP OF ENGLAND & WALES 82 - - LONG-HEAD (DOLICHOCEPHALIC) SKULL 88 - - BROAD-HEAD (BRACHYCEPHALIC) SKULL 88 - - BEADS FROM BRONZE AGE BARROWS 105 - - WEAPONS AND RELIGIOUS OBJECTS 114 - - CULT ANIMALS AND "WONDER BEASTS" 154 - - DIAGRAM OF THE GAELIC AIRTS 169 - - SEAL OF CITY OF GLASGOW 185 - - - - -ANCIENT MAN IN BRITAIN - - - - -CHAPTER I - -Britons of the Stone Age - - Caricatures of Early Britons--Enterprising Pioneers--Diseases - and Folk-cures--Ancient Surgical Operations--Expert - Artisans--Organized Communities--Introduction of - Agriculture--Houses and Cooking Utensils--Spinning and - Weaving--Different Habits of Life--The Seafarers. - - -The Early Britons of the Stone Age have suffered much at the hands -of modern artists, and especially the humorous artists. They -are invariably depicted as rude and irresponsible savages, with -semi-negroid features, who had perforce to endure our rigorous and -uncertain climate clad in loosely fitting skin garments, and to go -about, even in the depth of winter, barefooted and bareheaded, their -long tangled locks floating in the wind. - -As a rule, the artists are found to have confused ideas regarding the -geological periods. Some place the white savages in the age when the -wonderful megalithic monuments were erected and civilization was well -advanced, while others consign them to the far-distant Cretaceous Age -in association with the monstrous reptiles that browsed on tropical -vegetation, being unaware, apparently, that the reptiles in question -ceased to exist before the appearance of the earliest mammals. -Not unfrequently the geological ages and the early stages of human -culture are hopelessly mixed up, and monsters that had been extinct -for several million years are shown crawling across circles that were -erected by men possessed of considerable engineering skill. - -It is extremely doubtful if our remote ancestors of the Stone Age -were as savage or as backward as is generally supposed. They were, to -begin with, the colonists who made Britain a land fit for a strenuous -people to live in. We cannot deny them either courage or enterprise, -nor are we justified in assuming that they were devoid of the -knowledge and experience required to enable them to face the problems -of existence in their new environment. They came from somewhere, and -brought something with them; their modes of life did not have origin -in our native land. - -Although the early people lived an open-air life, it is doubtful if -they were more physically fit than are the Britons of the twentieth -century. They were certainly not immune from the ravages of disease. -In their graves are found skeletons of babies, youths, and maidens, -as well as those of elderly men and women; some spines reveal -unmistakable evidence of the effects of rheumatism, and worn-down -teeth are not uncommon. It is possible that the diseases associated -with marshy localities and damp and cold weather were fairly -prevalent, and that there were occasional pestilences with heavy -death-rates. Epidemics of influenza and measles may have cleared -some areas for periods of their inhabitants, the survivors taking -flight, as did many Britons of the fifth century of our own era, -when the country was swept by what is referred to in a Welsh book[1] -as "the yellow plague", because "it made yellow and bloodless all -whom it attacked". At the same time recognition must be given to -the fact that the early people were not wholly ignorant of medical -science. There is evidence that some quite effective "folk cures" -are of great antiquity--that the "medicine-men" and sorcerers of -Ancient Britain had discovered how to treat certain diseases by -prescribing decoctions in which herbs and berries utilized in modern -medical science were important ingredients. More direct evidence is -available regarding surgical knowledge and skill. On the Continent -and in England have been found skulls on which the operation known -as trepanning--the removing of a circular piece of skull so as to -relieve the brain from pressure or irritation--was successfully -performed, as is shown by the fact that severed bones had healed -during life. The accomplished primitive surgeons had used flint -instruments, which were less liable than those of metal to carry -infection into a wound. One cannot help expressing astonishment that -such an operation should have been possible--that an ancient man who -had sustained a skull injury in a battle, or by accident, should -have been again restored to sanity and health. Sprains and ordinary -fractures were doubtless treated with like skill and success. In -some of the incantations and charms collected by folk-lorists are -lines which suggest that the early medicine-men were more than -mere magicians. One, for instance, dealing with the treatment of a -fracture, states: - - "He put marrow to marrow; he put pith to pith; he put bone to - bone; he put membrane to membrane; he put tendon to tendon; he - put blood to blood; he put tallow to tallow; he put flesh to - flesh; he put fat to fat; he put skin to skin; he put hair to - hair; he put warm to warm; he put cool to cool." - - [1] _Book of Llan Daf._ - -"This," comments a medical man, "is quite a wonderful statement -of the aim of modern surgical 'co-aptation', and we can hardly -believe such an exact form of words imaginable without a very clear -comprehension of the natural necessity of correct and precise -setting."[2] - - [2] Dr. Hugh Cameron Gillies in _Home Life of the Highlanders_, - Glasgow, 1911, pp. 85 _et seq._ - -The discovery that Stone Age man was capable of becoming a skilled -surgeon is sufficient in itself to make us revise our superficial -notions regarding him. A new interest is certainly imparted to -our examination of his flint instruments. Apparently these served -him in good stead, and it must be acknowledged that, after all, a -stone tool may, for some purposes, be quite as adequate as one of -metal. It certainly does not follow that the man who uses a sharper -instrument than did the early Briton is necessarily endowed with a -sharper intellect, or that his ability as an individual artisan is -greater. The Stone Age man displayed wonderful skill in chipping -flint--a most difficult operation--and he shaped and polished stone -axes with so marked a degree of mathematical precision that, when -laid on one side, they can be spun round on a centre of gravity. His -saws were small, but are still found to be quite serviceable for the -purposes they were constructed for, such as the cutting of arrow -shafts and bows, and the teeth are so minute and regular that it is -necessary for us to use a magnifying glass in order to appreciate the -workmanship. Some flint artifacts are comparable with the products of -modern opticians. The flint workers must have had wonderfully keen -and accurate eyesight to have produced, for instance, little "saws" -with twenty-seven teeth to the inch, found even in the north of -Scotland. In Ancient Egypt these "saws" were used as sickles. - -Considerable groups of the Stone Age men of Britain had achieved a -remarkable degree of progress. They lived in organized communities, -and had evidently codes of laws and regularized habits of life. They -were not entirely dependent for their food supply on the fish they -caught and the animals they slew and snared. Patches of ground were -tilled, and root and cereal crops cultivated with success. Corn was -ground in handmills;[3] the women baked cakes of barley and wheat -and rye. A rough but serviceable pottery was manufactured and used -for cooking food, for storing grain, nuts, and berries, and for -carrying water. Houses were constructed of wattles interwoven between -wooden beams and plastered over with clay, and of turf and stones; -these were no doubt thatched with heather, straw, or reeds. Only a -small proportion of the inhabitants of Ancient Britain could have -dwelt in caves, for the simple reason that caves were not numerous. -Underground dwellings, not unlike the "dug-outs" made during the -recent war, were constructed as stores for food and as winter -retreats. - - [3] A pestle or stone was used to pound grain in hollowed slabs - or rocks before the mechanical mill was invented. - -As flax was cultivated, there can be little doubt that comfortable -under-garments were worn, if not by all, at any rate by some of -the Stone Age people. Wool was also utilized, and fragments of -cloth have been found on certain prehistoric sites, as well as -spindle-whorls of stone, bone, and clay, wooden spindles shaped so -as to serve their purpose without the aid of whorls, bone needles, -and crochet or knitting-pins. Those who have assumed that the -Early Britons were attired in skin garments alone, overlook the -possibility that a people who could sew, spin, and weave, might also -have been skilled in knitting, and that the jersey and jumper may -have a respectable antiquity. The art of knitting is closely related -to that of basket-making, and some would have it that many of the -earliest potters plastered their clay inside baskets of reeds, and -that the decorations of the early pots were suggested by the markings -impressed by these. It is of interest to note in this connection -that some Roman wares were called _bascaudæ_, or "baskets", and -that the Welsh _basged_--_basg_, from which our word "basket" is -derived, signify "network" and "plaiting". The decoration of some -pots certainly suggests the imitation of wickerwork and knitting, -but there are symbols also, and these had, no doubt, a religious -significance. - -It does not follow, of course, that all the Early Britons of the -so-called Stone Age were in the same stage of civilization, or -that they all pursued the same modes of life. There were then, as -there are now, backward as well as progressive communities and -individuals, and there were likewise representatives of different -races--tall and short, spare and stout, dark and fair men and women, -who had migrated at different periods from different areas of origin -and characterization. Some peoples clung to the sea-shore, and -lived mainly on deep-sea fish and shell-fish; others were forest -and moorland hunters, who never ventured to sea or cultivated -the soil. There is no evidence to indicate that conflicts took -place between different communities. It may be that in the winter -season the hunters occasionally raided the houses and barns of the -agriculturists. The fact, however, that weapons were not common -during the Stone Age cannot be overlooked in this connection. The -military profession had not come into existence. - -Certain questions, however, arise in connection with even the most -backward of the Stone Age peoples. How did they reach Britain, and -what attracted them from the Continent? Man did not take to the sea -except under dire necessity, and it is certain that large numbers -could not possibly have crossed the English Channel on logs of wood. -The boatbuilder's craft and the science of navigation must have -advanced considerably before large migrations across the sea could -have taken place. When the agricultural mode of life was introduced, -the early people obtained the seeds of wheat and barley, and, as -these cultivated grasses do not grow wild in Britain, they must have -been introduced either by traders or settlers. - -It is quite evident that the term "Stone Age" is inadequate in -so far as it applies to the habits of life pursued by the early -inhabitants of our native land. Nor is it even sufficient in dealing -with artifacts, for some people made more use of horn and bone than -of stone, and these were represented among the early settlers in -Britain. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -Earliest Traces of Modern Man - - The Culture Ages--Ancient Races--The Neanderthals--Crô-Magnon - Man--The Evolution Theory--Palæolithic Ages--The Transition - Period--Neanderthal Artifacts--Birth of Crô-Magnon - Art--Occupations of Flint-yielding Stations--Ravages of - Disease--Duration of Glacial and Inter-glacial Periods. - - -In 1865, Sir John Lubbock (afterwards Lord Avebury), writing in the -_Prehistoric Times_, suggested that the Stone Age artifacts found in -Western Europe should be classified into two main periods, to which -he applied the terms Palæolithic (Old Stone) and Neolithic (New -Stone). The foundations of the classification had previously been -laid by the French antiquaries M. Boucher de Perthes and Edouard -Lartet. It was intended that Palæolithic should refer to rough -stone implements, and Neolithic to those of the period when certain -artifacts were polished. - -At the time very little was known regarding the early peoples who had -pursued the flint-chipping and polishing industries, and the science -of geology was in its infancy. A great controversy, which continued -for many years, was being waged in scientific circles regarding -the remains of a savage primitive people that had been brought to -light. Of these the most notable were a woman's skull found in 1848 -in a quarry at Gibraltar, the Cannstadt skull, found in 1700, which -had long been lying in Stuttgart Museum undescribed and unstudied, -and portions of a male skeleton taken from a limestone cave in -Neanderthal, near Dusseldorf, in 1857. Some refused to believe that -these, and other similar remains subsequently discovered, were human -at all; others declared that the skulls were those of idiots or that -they had been distorted by disease. Professor Huxley contended that -evidence had been forthcoming to prove the existence in remote times -of a primitive race from which modern man had evolved. - -It is unnecessary here to review the prolonged controversy. One of -its excellent results was the stimulation of research work. A number -of important finds have been made during the present century, which -have thrown a flood of light on the problem. In 1908 a skeleton was -discovered in a grotto near La Chapelle-aux-Saints in France, which -definitely established the fact that during the earlier or lower -period of the Palæolithic Age a Neanderthal race existed on the -Continent, and, as other remains testify, in England as well. This -race became extinct. Some hold that there are no living descendants -of Neanderthal man on our globe; others contend that some peoples, or -individuals, reveal Neanderthaloid traits. The natives of Australia -display certain characteristics of the extinct species, but they -are more closely related to Modern Man (_Homo sapiens_). There were -pre-Neanderthal peoples, including Piltdown man and Heidelberg man. - -During the Palæolithic Age the ancestors of modern man appeared in -Western Europe. These are now known as the Crô-Magnon races. - -In dealing with the Palæolithic Age, therefore, it has to be borne in -mind that the artifacts classified by the archæologists represent the -activities, not only of different races, but of representatives of -different species of humanity. Neanderthal man, who differed greatly -from Modern man, is described as follows by Professor Elliot Smith: - - "His short, thick-set, and coarsely built body was carried in a - half-stooping slouch upon short, powerful, and half-flexed legs - of peculiarly ungraceful form. His thick neck sloped forward - from the broad shoulders to support the massive flattened head, - which protruded forward, so as to form an unbroken curve of - neck and back, in place of the alteration of curves, which - is one of the graces of the truly erect _Homo sapiens_. The - heavy overhanging eyebrow ridges, and retreating forehead, - the great coarse face, with its large eye-sockets, broad - nose, and receding chin, combined to complete the picture of - unattractiveness, which it is more probable than not was still - further emphasized by a shaggy covering of hair over most of - the body. The arms were relatively short, and the exceptionally - large hands lacked the delicacy and the nicely balanced - co-operation of thumb and fingers, which is regarded as one of - the most distinctive of human characteristics."[4] - - [4] _Primitive Man._ - -As Professor Osborn says: "the structure of the hand is a matter -of the highest interest in connection with the implement-making -powers of the Neanderthals". He notes that in the large and robust -Neanderthal hand, "the joint of the metacarpal bone which supports -the thumb is of peculiar form, convex, and presenting a veritable -convex condyle, whereas in the existing human races the articular -surface of the upper part of the thumb joint is saddle-shaped, that -is concave from within backward, and convex from without inward". The -Neanderthal fingers were "relatively short and robust".[5] - - [5] _Men of the Old Stone Age_ (1916), pp. 240-1. - -The Crô-Magnons present a sharp contrast to the Neanderthals. In all -essential features they were of modern type. They would, dressed in -modern attire, pass through the streets of a modern city without -particular notice being taken of them. One branch of the Crô-Magnons -was particularly tall and handsome, with an average height for the -males of 6 feet 1-1/2 inches, with chests very broad in the upper -part, and remarkably long shin-bones that indicate swiftness of foot. -The Neanderthals had short shins and bent knees, and their gait must -have been slow and awkward. The Crô-Magnon hand was quite like that -of the most civilized men of to-day. - -It is of importance to bring out these facts in connection with -the study of the development of early civilization in our native -land, because of the prevalence of the theory that in collections -of stone implements, dating from remote Palæolithic times till the -Neolithic Age, a complete and orderly series of evolutionary stages -can be traced. "As like needs", says one writer in this connection, -"produce like means of satisfaction, the contrivances with which men -in similar stages of progress overcome natural obstacles are in all -times very much the same."[6] Hugh Miller, the Cromarty stonemason -and geologist, was one of the first to urge this view. In 1835, he -wrote in his _Scenes and Legends_, (1st edition, pp. 31, 32): - - "Man in a savage stage is the same animal everywhere, and his - constructive powers, whether employed in the formation of a - legendary story or of a battleaxe, seem to expatiate almost - everywhere in the same rugged track of invention. For even the - traditions of this first stage may be identified, like its - weapons of war, all the world over."[7] - - [6] _British Museum--A Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone - Age_, p. 76 (1900). - - [7] Miller had adopted the "stratification theory" of Professor - William Robertson of Edinburgh University, who, in his _The - History of America_ (1777), wrote: "Men in their savage state - pass their days like the animals round them, without knowledge or - veneration of any superior power". - -He had written in this vein after seeing the collection of stone -weapons and implements in the Northern Institution at Inverness. "The -most practised eye", he commented, "can hardly distinguish between -the weapons of the Old Scot and the New Zealander." Eyes have become -more practised in dealing with flints since Miller's time. Andrew -Lang remembered his Miller when he wrote: - - "Now just as the flint arrowheads are scattered everywhere, in - all the continents and isles--and everywhere are much alike, - and bear no very definite marks of the special influence of - race--so it is with the habits and legends investigated by the - student of folk-lore".[8] - - [8] _Custom and Myth_ (1910 edition), p. 13. Lang's views - regarding flints are worthless. - -The recent discovery that the early flints found in Western -Europe and in England were shaped by the Neanderthals and the -pre-Neanderthals compels a revision of this complacent view of an -extraordinarily difficult and complex problem. It is obvious that -the needs and constructive powers of the Neanderthals, whose big -clumsy hands lacked "the delicate play between the thumb and fingers -characteristic of modern races", could not have been the same as -those of the Crô-Magnons, and that the finely shaped implements of -the Crô-Magnons could not have been evolved from the rough implements -of the Neanderthals. The craftsmen of one race may, however, have -imitated, or attempted to imitate, the technique of those of another. - -There was a distinct break in the continuity of culture during the -Palæolithic Age, caused by the arrival in Western Europe of the -ancestors of Modern Man. The advent of the Crô-Magnons in Europe -"represents on the cultural side", as Professor Elliot Smith says in -_Primitive Man_, "the most momentous event in its history". - - [Illustration: Mousterian type - - (from Suffolk)] - - [Illustration: Acheulian type - - (from Suffolk)] - - [Illustration: Photos. Oxford University Press - - Chellean type - - (from the Thames gravel)] - - [Illustration: - - Photo. Mansell - - EXAMPLES OF LOWER PALÆOLITHIC INDUSTRIES FOUND IN ENGLAND - - (British Museum)] - -Some urge that the term "Palæolithic" should now be discarded -altogether, but its use has become so firmly established that -archæologists are loth to dispense with it. The first period of -human culture has, however, had to be divided into "Lower" and -"Upper Palæolithic"--Lower closing with the disappearance of -the Neanderthals, and Upper beginning with the arrival of the -Crô-Magnons. These periods embrace the sub-divisions detected during -the latter half of last century by the French archæologists, and are -now classified as follows: - -Lower Palæolithic-- - - 1. Pre-Chellean. - - 2. Chellean (named after the town of Chelles, east of Paris). - - 3. Acheulian (named after St. Acheul in Somme valley). - - 4. Mousterian (named after the caves of Le Moustier in the - valley of the River Vézère). - -Upper Palæolithic-- - - 1. Aurignacian (named after Aurignac, Haute Garonne). - - 2. Solutrean (named after Solutré, Saône-et-Loire). - - 3. Magdalenian (named after La Madeleine in the valley of the - River Vézère). - -Then follows, in France, the Azilian stage (named after Mas d'Azil, -a town at the foot of the Pyrenees) which is regarded as the link -between Upper Palæolithic and Neolithic. But in Western Europe, -including Britain, there were really three distinct cultures during -the so-called "Transition Period". These are the Azilian, the -Tardenoisian, and the Maglemosian. These cultures were associated -with the movements of new peoples in Europe. - -The pre-Chellean flints (also called Eoliths) were wrought by the -pre-Neanderthals. Chellean probably represents the earliest work -in Europe of a pre-Neanderthal type like Piltdown man. The most -characteristic implement of this phase is the _coup de poing_ -or pear-shaped "hand axe", which was at first roughly shaped and -unsymmetrical. It was greatly improved during the Acheulian stage, -and after being finely wrought in Mousterian times, when it was not -much used, was supplanted by smaller and better chipped implements. -The Neanderthals practised the Mousterian industry. - - [Illustration: Chellean _Coup de Poing_ or "Hand Axe" Right-hand - view shows sinuous cutting edge.] - -A profound change occurred when the Aurignacian stage of culture was -inaugurated by the intruding Crô-Magnons. Skilled workers chipped -flint in a new way, and, like the contemporary inhabitants of North -Africa, shaped artifacts from bone; they also used reindeer horn, and -the ivory tusks of mammoths. The birth of pictorial art took place in -Europe after the Crô-Magnons arrived. - -It would appear that the remnants of the Neanderthals in the late -Mousterian stage of culture were stimulated by the arrival of the -Crô-Magnons to imitate new flint forms and adopt the new methods -of workmanship. There is no other evidence to indicate that the -Crô-Magnons came into contact with communities of the Neanderthals. -In these far-off days Europe was thinly peopled by hunters who -dwelt in caves. The climate was cold, and the hairy mammoth and -the reindeer browsed in the lowlands of France and Germany. Italy -was linked with Africa; the grass-lands of North Africa stretched -southward across the area now known as the Sahara desert, and dense -forests fringed the banks of the River Nile and extended eastward to -the Red Sea. - -Neanderthal man had originally entered Europe when the climate was -much milder than it is in our own time. He crossed over from Africa -by the Italian land-bridge, and he found African fauna, including -species of the elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, lion, and the -hyæna, jackal, and sabre-tooth tiger in Spain, France, Germany. -Thousands of years elapsed and the summers became shorter, and the -winters longer and more severe, until the northern fauna began to -migrate southward, and the African fauna deserted the plains and -decaying forests of Europe. Then followed the Fourth Glacial phase, -and when it was passing away the Neanderthals, who had long been in -the Mousterian phase of culture, saw bands of Crô-Magnons prospecting -and hunting in southern Europe. The new-comers had migrated from some -centre of culture in North Africa, and appear to have crossed over -the Italian land-bridge. It is unlikely that many, if any, entered -Europe from the east. At the time the Black Sea was more than twice -its present size, and glaciers still blocked the passes of Asia Minor. - -A great contrast was presented by the two types of mankind. The -short, powerfully built, but slouching and slow-footed Neanderthals -were, in a conflict, no match for the tall, active, and swift-footed -Crô-Magnons, before whom they retreated, yielding up their -flint-working stations, and their caves and grottoes. It may be, -as some suggest, that fierce battles were fought, but there is no -evidence of warfare; it may be that the Neanderthals succumbed to -imported diseases, as did so many thousands of the inhabitants of -the Amazon Valley, when measles and other diseases were introduced -by the Spaniards. The fact remains that the Neanderthals died out -as completely as did the Tasmanians before the advance of British -settlers. We do not know whether or not they resisted, for a time, -the intrusion of strangers on their hunting-grounds. It may be that -the ravages of disease completed the tragic history of such relations -as they may have had with the ancestors of Modern Man. - -At this point, before we deal with the arrival in Britain of -the representatives of the early races, it should be noted that -differences of opinion exist among scientists regarding the -geological horizons of the Palæolithic culture stages. In the -Pleistocene Age there appear to have been four great glacial epochs -and two minor ones. Geological opinion is, however, divided in this -connection. - - [Illustration: WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE THIRD INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH - - (According to the Abbé Breuil the Strait of Gibraltar was open - and the Balearic group a great island.)] - -During the First Glacial epoch the musk-ox, now found in the Arctic -regions, migrated as far south as Sussex. The Pliocene[9] mammals -were not, however, completely exterminated; many of them survived -until the First Interglacial epoch, which lasted for about 75,000 -years--that is three times longer than the First Glacial epoch. The -Second Glacial epoch is believed to have extended over 25,000 years. -It brought to the southern shores of the Baltic Sea the reindeer -and the hairy mammoth. Then came the prolonged Second Interglacial -stage which prevailed for about 200,000 years. The climate of Europe -underwent a change until it grew warmer than it is at the present -day, and trees, not now found farther north than the Canary Islands, -flourished in the forests of southern France. The Third Glacial stage -gradually came on, grew in intensity, and then declined during a -period estimated at about 25,000 years. It was followed by the Third -Interglacial epoch which may have extended over at least 100,000 -years. African animals returned to Europe and mingled with those -that wandered from Asia and the survivors in Europe of the Second -Interglacial fauna. The Fourth Glacial epoch, which is believed -to have lasted for about 25,000 years, was very severe. All the -African or Asiatic mammals either migrated or became extinct with the -exception of lions and hyænas, and the reindeer found the western -plains of Europe as congenial as it does the northern plains at the -present time. - - [9] The last division of the Tertiary period. - -During the Fourth Post-glacial epoch there were for a period of about -25,000 years[10] partial glaciations and milder intervals, until -during the Neolithic Age of the archæologists the climate of Europe -reached the phase that at present prevails. - - [10] It must be borne in mind that the lengths of these periods - are subject to revision. Opinion is growing that they were not - nearly so long as here stated. - -When, then, did man first appear in Europe? According to some -geologists, and especially Penck and James Geikie, the Chellean -phase of culture originated in the Second Interglacial epoch and -the Mousterian endured until the Third Interglacial stage, when -the Neanderthals witnessed the arrival of the Crô-Magnon peoples. -Boule, Breuil, and others, however, place the pre-Chellean, -Chellean, Acheulian, and early Mousterian stages of Lower (or Early) -Palæolithic culture in the Third Interglacial epoch, and fix the -extermination of Neanderthal man, in his late Mousterian culture -stage, at the close of the Fourth Glacial epoch. This view is now -being generally accepted. It finds favour with the archæologists, -and seems to accord with the evidence they have accumulated. The -Upper Palæolithic culture of Crô-Magnon man, according to some, began -in its Aurignacian phase about 25,000 years ago; others consider, -however, that it began about five or six thousand years ago, and was -contemporaneous with the long pre-Dynastic civilization of Egypt. At -the time England was connected with the Continent by a land-bridge, -and as the climate grew milder the ancestors of modern man could walk -across from France to the white cliffs of Dover which were then part -of a low range of mountains. As will be shown, there is evidence that -the last land movement in Britain did not begin until about 3000 B.C. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -The Age of the "Red Man" of Wales - - An Ancient Welshman--Aurignacian Culture in Britain--Coloured - Bones and Luck Charms--The Cave of Aurignac--Discovery at - Crô-Magnon Village--An Ancient Tragedy--Significant Burial - Customs--Crô-Magnon Characters--New Race Types in Central - Europe--Galley Hill Man--The Piltdown Skull--Ancient Religious - Beliefs--Life Principle in Blood--Why Body-painting was - practised--"Sleepers" in Caves--Red Symbolism in different - Countries--The Heart as the Seat of Life--The Green Stone - Talisman--"Soul Substance". - - -The earliest discovery of a representative of the Crô-Magnons was -made in 1823, when Dr. Buckland explored the ancient cave-dwelling of -Paviland in the vicinity of Rhossilly, Gower Peninsula, South Wales. -This cave, known as "Goat's Hole", is situated between 30 and 40 -feet above the present sea-level, on the face of a steep sandstone -cliff about 100 feet in height; it is 60 feet in length and 200 feet -broad, while the roof attains an altitude of over 25 feet. When this -commodious natural shelter was occupied by our remote ancestors -the land was on a much lower level than it is now, and it could be -easily reached from the sea-shore. Professor Sollas has shown that -the Paviland cave-dwellers were in the Aurignacian stage of culture, -and that they had affinities with the tall Crô-Magnon peoples on the -Continent.[11] - - [11] _Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute_, Vol. - XLIII, 1913. - -A human skeleton of a tall man was found in the cave deposit in -association with the skull and tusks of a hairy mammoth, and with -implements of Aurignacian type. Apparently the Aurignacian colonists -had walked over the land-bridge connecting England with France many -centuries before the land sank and the Channel tides began to carve -out the white cliffs of Dover. - -In his description of the bones of the ancient caveman, who has been -wrongly referred to as the "Red Lady of Paviland", Dr. Buckland wrote: - - "They were all of them stained superficially with a dark - brick-red colour, and enveloped by a coating of a kind of - ruddle, composed of red micaceous oxide of iron, which stained - the earth, and in some parts extended itself to the distance of - about half an inch around the surface of the bones. The body - must have been entirely surrounded or covered over at the time - of its interment with this red substance." - -Near the thighs were about two handfuls of small shells (_Nerita -litoralis_) which had evidently formed a waist girdle. Over forty -little rods of ivory, which may have once formed a long necklace, lay -near the ribs. A few ivory rings and a tongue-shaped implement or -ornament lay beside the body, as well as an instrument or charm made -of the metacarpal bone of a wolf. - -The next great discovery of this kind was made twenty-nine years -later. In 1852 a French workman was trying to catch a wild rabbit on -a lower slope of the Pyrenees, near the town of Aurignac in Haute -Garonne, when he made a surprising find. From the rabbit's burrow -he drew out a large human bone. A slab of stone was subsequently -removed, and a grotto or cave shelter revealed. In the debris were -found portions of seventeen skeletons of human beings of different -ages and both sexes. Only two skulls were intact. - - [Illustration: Upper Palæolithic Implements - - 1, Aurignacian (Chatelperron point). 2, 3, Aurignacian (keeled - scrapers). 4, Aurignacian point. 5, Magdalenian ("parrot-beak" - graving tool). 6, Solutrean (laurel-leaf point). 7, 8, 9, - Solutrean (drill, awl, and "shouldered" point). 10, 11, 12, - Magdalenian.] - -This discovery created a stir in the town of Aurignac, and there -was much speculation regarding the tragedy that was supposed to -have taken place at some distant date. A few folks were prepared to -supply circumstantial details by connecting the discovery with vague -local traditions. No one dreamt that the burial-place dated back a -few thousand years, or, indeed, that the grotto had really been a -burial-place, and the mayor of the town gave instructions that the -bones should be interred in the parish cemetery. - -Eight years elapsed before the grotto was visited by M. Louis Lartet, -the great French archæologist. Outside the stone slab he found the -remains of an ancient hearth, and a stone implement which had been -used for chipping flints. In the outer debris were discovered, -too, the bones of animals of the chase, and about a hundred flint -artifacts, including knives, projectiles, and sling-stones, besides -bone arrows, tools shaped from reindeer horns, and an implement like -a bodkin of roe-deer horn. It transpired that the broken bones of -animals included those of the cave-lion, the cave-bear, the hyæna, -the elk, the mammoth, and the woolly-haired rhinoceros--all of which -had been extinct in that part of the world for thousands of years. - -As in the Paviland cave, there were indications that the dead had -been interred with ornaments or charms on their bodies. Inside -the grotto were found "eighteen small round and flat plates of a -white shelly substance, made of some species of cockle (_Cardium_) -pierced through the middle, as if for being strung into a bracelet". -Perforated teeth of wild animals had evidently been used for a like -purpose. - -The distinct industry revealed by the grotto finds has been named -Aurignacian, after Aurignac. Had the human bones not been removed, -the scientists would have definitely ascertained what particular -race of ancient men they represented. - -It was not until the spring of 1868 that a flood of light was thrown -on the Aurignacian racial problem. A gang of workmen were engaged -in the construction of a railway embankment in the vicinity of the -village of Crô-Magnon, near Les Eyzies, in the valley of the River -Vézère, when they laid bare another grotto. Intimation was at once -made to the authorities, and the Minister of Public Instruction -caused an investigation to be made under the direction of M. Louis -Lartet. The remains of five human skeletons were found. At the back -of the grotto was the skull of an old man--now known as "the old -man of Crô-Magnon"--and its antiquity was at once emphasized by the -fact that some parts of it were coated by stalagmite caused by a -calcareous drip from the roof of rock. Near "the old man" was found -the skeleton of a woman. Her forehead bore signs of a deep wound that -had been made by a cutting instrument. As the inner edge of the bone -had partly healed, it was apparent she had survived her injury for -a few weeks. Beside her lay the skeleton of a baby which had been -prematurely born. The skeletons of two young men were found not far -from those of the others. Apparently a tragic happening had occurred -in ancient days in the vicinity of the Crô-Magnon grotto. The victims -had been interred with ceremony, and in accordance with the religious -rites prevailing at the time. Above three hundred pierced marine -shells, chiefly of the periwinkle species (_Littorina littorea_), -which are common on the Atlantic coasts, and a few shells of _Purpura -lapillus_ (a purple-yielding shell), _Turitella communis_, &c., -were discovered besides the skeletons. These, it would appear, -had been strung to form necklaces and other ornamental charms. M. -Lartet found, too, a flat ivory pendant pierced with two holes, and -was given two other pendants picked up by young people. Near the -skeletons were several perforated teeth, a split block of gneiss with -a smooth surface, the worked antlers of a reindeer that may have been -used as a pick for excavating flint, and a few chipped flints. Other -artifacts of Aurignacian type were unearthed in the debris associated -with the grotto, which appears to have been used as a dwelling-place -before the interments had taken place. - - [Illustration: Skull of a Crô-Magnon Man: front and side views - From the Grotte des Enfants, Mentone. (After Verneau.)] - -The human remains of the Crô-Magnon grotto were those of a tall -and handsome race of which the "Red Man" of Paviland was a -representative. Other finds have shown that this race was widely -distributed in Europe. The stature of the men varied from 5 feet -10-1/2 inches to 6 feet 4-1/2 inches on the Riviera, that of the -women being slightly less. That the Crô-Magnons were people of high -intelligence is suggested by the fact that the skulls of the men -and women were large, and remarkably well developed in the frontal -region. According to a prominent anatomist the Crô-Magnon women had -bigger brains than has the average male European of to-day. All these -ancient skulls are of the dolichocephalic (long-headed) type. The -faces, however, were comparatively broad, and shorter than those of -the modern fair North-Europeans, while the cheek-bones were high--a -characteristic, by the way, of so many modern Scottish faces. - -This type of head--known as the "disharmonic", because a broad face -is usually a characteristic of a broad skull, and a long face of -a long skull--has been found to be fairly common among the modern -inhabitants of the Dordogne valley. These French descendants of the -Crô-Magnons are, however, short and "stocky", and most of them have -dark hair and eyes. Crô-Magnon types have likewise been identified -among the Berbers of North Africa, and the extinct fair-haired -Guanches of the Canary Islands, in Brittany, on the islands of -northern Holland, and in the British Isles.[12] - - [12] For principal references see _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. - Ripley, pp. 172 _et seq._, and _The Anthropological History of - Europe_, John Beddoe (Rhind lectures for 1891; revised edition, - 1912), p. 47. - -A comparatively short race, sometimes referred to as the -"Combe-Capelle", after the rock-shelter at Combe-Capelle, near -Montferrand, Perigord, was also active during the stage of -Aurignacian culture. An adult skeleton found in this shelter was -that of a man only 5 feet 3 inches in height. The skull is long and -narrow, with a lofty forehead, and the chin small and well developed. -It has some similarity to modern European skulls. The skeleton had -been subjected for thousands of years to the dripping of water -saturated with lime, and had consequently been well preserved. Near -the head and neck lay a large number of perforated marine shells -(_Littorina_ and _Nassa_). A collection of finely-worked flints of -early Aurignacian type also lay beside the body. - -Reference may also be made here to the finds in Moravia. Fragmentary -skull caps from Brüx and Brünn are regarded as evidence of a race -which differed from the tall Crô-Magnons, and had closer affinities -with Combe-Capelle man. Some incline to connect the Brünn type with -England, the link being provided by a skeleton called the "Galley -Hill" after the place of its discovery below Gravesend and near -Northfleet in Kent. Scientists regard him as a contemporary of the -Aurignacian flint-workers of Combe-Capelle and Brünn. "Both the Brüx -and Brünn skulls", writes Professor Osborn, "are harmonic; they do -not present the very broad, high cheek-bones characteristic of the -Crô-Magnon race,[13] the face being of a narrow modern type, but not -very long. There is a possibility that the Brünn race was ancestral -to several later dolichocephalic groups which are found in the region -of the Danube and of middle and southern Germany."[14] - - [13] That is, the tall representatives of the Crô-Magnon races. - - [14] _Men of the Old Stone Age_, pp. 335-6. - -The Galley Hill man had been buried in the gravels of the "high -terrace", 90 feet above the Thames. His bones when found were much -decayed and denuded, and the skull contorted. The somewhat worn -"wisdom tooth" indicates that he was a "fully-grown adult, though -probably not an aged individual". Those who think he was not as old -as the flints and the bones of extinct animals found in the gravels, -regard him as a pioneer of the Brünn branch of the Aurignacians. - -The Piltdown skull appears to date back to a period vastly more -ancient than Neanderthal times. - -Our special interest in the story of early man in Britain is with -the "Red Man" of Paviland and Galley Hill man, because these were -representatives of the species to which we ourselves belong. The -Neanderthals and pre-Neanderthals, who have left their Eoliths -and Palæoliths in our gravels, vanished like the glaciers and the -icebergs, and have left, as has been indicated, no descendants in our -midst. Our history begins with the arrival of the Crô-Magnon races, -who were followed in time by other peoples to whom Europe offered -attractions during the period of the great thaw, when the ice-cap was -shrinking towards the north, and the flooded rivers were forming the -beds on which they now flow. - -We have little to learn from Galley Hill man. His geological horizon -is uncertain, but the balance of the available evidence tends to show -he was a pioneer of the medium-sized hunters who entered Europe from -the east, during the Aurignacian stage of culture. It is otherwise -with the "Red Man" of Wales. We know definitely what particular -family he belonged to; he was a representative of the tall variety -of Crô-Magnons. We know too that those who loved him, and laid his -lifeless body in the Paviland Cave, had introduced into Europe the -germs of a culture that had been radiated from some centre, probably -in the ancient forest land to the east of the Nile, along the North -African coast at a time when it jutted far out into the Mediterranean -and the Sahara was a grassy plain. - -The Crô-Magnons were no mere savages who lived the life of animals -and concerned themselves merely with their material needs. They -appear to have been a people of active, inventive, and inquiring -minds, with a social organization and a body of definite beliefs, -which found expression in their art and in their burial customs. -The "Red Man" was so called by the archæologists because his bones -and the earth beside them were stained, as has been noted, by "red -micaceous oxide of iron". Here we meet with an ancient custom of -high significance. It was not the case, as some have suggested, that -the skeleton was coloured after the flesh had decayed. There was no -indication when the human remains were discovered that the grave had -been disturbed after the corpse was laid in it. The fact that the -earth as well as the bones retained the coloration affords clear -proof that the corpse had been smeared over with red earth which, -after the flesh had decayed, fell on the skeleton and the earth -and gravel beside it. But why, it will be asked, was the corpse -so treated? Did the Crô-Magnons paint their bodies during life, -as do the Australians, the Red Indians, and others, to provide "a -substitute for clothing"? That cannot be the reason. They could not -have concerned themselves about a "substitute" for something they -did not possess. In France, the Crô-Magnons have left pictorial -records of their activities and interests in their caves and other -shelters. Bas reliefs on boulders within a shelter at Laussel show -that they did not wear clothing during the Aurignacian epoch which -continued for many long centuries. We know too that the Australians -and Indians painted their bodies for religious and magical -purposes--to protect themselves in battle or enable them to perform -their mysteries--rain-getting, food-getting, and other ceremonies. -The ancient Egyptians painted their gods to "make them healthy". -Prolonged good health was immortality. - -The evidence afforded by the Paviland and other Crô-Magnon burials -indicates that the red colour was freshly applied before the dead was -laid in the sepulchre. No doubt it was intended to serve a definite -purpose, that it was an expression of a system of beliefs regarding -life and the hereafter. - -Apparently among the Crô-Magnons the belief was already prevalent -that the "blood is the life". The loss of life appeared to them to -be due to the loss of the red vitalizing fluid which flowed in the -veins. Strong men who received wounds in conflict with their fellows, -or with wild animals, were seen to faint and die in consequence -of profuse bleeding; and those who were stricken with sickness -grew ashen pale because, as it seemed, the supply of blood was -insufficient, a condition they may have accounted for, as did the -Babylonians of a later period, by conceiving that demons entered -the body and devoured the flesh and blood. It is not too much to -suppose that they feared death, and that like other Pagan religions -of antiquity theirs was deeply concerned with the problem of how -to restore and prolong life. Their medicine-men appear to have -arrived at the conclusion that the active principle in blood was -the substance that coloured it, and they identified this substance -with red earth. If cheeks grew pale in sickness, the flush of health -seemed to be restored by the application of a red face paint. The -patient did not invariably regain strength, but when he did, the -recovery was in all likelihood attributed to the influence of the -blood substitute. Rest and slumber were required, as experience -showed, to work the cure. When death took place, it seemed to be a -deeper and more prolonged slumber, and the whole body was smeared -over with the vitalizing blood substitute so that, when the spell of -weakness had passed away, the sleeper might awaken, and come forth -again with renewed strength from the cave-house in which he had been -laid. - -The many persistent legends about famous "sleepers" that survive till -our own day appear to have originally been connected with a belief in -the return of the dead, the antiquity of which we are not justified -in limiting, especially when it is found that the beliefs connected -with body paint and shell ornaments and amulets were introduced -into Europe in early post-glacial times. Ancient folk heroes might -be forgotten, but from Age to Age there arose new heroes to take -their places; the habit of placing them among the sleepers remained. -Charlemagne, Frederick of Barbarossa, William Tell, King Arthur, the -Fians, and the Irish Brian Boroimhe, are famous sleepers. French -peasants long believed that the sleeping Napoleon would one day -return to protect their native land from invaders, and during the -Russo-Japanese war it was whispered in Russia that General Skobeleff -would suddenly awake and hasten to Manchuria to lead their troops to -victory. For many generations the Scots were convinced that James IV, -who fell at Flodden, was a "sleeper". His place was taken in time -by Thomas the Rhymer, who slept in a cave and occasionally awoke to -visit markets so that he might purchase horses for the great war -which was to redden Tweed and Clyde with blood. Even in our own day -there were those who refused to believe that General Gordon, Sir -Hector MacDonald, and Lord Kitchener, were really dead. The haunting -belief in sleeping heroes dies hard. - -Among the famous groups of sleeping heroes are the Seven Sleepers -of Ephesus--the Christians who had been condemned to death by the -Emperor Decius and concealed themselves in a cave where they slept -for three and a half centuries. An eighteenth century legend tells -of seven men in Roman attire, who lay in a cave in Western Germany. -In Norse Mythology, the seven sons of Mimer sleep in the Underworld -awaiting the blast of the horn, which will be blown at Ragnarok when -the gods and demons will wage the last battle. The sleepers of Arabia -once awoke to foretell the coming of Mahomet, and their sleeping dog, -according to Moslem beliefs, is one of the ten animals that will -enter Paradise. - -A representative Scottish legend regarding the sleepers is located at -the Cave of Craigiehowe in the Black Isle, Ross-shire, a few miles -distant from the Rosemarkie cave. It is told that a shepherd once -entered the cave and saw the sleepers and their dog. A horn, or as -some say, a whistle, hung suspended from the roof. The shepherd blew -it once and the sleepers shook themselves; he blew a second time, -and they opened their eyes and raised themselves on their elbows. -Terrified by the forbidding aspect of the mighty men, the shepherd -refrained from blowing a third time, but turned and fled. As he left -the cave he heard one of the heroes call after him: "Alas! you have -left us worse than you found us." As whistles are sometimes found in -Magdalenian shelters in Western and Central Europe, it may be that -these were at an early period connected with the beliefs about the -calling back of the Crô-Magnon dead. The ancient whistles were made -of hare--and reindeer-foot bone. The clay whistle dates from the -introduction of the Neolithic industry in Hungary. - -The remarkable tendency on the part of mankind to cling to and -perpetuate ancient beliefs and customs, and especially those -connected with sickness and death, is forcibly illustrated by the -custom of smearing the bodies of the living and dead with red ochre. -In every part of the world red is regarded as a particularly "lucky -colour", which protects houses and human beings, and imparts vitality -to those who use it. The belief in the protective value of red -berries is perpetuated in our own Christmas customs when houses are -decorated with holly, and by those dwellers in remote parts who still -tie rowan berries to their cows' tails so as to prevent witches and -fairies from interfering with the milk supply. Egyptian women who -wore a red jasper in their waist-girdles called the stone "a drop of -the blood of Isis (the mother goddess)". - -Red symbolism is everywhere connected with lifeblood and the "vital -spark"--the hot "blood of life". Brinton[15] has shown that in the -North American languages the word for blood is derived from the word -for red or the word for fire. The ancient Greek custom of painting -red the wooden images of gods was evidently connected with the belief -that a supply of lifeblood was thus assured, and that the colour -animated the Deity, as Homer's ghosts were animated by a blood -offering when Odysseus visited Hades. "The anointing of idols with -blood for the purpose of animating them is", says Farnell, "a part -of old Mediterranean magic."[16] The ancient Egyptians, as has been -indicated, painted their gods, some of whom wore red garments; a -part of their underworld Dewat was "Red Land", and there were "red -souls" in it.[17] In India standing stones connected with deities -are either painted red or smeared with the blood of a sacrificed -animal. The Chinese regard red as the colour of fire and light, and -in their philosophy they identify it with _Yang_, the chief principle -of life;[18] it is believed "to expel pernicious influences, and -thus particularly to symbolize good luck, happiness, delight, and -pleasure". Red coffins are favoured. The "red gate" on the south -side of a cemetery "is never opened except for the passage of an -Emperor".[19] The Chinese put a powdered red stone called _hun-hong_ -in a drink or in food to destroy an evil spirit which may have taken -possession of one. Red earth is eaten for a similar reason by the -Polynesians and others. Many instances of this kind could be given to -illustrate the widespread persistence of the belief in the vitalizing -and protective qualities associated with red substances. In Irish -Gaelic, Professor W. J. Watson tells me, "ruadh" means both "red" and -"strong". - - [15] _Myths of the New World_, p. 163. - - [16] _Cults of the Greek States_, Vol. V. p. 243. - - [17] Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_. Vol. I, p. 203. - - [18] De Groot, _The Religious System of China_, Book I, pp. 216-7. - - [19] _Ibid._, Book I, pp. 28 and 332. - -The Crô-Magnons regarded the heart as the seat of life, having -apparently discovered that it controls the distribution of blood. -In the cavern of Pindal, in south-western France, is the outline -of a hairy mammoth painted in red ochre, and the seat of life is -indicated by a large red heart. The painting dates back to the early -Aurignacian period. In other cases, as in the drawing of a large -bison in the cavern of Niaux, the seat of life and the vulnerable -parts are indicated by spear--or arrowheads incised on the body. The -ancient Egyptians identified the heart with the mind. To them the -heart was the seat of intelligence and will-power as well as the -seat of life. The germ of this belief can apparently be found in the -pictorial art and burial customs of the Aurignacian Crô-Magnons. - - [Illustration: Outline of a Mammoth painted in red ochre in the - Cavern of Pindal, France - - The seat of life is indicated by a large red heart. (After - Breuil.)] - -Another interesting burial custom has been traced in the Grimaldi -caves. Some of the skeletons were found to have small green stones -between their teeth or inside their mouths.[20] No doubt these -were amulets. Their colour suggests that green symbolism has not -necessarily a connection with agricultural religion, as some have -supposed. The Crô-Magnons do not appear to have paid much attention -to vegetation. In ancient Egypt the green stone (Khepera) amulet -"typified the germ of life". A text says, "A scarab of green stone -... shall be placed in the heart of a man, and it shall perform for -him the 'opening of the mouth'"--that is, it will enable him to -speak and eat again. The scarab is addressed in a funerary text, "My -heart, my mother. My heart whereby I came into being." It is believed -by Budge that the Egyptian custom of "burying green basalt scarabs -inside or on the breasts of the dead" is as old as the first Dynasty -(_c._ 3400 B.C.).[21] How much older it is one can only speculate. -"The Mexicans", according to Brinton, "were accustomed to say that -at one time all men have been stones, and that at last they would -all return to stones, and acting literally on this conviction they -interred with the bones of the dead a small green stone, which was -called 'the principle of life'."[22] In China the custom of placing -jade tongue amulets for the purpose of preserving the dead from -decay and stimulating the soul to take flight to Paradise is of -considerable antiquity.[23] Crystals and pebbles have been found -in ancient British graves. It may well be that these pebbles were -regarded as having had an intimate connection with deities, and -perhaps to have been coagulated forms of what has been called "life -substance". Of undoubted importance and significance was the ancient -custom of adorning the dead with shells. As we have seen, this was a -notable feature of the Paviland cave burial. The "Red Man" was not -only smeared with red earth, but "charmed" or protected by shell -amulets. In the next chapter it will be shown that this custom not -only affords us a glimpse of Aurignacian religious beliefs, but -indicates the area from which the Crô-Magnons came. - - [20] I am indebted to the Abbé Breuil for this information which - he gave me during the course of a conversation. - - [21] Budge, _Gods of the Egyptians_, Vol. I, p. 358. These - scarabs have not been found in the early Dynastic graves. Green - malachite charms, however, were used in even the pre-Dynastic - period. - - [22] _The Myths of the New World_, p. 294. According to Bancroft - the green stones were often placed in the mouths of the dead. - - [23] Laufer, _Jade_, pp. 294 _et seq._ (Chicago, 1912). - -Professor G. Elliot Smith was the first to emphasize the importance -attached in ancient times to the beliefs associated with the divine -"giver of life". - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -Shell Deities and Early Trade - - Early Culture and Early Races--Did Civilization originate in - Europe?--An Important Clue--Trade in Shells between Red Sea - and Italy--Traces of Early Trade in Central Europe--Religious - Value of Personal Ornaments--Importance of Shell Lore--Links - between Far East and Europe--Shell Deities--A Hebridean Shell - Goddess--"Milk of Wisdom"--Ancient Goddesses as Providers of - Food--Gaelic "Spirit Shell" and Japanese "God Body"--Influence - of Deities in Jewels, &c.--A Shakespearean Reference--Shells - in Crô-Magnon Graves--Early Sacrifices--Hand Colours in - Palæolithic Caves--Finger Lore and "Hand Spells". - - -When the question is asked, "Whence came the Crô-Magnon people of -the Aurignacian phase of culture?" the answer usually given is, -"Somewhere in the East". The distribution of the Aurignacian sites -indicates that the new-comers entered south-western France by way of -Italy--that is, across the Italian land-bridge from North Africa. Of -special significance in this connection is the fact that Aurignacian -culture persisted for the longest period of time in Italy. The -tallest Crô-Magnons appear to have inhabited south-eastern France -and the western shores of Italy. "It is probable", says Osborn, -referring to the men six feet four and a half inches in height, "that -in the genial climate of the Riviera these men obtained their finest -development; the country was admirably protected from the cold winds -of the north, refuges were abundant, and game by no means scarce, to -judge from the quantity of animal bones found in the caves. Under -such conditions of life the race enjoyed a fine physical development -and dispersed widely."[24] - - [24] _Men of the Old Stone Age_, pp. 297-8. - -It does not follow, however, that the tall people originated -Aurignacian culture. As has been indicated, the stumpy people -represented by Combe-Capelle skeletons were likewise exponents of -it. "It must not be assumed", as Elliot Smith reminds us, "that the -Aurignacian culture was necessarily invented by the same people who -introduced it into Europe, and whose remains were associated with -it ... for any culture can be transmitted to an alien people, even -when it has not been adopted by many branches of the race which was -responsible for its invention, just as gas illumination, oil lamps, -and even candles are still in current use by the people who invented -the electric light, which has been widely adopted by many foreign -peoples. This elementary consideration is so often ignored that it -is necessary thus to emphasize it, because it is essential for any -proper understanding of the history of early civilization."[25] - - [25] Primitive Man (_Proceedings of the British Academy_, Vol. - VII). - -No trace of Aurignacian culture has, so far, been found outside -Europe. "May it not, therefore," it may be asked, "have originated -in Italy or France?" In absence of direct evidence, this possibility -might be admitted. But an important discovery has been made at -Grimaldi in La Grotte des Enfants (the "grotto of infants"--so called -because of the discovery there of the skeletons of young Crô-Magnon -children). Among the shells used as amulets by those who used the -grotto as a sepulchre was one (_Cassis rufa_) that had been carried -either by a migrating folk, or by traders, along the North African -coast and through Italy from some south-western Asian beach. The find -has been recorded by Professor Marcellin Boule.[26] - - [26] _Les Grottes de Grimaldi (Baousse-Rousse)_, Tome I, fasc. - II--_Géologie et Paléontologie_ (Monaco, 1906), p. 123. - -In a footnote, G. Dollfus writes: - - "_Cassis rufa, L._, an Indian ocean shell, is represented in - the collection at Monaco by two fragments; one was found in the - lower habitation level D, the other is probably of the same - origin. The presence of this shell is extraordinary, as it has - no analogue in the Mediterranean, neither recent nor fossil; - there exists no species in the North Atlantic or off Senegal - with which it could be confounded. The fragments have traces of - the reddish colour preserved, and are not fossil; one of them - presents a notch which has determined a hole that seems to have - been made intentionally. The species has not yet been found in - the Gulf of Suez nor in the raised beaches of the Isthmus. M. - Jousseaume has found it in the Gulf of Tadjoura at Aden, but it - has not yet been encountered in the Red Sea nor in the raised - beaches of that region. The common habitat of _Cassis rufa_ is - Socotra, besides the Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, New - Caledonia, and perhaps Tahiti. The fragments discovered at - Mentone have therefore been brought from a great distance at a - very ancient epoch by prehistoric man." - -After the Crô-Magnon peoples had spread into Western and Central -Europe they imported shells from the Mediterranean. At Laugerie -Basse in the Dordogne, for instance, a necklace of pierced shells -from the Mediterranean was found in association with a skeleton. -Atlantic shells could have been obtained from a nearer sea-shore. -It may be that the Rhone valley, which later became a well-known -trade route, was utilized at an exceedingly remote period, and that -cultural influences occasionally "flowed" along it. "Prehistoric man" -had acquired some experience as a trader even during the "hunting -period", and he had formulated definite religious beliefs. - -It has been the habit of some archæologists to refer to shell and -other necklaces, &c., as "personal ornaments". The late Dr. Robert -Munro wrote in this connection: - - "We have no knowledge of any phase of humanity in which the - love of personal ornament does not play an important part in - the life of the individual. The savage of the present day, - who paints or tattoos his body, and adorns it with shells, - feathers, teeth, and trinkets made of the more gaudy materials - at his disposal, may be accepted as on a parallel with the - Neolithic people of Europe.... Teeth are often perforated - and used as pendants, especially the canines of carnivorous - animals, but such ornaments are not peculiar to Neolithic - times, as they were equally prevalent among the later - Palæolithic races of Europe."[27] - - [27] _Prehistoric Britain_, pp. 142-3. - -Modern savages have very definite reasons for wearing the so-called -"ornaments", and for painting and tattooing their bodies. They -believe that the shells, teeth, &c., afford them protection, and -bring them luck. Earpiercing, distending the lobe of the ear, -disfiguring the body, the pointing, blackening, or knocking out -of teeth, are all practices that have a religious significance. -Even such a highly civilized people as the Chinese perpetuate, in -their funerary ceremonies, customs that can be traced back to an -exceedingly remote period in the history of mankind. It is not due to -"love of personal ornament" that they place cowries, jade, gold, &c., -in the mouth of the dead, but because they believe that by so doing -the body is protected, and given a new lease of life. The Far Eastern -belief that an elixir of ground oyster shells will prolong life in -the next world is evidently a relic of early shell lore. Certain -deities are associated with certain shells. Some deities have, like -snails, shells for "houses"; others issue at birth from shells. The -goddess Venus (Aphrodite) springs from the froth of the sea, and is -lifted up by Tritons on a shell; she wears a love-girdle. Hathor, the -Egyptian Venus, had originally a love-girdle of shells. She appears -to have originated as the personification of a shell, and afterwards -to have personified the pearl within the shell. In early Egyptian -graves the shell-amulets have been found in thousands. The importance -of shell lore in ancient religious systems has been emphasized by -Mr. J. Wilfrid Jackson in his _Shells as Evidence of the Migrations -of Early Culture_.[28] He shows why the cowry and snail shells were -worn as amulets and charms, and why men were impelled "to search -for them far and wide and often at great peril". "The murmur of the -shell was the voice of the god, and the trumpet made of a shell -became an important instrument in initiation ceremonies and in temple -worship." Shells protected wearers against evil, including the evil -eye. In like manner protection was afforded by the teeth and claws -of carnivorous animals. In Asia and Africa the belief that tigers, -lions, &c., will not injure those who are thus protected is still -quite widespread. - - [28] London, 1917. - - [Illustration: Necklace of Sea Shells, from the cave of - Crô-Magnon. (After E. Lartet.)] - -It cannot have been merely for love of personal ornaments that the -Crô-Magnons of southern France imported Indian Ocean shells, and -those of Central and Western Europe created a trade in Mediterranean -shells. Like the ancient inhabitants of the Nile Valley who in -remote pre-dynastic times imported shells, not only from the -Mediterranean but from the Red Sea, along a long and dangerous -desert trade-route, they evidently had imparted to shells a definite -religious significance. The "luck-girdle" of snail-shells worn by -the "Red Man of Paviland" has, therefore, an interesting history. -When the Crô-Magnons reached Britain they brought with them not -only implements invented and developed elsewhere, but a heritage -of religious beliefs connected with shell ornaments and with the -red earth with which the corpse was smeared when laid in its last -resting-place. - -The ancient religious beliefs connected with shells appear to have -spread far and wide. Traces of them still survive in districts -far separated from one another and from the area of origin--the -borderlands of Asia and Africa. In Japanese mythology a young god, -Ohonamochie--a sort of male Cinderella--is slain by his jealous -brothers. His mother makes appeal to a sky deity who sends to her aid -the two goddesses Princess Cockleshell and Princess Clam. Princess -Cockleshell burns and grinds her shell, and with water provided by -Princess Clam prepares an elixir called "nurse's milk" or "mother's -milk". As soon as this "milk" is smeared over the young god, he is -restored to life. In the Hebrides it is still the custom of mothers -to burn and grind the cockle-shell to prepare a lime-water for -children who suffer from what in Gaelic is called "wasting". In -North America shells of _Unio_ were placed in the graves of Red -Indians "as food for the dead during the journey to the land of -spirits". The pearls were used in India as medicines. "The burnt -powder of the gems, if taken with water, cures hæmorrhages, prevents -evil spirits working mischief in men's minds, cures lunacy and all -mental diseases, jaundice, &c.... Rubbed over the body with other -medicines it cures leprosy and all skin diseases."[29] The ancient -Cretans, whose culture was carried into Asia and through Europe by -their enterprising sea-and-land traders and prospectors, attached -great importance to the cockle-shell which they connected with their -mother goddess, the source of all life and the giver of medicines -and food. Sir Arthur Evans found a large number of cockle-shells, -some in Faeince, in the shrine of the serpent goddess in the ruins -of the Palace of Knossos. The fact that the Cretans made artificial -cockle-shells is of special interest, especially when we find that in -Egypt the earliest use to which gold was put was in the manufacture -of models of snail-shells in a necklace.[30] In different countries -cowrie shells were similarly imitated in stone, ivory, and metal.[31] - - [29] _Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture_, pp. - 84-91. - - [30] G. A. Reisner. _Early Dynastic Cemeteries of Naga-ed-Der_, - Vol. I, 1908, Plates 6 and 7. - - [31] Jackson's _Shells_, pp. 128, 174, 176, 178. - -Shells were thought to impart vitality and give protection, not only -to human beings, but even to the plots of the earliest florists -and agriculturists. "Mary, Mary, quite contrairie", who in the -nursery rhyme has in her garden "cockle-shells all in row", was -perpetuating an ancient custom. The cockle-shell is still favoured -by conservative villagers, and may be seen in their garden plots and -in graveyards. Shells placed at cottage doors, on window-sills, and -round fire-places are supposed to bring luck and give security, like -the horse-shoe on the door. - -The mother goddess, remembered as the fairy queen, is still -connected with shells in Hebridean folk-lore. A Gaelic poet refers -to the goddess as "the maiden queen of wisdom who dwelt in the -beauteous bower of the single tree where she could see the whole -world and where no fool could see her beauty". She lamented the -lack of wisdom among women, and invited them to her knoll. When -they were assembled there the goddess appeared, holding in her hand -the _copan Moire_ ("Cup of Mary"), as the blue-eyed limpet shell is -called. The shell contained "the ais (milk) of wisdom", which she -gave to all who sought it. "Many", we are told, "came to the knoll -too late, and there was no wisdom left for them."[32] A Gaelic poet -says the "maiden queen" was attired in emerald green, silver, and -mother-of-pearl. - - [32] Dr. Alexander Carmichael, _Carmina Gadeiica_, Vol. II, - pp.247 _et seq._ Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, author of _Shells as - Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture_, tells me that the - "blue-eyed limpet" is our common limpet--_Patella vulgata_--the - Lepas, Patelle, Jambe, OEil de boue, Bernicle, or Flie of the - French. In Cornwall it is the "Crogan", the "Bornigan", and - the "Brennick". It is "flither" of the English, "flia" of the - Faroese, and "lapa" of the Portuguese. A Cornish giant was once, - according to a folk-tale, set to perform the hopeless task of - emptying a pool with a single limpet which had a hole in it. - Limpets are found in early British graves and in the "kitchen - middens". They are met with in abundance in cromlechs, on the - Channel Isles and in Brittany, covering the bones and the skulls - of the dead. Mr. Jackson thinks they were used like cowries for - vitalizing and protecting the dead. - -Here a particular shell is used by an old goddess for a specific -purpose. She imparts knowledge by providing a magic drink referred to -as "milk". The question arises, however, if a deity of this kind was -known in early times. Did the Crô-Magnons of the Aurignacian stage of -culture conceive of a god or goddess in human form who nourished her -human children and instructed them as do human mothers? The figure -of a woman, holding in her hand a horn which appears to have been -used for drinking from, is of special interest in this connection. As -will be shown, the Hebridean "maiden" links with other milk-providing -deities. - -The earliest religious writings in the world are the Pyramid Texts -of ancient Egypt which, as Professor Breasted so finely says, -"vaguely disclose to us a vanished world of thought and speech". They -abound "in allusions to lost myths, to customs and usages long since -ended". Withal, they reflect the physical conditions of a particular -area--the Nile Valley, in which the sun and the river are two -outstanding natural features. There was, however, a special religious -reason for connecting the sun and the river. - -In these old Pyramid Texts are survivals from a period apparently -as ancient as that of early Aurignacian civilization in Europe, -and perhaps, as the clue afforded by the Indian shell found in the -Grimaldi cave, not unconnected with it. The mother goddess, for -instance, is prayed to so that she may suckle the soul of the dead -Pharaoh as a mother suckles her child and never wean him.[33] Milk -was thus the elixir of life, and as the mother goddess of Egypt is -found to have been identified with the cowrie--indeed to have been -the spirit or personification of the shell--the connection between -shells and milk may have obtained even in Aurignacian times in -south-western Europe. That the mother goddess of Crô-Magnons had a -human form is suggested by the representations of mothers which have -been brought to light. An Aurignacian statuette of limestone found -in the cave of Willendorf, Lower Austria, has been called the "Venus -of Willendorf". She is very corpulent--apparently because she was -regarded as a giver of life. Other statues of like character have -been unearthed near Mentone, and they have a striking resemblance -to the figurines of fat women found in the pre-dynastic graves -of Egypt and in Crete and Malta. The bas-relief of the fat woman -sculptured on a boulder inside the Aurignacian shelter of Laussel may -similarly have been a goddess. In her right hand she holds a bison's -horn--perhaps a drinking horn containing an elixir. Traces of red -colouring remain on the body. A notable fact about these mysterious -female forms is that the heads are formal, the features being -scarcely, if at all, indicated. - - [33] Breasted, _Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt_, p. 130. - -Even if no such "idols" had been found, it does not follow that -the early people had no ideas about supernatural beings. There are -references in Gaelic to the _coich anama_ (the "spirit case", or -"soul shell", or "soul husk"). In Japan, which has a particularly -rich and voluminous mythology, there are no idols in Shinto temples. -A deity is symbolized by the _shintai_ (God body), which may be a -mirror, a weapon, or a round stone, a jewel or a pearl. A pearl is -a _tama_; so is a precious stone, a crystal, a bit of worked jade, -or a necklace of jewels, ivory, artificial beads, &c. The soul of -a supernatural being is called _mi-tama--mi_ being now a honorific -prefix, but originally signifying a water serpent (dragon god). The -shells, of which ancient deities were personifications, may well have -been to the Crô-Magnons pretty much what a _tama_ is to the Japanese, -and what magic crystals were to mediæval Europeans who used them for -magical purposes. It may have been believed that in the shells, green -stones, and crystals remained the influence of deities as the power -of beasts of prey remained in their teeth and claws. The ear-rings -and other Pagan ornaments which Jacob buried with Laban's idols -under the oak at Shechem were similarly supposed to be god bodies or -coagulated forms of "life substance". All idols were temporary or -permanent bodies of deities, and idols were not necessarily large. -It would seem to be a reasonable conclusion that all the so-called -ornaments found in ancient graves were supposed to have had an -intimate connection with the supernatural beings who gave origin to -and sustained life. These ornaments, or charms, or amulets, imparted -vitality to human beings, because they were regarded as the substance -of life itself. The red jasper worn in the waist girdles of the -ancient Egyptians was reputed, as has been stated, to be a coagulated -drop of the blood of the mother goddess Isis. Blood was the essence -of life. - -The red woman or goddess of the Laussel shelter was probably coloured -so as to emphasize her vitalizing attributes; the red colour animated -the image. - -An interesting reference in Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ to ancient -burial customs may here be quoted, because it throws light on the -problem under discussion. When Ophelia's body is carried into -the graveyard[34] one of the priests says that as "her death was -doubtful" she should have been buried in "ground unsanctified"--that -is, among the suicides and murderers. Having taken her own life, she -was unworthy of Christian burial, and should be buried in accordance -with Pagan customs. In all our old churchyards the takers of life -were interred on the north side, and apparently in Shakespeare's -day traditional Pagan rites were observed in the burials of those -regarded as Pagans. The priest in _Hamlet_, therefore, says of -Ophelia: - - She should in ground unsanctified have lodged - Till the last trumpet; _for charitable prayers, - Shards, flints, and pebbles should be thrown on her_. - - [34] _Hamlet_, V. i. - -There are no shards (fragments of pottery) in the Crô-Magnon graves, -but flints and pebbles mingle with shells, teeth, and other charms -and amulets. Vast numbers of perforated shells have been found in the -burial caves near Mentone. In one case the shells are so numerous -that they seem to have formed a sort of burial mantle. "Similarly," -says Professor Osborn, describing another of these finds, "the female -skeleton was enveloped in a bed of shells not perforated; the legs -were extended, while the arms were stretched beside the body; there -were a few pierced shells and a few bits of silex. One of the large -male skeletons of the same grotto had the lower limbs extended, -the upper limbs folded, and was decorated with a gorget and crown -of perforated shells; the head rested on a block of red stone." In -another case "heavy stones protected the body from disturbance; the -head was decorated with a circle of perforated shells _coloured in -red_, and implements of various types were carefully placed on the -forehead and chest". The body of the Combe-Capelle man "was decorated -with a necklace of perforated shells and surrounded with a great -number of fine Aurignacian flints. It appears", adds Osborn, "that -in all the numerous burials of these grottos of Aurignacian age and -industry of the Crô-Magnon race we have the burial standards which -prevailed in western Europe at this time."[35] - - [35] _Men of the Old Stone Age_, pp.304-5. - -It has been suggested by one of the British archæologists that the -necklaces of perforated cowrie shells and the red pigment found -among the remains of early man in Britain were used by children. -This theory does not accord with the evidence afforded by the -Grimaldi caves, in which the infant skeletons are neither coloured -nor decorated. Occasionally, however, the children were interred in -burial mantles of small perforated shells, while female adults were -sometimes placed in beds of unperforated shells. Shells have been -found in early British graves. These include _Nerita litoralis_, and -even _Patella vulgata_, the common limpet. Holes were rubbed in them -so that they might be strung together. In a megalithic cist unearthed -in Phoenix Park, Dublin, in 1838, two male skeletons had each beside -them perforated shells (_Nerita litoralis_). During the construction -of the Edinburgh and Granton railway there was found beside a -skeleton in a stone cist a quantity of cockle-shell rings. Two dozen -perforated oyster-shells were found in a single Orkney cist. Many -other examples of this kind could be referred to.[36] - - [36] A Red Sea cowry shell (_Cyproea minor_) found on the site of - Hurstbourne station (L. & S. W. Railway, main line) in Hampshire, - was associated with "Early Iron Age" artifacts. (Paper read by J. - R. le B. Tomlin at meeting of Linnæan Society, June 14, 1921.) - -In the Crô-Magnon caverns are imprints of human hands which had been -laid on rock and then dusted round with coloured earth. In a number -of cases it is shown that one or more finger joints of the left hand -had been cut off. - -The practice of finger mutilation among Bushman, Australian, and Red -Indian tribes, is associated with burial customs and the ravages -of disease. A Bushman woman may cut off a joint of one of her -fingers when a near relative is about to die. Red Indians cut off -finger-joints when burying their dead during a pestilence, so as -"to cut off deaths"; they sacrificed a part of the body to save the -whole. In Australia finger mutilation is occasionally practised. -Highland Gaelic stories tell of heroes who lie asleep to gather power -which will enable them to combat with monsters or fierce enemies. -Heroines awake them by cutting off a finger joint, a part of the ear, -or a portion of skin from the scalp.[37] - - [37] For references see my _Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic - Europe_, pp.30-31. - -The colours used in drawings of hands in Palæolithic caves are black, -white, red, and yellow, as the Abbé Breuil has noted. In Spain and -India, the hand prints are supposed to protect dwellings from evil -influences. Horse-shoes, holly with berries, various plants, shells, -&c, are used for a like purpose among those who in our native land -perpetuate ancient customs. - -The Arabs have a custom of suspending figures of an open hand from -the necks of their children, and the Turks and Moors paint hands upon -their ships and houses, "as an antidote and counter charm to an evil -eye; for five is with them an unlucky number; and 'five (fingers, -perhaps) in your eyes' is their proverb of cursing and defiance". In -Portugal the hand spell is called the _figa_. Southey suggests that -our common phrase "a fig for him" was derived from the name of the -Portuguese hand amulet.[38] - - [38] Notes to _Thalaba_, Book V, Canto 36. - -"The figo for thy friendship" is an interesting reference by -Shakespeare.[39] Fig or figo is probably from _fico_, a snap of -the fingers, which in French is _faire la figue_, and in Italian -_far le fiche_. Finger snapping had no doubt originally a magical -significance. - - [39] _Henry V_, V, iii, 6. - - - - -CHAPTER V - -New Races in Europe - - The Solutrean Industry--A Racial and Cultural - Intrusion--Decline of Aurignacian Art--A God-cult--The - Solutrean Thor--Open-air Life--Magdalenian Culture--Decline of - Flint Working--Horn and Bone Weapons and Implements--Revival - of Crô-Magnon Art--The Lamps and Palettes of Cave Artists--The - Domesticated Horse--Eskimos in Europe--Magdalenian - Culture in England--The Vanishing Ice--Reindeer migrate - Northward--New Industries--Tardenoisian and Azilian - Industries--Pictures and Symbols of Azilians--"Long-heads" - and "Broad-heads"--Maglemosian Culture of Fair - Northerners--Pre-Neolithic Peoples in Britain. - - -In late Aurignacian times the influence of a new industry was felt -in Western Europe. It first came from the south, and reached as -far north as England where it can be traced in the caverns. Then, -in time, it spread westward and wedge-like through Central Europe -in full strength, with the force and thoroughness of an invasion, -reaching the northern fringe of the Spanish coast. This was the -Solutrean industry which had distinctive and independent features -of its own. It was not derived from Aurignacian but had developed -somewhere in Africa--perhaps in Somaliland, whence it radiated along -the Libyan coast towards the west and eastward into Asia. The main or -"true" Solutrean influence entered Europe from the south-east. It did -not pass into Italy, which remained in the Aurignacian stage until -Azilian times, nor did it cross the Pyrenees or invade Spain south of -the Cantabrian Mountains. The earlier "influence" is referred to as -"proto-Solutrean". - -Solutrean is well represented in Hungary where no trace of -Aurignacian culture has yet been found. Apparently that part of -Europe had offered no attractions for the Crô-Magnons. - -Who the carriers of this new culture were it is as yet impossible to -say with confidence. They may have been a late "wave" of the same -people who had first introduced Aurignacian culture into Europe, -and they may have been representative of a different race. Some -ethnologists incline to connect the Solutrean culture with a new -people whose presence is indicated by the skulls found at Brünn -and Brüx in Bohemia. These intruders had lower foreheads than the -Crô-Magnons, narrower and longer faces, and low cheek-bones. It -may be that they represented a variety of the Mediterranean race. -Whoever they were, they did not make much use of ivory and bone, -but they worked flint with surpassing skill and originality. Their -technique was quite distinct from the Aurignacian. With the aid -of wooden or bone tools, they finished their flint artifacts by -pressure, gave them excellent edges and points, and shaped them with -artistic skill. Their most characteristic flints are the so-called -laurel-leaf (broad) and willow-leaf (narrow) lances. These were -evidently used in the chase. There is no evidence that they were -used in battle. Withal, their weapons had a religious significance. -Fourteen laurel-leaf spear-heads of Solutrean type which were found -together at Volgu, Saône-et-Loire, are believed to have been a votive -offering to a deity. At any rate, these were too finely worked and -too fragile, like some of the peculiar Shetland and Swedish knives -of later times, to have been used as implements. One has retained -traces of red colouring. It may be that the belief enshrined in the -Gaelic saying, "Every weapon has its demon", had already come into -existence. In Crete the double-axe was in Minoan times a symbol of a -deity;[40] and in northern Egypt and on the Libyan coast the crossed -arrows symbolized the goddess Neith; while in various countries, and -especially in India, there are ancient stories about the spirits of -weapons appearing in visions and promising to aid great hunters and -warriors. The custom of giving weapons personal names, which survived -for long in Europe, may have had origin in Solutrean times. - - [40] For other examples see Mr. Legge's article in _Proceedings - of the Society of Biblical Archæology_, 1899. p. 310. - -Art languished in Solutrean times. Geometrical figures were incised -on ivory and bone; some engraving of mammoths, reindeer, and lions -have been found in Moravia and France. When the human figure was -depicted, the female was neglected and studies made of males. It -may be that the Solutreans had a god-cult as distinguished from the -goddess-cult of the Aurignacians, and that their "flint-god" was an -early form of Zeus, or of Thor, whose earliest hammer was of flint. -The Romans revered "Jupiter Lapis" (silex). When the solemn oath was -taken at the ceremony of treaty-making, the representative of the -Roman people struck a sacrificial pig with the _silex_ and said, "Do -thou, Diespiter, strike the Roman people as I strike this pig here -to-day, and strike them the more, as thou art greater and stronger". -Mr. Cyril Bailey (_The Religion of Ancient Rome_, p. 7) expresses the -view that "in origin the stone is itself the god". - -During Solutrean times the climate of Europe, although still cold, -was drier that in Aurignacian times. It may be that the intruders -seized the flint quarries of the Crô-Magnons, and also disputed -with them the possession of hunting-grounds. The cave art declined -or was suspended during what may have been a military regime and -perhaps, too, under the influence of a new religion and new social -customs. Open-air camps beside rock-shelters were greatly favoured. -It may be, as has been suggested, that the Solutreans were as expert -as the modern Eskimos in providing clothing and skin-tents. Bone -needles were numerous. They fed well, and horse-flesh was a specially -favoured food. - -In their mountain retreats, the Aurignacians may have concentrated -more attention than they had previously done on the working of -bone and horn; it may be that they were reinforced by new races -from north-eastern Europe, who had been developing a distinctive -industry on the borders of Asia. At any rate, the industry known as -Magdalenian became widespread when the ice-fields crept southward -again, and southern and central Europe became as wet and cold as in -early Aurignacian times. Solutrean culture gradually declined and -vanished and Magdalenian became supreme. - -The Magdalenian stage of culture shows affinities with Aurignacian -and betrays no influence of Solutrean technique. The method of -working flint was quite different. The Magdalenians, indeed, appear -to have attached little importance to flint for implements of the -chase. They often chipped it badly in their own way and sometimes -selected flint of poor quality, but they had beautiful "scrapers" -and "gravers" of flint. It does not follow, however, that they -were a people on a lower stage of culture than the Solutreans. New -inventions had rendered it unnecessary for them to adopt Solutrean -technique. Most effective implements of horn and bone had come into -use and, if wars were waged--there is no evidence of warfare--the -Magdalenians were able to give a good account of themselves with -javelins and exceedingly strong spears which were given a greater -range by the introduction of spear-throwers--"cases" from which -spears were thrown. The food supply was increased by a new method of -catching fish. Barbed harpoons of reindeer-horn had been invented, -and no doubt many salmon, &c., were caught at river-side stations. - -The Crô-Magnons, as has been found, were again in the ascendant, and -their artistic genius was given full play as in Aurignacian times, -and, no doubt, as a result of the revival of religious beliefs that -fostered art as a cult product. Once again the painters, engravers, -and sculptors adorned the caves with representations of wild animals. -Colours were used with increasing skill and taste. The artists -had palettes on which to mix their colours, and used stone lamps, -specimens of which have been found, to light up their "studios" in -deep cave recesses. During this Magdalenian stage of culture the art -of the Crô-Magnons reached its highest standard of excellence, and -grew so extraordinarily rich and varied that it compares well with -the later religious arts of ancient Egypt and Babylonia. - -The horse appears to have been domesticated. There is at Saint -Michel d'Arudy a "Celtic" horse depicted with a bridle, while at -La Madeleine was found a "bâton de commandement" on which a human -figure, with a stave in his right hand, walks past two horses which -betray no signs of alarm. - -Our knowledge is scanty regarding the races that occupied Europe -during Magdalenian times. In addition to the Crô-Magnons there -were other distinctive types. One of these is represented by the -Chancelade skeleton found at Raymonden shelter. Some think it betrays -Eskimo affinities and represents a racial "drift" from the Russian -steppes. In his _Ancient Hunters_ Professor Sollas shows that there -are resemblances between Eskimo and Magdalenian artifacts. - -The Magdalenian culture reached England, although it never penetrated -into Italy, and was shut out from the greater part of Spain. It -has been traced as far north as Derbyshire, on the north-eastern -border of which the Cresswell caves have yielded Magdalenian -relics, including flint-borers, engravers, &c., and bone implements, -including a needle, an awl, chisels, an engraving of a horse on bone, -&c. Kent's Cavern, near Torquay in Devonshire, has also yielded -Magdalenian flints and implements of bone, including pins, awls, -barbed harpoons, &c. - -During early Magdalenian times, however, our native land did not -offer great attractions to Continental people. The final glacial -epoch may have been partial, but it was severe, and there was a -decided lowering of the temperature. Then came a warmer and drier -spell, which was followed by the sixth partial glaciation. Thereafter -the "great thaw" opened up Europe to the invasion of new races from -Asia and Africa. - -Three distinct movements of peoples in Europe can be traced in -post-Magdalenian times, and during what has been called the -"Transition Period", between the Upper Palæolithic and Lower -Neolithic Ages or stages. The ice-cap retreated finally from -the mountains of Scotland and Sweden, and the reindeer migrated -northward. Magdalenian civilization was gradually broken up, and the -cave art suffered sharp decline until at length it perished utterly. -Trees flourished in areas where formerly the reindeer scraped the -snow to crop moss and lichen, and rich pastures attracted the -northward migrating red deer, the roe-deer, the ibex, the wild boar, -wild cattle, &c. - -The new industries are known as the Tardenoisian, the Azilian, and -the Maglemosian. - - [Illustration: Geometric or "Pygmy" Flints. (After Breuil.) - - 1, From Tunis and Southern Spain. 2, From Portugal. 3, 4, Azilian - types. 5, 6, 7, Tardenoisian types.] - -Tardenoisian flints are exceedingly small and beautifully worked, -and have geometric forms; they are known as "microliths" and "pygmy -flints". They were evidently used in catching fish, some being hooks -and others spear-heads; and they represent a culture that spread -round the Mediterranean basin: these flints are found in northern -Egypt, Tunis, Algeria, and Italy; from Italy they passed through -Europe into England and Scotland. A people who decorated with scenes -of daily life rock shelters and caves in Spain, and hunted red deer -and other animals with bows and arrows, were pressing northward -across the new grass-lands towards the old Magdalenian stations. Men -wore pants and feather head-dresses; women had short gowns, blouses, -and caps, as had the late Magdalenians, and both sexes wore armlets, -anklets, and other ornaments of magical potency. Females were nude -when engaged in the chase. The goddess Diana had evidently her human -prototypes. There were ceremonial dances, as the rock pictures show; -women lamented over graves, and affectionate couples--at least they -seem to have been affectionate--walked hand in hand as they gradually -migrated towards northern Spain, and northern France and Britain. The -horse was domesticated, and is seen being led by the halter. Wild -animal "drives" were organized, and many victims fell to archer and -spearman. Arrows were feathered; bows were large and strong. Symbolic -signs indicate that a script similar to those of the Ægean area, -the northern African coast, and pre-dynastic Egypt was freely used. -Drawings became conventional, and ultimately animals and human beings -were represented by signs. This culture lasted after the introduction -of the Neolithic industry in some areas, and in others after the -bronze industry had been adopted by sections of the people. - -When the Magdalenian harpoon of reindeer horn was imitated by the -flat harpoon of red-deer horn, this new culture became what is known -as Azilian. It met and mingled with Tardenoisian, which appears to -have arrived later, and the combined industries are referred to as -Azilian-Tardenoisian. - -While the race-drifts, represented by the carriers of the Azilian and -Tardenoisian industries, were moving into France and Britain, another -invasion from the East was in progress. It is represented in the -famous Ofnet cave where long-heads and broad-heads were interred. The -Asiatic Armenoids (Alpine type) had begun to arrive in Europe, the -glaciers having vanished in Asia Minor. Skulls of broad-heads found -in the Belgian cave of Furfooz, in which sixteen human skeletons were -unearthed in 1867, belong to this period. The early Armenoids met and -mingled with representatives of the blond northern race, and were the -basis of the broad-headed blonds of Holland, Denmark, and Belgium. - - [Illustration: EXAMPLES OF PALÆOLITHIC ART - - The objects include: handles of knives and daggers carved in - ivory and bone, line drawings of wild animals, faces of masked - men, of animal-headed deity or masked man with arms uplifted - (compare Egyptian "Ka" attitude of adoration), of wild horses on - perforated _bâton de commandement_, of man stalking a bison, of - seal, cow, reindeer, cave-bear, &c., and perforated amulets.] - -Maglemosian culture is believed to have been introduced by the -ancestors of the fair peoples of Northern Europe. It has been -so named after the finds at Maglemose in the "Great Moor", near -Mullerup, on the western coast of Zeeland. A lake existed at this -place at a time when the Baltic was an inland water completely -shut off from the North Sea. In a peat bog, formerly the bed of the -lake, were found a large number of flint and bone artifacts. These -included Tardenoisian microliths, barbed harpoons of bone, needles -of bone, spears of bone, &c. Bone was more freely used than horn -for implements and weapons. The animals hunted included the stag, -roe-deer, moose, wild ox, and wild boar. Dogs were domesticated. -It appears that the Maglemosians were lake-dwellers. Their houses, -however, had not been erected on stilts, but apparently on a floating -platform of logs, which was no doubt anchored or moored to the shore. -There are traces of Magdalenian influence in Maglemosian culture. -Although many decorative forms on bone implements and engravings on -rocks are formal and symbolic, there are some fine and realistic -representations of animals worthy of the Magdalenian cave artists. -Traces of the Maglemosian racial drift have been obtained on both -sides of the Baltic and in the Danish kitchen middens. Engravings -on rocks at Lake Onega in Northern Russia closely resemble typical -Maglemosian work. Apparently the northern fair peoples entered Europe -from Western Siberia, and in time were influenced by Neolithic -culture. But before the Europeans began to polish their stone -implements and weapons, the blond hunters and fishermen settled not -only in Denmark and Southern Sweden and Norway but also in Britain. - -At the time when the Baltic was an inland fresh-water lake, the -southern part of the North Sea was dry land, and trees grew on Dogger -Bank, from which fishermen still occasionally lift in their trawls -lumps of "moor-log" (peat) and the bones of animals, including those -of the reindeer, the red deer, the horse, the wild ox, the bison, the -Irish elk, the bear, the wolf, the beaver, the woolly rhinoceros, -the mammoth, and the walrus. No doubt the Maglemosians found their -way over this "land-bridge", crossing the rivers in rude boats, and -on foot when the rivers were frozen. Evidence has been forthcoming -that they also followed the present coast line towards Boulogne, near -which a typical Maglemosian harpoon has been discovered. - - [Illustration: A Notable Example of late Magdalenian Culture: - engraving on bone of browsing reindeer. From Kesserloch, - Switzerland. (After Heim.)] - -Traces of Maglemosian influence have been found as far north as -Scotland on the Hebridean islands of Oronsay and Risga. The MacArthur -cave at Oban reveals Azilian artifacts. In the Victoria cave near -Settle in Yorkshire a late Magdalenian or proto-Azilian harpoon -made of reindeer-horn is of special interest, displaying, as it -does, a close connection between late Magdalenian and early Azilian. -Barbed harpoons, found at the shelter of Druimvargie, near Oban, are -Azilian, some displaying Maglemosian features. Barbed harpoons of -bone, and especially those with barbs on one side only, are generally -Maglemosian, while those of horn and double-barbed are typically -Azilian. - - [Illustration: Horn and Bone Implements - - Harpoons: 1 and 2, from MacArthur Cave, Oban; 3, from Laugerie - Basse rock-shelter, France; 4, from shell-heap, Oronsay, - Hebrides; 5, from bed of River Dee near Kirkcudbright; 6, from - Palude Brabbie, Italy--all of Azilian type. 8, Reindeer-horn - harpoon of late Magdalenian, or proto-Azilian, type from Victoria - Cave, near Settle, Yorks. 9, Maglemosian, or Azilian-Maglemosian, - harpoon from rock-shelter, Druimvargie, Oban. 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, - and 14, bone and deer-horn implements from MacArthur Cave, Oban.] - -Apparently the fair Northerners, the carriers of Maglemosian culture, -and the dark Iberians, the carriers of Azilian culture, met and -mingled in Scotland and England long before the Neolithic industry -was introduced. There were also, it would appear, communities in -Britain of Crô-Magnons, and perhaps of other racial types that -existed on the Continent and in late Magdalenian times. The fair -peoples of England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland are not therefore -all necessarily descendants of Celts, Angles, Saxons, and Vikings. -The pioneer settlers in the British Isles, in all probability, -included blue and grey-eyed and fair or reddish-haired peoples who -in Scotland may have formed the basis of the later Caledonian type, -compared by Tacitus to the Germans, but bearing an undoubted Celtic -racial name, the military aristocrats being Celts.[41] - - [41] The Abbé Breuil, having examined the artifacts associated - with the Western Scottish harpoons, inclines to refer to - the culture as "Azilian-Tardenoisian". At the same time he - considers the view that Maglemosian influence was operating is - worthy of consideration. He notes that traces of Maglemosian - culture have been reported from England. The Abbé has detected - Magdalenian influence in artifacts from Campbeltown, Argyllshire - (_Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland_, 1921-2). - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -The Faithful Dog - - Transition Period between Palæolithic and Neolithic - Ages--Theory of the Neolithic Edge--Crô-Magnon Civilization was - broken up by Users of Bow and Arrow--Domesticated Dog of Fair - Northerners--Dogs as Guides and Protectors of Man--The Dog in - Early Religion--Dog Guides of Souls--The Dog of Hades--Dogs and - Death--The Scape-dog in Scotland--Souls in Dog Form--Traces of - Early Domesticated Dogs--Romans imported British Dogs. - - -The period we have now reached is regarded by some as that of -transition between the Palæolithic and Neolithic Ages, and by -others as the Early Neolithic period. It is necessary, therefore, -that we should keep in mind that these terms have been to a great -extent divested of the significance originally attached to them. -The transition period was a lengthy one, extending over many -centuries during which great changes occurred. It was much longer -than the so-called "Neolithic Age". New races appeared in Europe and -introduced new habits of life and thought, new animals appeared and -animals formerly hunted by man retreated northward or became extinct; -the land sank and rose; a great part of the North Sea and the English -Channel was for a time dry land, and trees grew on the plateau now -marked by the Dogger Bank during this "Transition Period", and -before it had ended the Strait of Dover had widened and England was -completely cut off from the Continent. - -Compared with these great changes the invention of the polished -axe edge seems almost trivial. Yet some writers have regarded -this change as being all-important. "On the edge ever since its -discovery", writes one of them with enthusiasm, "has depended and -probably will depend to the end of time the whole artistic and -artificial environment of human existence, in all its infinite varied -complexity.... By this discovery was broken down a wall that for -untold ages had dammed up a stagnant, unprogressive past, and through -the breach were let loose all the potentialities of the future -civilization of mankind. It was entirely due to the discovery of the -edge that man was enabled, in the course of time, to invent the art -of shipbuilding."[42] - - [42] Eirikr Magnusson in _Notes on Shipbuilding and Nautical - Terms_, London, 1906. - -This is a very sweeping claim and hardly justified by the evidence -that of late years has come to light. Much progress had been -achieved before the easy method of polishing supplanted that of -secondary working. The so-called Palæolithic implements were not -devoid of edges. What really happened was that flint-working was -greatly simplified. The discovery was an important one, but it -was not due to it alone that great changes in habits of life were -introduced. Long before the introduction of the Neolithic industry, -the earliest traces of which in Western Europe have been obtained -at Campigny near the village of Blangy on the River Bresle, the -Magdalenian civilization of the Crô-Magnons had been broken up by the -Azilian-Tardenoisian intruders in Central and Western Europe and by -the Maglemosians in the Baltic area. - -The invading hordes in Spain, so far as can be gathered from rock -pictures, made more use of bows and arrows than of spears, and it -may be that their social organization was superior to that of the -Magdalenians. Their animal "drives" suggest as much. It may be -that they were better equipped for organized warfare--if there was -warfare--and for hunting by organizing drives than the taller and -stronger Crô-Magnons. When they reached the Magdalenian stations they -adopted the barbed harpoon, imitating reindeer-horn forms in red-deer -horn. - -The blond Maglemosians in the Baltic area introduced from Asia the -domesticated dog. They were thus able to obtain their food supply -with greater ease than did the Solutreans with their laurel-leaf -lances, or the Magdalenians with their spears tipped with bone or -horn. When man was joined by his faithful ally he met with more -success than when he pursued the chase unaided. Withal, he could -take greater risks when threatened by the angry bulls of a herd, and -operate over more extended tracks of country with less fear of attack -by beasts of prey. His dogs warned him of approaching peril and -guarded his camp by night. - -Hunters who dwelt in caves may have done so partly for protection -against lions and bears and wolves that were attracted to hunters' -camps by the scent of flesh and blood. No doubt barriers had to be -erected to shield men, women, and children in the darkness; and it -may be that there were fires and sentinels at cave entrances. - -The introduction of the domesticated dog may have influenced the -development of religious beliefs. Crô-Magnon hunters appear to have -performed ceremonies in the depths of caverns where they painted and -carved wild animals, with purpose to obtain power over them. Their -masked dances, in which men and women represented wild animals, -chiefly beasts of prey, may have had a similar significance. The -fact that, during the Transition Period, a cult art passed out of -existence, and the caves were no longer centres of culture and -political power, may have been directly or indirectly due to the -domestication of the dog and the supremacy achieved by the intruders -who possessed it. - -There can be no doubt that the dog played its part in the development -of civilization. As much is suggested by the lore attaching to this -animal. It occupies a prominent place in mythology. The dog which -guided and protected the hunter in his wanderings was supposed to -guide his soul to the other world. - - He thought admitted to that equal sky, - His faithful dog would bear him company. - -In Ancient Egypt the dog-headed god Anubis was the guide and -protector of souls. Apuatua, an early form of Osiris, was a dog god. -Yama, the Hindu god of death, as Dharma, god of justice, assumed his -dog form to guide the Panadava brothers to Paradise, as is related -in the Sanskrit epic the _Mahá-bhárata_[43]. The god Indra, the -Hindu Jupiter, was the "big dog", and the custom still prevails -among primitive Indian peoples of torturing a dog by pouring hot oil -into its ears so that the "big dog" may hear and send rain. In the -_Mahá-bhárata_ there is a story about Indra appearing as a hunter -followed by a pack of dogs. As the "Wild Huntsman" the Scandinavian -god Odin rides through the air followed by dogs. The dog is in Greek -mythology the sentinel of Hades; it figures in a like capacity in -the Hades of Northern Mythology. Cuchullin, the Gaelic hero, kills -the dog of Hades and takes its place until another dog is found and -trained, and that is why he is called "Cu" (the dog) of Culann. A -pool in Kildonan, Sutherland, which was reputed to contain a pot -of gold, was supposed to be guarded by a big black dog with two -heads. A similar legend attaches to Hound's Pool in the parish of -Dean Combe, Devonshire. In different parts of the world the dog is -the creator and ancestor of the human race, the symbol of kinship, -&c. The star Sirius was associated with the dog. In Scotland and -Ireland "dog stones" were venerated. A common surviving belief is -that dogs howl by night when a sudden death is about to occur. This -association of the dog with death is echoed by Theocritus. "Hark!" -cries Simaetha, "the dogs are barking through the town. Hecate is -at the crossways. Haste, clash the brazen cymbals." The dog-god of -Scotland is remembered as _an cù sìth_ ("the supernatural dog"); -it is as big as a calf, and by night passes rapidly over land and -sea. A black demon-dog--the "Moddey Dhoo"--referred to by Scott in -_Peveril of the Peak_ was supposed to haunt Peel Castle in the Isle -of Man. A former New Year's day custom in Perthshire was to send away -from a house door a scape-dog with the words, "Get away you dog! -Whatever death of men or loss of cattle would happen in this house -till the end of the present year, may it all light on your head." A -similar custom obtained among Western Himalayan peoples. Early man -appears to have regarded his faithful companion as a supernatural -being. There are Gaelic references to souls appearing in dog form to -assist families in time of need. Not only did the dog attack beasts -of prey; in Gaelic folk-tales it is the enemy of fairies and demons, -and especially cave-haunting demons. Early man's gratitude to and -dependence on the dog seems to be reflected in stories of this kind. - - [43] Pronounced ma-haw'-baw'-rata (the two final _a_'s are short). - -When the Baltic peoples, who are believed to be the first "wave" of -blond Northerners, moved westward towards Denmark during the period -of the "great thaw", they must have been greatly assisted by the -domesticated dog, traces of which are found in Maglemosian stations. -Bones of dogs have been found in the Danish kitchen middens and -in the MacArthur cave at Oban. It may be that the famous breed of -British hunting dogs which were in Roman times exported to Italy were -descended from those introduced by the Maglemosian hunters. Seven -Irish dogs were in the fourth century presented to Symmachus, a Roman -consul, by his brother. "All Rome", the grateful recipient wrote, -"view them with wonder and thought they must have been brought hither -in iron cages." - -Great dogs were kept in Ancient Britain and Ireland for protection -against wolves as well as for hunting wild animals. The ancient Irish -made free use in battle of large fierce hounds. In the folk-stories -of Scotland dogs help human beings to attack and overcome -supernatural beings. Dogs were the enemies of the fairies, mermaids, -&c. - -Dog gods figure on the ancient sculptured stones of Scotland. The -names of the Irish heroes Cuchullin and Con-chobar were derived from -those of dog deities. "Con" is the genitive of "Cu" (dog). - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -Ancient Mariners Reach Britain - - Reindeer in Scotland--North Sea and English Channel - Land-bridges--Early River Rafts and River Boats--Breaking - of Land-bridges--Coast Erosion--Tilbury Man--Where were - first Boats Invented?--Ancient Boats in Britain--"Dug-out" - Canoes--Imitations of Earlier Papyri and Skin Boats--Cork - Plug in Ancient Clyde Boat--Early Swedish Boats--An African - Link--Various Types of British Boats--Daring Ancient - Mariners--The Veneti Seafarers--Attractions of Early Britain - for Colonists. - - -The Maglemosian (Baltic) and Azilian (Iberian) peoples, who reached -and settled in Britain long before the introduction of the Neolithic -industry, appear, as has been shown, to have crossed the great -land-bridge, which is now marked by the Dogger Bank, and the narrowed -land-bridge that connected England and France. No doubt they came at -first in small bands, wandering along the river banks and founding -fishing communities, following the herds of red deer and wild cows -that had moved northward, and seeking flints, &c. The Crô-Magnons, -whose civilization the new intruders had broken up on the Continent, -were already in Britain, where the reindeer lingered for many -centuries after they had vanished from France. The reindeer moss -still grows in the north of Scotland. Bones and horns of the reindeer -have been found in this area in association with human remains as -late as of the Roman period. In the twelfth century the Norsemen -hunted reindeer in Caithness.[44] Cæsar refers to the reindeer in -the Hercynian forest of Germany (_Gallic War_, VI, 26). - - [44] _The Orkneyinga Saga_, p. 182, Edinburgh, 1873, and - _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, Vol. - VIII. - -The early colonists of fair Northerners who introduced the -Maglemosian culture into Britain from the Baltic area could not have -crossed the North Sea land-bridge without the aid of rafts or boats. -Great broad rivers were flowing towards the north. The Elbe and the -Weser joined one another near the island of Heligoland, and received -tributaries from marshy valleys until a long estuary wider than is -the Wash at present was formed. Another long river flowed northward -from the valley of the Zuyder Zee, the mouth of which has been traced -on the north-east of the Dogger Bank. The Rhine reached the North -Sea on the south-west of the Dogger Bank, off Flamborough Head; its -tributaries included the Meuse and the Thames. The Humber and the -rivers flowing at present into the Wash were united before entering -the North Sea between the mouth of the Rhine and the coast of East -Riding. - -The Dogger Bank was then a plateau. Trawlers, as has been stated, -sometimes lift from its surface in their trawl nets lumps of peat, -which they call "moor-log", and also the bones of wild animals, -including the wild ox, the wild horse, red deer, reindeer, the elk, -the bear, the wolf, the hyæna, the beaver, the walrus, the woolly -rhinoceros, and the hairy mammoth. In the peat have been found the -remains of the white birch, the hazel, sallow, and willow, seeds -of bog-bean, fragments of fern, &c. All the plants have a northern -range. In some pieces of peat have been found plants and insects that -still flourish in Britain.[45] - - [45] Clement Reid, _Submerged Forests_, pp. 45-7. London, 1913. - -The easiest crossing to Britain was over the English Channel -land-bridge. It was ultimately cut through by the English Channel -river, so that the dark Azilian-Tardenoisian peoples from Central and -Western Europe and the fair Maglemosians must have required and used -rafts or boats before polished implements of Neolithic type came into -use. In time the North Sea broke through the marshes of the river -land to the east of the Thames Estuary and joined the waters of the -English Channel. The Strait of Dover was then formed. At first it -may have been narrow enough for animals to swim across or, at any -rate, for the rude river boats or rafts of the early colonists to be -paddled over in safety between tides. Gradually, however, the strait -grew wider and wider; the chalk cliffs, long undermined by boring -molluscs and scouring shingle, were torn down by great billows during -winter storms. - -It may be that for a long period after the North Sea and English -Channel were united, the Dogger Bank remained an island, and that -there were other islands between Heligoland and the English coast. -Pliny, who had served with the Roman army in Germany, writing in the -first century of our era, refers to twenty-three islands between -the Texel and the Eider in Schleswig-Holstein. Seven of these have -since vanished. The west coast of Schleswig has, during the past -eighteen hundred years, suffered greatly from erosion, and alluvial -plains that formerly yielded rich harvests are now represented by -sandbanks. The Goodwin Sands, which stretch for about ten miles off -the Kentish coast, were once part of the fertile estate of Earl -Godwin which was destroyed and engulfed by a great storm towards the -end of the eleventh century. The Gulf of Zuyder Zee was formerly a -green plain with many towns and villages. Periodic inundations since -the Roman period have destroyed flourishing Dutch farms and villages -and eaten far into the land. There are records of storm-floods -that drowned on one occasion 20,000, and on another no fewer than -100,000 inhabitants.[46] It is believed that large tracts of land, -the remnants of the ancient North Sea land-bridge, have been engulfed -since about 3000 B.C., as a result not merely of erosion but the -gradual submergence of the land. This date is suggested by Mr. -Clement Reid. - - [46] The dates of the greatest disasters on record are 1421, - 1532, and 1570. There were also terrible inundations in the - seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and in 1825 and 1855. - -"The estimate", he says, "may have to be modified as we obtain -better evidence; but it is as well to realize clearly that we are -not dealing with a long period of great geological antiquity; we -are dealing with times when the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Minoan -(Cretan) civilizations flourished. Northern Europe was then probably -barbarous, and metals had not come into use;[47] but the amber trade -of the Baltic was probably in full swing. Rumours of any great -disaster, such as the submergence of thousands of square miles and -the displacement of large populations, might spread far and wide -along the trade routes." It may be that the legend of the Lost -Atlantis was founded on reports of such a disaster, that must have -occurred when areas like the Dogger Bank were engulfed. It may be -too that the gradual wasting away of lands that have long since -vanished propelled migrations of peoples towards the smiling coasts -of England. According to Ammianus the Druids stated that some of the -inhabitants of Gaul were descendants of refugees from sea-invaded -areas. - - [47] It was not necessarily barbarous because metal weapons had - not been invented. - -The gradual sinking of the land and the process of coast erosion -has greatly altered the geography of England. The beach on which -Julius Cæsar landed has long since vanished, the dwellings of the -ancient Azilian and Maglemosian colonists, who reached England in -post-Glacial times, have been sunk below the English Channel. When -Tilbury Docks were being excavated Roman remains were found embedded -in clay several feet below high-water mark. Below several layers of -peat and mud, and immediately under a bank of sand in which were -fragments of decomposed wood, was found the human skeleton known as -"Tilbury man". The land in this area was originally 80 feet above its -present level.[48] But while England was sinking Scotland was rising. -The MacArthur cave at Oban, in which Azilian hunters and fishermen -made their home on the sea-beach, is now about 30 feet above the old -sea-level. - - [48] _Submerged Forests_, p. 120. - -Before Dover Strait had been widened by the gradual sinking of the -land and the process of coast erosion, and before the great islands -had vanished from the southern part of the North Sea, the early -hunters and fishermen could have experienced no great difficulty in -reaching England. It is possible that the Azilian, Tardenoisian, and -Maglemosian peoples had made considerable progress in the art of -navigation. Traces of the Tardenoisian industry have been obtained -in Northern Egypt, along the ancient Libyan coast of North Africa -where a great deal of land has been submerged, and especially at -Tunis, and in Algiers, in Italy, and in England and Scotland, as has -been noted. There were boats on the Mediterranean at a very early -period. The island of Crete was reached long before the introduction -of copper-working by seafarers who visited the island of Melos, and -there obtained obsidian (natural glass) from which sharp implements -were fashioned. Egyptian mariners, who dwelt on the Delta coast, -imported cedar, not only from Lebanon but from Morocco, as has been -found from the evidence afforded by mummies packed with the sawdust -of cedar from the Atlas Mountains.[49] When this trade with Morocco -began it is impossible to say with certainty. Long before 3000 B.C., -however, the Egyptians were building boats that were fitted with -masts and sails. The ancient mariners were active as explorers and -traders before implements of copper came into use. - - [49] _The Cairo Scientific Journal_, Vol. III. No. 32 (May, - 1909), p. 105. - -Here we touch on a very interesting problem. Where were boats first -invented and the art of navigation developed? Rafts and floats -formed by tying together two trees or, as in Egypt, two bundles of -reeds, were in use at a very early period in various countries. In -Babylonia the "kufa", a great floating basket made watertight with -pitch or covered with skins, was an early invention. It was used -as it still is for river ferry boats. But ships were not developed -from "kufas". The dug-out canoe is one of the early prototypes of -the modern ocean-going vessel. It reached this country before the -Neolithic industry was introduced, and during that period when -England was slowly sinking and Scotland was gradually rising. Dug-out -canoes continued to come during the so-called "Neolithic" stage of -culture ere yet the sinking and rising of land had ceased. "That -Neolithic man lived in Scotland during the formation of this beach -(the 45-to 50-foot beach) is proved", wrote the late Professor James -Geikie, "by the frequent occurrence in it of his relics. At Perth, -for example, a dug-out canoe of pine was met with towards the bottom -of the carse clays; and similar finds have frequently been recorded -from the contemporaneous deposits in the valleys of the Forth and the -Clyde."[50] - - [50] _Antiquity of Man in Europe_, p. 274, Edinburgh, 1914. The - term "Neolithic" is here rather vague. It applies to the Azilians - and Maglemosians as well as to later peoples. - -How did early man come to invent the dug-out? Not only did he hollow -out a tree trunk by the laborious process of burning and by chipping -with a flint adze, he dressed the trunk so that his boat could be -balanced on the water. The early shipbuilders had to learn, and did -learn, for themselves, "the values of length and beam, of draught and -sweet lines, of straight keel; with high stem to breast a wave and -high stern to repel a following sea". The fashioning of a sea-worthy, -or even a river-worthy boat, must have been in ancient times as -difficult a task as was the fashioning of the first aeroplane in our -own day. Many problems had to be solved, many experiments had to -be made, and, no doubt, many tragedies took place before the first -safe model-boat was paddled across a river. The early experimenters -may have had shapes of vessels suggested to them by fish and birds, -and especially by the aquatic birds that paddled past them on the -river breast with dignity and ease. But is it probable that the -first experiments were made with trees? Did early man undertake the -laborious task of hewing down tree after tree to shape new models, -until in the end he found on launching the correctly shaped vessel -that its balance was perfect? Or was the dug-out canoe an imitation -of a boat already in existence, just as a modern ship built of -steel or concrete is an imitation of the earlier wooden ships? The -available evidence regarding this important phase of the shipping -problem tends to show that, before the dug-out was invented, boats -were constructed of light material. Ancient Egypt was the earliest -shipbuilding country in the world, and all ancient ships were -modelled on those that traded on the calm waters of the Nile. Yet -Egypt is an almost treeless land. There the earliest boats--broad, -light skiffs--were made by binding together long bundles of the -reeds of papyrus. Ropes were twisted from papyrus as well as from -palm fibre.[51] It would appear that, before dug-outs were made, the -problems of boat construction were solved by those who had invented -papyri skiffs and skin boats. In the case of the latter the skins -were stretched round a framework, sewed together and made watertight -with pitch. We still refer to the "seams" and the "skin" of a boat. - - [51] Breasted, _A History of Egypt_, pp. 96-7. - -The art of boat-building spread far and wide from the area of origin. -Until recently the Chinese were building junks of the same type -as they did four or five hundred years earlier. These junks have -been compared by more than one writer to the deep-sea boats of the -Egyptian Empire period. The Papuans make "dug-outs" and carve eyes -on the prows as did the ancient Egyptians and as do the Maltese, -Chinese, &c., in our own day. Even when only partly hollowed, the -Papuan boats have perfect balance in the water as soon as they are -launched.[52] The Polynesians performed religious ceremonies when -cutting down trees and constructing boats.[53] In their incantations, -&c., the lore of boat-building was enshrined and handed down. The -Polynesian boat was dedicated to the _mo-o_ (dragon-god). We still -retain a relic of an ancient religious ceremony when a bottle of wine -is broken on the bows of a vessel just as it is being launched. - - [52] Wollaston, _Pygmies and Papuans (The Stone Age To-day in - Dutch New Guinea)_, London, 1912, pp. 53 et seq. - - [53] Westervelt, _Legends of Old Honolulu_, pp. 97 _et seq._ - -After the Egyptians were able to secure supplies of cedar wood from -the Atlas Mountains or Lebanon, by drifting rafts of lashed trees -along the coast line, they made dug-out vessels of various shapes, -as can be seen in the tomb pictures of the Old Kingdom period. These -dug-outs were apparently modelled on the earlier papyri and skin -boats. A ship with a square sail spread to the wind is depicted on an -Ancient Egyptian two-handed jar in the British Museum, which is of -pre-dynastic age and may date to anything like 4000 or 5000 B.C. At -that remote period the art of navigation was already well advanced, -no doubt on account of the experience gained on the calm waters of -the Nile. - - [Illustration: (_a_) Sketch of a boat from Victoria Nyanza, after - the drawing in Sir Henry Stanley's _Darkest Africa_. Only the - handles of the oars are shown. In outline the positions of some - of the oarsmen are roughly represented. - - (_b_) Crude drawing of a similar boat carved upon the rocks - in Sweden during the Early Bronze Age, after Montelius. By - comparison with (_a_) it will be seen that the vertical - projections were probably intended to represent the oarsmen. - - The upturned hook-like appendage at the stern is found in ancient - Egyptian and Mediterranean ships, but is absent in the modern - African vessel shown in (_a_). - - These figures are taken from Elliot Smith's _Ancient Mariners_ - (1918).] - -The existence of these boats on the Nile at a time when great -race migrations were in progress may well account for the early -appearance of dug-outs in Northern Europe. One of the Clyde canoes, -found embedded in Clyde silt twenty-five feet above the present -sea-level, was found to have a plug of cork which could only have -come from the area in which cork trees grow--Spain, Southern France, -or Italy.[54] It may have been manned by the Azilians of Spain whose -rock paintings date from the Transition period. Similar striking -evidence of the drift of culture from the Mediterranean area towards -Northern Europe is obtained from some of the rock paintings and -carvings of Sweden. Among the canoes depicted are some with distinct -Mediterranean characteristics. One at Tegneby in Bohuslän bears a -striking resemblance to a boat seen by Sir Henry Stanley on Lake -Victoria Nyanza. It seems undoubted that the designs are of common -origin, although separated not only by centuries but by barriers of -mountain, desert, and sea extending many hundreds of miles. From -the Maglemosian boat the Viking ship was ultimately developed; the -unprogressive Victoria Nyanza boatbuilders continued through the -Ages repeating the design adopted by their remote ancestors. In both -vessels the keel projects forward, and the figure-head is that of -a goat or ram. The northern vessel has the characteristic inward -curving stern of ancient Egyptian ships. As the rock on which it -was carved is situated in a metal-yielding area, the probability is -that this type of vessel is a relic of the visits paid by searchers -for metals in ancient times, who established colonies of dark miners -among the fair Northerners and introduced the elements of southern -culture. - - [54] Lyell, _Antiquity of Man_, p. 48. - -The ancient boats found in Scotland are of a variety of types. One -of those at Glasgow lay, when discovered, nearly vertical, with prow -uppermost as if it had foundered; it had been built "of several -pieces of oak, though without ribs". Another had the remains of an -outrigger attached to it: beside another, which had been partly -hollowed by fire, lay two planks that appear to have been wash-boards -like those on a Sussex dug-out. A Clyde clinker-built boat, eighteen -feet long, had a keel and a base of oak to which ribs had been -attached. An interesting find at Kinaven in Aberdeenshire, several -miles distant from the Ythan, a famous pearling river, was a dug-out -eleven feet long, and about four feet broad. It lay embedded at the -head of a small ravine in five feet of peat which appears to have -been the bed of an ancient lake. Near it were the stumps of big oaks, -apparently of the Upper Forestian period. - -Among the longest of the ancient boats that have been discovered -are one forty-two feet long, with an animal head on the prow, from -Loch Arthur, near Dumfries, one thirty-five long from near the River -Arun in Sussex, one sixty-three feet long excavated near the Rother -in Kent, one forty-eight feet six inches long, found at Brigg, -Lincolnshire, with wooden patches where she had sprung a leak, and -signs of the caulking of cracks and small holes with moss. - -These vessels do not all belong to the same period. The date of the -Brigg boat is, judging from the geological strata, between 1100 and -700 B.C. It would appear that some of the Clyde vessels found at -twenty-five feet above the present sea-level are even older. Beside -one Clyde boat was found an axe of polished green-stone similar to -the axes used by Polynesians and others in shaping dug-outs. This -axe may, however, have been a religious object. To the low bases of -some vessels were fixed ribs on which skins were stretched. These -boats were eminently suitable for rough seas, being more buoyant than -dug-outs. According to Himilco the inhabitants of the OEstrymnides, -the islands "rich in tin and lead", had most sea-worthy skiffs. -"These people do not make pine keels, nor", he says, "do they know -how to fashion them; nor do they make fir barks, but, with wonderful -skill, fashion skiffs with sewn skins. In these hide-bound vessels, -they skim across the ocean." Apparently they were as daring mariners -as the Oregon Islanders of whom Washington Irving has written: - - "It is surprising to see with what fearless unconcern these - savages venture in their light barks upon the roughest and - most tempestuous seas. They seem to ride upon the wave like - sea-fowl. Should a surge throw the canoe upon its side, and - endanger its over turn, those to the windward lean over the - upper gunwale, thrust their paddles deep into the wave, and by - this action not merely regain an equilibrium, but give their - bark a vigorous impulse forward." - -The ancient mariners whose rude vessels have been excavated around -our coasts were the forerunners of the Celtic sea-traders, who, -as the Gaelic evidence shows, had names not only for the North -Sea and the English Channel but also for the Mediterranean Sea. -They cultivated what is known as the "sea sense", and developed -shipbuilding and the art of navigation in accordance with local -needs. When Julius Cæsar came into conflict with the Veneti of -Brittany he tells that their vessels were greatly superior to those -of the Romans. "The bodies of the ships", he says, "were built -entirely of oak, stout enough to withstand any shock or violence.... -Instead of cables for their anchors they used iron chains.... The -encounter of our fleet with these ships was of such a nature that -our fleet excelled in speed alone, and the plying of oars; for -neither could our ships injure theirs with their rams, so great -was their strength, nor was a weapon easily cast up to them owing -to their height.... About 220 of their ships ... sailed forth from -the harbour." In this great allied fleet were vessels from our own -country.[55] - - [55] Cæsar's _Gallic War_, Book III, c. 13-15. - -It must not be imagined that the "sea sense" was cultivated because -man took pleasure in risking the perils of the deep. It was stern -necessity that at the beginning compelled him to venture on long -voyages. After England was cut off from France the peoples who had -adopted the Neolithic industry must have either found it absolutely -necessary to seek refuge in Britain, or were attracted towards it by -reports of prospectors who found it to be suitable for residence and -trade. - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -Neolithic Trade and Industries - - Attractions of Ancient Britain--Romans search for Gold, - Silver, Pearls, &c.--The Lure of Precious Stones and - Metals--Distribution of Ancient British Population--Neolithic - Settlements in Flint-yielding Areas--Trade in - Flint--Settlements on Lias Formation--Implements from - Basic Rocks--Trade in Body-painting Materials--Search for - Pearls--Gold in Britain and Ireland--Agriculture--The Story - of Barley--Neolithic Settlers in Ireland--Scottish Neolithic - Traders--Neolithic Peoples not Wanderers--Trained Neolithic - Craftsmen. - - -The "drift" of peoples into Britain which began in Aurignacian times -continued until the Roman period. There were definite reasons for -early intrusions as there were for the Roman invasion. "Britain -contains to reward the conqueror", Tacitus wrote,[56] "mines of gold -and silver and other metals. The sea produces pearls." According to -Suetonius, who at the end of the first century of our era wrote the -_Lives of the Cæsars_, Julius Cæsar invaded Britain with the desire -to enrich himself with the pearls found on different parts of the -coast. On his return to Rome he presented a corselet of British -pearls to the goddess Venus. He was in need of money to further his -political ambitions. He found what he required elsewhere, however. -After the death of Queen Cleopatra sufficient gold and silver flowed -to Rome from Egypt to reduce the loan rate of interest from 12 to 4 -per cent. Spain likewise contributed its share to enrich the great -predatory state of Rome.[57] - - [56] _Agricola_, Chap. XII. - - [57] Smith, _Roman Empire_. - -Long ages before the Roman period the early peoples entered Britain -in search of pearls, precious stones, and precious metals because -these had a religious value. The Celts of Gaul offered great -quantities of gold to their deities, depositing the precious metals -in their temples and in their sacred lakes. Poseidonius of Apamea -tells that after conquering Gaul "the Romans put up these sacred -lakes to public sale, and many of the purchasers found quantities -of solid silver in them". He also says that gold was similarly -placed in these lakes.[58] Apparently the Celts believed, as did the -Aryo-Indians, that gold was "a form of the gods" and "fire, light, -and immortality", and that it was a "life giver".[59] Personal -ornaments continued to have a religious value until Christian times. - - [58] _Strabo_--IV, c. 1-13. - - [59] _Satapatha-Brahmana_, Pt. V, "Sacred Books of the East", - XLIV, pp. 187, 203, 236. 239, 348-50. - - [Illustration: FLINT LANCE-HEADS FROM IRELAND (British Museum)] - - [Illustration: - - Photo Oxford University Press - - CHIPPED AND POLISHED ARTIFACTS FROM SOUTHERN ENGLAND (British - Museum)] - -As we have seen when dealing with the "Red Man of Paviland", the -earliest ornaments were shells, teeth of wild animals, coloured -stones, ivory, &c. Shells were carried great distances. Then arose -the habit of producing substitutes which were regarded as of great -potency as the originals. The ancient Egyptians made use of gold to -manufacture imitation shells, and before they worked copper they -wore charms of malachite, which is an ore of copper. They probably -used copper first for magical purposes just as they used gold. -Pearls found in shells were regarded as depositories of supernatural -influence, and so were coral and amber (see Chapter XIII). Like -the Aryo-Indians, the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and others -connected precious metals, stones, pearls, &c., with their deities, -and believed that these contained the influence of their deities, -and were therefore "lucky". These and similar beliefs are of great -antiquity in Europe and Asia and North Africa. It would be rash -to assume that they were not known to the ancient mariners who -reached our shores in vessels of Mediterranean type. - -The colonists who were attracted to Britain at various periods -settled in those districts most suitable for their modes of life. -It was necessary that they should obtain an adequate supply of the -materials from which their implements and weapons were manufactured. -The distribution of the population must have been determined by the -resources of the various districts. - -At the present day the population of Britain is most dense in -those areas in which coal and iron are found and where commerce is -concentrated. In ancient times, before metals were used, it must -have been densest in those areas where flint was found--that is, -on the upper chalk formations. If worked flints are discovered in -areas which do not have deposits of flint, the only conclusion that -can be drawn is that the flint was obtained by means of trade, just -as Mediterranean shells were in Aurignacian and Magdalenian times -obtained by hunters who settled in Central Europe. In Devon and -Cornwall, for instance, large numbers of flint implements have been -found, yet in these counties suitable flint was exceedingly scarce -in ancient times, except in East Devon, where, however, the surface -flint is of inferior character. In Wilts and Dorset, however, the -finest quality of flint was found, and it was no doubt from these -areas that the early settlers in Cornwall and Devon received their -chief supplies of the raw material, if not of the manufactured -articles. - -In England, as on the Continent, the most abundant finds of the -earliest flint implements have been made in those areas where the -early hunters and fishermen could obtain their raw materials. River -drift implements are discovered in largest numbers on the chalk -formations of south-eastern England between the Wash and the estuary -of the Thames. - -The Neolithic peoples, who made less use of horn and bone than -did the Azilians and Maglemosians, had many village settlements -on the upper chalk in Dorset and Wiltshire, and especially at -Avebury where there were veritable flint factories, and near the -famous flint mines at Grimes Graves in the vicinity of Weeting -in Norfolk and at Cissbury Camp not far from Worthing in Sussex. -Implements were likewise made of basic rocks, including quartzite, -ironstone, green-stone, hornblende schist, granite, mica-schist, -&c.; while ornaments were made of jet, a hydrocarbon compound -allied to cannel coal, which takes on a fine polish, Kimeridge -shale and ivory. Withal, like the Aurignacians and Magdalenians, -the Neolithic-industry people used body paint, which was made with -pigments of ochre, hæmatite, an ore of iron, and ruddle, an earthy -variety of iron ore. - -In those districts, where the raw materials for stone implements, -ornaments, and body paint were found, traces survive of the -activities of the Neolithic peoples. Their graves of long-barrow type -are found not only in the chalk areas but on the margins of the lias -formations. Hæmatite is found in large quantities in West Cumberland -and north Lancashire and in south-western England, while the chief -source of jet is Whitby in Yorkshire, where it occurs in large -quantities in beds of the Upper Lias shale. - - [Illustration: Map of ENGLAND & WALES] - -Mr. W. J. Perry, of Manchester University, who has devoted special -attention to the study of the distribution of megalithic monuments, -has been drawing attention to the interesting association of these -monuments with geological formations.[60] In the Avebury district stone -circles, dolmens, chambered barrows, long barrows, and Neolithic -settlements are numerous; another group of megalithic monuments occurs -in Oxford on the margin of the lias formation, and at the south-end of -the great iron field extending as far as the Clevelands. According to -the memoir of the geological survey, there are traces of ancient surface -iron-workings in the Middle Lias formation of Oxfordshire, where red and -brown hæmatite were found. Mr. Perry notes that there are megalithic -monuments in the vicinity of all these surface workings, as at Fawler, -Adderbury, Hook Norton, Woodstock, Steeple Aston, and Hanbury. -Apparently the Neolithic peoples were attracted to the lias formatio -because it contains hæmatite, ochre, shale, &c. There are significant -megaliths in the Whitby region where the jet is so plentiful. Amber was -obtained from the east coast of England and from the Baltic. - - [60] _Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical - Society_, 1921. - -The Neolithic peoples appear to have searched for pearls, which are -found in a number of English, Welsh, Scottish, and Irish rivers, and -in the vicinity of most, if not all, of these megaliths occur. Gold -was the first metal worked by man, and it appears to have attracted -some of the early peoples who settled in Britain. The ancient -seafarers who found their way northward may have included searchers -for gold and silver. The latter metal was at one time found in great -abundance in Spain, while gold was at one time fairly plentiful in -south-western England, in North Wales, in various parts of Scotland -and especially in Lanarkshire, and in north-eastern, eastern, and -western Ireland. That there was a "drift" of civilized peoples into -Britain and Ireland during the period of the Neolithic industry is -made evident by the fact that the agricultural mode of life was -introduced. Barley does not grow wild in Europe. The nearest area in -which it grew wild and was earliest cultivated was the delta area of -Egypt, the region from which the earliest vessels set out to explore -the shores of the Mediterranean. It may be that the barley seeds -were carried to Britain not by the overland routes alone to Channel -ports, but also by the seafarers whose boats, like the Glasgow one -with the cork plug, coasted round by Spain and Brittany, and crossed -the Channel to south-western England and thence went northward to -Scotland. As Irish flints and ground axe-heads occur chiefly in -Ulster, it may be that the drift of early Neolithic settlers into -County Antrim, in which gold was also found, was from south-western -Scotland. The Neolithic settlement at Whitepark Bay, five miles from -the Giant's Causeway, was embedded at a considerable depth, showing -that there has been a sinking of the land in this area since the -Neolithic industry was introduced. - -Neolithic remains are widely distributed over Scotland, but these -have not received the intensive study devoted to similar relics in -England. Mr. Ludovic Mann, the Glasgow archæologist, has, however, -compiled interesting data regarding one of the local industries that -bring out the resource and activities of early man. On the island of -Arran is a workable variety of the natural volcanic glass, called -pitch-stone, that of other parts of Scotland and of Ireland being -"too much cracked into small pieces to be of use". It was used by -the Neolithic settlers in Arran for manufacturing arrowheads, and -as it was imported into Bute, Ayrshire, and Wigtownshire, a trade -in this material must have existed. "If", writes Mr. Mann, "the -stone was not locally worked up into implements in Bute, it was so -manipulated on the mainland, where workshops of the Neolithic period -and the immediately succeeding overlap period yielded long fine -flakes, testifying to greater expertness in manufacturing there than -is shown by the remains in the domestic sites yet awaiting adequate -exploration in Arran. The explanation may be that the Wigtownshire -flint knappers, accustomed to handle an abundance of flint, were -more proficient than in most other places, and that the pitch-stone -was brought to them as experts, because the material required even -more skilful handling than flint".[61] In like manner obsidian, as -has been noted, was imported into Crete from the island of Melos by -seafarers, long before the introduction of metal working.[62] - - [61] _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland_, - 1917-18, pp. 149 _et seq._ - - [62] See my _Myths of Crete and pre-Hellenic Europe_ under - "Obsidian" in Index. - -It will be seen that the Neolithic peoples were no mere wandering -hunters, as some have represented them to have been, but they had -their social organization, their industries, and their system of -trading by land and sea. They settled not only in those areas where -they could procure a regular food supply, but those also in which -they obtained the raw materials for implements, weapons, and the -colouring material which they used for religious purposes. They made -pottery for grave offerings and domestic use, and wooden implements -regarding which, however, little is known. Withal, they had their -spinners and weavers. The conditions prevailing in Neolithic -settlements must have been similar to those of later times. There -must have been systems of laws to make trade and peaceful social -intercourse possible, and no doubt these had, as elsewhere, a -religious basis. Burial customs indicate a uniformity of beliefs over -wide areas. The skill displayed in working stone was so great that -it cannot now be emulated. Ripple-flaking has long been a lost art. -Craftsmen must have undergone a prolonged period of training which -was intelligently controlled under settled conditions of life. It is -possible that the so-called Neolithic folk were chiefly foreigners -who exploited the riches of the country. The evidence in this -connection will be found in the next chapter. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -Metal Workers and Megalithic Monuments - - "Broad-heads" of Bronze Age--The Irish Evidence--Bronze - Introduced by Traders--How Metals were Traced--A Metal Working - Tribe--Damnonii in England, Scotland, and Ireland--Miners - as Slaves--The Lot of Women Workers--Megalithic Monuments - in English Metal-yielding Areas--Stone Circles in Barren - Localities--Early Colonies of Easterners in Spain--Egyptian - and Babylonian Relics associated with British Jet and Baltic - Amber--A New Flint Industry of Eastern Origin--British - Bronze identical with Continental--Ancient Furnaces of - Common Origin--"Stones of Worship" adorned with Metals--The - "Maggot God" of Stone Circles--Ancient Egyptian Beads at - Stonehenge--Earliest Authentic Date in British History--The Aim - of Conquests. - - -It used to be thought that the introduction of metal working -into Britain was the result of an invasion of alien peoples, who -partly exterminated and partly enslaved the long-headed Neolithic -inhabitants. This view was based on the evidence afforded by a new -type of grave known as the "Round Barrow". In graves of this class -have been found Bronze Age relics, a distinctive kind of pottery, and -skulls of broad-heads. The invasion of broad-heads undoubtedly took -place, and their burial customs suggest that their religious beliefs -were not identical with those of the long-heads. But it remains to be -proved that they were the actual introducers of the bronze industry. -They do not appear to have reached Ireland, where bronze relics are -associated with a long-headed people of comparatively low stature. - -The early Irish bronze forms were obviously obtained from Spain, -while early English bronze forms resemble those of France and Italy. -Cutting implements were the first to be introduced. This fact does -not suggest that a conquest took place. The implements may have been -obtained by traders. Britain apparently had in those ancient times -its trading colonies, and was visited by active and enterprising -seafarers. - - [Illustration: Long-head (Dolichocephalic) Skull] - - [Illustration: Broad-head (Brachycephalic) Skull Both these - specimens were found in "Round" Barrows in the East Riding of - Yorkshire] - -The discovery of metals in Britain and Ireland was, no doubt, first -made by prospectors who had obtained experience in working them -elsewhere. They may have simply come to exploit the country. How -these men conducted their investigations is indicated by the report -found in a British Museum manuscript, dating from about 1603, in -which the prospector gives his reason for believing that gold was -to be found on Crawford Moor in Lanarkshire. He tells that he saw -among the rocks what Scottish miners call "mothers" and English -miners "leaders" or "metalline fumes". It was believed that the -"fumes" arose from veins of metal and coloured the rocks as smoke -passing upward through a tunnel blackens it, and leaves traces on the -outside. He professed to be able to distinguish between the colours -left by "fumes" of iron, lead, tin, copper, or silver. On Crawford -Moor he found "sparr, keel, and brimstone" between rocks, and -regarded this discovery as a sure indication that gold was _in situ_. -The "mothers" or "leaders" were more pronounced than any he had ever -seen in Cornwall, Somersetshire, about Keswick, or "any other mineral -parts wheresoever I have travelled".[63] Gold was found in this area -of Lanarkshire in considerable quantities, and was no doubt worked -in ancient times. Of special interest in this connection is the fact -that it was part of the territory occupied by Damnonians,[64] who -appear to have been a metal-working people. Besides occupying the -richest metal-yielding area in Scotland, the Damnonians were located -in Devon and Cornwall, and in the east-midland and western parts -of Ireland, in which gold, copper, and tin-stone were found as in -south-western England. The Welsh _Dyfneint_ (Devon) is supposed by -some to be connected with a form of this tribal name. Another form -in a Yarrow inscription is Dumnogeni. In Ireland Inber Domnann is -the old name of Malahide Bay north of Dublin. Domnu, the genitive of -which is Domnann, was the name of an ancient goddess. In the Irish -manuscripts these people are referred to as Fir-domnann,[65] and -associated with the Fir-bolg (the men with sacks). A sack-carrying -people are represented in Spanish rock paintings that date from -the Azilian till early "Bronze Age" times. In an Irish manuscript -which praises the fair and tall people, the Fir-bolg and Fir-domnann -are included among the black-eyed and black-haired people, the -descendants of slaves and churls, and "the promoters of discord among -the people". - - [63] R. W. Cochrane Patrick, _Early Records relating to Mining in - Scotland_. Edinburgh, 1878, p. xxviii. - - [64] The _Damnonii_ or _Dumnonii_. - - [65] The Fir-domnann were known as "the men who used to deepen - the earth", or "dig pits". Professor J. MacNeil in _Labor - Gabula_, p. 119. They were thus called "Diggers" like the modern - Australians. The name of the goddess referred to the depths (the - Underworld). It is probable she was the personification of the - metal-yielding earth. - -The reference to "slaves" is of special interest because the lot of -the working miners was in ancient days an extremely arduous one. -In one of his collected records which describes the method "of the -greatest antiquity" Diodorus Siculus (A.D. first century) tells how -gold-miners, with lights bound on their foreheads, drove galleries -into the rocks, the fragments of which were carried out by frail -old men and boys. These were broken small by men in the prime of -life. The pounded stone was then ground in handmills by women: three -women to a mill and "to each of those who bear this lot, death is -better than life". Afterwards the milled quartz was spread out on an -inclined table. Men threw water on it, work it through their fingers, -and dabbed it with sponges until the lighter matter was removed and -the gold was left behind. The precious metal was placed in a clay -crucible, which was kept heated for five days and five nights. It may -be that the Scandinavian references to the nine maidens who turn the -handle of the "world mill" which grinds out metal and soil, and the -Celtic references to the nine maidens who are associated with the -Celtic cauldron, survive from beliefs that reflected the habits and -methods of the ancient metal workers. - -It is difficult now to trace the various areas in which gold was -anciently found in our islands. But this is not to be wondered at. -In Egypt there were once rich goldfields, especially in the Eastern -Desert, where about 100 square miles were so thoroughly worked in -ancient times that "only the merest traces of gold remain".[66] Gold, -as has been stated, was formerly found in south-western England, -North Wales, and, as historical records, archæological data, and -place names indicate, in various parts of Scotland and Ireland. -During the period of the "Great Thaw" a great deal of alluvial gold -must have distributed throughout the country. Silver was found -in various parts. In Sutherland it is mixed with gold as it is -elsewhere with lead. Copper was worked in a number of districts -where the veins cannot in modern times be economically worked, and -tin was found in Ireland and Scotland as well as in south-western -England, where mining operations do not seem to have been begun, as -Principal Sir John Rhys has shown,[67] until after the supplies of -surface tin were exhausted. Of special interest in connection with -this problem is the association of megalithic monuments with ancient -mine workings. An interesting fact to be borne in mind in connection -with these relics of the activities and beliefs of the early peoples -is that they represent a distinct culture of complex character. -Mr. T. Eric Peet[68] shows that the megalithic buildings "occupy a -very remarkable position along a vast seaboard which includes the -Mediterranean coast of Africa and the Atlantic coast of Europe. -In other words, they lie entirely along a natural sea route." He -gives forcible reasons for arriving at the conclusion that "it is -impossible to consider megalithic building as a mere phase through -which many nations passed, and it must therefore have been a system -originating with one race, and spreading far and wide, owing either -to trade influence or migration". He adds: - - "Great movements of races by sea were not by any means unusual - in primitive days. In fact, the sea has always been less of - an obstacle to early man than the land with its deserts, - mountains, and unfordable rivers. There is nothing inherently - impossible or even improbable in the suggestion that a great - immigration brought the megalithic monuments from Sweden to - India or vice versa. History is full of instances of such - migrations." - - [66] Alford, _A Report on Ancient and Prospective Gold Mining in - Egypt_, 1900, and _Mining in Egypt_ (by Egyptologist). - - [67] _Celtic Britain_, pp. 44 _et seq._ (4th edition). - - [68] _Rough Stone Monuments_, London, 1912, pp. 147-8. - -But there must have been a definite reason for these race movements. -It cannot be that in all cases they were forced merely by natural -causes, such as changes of climate, invasions of the sea, and -the drying up of once fertile districts, or by the propelling -influences of stronger races in every country from the British Isles -to Japan--that is, in all countries in which megalithic monuments -of similar type are found. The fact that the megalithic monuments -are distributed along "a vast seaboard" suggests that they were -the work of people who had acquired a culture of common origin, -and were attracted to different countries for the same reason. -What that attraction was is indicated by studying the elements of -the megalithic culture. In a lecture delivered before the British -Association in Manchester in 1915, Mr. W. J. Perry threw much light -on the problem by showing that the carriers of the culture practised -weaving linen, and in some cases the use of Tyrian purple, pearls, -precious stones, metals, and conch-shell trumpets, as well as curious -beliefs and superstitions attached to the latter, while they -"adopted certain definite metallurgical methods, as well as mining". -Mr. Perry's paper was subsequently published by the Manchester -Literary and Philosophical Society. It shows that in Western Europe -the megalithic monuments are distributed in those areas in which -ancient pre-Roman and pre-Greek mine workings and metal washings have -been traced. "The same correspondence", he writes, "seems to hold in -the case of England and Wales. In the latter country the counties -where megalithic structures abound are precisely those where mineral -deposits and ancient mine-workings occur. In England the grouping in -Cumberland, Westmorland, Northumberland, Durham, and Derbyshire is -precisely that of old mines; in Cornwall the megalithic structures -are mainly grouped west of Falmouth, precisely in that district where -mining has always been most active." - -Pearls, amber, coral, jet, &c., were searched for as well as metals. -The megalithic monuments near pearling rivers, in the vicinity of -Whitby, the main source of jet, and in Denmark and the Baltic area -where amber was found were, in all likelihood, erected by people who -had come under the spell of the same ancient culture. - -When, therefore, we come to deal with groups of monuments in areas -which were unsuitable for agriculture and unable to sustain large -populations, a reasonable conclusion to draw is that precious metals, -precious stones, or pearls were once found near them. The pearling -beds may have been destroyed or greatly reduced in value,[69] or the -metals may have been worked out, leaving but slight if any indication -that they were ever _in situ_. Reference has been made to the traces -left by ancient miners in Egypt where no gold is now found. In -our own day rich gold fields in Australia and North America have -been exhausted. It would be unreasonable for us to suppose that the -same thing did not happen in our country, even although but slight -traces of the precious metal can now be obtained in areas which were -thoroughly explored by ancient miners. - - [69] The Scottish pearling beds have suffered great injury in - historic times. They are the property of the "Crown", and no one - takes any interest in them except the "pearl poachers". - -When early man reached Scotland in search of suitable districts in -which to settle, he was not likely to be attracted by the barren -or semi-barren areas in which nature grudged soil for cultivation, -where pasture lands were poor and the coasts were lashed by great -billows for the greater part of the year, and the tempests of winter -and spring were particularly severe. Yet in such places as Carloway, -fronting the Atlantic on the west coast of Lewis, and at Stennis -in Orkney, across the dangerous Pentland Firth, are found the most -imposing stone circles north of Stonehenge and Avebury. Traces of -tin have been found in Lewis, and Orkney has yielded traces of lead, -including silver-lead, copper and zinc, and has flint in glacial -drift. Traces of tin have likewise been found on the mainlands of -Ross-shire and Argyllshire, in various islands of the Hebrides and -in Stirlingshire. The great Stonehenge circle is like the Callernish -and Stennis circles situated in a semi-barren area, but it is an area -where surface tin and gold were anciently obtained. One cannot help -concluding that the early people, who populated the wastes of ancient -Britain and erected megalithic monuments, were attracted by something -more tangible than the charms of solitude and wild scenery. They -searched for and found the things they required. If they found gold, -it must be recognized that there was a psychological motive for the -search for this precious metal. They valued gold, or whatever other -metal they worked in bleak and isolated places, because they had -learned to value it elsewhere. - -Who were the people that first searched for, found, and used metals -in Western Europe? Some have assumed that the natives themselves did -so "as a matter of course". Such a theory is, however, difficult to -maintain. Gold is a useless metal for all practical purposes. It is -too soft for implements. Besides, it cannot be found or worked except -by those who have acquired a great deal of knowledge and skill. The -men who first "washed" it from the soil in Britain must have obtained -the necessary knowledge and skill in a country where it was more -plentiful and much easier to work, and where--and this point is a -most important one--the magical and religious beliefs connected with -gold have a very definite history. Copper, tin, and silver were even -more difficult to find and work in Britain. The ancient people who -reached Britain and first worked metals or collected ores were not -the people who were accustomed to use implements of bone, horn, and -flint, and had been attracted to its shores merely because fish, -fowl, deer, and cows, were numerous. The searchers for metals must -have come from centres of Eastern civilization, or from colonies of -highly skilled peoples that had been established in Western Europe. -They did not necessarily come to settle permanently in Britain, but -rather to exploit its natural riches. - -This conclusion is no mere hypothesis. Siret,[70] the Belgian -archæologist, has discovered in southern Spain and Portugal traces -of numerous settlements of Easterners who searched for minerals, -&c., long before the introduction of bronze working in Western -Europe. They came during the archæological "Stone Age"; they even -introduced some of the flint implements classed as Neolithic by the -archæologists of a past generation. - - [70] _L'Anthropologie_, 1921, contains a long account of his - discoveries. - -These Eastern colonists do not appear to have been an organized -people. Siret considers that they were merely groups of people -from Asia--probably the Syrian coast--who were in contact with -Egypt. During the Empire period of Egypt, the Egyptian sphere of -influence extended to the borders of Asia Minor. At an earlier period -Babylonian influence permeated the Syrian coast and part of Asia -Minor. The religious beliefs of seafarers from Syria were likely -therefore to bear traces of the Egyptian and Babylonian religious -systems. Evidence that this was the case has been forthcoming in -Spain. - -These Eastern colonists not only operated in Spain and Portugal, but -established contact with Northern Europe. They exported what they -had searched for and found to their Eastern markets. No doubt, they -employed native labour, but they do not appear to have instructed the -natives how to make use of the ores they themselves valued so highly. -In time they were expelled from Spain and Portugal by the people or -mixed peoples who introduced the working of bronze and made use of -bronze weapons. These bronze carriers and workers came from Central -Europe, where colonies of peoples skilled in the arts of mining and -metal working had been established. In the Central European colonies -Ægean and Danubian influences have been detected. - - [Illustration: - - Valentine - - THE RING OF STENNIS, ORKNEY (see page 94)] - -Among the archæological finds, which prove that the Easterners -settled in Iberia before bronze working was introduced among the -natives, are idol-like objects made of hippopotamus ivory from Egypt, -a shell (_Dentalium elephantum_) from the Red Sea, objects made from -ostrich eggs which must have been carried to Spain from Africa, -alabaster perfume flasks, cups of marble and alabaster of Egyptian -character which had been shaped with copper implements, Oriental -painted vases with decorations in red, black, blue, and green,[71] -mural paintings on layers of plaster, feminine statuettes in -alabaster which Siret considers to be of Babylonian type, for they -differ from Ægean and Egyptian statuettes, a cult object (found in -graves) resembling the Egyptian _ded_ amulet, &c. The Iberian burial -places of these Eastern colonists have arched cupolas and entrance -corridors of Egyptian-Mycenæan character. - - [71] The colours blue and green were obtained from copper. - -Of special interest are the beautifully worked flints associated with -these Eastern remains in Spain and Portugal. Siret draws attention -to the fact that no trace has been found of "flint factories". This -particular flint industry was an entirely new one. It was not a -development of earlier flint-working in Iberia. Apparently the new -industry, which suddenly appears in full perfection, was introduced -by the Eastern colonists. It afterwards spread over the whole -maritime west, including Scandinavia where the metal implements -of more advanced countries were imitated in flint. This important -fact emphasizes the need for caution in making use of such a term -as "Neolithic Age". Siret's view in this connection is that the -Easterners, who established trading colonies in Spain and elsewhere, -prevented the local use of metals which they had come to search -for and export. It was part of their policy to keep the natives in -ignorance of the uses to which metals could be put. - -Evidence has been forthcoming that the operations of the Eastern -colonies in Spain and Portugal were extended towards the maritime -north. Associated with the Oriential relics already referred to, -Siret has discovered amber from the Baltic, jet from Britain -(apparently from Whitby in Yorkshire) and the green-stone called -"callais" usually found in beds of tin. The Eastern seafarers -must have visited Northern Europe to exploit its virgin riches. A -green-stone axe was found, as has been stated, near the boat with the -cork plug, which lay embedded in Clyde silt at Glasgow. Artifacts of -callais have been discovered in Brittany, in the south of France, in -Portugal, and in south-eastern Spain. In the latter area, as Siret -has proved, the Easterners worked silver-bearing lead and copper. - -The colonists appear to have likewise searched for and found gold. A -diadem of gold was discovered in a necropolis in the south of Spain, -where some eminent ancient had been interred. This find is, however, -an exception. Precious metals do not as a rule appear in the graves -of the period under consideration. - -As has been suggested, the Easterners who exploited the wealth of -ancient Iberia kept the natives in ignorance. "This ignorance", Siret -says, "was the guarantee of the prosperity of the commerce carried -on by the strangers.... The first action of the East on the West -was the exploitation for its exclusive and personal profit of the -virgin riches of the latter." These early Westerners had no idea of -the use and value of the metals lying on the surface of their native -land, while the Orientals valued them, were in need of them, and were -anxious to obtain them. As Siret puts it: - - "The West was a cow to be milked, a sheep to be fleeced, a - field to be cultivated, a mine to be exploited." - -In the traditions preserved by classical writers, there are -references to the skill and cunning of the Phoenicians in commerce, -and in the exploitation of colonies founded among the ignorant -Iberians. They did not inform rival traders where they found metals. -"Formerly", as Strabo says, "the Phoenicians monopolized the trade -from Gades (Cadiz) with the islanders (of the Cassiterides); and -they kept the route a close secret." A vague ancient tradition is -preserved by Pliny, who tells that "tin was first fetched from -Cassiteris (the tin island) by Midacritus".[72] We owe it to the -secretive Phoenicians that the problem of the Cassiterides still -remains a difficult one to solve. - - [72] _Nat. Hist._, VII, 56 (57), § 197. - -To keep the native people ignorant the Easterners, Siret believes, -forbade the use of metals in their own colonies. A direct result -of this policy was the great development which took place in the -manufacture of the beautiful flint implements already referred to. -These the natives imitated, never dreaming that they were imitating -some forms that had been developed by a people who used copper in -their own country. When, therefore, we pick up beautiful Neolithic -flints, we cannot be too sure that the skill displayed belongs -entirely to the "Stone Age", or that the flints "evolved" from -earlier native forms in those areas in which they are found. - -The Easterners do not appear to have extracted the metals from -their ores either in Iberia or in Northern Europe. Tin-stone and -silver-bearing lead were used for ballast for their ships, and they -made anchors of lead. Gold washed from river beds could be easily -packed in small bulk. A people who lived by hunting and fishing were -not likely to be greatly interested in the laborious process of -gold-washing. Nor were they likely to attach to gold a magical and -religious value as did the ancient Egyptians and Sumerians. - -So far as can be gathered from the Iberian evidence, the period of -exploitation by the colonists from the East was a somewhat prolonged -one. How many centuries it covered we can only guess. It is of -interest to find, in this connection, however, that something was -known in Mesopotamia before 2000 B.C. regarding the natural riches -of Western Europe. Tablets have recently been found on the site -of Asshur, the ancient capital of Assyria, which was originally a -Sumerian settlement. These make reference to the Empire of Sargon of -Akkad (_c._ 2600 B.C.), which, according to tradition, extended from -the Persian Gulf to the Syrian coast. Sargon was a great conqueror. -"He poured out his glory over the world", declares a tablet found a -good many years ago. It was believed, too, that Sargon embarked on -the Mediterranean and occupied Cyprus. The fresh evidence from the -site of Asshur is to the effect that he conquered Kaptara (? Crete) -and "the Tin Land beyond the Upper Sea" (the Mediterranean). The -explanation may be that he obtained control of the markets to which -the Easterners carried from Spain and the coasts of Northern Europe -the ores, pearls, &c., they had searched for and found. It may -be, therefore, that Britain was visited by Easterners even before -Sargon's time, and that the Glasgow boat with the plug of cork was -manned by dark Orientals who were prospecting the Scottish coast -before the last land movement had ceased--that is, some time after -3000 B.C. - - [Illustration: MEGALITHS - - Upper: Kit's Coty House, Kent. Lower: Trethevy Stone, Cornwall.] - -When the Easterners were expelled from Spain by a people from -Central Europe who used weapons of bronze, some of them appear to -have found refuge in Gaul. Siret is of opinion that others withdrew -from Brittany, where subsidences were taking place along the -coast, leaving their megalithic monuments below high-water mark, -and even under several feet of water as at Morbraz. He thinks that -the settlements of Easterners in Brittany were invaded at one and -the same time by the enemy and the ocean. Other refugees from the -colonies may have settled in Etruria, and founded the Etruscan -civilization. Etruscan menhirs resemble those of the south of France, -while the Etruscan crozier or wand, used in the art of augury, -resembles the croziers of the megaliths, &c., of France, Spain, -and Portugal. There are references in Scottish Gaelic stories -to "magic wands" possessed by "wise women", and by the mothers -of Cyclopean one-eyed giants. Ammianus Marcellinus, quoting -Timagenes,[73] attributes to the Druids the statement that part of the -inhabitants of Gaul were indigenous, but that some had come from the -farthest shores and districts across the Rhine, "having been expelled -from their own lands by frequent wars and the encroachments of the -ocean". - - [73] Timagenes (_c._ 85-5 B.C.), an Alexandrian historian, - wrote a history of the Gauls which was made use of by Ammianus - Marcellinus (A.D. fourth century), a Greek of Antioch, and the - author of a history of the Roman Emperors. - -The bronze-using peoples who established overland trade routes in -Europe, displacing in some localities the colonies of Easterners and -isolating others, must have instructed the natives of Western Europe -how to mine and use metals. Bronze appears to have been introduced -into Britain by traders. That the ancient Britons did not begin -quite spontaneously to work copper and tin and manufacture bronze -is quite evident, because the earliest specimens of British bronze -which have been found are made of ninety per cent of copper and ten -per cent of tin as on the Continent. "Now, since a knowledge of the -compound", wrote Dr. Robert Munro, "implies a previous acquaintance -with its component elements, it follows that progress in metallurgy -had already reached the stage of knowing the best combination of -these metals for the manufacture of cutting tools before bronze was -practically known in Britain."[74] - - [74] _Prehistoric Britain_, p. 145. - -The furnaces used were not invented in Britain. Professor Gowland -has shown that in Europe and Asia the system of working mines -and melting metals was identical in ancient times. Summarizing -Professor Gowland's articles in _Archæologia_ and the _Journal of -the Royal Anthropological Institute_, Mr. W. J. Perry writes in this -connection:[75] "The furnaces employed were similar; the crucibles -were of the same material, and generally of the same form; the -process of smelting, first on the surface and then in the crucibles -was found everywhere, even persisting down to present times in the -absence of any fresh cultural influence. The study of the technique -of mining and smelting has served to consolidate the floating -mass of facts which we have accumulated, and to add support for -the contention that one cultural influence is responsible for the -earliest mining and smelting and washing of metals and the getting -of precious stones and metals. The cause of the distribution of the -megalithic culture was the search for certain forms of material -wealth." - - [75] _The Relationship between the Geographical Distribution of - Megalithic Monuments and Ancient Mines_, pp. 21 _et seq._ - -That certain of the megalithic monuments were intimately connected -with the people who attached a religious value to metals is brought -out very forcibly in the references to pagan customs and beliefs -in early Christian Gaelic literature. There are statements in the -Lives of St. Patrick regarding a pagan god called "Cenn Cruach" and -"Crom Cruach" whose stone statue was "adorned with gold and silver, -and surrounded by twelve other statues with bronze ornaments". The -"statue" is called "the king idol of Erin", and it is stated that -"the twelve idols were made of stone, but he ('Crom Cruach') was of -gold". To this god of a stone circle were offered up "the firstlings -of every issue and the chief scions of every clan". Another idol was -called Crom Dubh ("Black Crom"), and his name "is still connected", -O'Curry has written, "with the first Sunday of August in Munster -and Connaught". An Ulster idol was called Crom Chonnaill, which -was either a living animal or a tree, or was "believed to have -been such", O'Curry says. De Jubainville translates _Cenn Cruach_ -as "Bloody Head" and _Crom Cruach_ as "Bloody Curb" or "Bloody -Crescent". O'Curry, on the other hand, translates _Crom Cruach_ -as "Bloody Maggot" and _Crom Dubh_ as "Black Maggot". In Gaelic -legends "maggots" or "worms" are referred to as forms of supernatural -beings. The maggot which appeared on the flesh of a slain animal was -apparently regarded as a new form assumed by the indestructible -soul, just as in the Egyptian story of Bata the germ of life passes -from his bull form in a drop of blood from which two trees spring -up, and then in a chip from one of the trees from which the man -is restored in his original form.[76] A similar belief, which is -widespread, is that bees have their origin as maggots placed in -trees. One form of the story was taken over by the early Christians, -which tells that Jesus was travelling with Peter and Paul and asked -hospitality from an old woman. The woman refused it and struck Paul -on the head. When the wound putrified maggots were produced. Jesus -took the maggots from the wound and placed them in the hollow of a -tree. When next they passed that way, "Jesus directed Paul to look -in the tree hollow where, to his surprise, he found bees and honey -sprung from his own head".[77] The custom of placing crape on hives -and "telling the bees" when a death takes place, which still survives -in the south of England and in the north of Scotland, appears to be -connected with the ancient belief that the maggot, bee, and tree were -connected with the sacred animal and the sacred stone in which was -the spirit of a deity. Sacred trees and sacred stones were intimately -connected. Tacitus tells us that the Romans invaded Mona (Anglesea), -they destroyed the sacred groves in which the Druids and black-robed -priestesses covered the altars with the blood of captives.[78] -There are a number of dolmens on this island and traces of ancient -mine-workings, indicating that it had been occupied by the early -seafarers who colonized Britain and Ireland and worked metals. A -connection between the tree cult of the Druids and the cult of the -builders of megaliths is thus suggested by Tacitus, as well as by -the Irish evidence regarding the Ulster idol Crom Chonnaill, referred -to above (see also Chapter XII). - - [76] A worm crept from the heart of a dead Phoenix, and gave - origin to a new Phoenix.--_Herodotus_, II, 73. - - [77] Rendel Harris, _The Ascent of Olympus_, p. 2. - - [78] _Annals of Tacitus_, Book XIV, Chapter 29-30. - -Who were the people that followed the earliest Easterners and visited -our shores to search like them for metals and erect megalithic -monuments? It is impossible to answer that question with certainty. -There were after the introduction of bronze working, as has been -indicated, intrusions of aliens. These included the introducers of -the short-barrow method of burial and the later introducers of burial -by cremation. It does not follow that all intrusions were those of -conquerors. Traders and artisans may have come with their families in -large numbers and mingled with the earlier peoples. Some intruders -appear to have come by overland routes from southern and central -France and from Central Europe and the Danube valley, while others -came across the sea from Spain. That a regular over-seas trade-route -was in existence is indicated by the references made by classical -writers to the Cassiterides (Tin Islands). Strabo tells that the -natives "bartered tin and hides with merchants for pottery, salt, and -articles of bronze". The Phoenicians, as has been noted, "monopolized -the trade from Gades (Cadiz) with the islanders and kept the route -a close secret". It was probably along this sea-route that Egyptian -blue beads reached Britain. Professor Sayce has identified a number -of these in Devizes Museum, and writes: - - "They are met with plentifully in the Early Bronze Age tumuli - of Wiltshire in association with amber beads and barrel-shaped - beads of jet or lignite. Three of them come from Stonehenge - itself. Similar beads of ivory have been found in a Bronze Age - cist near Warminster: if the material is really ivory it must - have been derived from the East. The cylindrical faience beads, - it may be added, have been discovered in Dorsetshire as well as - in Wiltshire." - -Professor Sayce emphasizes that these blue beads "belong to one -particular period in Egyptian history, the latter part of the -Eighteenth Dynasty and the earlier part of the Nineteenth Dynasty.... -The period to which they belong may be dated 1450-1250 B.C., and as -we must allow some time for their passage across the trade routes -to Wiltshire an approximate date for their presence in the British -barrows will be 1300 B.C." - - [Illustration: Beads from Bronze Age Barrows on Salisbury Plain - - The large central bead and the small round ones are of amber; the - long plain ones are of jet; and the long segmented or notched - beads are of an opaque blue substance (faience).] - -Dr. H. R. Hall, of the British Museum, who discovered, at Deir -el-Bahari in Egypt, "thousands of blue glaze beads of the exact -particular type of those found in Britain", says that they date back -till "about 1500 B.C.". He noted the resemblance before Professor -Sayce had written. "It is gratifying", he comments, "that the -Professor agrees that the Devizes beads are undoubtedly Egyptian, as -an important voice is thereby added to the consensus of opinion on -the subject." Similar beads have been found in the "Middle Bronze Age -in Crete and in Western Europe". Dr. Hall thinks the Egyptian beads -may have reached Britain as early as "about 1400 B.C.".[79] We have -thus provided for us an early date in British history, based on the -well authenticated chronology of the Empire period of Ancient Egypt. -Easterners, or traders in touch with Easterners, reached our shores -carrying Egyptian beads shortly before or early in the fourteenth -century B.C. At this time amber was being imported into the south of -England from the Baltic, while jet was being carried from Whitby in -Yorkshire. - - [79] The _Journal of Egyptian Archæology_, Vol. I, part I, pp. - 18-19. - -After the introduction of bronze working in Western Europe the -natives began to work and use metals. These could not have been -Celts, for in the fourteenth century B.C. the Celts had not yet -reached Western Europe.[80] The earliest searchers for metals who -visited Britain must therefore have been the congeners of those who -erected the megalithic monuments in the metal-yielding areas of Spain -and Portugal and north-western France. - - [80] It may be that Celtic chronology will have to be readjusted - in the light of recent discoveries. - -It would appear that the early Easterners exploited the virgin riches -of Western Europe for a long period--perhaps for over a thousand -years--and that, after their Spanish colonies were broken up by a -bronze-using people from Central Europe, the knowledge of how to -work metals spread among the natives. Overland trade routes were -then opened up. At first these were controlled in Western Europe by -the Iberians. In time the Celts swept westward and formed with the -natives mixed communities of Celtiberians. The Easterners appear to -have inaugurated a new era in Western European commerce after the -introduction of iron working. They had colonies in the south and -west of Europe and on the North African coast, and obtained supplies -of metals, &c., by sea. They kept the sea-routes secret. British -ores, &c., were carried to Spain and Carthage. After Pytheas visited -Britain (see next chapter) the overland trade-route to Marseilles was -opened up. Supplies of surface tin having become exhausted, tin-mines -were opened in Cornwall. The trade of Britain then came under the -control of Celtiberian and Celtic peoples, who had acquired their -knowledge of shipbuilding and navigation from the Easterners and the -mixed descendants of Eastern and Iberian peoples. - -It does not follow that the early and later Easterners were all of -one physical type. They, no doubt, brought with them their slaves, -including miners and seamen, drawn from various countries where they -had been purchased or abducted. - -The men who controlled the ancient trade were not necessarily -permanent settlers in Western Europe. When the carriers of bronze -from Central Europe obtained control of the Iberian colonies, many -traders may have fled to other countries, but many colonists, and -especially the workers, may have become the slaves of the intruders, -as did the Fir-bolgs of Ireland who were subdued by the Celts. -The Damnonians of Britain and Ireland who occupied mineral areas -may have been a "wave" of early Celtic or Celtiberian people. -Ultimately the Celts came, as did the later Normans, and formed -military aristocracies over peoples of mixed descent. The idea -that each intrusion involved the extermination of earlier peoples -is a theory which does not accord with the evidence of the ancient -Gaelic manuscripts, of classical writers, of folk tradition, and of -existing race types in different areas in Britain and Ireland. - -A people who exterminated those they conquered would have robbed -themselves of the chief fruits of conquest. In ancient as in later -times the aim of conquest was to obtain the services of a subject -people and the control of trade. - - - - -CHAPTER X - -Celts and Iberians as Intruders and Traders - - Few Invasions in 1000 Years--Broad-heads--The Cremating - People--A New Religion--Celtic People in Britain--The - Continental Celts--Were Celts Dark or Fair?--Fair Types in - Britain and Ireland--Celts as Pork Traders--The Ancient - Tin Trade--Early Explorers--Pytheas and Himilco--The - Cassiterides--Tin Mines and Surface Tin--Cornish Tin--Metals in - Hebrides and Ireland--Lead in Orkney--Dark People in Hebrides - and Orkney--Celtic Art--Homeric Civilization in Britain and - Ireland--Why Romans were Conquerors. - - -The beginnings of the Bronze and Iron Ages in Britain are, according -to the chronology favoured by archæologists, separated by about a -thousand years. During this long period only two or three invasions -appear to have taken place, but it is uncertain, as has been -indicated, whether these came as sudden outbursts from the Continent -or were simply gradual and peaceful infiltrations of traders and -settlers. We really know nothing about the broad-headed people who -introduced the round-barrow system of burial, or of the people who -cremated their dead. The latter became predominant in south-western -England and part of Wales. In the north of England the cremating -people were less numerous. If they were conquerors they may have, -as has been suggested, represented military aristocracies. It may -be, however, on the other hand, that the cremation custom had in -some areas more a religious than a racial significance. The beliefs -associated with cremation of the dead may have spread farther than -the people who introduced the new religion. It would appear that the -habit of burning the dead was an expression of the beliefs that souls -were transported by means of fire to the Otherworld paradise. As much -is indicated by Greek evidence. Homer's heroes burned their dead, -and when the ghost of Patroklos appeared to his friend Achilles in a -dream, he said: "Thou sleepest, and hast forgotten me, O Achilles. -Not in my life wast thou unmindful of me, but in my death. Bury me -with all speed, that I may pass the gates of Hades. Far off the -spirits banish me, the phantoms of men outworn, nor suffer me to -mingle with them beyond the River, but vainly I wander along the -wide-gated dwelling of Hades. Now give me, I pray pitifully of thee, -thy hand, for never more again shall I come back from Hades, when ye -have given me my due of fire."[81] The Arab traveller Ibn Haukal, who -describes a tenth-century cremation ceremony at Kieff, was addressed -by a Russ, who said: "As for you Arabs you are mad, for those who -are the most dear to you, and whom you honour most, you place in the -ground, where they will become a prey to worms, whereas with us they -are burned in an instant and go straight to Paradise."[82] - - [81] _Iliad_, XXIII, 75 (Lang, Leaf, and Myers' translation, p. - 452). - - [82] _The Mythology of the Eddas_, pp. 538-9 (_Transactions of - the Royal Society of Literature_, second series, Vol. XII). - -The cremating people, who swept into Greece and became the over-lords -of the earlier settlers, were represented in the western movement of -tribes towards Gaul and Britain. It is uncertain where the cremation -custom had origin. Apparently it entered Europe from Asia. The Vedic -Aryans who invaded Northern India worshipped the fire-god Agni, who -was believed to carry souls to Paradise; they cremated their dead and -combined with it the practice of _suttee_, that is, of burning the -widows of the dead. In Gaul, however, as we gather from Julius Cæsar, -only those widows suspected of being concerned in the death of their -husbands were burned. The Norsemen, however, were acquainted with -_suttee_. In one of the Volsung lays Brynhild rides towards the pyre -on which Sigurd is being burned, and casts herself into the flames. -The Russians strangled and burned widows when great men were cremated. - -The cremating people erected megalithic monuments, some of which -cover their graves in Britain and elsewhere. - -In some districts the intruders of the Bronze Age were the earliest -settlers. The evidence of the graves in Buchan, Aberdeenshire, for -instance, shows that the broad-heads colonized that area. It may be -that, like the later Norsemen, bands of people sought for new homes -in countries where the struggle for existence would be less arduous -than in their own, which suffered from over population, and did not -land at points where resistance was offered to them. Agriculturists -would, no doubt, select areas suitable for their mode of life and -favour river valleys, while seafarers and fishermen would cling to -the coasts. The tendency of fishermen and agriculturists to live -apart in separate communities has persisted till our own time. There -are fishing villages along the east coast of Scotland the inhabitants -of which rarely intermarry with those who draw their means of -sustenance from the land. - -During the Bronze Age Celtic peoples were filtering into Britain from -Gaul. They appear to have come originally from the Danube area as -conquerors who imposed their rule on the people they subjected. Like -the Achæans who overran Greece they seem to have originally been a -vigorous pastoral people who had herds of pigs, were "horse-tamers", -used chariots, and were fierce and impetuous in battle. In time -they crossed the Rhine and occupied Gaul. They overcame the -Etruscans. In 390 B.C. they sacked Rome. Their invasion of Greece -occurred in the third century, but their attempt to reach Delphi was -frustrated. Crossing into Asia Minor they secured a footing in the -area subsequently known as Galatia, and their descendants there were -addressed in an epistle by St. Paul. - -Like the Achæans, the Celts appear to have absorbed the culture of -the Ægean area and that of the Ægean colony at Hallstatt in Austria. -They were withal the "carriers" of the La Tène Iron Age culture to -Britain and Ireland. The potter's wheel was introduced by them into -Britain during the archæological early Iron Age. It is possible that -the cremating people of the Bronze Age were a Celtic people. But -later "waves" of the fighting charioteers did not cremate their dead. - -Sharp difference of opinion exists between scholars regarding -the Celts. Some identify them with the dark-haired, broad-headed -Armenoids, and others with the tall and fair long-headed people -of Northern Europe. It is possible that the Celts were not a pure -race, but rather a confederacy of peoples who were influenced at -different periods by different cultures. That some sections were -confederacies or small nations of blended people is made evident by -classic references to the Celtiberians, the Celto-Scythians, the -Celto-Ligyes, the Celto-Thracians, and the Celtillyrians. On reaching -Britain they mingled with the earlier settlers, forming military -aristocracies, and dominating large areas. The fair Caledonians -of Scotland had a Celtic tribal name, and used chariots in battle -like the Continental Celts. Two Caledonian personal names are -known--Calgacus ("swordsman") and Argentocoxus ("white foot"). In -Ireland the predominant tribes before and during the early Roman -period were of similar type. Queen Meave of Connaught was like -Queen Boadicea[83] of the Iceni, a fair-haired woman who rode to -battle in a chariot. - - [83] _Boudicca_ was her real name. - - [Illustration: Weapons and Religious Objects (British Museum) - - Bronze socketed celts, bronze dagger, sword and spear-heads from - Thames; two bronze boars with "sun-disc" ears, which were worn - on armour; bronze "sun-disc" from Ireland; "chalk drum" from - grave (Yorkshire), with ornamentation showing butterfly and St. - Andrew's Cross symbols; warrior with shield, from rock carving - (Denmark).] - -The Continental trade routes up the Danube and Rhone valleys leading -towards Britain were for some centuries under the control of the -Celts. It was no doubt to obtain a control over trade that they -entered Britain and Ireland. On the Continent they engaged in pork -curing, and supplied Rome and indeed the whole of Italy with smoked -and salted bacon. Dr. Sullivan tells that among the ancient Irish -the general name for bacon was _tini_. Smoke-cured hams and flitches -were called _tineiccas_, which "is almost identical in form with -the Gallo-Roman word _taniaccae_ or _tanacae_ used by Varro for -hams imported from Transalpine Gaul into Rome and other parts of -Italy". Puddings prepared from the blood of pigs--now known as "black -puddings"--were, we learn from Varro, likewise exported from Gaul to -Italy. The ancient Irish were partial to "black puddings".[84] It -would appear, therefore, that the so-called dreamy Celt was a greasy -pork merchant. - - [84] Introduction to O'Curry's _Manners and Customs of the - Ancient Irish_, Vol. I, pp. ccclxix _et seq._ - -According to Strabo the exports from Britain in the early part of the -first century consisted of gold, silver, and iron, wheat, cattle, -skins, slaves, and dogs; while the imports included ivory ornaments, -such as bracelets, amber beads, and glass. Tin was exported from -Cornwall to Gaul, and carried overland to Marseilles, but this does -not appear to have been the earliest route. As has been indicated, -tin appears to have been carried, before the Celts obtained control -of British trade, by the sea route to the Carthaginian colonies in -Spain. - -The Carthaginians had long kept secret the sources of their supplies -of tin from the group of islands known as the Cassiterides. About -322 B.C., however, the Greek merchants at Marseilles fitted out an -expedition which was placed in charge of Pytheas, a mathematician, -for the purpose of exploring the northern area. This scholar wrote an -account of his voyage, but only fragments of it quoted by different -ancient authors have come down to us. He appears to have coasted -round Spain and Brittany, and to have sailed up the English Channel -to Kent, to have reached as far north as Orkney and Shetland, and -perhaps, as some think, Iceland, to have crossed the North Sea -towards the mouth of the Baltic, and explored a part of the coast -of Norway. He returned to Britain, which he appears to have partly -explored before crossing over to Gaul. In an extract from his diary, -quoted by Strabo, he tells that the Britons in certain districts not -detailed grew corn, millet, and vegetables. Such of them as had corn -and honey made a beverage from these materials. They brought the -corn ears into great houses (barns) and threshed them there, for on -account of the rain and lack of sunshine out-door threshing floors -were of little use to them. Pytheas noted that in Britain the days -were longer and the nights brighter than in the Mediterranean area. -In the northern parts he visited the nights were so short that the -interval between sunset and sunrise was scarcely perceptible. The -farthest north headland of Britain was Cape Orcas.[85] Six days sail -north of Britain lay Thule, which was situated near the frozen sea. -There a day lasted six months and a night for the same space of time. - - [85] _Orcas_ is a Celtic word signifying "young boar". - -Another extract refers to hot springs in Britain, and a presiding -deity identified with Minerva, in whose temple "the fires never go -out, yet never whiten into ashes; when the fire has got dull it -turns into round lumps like stones". Apparently coal was in use at a -temple situated at Bath. Timæus, a contemporary of Pytheas, quoting -from the lost diary of the explorer, states that tin was found on an -island called Mictis, lying inwards (northward) at a distance of six -days' sail from Britain. The natives made voyages to and from the -island in their canoes of wickerwork covered with hides. Mictis could -not have been Cornwall or an island in the English Channel. Strabo -states that Crassus, who succeeded in reaching the Cassiterides, -announced that the distance to them was greater than that from the -Continent to Britain, and he found that the tin ore lay on the -surface. Evidently tin was not mined on the island of Mictis as it -was in Cornwall in later times. - -An earlier explorer than Pytheas was Himilco, the Carthaginian. He -reached Britain about 500 B.C. A Latin metrical rendering of his lost -work was made by Rufus Festus Avienus in the fourth century of our -era. Reference is made to the islands called the OEstrymnides that -"raise their heads, lie scattered, and are rich in tin and lead". -These islands were visited by Himilco, and were distant "two days -voyage from the Sacred Island (Ireland) and near the broad Isle of -the Albiones". As Rufus Festus Avienus refers to "the hardy folk of -Britain", his Albiones may have been the people of Scotland. The -name Albion was originally applied to England and Scotland. In the -first century, however, Latin writers never used "Albion" except as -a curiosity, and knew England as Britain. According to Himilco, the -Tartessi of Spain were wont to trade with the natives of the northern -tin islands. Even the Carthaginians "were accustomed to visit these -seas". From other sources we learn that the Phoenicians carried tin -from the Cassiterides direct to the Spanish port of Corbilo, the -exact location of which is uncertain. - - [Illustration: ENAMELLED BRONZE SHIELD (from the Thames near - Battersea) - - (British Museum)] - -It is of special importance to note that the tin-stone was collected -on the surface of the islands before mining operations were -conducted elsewhere. In all probability the laborious work of digging -mines was not commenced before the available surface supplies became -scanty. According to Sir John Rhys[86] the districts in southern -England, where surface tin was first obtained, were "chiefly -Dartmoor, with the country round Tavistock and that around St. -Austell, including several valleys looking towards the southern coast -of Cornwall. In most of the old districts where tin existed, it is -supposed to have lain too deep to have been worked in early times." -When, however, Poseidonius visited Cornwall in the first century of -our era, he found that a beginning had been made in skilful mining -operations. It may be that the trade with the Cassiterides was -already languishing on account of changed political conditions and -the shortage of supplies. - - [86] _Celtic Britain_, p. 44. - -Where then were the Cassiterides? M. Reinach struck at the heart of -the problem when he asked, "In what western European island is tin -found?" Those writers who have favoured the group of islands off the -north-western coast of Spain are confronted by the difficulty that -these have failed to yield traces of tin, while those writers who -favour Cornwall and the Scilly Islands cannot ignore the precise -statements that the "tin islands" were farther distant from the -Continent than Britain, and that in the time of Pytheas tin was -carried from Mictis, which was six days' sail from Britain. The fact -that traces of tin, copper, and lead have been found in the Hebrides -is therefore of special interest. Copper, too, has been found in -Shetland, and lead and zinc in Orkney. Withal there are Gaelic -place-names in which _staoin_ (tin) is referred to, in Islay, Jura -(where there are traces of old mine-workings), in Iona, and on the -mainland of Ross-shire. Traces of tin are said to have been found in -Lewis where the great stone circle of Callernish in a semi-barren -area indicates the presence at one time in its area of a considerable -population. The Hebrides may well have been the OEstrymnides of -Himilco and the Cassiterides of classical writers. Jura or Iona may -have been the Mictis of Pytheas. Tin-stone has been found in Ireland -too, near Dublin, in Wicklow, and in Killarney. - -The short dark people in the Hebrides and Orkney may well be, like -the Silurians of Wales, the descendants of the ancient mine workers. -They have been referred to by some as descendants of the crews of -wrecked ships of the Spanish Armada, and by others as remnants of the -Lost Ten Tribes. - -In Irish Gaelic literature, however, there is evidence that the -dark people were in ancient times believed to be the descendants -of the Fir-bolgs (men with sacks), the Fir-domnann (the men who -dug the ground), and the Galioin (Gauls). Campbell in his _West -Highland Tales_ has in a note referred to the dark Hebrideans. -"Behind the fire", he wrote, "sat a girl with one of those strange -faces which are occasionally to be seen in the Western Isles, a -face which reminded me of the Nineveh sculptures, and of faces seen -in San Sebastian. Her hair was black as night, and her clear dark -eyes glittered through the peat smoke. Her complexion was dark, and -her features so unlike those who sat about her that I asked if she -were a native of the island (of Barra), and learned that she was a -Highland girl." It may be that the dark Eastern people were those who -introduced the Eastern and non-Celtic, non-Teutonic prejudice against -pork as food into Scotland. In Ireland the Celtic people apparently -obliterated the "taboo" at an early period. - -It was during the Archæological Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages that -the Celtic artistic patterns reached England. These betray affinities -with Ægean motifs, and they were afterwards developed in Ireland and -Scotland. In both countries they were fused with symbols of Egyptian -and Anatolian origin. - -Like the Celts and the pre-Hellenic people of Greece and Crete, the -Britons and the Irish wore breeches. The Roman poet, Martial,[87] -satirizes a _life_ "as loose as the old breeches of a British -pauper". Claudian, the poet, pictures Britannia with her cheeks -tattoed and wearing a sea-coloured cloak and a cap of bear-skin. The -fact that the Caledonians fought with scanty clothing, as did the -Greeks, and as did the Highlanders in historic times, must not be -taken as proof that they could not manufacture cloth. According to -Rhys, Briton means a "cloth clad"[88] person. The bronze fibulæ found -at Bronze Age sites could not have been used to fasten heavy skins. - - [87] _Ep._ X, 22. - - [88] _Celtic Britain_ (4th edition), p. 212. - -When the Romans reached Britain, the natives, like the heroes of -Homer, used chariots, and had weapons of bronze and iron. The -archæology of the ancient Irish stories is of similar character. - -In the Bronze Age the swords were pointed and apparently used chiefly -for thrusting. The conquerors who introduced the unpointed iron -swords were able to shatter the brittle bronze weapons. These iron -swords were in turn superseded by the pointed and well-tempered -swords of the Romans. But it was not only their superior weapons, -their discipline, and their knowledge of military strategy that -brought the Romans success. England was broken up into a number of -petty kingdoms. "Our greatest advantage", Tacitus confessed, "in -dealing with such powerful people is that they cannot act in concert; -it is seldom that even two or three tribes will join in meeting a -common danger; and so while each fights for himself they are all -conquered together."[89] - - [89] Tacitus, _Agricola_, Chap. XII. -When the Britons, under Agricola, began to adopt Roman civilization -they "rose superior", Tacitus says, "by the forces of their natural -genius, to the attainments of the Gauls". In time they adopted the -Roman dress,[90] which may have been the prototype of the kilt. The -Roman language supplanted the Celtic dialects in certain parts of -England. - - [90] _Agricola_, Chap. XXI. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -Races of Britain and Ireland - - Colours of Ancient Races and Mythical Ages--Caucasian - Race Theory--The Aryan or Indo-European Theory--Races and - Languages--Celts and Teutons--Fair and Dark Palæolithic Peoples - in Modern Britain--Mediterranean Man--The Armenoid or Alpine - Broad-heads--Ancient British Tribes--Cruithne and Picts--The - Picts of the "Brochs" as Pirates and Traders--Picts and - Fairies--Scottish Types--Racial "Pockets". - - -The race problem has ever been one of engrossing interest to -civilized peoples. In almost every old mythology we meet with -theories that were formulated to account for the existence of -the different races living in the world, and for the races that -were supposed to have existed for a time and became extinct. An -outstanding feature of each racial myth is that the people among -whom it grew up are invariably represented to be the finest type of -humanity. - -A widespread habit, and one of great antiquity, was to divide -the races, as the world was divided, into four sections, and to -distinguish them by their colours. The colours were those of the -cardinal points and chiefly Black, White, Red, and Yellow. The same -system was adopted in dealing with extinct races. Each of these -were coloured according to the Age in which they had existence, and -the colours were connected with metals. In Greece and India, for -instance, the "Yellow Age" was a "Golden Age", the "White Age" a -"Silver Age", the "Red Age" a "Bronze Age", and the "Black Age" an -"Iron Age". - -Although the old theories regarding the mythical ages and mythical -races have long been discarded, the habit of dividing mankind and -their history into four sections, according to colours and the -metals chiefly used by them, is not yet extinct. We still speak of -the "Black man", the "Yellow man", the "Red man", and the "White -man". Archæologists have divided what they call the "pre-history of -mankind" into the two "Stone Ages", the "Bronze Age" and the "Iron -Age". The belief that certain races have become extinct as the -result of conquest by invaders is still traceable in those histories -that refer, for instance, to the disappearance of "Stone Age man" -or "Bronze Age man", or of the British Celts, or of the Picts of -Scotland. - -That some races have completely disappeared there can be no shadow -of a doubt. As we have seen, Neanderthal man entirely vanished from -the face of the globe, and has not left a single descendant among the -races of mankind. In our own day the Tasmanians have become extinct. -These cases, however, are exceptional. The complete extinction of a -race is an unusual thing in the history of mankind. A section may -vanish in one particular area and yet persist in another. As a rule, -in those districts where races are supposed to have perished, it is -found that they have been absorbed by intruders. In some cases the -chief change has been one of racial designation and nationality. - -Crô-Magnon man, who entered Europe when the Neanderthals were -hunting the reindeer and other animals, is still represented in -our midst. Dr. Collignon, the French ethnologist, who has found -many representatives of this type in the Dordogne valley where -their ancestors lived in the decorated cave-dwellings before their -organization was broken up by the Azilian and other intruders, shows -that the intrusion of minorities of males rarely leaves a permanent -change in a racial type. The alien element tends to disappear. -"When", he writes, "a race is well seated in a region, fixed to -the soil by agriculture, acclimatized by natural selection and -sufficiently dense, it opposes, for the most precise observations -confirm it, an enormous resistance to new-comers, whoever they may -be." Intruders of the male sex only may be bred out in time. - -Our interest here is with the races of Britain and Ireland, but, as -our native islands were peopled from the Continent, we cannot ignore -the evidence afforded by Western and Northern Europe when dealing -with our own particular phase of the racial problem. - -It is necessary in the first place to get rid of certain old theories -that were based on imperfect knowledge or wrong foundations. One -theory applies the term "Caucasian Man" to either a considerable -section or the majority of European peoples. "The utter absurdity of -the misnomer Caucasian, as applied to the blue-eyed and fair-haired -Aryan (?) race of Western Europe, is revealed", says Ripley,[91] "by -two indisputable facts. In the first place, this ideal blond type -does not occur within many hundred miles of Caucasia; and, secondly, -nowhere along the great Caucasian chain is there a single native -tribe making use of a purely inflectional or Aryan language." - - [91] _Races of Europe_, p. 436. - -The term "Aryan" is similarly a misleading one. It was invented -by Professor Max Müller and applied by him chiefly to a group -of languages at a time when races were being identified by the -languages they spoke. These peoples--with as different physical -characteristics as have Indians and Norseman, or Russians and -Spaniards, who spoke Indo-European, or, as German scholars have -patriotically adapted the term, Indo-Germanic languages--were -regarded by ethnologists of the "philological school" as members of -the one Indo-European or Aryan race or "family". Language, however, -is no sure indication of race. The spread of a language over wide -areas may be accounted for by trade or political influence or -cultural contact. In our own day the English language is spoken by -"Black", "Yellow", and "Red", as well as by "White" peoples. - -A safer system is to distinguish racial types by their physical -peculiarities. When, however, this system is applied in Europe, as -elsewhere, we shall still find differences between peoples. Habits -of thought and habits of life exercise a stronger influence over -individuals, and groups of individuals, than do, for instance, the -shape of their heads, the colours of their hair, eyes, and skin, or -the length and strength of their limbs. Two particular individuals -may be typical representatives of a distinct race and yet not only -speak different languages, but have a different outlook on life, and -different ideas as to what is right and what is wrong. Different -types of people are in different parts of the world united by their -sense of nationality. They are united by language, traditions, and -beliefs, and by their love of a particular locality in which they -reside or in which their ancestors were wont to reside. A sense -of nationality, such as unites the British Empire, may extend to -far-distant parts of the world. - - [Illustration: EUROPEAN TYPES - - I, Mediterranean. II, Crô-Magnon. III, Armenoid (Alpine). IV, - Northern.] - -But, while conscious of the uniting sense of nationality, our -people are at the same time conscious of and interested in their -physical differences and the histories of different sections of our -countrymen. The problem as to whether we are mainly Celtic or -mainly Teutonic is one of perennial interest. - -Here again, when dealing with the past, we meet with the same -condition of things that prevail at the present day. Both the ancient -Celts and the people they called Teutons ("strangers") were mixed -peoples with different physical peculiarities. The Celts known to -the Greeks were a tall, fair-haired people. In Western Europe, as -has been indicated, they mingled with the dark Iberians, and a -section of the mingled races was known to the Romans as Celtiberians. -The Teutons included the tall, fair, long-headed Northerners, and -the dark, medium-sized, broad-headed Central Europeans. Both the -fair Celts and the fair Teutons appear to have been sections of -the northern race known to antiquaries as the "Baltic people", or -"Maglemosians", who entered Europe from Siberia and "drifted" along -the northern and southern shores of the Baltic Sea--the ancient -"White Sea" of the "White people" of the "White North". As we have -seen, other types of humanity were "drifting" towards Britain at the -same time--that is, before the system of polishing stone implements -and weapons inaugurated what has been called the "Neolithic Age". - -As modern-day ethnologists have found that the masses of the -population in Great Britain and Ireland are of the early types known -to archæologists as Palæolithic, Neolithic, and Bronze Age men, the -race history of our people may be formulated as follows: - -The earliest inhabitants of our islands whose physical -characteristics can be traced among the living population were the -Crô-Magnon peoples. These were followed by the fair Northerners, -the "carriers" of Maglemosian culture, and the dark, medium-sized -Iberians, who were the "carriers" of Azilian-Tardenoisian culture. -There were thus fair people in England, Scotland, and Ireland -thousands of years before the invasions of Celts, Angles, Saxons, -Jutes, Norsemen, or Danes. - -For a long period, extending over many centuries, the migration -"stream" from the Continent appears to have been continuously -flowing. The carriers of Neolithic culture were in the main -Iberians of Mediterranean racial type--the descendants of the -Azilian-Tardenoisian peoples who used bows and arrows, and broke up -the Magdalenian civilization of Crô-Magnon man in western and central -Europe. This race appears to have been characterized in north and -north-east Africa. "So striking", writes Professor Elliot Smith, -"is the family likeness between the early Neolithic peoples of the -British Isles and the Mediterranean and the bulk of the population, -both ancient and modern, of Egypt and East Africa, that a description -of the bones of an Early Briton of that remote epoch might apply in -all essential details to an inhabitant of Somaliland."[92] - - [92] _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 58. - -This proto-Egyptian (Iberian) people were of medium stature, had -long skulls and short narrow faces, and skeletons of slight and -mild build; their complexions were as dark as those of the southern -Italians in our own day, and they had dark-brown or black hair with -a tendency to curl; the men had scanty facial hair, except for a -chin-tuft beard. - -These brunets introduced the agricultural mode of life, and, as they -settled on the granite in south-western England, appear to have -searched for gold there, and imported flint from the settlers on the -upper chalk formation. - -In time Europe was invaded from Asia Minor by increasing numbers of -an Asiatic, broad-headed, long-bearded people of similar type to -those who had filtered into Central Europe and reached Belgium and -Denmark before Neolithic times. This type is known as the "Armenoid -race" (the "Alpine race" of some writers). It was quite different -from the long-headed and fair Northern type and the short, brunet -Mediterranean (proto-Egyptian and Iberian) type. The Armenoid -skeletons found in the early graves indicate that the Asiatics were a -medium-sized, heavily-built people, capable, as the large bosses on -their bones indicate, of considerable muscular development. - -During the archæological Bronze Age these Armenoids reached Britain -in considerable numbers, and introduced the round-barrow method of -burial. They do not appear, however, as has been indicated, to have -settled in Ireland. - -At a later period Britain was invaded by a people who cremated their -dead. As they thus destroyed the evidence that would have afforded us -an indication of their racial affinities, their origin is obscure. - -While these overland migrations were in progress, considerable -numbers of peoples appear to have reached Britain and Ireland by sea -from northern and north-western France, Portugal, and Spain. They -settled chiefly in the areas where metals and pearls were once found -or are still found. "Kitchen middens" and megalithic remains are in -Ireland mainly associated with pearl-yielding rivers. - -The fair Celts and the darker Celtiberians were invading and settling -in Britain before and after the Romans first reached its southern -shores. During the Roman period, the ruling caste was mainly of -south-European type, but the Roman legions were composed of Gauls, -Germans, and Iberians, as well as Italians. No permanent change -took place in the ethnics of Britain during the four centuries of -Roman occupation. The Armenoid broad-heads, however, became fewer: -"the disappearance", as Ripley puts it, "of the round-barrow men -is the last event of the prehistoric period which we are able to -distinguish". The inhabitants of the British Isles are, on the whole, -long-headed. "Highland and lowland, city or country, peasant or -philosopher, all are", says Ripley, "practically alike in respect to -this fundamental racial characteristic." Broad-headed types are, of -course, to be found, but they are in the minority. - - [Illustration: - - Valentine - - RUINS OF PICTISH TOWER AT CARLOWAY, LEWIS - - Modern "black house" in the foreground.] - -The chief source of our knowledge regarding the early tribes or -little nations of Britain and Ireland is the work of Ptolemy, the -geographer, who lived between A.D. 50 and 150, from which the -earliest maps were compiled in the fourth century. He shows that -England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland were divided among a number of -peoples. The Dumnonii,[93] as has been stated, were in possession of -Devon and Cornwall, as well as of a large area in the south-western -and central lowlands of Scotland. Near them were the Durotriges, who -were also in Ireland. Sussex was occupied by the Regni and Kent by -the Cantion. The Atrebates, the Belgæ, and the Parisii were invaders -from Gaul during the century that followed Cæsar's invasion. The -Belgæ lay across the neck of the land between the Bristol Channel -and the Isle of Wight; the Atrebates clung to the River Thames, -while the Parisii, who gave their name to Paris, occupied the east -coast between the Wash and the Humber. Essex was the land of the -Iceni or Eceni, the tribe of Boadicea (Boudicca). Near them were the -Catuvellauni (men who rejoiced in battle) who were probably rulers of -a league, and the Trinovantes, whose name is said to signify "very -vigorous". The most important tribe of the north and midlands of -England was the Brigantes,[94] whose sphere of influence extended to -the Firth of Forth, where they met the Votadini, who were probably -kinsmen or allies. On the north-west were the Setantii, who appear -to have been connected with the Brigantes in England and Ireland. -Cuchullin, the hero of the Red Branch of Ulster, was originally named -Setanta.[95] In south Wales the chief tribe was the Silures, whose -racial name is believed to cling to the Scilly (Silura) Islands. -They were evidently like the Dumnonii a metal-working people. -South-western Wales was occupied by the Demetæ (the "firm folk"). In -south-western Scotland, the Selgovæ ("hunters") occupied Galloway, -their nearest neighbours being the Novantæ of Wigtownshire. The -Selgovæ may have been those peoples known later as the Atecotti. From -Fife to southern Aberdeenshire the predominant people on the east -were the Vernicones. In north-east Aberdeenshire were the Tæxali. -To the west of these were the Vacomagi. The Caledonians occupied -the Central Highlands from Inverness southward to Loch Lomond. In -Ross-shire were the Decantæ, a name resembling Novantæ and Setantii. -The Lugi and Smertæ (smeared people) were farther north. The Cornavii -of Caithness and North Wales were those who occupied the "horns" or -"capes". Along the west of Scotland were peoples called the Cerones, -Creones, and Carnonacæ, or Carini, perhaps a sheep-rearing people. -The Epidii were an Argyll tribe, whose name is connected with that -of the horse--perhaps a horse-god.[96] Orkney enshrines the tribal -name of the boar--perhaps that of the ancient boar-god represented -on a standing stone near Inverness with the sun symbol above its -head. The Gaelic name of the Shetlanders is "Cat". Caithness is the -county of the "Cat" people, too. Professor Watson reminds us that the -people of Sutherland are still "Cats" in Gaelic, and that the Duke of -Sutherland is referred to as "Duke of the Cats". - - [93] Englished "Damnonians" (Chapter IX). - - [94] Tacitus says that the Brigantes were in point of numbers the - most considerable folkin Britain (_Agricola_, Chapter XVII). - - [95] Evidently Cuchullin and other heroes of the "Red Branch" in - Ireland were descended from peoples who had migrated into Ireland - from Britain. Their warriors in the old manuscript tales receive - their higher military training in Alba. It is unlikely they would - have been trained in a colony. - - [96] Ancient sacred stones with horses depicted on them survive - in Scotland. In Harris one horse-stone remains in an old church tower. - -The Picts are not mentioned by Ptolemy. They appear to have been an -agricultural and sea-faring people who (_c._ A.D. 300) engaged in -trade and piracy. A flood of light has been thrown on the Pictish -problem by Professor W. J. Watson, Edinburgh.[97] He shows that -when Agricola invaded Scotland (A.D. 85) the predominant people -were the Caledonians. Early in the third century the Caledonians -and Mæatæ--names which included all the tribes north of Hadrian's -Wall--were so aggressive that Emperor Septimus Severus organized a -great expedition against them. He pressed northward as far as the -southern shore of the Moray Firth, and, although he fought no battle, -lost 50,000 men in skirmishes, &c. The Caledonians and Mæatæ rose -again, and Severus was preparing a second expedition when he died -at York in A.D. 211. His son, Caracalla, withdrew from Scotland -altogether. The Emperor Constantius, who died at York in A.D. 306, -had returned from an expedition, not against the Caledonians, but -against the Picts. The Picts were beginning to become prominent. In -360 they had again to be driven back. They had then become allies -of the Scots from Ulster, who were mentioned in A.D. 297 by the -orator Eumenius, as enemies of the Britons in association with the -Picti. Professor Watson, drawing on Gaelic evidence, dates the first -settlement of the Scots in Argyll "about A.D. 180". - - [97] _The Picts_, Inverness, 1921 (lecture delivered to the - Gaelic Society of Inverness and reprinted from _The Inverness - Courier_). - -In 368 the Caledonians were, like the Verturiones, a division of the -Picts. Afterwards their tribal name disappeared. That the Picts and -Caledonians were originally separate peoples is made clear by the -statement of a Roman orator who said: "I do not mention the woods -and marshes of the Caledonians, the Picts, and others". In 365 the -Pecti, Saxons, Scots, and Atecotti harassed the Britons. Thus by the -fourth century the Picts had taken the place of the Caledonians as -the leading tribe, or as the military aristocrats of a great part of -Scotland, the name of which, formerly Caledonia, came to be Pictland, -Pictavia. - -Who then were the Picts? Professor Watson shows that the racial name -is in old Norse "Pettr", in Old English "Peohta", and in old Scots -"Pecht"[98] These forms suggest that the original name was "Pect". -Ammianus refers to the "Pecti". In old Welsh "Peith-wyr" means -"Pict-men" and "Peith" comes from "Pect". The derivation from the -Latin "pictus" (painted) must therefore be rejected. It should be -borne in mind in this connection that the Ancient Britons stained -their bodies with woad. The application of the term "painted" to -only one section of them seems improbable. "Pecti", says Professor -Watson, "cannot be separated etymologically from Pictones, the name -of a Gaulish tribe on the Bay of Biscay south of the Loire, near -neighbours of the Veneti. Their name shows the same variation -between Pictones and Pectones. We may therefore claim Pecti as a -genuine Celtic word. It is of the Cymric or Old British and Gaulish -type, not of the Gaelic type, for Gaelic has no initial P, while -those others have." Gildas (_c._ A.D. 570), Bede (_c._ A.D. 730), and -Nennius (_c._ A.D. 800) refer to the Picts as a people from the north -of Scotland. Nennius says they occupied Orkney first. The legends -which connect the Picts with Scythia and Hercules were based on -Virgil's mention of "picti Agathyrsi" and "picti Geloni" (_Æneid_ IV, -146, _Georgics_, II, 115) combined with the account by Herodotus (IV, -10) of the descent of Gelonus and Agathyrsus from Hercules. Of late -origin therefore was the Irish myth that the Picts from Scythia were -called Agathyrsi and were descended from Gelon, son of Hercules. - - [98] The fact that in the Scottish Lowlands the fairies were - sometimes called "Pechts" has been made much of by those who - contend that the prototypes of the fairies were the original - inhabitants of Western Europe. This theory ignores the - well-established custom of giving human names to supernatural - beings. In Scotland the hill-giants (Fomorians) have been - re-named after Arthur (as in Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh), Patrick - (Inverness), Wallace (Eildon Hills), Samson (Ben Ledi), &c. - In like manner fairies were referred to as Pechts. The Irish - evidence is of similar character. The Danann deities were - consigned to fairyland. Donald Gorm, a West Highland chief, gave - his name to an Irish fairy. Fairyland was the old Paradise. - Arthur, Thomas the Rhymer, Finn-mac-Coul, &c., became "fairy-men" - after death. A good deal of confusion has been caused by - mistranslating the Scottish Gaelic word _sith_ (Irish _sidhe_) - as "fairy". The word _sith_ (pronounced _shee_) means anything - unearthly or supernatural, and the "peace" of supernatural - life--of death after life, as well as the silence of the - movements of supernatural beings. The cuckoo was supposed to - dwell for a part of the year in the underworld, and was called - _eun sith_ ("supernatural bird"). Mysterious epidemics were - _sith_ diseases. There were _sith_ (supernatural) dogs, cats, - mice, cows, &c., as well as _sith_ men and _sith_ women. - -There never were Picts in Ireland, except as visitors. The theory -about the Irish Picts arose by mistranslating the racial name -"Cruithne" as "Picts". Communities of Cruithne were anciently settled -in the four provinces of Ireland, but Cruithne means Britons not -Picts. - - [Illustration: - - Valentine - - A SCOTTISH "BROCH" (Mousa, Shetland Isles) - - Compare with Sardinian _Nuraghe_, page 136.] - -The ancient name of Great Britain was Albion, while Ireland was in -Greek "Ierne", and in Latin "Iubernia" (later "Hibernia"). The racial -name was applied by Pliny to Albion and Hibernia when he referred -to the island group as "Britanniæ". Ptolemy says that Albion is "a -Britannic isle" and further that Albion (England and Scotland) was -an island "belonging to the Britannic Isles". Ireland was also a -Britannic isle. It is therefore quite clear that the Britons were -regarded as the predominant people in England, Wales, Scotland, -and Ireland, and that the verdict of history includes Ireland in -the British Isles. The Britons were P-Celts, and their racial -name "Pretan-Pritan" became in the Gaelic language of the Q-Celts -"Cruithen", plural "Cruithne". - -In Latin the British Isles are called after their inhabitants, -the rendering being "Britanni", while in Greek it is "Pretannoi" or -"Pretanoi". As Professor W. J. Watson and Professor Sir J. Morris -Jones, two able and reliable philologists, have insisted, the Greek -form is the older and more correct, and the Latin form is merely an -adaptation of the Greek form. - -In the early centuries of our era the term "Britannus" was shortened -in Latin to "Britto" plural "Brittones". This diminutive form, which -may be compared with "Scotty" for Scotsman, became popular. In -Gaelic it originated the form "Breatain", representing "Brittones" -(Britons), which was applied to the Britons of Strathclyde, Wales, -and Cornwall, who retained their native speech under Roman rule; -in Welsh, the rendering was "Brython". The Welsh name for Scotland -became "Prydyn". The northern people of Scotland, having come under -the sway of the Picts, were referred to as Picts just as they became -"Scots" after the tribe of Scots rose into prominence. In this sense -the Scottish Cruithne were Picts. But the Cruithne (Britons) of -Ireland were never referred to as Picts. Modern scholars who have -mixed up Cruithne and Picts are the inventors of the term "Irish -Picts". - -The Picts of Scotland have been traditionally associated with the -round buildings known as "brochs", which are all built on the same -plan. "Of 490 known brochs", says Professor W. J. Watson, "Orkney -and Shetland possess 145, Caithness has 150, and Sutherland 67--a -total of 362. On the mainland south of Sutherland there are 10 in -Ross, 6 Inverness-shire, 2 in Forfar, 1 in Stirling, Midlothian, -Selkirk, and Berwick-shires, 3 in Wigtownshire. In the Isles there -are 28 in Lewis, 10 in Harris, 30 in Skye, 1 in Raasay, and at least -5 in the isles of Argyll. The inference is that the original seat of -the broch builders must have been in the far north, and that their -influence proceeded southwards. The masonry and contents of the -brochs prove them to be the work of a most capable people, who lived -partly at least by agriculture and had a fairly high standard of -civilization.... The distribution of the brochs also indicate that -their occupants combined agriculture with sea-faring.... The Wigtown -brochs, like the west coast ones generally, are all close to the sea, -and in exceedingly strong positions." - -These Scottish brochs bear a striking resemblance to the _nuraghi_ -of the island of Sardinia. Both the broch and the _nuraghe_ have -low doorways which "would at once put an enemy at a disadvantage in -attempting to enter". - -Describing the Sardinian structures, Mr. T. Eric Peet writes:[99] -"All the _nuraghi_ stand in commanding situations overlooking large -tracts of country, and the more important a position is from a -strategical point of view the stronger will be the _nuraghe_ which -defends it". Ruins of villages surround these structures. "There -cannot be the least doubt", says Peet, "that in time of danger the -inhabitants drove their cattle into the fortified enclosure, entered -it themselves, and then closed the gates." - - [99] _Rough Stone Monuments_, pp. 82 _et seq._ - -In the Balearic Islands are towers called _talayots_ which "resemble -rather closely", in Peet's opinion, the _nuraghi_ of Sardinia. -The architecture of the _talayots_, the _nuraghi_, and the brochs -resembles that of the bee-hive tombs of Mycenæ (pre-Hellenic Greece). -There are no brochs in Ireland. The "round towers" are of Christian -origin (between ninth and thirteenth centuries A.D.). A tomb at -Labbamologa, County Cork, however, resembles the tombs of the -Balearic Isles and Sardinia (Peet, _Rough Stone Monuments_, pp. 43-4). - -The Picts appear to have come to Scotland from the country of the -ancient Pictones, whose name survives in Poitiers (Poictiers) and -the province of Poitou in France. These Pictones were anciently -rivals of the Veneti, the chief sea-traders in Western and Northern -Europe during the pre-Roman period. We gather from Cæsar that the -Pictones espoused the cause of the Romans when the Veneti and their -allies revolted. They and their near neighbours, the Santoni, -supplied Cæsar with ships.[100] These were apparently skiffs which -were much lighter and smaller than the imposing vessels of the -Veneti. As the big vessels of the Armada were no match for the -smaller English vessels, so were the Veneti ships no match for the -skiffs of the Pictones. - - [100] _De Bello Gallico_, Book III, Chapter II. - -The Picts who settled in Orkney appear to have dominated the eastern -and western Scottish sea-routes. It is possible that they traded with -Scandinavia and imported Baltic amber. Tacitus states that the Baltic -people, who engaged in the amber trade, spoke a dialect similar to -that of Britain, worshipped the mother-goddess, and regarded the boar -as the symbol of their deity.[101] Orkney, as has been noted, is -derived from the old Celtic word for boar. The boar-people of Orkney -who came under the sway of the Picts may have been related to the -amber traders. - - [101] _Manners of the Germans_, Chapter XLV. The boar was the son - of a sow-goddess. Demeter had originally a sow form. - -The Scottish broch-people, associated in tradition with the Picts, -were notorious for their piratic habits. In those ancient days, -however, piracy was a common occupation. The later Vikings, who -seized the naval base of Orkney for the same reason we may conclude -as did the Picts, occupied the brochs. Viking means "pirate", as York -Powell has shown. In _Egil's Saga_ (Chapter XXXII) the hero Bjorn -"was sometimes in Viking but sometimes on trading voyages".[102] - - [102] _Scandinavian Britain_ (London, 1908), pp. 61-3. - -It may be that the term _pictus_ was confused with the racial -name Pecti, because the Picts had adopted the sailor-like habit -of tattoing their skins--a habit which probably had a religious -significance. Claudian, the fourth-century Roman poet, refers to "the -fading steel-wrought figures on the dying Pict". Like the sea-faring -Scots of northern Ireland who harried the Welsh coast between the -second and fifth centuries of our era, the Picts of Scotland had -skiffs (scaphæ) with sails and twenty oars a side. Vessels, masts, -ropes, and sails were painted a neutral tint, and the crews were -attired in the same colour. Thus "camouflaged", the Picts and Scots -were able to harry the coasts of Romanized Britain. They appear to -have turned Hadrian's wall from the sea. The Pictish sea-faring -tribes, the Keiths or Cats and the Mæatæ, have left their names in -Caithness, Inchkeith, Dalkeith, &c., and in the Isle of May, &c.[103] - - [103] Rhys, _Celtic Britain_ (4th ed.), pp. 152, 317. - -A glimpse of piratical operations in the first century before the -Christian era is obtained in an Irish manuscript account of certain -happenings in the reign of King Conaire the Great of Ireland. So -strict was this monarch's rule that several lawless and discontented -persons were forced into exile. - - "Among the most desperate of the outlaws were the monarch's - own foster brothers, the four sons of Dond Dess, an important - chieftain of Leinster. These refractory youths, with a large - party of followers, took to their boats and ships and scoured - the coasts of Britain and Scotland, as well as of their own - country. Having met on the sea with Ingcel, the son of the King - of Britain, who, for his misdeeds, had been likewise banished - by his own father, both parties entered into a league, the - first fruits of which were the plunder and devastation of a - great part of the British coast." - - [Illustration: - - By courtesy of the Director of The British School of Rome - - A SARDINIAN _NURAGHE_ (page 134) - - Compare with the Scottish "Broch", page 132.] - -They afterwards made a descent on the coast of Ireland, and when -King Conaire returned from a visit to Clare, "he found the whole -country before him one sheet of fire, the plunderers having landed in -his absence and carried fire and sword wherever they went".[104] - - [104] O'Curry, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish_, Vol. - III, p. 136. - -In his description of Britain, Tacitus says that the inhabitants -varied in their physical traits. Different conclusions were drawn -concerning their origin. He thought the Caledonians were, because of -their ruddy hair and muscular limbs, of German descent, and that the -dark Silures of Wales were descendants of Iberian colonists. He noted -that the inhabitants of southern England resembled those of Gaul.[105] - - [105] _Agricola_, Chap. XI. - -Later writers have expressed divergent views regarding the ethnics of -the British Isles. One theory is that the fair Teutonic peoples, who -invaded Britain during the post-Roman period, drove the "dark Celts" -westward, and that that is the reason why in England and Scotland the -inhabitants of western areas are darker than those in the eastern. -As we have seen, however, the early metal workers settled in the -western areas for the reason that the minerals they sought for were -located there. In south-western Scotland the inhabitants are darker -than those on the east, except in Aberdeenshire, where there are -distinctive megalithic remains and two famous pearling rivers, the -Ythan and Ugie, as well as deposits of flint and traces of gold. - -The people of Scotland are, on the whole, the tallest and heaviest -people in Europe. It has been suggested that their great average -stature is due to the settlement in their country of the hardy -Norsemen of the Viking period, but this is improbable, because the -average stature of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark is lower than that -of Scotland. A distinctive feature of the Scottish face is the -high cheek-bone. The Norse cheek-bone is distinctly flatter. It -may be that the tall Crô-Magnons, who had high cheek-bones, have -contributed to Scottish physical traits. That all the fair peoples -of Britain and Ireland are, as has been indicated, not necessarily -descendants of the fair Celts and Anglo-Saxons is evident from the -traces that have been found of the early settlement in these islands -of the proto-Scandinavians, who introduced the Maglemosian culture -long before the introduction of the Neolithic industry. Modern -ethnologists lean to the view that the masses of the present-day -population of Europe betray Palæolithic racial affinities. In no -country in Europe, other than our own, have there been fewer ethnic -changes. As we have seen, there were only two or three intrusions -from the Continent between the periods when the bronze and iron -industries were introduced--that is, during about a thousand years. -The latter invasions were those of types already settled in Britain. -As in other countries, the tendency to revert to the early types -represented by the masses of the people has not been absent in our -native land. The intrusions of energetic minorities may have caused -changes of languages and habits of life, but in time the alien -element has been absorbed.[106] Withal, the influences of climate -and of the diseases associated with localities have ever been at -work in eliminating the physically unfit--that is, those individuals -who cannot live in a climate too severe for their constitutions. In -large industrial cities the short, dark types are more numerous than -the tall, fair, and large-lunged types. The latter appear to be more -suited for an open-air life. - - [106] "The rule is", writes Beddoe in this connection - (_The Anthropological History of Europe_, p. 53), "that an - anthropological type is never wholly dispossessed or extirpated". - -"Pockets" of peoples of distinctive type are to be found in different -parts of the British Isles. In Barvas, Lewis, and elsewhere in the -Hebrides, pockets of dark peoples of foreign appearance are reputed -by theorists, as has been indicated, to be descendants of the -sailors of the Spanish Armada. They resemble, however, the Fir-bolgs -of Ireland and the Silures of Wales. Hertfordshire has a dark, short -people too. Galloway, the country of the ancient Selgovæ (hunters), -is noted for its tall people. It may be that there is a Crô-Magnon -strain in Galloway, and that among the short, dark peoples are -descendants of the ancient metal workers, including the Easterners -who settled in Spain. (See Chaps. IX and XII.) Beddoe thinks that the -Phoenician type "occasionally crops up" in Cornwall.[107] - - [107] _The Anthropological History of Europe_ (new edition, - Paisley, 1912), p. 50. - - - - -CHAPTER XII - -Druidism in Britain and Gaul - - Culture Mixing--Classical Evidence regarding Druids--Doctrine - of Transmigration of Souls--Celtic Paradises: Isles of - the Blest, Land-under-waves, Fairyland, and "Loveless - Land"--Paradise as Apple-land--Apples, Nuts, and Pork of - Longevity--Mistletoe connected with the Oak, Apple, and Other - Trees--Druids and Oracular Birds--Druids as Soothsayers--Thomas - the Rhymer as "True Thomas"--Christ as the Druid of St. - Columba--Stones of Worship--Druid Groves and Dolmens in - Anglesea--Early Christians denounce Worship of Stones, Trees, - Wells, and Heavenly Bodies--Vows over Holy Objects--Bull - Sacrifices, Stone Worship, &c., in Highlands--"Cup-marked" - Stones--Origin of Druidism--Milk-Goddesses and Milk-yielding - Trees--European and Oriental Milk Myths--Tree Cults and - Megalithic Monuments. - - -When the question is asked "What was the religion of the ancient -Britons?" the answer generally given is "Druidism". But such a term -means little more than "Priestism". It would perhaps be better not -to assume that the religious beliefs of our remote ancestors were -either indigenous or homogeneous, or that they were ever completely -systematized at any period or in any district. Although certain -fundamental beliefs may have been widespread, it is clear that there -existed not a few local or tribal cults. "I swear by the gods of my -people" one hero may declare in a story, while of another it may be -told that "Coll" (the hazel) or "Fire" was his god. Certain animals -were sacred in some districts and not in others, or were sacred to -some individuals only in a single tribe. - -In a country like Britain, subjected in early times to periodic -intrusions of peoples from different areas, the process of "culture -mixing" must have been active and constant. Imported beliefs -were fused with native beliefs, or beliefs that had assumed -local features, while local pantheons no doubt reflected local -politics--the gods of a military aristocracy being placed over the -gods of the subject people. At the same time, it does not follow that -when we find a chief deity bearing a certain name in one district, -and a different name in another, that the religious rites and -practices differed greatly. Nor does it follow that all peoples who -gave recognition to a political deity performed the same ceremonies -or attached the same importance to all festivals. Hunters, seafarers, -and agriculturists had their own peculiar rites, as surviving -superstitions (the beliefs of other days) clearly indicate, while the -workers in metals clung to ceremonial practices that differed from -those performed by representatives of a military aristocracy served -by the artisans. - -Much has been written about the Druids, but it must be confessed -that our knowledge regarding them is somewhat scanty. Classical -writers have made contradictory statements about their beliefs and -ceremonies. Pliny alone tells that they showed special reverence for -the mistletoe growing on the oak, and suggests that the name Druid -was connected with the Greek word _drus_ (an oak). Others tell that -there were Druids, Seers, and Bards in the Celtic priesthood. In his -book on divination, Cicero indicates that the Druids had embraced -the doctrines of Pythagoras, the Greek philosopher, who was born -about 586 B.C., including that of the transmigration of souls.[108] -Julius Cæsar tells that the special province of the Druids in Gaulish -society was religion in all its aspects; they read oracles, and -instructed large numbers of the nation's youth. Pomponius Mela[109] -says the instruction was given in caves and in secluded groves. Cæsar -records that once a year the Druids presided over a general assembly -of the Gauls at a sacred spot in the country of the Carnutes, which -was supposed to be the centre of Gaul. It is not known whether this -holy place was marked by a mound, a grove, a stone circle, or a -dolmen. The Archdruid was chief of the priesthood. Cæsar notes that -the Germans had no Druids and paid no attention to sacrifices. - - [108] Cæsar (_De Bello Gallico_, VI, XIV, 4) says the Druids - believed the soul passed from one individual to another. - - [109] A Spaniard of the first century A.D. - -Of special interest is the statement that the Druids believed in the -doctrine of Transmigration of Souls--that is, they believed that -after death the soul passed from one individual to another, or into -plants or animals before again passing into a human being at birth. -According to Diodorus Siculus, who lived in the latter part of the -first century A.D., the Gauls took little account of the end of life, -believing they would come to life after a certain term of years, -entering other bodies. He also refers to the custom of throwing -letters on the funeral pyre, so that the dead might read them.[110] -This suggests a belief in residence for a period in a Hades. - - [110] Book V. Chap. XXVIII. - -The doctrine of Transmigration of Souls did not, however, prevail -among all Celtic peoples even in Gaul. Valerius Maximus, writing -about A.D. 30, says that the Gauls were in the habit of lending sums -of money on the promise that they would be repaid in the next world. -Gaelic and Welsh literature contains little evidence of the doctrine -of Transmigration of Souls. A few myths suggest that re-birth was -a privilege of certain specially famous individuals. Mongan, King -of Dalriada in Ulster, and the Welsh Taliessin, for instance, were -supposed to have lived for periods in various forms, including -animal, plant, and human forms, while other heroes were incarnations -of deities. The most persistent British belief, however, was that -after death the soul passed to an Otherworld. - -Julius Cæsar says that Druidism was believed to have originated -in Britain.[111] This cannot apply, however, to the belief in -transmigration of souls, which was shared in common by Celts, Greeks, -and Indians. According to Herodotus, "the Egyptians are the first -who have affirmed that the soul is immortal, and that when the body -decays the soul invariably enters another body on the point of -death". The story of "The Two Brothers" (Anpu and Bata) indicates -that the doctrine was known in Egypt. There are references in the -"Book of the Dead" to a soul becoming a lily, a golden falcon, a -ram, a crocodile, &c., but this doctrine was connected, according -to Egyptologists, with the belief that souls could assume different -shapes in the Otherworld. In India souls are supposed to pass -through animal or reptile forms only. The Greek doctrine, like the -Celtic, includes plant forms. Certain African tribes believe in the -transmigration of souls. - - [111] Pliny (Book XXX) says Britain seems to have taught Druidism - to the Persians. Siret's view, given in the concluding part of - this chapter, that Druidism was of Eastern origin, is of special - interest in this connection. - -In ancient Britain and Ireland the belief obtained, as in Greece -and elsewhere, that there was an Underworld Paradise and certain -Islands of the Blest (in Gaelic called "The Land of Youth", "The -Plain of Bliss", &c.) The Underworld was entered through caves, -wells, rivers or lakes, or through the ocean cavern from which the -moon arose. There are references in Scottish folk-tales to "The -Land-Under-Waves", and to men and women entering the Underworld -through a "fairy" mound, and seeing the dead plucking fruit and -reaping grain as in the Paradise of the Egyptian god Osiris. It is -evident that Fairyland was originally a Paradise, and the fairy queen -an old mother goddess. There are references in Welsh to as gloomy -an Underworld as the Babylonian one. "In addition to _Annwfn_, a -term which", according to the late Professor Anwyl, "seems to mean -the 'Not-world', we have other names for the world below, such as -_anghar_, 'the loveless place'; _difant_, the unrimmed place (whence -the modern Welsh word _difancoll_, 'lost for ever'); _affwys_, the -abyss; _affan_, 'the land invisible'." In a Welsh poem a bard speaks -of the Otherworld as "the cruel prison of earth, the abode of death, -the loveless land".[112] - - [112] _Celtic Religion_, p. 62. - -The Border Ballads of Scotland contain references to the Fairyland -Paradise of the Underworld, to the islands or continent of Paradise, -and to the dark Otherworld of the grave in which the dead lie among -devouring worms. - -In one Celtic Elysium, known to the Welsh and Irish, the dead feast -on pork as do the heroes in the Paradise of the Scandinavian god -Odin. There is no trace in Scotland of a belief or desire to reach a -Paradise in which the pig was eaten. The popularity of the apple as -the fruit of longevity was, however, widespread. It is uncertain when -the beliefs connected with it were introduced into England, Wales, -Scotland, and Ireland. As they were similar to those connected with -the hazel-nut, the acorn, the rowan, &c., there may have simply been -a change of fruit rather than a religious change, except in so far -as new ceremonies may have been associated with the cultivated apple -tree. - -A Gaelic story tells of a youth who in Paradise held a fragrant -golden apple in his right hand. "A third part of it he would eat and -still, for all he consumed, never a whit would it be diminished." -As long as he ate the apple "nor age nor dimness could affect him". -Paradise was in Welsh and Gaelic called "Apple land".[113] Its "tree -of life" always bore ripe fruit and fresh blossoms. One of the Irish -St. Patrick legends pictures a fair youth coming from the south[114] -clad in crimson mantle and yellow shirt, carrying a "double armful of -round yellow-headed nuts and of most beautiful golden-yellow apples". -There are stories, too, about the hazel with its "good fruit", and -of holy fire being taken from this tree, and withal a number of -hazel place-names that probably indicate where sacred hazel groves -once existed. Hallowe'en customs connected with apples and nuts are -evidently relics of ancient religious beliefs and ceremonies. - - [113] Avalon, Emain Ablach, &c. - - [114] The south was on the right and signified heaven, while the - north was on the left and signified hell. - -The Druids are reported by Pliny (as has been stated) to have -venerated the mistletoe, especially when it was found growing on an -oak. But the popular parasitic plant is very rarely found associated -with this tree. In France and England it grows chiefly on firs -and pines or on apple trees, but never on the plane, beech, or -birch.[115] It is therefore doubtful if the name Druid was derived -from the root _dru_ which is found in the Greek word _drus_ (oak). -In Gaelic the Druids are "wise men" who read oracles, worked spells, -controlled the weather, and acted as intercessors between the -gods and men. Like the dragon-slayers of romance, they understood -"the language of birds", and especially that of the particular -bird associated with the holy tree of a cult. One sacred bird was -the wren. According to Dr. Whitley Stokes the old Celtic names of -wren and Druid were derived from the root _dreo_, which is cognate -with the German word _treu_ and the English _true_. The Druid -was therefore, as one who understood the language of the wren, a -soothsayer, a truth-sayer--a revealer of divine truth. A judgment -pronounced by Druid or king was supposed to be inspired by the deity. -It was essentially a divine decree. The judge wore round his neck -the symbol of the deity. "When what he said was true, it was roomy -for his neck; when false, it was narrow." This symbol according to -_Cormac's Glossary_ was called _sin_ (sheen). Some seers derived -their power to reveal the truth by tasting the blood or juice of a -holy animal or reptile, or, like Thomas the Rhymer, by eating of an -apple plucked from the tree of life in the Paradise of Fairyland. -In an old ballad it is told that when Thomas was carried off to the -Underworld by the fairy queen he was given an inspiring apple that -made him a "truth-sayer" (a prophet). - - [115] Bacon wrote: "Mistletoe groweth chiefly upon crab trees, - apple trees, sometimes upon hazels, and rarely upon oaks; the - mistletoe whereof is counted very medicinal. It is evergreen in - winter and summer, and beareth a white glistening berry; and it - is a plant utterly differing from the plant on which it groweth." - - Syne they came to a garden green - And she pu'd an apple frae a tree; - "Take this for thy wages, True Thomas; - It will give thee the tongue that can never lee (lie)." - -"True Thomas" was "Druid Thomas". - -An interesting reference to Druidism is found in a Gaelic poem -supposed to have been written by St. Columba, in which the missionary -says: - - The voices of birds I do not reverence, - Nor sneezing, nor any charm in this wide world. - Christ, the Son of God, is my Druid. - -There are Gaelic stories about Druids who read the omens of the air -and foretell the fates of individuals at birth, fix the days on which -young warriors should take arms, &c. - -In England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales not only trees and birds -were reverenced, but also standing stones, which are sometimes -referred to even in modern Gaelic as "stones of worship". Some -stories tell of standing stones being transformed into human beings -when struck by a magician's wand. The wand in one story is possessed -by a "wise woman". Other traditions relate that once a year the -stones become maidens who visit a neighbouring stream and bathe in -it. A version of this myth survives in Oxfordshire. According to -Tacitus there were on the island of Mona (Anglesea), which was a -centre of religious influence, not only Druids, but "women in black -attire like Furies"--apparently priestesses. As has been noted, a -large number of dolmens existed on Mona, in which there were also -"groves devoted to inhuman superstitions".[116] - - [116] _The Annals of Tacitus_, XIV, 30. The theory that mediæval - witches were the priestesses of a secret cult that perpetuated - pre-Roman British religion is not supported by Gaelic evidence. - The Gaelic "witches" had no meetings with the devil, and never - rode on broomsticks. The Gaelic name for witchcraft is derived - from English and is not old. - -The early Christian writers refer to the "worship of stones" in -Ireland. In the seventh century the Council at Rouen denounced all -those who offer vows to trees, or wells, or stones, as they would -at altars, or offer candles or gifts, as if any divinity resided -there capable of conferring good or evil. The Council at Arles (A.D. -452) and the Council at Toledo (A.D. 681) dealt with similar pagan -practices. That sacred stones were associated with sacred trees is -indicated in a decree of an early Christian Council held at Nantes -which exhorts "bishops and their servants to dig up and remove and -hide in places where they cannot be found those stones which in -remote and woody places are still worshipped and where vows are still -made". This worship of stones was in Britain, or at any rate in part -of England, connected with the worship of the heavenly bodies. A -statute of the time of King Canute forbids the barbarous adoration -of the sun and moon, fire, fountains, stones, and all kinds of trees -and wood. In the Confession attributed to St. Patrick, the Irish -are warned that all those who adore the sun shall perish eternally. -_Cormac's_ _Glossary_ explains that _Indelba_ signified _Images_ -and that this name was applied to the altars of certain idols. "They -(the pagans) were wont to carve on them the forms of the elements -they adored: for example, the figure of the sun." Irish Gaels swore -by "the sun, moon, water, and air, day and night, sea and land". -In a Scottish story some warriors lift up a portion of earth and -swear on it. The custom of swearing on weapons was widespread in -these islands. In ancient times people swore by what was holiest to -them.[117] - - [117] "Every weapon has its demon" is an old Gaelic saying. - -One of the latest references to pagan religious customs is found in -the records of Dingwall Presbytery dating from 1649 to 1678. In the -Parish of Gairloch, Ross-shire, bulls were sacrificed, oblations of -milk were poured on the hills, wells were adored, and chapels were -"circulated"--the worshippers walked round them sunwise. Those who -intended to set out on journeys thrust their heads into a hole in -a stone.[118] If a head entered the hole, it was believed the man -would return; if it did not, his luck was doubtful. The reference to -"oblations of milk" is of special interest, because milk was offered -to the fairies. A milk offering was likewise poured daily into -the "cup" of a stone known as Clach-na-Gruagach (the stone of the -long-haired one). A bowl of milk was, in the Highlands, placed beside -a corpse, and, after burial took place, either outside the house -door or at the grave. The conventionalized Azilian human form is -sometimes found to be depicted by small "cups" on boulders or rocks. -Some "cups" were formed by "knocking" with a small stone for purposes -of divination. The "cradle stone" at Burghead is a case in point. -It is dealt with by Sir Arthur Mitchell (_The Past in the Present_, -pp. 263-5), who refers to other "cup-stones" that were regarded as -being "efficacious in cases of barrenness". In some hollowed stones -Highland parents immersed children suspected of being changelings. - - [118] According to the Dingwall records knowledge of "future - events in reference especialle to lyfe and death" was obtained by - performing a ceremony in connection with the hollowed stone. - -A flood of light has been thrown on the origin of Druidism by -Siret,[119] the discoverer of the settlements of Easterners in Spain -which have been dealt with in an earlier chapter. He shows that -the colonists were an intensely religious people, who introduced -the Eastern Palm-tree cult and worshipped a goddess similar to the -Egyptian Hathor, a form of whom was Nut. After they were expelled -from Spain by a bronze-using people, the refugees settled in Gaul -and Italy, carrying with them the science and religious beliefs -and practices associated with Druidism. Commercial relations were -established between the Etruscans, the peoples of Gaul and the south -of Spain, and with the Phoenicians of Tyre and Carthage during the -archæological Early Iron Age. Some of the megalithic monuments of -North Africa were connected with this later drift. - - [119] _L'Anthropologie_, 1921. Tome XXX, pp. 235 _et seq._ - -The goddess Hathor of Egypt was associated with the sycamore fig -which exudes a milk-like fluid, with a sea-shell, with the sky -(as Nut she was depicted as a star-spangled woman), and with the -primeval cow. The tree cult was introduced into Rome. The legend -of the foundation of that city is closely associated with the -"milk"-yielding fig tree, under which the twins Romulus and Remus -were nourished by the wolf. The fig-milk was regarded as an elixir -and was given by the Greeks to newly born children. - -Siret shows that the ancient name of the Tiber was Rumon, which was -derived from the root signifying milk. It was supposed to nourish -the earth with terrestrial milk. From the same root came the name of -Rome. The ancient milk-providing goddess of Rome was Deva Rumina. -Offerings of milk instead of wine were made to her. The starry -heavens were called "Juno's milk" by the Romans, and "Hera's milk" by -the Greeks, and the name "Milky Way" is still retained. - -The milk tree of the British Isles is the hazel. It contains a milky -fluid in the green nut, which Highland children of a past generation -regarded as a fluid that gave them strength. Nut-milk was evidently -regarded in ancient times as an elixir like fig-milk.[120] There is -a great deal of Gaelic lore connected with the hazel. In Keating's -_History of Ireland_ (Vol. I, section 12) appears the significant -statement, "Coll (the hazel) indeed was god to MacCuil". "Coll" is -the old Gaelic word for hazel; the modern word is "Call". "Calltuinn" -(Englished "Calton") is a "hazel grove". There are Caltons in -Edinburgh and Glasgow and well-worn forms of the ancient name -elsewhere. In the legends associated with the Irish Saint Maedóg is -one regarding a dried-up stick of hazel which "sprouted into leaf -and blossom and good fruit". It is added that this hazel "endures -yet (A.D. 624), a fresh tree, undecayed, unwithered, nut-laden -yearly".[121] The sacred hazel was supposed to be impregnated with -the substance of life. Another reference is made to _Coll na nothar_ -("hazel of the wounded"). Hazel-nuts of longevity, as well as -apples of longevity, were supposed to grow in the Gaelic Paradise. -In a St. Patrick legend a youth comes from the south ("south" is -Paradise and "north" is hell) carrying "a double armful of round -yellow-headed nuts and of beautiful golden-yellow apples". Dr. Joyce -states that the ancient Irish "attributed certain druidical or fairy -virtues to the yew, the hazel, and the quicken or rowan tree", and -refers to "innumerable instances in tales, poems, and other old -records, in such expressions as 'Cruachan of the fair hazels', -'Derry-na-nath, on which fair-nutted hazels are constantly found'.... -Among the blessings a good king brought on the land was plenty of -hazel-nuts:--'O'Berga (the chief) for whom the hazels stoop', 'Each -hazel is rich from the hero'." Hazel-nuts were like the figs and -dates of the Easterners, largely used for food.[122] - - [120] "Comb of the honey and milk of the nut" (in Gaelic _cir - na meala 'is bainne nan cnò_) was given as a tonic to weakly - children, and is still remembered, the Rev. Kenneth MacLeod, - Colonsay, informs me. - - [121] Standish H. O'Grady, _Silva Gadelica_, p. 505. - - [122] _A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland_, pp. 100-2 - and 367-8. - -Important evidence regarding the milk elixir and the associated myths -and doctrines is preserved in the ancient religious literature of -India and especially in the _Mahá-bhárata_. The Indian Hathor is the -cow-mother Surabhi, who sprang from Amrita (Soma) in the mouth of -the Grandfather (Brahma). A single jet of her milk gave origin to -"Milky Ocean". The milk "mixing with the water" appeared as foam, -and was the only nourishment of the holy men called "Foam drinkers". -Divine milk was also obtained from "milk-yielding trees", which were -the "children" of one of her daughters. These trees included nut -trees. Another daughter was the mother of birds of the parrot species -(oracular birds). In the Vedic poems _soma_, a drink prepared from a -plant, is said to have been mixed with milk and honey, and mention -is made of "_Su-soma_" ("river of Soma"). _Madhu_ (mead) was a drink -identified with _soma_, or milk and honey.[123] - - [123] Macdonell and Keith, _Vedic Index_, under _Soma_ and - _Madhu_. - -There are rivers of mead in the Celtic Paradise. Certain trees are -in Irish lore associated with rivers that were regarded as sacred. -These were not necessarily milk-yielding trees. In Gaul the plane -tree took the place of the southern fig tree. The elm tree in Ireland -and Scotland was similarly connected with the ancient milk cult. -One of the old names for new milk, found in "Cormac's Glossary", is -_lemlacht_, the later form of which is _leamhnacht_. From the same -root (_lem_) comes _leamh_, the name of the elm. The River Laune -in Killarney is a rendering of the Gaelic name _leamhain_, which in -Scotland is found as Leven, the river that gave its name to the area -known as Lennox (ancient _Leamhna_). Milk place-names in Ireland -include "new milk lake" (Lough Alewnaghta) in Galway, "which", -Joyce suggests, "may have been so called from the softness of its -water". A mythological origin of the name is more probable. Wounds -received in battle were supposed to be healed in baths of the milk -of white hornless cows.[124] In Irish blood-covenant ceremonies new -milk, blood, and wine were mixed and drunk by warriors.[125] As late -as the twelfth century a rich man's child was in Ireland immersed -immediately after birth in new milk.[126] In Rome, in the ninth -century, at the Easter-eve baptism the chalice was filled "not with -wine but with milk and honey, that they may understand ... that they -have entered already upon the promised land".[127] - - [124] Joyce, _Irish Names of Places_, Vol. I, pp. 507-9, Vol. II, - pp. 206-7 and 345· Marsh mallows (_leamh_) appear to have been - included among the herbals of the milk-cult as the soma-plant was - in India. - - [125] _Revue Celtique_, Vol. XIII, p. 75. - - [126] Warren, _Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church_, p. 67. - - [127] Henderson's _Survivals_, p. 218. - -The beliefs associated with the apple, rowan, hazel, and oak trees -were essentially the same. These trees provided the fruits of -longevity and knowledge, or the wine which was originally regarded -as an elixir that imparted new life and inspired those who drank it -to prophecy[128]. The oak provided acorns which were eaten. Although -it does not bear red berries like the rowan, a variety of the oak -is greatly favoured by the insect _Kermes_, "which yields a scarlet -dye nearly equal to cochineal, and is the 'scarlet' mentioned in -Scripture". This fact is of importance as the early peoples attached -much value to colour and especially to red, the colour of life blood. -Withal, acorn-cups "are largely imported from the Levant for the -purposes of tanning, dyeing, and making ink".[129] A seafaring people -like the ancient Britons must have tanned the skins used for boats -so as to prevent them rotting on coming into contact with water. Dr. -Joyce writes of the ancient Irish in this connection, "Curraghs[130] -or wicker-boats were often covered with leather. A jacket of hard, -tough, tanned leather was sometimes worn in battle as a protecting -corslet. Bags made of leather, and often of undressed skins, were -pretty generally used to hold liquids. There was a sort of leather -wallet or bag called _crioll_, used like a modern travelling bag, to -hold clothes and other soft articles. The art of tanning was well -understood in ancient Ireland. The name for a tanner was _sudaire_, -which is still a living word. Oak bark was employed, and in -connection with this use was called _coirteach_ (Latin, _cortex_)." -The oak-god protected seafarers by making their vessels sea-worthy. - - [128] Rowan-berry wine was greatly favoured. There are Gaelic - references to "the wine of the apple (cider)". - - [129] George Nicholson, _Encyclopædia of Horticulture_, under - "Oak". - - [130] Curragh is connected with the Latin _corium_, a hide. - -Mistletoe berries may have been regarded as milk-berries because -of their colour, and the ceremonial cutting of the mistletoe with -the golden sickle may well have been a ceremony connected with the -fertilization of trees practised in the East. The mistletoe was -reputed to be an "all-heal", although really it is useless for -medicinal purposes. - -That complex ideas were associated with deities imported into this -country, the history of which must be sought for elsewhere, is made -manifest when we find that, in the treeless Outer Hebrides, the -goddess known as the "maiden queen" has her dwelling in a tree and -provides the "milk of knowledge" from a sea-shell. She could not -possibly have had independent origin in Scotland. Her history is -rooted in ancient Egypt, where Hathor, the provider of the milk -of knowledge and longevity, was, as has been indicated, connected -with the starry sky (the Milky Way), a sea-shell, the milk-yielding -sycamore fig, and the primeval cow. - -The cult animal of the goddess was in Egypt the star-spangled cow; -in Troy it was a star-spangled sow[131]. The cult animal of Rome was -the wolf which suckled Romulus and Remus. In Crete the local Zeus was -suckled, according to the belief of one cult, by a horned sheep[132], -and according to another cult by a sow. There were various cult -animals in ancient Scotland, including the tabooed pig, the red deer -milked by the fairies, the wolf, and the cat of the "Cat" tribes -in Shetland, Caithness, &c. The cow appears to have been sacred to -certain peoples in ancient Britain and Ireland. It would appear, too, -that there was a sacred dog in Ireland.[133] - - [131] Schliemann, _Troy and Its Remains_, p. 232. - - [132] _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, Vol. XXI, p. 129. - - [133] It was because Zeus had been suckled by a sow that the - Cretans, as Athenæus records, "will not taste its flesh" - (Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, Vol. I, p. 37). In Ireland - the dog was taboo to Cuchullin. There is a good deal of Gaelic - lore about the sacred cow. - -It is evident that among the Eastern beliefs anciently imported into -the British Isles were some which still bear traces of the influence -of cults and of culture mixing. That religious ideas of Egyptian -and Babylonian origin were blended in this country there can be -little doubt, for the Gaelic-speaking peoples, who revered the hazel -as the Egyptians revered the sycamore, regarded the liver as the -seat of life, as did the Babylonians, and not the heart, as did the -Egyptians. In translations of ancient Gaelic literature "liver" is -always rendered as "vitals". - - [Illustration: Cult Animals and "Wonder Beasts" (dragons or - makaras) on Scottish Sculptured Stones] - -It is of special interest to note that Siret has found evidence to -show that the Tree Cult of the Easterners was connected with the -early megalithic monuments. The testimony of tradition associates -the stone circles, &c., with the Druids. "We are now obliged", -he writes[134], "to go back to the theory of the archæologists of -a hundred years ago who attributed the megalithic monuments to the -Druids. The instinct of our predecessors has been more penetrating -than the scientific analysis which has taken its place." In Gaelic, -as will be shown, the words for a sacred grove and the shrine within -a grove are derived from the same root _nem_. (See also Chapter IX in -this connection.) - - [134] _L'Anthropologie_ (1921), pp. 268 _et seq._ - - - - -CHAPTER XIII - -The Lore of Charms - - The Meaning of "Luck"--Symbolism of Charms--Colour - Symbolism--Death as a Change--Food and Charms for the Dead--The - Lucky Pearl--Pearl Goddess--Moon as "Pearl of Heaven"--Sky - Goddess connected with Pearls, Groves, and Wells--Night-shining - Jewels--Pearl and Coral as "Life Givers"--The Morrigan and - Morgan le Fay--Goddess Freyja and Jewels--Amber connected - with Goddess and Boar--"Soul Substance" in Amber, Jet, Coral, - &c.--Enamel as Substitute for Coral, &c.--Precious Metal and - Precious Stones--Goddess of Life and Law--Pearl as a Standard - of Value in Gaelic Trade. - - -Our ancestors were greatly concerned about their luck. They consulted -oracles to discover what luck was in store for them. To them luck -meant everything they most desired--good health, good fortune, -an abundant food supply, and protection against drowning, wounds -in battle, accidents, and so on. Luck was ensured by performing -ceremonies and wearing charms. Some ceremonies were performed round -sacred bon-fires (bone fires), when sacrifices were made, at holy -wells, in groves, or in stone circles. Charms included precious -stones, coloured stones, pearls, and articles of silver, gold, -or copper of symbolic shape, or bearing an image or inscription. -Mascots, "lucky pigs", &c., are relics of the ancient custom of -wearing charms. - -The colour as well as the shape of a charm revealed its particular -influence. Certain colours are still regarded as being lucky or -unlucky ("yellow is forsaken" some say). In ancient times colours -meant much to the Britons, as they did to other peoples. This -fact is brought out in many tales and customs. A Welsh story, for -instance, which refers to the appearance of supernatural beings -attired in red and blue, says, "The red on the one part signifies -burning, and the blue on the other signifies coldness".[135] - - [135] Lady Charlotte Guest, _The Mabinogion_ (Story of "Kilwch - and Olwen" and note on "Gwyn the son of Nudd"). - -On their persisting belief in luck were based the religious ideas and -practices of the ancient Britons. Their chief concern was to protect -and prolong life in this world and in the next. When death came it -was regarded as "a change". The individual was supposed either to -fall asleep, or to be transported in the body to Paradise, or to -assume a new form. In Scottish Gaelic one can still hear the phrase -_chaochail e_ ("he changed") used to signify that "he died".[136] -But after death charms were as necessary as during life. As in -Aurignacian times, luck-charms in the form of necklaces, armlets, -&c., were placed in the graves of the dead by those who used flint, -or bronze, or iron to shape implements and weapons. The dead had to -receive nourishment, and clay vessels are invariably found in ancient -graves, some of which contain dusty deposits. The writer has seen at -Fortrose a deposit in one of these grave urns, which a medical man -identified as part of the skeleton of a bird. - - [136] Also _shiubhail e_ which signifies "he went off" (as when - walking). - -Necklaces of shells, of wild animals' teeth, and ornaments of ivory -found in Palæolithic graves or burial caves were connected with -the belief that they contained the animating influence or "life -substance" of the mother goddess. In later times the pearl found in -the shell was regarded as being specially sacred. - -Venus (Aphrodite) is, in one of her phases, the personification of -a pearl, and is lifted from the sea seated on a shell. As a sky -deity she was connected with the planet that bears her name[137] -and also with the moon. The ancients connected the moon with the -pearl. In some languages the moon is the "pearl of heaven". Dante, -in his _Inferno_, refers to the moon as "the eternal pearl". One of -the Gaelic names for a pearl is _neamhnuid_. The root is _nem_ of -_neamh_, and _neamh_ is "heaven", so that the pearl is "a heavenly -thing" in Gaelic, as in other ancient languages. It was associated -not only with the sky goddess but with the sacred grove in which -the goddess was worshipped. The Gaulish name _nemeton_, of which -the root is likewise _nem_, means "shrine in a grove". In early -Christian times in Ireland the name was applied as _nemed_ to a -chapel, and in Scottish place-names[138] it survives in the form of -_neimhidh_, "church-land", the Englished forms of which are _Navity_, -near Cromarty, _Navaty_ in Fife, "Rosneath", formerly Rosneveth -(the promontory of the _nemed_), "Dalnavie" (dale of the _nemed_), -"Cnocnavie" (hillock of the _nemed_), Inchnavie (island of the -_nemed_), &c. The Gauls had a _nemetomarus_ ("great shrine"), and -when in Roman times a shrine was dedicated to Augustus it was called -_Augustonemeton_. The root _nem_ is in the Latin word _nemus_ (a -grove). It was apparently because the goddess of the grove was the -goddess of the sky and of the pearl, and the goddess of battle as -well as the goddess of love, that Julius Cæsar made a thanksgiving -offering to Venus in her temple at Rome of a corslet of British -pearls. - - [137] When depicted with star-spangled garments she was the - goddess of the starry sky ("Milky Way") like the Egyptian Hathor - or Nut. - - [138] Professor W. J. Watson, _Place-names of Ross and Cromarty_, - pp. 62-3. - -The Irish goddess Nemon was the spouse of the war god Neit. A Roman -inscription at Bath refers to the British goddess N[)e]m[)e]t[)o]na. -The Gauls had a goddess of similar name. In Galatia, Asia Minor, the -particular tree connected with the sky goddess was the oak, as is -shown by the name of their religious centre which was _Dru-nemeton_ -("Oak-grove"). It will be shown in a later chapter that the sacred -tree was connected with the sky and the deities of the sky, with the -sacred wells and rivers, with the sacred fish, and with the fire, -the sun, and lightning. Here it may be noted that the sacred well is -connected with the holy grove, the sky, the pearl, and the mother -goddess in the Irish place-name _Neamhnach_ (Navnagh),[139] applied -to the well from which flows the stream of the Nith. The well is -thus, like the pearl, "the heavenly one". The root _nem_ of _neamh_ -(heaven) is found in the name of St. Brendan's mother, who was called -_Neamhnat_ (Navnat), which means "little" or "dear heavenly one". -In _neamhan_ ("raven" and "crow") the bird form of the deity is -enshrined. - - [139] Dr. Joyce, _Irish Names of Places_, Vol. I, p. 375. - - [Illustration: - - Upper picture by courtesy of Director, British School of Rome - - MEGALITHS - - Upper: Dolmen near Birori, Sardinia. Lower: Tynewydd Dolmen.] - -Owing to its connection with the moon, the pearl was supposed to -shine by night. The same peculiarity was attributed to certain -sacred stones, to coral, jade, &c., and to ivory. Munster people -perpetuate the belief that "at the bottom of the lower lake of -Killarney there is a diamond of priceless value, which sometimes -shines so brightly that on certain nights the light bursts forth with -dazzling brilliancy through the dark waters".[140] Night-shining -jewels are known in Scotland. One is suppose to shine on Arthur's -Seat, Edinburgh, and another on the north "souter" of the Cromarty -Firth.[141] Another sacred stone connected with the goddess was the -onyx, which in ancient Gaelic is called _nem_. Night-shining jewels -are referred to in the myths of Greece, Arabia, Persia, India, -China, Japan, &c. Laufer has shown that the Chinese received their -lore about the night-shining diamond from "Fu-lin" (the Byzantine -Empire).[142] - - [140] _Ibid._, Vol. II, p. 378. - - [141] The two headlands, the "souters" or "sutors", are supposed - to have been so called because they were sites of tanneries. - - [142] _The Diamond_ (Chicago, 1915). - -The ancient pearl-fishers spread their pearl-lore far and wide. It -is told in more than one land that pearls are formed by dew-drops -from the sky. Pliny says the dew-or rain-drops fall into the shells -of the pearl-oyster when it gapes.[143] In modern times the belief -is that pearls are the congealed tears of the angels. In Greece the -pearl was called _margaritoe_, a name which survives in Margaret, -anciently the name of a goddess. The old Persian name for pearl is -_margan_, which signifies "life giver". It is possible that this is -the original meaning of the name of Morgan le Fay (Morgan the Fairy), -who is remembered as the sister of King Arthur, and of the Irish -goddess Morrigan, usually Englished as "Sea-queen" (the sea as the -source of life), or "great queen". At any rate, Morgan le Fay and the -Morrigan closely resemble one another. In Italian we meet with Fata -Morgana. - - [143] _Natural History_, Book IX. Chap. LIV. - -The old Persian word for coral is likewise _margan_. Coral was -supposed to be a tree, and it was regarded as the sea-tree of the -sea and sky goddess. Amber was connected, too, with the goddess. In -northern mythology, amber, pearls, precious stones, and precious -metals were supposed to be congealed forms of the tears of the -goddess Freyja, the Venus of the Scandinavians. - -Amber, like pearls, was sacred to the mother goddess because her life -substance (the animating principle) was supposed to be concentrated -in it. The connection between the precious or sacred amber and the -goddess and her cult animal is brought out in a reference made by -Tacitus to the amber collectors and traders on the southern shore -of the Baltic. These are the Æstyans, who, according to Tacitus, -were costumed like the Swedes, but spoke a language resembling the -dialect of the Britons. "They worship", the historian records, -"the mother of the gods. The figure of a wild boar is the symbol -of their superstition; and he who has that emblem about him thinks -himself secure even in the thickest ranks of the enemy without any -need of arms or any other mode of defence."[144] The animal of the -amber goddess was thus the boar, which was the sacred animal of the -Celtic tribe, the Iceni of ancient Britain, which under Boadicea -revolted against Roman rule. The symbol of the boar (remembered as -the "lucky pig") is found on ancient British armour. On the famous -Witham shield there are coral and enamel. Three bronze boar symbols -found in a field at Hounslow are preserved in the British Museum. In -the same field was found a solar-wheel symbol. "The boar frequently -occurs in British and Gaulish coins of the period, and examples have -been found as far off as Gurina and Transylvania."[145] Other sacred -cult animals were connected with the goddess by those people who -fished for pearls and coral or searched for sacred precious stones or -precious metals. - - [144] Tacitus, _Manners of the Germans_, Chap. XLV. - - [145] _British Museum Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron - Age_, pp. 135-6. - -At the basis of the ancient religious system that connected coral, -shells, and pearls with the mother goddess of the sea, wells, rivers, -and lakes, was the belief that all life had its origin in water. -Pearls, amber, marsh plants, and animals connected with water were -supposed to be closely associated with the goddess who herself had -had her origin in water. Tacitus tells that the Baltic worshippers -of the mother goddess called amber _glesse_. According to Pliny[146] -it was called _glessum_ by the Germans, and he tells that one of -the Baltic islands famous for its amber was named _Glessaria_. The -root is the Celtic word _glas_, which originally meant "water" and -especially life-giving water. Boece (_Cosmographie_, Chapter XV) -tells that in Scotland the belief prevailed that amber was generated -of sea-froth. It thus had its origin like Aphrodite. _Glas_ is now a -colour term in Welsh and Gaelic, signifying green or grey, or even -a shade of blue. It was anciently used to denote vigour, as in the -term _Gaidheal glas_ ("the vigorous Gael" or "the ambered Gael", the -vigour being derived from the goddess of amber and the sea); and in -the Latinized form of the old British name Cuneglasos, which like the -Irish Conglas signified "vigorous hound".[147] Here the sacred hound -figures in place of the sacred boar. - - [146] _Natural History_, Book XXXVIII, Chapter III. - - [147] Rhys rejects the view of Gildas that "Cuneglasos" meant - "tawny butcher". - -From the root _glas_ comes also _glaisin_, the Gaelic name for woad, -the blue dyestuff with which ancient Britons and Gaels stained or -tattooed their bodies with figures of sacred animals or symbols,[148] -apparently to secure protection as did those who had the boar symbol -on their armour. For the same reason Cuchullin, the Irish Achilles, -wore pearls in his hair, and the Roman Emperor Caligula had a pearl -collar on his favourite horse. Ice being a form of water is in French -_glacé_, which also means "glass". When glass beads were first -manufactured they were regarded, like amber, as depositories of "life -substance" from the water goddess who, as sky goddess, was connected -with sun and fire. Her fire melted the constituents of glass into -liquid form, and it hardened like jewels and amber. These beads -were called "adder stones" (Welsh _glain neidre_ and "Druid's gem" -or "glass"--in Welsh _Gleini na Droedh_ and in Gaelic _Glaine nan -Druidhe_). - - [148] Herodian, Lib. III, says of the inhabitants of Caledonia, - "They mark their bodies with various pictures of all manner of - animals". - -A special peculiarity about amber is that when rubbed vigorously -it attracts or lifts light articles. That is why it is called in -Persian Kahruba (_Kah_, straw; _ruba_, to lift). This name appears in -modern French as _carabé_ (yellow amber). In Italian, Spanish, and -Portuguese it is _carabe_. No doubt the early peoples, who gathered -Adriatic and Baltic amber and distributed it and its lore far and -wide, discovered this peculiar quality in the sacred substance. In -Britain, jet was used in the same way as amber for luck charms and -ornaments. Like amber it becomes negatively electric by friction. -Bede appears to have believed that jet was possessed of special -virtue. "When heated", he says, "it drives away serpents."[149] The -Romans regarded jet as a depository of supernatural power[150] and -used it for ornaments. Until comparatively recently jet was used in -Scotland as a charm against witchcraft, the evil eye, &c. "A ring -of hard black schistus found in a cairn in the parish of Inchinan", -writes a local Scottish historian, "has performed, if we believe -report, many astonishing cures."[151] Albertite, which, like jet and -amber, attracts light articles when vigorously rubbed, was made into -ornaments. It takes on a finer lustre than jet but loses it sooner. - - [149] Book I. Chapter I. - - [150] Pliny, Lib. XXXVI. cap. 34. - - [151] Ure's _History of Rutherglen and Kilbride_, p. 219. - -The fact that jet, albertite, and other black substances were -supposed to be specially efficacious for protecting black horses and -cattle is of peculiar interest. Hathor, the cow goddess of Egypt, -had a black as well as a white form as goddess of the night sky -and death. She was the prototype of the black Aphrodite (Venus). -In Scotland a black goddess (the _nigra dea_ in Adamnan's _Life of -Columba_) was associated with Loch Lochy. - -The use of coral as a sacred substance did not begin in Britain until -the knowledge of iron working was introduced. Coral is not found -nearer than the Mediterranean. The people who first brought it to -Britain must have received it and the beliefs attached to it from the -Mediterranean area. Before reaching Britain they had begun to make -imitation coral. The substitute was enamel, which required for its -manufacture great skill and considerable knowledge, furnaces capable -of generating an intense heat being necessary. It is inconceivable -that so expensive a material could have been produced except for -religious purposes. The warriors apparently believed that coral and -its substitutes protected them as did amber and the boar symbol of -the mother goddess. - -At first red enamel was used as a substitute for red coral, but -ultimately blue, yellow, and white enamels were produced. Sometimes -we find, as at Traprain in Scotland, that silver took the place of -white enamel. It is possible that blue enamel was a substitute for -turquoise and lapis lazuli, the precious stones associated with the -mother goddesses of Hathor type, and that yellow and white enamels -were substitutes for yellow and white amber. The Greeks called white -amber "electrum". The symbolism of gold and silver links closely -with that of amber. Possibly the various sacred substances and their -substitutes were supposed to protect different parts of the body. -As much is suggested, for instance, by the lingering belief that -amber protects and strengthens the eyes. The solar cult connected -the ear and the ear-ring with the sun, which was one of the "eyes" -of the world-deity, the other "eye" being the moon. When human ears -were pierced, the blood drops were offered to the sun-god. Sailors -of a past generation clung to the ancient notion that gold ear-rings -exercised a beneficial influence on their eyes. Not only the colours -of luck objects, but their shapes were supposed to ensure luck. The -Swashtika symbol, the U-form, the S-form, and 8-form symbols, the -spiral, the leaf-shaped and equal-limbed crosses, &c., were supposed -to "attract" and "radiate" the influence of the deity. Thus Buddhists -accumulate religious "merit" not only by fasting and praying, but by -making collections of jewels and symbols. - -In Britain, as in other countries, the deity was closely associated -as an influence with law. A Roman inscription on a slab found at -Carvoran refers to the mother goddess "poising life and laws in a -balance". This was Ceres, whose worship had been introduced during -the Roman period, but similar beliefs were attached to the ancient -goddesses of Britain. Vows were taken over objects sacred to her, and -sacred objects were used as mediums of exchange. In old Gaelic, for -instance, a jewel or pearl was called a _set_; in modern Gaelic it is -_sed_ (pronounced _shade_). A _set_ (pearl) was equal in value to an -ounce of gold and to a cow. An ounce of gold was therefore a _set_ -and a cow was a _set_, too. Three _sets_ was the value of a bondmaid. -The value of three sets was one _cumal_. Another standard of value -was a sack of corn (_miach_).[152] - - [152] Joyce, _A Smaller Social History of Ancient Ireland_, p. - 478. - -The value attached to gold and pearls was originally magical. -Jewels and precious metals were searched for for to bring wearers -"luck"--that is, everything their hearts desired. The search for -these promoted trade, and the _sets_ were used as a standard of value -between traders. Thus not only religious systems, but even the early -systems of trade were closely connected with the persistent belief in -luck and the deity who was the source of luck.[153] - - [153] Professor W. J. Watson has drawn my attention to an - interesting reference to amber. In the _Proceedings of the - British Academy_, Vol. II, p. 18, under "Celtic Inscriptions of - France and Italy", Sir John Rhys deals with Vebrumaros, a man's - name. The second element in this name is _m[=a]ros_ (great); the - first, _uebru_, "is perhaps to be explained by reference to the - Welsh word _gwefr_ (amber)". Rhys thought the name meant that the - man was distinguished for his display of amber "in the adornment - of his person". The name had probably a deeper significance. - Amber was closely associated with the mother goddess. One of her - names may have been "Uebru". She personified amber. - - - - -CHAPTER XIV - -The World of Our Ancestors - - "All Heals"--Influences of Cardinal Points--The Four Red - Divisions of the World--The Black North, White South, Purple - East, and Dun or Pale East--Good and Bad Words connected - with South and North--North the left, South the right, East - in front, and West behind--Cardinal Points Doctrine in - Burial Customs--Stone Circle Burials--Christian and Pagan - Burial Rites--Sunwise Customs--Raising the Devil in Stone - Circle--Coloured Winds--Coloured Stones raise Winds--The "God - Body" and "Spirit Husk"--Deities and Cardinal Points--Axis - of Stonehenge Avenue--God and Goddesses of Circle--Well - Worship--Lore of Druids. - - -The ancient superstitions dealt with in the previous chapter afford -us glimpses of the world in which our ancestors lived, and some idea -of the incentives that caused them to undertake long and perilous -journeys in search of articles of religious value. They were as -greatly concerned as are their descendants about their health and -their fate. Everything connected with the deity, or possessing, as -was believed, the influence of the deity, was valuable as a charm or -as medicine. The mistletoe berry was a famous medicine because it was -the fruit of a parasite supposed to contain the "life substance" of a -powerful deity. It was an "All Heal" or "Cure All",[154] yet it was -a quack medicine and quite useless. Red earth was "blood earth"; it -contained the animating principle too. Certain herbs were supposed -to be curative. Some herbs were, and in the course of time their -precise qualities were identified. But many of them continued in -use, although quite useless, because of the colour of their berries, -the shape of their leaves, or the position in which they grew. If -one red-berried plant was "lucky" or curative, all red-berried -plants shared in its reputation. It was because of the lore attached -to colours that dusky pearls were preferred to white pearls, just -as in Ceylon yellow pearls are chiefly favoured because yellow is -the sacred colour of the Buddhists. Richard of Cirencester,[155] -referring to Bede, says that British pearls are "often of the best -kind and of every colour: that is, red, purple, violet, green, but -principally white". - - [154] Richard of Cirencester (fourteenth century) says the - mistletoe increased the number of animals, and was considered as - a specific against all poisons (Book I, Chap. IV). - - [155] Book I. Chap. V. - -In the lore of plants, in religious customs, including burial -customs, and in beliefs connected with the seasons, weather, and -sacred sites, there are traces of a doctrine based on the belief that -good or bad influences "flowed" from the cardinal points, just as -good or bad influences "flowed" from gems, metals, wood, and water. -When, for instance, certain herbs were pulled from the ground, it -was important that one should at the time of the operation be facing -the south. A love-enticing plant had to be plucked in this way, and -immediately before sunrise. - -There was much superstition in weather lore, as the beliefs connected -with St. Swithin's Day indicate. Certain days were lucky for removals -in certain directions. Saturday was the day for flitting northward, -and Monday for flitting southward. Monday was "the key of the week". -An old Gaelic saying, repeated in various forms in folk stories, runs: - - Shut the north window, - And quickly close the window to the south; - And shut the window facing west, - Evil never came from the east. - -South-running water was "powerful" for working protective charms; -north-running water brought evil. - - [Illustration: Diagram of the Gaelic Airts (Cardinal Points) and - their Associated Colours referred to in the text - - Spring was connected with the east, summer with the south, autumn - with the west, and winter with the north.] - -The idea behind these and other similar beliefs was that "the four -red divisions" or the "four brown divisions" of the world were -controlled by deities or groups of deities, whose influences for good -or evil were continually "flowing", and especially when winds were -blowing. A good deity sent a good wind, and a bad deity sent a bad -wind. Each wind was coloured. The north was the airt[156] (cardinal -point) of evil, misfortune, and bad luck, and was coloured black; -the south was the source of good luck, good fortune, summer, and -longevity, and was coloured white; the east was a specially sacred -airt, and was coloured purple-red, while the west was the airt of -death, and was coloured dun or pale. East and south and north and -west were connected. There were various colours for the subsidiary -points of the compass. - - [156] This excellent Gaelic word is current in Scotland. Burns - uses it in the line, "O' a' the airts the wind can blaw". - -This doctrine was a very ancient one, because we find that in the -Gaelic language the specially good words are based on the word for -the south, and the specially bad ones on the name for the north. In -Welsh and Gaelic the north is on the left hand and the south on the -right hand, the east in front, and the west behind. It is evident, -therefore, that the colour scheme of the cardinal points had a -connection with sun worship. A man who adored the rising sun faced -the east, and had the north on his left and the south on his right. -In early Christian Gaelic literature it is stated that on the Day -of Judgment the goats (sinners) will be sent to the north (the left -hand) and the sheep (the justified) to the south (the right hand). - -The same system can be traced in burial customs. Many of the ancient -graves lie east and west. Graves that lie north and south may have -been those of the members of a different religious cult, but in some -cases it is found that the dead were placed in position so that they -faced the east. In the most ancient graves in Egypt men were laid on -their right sides with their feet directed towards the "red north" -and their faces towards the golden east. Women were laid on the left -sides facing the east. Red was in ancient Egypt the male colour, and -white and yellow the female colours; the feet of the men were towards -the red north and those of women towards the white or yellow south. - -All ancient British burials were not made in accordance with -solar-cult customs. It can be shown, however, in some cases that, -although a burial custom may appear to be either of local or of -independent origin, the fundamental doctrine of which it was an -expression was the same as that behind other burial customs. -Reference may be made, by way of illustration, to the graves at the -stone circle of Hakpen Hill in the Avebury area. In the seventeenth -century a large number of skeletons were here unearthed. Dr. Toope of -Oxford, writing in 1685, has recorded in this connection:[157] - - "About 80 yards from where the bones were found is a - temple,[158] 40 yards diameter, with another 15 yards; round - about bones layd so close that scul (skull) toucheth scul. - Their feet all round turned towards the temple, one foot below - the surface of the ground. At the feet of the first order lay - the head of the next row, the feet always tending towards the - temple." - - [157] Quoted by Sir H. Colt Hoare in _Ancient Wiltshire_, II. p. - 63. - - [158] Stone circle. - -Here the stone circle is apparently the symbol of the sun and the -"Mecca" from which the good influence or "luck" of the sun emanated -and gave protection. One seems to come into touch with the influence -of an organized priesthood in this stone circle burial custom. - -The more ancient custom of burying the dead so that the influences -of the airts might be exercised upon them according to their deserts -seems, however, to have been deep-rooted and persistent. In England, -Wales, Scotland, and Ireland the custom obtained until recently of -reserving the north side of a churchyard for suicides and murderers; -the "black north" was the proper place for such wrong-doers, who -were refused Christian rites of burial, and were interred according -to traditional pagan customs. The east was reserved chiefly for -ecclesiastics, the south for the upper classes, and the west for the -poorer classes. Funeral processions still enter the older churchyards -from the east, and proceed in the direction of the sun towards the -open graves. Suicides and murderers were carried in the opposite -direction ("withershins about").[159] The custom of dealing out cards -"sunwise", of stirring food "sunwise", and other customs in which -turning to the right (the south) is observed, appear to be relics of -the ancient belief in the influences of the airts. Some fishermen -still consider it unlucky to turn their boats "against the sun". -It was anciently believed, as references in old ballads indicate, -that a tempest-stricken vessel turned round three times against the -sun before it sank. According to a belief that has survival in some -parts of the north of Scotland, the devil will appear in the centre -of a stone circle if one walks round it three times "against the -sun" at midnight. Among the ancient Irish warriors, Professor W. J. -Watson tells me, it was a mark of hostile intent to drive round a -fort keeping the left hand towards it. The early Christian custom of -circulating chapels and dwelling-houses "sunwise" was based on the -pagan belief that good influences were conjured in this way. - - [159] In Gaelic _deis-iùil_ means a turning sunwise (by the right - or south) from east to west, and _tual_, i.e. _tuath-iùil_, a - turning by the north or left from east to west. _Deis_ is the - genitive of _Deas_ (south, right hand), and _Tuath_ is north or - left hand. - -As the winds were coloured like the airts from which they blew, it -was believed that they could be influenced by coloured objects. In -his description of the Western Isles, Martin, a seventeenth century -writer, referring to the Fladda Chuan Island, relates: - - "There is a chapel in the isle dedicated to St. Columba. It has - an altar in the east end and therein a blue stone of a round - form on it, which is always moist. It is an ordinary custom, - when any of the fishermen are detained in the isle by contrary - winds, to wash the blue stone with water all round, expecting - thereby to procure a favourable wind.... And so great is the - regard they have for this stone, that they swear decisive oaths - upon it." - - [Illustration: - - Valentine - - ONE OF THE GREAT TRI-LITHONS, STONEHENGE - - (see page 174)] - -The moist stone had an indwelling spirit, and was therefore a -holy object which made vows and agreements of binding character. In -Japan a stone of this kind is called _shintai_ ("god body"). The -Gaelic name for a god body is "_cuach anama_" ("soul shrine", or -"spirit-case", or "spirit-husk"). _Coich na cno_ is the shell of -a nut. The Chinese believe that moist and coloured stones are the -"eggs" of weather-controlling dragons. - -The connection between blue and the mother goddess is of great -antiquity. Imitation cowries and other shells in blue enamelled -terra-cotta have been found in Egyptian graves. Blue was the colour -of the "luck stone" of Hathor, the sky and water goddess whose -symbols included the cowrie. The Brigantes of ancient Britain had, -according to Seneca, blue shields. Shields were connected with the -goddess of war. In Gaelic, blue is the luck colour for womens' -clothing.[160] English and Scottish fishermen still use blue as a -mourning colour. When a death takes place, a blue line is painted -round a fishing-boat. The desire for protection by invoking the blue -goddess probably gave origin to this custom. - - [160] The following stanza is from the "Book of Ballymote": - - Mottled to simpletons; blue to women; - Crimson to kings of every host; - Green and black to noble laymen; - White to clerics of proper devotion. - -As influences came from the coloured airts, so did the great deities -and the groups of minor deities associated with them. The god Lugh, -for instance, always comes in the old stories from the north-east, -while the goddess Morrigan comes from the north-west.[161] The fierce -wind-raising Scottish goddess of spring comes from the south-west. -All over Britain the fairies come from the west and on eddies of wind -like the Greek nereids. In Scotland the evil-working giants come -from the black north. It was believed that the dead went westward -or south-westward towards Paradise. The fact that the axis of -Stonehenge circle and avenue points to the north-east is of special -interest when we find that the god Lugh, a Celtic Apollo, came from -that airt. Either Lugh, or a god like him, may have been invoked to -come through the avenue or to send his influence through it, while -the priests walked in procession round the circle sunwise. Apparently -the south-west part of the circle, with its great trilithons, -resembling the portals of the goddess Artemis, was specially -consecrated to a goddess like the Scottish Cailleach ("Old Wife") -who had herds of wild animals, protected deer from huntsmen, raised -storms, and transformed herself into a standing stone. The Gaulish -goddess Ro-smerta ("very smeared") is regularly associated with the -god identified with Mercury. The god Smertullis is equated with Essus -(the war god) by d'Arbois de Jubainville. - - [161] In the Cuchullin Saga Lugh is "a lone man out of the - north-eastern quarter". When the cry of another supernatural - being is heard, Cuchullin asks from which direction it came. He - is told "from the north-west". The goddess Morrigan then appeared. - -The differently coloured winds were divine influences and revealed -their characters by their colours. It was apparently because water -was impregnated with the influences of the deities that wind and -water beliefs were closely associated. Holy and curative wells -and sacred rivers and lakes were numerous in ancient Britain and -Ireland. Offerings made at wells were offerings made to a deity. -These offerings might be gold and silver, as was the case in Gaul, -or simply pins of copper. A good many wells are still known as "pin -wells" and "penny wells". The metals and pearls and precious stones -supposed to contain vital substance were offered to the deities so -as to animate them. The images of gods were painted red for the same -reason, or sacrifices were offered and their altars drenched with -blood. In Ireland children were sacrificed to a god called Crom -Cruach and exchanged for milk and corn. As a Gaelic poem records: - - Great was the horror and the scare of him. - -The ancient doctrines of which faint or fragmentary traces survive -in Britain and Ireland may have been similar to those taught by the -Druids in Gaul. According to Pomponius Mela, these sages professed to -know the secrets of the motions of the heavenly bodies and the will -of the gods.[162] Strabo's statement that the Druids believed that -"human souls and the world were immortal, but that fire and water -would sometime prevail" is somewhat obscure. It may be, however, that -light is thrown on the underlying doctrine by the evidence given in -the next chapter regarding the beliefs that fire, water, and trees -were intimately connected with the chief deity. - - [162] In a Cuchullin saga the hero, addressing the charioteer, - says: "Go out, my friend, observe the stars of the air, and - ascertain when midnight comes". The Irish Gaelic _grien-tairisem_ - is given in an eighth-or ninth-century gloss. It means - "sun-standing", and refers to the summer solstice. - - - - -CHAPTER XV - -Why Trees and Wells were Worshipped - - Ancient British Idols--Pagan Temples--Animism and Goddess - Worship--Trees and Wells connected with Sky--Life Principle in - Water--Sacred Berries, Nuts, and Acorns--Parasite as "King of - Trees"--Fire-making Beliefs--Tree and Thunder-god--The Sacred - Fish--Salmon as form of the Dragon--The Dragon Jewel--Celtic - Dragon Myth--The Salmon and the Solar Ring--Polycrates - Story--The St. Mungo Legends--Glasgow Coat of Arms--Holy Fire - from the Hazel--Hunting the Wren, Robin, and Mouse--Mouse - Lore and Mouse Deity--Mouse-Apollo in Britain--Goddess Bride - or Brigit--The Brigantian Chief Deity--Goddess of Fire, - Healing, Smith-work, and Poetry--Bride's Bird, Tree, and - Well--Mythical Serpents--Soul Forms--Souls in Reptiles, - Animals, and Trees--Were-animals--The Butterfly Deity--Souls as - Butterflies--Souls as Bees--a Hebridean Sea-god. - - -Gildas, a sixth-century churchman, tells us that the idols in ancient -Britain "almost surpassed in number those of Egypt". That he did not -refer merely to standing stones, which, as we have seen, were "idols" -to the Gaels, is evident from his precise statements that some idols -could be seen in his day "mouldering away within or without the -deserted temples", and that they had "stiff and deformed features". -"Mouldering" suggests wood. Gildas states further that besides -worshipping idols the British pagans were wont to pay "divine honour" -to hills and wells and rivers. Reference is made in the _Life of -Columba_ to a well which was worshipped as a god. - -The British temples are referred to also by Pope Gregory the Great, -who in a.d. 601 addressed a letter to Abbot Mellitus, then on a -mission to England, giving him instructions for the guidance of -Augustine of Canterbury. The Pope did not wish to have the heathen -buildings destroyed, "for", he wrote, "if those are well constructed, -it is requisite that they can be converted from the worship of demons -to the service of the true God.... Let the idols that are in them be -destroyed."[163] - - [163] Bede, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, Lib. I, cap. 30. - -The temples in question may have been those erected during the -Romano-British period. One which stood at Canterbury was taken -possession of by St. Augustine after the conversion of King -Ethelbert, who had worshipped idols in it. The Celtic peoples may, -however, have had temples before the Roman invasion. At any rate -there were temples as well as sacred groves in Gaul. Poseidonius of -Apamea refers to a temple at Toulouse which was greatly revered and -richly endowed by the gifts of numerous donors. These gifts included -"large quantities of gold consecrated to the gods". The Druids -crucified human victims who were sacrificed within their temples. - -Diodorus Siculus refers as follows to a famous temple in Britain: - - "There is in that island a magnificent temple of Apollo and a - circular shrine, adorned with votive offerings and tablets with - Greek inscriptions suspended by travellers upon the walls. The - kings of that city and rulers of the temples are the Boreads - who take up the government from each other according to the - order of their tribes. The citizens are given up to music, - harping and chaunting in honour of the sun." - -Some writers have identified this temple with Stonehenge circle. -Layamon informs us in his _Brute_, however, that the temple of Apollo -was situated in London. Of course there may have been several temples -to this god or the British deity identified with him. - -It may be that the stone circles were regarded as temples. It may be, -too, that temples constructed of wattles and clay were associated -with the circles. In Pope Gregory's letter reference is made to the -custom of constructing on festival days "tabernacles of branches of -trees around those churches which have been changed from heathen -temples", and to the pagan custom of slaying "oxen in sacrifices to -demons". Pytheas refers to a temple on an island opposite the mouth -of the Loire. This island was inhabited by women only, and once a -year they unroofed and reroofed their temple. In the Hebrides the -annual custom of unroofing and reroofing thatched houses is not yet -obsolete; it may originally have had a religious significance. - -Gildas's reference to the worship of hills, wells, and rivers is -by some writers regarded as evidence of the existence in ancient -Britain of the "primitive belief" in spirits. This stage of religious -culture is called Animism (Spiritism). The discovery, however, that -a goddess was worshipped in Aurignacian times by the Crô-Magnon -peoples in Western Europe suggests that Animistic beliefs were -not necessarily as ancient as has been assumed. It may be that -what we know as Animism was a product of a later period when there -arose somewhat complex ideas about the soul or the various souls -in man, and the belief became widespread that souls could not only -transform themselves into animal shapes, but could enter statues -and gravestones. This conception may have been confused with -earlier ideas about stones, shells, &c., being impregnated with -"life substance" (the animating principle) derived from the mother -goddess. Backward peoples, who adopted complex religious beliefs -that had grown up in centres of civilization, may not always have -had a complete understanding of their significance. It is difficult -to believe that even savages, who adopted the boats invented in -Egypt from those peoples that came into touch with them, were always -entirely immune to other cultural influences, and retained for -thousands of years the beliefs supposed to be appropriate for those -who were in the "Stone Age". - -Our concern here is with the ancient Britons. It is unnecessary for -us to glean evidence from Australia, South America, or Central Africa -to ascertain the character of their early religious conceptions -and practices. There is sufficient local evidence to show that a -definite body of beliefs lay behind their worship of trees, rivers, -lakes, wells, standing stones, and of the sun, moon, and stars. Our -ancestors do not appear to have worshipped natural objects either -because they were beautiful or impressive, but chiefly because they -were supposed to contain influences which affected mankind either -directly or indirectly. These influences were supposed to be under -divine control, and to emanate, in the first place, from one deity or -another, or from groups of deities. A god or goddess was worshipped -whether his or her influence was good or bad. The deity who sent -disease, for instance, was believed to be the controller of disease, -and to him or her offerings were made so that a plague might cease. -Thus in the _Iliad_ offerings are made to the god Mouse-Apollo, who -had caused an epidemic of disease. - -Trees and wells were connected with the sky and the heavenly bodies. -The deity who caused thunder and lightning had his habitation at -times in the oak, the fir, the rowan, the hazel, or some other tree. -He was the controller of the elements. There are references in Gaelic -charms to "the King of the Elements". - -The belief in an intimate connection between a well, a tree, and the -sky appears to have been a product of a quaint but not unintelligent -process of reasoning.[164] The early folk were thinkers, but their -reasoning was confined within the limits of their knowledge, and -biassed by preconceived ideas. To them water was the source of all -life. It fell from the sky as rain, or bubbled up from the underworld -to form a well from which a stream flowed. The well was the mother -of the stream, and the stream was the mother of the lake. It was -believed that the well-water was specially impregnated with the -influences that sustained life. The tree that grew beside the well -was nourished by it. If this tree was a rowan, its red berries were -supposed to contain in concentrated form the animating influence of -the deity; the berries cured diseases, and thus renewed youth, or -protected those who used them as charms against evil influences. They -were luck-berries. If the tree was a hazel, its nuts were similarly -efficacious; if an oak, its acorns were regarded likewise as -luck-bringers. The parasitic plant that grew on the tree was supposed -to be stronger and more influential than the tree itself. This -belief, which is so contrary to our way of thinking, is accounted for -in an old Gaelic story in which a supernatural being says: - - "O man that for Fergus of the feasts dost kindle fire ... never - burn the King of the Woods. Monarch of Innisfail's forest the - woodbine is, whom none may hold captive; no feeble sovereign's - effort it is to hug all tough trees in his embrace." - - [164] Of course it does not follow that the reasoning originally - took place in these islands. Complex beliefs were imported at an - early period. These were localized. - -The weakly parasite was thus regarded as being very powerful. That -may be the reason why the mistletoe was reverenced, and why its -milk-white berries were supposed to have curative and life-prolonging -qualities. - -Although the sacred parasite was not used for firewood, it served -as a fire-producer. Two fire-sticks, one from the soft parasite and -one from the hard wood of the tree to which it clung, were rubbed -together until sparks issued forth and fell on dry leaves or dry -grass. The sparks were blown until a flame sprang up. At this flame -of holy fire the people kindled their brands, which they carried -to their houses. The house fires were extinguished once a year and -relit from the sacred flames. Fire was itself a deity, and the deity -was "fed" with fuel. "Need fires" (new fires)[165] were kindled -at festivals so that cattle and human beings might be charmed -against injury. These festivals were held four times a year, and -the "new-fire" custom lingers in those districts where New Year's -Day, Midsummer, May Day, and Hallowe'en bon-fires are still being -regularly kindled. - - [165] In Gaelic these are called "friction fires". - -The fact that fire came from a tree induced the early people to -believe that it was connected with lightning, and therefore with the -sky god who thundered in the heavens. This god was supposed to wield -a thunder-axe or thunder-hammer with which he smote the sky (believed -to be solid) or the hills. With his axe or hammer he shaped the -"world house". - -In Scotland, a goddess, who is remembered as "the old wife",[166] -was supposed to wield the hammer, or to ride across the sky on a -cloud and throw down "fire-balls" that set the woods in flame. Here -we find, probably as a result of culture mixing, a fusion of beliefs -connected with the thunder god and the mother goddess. - - [166] According to some, Isis is a rendering of a Libyan name - meaning "old wife". - -Rain fell when the sky deity sent thunder and lightning. To early -man, who took fire from a tree which was nourished by a well, fire -and water seemed to be intimately connected.[167] The red berries -on the sacred tree were supposed to contain fire, or the essence of -fire. When he made rowan-berry wine, he regarded it as "fire water" -or "the water of life". He drank it, and thus introduced into his -blood fire which stimulated him. In his blood was "the vital spark". -When he died the blood grew cold, because the "vital spark" had -departed from it. - - [167] This connection can be traced in ancient Egypt. The sun - and fire were connected, and the sun originally rose from the - primordial waters. The sun's rays were the "tears" of Ra (the sun - god). Herbs and trees sprang up where Ra's tears fell. - -In the water fire lived in another form. Fish were found to be -phosphorescent. The fish in the pool was at any rate regarded as a -form of the deity who nourished life and was the origin of life. A -specially sacred fish was the salmon. It was observed that this fish -had red spots, and these were accounted for by the myth that the red -berries or nuts from the holy tree dropped into the well and were -swallowed by the salmon. The "chief" or "king" of the salmon was -called "the salmon of wisdom". If one caught the "salmon of wisdom" -and, when roasting it, tasted the first portion of juice that came -from its body, one obtained a special instalment of concentrated -wisdom, and became a seer, or magician, or Druid. - -The salmon was reverenced also because it was a migratory fish. Its -comings and goings were regular as the seasons, and seemed to be -controlled by the ruler of the elements with whom it was intimately -connected. One of its old Gaelic names was _orc_ (pig). It was -evidently connected with that animal; the sea-pig was possibly a form -of the deity. The porpoise was also an _orc_.[168] - - [168] So was a whale. The Latin orca is a Celtic loan-word. - Milton uses the Celtic whale-name in the line - - The haunt of seals, and orca, and sea-mews' clang. - - --_Paradise Lost_, Book XI, line 835. - -Hidden in the well lay a great monster which in Gaelic and Welsh -stories is referred to as "the beast", "the serpent", or "the great -worm". Ultimately it was identified with the dragon with fiery -breath. An Irish story connects the salmon and dragon. It tells that -a harper named Cliach, who had the powers of a Druid, kept playing -his harp until a lake sprang up. This lake was visited by a goddess -and her attendants, who had assumed the forms of beautiful birds. It -was called Loch Bél Seád ("lake of the jewel mouth") because pearls -were found in it, and Loch Crotto Cliach ("lake of Cliach's harps"). -Another name was Loch Bél Dragain ("dragon-mouth lake"), because -Ternog's nurse caught "a fiery dragon in the shape of a salmon" -and she was induced to throw this salmon into the loch. The early -Christian addition to the legend runs: "And it is that dragon that -will come in the festival of St. John, near the end of the world, -in the reign of Flann Cinaidh. And it is of it and out of it shall -grow the fiery bolt which will kill three-fourth of the people of the -world."[169] Here fire is connected with the salmon. - - [169] O'Curry, _Manuscript Materials_, pp. 426-7. - -The salmon which could transform itself into a great monster guarded -the tree and its life-giving berries and the treasure offered to -the deity of the well. Apparently its own strength was supposed -to be derived from or concentrated in the berries. The queen of -the district obtained the supernatural power she was supposed to -possess from the berries too, and stories are told of a hero who was -persuaded to enter the pool and pluck the berries for the queen. -He was invariably attacked by the "beast", and, after handing the -berries to the queen, he fell down and died. There are several -versions of this story. In one version a specially valued gold ring, -a symbol of authority, is thrown into the pool and swallowed by the -salmon. The hero catches and throws the salmon on to the bank. When -he plucks the berries, he is attacked by the monster and kills it. -Having recovered the ring, he gives it to the princess, who becomes -his wife. Apparently she will be chosen as the next queen, because -she has eaten the salmon and obtained the gold symbol. - -It may be that this story had its origin in the practice of -offering a human sacrifice to the deity of the pool, so that the -youth-renewing red berries might be obtained for the queen, the human -representative of the deity. Her fate was connected with the ring -of gold in which, as in the berries, the influence of the deity was -concentrated. - -Polycrates of Samos, a Hellenic sea-king, was similarly supposed -to have his "luck" connected with a beautiful seal-stone, the most -precious of his jewels. On the advice of Pharaoh Amasis of Egypt he -flung it into the sea. According to Herodotus, it was to avert his -doom that he disposed of the ring. But he could not escape his fate. -The jewel came back; it was found a few days later in the stomach of -a big fish. - -In India, China, and Japan dragons or sea monsters are supposed -to have luck pearls which confer great power on those who obtain -possession of them. The famous "jewel that grants all desires" and -the jewels that control the ebb and flow of tides are obtained from, -and are ultimately returned to, sea-monsters of the dragon order. - -The British and Irish myths about sacred gold or jewels obtained from -the dragon or one of its forms were taken over with much else by the -early Christian missionaries, and given a Christian significance. -Among the legends attached to the memory of the Irish Saint Moling is -one that tells how he obtained treasure for Christian purposes. His -fishermen caught a salmon and found in its stomach an ingot of gold. -Moling divided the gold into three parts--"one third for the poor, -another for the ornamenting of shrines, a third to provide for labour -and work". - -The most complete form of the ancient myth is, however, found in the -life of Glasgow's patron saint, St. Kentigern (St. Mungo). A queen's -gold ring had been thrown into the River Clyde, and, as she was -unable, when asked by the king, to produce it, she was condemned to -death and cast into a dungeon. The queen appealed to St. Kentigern, -who instructed her messenger to catch a fish in the river and bring -it to him. A large fish "commonly called a salmon" was caught. In -its stomach was found the missing ring. The grateful queen, on her -release, confessed her sins to the saint and became a Christian. -St. Mungo's seal, now the coat of arms of Glasgow, shows the salmon -with a ring in its mouth, below an oak tree, in the branches of -which sits, as the oracle bird, a robin red-breast. A Christian bell -dangles from a branch of the tree. - - [Illustration: Seal of City of Glasgow, 1647-1793, showing Tree, - Bird, Salmon, and Bell] - -That the Glasgow saint took the place of a Druid,[170] so that the -people might say "Kentigern is my Druid" as St. Columba said "Christ -is my Druid", is suggested by his intimate connection, as shown in -his seal, with the sacred tree of the "King of the Elements", the -oracular bird (the thunder bird), the salmon form of the deity, and -the power-conferring ring. As the Druids produced sacred fire from -wood, so did St. Kentigern. It is told that when a youth his rivals -extinguished the sacred fire under his care. Kentigern went outside -the monastery and obtained "a bough of growing hazel and prayed to -the 'Father of Lights'". Then he made the sign of the cross, blessed -the bough, and breathed on it. - - [170] Professor W. J. Watson says in this connection: "The - Celtic clerics stepped in to the shoes of the Druids. The people - regarded them as superior Druids." - - "A wonderful and remarkable thing followed. Straightway fire - coming forth from heaven, seizing the bough, as if the boy had - exhaled flames for breath, sent forth fire, vomiting rays, - and banished all the surrounding darkness.... God therefore - sent forth His light, and led him and brought him into the - monastery.... That hazel from which the little branch was taken - received a blessing from St. Kentigern, and afterwards began to - grow into a wood. If from that grove of hazel, as the country - folks say, even the greenest branch is taken, even at the - present day, it catches fire like the driest material at the - touch of fire...." - -A red-breast, which was kept as a pet at the monastery, was hunted -by boys, who tore off its head. Kentigern restored the bird to life. -The robin was hunted down in some districts as was the wren in other -districts. An old rhyme runs: - - A robin and a wren - Are God's cock and hen. - -In Pagan times the oracular bird connected with the holy tree was -sacrificed annually. The robin represented the god and the wren -(Kitty or Jenny Wren) the goddess in some areas. In Gaelic, Spanish, -Italian, and Greek the wren is "the little King" or "the King of -Birds". A Gaelic folk-tale tells that the wren flew highest in a -competition held by the birds for the kingship, by concealing itself -on an eagle's back. When the eagle reached its highest possible -altitude, the wren rose above it and claimed the honour of kingship. -In the Isle of Man the wren used to be hunted on St. Stephen's Day. -Elsewhere it was hunted on Christmas Eve or Christmas Day. The dead -bird was carried on a pole at the head of a procession and buried -with ceremony in a churchyard. - -In Scotland the shrew mouse was hunted in like manner, and buried -under an apple tree. A standing stone in Perthshire is called in -Gaelic "stone of my little mouse". As there were mouse feasts in -ancient Scotland, it would appear that a mouse god like Smintheus -(Mouse-Apollo) was worshipped in ancient times. Mouse cures were at -one time prevalent. The liver of the mouse[171] was given to children -who were believed to be on the point of death. They rallied quickly -after swallowing it. Roasted mouse was in England and Scotland a -cure for whooping-cough and smallpox. The Boers in South Africa are -perpetuating this ancient folk-cure.[172] In Gaelic folk-lore the -mouse deity is remembered as _lucha sith_ ("the supernatural mouse"). - - [171] In old Gaelic the liver is the seat of life. - - [172] Mrs. E. Tawse Jollie, Hervetia, S. Melsetter, S. Rhodesia, - writes me under October 12, 1918, in answer to my query, that the - Boers regard _striep muis_ (striped mice) as a cure for "weakness - of the bowel" in children, &c. - -There still survive traces of the worship of a goddess who is -remembered as Bride in England and Scotland, and as Brigit in -Ireland. A good deal of the lore connected with her has been attached -to the memory of St. Brigit of Ireland. - -February 1st (old style) was known as Bride's Day. Her birds were -the wood linnet, which in Gaelic is called "Bird of Bride", and -the oyster catcher called "Page of Bride", while her plant was the -dandelion (_am bearnan brìde_), the "milk" of which was the salvation -of the early lamb. On Bride's Day the serpent awoke from its winter -sleep and crept from its hole. This serpent is called in Gaelic -"daughter of Ivor", _an ribhinn_ ("the damsel"), &c. - -The white serpent was, like the salmon, a source of wisdom and -magical power. It was evidently a form of the goddess. Brigit was -the goddess of the Brigantes, a tribe whose territory extended from -the Firth of Forth to the midlands of England.[173] The Brigantes -took possession of a part of Ireland where Brigit had three forms as -the goddess of healing, the goddess of smith-work, and the goddess -of poetry, and therefore of metrical magical charms. Some think her -name signifies "fiery arrow". She was the source of fire, and was -connected with different trees in different areas. The Bride-wells -were taken over by Saint Bride. - - [173] In a Roman representation of her at Birrens, in Perthshire, - she is shown as a winged figure holding a spear in her right hand - and a globe in her left. An altar in Chester is dedicated to - "De Nymphæ Brig". Her name is enshrined in Bregentz (anciently - Brigantium), a town in Switzerland. - -The white serpent, referred to in the legends associated with -Farquhar, the physician, and Michael Scott, sometimes travelled very -swiftly by forming itself into a ring with its tail in its mouth. -This looks like the old Celtic solar serpent. If the serpent were -cut in two, the parts wriggled towards a stream and united as soon -as they touched water. If the head were not smashed, it would become -a _beithis_, the biggest and most poisonous variety of serpent.[174] -The "Deathless snake" of Egypt, referred to in an ancient folk-tale, -was similarly able to unite its severed body. Bride's serpent links -with the serpent dragons of the Far East, which sleep all winter -and emerge in spring, when they cause thunder and send rain, spit -pearls, &c. Dr. Alexander Carmichael translates the following Gaelic -serpent-charm: - - To-day is the day of Bride, - The serpent shall come from his hole; - I will not molest the serpent - And the serpent will not molest me. - - [174] The _beithis_ lay hidden in arms of the sea and came ashore - to devour animals. - -De Visser[175] quotes the following from a Chinese text referring to -the dragons: - - If we offer a deprecatory service to them, - They will leave their abodes; - If we do not seek the dragons - They will also not seek us. - - [175] _The Dragon in China and Japan_ (1913). - -The serpent, known in Scotland as _nathair challtuinn_ ("snake -of the hazel grove"), had evidently a mythological significance. -Leviathan is represented by the Gaelic _cirein cròin_ (sea-serpent), -also called _mial mhòr a chuain_ ("the great beast of the sea") -and _cuairtag mhòr a chuain_ ("the great whirlpool of the sea"); -a sea-snake was supposed to be located in Corryvreckan whirlpool. -Kelpies and water horses and water bulls are forms assumed by the -Scottish dragon. There are Far Eastern horse-and bull-dragons. - -In ancient British lore there are references to souls in serpent -form. A serpent might be a "double" like the Egyptian "Ka". It -was believed in Wales that snake-souls were concealed in every -farm-house. When one crept out from its hiding-place and died, the -farmer or his wife died soon afterwards. Lizards were supposed to -be forms assumed by women after death.[176] The otter, called in -Scottish Gaelic _Dobhar-chù_ ("water dog") and _Righ nàn Dobhran_ -("king of the water" or "river"), appears to have been a soul -form. When one was killed a man or a woman died. The king otter -was supposed to have a jewel in its head like the Indian _n[=a]ga_ -(serpent deity), the Chinese dragon, the toad, &c. The king otter was -invulnerable except on one white spot below its chin. Those who wore -a piece of its skin as a charm were supposed to be protected against -injury in battle. Evidently, therefore, the otter was originally a -god like the boar, the image of which, as Tacitus records, was worn -for protection by the Baltic amber searchers of Celtic speech. The -_biasd na srogaig_ ("the beast of the lowering horn") was a Hebridean -loch dragon with a single horn on its head; this unicorn was tall and -clumsy. - - [176] Trevelyan. _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_, p. 165. - -The "double" or external soul might also exist in a tree. Both in -England and Scotland there are stories of trees withering when some -one dies, or of some one dying when trees are felled. Aubrey tells -that when the Earl of Winchelsea began to cut down an oak grove near -his seat at Eastwell in Kent, the Countess died suddenly, and then -his eldest son, Lord Maidstone, was killed at sea. Allan Ramsay, the -Scottish poet, tells that the Edgewell tree near Dalhousie Castle -was fatal to the family from which he was descended, and Sir Walter -Scott refers to it in his "Journal", under the date 13th May, 1829. -When a branch fell from it in July, 1874, an old forester exclaimed -"The laird's deed noo!" and word was received not long afterwards -of the death of the eleventh Earl of Dalhousie. Souls of giants -were supposed to be hidden in thorns, eggs, fish, swans, &c. At -Fasnacloich, in Argyllshire, the visit of swans to a small loch is -supposed to herald the death of a Stewart. - -"External souls", or souls after death, assumed the forms of -cormorants, cuckoos, cranes, eagles, gulls, herons, linnets, magpies, -ravens, swans, wrens, &c., or of deer, mice, cats, dogs, &c. Fairies -(supernatural beings) appeared as deer or birds. Among the Scottish -were-animals are cats, black sheep, mice, hares, gulls, crows, -ravens, magpies, foxes, dogs, &c. Children were sometimes transformed -by magicians into white dogs, and were restored to human form by -striking them with a magic wand or by supplying shirts of bog-cotton. -The floating lore regarding were-animals was absorbed in witch-lore -after the Continental beliefs regarding witches were imported into -this country. In like manner a good deal of floating lore was -attached to the devil. In Scotland he is supposed to appear as a goat -or pig, as a gentleman with a pig's or horse's foot, or as a black or -green man riding a black or green horse followed by black or green -dogs. Eels were "devil-fish", and were supposed to originate from the -hairs of horses' manes or tails. Men who ate eels became insane, and -fought horses. - -In Scotland butterflies and bees were not only soul-forms but -deities, and there are traces of similar beliefs in England, -Wales, and Ireland. Scottish Gaelic names of the butterfly include -_dealbhan-dé_ ("image" or "form of God"), _dealbh_ signifying -"image", "form", "picture", "idol", or "statue"; _dearbadan-dé_ -("manifestation of God"); _eunan-dé_ ("small bird of God"); -_teine-dé_ ("fire of God"); and _dealan-dé_ ("brightness of God"). -The word _dealan_ refers to (1) lightning, (2) the brightness of the -starry sky, (3) burning coal, (4) the wooden bar of a door, and (5) -to a wooden peg fastening a cow-halter round the neck. The bar and -peg, which gave security, were evidently connected with the deity. - -In addition to meaning butterfly, _dealan-dé_ ("the _dealan_ of God") -refers to a burning stick which is shaken to and fro or whirled round -about. When "need fires" (new fires) were lit at Beltain festival -(1st May)--"Beltain" is supposed to mean "bright fires" or "white -fires", that is, luck-bringing or sacred fires--burning brands were -carried from them to houses, all domestic fires having previously -been extinguished. The "new fire" brought luck, prosperity, -health, increase, protection, &c. Until recently Highland boys -who perpetuated the custom of lighting bon-fires to celebrate old -Celtic festivals were wont to snatch burning sticks from them and -run homewards, whirling the _dealan-dé_ round about so as to keep it -burning. - -Souls took the form of a _dealan-dé_ (butterfly). Lady Wilde relates -in _Ancient Legends_ (Vol. I, pp. 66-7) the Irish story of a child -who saw the butterfly form of the soul--"a beautiful living creature -with four snow-white wings"; it rose from the body of a man who had -just died and went "fluttering round his head". The child and others -watched the winged soul "until it passed from sight into the clouds". -The story continues: "This was the first butterfly that was ever seen -in Ireland; and now all men know that the butterflies are the souls -of the dead waiting for the moment when they may enter Purgatory, and -so pass through torture to purification and peace". - -In England and Scotland moths were likewise souls of the dead -that entered houses by night or fluttered outside windows, as if -attempting to return to former haunts. - -The butterfly god or soul-form was known to the Scandinavians. -Freyja, the northern goddess, appears to have had a butterfly -_avatar_. At any rate, the butterfly was consecrated to her. In -Greece the nymph Psyche, beloved by Cupid, was a beautiful maiden -with the wings of a butterfly; her name signifies "the soul". Greek -artistes frequently depicted the human soul as a butterfly, and -especially the particular species called [Greek: psychê] ("the -soul"). On an ancient tomb in Italy a butterfly is shown issuing -from the open mouth of a death-mask. The Serbians believed that the -butterfly souls of witches arose from their mouths when they slept. -They died if their butterfly souls did not return.[177] Evidence -of belief in the butterfly soul has been forthcoming in Burmah, -where ceremonies are performed to prevent the baby's butterfly soul -following that of a dead mother.[178] The pre-Columbian Americans, -and especially the Mexicans, believed in butterfly souls and -butterfly deities. In China the butterfly soul was carved in jade -and associated with the plum tree;[179] the sacred butterfly was in -Scotland associated apparently with the honeysuckle (_deoghalag_), -a plant containing "life-substance" in the form of honey (_lus a -mheahl_: "honey herb") and milk (another name of the plant being -_bainne-ghamhnach_: "milk of the heifer"). As we have seen, the -honeysuckle was supposed to be more powerful than the tree to which -it clung; like the ivy and mistletoe, it was the plant of a powerful -deity. Its milk and honey names connect it with the Great Mother -goddess who was the source of life and nourishment, and provided the -milk-and-honey elixir of life. - - [177] W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 117 - _et seq._ - - [178] _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, XXVI (1897). p. - 23. - - [179] Laufer, _Jade_, p. 310. - -Bee-souls figure in Scottish folk-stories. Hugh Miller relates a -story of a sleeping man from whose mouth the soul issued in the -form of the bee.[180] Another of like character is related by a -clergyman.[181] Both are located in the north of Scotland, where, -as in the south of England, the custom was prevalent of "telling -the bees" when a death took place, and of placing crape on hives. -The bee-mandible symbol appears on Scottish sculptured stones. Both -the bee and the butterfly were connected with the goddess Artemis. -Milk-yielding fig trees were fertilized by bees or wasps, and the -goddess, especially in her form as Diana of the Ephesians, was -connected with the fig tree, the figs being "teats". - - [180] _My Schools and Schoolmasters_, Chapter VI. - - [181] Rev. W. Forsyth, Dornoch, in _Folk-lore Journal_, VI, 171. - -Little is known regarding the Hebridean sea-god _Seonaidh_ -(pronounced "shony"), who may have been a form of the sea-god known -to the Irish as Lir and to the Welsh as Llyr. His name connects him -with the word _seonadh_, signifying "augury", "sorcery", "druidism". -According to Martin, the inhabitants of Lewis contributed the malt -from which ale was brewed for an offering to the gods. At night a man -waded into the sea up to his middle and cried out, "Seonaidh! I give -thee this cup of ale, hoping that thou wilt be so good as to send us -plenty of sea-ware for enriching our ground during the coming year." -He then poured the ale into the sea. The people afterwards gathered -in the church of St. Mulway, and stood still for a time before the -altar on which a candle was burning. When a certain signal was given -the candle was extinguished. The people then made merry in the -fields, drinking ale. - - - - -CHAPTER XVI - -Ancient Pagan Deities - - Deities as Birds--Triads of Gaelic Goddesses--Shape-shifting - Goddesses--Black Annis of Leicestershire--The Scottish - Black Annis--Black Kali and Black Demeter--Cat Goddess and - Witches--A Scottish Artemis--Celtic Adonis Myth--The Cup - of Healing--Myths of Gaelic Calendar--Irish and Scottish - Mythologies Different--Scottish Pork Taboo--Eel tabooed in - Scotland but not in England--Ancient English Food Taboos--Irish - Danann Deities--Ancient Deities of England and Wales--The Apple - Cult--English Wassailling Custom--The Magic Cauldron--The - Holy Grail--Cauldron a Goddess Symbol--Pearls and Cows of - the Cauldron--Goddess--Romano-British Deities--Grouped - Goddesses--The Star Goddess--Sky and Sea Spirits. - - -Many of the old British and Irish deities had bird forms, and might -appear as doves, swallows, swans, cranes, cormorants, scald crows, -ravens, &c. The cormorant, for instance, is still in some districts -called the _Cailleach dubh_ ("the black old wife"). Some deities, -like Brigit and Morrigan, had triple forms, and appeared as three -old hags or as three beautiful girls, or assumed the forms of women -known to those they visited. In the Cuchullin stories the Morrigan -appears with a supernatural cow, the milk of which heals wounds and -prolongs life. When in conflict with Cuchullin, she takes alternately -the forms of an eel, a grey wolf, and a white cow with red ears. On -one occasion she changes from human form to that of a dark bird. -An old west of England goddess was remembered until recently in -Leicestershire as "Black Annis", "Black Anny", or "Cat Anna". She -frequented a cave on the Dane Hills,[182] above which grew an oak -tree. In the branches of the tree she concealed herself, so that -she might pounce unawares on human beings. Shepherds attributed -to her the loss of lambs, and mothers their loss of children. The -supernatural monster had one eye in her blue face, and talons instead -of hands. Round her waist she wore a girdle of human skins. - - [182] It has been suggested that "Dane" stands for "Danann". - -A Scottish deity called "Yellow Muilearteach" was similarly one-eyed -and blue-faced, and had tusks protruding from her mouth. An apple -dangled from her waist girdle. The Indian goddess Black Kali is -depicted as a ferocious being of like character, with a forehead eye, -in addition to ordinary eyes, and a waist girdle of human heads. -Greece had its Black Demeter with animal-head (a horse's or pig's), -and snakes in her hair. She haunted a cave in Phigalia. The Egyptian -goddess Hathor in her cat form (Bast) was kindly, and in her Sekhet -form was a fierce slayer of mankind.[183] - - [183] A text states: "Kindly is she as Bast: terrible is she as - Sekhet." - -Witches assume cat forms in Scottish witch lore,[184] and appear on -the riggings and masts of ships doomed to destruction. There are -references, too, to cat roasting, so as to compel the "Big Cat" to -appear. The "Big Cat" is evidently the deity. In northern India -dogs are tortured to compel the "Big Dog" (the god Indra) to send -rain. "Lapus Cati" (the cat stone) is referred to in early Christian -records. As a mouse was buried under an apple tree to make it -fruitful, a cat was buried under a pear tree. - - [184] The Gaelic word for "witch" comes from English. Gaelic - "witch lore" is distinctive, having retained more ancient beliefs - than those connected with the orthodox witches. - -The Scottish "Yellow Muilearteach" revels in the slaughter of human -beings, and folk poems, describing a battle waged against her, have -been collected. In the end she is slain, and her consort comes from -the sea to lament her death. A similar hag is remembered as the -Cailleach ("the old wife"). She had a "blue-black face" and one eye -"on the flat of her forehead", and she carried a magic hammer. During -the period of "the little sun" (the winter season) she held sway over -the world. Her blanket was washed in the whirlpool of Corryvreckan, -which kept boiling vigorously for several days. Ben Nevis was her -chief dwelling-place, and in a cave in that mountain she kept as a -prisoner all winter a beautiful maiden who was given the task of -washing a brown fleece until it became white. When wandering among -the mountains or along the sea-shore she is followed, like Artemis, -by herds of deer, goats, swine, &c. The venomous black boar is in -some of the stories under her special protection. Apparently this -animal was her symbol as it was that of the Baltic amber traders. The -hero who hunts and slays the boar is himself killed by it, as was -the Syrian god Adonis by the boar form of Ares (Mars). In Gaul the -boar-god Moccus was identified by the Romans with Mars. - -In Gaelic stories the hero who hunts and slays the boar is remembered -as Diarmid, the eponymous ancestor of the Campbell clan. Apparently -the goddess was the ugly hag to whom he once gave shelter. She -transformed herself into a beautiful maiden who touched his forehead -and left on it a "love spot".[185] - - [185] The "fairy" Queen (the queen of enchantment), who carried - off Thomas the Rhymer, appeared as a beautiful woman, but was - afterwards transformed into an ugly hag. Thomas laments: - - How art thou faded thus in the face, - That shone before as the sun so bricht (bright). - -When she vanished he followed her to the "Land-Under-Waves". There -he finds her as a beautiful girl who is suffering from a wasting -disease. To cure her he goes on a long journey to obtain a draught -of water from a healing well. This water he carries in the "Cup of -Healing". - -The winter hag has a son who falls in love with the beautiful maiden -of Ben Nevis. When he elopes with her, his mother raises storms in -the early spring season to keep the couple apart and prevent the -grass growing. These storms are named in the Gaelic Calendar as "the -Pecker", "the Whistle", "the Sweeper", "the Complaint", &c. In the -end her son pursues her on horseback, until she transforms herself -into a moist grey stone "looking over the sea". The story tells that -the son's horse leapt over arms of the sea. On Loch Etiveside a -place-name "Horseshoes" is attached to marks on a rock supposed to -have been caused by his great steed. In the Isle of Man the place -of the giant son is taken by St. Patrick. He rides from Ireland on -horseback like the ancient sea god. He cursed a monster, which was -turned into solid rock. St. Patrick's steed left the marks of its -hoofs on the cliffs.[186] - - [186] Wm. Cashen, _Manx Folk-lore_ (Douglas, 1912), p. 48. - -In Arthurian romance King Arthur pursues Morgan le Fay, who likewise -transforms herself into a stone. A Welsh folk story tells that -Arthur's steed leapt across the Bristol Channel, and left the marks -of its hoofs on a rock. - -It appears that Morgan le Fay is the same deity as the Irish -Morrigan. Both appear to link with Anu, or Danu, the Irish mother -goddess, and with Black Anna or Annis of Leicestershire. The Irish -Danann deities wage war against the Fomorians, who are referred to in -one instance as the gods of the Fir Domnann (Dumnonii), the mineral -workers or "diggers" of Cornwall and Devon, of the south-western and -central lowlands of Scotland, and central and south-western Ireland. -In Scotland the Fomorians are numerous; they are hill and cave giants -like the giants of Cornwall. But there are no Scottish Dananns and -no "war of the gods". The Fomorians of Scotland wage war against -the fairies (as in Wester Ross) or engage in duels, throwing great -boulders at one another. - -The intruding people who in Ireland formulated the Danann mythology -do not appear to have reached Scotland before the Christian period. - -An outstanding difference between Scottish and Irish beliefs and -practices is brought out by the treatment of the pig in both -countries. Like the Continental Celts, the Irish Celts, who formed a -military aristocracy over the Firbolgs, the Fir Domnann, and the Fir -Gailian (Gauls), kept pigs and ate pork. In Scotland the pig was a -demon as in ancient Egypt, and pork was tabooed over wide areas. The -prejudice against pork in Scotland is not yet extinct. It is referred -to by Sir Walter Scott in a footnote in _The Fortunes of Nigel_, -which states: - - "The Scots (Lowlanders), till within the last generation, - disliked swine's flesh as an article of food as much as the - Highlanders do at present. Ben Jonson, in drawing James's - character,[187] says he loved no part of a swine."[188] - - [187] King James VI of Scotland and I of England. - - [188] Ben Jonson's reference is in _A Masque of the Metamorphosed - Gipsies_. - -Dr. Johnson wrote in his _A Journey to the Western Highlands in 1773_: - - "Of their eels I can give no account, having never tasted them, - for I believe they are not considered as wholesome food.... The - vulgar inhabitants of Skye, I know not whether of the other - islands, have not only eels, but pork and bacon in abhorrence; - and, accordingly, I never saw a hog in the Hebrides, except one - at Dunvegan." - -"In the year 1691 a question was put, 'Why do Scotchmen hate swine's -flesh?' and", says J. G. Dalyell,[189] "unsatisfactorily answered, -'They might borrow it of the Jews'." As the early Christians of -England and Ireland did not abhor pork, the prejudice could not -have been of Christian origin. It was based on superstition, and as -the superstitions of to-day were the religious beliefs of yesterday, -the prejudice appears to be a survival from pagan times. An ancient -religious cult, which may have originally been small, became -influential in Scotland, and the taboo spread even after its original -significance was forgotten. The Scottish prejudice against pork -existed chiefly among "the common people", as Dr. Johnson found when -in Skye. Proprietors of alien origin and monks ate pork, but the old -taboo persisted. Pig-dealers, &c., in the Highlands in the nineteenth -century refused to eat pork. They exported their pigs.[190] - - [189] _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (London, 1834), p. - 425, and _Athenian Mercury_, V, 1, No. 20, p. 13. - - [190] The south-western Scottish pork trade dates only from the - latter part of the eighteenth century. There was trouble at - Carlisle custom house when the Lowland Scots began to export - cured pork, because of the difference between the English and - Scottish salt duty. "For some time", complained a Scottish writer - on agriculture, in June, 1811, "a duty of 2s. per hunderweight - has been charged." Dublin was exporting pork to London in the - reign of Henry VIII. A small trade in pork was conducted in - eastern Scotland but was sporadic. - -Traces of ancient food taboos, which were connected evidently with -religious beliefs, have been obtained by archæologists in England. -In some districts pork appears to have been more favoured than the -beef or mutton or goat flesh preferred in other districts. Evidence -has been forthcoming that horse flesh was eaten in ancient England. -A reference in the _Life of St. Columba_ to a relapsing Christian -returning to horse flesh suggests that it was a favoured food of a -Pagan cult. - -As the devil is called in Scottish Gaelic the "Big Black Pig" and in -Wales is associated with the "Black Sow of All Hallows", it may be -that the Welsh had once their pig taboo too. The association of the -pig with Hallowe'en is of special interest. - -In Scotland the eel is still tabooed, although it is eaten freely -in England. The reason may be that an ancient goddess, remembered -longest in Scotland, had an eel form. Julius Cæsar tells that the -ancient Britons with whom he came into contact did not regard it -lawful to eat the hare, the domestic fowl, or the goose. In Scotland -and England the goose was, until recently, eaten only once a year -at a festival. The tabooed pig was eaten once a year in Egypt. It -was sacrificed to Osiris and the moon. An annual sacrificial pig -feast may have been observed in ancient Scotland. It is of special -interest to find in this connection that in the _Statistical Account -of Scotland_ (1793) the writer on the parishes of Sandwick and -Stromness, Orkney, says: "Every family that has a herd of swine, -kills a sow on the 17th day of December, and thence it is called -'Sow-day'." Orkney retains the name of the Orcs (Boars), a Pictish -tribe. - -There are still people in the Highlands who detest "feathered flesh" -or "white flesh" (birds), and refuse to eat hare and rabbit. Fish -taboos have likewise persisted in the north of Scotland, where -mackerel, ling,[191] and skate are disliked in some areas, while in -some even the wholesome haddock is not eaten in the winter or spring, -and is supposed not to be fit for food until it gets three drinks of -May water--that is, after the first three May tides have ebbed and -flowed. - - [191] King James I of England and VI of Scotland detested ling as - he detested pork. The food prejudices of the common people thus - influenced royalty, although earlier kings and Norman nobles ate - pork, eels, &c. - -The Danann deities of Ireland were the children of descendants of the -goddess Danu, whose name is also given as Ana or Anu. She was the -source of abundance and the nourisher of gods and men. As "Buanann" -she was "nurse of heroes". As Aynia, a "fairy"[192] queen, she is -still remembered in Ulster, while as Aine, a Munster "fairy", she -was formerly honoured on St. John's Eve, when villagers, circulating -a mound, carried straw torches which were afterwards waved over -cattle and crops to give protection and increase. - - [192] The Gaelic word _sidh_ (Irish) or _sith_ (Scottish) means - "supernatural" and the "peace" and "silence" of supernatural - beings. "Fairy", as Skeat has emphasized, means "enchantment". - It has taken the place of "fay", which is derived from fate. The - "fay" was a supernatural being. - -A prominent Danann god was Dagda, whose name is translated as "the -good god", "the good hand", by some, and as "the fire god" or "fire -of god" by others. He appears to have been associated with the oak. -By playing his harp, he caused the seasons to follow one another in -their proper order. One of his special possessions was a cauldron -called "The Undry", from which an inexhaustible food supply could be -obtained. He fed heavily on porridge, and was a cook (supplier of -food) as well as a king. In some respects he resembles Thor, and, -like him, he was a giant slayer. His wife was the goddess Boann, -whose name clings to the River Boyne, which was supposed to have had -its origin from an overflowing well. Above this well were nine hazel -trees; the red nuts of these fell into the well to be devoured by -salmon and especially by the "salmon of knowledge". Here again we -meet with the tree and well myth. Brigit was a member of the Dagda's -family. Another was Angus, the god of love. - -Diancecht was the Danann god of healing. His grandson Lugh -(pronounced _loo_) has been called the "Gaelic Apollo". Goibniu was a -Gaelic Vulcan. - -Neit, whose wife was Nemon,[193] was a Fomorian god of battle. The -sea god was Manannán mac Lir. He was known to the Welsh as Manawydan -ab Llyr, who was not only a sea god but "lord of headlands" and a -patron of traders. Llyr has come down as the legendary King Lear, and -his name survives in Leicester, originally Llyr-cestre of Cær-Llyr -(walled city of Llyr). His famous and gigantic son Bran became, in -the process of time, the "Blessed Bran" who introduced Christianity -into Britain. - - [193] From the root _nem_ in _neamh_, heaven, _nemus_, a grove, - &c. - -Another group of Welsh gods, known as "the children of Don", -resemble somewhat the Danann deities of Ireland. The closest link -is Govannon, the smith, who appears to be identical with the Irish -Goibniu. As Irish pirates invaded and settled in Wales between the -second and fifth centuries of our era, it may be that the process of -"culture mixing" which resulted can be traced in the mythological -elements embedded in folk and manuscript stories. The Welsh deities, -however, were connected with certain constellations and may have -been "intruders" from the Continent. Cassiopea's chair was Llys Don -(the court of the goddess Don). Arianrod (silver circle), a goddess -and wife of Govannon, had for her castle the Northern Crown (Corona -Borealis). She is, in Arthurian romance, the sister of Arthur. Her -brother Gwydion had for his castle the "Milky Way", which in Irish -Gaelic is "the chain of Lugh". The Irish Danann god Nuada has been -identified with the British Nudd whose children formed the group of -"the children of Nudd". - -There were three groups of Welsh deities, the others being "the -children of Lyr" and "the children of Don". Professor Rhys has -identified Nudd with Lud, the god whose name survives in London -(originally Cær Lud) and in Ludgate, which may, as has been -suggested, have originally been "the way of Lud", leading to his holy -place now occupied by St. Paul's Cathedral. Lud had a sanctuary at -Lidney in Gloucestershire, where he was worshipped in Roman times as -is indicated by inscriptions. A bronze plaque shows a youthful god, -with solar rays round his head, standing in a four-horsed chariot. -Two winged genii and two Tritons accompany him. Apparently he was -identified with Apollo. The Arthurian Lot or Loth was Lud or Ludd. -His name lingers in "Lothian". - -Gwydion, the son of Don, was a prominent British deity and has been -compared to Odin. He was the father of the god Lleu, whose mother was -Arianrod. The rainbow was "Lleu's rod-sling". Dwynwen, the so-called -British Venus, was Christianized as "the blessed Dwyn" and the patron -saint of the church of Llanddwyn in Anglesey. The magic cauldron was -possessed by the Welsh goddess Kerridwen. - - [Illustration: BRONZE URN AND CAULDRON (_circa_ 500 B.C.) - - (British Museum) - - Vessels such as these are unknown outside the British Isles.] - -A prominent god whose worship appears to have been widespread was -connected with the apple tree, which in the Underworld and Islands -of the Blest was the "Tree of Life". Ancient beliefs and ceremonies -connected with the apple cult survive in those districts in southern -England where the curious custom is observed of "wassailing" the -apple trees on Christmas Eve or Twelfth Night.[194] The "wassailers" -visit the tree and sing a song in which each apple is asked to bear - - Hat-fulls, lap-fulls, - Sack-fulls, pocket-fulls. - -Cider is poured about the roots of apple trees. This ceremony appears -to have been originally an elaborate one. The tom-tit or some other -small bird was connected with the apple tree, as was the robin or -wren of other cults with the oak tree. At the wassailing ceremony a -boy climbed up into a tree and impersonated the bird. It may be that -in Pagan times a boy was sacrificed to the god of the tree. That -the bird (in some cases it was the robin red-breast) was hunted and -sacrificed is indicated by old English folk-songs beginning like the -following: - - Old Robin is dead and gone to his grave, - Hum! Ha! gone to his grave; - They planted an apple tree over his head, - Hum! Ha! over his head. - - [194] Rendel Harris, _Apple Cults_, and _The Ascent of Olympus_. - -In England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland a deity, or a group of -deities in the Underworld, was associated with a magic cauldron, or -as it is called in Gaelic a "pot of plenty". Heroes or gods obtain -possession of this cauldron, which provides an inexhaustible food -supply and much treasure, or is used for purposes of divination. It -appears to have been Christianized into the "Holy Grail", to obtain -possession of which Arthurian knights set out on perilous journeys. - -Originally the pot was a symbol of the mother goddess, who renewed -youth, provided food for all, and was the source of treasure, luck, -victory, and wisdom. This goddess was associated with the mother -cow and the life-prolonging pearls that were searched for by early -Eastern prospectors. There are references to cows and pearls in Welsh -and Gaelic poems and legends regarding the pot. An old Welsh poem in -the _Book of Taliesin_ says of the cauldron: - - By the breath of nine maidens it would be kindled. - The head of Hades' cauldron--what is it like? - A rim it has, with pearls round its border: - It boils not coward's food: it would not be perjured. - -This extract is from the poem known as "Preidden Annwfn" ("Harryings -of Hades"), translated by the late Professor Sir John Rhys. Arthur -and his heroes visit Hades to obtain the cauldron, and reference is -made to the "Speckled Ox". Arthur, in another story, obtains the -cauldron from Ireland. It is full of money. The Welsh god Bran gives -to a king of Ireland a magic cauldron which restores to life those -dead men who are placed in it. A Gaelic narrative relates the story -of Cuchullin's harrying of Hades, which is called "Dun Scaith". -Cuchullin's assailants issue from a pit in the centre of Dun Scaith -in forms of serpents, toads, and sharp-beaked monsters. He wins the -victory and carries away three magic cows and a cauldron that gives -inexhaustible supplies of food, gold, and silver. - -The pot figures in various mythologies. It was a symbol of the mother -goddess Hathor of ancient Egypt and of the mother goddess of Troy, -and it figures in Indian religious literature. In Gaelic lore the -knife which cuts inexhaustible supplies of flesh from a dry bone is -evidently another symbol of the deity. - -The talismans possessed by the Dananns were the cauldron, the sword -and spear of Lugh, and the Lia Fail (or Stone of Destiny)[195], -which reminds one of the three Japanese symbols, the solar mirror, -the dragon sword, and the tama (a pearl or round stone) kept in a -Shinto shrine at Ise. The goddess's "life substance" was likewise -in fruits like the Celestial apples, nuts, rowan berries, &c., of -the Celts, and the grapes, pomegranates, &c., of other peoples, and -in herbs like the mugwort and mandrake. Her animals were associated -with rivers. The name of the River Boyne signifies "white cow". Tarf -(bull) appears in several river names, as also does the goddess name -Deva (Devona) in the Devon, Dee, &c. Philologists have shown that -Ness, the Inverness-shire river, is identical with Nestos in Thrace -and Neda in Greece. The goddess Belisama (the goddess of war) was -identified with the Mersey. - - [195] Called also _clach na cineamhuinn_ (the fatal stone). - -Goddess groups, usually triads, were as common in Gaul as they were -in ancient Crete. These deities were sometimes called the "Mothers", -as in Marne, the famous French river, and in the Welsh _Y Mamau_, one -of the names of the "fairies". - -Other names of goddess groups include Proximæ (kinswoman), Niskai -(water spirits), and Dervonnæ (oak spirits). The Romans took over -these and other groups of ancient deities and the beliefs about -their origin in the mythical sea they were supposed to cross or -rise from. Gaelic references to "the coracle of the fairy woman" or -"supernatural woman" are of special interest in this connection, -especially when it is found that the "coracle" is a sea-shell which, -by the way, figures as a canopy symbol in some of the sculptured -groups of Romano-British grouped goddesses who sometimes bear baskets -of apples, sheafs of grain, &c. When the shell provides inexhaustible -supplies of curative or knowledge-conferring milk, it links with the -symbolic pot. - -Most of the ancient deities had local names, and consequently a -number of Gaulish gods were identified by the Romans with Apollo, -including Borvo, whose name lingers in Bourbon, Grannos of Aquæ -Granni (Aix la Chapelle), Mogounus, whose name has been shortened -to Mainz, &c. The gods Taranucus (thunderer), Uxell[)i]mus (the -highest), &c., were identified with Jupiter; Dunatis (fort god), -Albiorix (world king), Caturix (battle king), Belatucadros (brilliant -in war), Cocidius, &c., were identified with Mars. The name of -the god Cam[)u]los clings to Colchester (Camulodunun). There are -Romano-British inscriptions that refer to the ancient gods under -various Celtic names. A popular deity was the god of Silvanus, who -conferred health and was, no doubt, identified with a tree or herb. - -It is uncertain at what period beliefs connected with stars were -introduced into the British Isles.[196] As we have seen, the Welsh -deities were connected with certain star groups. "Three Celtic -goddesses", writes Anwyl, referring to Gaul, "whose worship attained -to highest development were Damona (the goddess of cattle), Sirona -(the aged one or the star goddess), and Ep[)o]na (the goddess of -horses). These names are Indo-European." An Irish poem by a bard -who is supposed to have lived in the ninth century refers to the -Christian saint Ciaran of Saigir as a man of stellar origin: - - Liadaine (his mother) was asleep - On her bed. - When she turned her face to heaven - A star fell into her mouth. - Thence was born the marvellous child - Ciaran of Saigir who is proclaimed to thee. - - [196] There is evidence in the Gaelic manuscripts that time was - measured by the apparent movements of the stars. Cuchullin, while - sitting at a feast, says to his charioteer: "Laeg, my friend, go - out, observe the stars of the air, and ascertain when midnight - comes". - -In the north and north-west Highlands the aurora borealis is called -_Na Fir Chlis_ ("the nimble men") and "the merry dancers". They are -regarded as fairies (supernatural beings) like the sea "fairies" _Na -Fir Ghorm_ ("blue men"), who were probably sea gods. - -The religious beliefs of the Romans were on no higher a level than -those of the ancient Britons and Gaels. - - - - -CHAPTER XVII - -Historical Summary - - -The evidence dealt with in the foregoing chapters throws considerable -light on the history of early man in Britain. We really know more -about pre-Roman times than about that obscure period of Anglo-Saxon -invasion and settlement which followed on the withdrawal of the -Roman army of occupation, yet historians, as a rule, regard it as -"pre-historic" and outside their sphere of interest. As there are no -inscriptions and no documents to render articulate the archæological -Ages of Stone and Bronze, they find it impossible to draw any -definite conclusions. - -It can be urged, however, in criticism of this attitude, that the -relics of the so-called "pre-historic age" may be found to be even -more reliable than some contemporary documents of the "historic" -period. Not a few of these are obviously biassed and prejudiced, -while some are so vague and fragmentary that the conclusions drawn -from them cannot be otherwise than hypothetical in character. A -plainer, clearer, and more reliable story is revealed by the bones -and the artifacts and the surviving relics of the intellectual -life of our remote ancestors than by the writings of some early -chroniclers and some early historians. It is possible, for instance, -in consequence of the scanty evidence available, to hold widely -diverging views regarding the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic problems. -Pro-Teutonic and pro-Celtic protagonists involve us invariably in -bitter controversy. That contemporary documentary evidence, even -when somewhat voluminous, may fail to yield a clear record of facts -is evident from the literature that deals, for instance, with the -part played by Mary Queen of Scots in the Darnley conspiracy and in -the events that led to her execution. - -The term "pre-historic" is one that should be discarded. It is -possible, as has been shown, to write, although in outline, the -history of certain ancient race movements, of the growth and decay -of the civilization revealed by the cavern art of Aurignacian and -Magdalenian times, of early trade and of early shipping. The history -of art goes back for thousands of years before the Classic Age dawned -in Greece; the history of trade can be traced to that remote period -when Red Sea shells were imported into Italy by Crô-Magnon man; and -the history of British shipping can be shown to be as old as those -dug-outs that foundered in ancient Scottish river beds before the -last land movement had ceased. - -The history of man really begins when and where we find the first -clear traces of his activities, and as it is possible to write not -only regarding the movements of the Crô-Magnon races, but of their -beliefs as revealed by burial customs, their use of body paint, the -importance attached to shell and other talismans, and their wonderful -and high attainments in the arts and crafts, the European historical -period can be said to begin in the post-Glacial epoch when tundra -conditions prevailed in Central and Western Europe and Italy was -connected with the North African coast. - -In the case of ancient Egypt, historical data have been gleaned from -archæological remains as well as from religious texts and brief -records of historical events. The history of Egyptian agriculture -has been traced back beyond the dawn of the Dynastic Age and to that -inarticulate period before the hieroglyphic system of writing had -been invented, by the discovery in the stomachs of the bodies of -proto-Egyptians, naturally preserved in hot dry sands, of husks of -barley and of millet native to the land of Egypt.[197] - - [197] Elliot Smith, _The Ancient Egyptians_, p. 42. - -The historical data so industriously accumulated in Egypt and -Babylonia have enabled excavators to date certain finds in Crete, -and to frame a chronological system for the ancient civilization -of that island. Other relics afford proof of cultural contact -between Crete and the mainland, as far westward as Spain, where -traces of Cretan activities have been discovered. With the aid of -comparative evidence, much light is thrown, too, on the history -of the ancient Hittites, who have left inscriptions that have -not yet been deciphered. The discoveries made by Siret in Spain -and Portugal of unmistakable evidence of Egyptian and Babylonian -cultural influence, trade, and colonization are, therefore, to be -welcomed. The comparative evidence in this connection provides a more -reliable basis than has hitherto been available for Western European -archæology. It is possible for the historian to date approximately -the beginning of the export trade in jet from England--apparently -from Whitby in Yorkshire--and of the export trade in amber from the -Baltic, and the opening of the sea routes between Spain and Northern -Europe. The further discovery of Egyptian beads in south-western -England, in association with relics of the English "Bronze Age", is -of far-reaching importance. A "prehistoric" period surely ceases to -be "prehistoric" when its relics can be dated even approximately. The -English jet found in Spain takes us back till about 2500 B.C., and -the Egyptian beads found in England till about 1300 B.C. - -The dating of these and other relics raises the question whether -historians should accept, without qualification, or at all, the -system of "Ages" adopted by archæologists. Terms like "Palæolithic" -(Old Stone) and "Neolithic" (New Stone) are, in most areas, without -precise chronological significance. As applied in the historical -sense, they tend to obscure the fact that the former applies to a -most prolonged period during which more than one civilization arose, -flourished, and decayed. In the so-called "Old Stone Age" flint was -worked with a degree of skill never surpassed in the "New Stone Age", -as Aurignacian and Solutrean artifacts testify; it was also sometimes -badly worked from poorly selected material, as in Magdalenian times, -when bone and horn were utilized to such an extent that archæologists -would be justified in referring to a "Bone and Horn Age". - -Before the Neolithic industry was introduced into Western Europe -and the so-called "Neolithic Age" dawned, as it ended, at various -periods in various areas, great climatic changes took place, and -the distribution of sea and land changed more than once. Withal, -considerable race movements took place in Central and Western Europe. -In time new habits of life were introduced into our native land that -influenced more profoundly the subsequent history of Britain than -could have been possibly accomplished by a new method of working -flint. The most important cultural change was effected by the -introduction of the agricultural mode of life. - -It is important to bear in mind in this connection that the ancient -civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia were based on the agricultural -mode of life, and that when this mode of life passed into Europe a -complex culture was transported with it from the area of origin. It -was the early agriculturists who developed shipbuilding and the art -of navigation, who first worked metals, and set a religious value -on gold and silver, on pearls, and on certain precious stones, and -sent out prospectors to search for precious metals and precious gems -in distant lands. The importance of agriculture in the history -of civilization cannot be overestimated. In so far as our native -land is concerned, a new epoch was inaugurated when the first -agriculturist tilled the soil, sowed imported barley seeds, using -imported implements, and practising strange ceremonies at sowing, -and ultimately at harvest time, that had origin in a far-distant -"cradle" of civilization, and still linger in our midst as folk-lore -evidence, testifies to the full. In ancient times the ceremonies were -regarded as being of as much importance as the implements, and the -associated myths were connected with the agriculturists' Calendar, as -the Scottish Gaelic Calendar bears testimony. - -Instead, therefore, of dividing the early history of man in Britain -into periods, named after the materials from which he made implements -and weapons, these should be divided so as to throw light on habits -of life and habits of thought. The early stages of civilization can -be referred to as the "Pre-Agricultural", and those that follow as -the "Early Agricultural". - -Under "Pre-Agricultural" come the culture stages, or rather the -industries known as (1) Aurignacian, (2) Solutrean, and (3) -Magdalenian. These do not have the same chronological significance -everywhere in Europe, for the Solutrean industry never disturbed -or supplemented the Aurignacian in Italy or in Spain south of the -Cantabrian Mountains, nor did Aurignacian penetrate into Hungary, -where the first stage of Modern Man's activities was the Solutrean. -The three stages, however, existed during the post-Glacial period, -when man hunted the reindeer and other animals favouring similar -climatic conditions. The French archæologists have named this the -"Reindeer Age". Three later industries were introduced into Europe -during the Pre-Agricultural Age. These are known as (1) Azilian, (2) -Tardenoisian, and (3) Maglemosian. The ice-cap was retreating, the -reindeer and other tundra animals moved northward, and the red deer -arrived in Central and Western Europe. We can, therefore, refer to -the latter part of the Pre-Agricultural times as the "Early Red Deer -Age". - -There is Continental evidence to show that the Neolithic industry was -practised prior to the introduction of the agricultural mode of life. -The "Early Agricultural Age", therefore, cuts into the archæological -"Neolithic Age" in France. Whether or not it does so in Britain is -uncertain. - -At the dawn of the British "Early Agricultural Age" cultural -influences were beginning to "flow" from centres of ancient -civilization, if not directly, at any rate indirectly. As has -been indicated in the foregoing pages, the Neolithic industry -was practised in Britain by a people who had a distinct social -organization and engaged in trade. Some Neolithic flints were of -Eastern type or origin. The introduction of bronze from the Continent -appears to have been effected by seafaring traders, and there is no -evidence that it changed the prevailing habits of thought and life. -Our ancestors did not change their skins and their ideas when they -began to use and manufacture bronze. A section of them adopted a new -industry, but before doing so they had engaged in the search for -gold. This is shown by the fact that they settled on the granite in -Devon and Cornwall, while yet they were using flints of Neolithic -form which had been made elsewhere. Iron working was ultimately -introduced. The Bronze and Iron "Ages" of the archæologists can -be included in the historian's "Early Agricultural Age", because -agriculture continued to be the most important factor in the economic -life of Britain. It was the basis of its civilization; it rendered -possible the development of mining and of various industries, and the -promotion of trade by land and sea. In time the Celtic peoples--that -is, peoples who spoke Celtic dialects--arrived in Britain. The -Celtic movement was in progress at 500 B.C., and had not ended after -Julius Cæsar invaded southern England. It was finally arrested by the -Roman occupation, but continued in Ireland. When it really commenced -is uncertain; the earliest Celts may have used bronze only. - -The various Ages, according to the system suggested, are as follows:-- - - 1. =The Pre-Agricultural Age.= - - Sub-divisions: (A) the _Reindeer Age_ with the Aurignacian, - Solutrean, and Magdalenian industries; (B) the _Early Red Deer - Age_ with the Azilian, Tardenoisian, and Maglemosian industries. - - 2. =The Early Agricultural Age.= - - Sub-divisions: (A) the _Pre-Celtic Age_ with the Neolithic, - copper and bronze industries; (B) the _Celtic Age_ with the - bronze, iron, and enamel industries. - - 3. =The Romano-British Age.= - - Including in Scotland (A) the _Caledonian Age_ and (B) the - _Early Scoto-Pictish Age_; and in Ireland the _Cuchullin Age_, - during which bronze and iron were used. - -The view favoured by some historians that our ancestors were, prior -to the Roman invasion, mere "savages" can no longer obtain. It is -clearly without justification. Nor are we justified in perpetuating -the equally hazardous theory that early British culture was of -indigenous origin, and passed through a series of evolutionary stages -in isolation until the country offered sufficient attractions to -induce first the Celts and afterwards the Romans to conquer it. The -correct and historical view appears to be that from the earliest -times Britain was subjected to racial and cultural "drifts" from the -Continent, and that the latter outnumbered the former. - -In the Pre-Agricultural Age Crô-Magnon colonists reached England and -Wales while yet in the Aurignacian stage of civilization. As much -is indicated by the evidence of the Paviland cave in South Wales. -At a later period, proto-Solutrean influence, which had entered -Western Europe from North Africa, filtered into England, and can be -traced in those caverns that have yielded evidence of occupation. -The pure Solutrean culture subsequently swept from Eastern Europe -as far westward as Northern Spain, but Britain, like Southern Spain -and Italy, remained immune to it. Magdalenian culture then arose and -became widespread. It had relations with the earlier Aurignacian and -owed nothing to Solutrean. England yields undoubted traces of its -influence, which operated vigorously at a time when Scotland was -yet largely covered with ice. Certain elements in Aurignacian and -Magdalenian cultures appear to have persisted in our midst until -comparatively recent times, especially in connection with burial -customs and myths regarding the "sleeping heroes" in burial caverns. - -The so-called "Transition Period" between the Upper Palæolithic and -Neolithic Ages is well represented, especially in Scotland, where the -land rose after early man's arrival, and even after the introduction -of shipping. As England was sinking when Scotland was rising, English -traces of the period are difficult to find. This "Transition Period" -was of greater duration than the archæological "Neolithic Age". - -Of special interest is the light thrown by relics of the "Transition -Period" on the race problem. Apparently the Crô-Magnons and other -peoples of the Magdalenian Age were settled in Britain when the -intruders, who had broken up Magdalenian civilization on the -Continent, began to arrive. These were (1) the Azilians of Iberian -(Mediterranean) type; (2) the Tardenoisians, who came through -Italy from North Africa, and were likewise, it would appear, of -Mediterranean racial type; and (3) the Maglemosians, who were mainly -a fair, tall people of Northern type. The close proximity of Azilian -and Maglemosian stations in western Scotland--at the MacArthur cave -(Azilian) and the Drumvaragie shelter (Maglemosian) at Oban, for -instance--suggests that in the course of time racial intermixture -took place. That all the fair peoples of England, Scotland, and -Ireland are descended from Celts or Norwegians is a theory which has -not taken into account the presence in these islands at an early -period, and before the introduction of the Neolithic industry, of the -carriers from the Baltic area of Maglemosian culture. - -We next pass to the so-called Neolithic stage of culture,[198] and -find it affords fuller and more definite evidence regarding the early -history of our native land. As has been shown, there are data which -indicate that there was no haphazard distribution of the population -of England when the Neolithic industry and the agricultural mode of -life were introduced. The theory must be discarded that "Neolithic -man" was a wanderer, whose movements depended entirely on those -of the wild animals he hunted, as well as the further theory that -stone implements and weapons were not used after the introduction of -metals. There were, as can be gathered from the evidence afforded by -archæological remains, settled village communities, and centres of -industry in the Age referred to by archæologists as "Neolithic". The -Early Agricultural Age had dawned. Sections of the population engaged -in agriculture, sections were miners and workers of flint, sections -were hunters and fishermen, sections searched for gold, pigments -for body paint, material for ornaments of religious value, &c., -and sections engaged in trade, not only with English and Scottish -peoples, but with those of the Continent. The English Channel, and -probably the North Sea, were crossed by hardy mariners who engaged in -trade. - - [198] It must be borne in mind that among the producers and users - of Neolithic artifacts were the Easterners who collected and - exported ores. - -At an early period in the Early Agricultural Age and before bronze -working was introduced, England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, -were influenced more directly than had hitherto been the case by the -high civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia, and especially by their -colonies in South-western Europe. The recent Spanish finds indicate -that a great "wave" of high Oriental culture was in motion in Spain -as far back as 2500 B.C., and perhaps at an even earlier period. -Included among Babylonian and Egyptian relics in Spain are, as has -been stated, jet from Whitby, Yorkshire, and amber from the Baltic. -Apparently the colonists had trading relations with Britain. Whether -the "Tin Land", which was occupied by a people owing allegiance to -Sargon of Akkad, was ancient Britain is quite uncertain. It was -more probably some part of Western Europe. That Western European -influence was reaching Britain before the last land movement had -ceased is made evident by the fact that the ancient boat with a cork -plug, which was found in Clyde silt at Glasgow, lay 25 feet above -the present sea-level. The cork plug undoubtedly came from Spain or -Italy, and the boat is of Mediterranean type.[199] It is evident that -long before the introduction of bronze working the coasts of Britain -were being explored by enterprizing prospectors, and that the virgin -riches of our native land were being exploited. In this connection it -is of importance to find that the earliest metal artifacts introduced -into our native islands were brought by traders, and that those -that reached England were mainly of Gaulish type, while those that -reached Ireland were Spanish. The Neolithic industry does not appear -to have been widespread in Ireland, where copper artifacts were in -use at a very early period. - - [199] The boat dates the silting process rather than the silting - process the boat. - -A large battle-axe of pure copper, described by Sir David Brewster in -1822 (_Edinburgh Philosophical Journal_, Vol. VI, p. 357), was found -at a depth of 20 feet in Ratho Bog, near Edinburgh. Above it were 9 -feet of moss, 7 feet of sand, and 4 feet of hard black till-clay. -"It must have been deposited along with the blue clay", wrote -Brewster, "prior to the formation of the superincumbent stratum of -sand, and must have existed before the diluvial operations by which -that stratum was formed. This opinion of its antiquity is strongly -confirmed by the peculiarity of its shape, and the nature of its -composition." The Spanish discoveries have revived interest in this -important find. - -As has been indicated, jet, pearls, gold, and tin appear to have -been searched for and found before bronze working became a British -industry. That the early prospectors had experience in locating and -working metals before they reached this country there can be little -doubt. There was a psychological motive for their adventurous voyages -to unknown lands. The distribution of the megalithic monuments and -graves indicates that metals were found and worked in south-western -England, in Wales, in Derbyshire, and Cumberland, that jet was worked -at Whitby, and that metals were located in Ireland and Scotland. -Gold must have been widely distributed during the period of the -great thaw. It is unlikely that traces of alluvial gold, which -had been located and well worked in ancient times, should remain -until the present time. In Scotland no traces of gold can now be -found in a number of districts where, according to the records, it -was worked as late as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Some -of the surviving Scottish megalithic monuments may mark the sites -of ancient goldfields that were abandoned in early times when the -supplies of precious metal became exhausted. The great circles of -Callernish in Lewis and Stennis in Orkney are records of activity in -semi-barren areas. Large communities could not have been attracted to -these outlying islands to live on the produce of land or sea. Traces -of metals, &c., indicate that, in both areas in ancient times, the -builders of megalithic monuments settled in remote areas in Britain -for the same reason as they settled on parts of the Continent. A gold -rod has been discovered in association with the "Druid Temple" at -Leys, near Inverness. The Inverness group of circles may well have -been those of gold-seekers. In Aberdeenshire a group of megalithic -monuments appears to have been erected by searchers for pearls. Gold -was found in this county in the time of the Stuart kings. - -The close association of megalithic monuments with ancient mine -workings makes it impossible to resist the conclusion that the -worship of trees and wells was closely connected with the religion -of which the megalithic monuments are records. Siret shows that the -symbolic markings on typical stone monuments are identical with those -of the tree cult. Folk-lore and philological data tend to support -this view. From the root _nem_ are derived the Celtic names of the -pearl, heaven, the grove, and the shrine within the grove (see Chap. -XIII). The Celts appear to have embraced the Druidic system of the -earlier Iberians in Western Europe, whose culture had been derived -from that of the Oriental colonists. - -The Oriental mother goddess was connected with the sacred tree, with -gold and gems, with pearls, with rivers, lakes, and the sea, with -the sky and with the heavenly bodies, long centuries before the -Palm-tree cult was introduced into Spain by Oriental colonists. The -symbolism of pearls links with that of jet, the symbolism of jet -with that of Baltic amber, and the symbolism of Baltic amber with -that of Adriatic amber and of Mediterranean coral. All these sacred -things were supposed to contain, like jasper and turquoise in Egypt, -the "life substance" of the mother goddess who had her origin in -water and her dwelling in a tree, and was connected with the sky and -"the waters above the firmament". Coral was supposed to be her sea -tree, and jet, amber, silver, and gold were supposed to grow from -her fertilizing tears. Beliefs about "grown gold" were quite rife in -mediæval Britain.[200] - - [200] The ancient belief is enshrined in Milton's lines referring - to "ribs of gold" that "grow in Hell" and are dug out of its hill - (_Paradise Lost_, Book I, lines 688-90). - -It should not surprise us, therefore, to find traces of Oriental -religious conceptions in ancient Britain and Ireland. These have -apparently passed from country to country, from people to people, -from language to language, and down the Ages without suffering great -change. Even when mixed with ideas imported from other areas, they -have preserved their original fundamental significance. The Hebridean -"maiden-queen" goddess, who dwells in a tree and provides milk from -a sea-shell, has a history rooted in a distant area of origin, where -the goddess who personified the life-giving shell was connected with -the cow and the sky (the Milky Way), as was the goddess Hathor, the -Egyptian Aphrodite. The tendency to locate imported religious beliefs -no doubt provides the reason why the original palm tree of the -goddess was replaced in Britain by the hazel, the elm, the rowan, the -apple tree, the oak, &c. - -On the Continent there were displacements of peoples after the -introduction of bronze, and especially of bronze weapons. There was -wealth and there was trade to attract and reward the conqueror. -The Eastern traders of Spain were displaced. Some appear to have -migrated into Gaul and North Italy; others may have found refuge in -Ireland and Britain. The sea-routes were not, however, closed. Ægean -culture filtered into Western Europe from Crete, and through the -Hallstatt culture centre from the Danubian area. The culture of the -tribes who spoke Celtic dialects was veined with Ægean and Asiatic -influences. In time Continental Druidism imbibed ideas regarding the -Transmigration of Souls and the custom of cremation from an area in -the East which had influenced the Aryan invaders of India. - -The origin of the Celts is obscure. Greek writers refer to them as a -tall, fair people. They were evidently a branch of the fair Northern -race, but whether they came from Northern Europe or Northern Asia is -uncertain. In Western Europe they intruded themselves as conquerors -and formed military aristocracies. Like other vigorous, intruding -minorities elsewhere and at different periods, they were in certain -localities absorbed by the conquered. In Western Europe they were -fused with Iberian communities, and confederacies of Celtiberians -came into existence. - -Before the great Celtic movements into Western Europe began--that -is, before 500 B.C.--Britain was invaded by a broad-headed people, -but it is uncertain whether they came as conquerors or as peaceful -traders. In time these intruders were absorbed. The evidence afforded -by burial customs and surviving traces of ancient religious beliefs -and practices tends to show that the culture of the earlier peoples -survived over large tracts of our native land. An intellectual -conquest of conquerors or intruders was effected by the indigenous -population which was rooted to the soil by agriculture and to centres -of industry and trade by undisturbed habits of life. - -Although the pre-Celtic languages were ultimately displaced by -the Celtic--it is uncertain when this process was completed--the -influence of ancient Oriental culture remained. In Scotland the -pig-taboo, with its history rooted in ancient Egypt, has had tardy -survival until our own times. It has no connection with Celtic -culture, for the Continental Celts were a pig-rearing and pork-eating -people, like the Ægæan invaders of Greece. The pig-taboo is still as -prevalent in Northern Arcadia as in the Scottish Highlands, where -the descendants not only of the ancient Iberians but of intruders -from pork-loving Ireland and Scandinavia have acquired the ancient -prejudice and are now perpetuating it. - -Some centuries before the Roman occupation, a system of gold coinage -was established in England. Trade with the Continent appears to have -greatly increased in volume and complexity. England, Wales, Scotland, -and Ireland were divided into small kingdoms. The evidence afforded -by the Irish Gaelic manuscripts, which refer to events before and -after the Roman conquest of Britain, shows that society was well -organized and that the organization was of non-Roman character. -Tacitus is responsible for the statement that the Irish manners and -customs were similar to those prevailing in Britain, and he makes -reference to Irish sea-trade and the fact that Irish sea-ports were -well known to merchants. England suffered more from invasions before -and after the arrival of Julius Cæsar than did Scotland or Ireland. -It was consequently incapable of united action against the Romans, as -Tacitus states clearly. The indigenous tribes refused to be allies of -the intruders.[201] - - [201] _Agricola_, Chap. XII. - -In Ireland, which Pliny referred to as one of the British Isles, -the pre-Celtic Firbolgs were subdued by Celtic invaders. The later -"waves" of Celts appeared to have subdued the earlier conquerors, -with the result that "Firbolg" ceased to have a racial significance -and was applied to all subject peoples. There were in Ireland, as in -England, upper and lower classes, and military tribes that dominated -other tribes. Withal, there were confederacies, and petty kings, -who owed allegiance to "high kings". The "Red Branch" of Ulster, of -which Cuchullin was an outstanding representative, had their warriors -trained in Scotland. It may be that they were invaders who had passed -through Scotland into Northern Ireland; at any rate, it is unlikely -that they would have sent their warriors to a "colony" to acquire -skill in the use of weapons. There were Cruithne (Britons) in all the -Irish provinces. Most Irish saints were of this stock. - -The pre-Roman Britons had ships of superior quality, as is made -evident by the fact that a British squadron was included in the -great Veneti fleet which Cæsar attacked and defeated with the aid of -Pictones and other hereditary rivals of the Veneti and their allies. -In early Roman times Britain thus took an active part in European -politics in consequence of its important commercial interests. - - [Illustration: BRONZE BUCKLERS OR SHIELDS (British Museum) - - Upper: from the Thames. Lower: from Wales.] - -When the Romans reached Scotland the Caledonians, a people with a -Celtic tribal name, were politically predominant. Like the English -and Irish pre-Roman peoples, they used chariots and ornamented these -with finely worked bronze. Enamel was manufactured or imported. Some -of the Roman stories about the savage condition of Scotland may be -dismissed as fictions. Who can nowadays credit the statement of -Herodian[202] that the warriors of Scotland in Roman times passed -their days in the water, or Dion Cassius's[203] story that they were -wont to hide in mud for several days with nothing but their heads -showing, and that despite their fine physique they fed chiefly on -herbs, fruit, nuts, and the bark of trees, and, withal, that they -had discovered a mysterious earth-nut and had only to eat a piece no -larger than a bean to defy hunger and thirst. The further statement -that the Scottish "savages" were without state or family organization -hardly accords with historical facts. Even Agricola had cause to -feel alarm when confronted by the well-organized and well-equipped -Caledonian army at the battle of Mons Grampius, and he found it -necessary to retreat afterwards, although he claimed to have won -a complete victory. His retreat appears to have been as necessary -as that of Napoleon from Moscow. The later invasion of the Emperor -Severus was a disastrous one for him, entailing the loss of 50,000 -men. - - [202] _Herodian_, III, 14. - - [203] Dion Cassius (_Xiphilinus_) LXXVI, 12. - -A people who used chariots and horses, and artifacts displaying -the artistic skill of those found in ancient Britain, had reached -a comparatively high state of civilization. Warriors did not -manufacture their own chariots, the harness of their horses, their -own weapons, armour, and ornaments; these were provided for them by -artisans. Such things as they required and could not obtain in their -own country had to be imported by traders. The artisans had to be -paid in kind, if not in coin, and the traders had to give something -in return for what they received. Craftsmen and traders had to be -protected by laws, and the laws had to be enforced. - -The evidence accumulated by archæologists is sufficient to prove -that Britain had inherited from seats of ancient civilization a high -degree of culture and technical skill in metal-working, &c., many -centuries before Rome was built. The finest enamel work on bronze in -the world was produced in England and Ireland, and probably, although -definite proof has not yet been forthcoming, in Scotland, the enamels -of which may have been imported and may not. Artisans could not -have manufactured enamel without furnaces capable of generating a -high degree of heat. The process was a laborious and costly one. It -required technical knowledge and skill on the part of the workers. -Red, white, yellow, and blue enamels were manufactured. Even the -Romans were astonished at the skill displayed in enamel work by the -Britons. The people who produced these enamels and the local peoples -who purchased them, including the Caledonians, were far removed from -a state of savagery. - -Many writers, who have accepted without question the statements of -certain Roman writers regarding the early Britons and ignored the -evidence that archæological relics provide regarding the arts and -crafts and social conditions of pre-Roman times, have in the past -written in depreciatory vein regarding the ancestors of the vast -majority of the present population of these islands, who suffered -so severely at the altar of Roman ambition. Everything Roman has -been glorified; Roman victories over British "barbarians" have been -included among the "blessings" of civilization. Yet "there is", as -Elton says, "something at once mean and tragical about the story -of the Roman conquest.... On the one side stand the petty tribes, -prosperous nations in minature, already enriched by commerce and -rising to a homely culture; on the other the terrible Romans strong -in their tyranny and an avarice which could never be appeased."[204] - - [204] _Origins of English History_, pp. 302-3. - -It was in no altruistic spirit that the Romans invaded Gaul and broke -up the Celtic organization, or that they invaded Briton and reduced -a free people to a state of bondage. The life blood of young Britain -was drained by Rome, and, for the loss sustained, Roman institutions, -Roman villas and baths, and the Latin language and literature were -far from being compensations. Rome was a predatory state. When its -military organization collapsed, its subject states fell with it. -Gaul and Britain had been weakened by Roman rule; the ancient spirit -of independence had been undermined; native initiative had been -ruthlessly stamped out under a system more thorough and severe than -modern Prussianism. At the same time, there is, of course, much to -admire in Roman civilization. - -During the obscure post-Roman period England was occupied by Angles -and Saxons and Jutes, who have been credited with the wholesale -destruction of masses of the Britons. The dark-haired survivors -were supposed to have fled westward, leaving the fair intruders -in undisputed occupation of the greater part of England. But the -indigenous peoples of the English mining areas were originally a -dark-haired and sallow people, and the invading Celts were mainly a -fair people. Boadicea was fair-haired like Queen Maeve of Ireland. -The evidence collected of late years by ethnologists shows that the -masses of the English population are descended from the early peoples -of the Pre-Agricultural and Early Agricultural Ages. The theory of -the wholesale extermination by the Anglo-Saxons of the early Britons -has been founded manifestly on very scant and doubtful evidence. - -What the Teutonic invasions accomplished in reality was the -destruction not of a people but of a civilization. The native arts -and crafts declined, and learning was stamped out, when the social -organization of post-Roman Britain was shattered. On the Continent -a similar state of matters prevailed. Roman civilization suffered -decline when the Roman soldier vanished. - -Happily, the elements of "Celtic" civilization had been preserved -in those areas that had escaped the blight of Roman ambition. -The peoples of Celtic speech had preserved, as ancient Gaelic -manuscripts testify, a love of the arts as ardent as that of Rome, -and a fine code of chivalry to which the Romans were strangers. -The introduction of Christianity had advanced this ancient Celtic -civilization on new and higher lines. When the Columban missionaries -began their labours outside Scotland and Ireland, they carried -Christianity and "a new humanism" over England and the Continent, -"and became the teachers of whole nations, the counsellors of kings -and emperors". Ireland and Scotland had originally received their -Christianity from Romanized England and Gaul. The Celtic Church -developed on national lines. Vernacular literature was promoted by -the Celtic clerics. - -In England, as a result of Teutonic intrusions and conquests, -Christianity and Romano-British culture had been suppressed. The -Anglo-Saxons were pagans. In time the Celtic missionaries from -Scotland and Ireland spread Christianity and Christian culture -throughout England. - -It is necessary for us to rid our minds of extreme pro-Teutonic -prejudices. Nor is it less necessary to avoid the equally dangerous -pitfall of the Celtic hypothesis. Christianity and the associated -humanistic culture entered these islands during the Roman period. In -Ireland and Scotland the new religion was perpetuated by communities -that had preserved pre-Roman habits of life and thought which were -not necessarily of Celtic origin or embraced by a people who can -be accurately referred to as the "Celtic race". The Celts did not -exterminate the earlier settlers. Probably the Celts were military -aristocrats over wide areas. - -Before the fair Celts had intruded themselves in Britain and Ireland, -the seeds of pre-Celtic culture, derived by trade and colonization -from centres of ancient civilization through their colonies, had -been sown and had borne fruit. The history of British civilization -begins with neither Celt nor Roman, but with those early prospectors -and traders who entered and settled in the British Isles when mighty -Pharaohs were still reigning in Egypt, and these and the enterprising -monarchs in Mesopotamia were promoting trade and extending their -spheres of influence. The North Syrian or Anatolian carriers of -Eastern civilization who founded colonies in Spain before 2500 B.C. -were followed by Cretans and Phoenicians. The sea-trade promoted by -these pioneers made possible the opening up of overland trade routes. -It was after Pytheas had (about 300 B.C.) visited Britain by coasting -round Spain and Northern France from Marseilles that the volume of -British trade across France increased greatly and the sea-routes -became of less importance. When Carthage fell, the Romans had the -trade of Western Europe at their mercy, and their conquests of Gaul -and Britain were undoubtedly effected for the purpose of enriching -themselves at the expense of subject peoples. We owe much to Roman -culture, but we owe much also to the culture of the British pre-Roman -period. - - - - -INDEX - - - Achæans, Celts and, 111, 112. - - Acheulian culture, 13, 14. - - Adonis, killed by boar, 197. - - Ægean culture, Celts absorbed, 112. - - -- -- in Central Europe, 96. - - Æstyans, the, amber traders, 161. - - -- worship of mother goddess and boar god, 161, 162. - - Africa, Crô-Magnon peoples entered Europe from, 35. - - -- ostrich eggs, ivory, &c., from, found in Spain, 96. - - -- transmigration of souls in, 143. - - Age, the Agricultural and pre-Agricultural, 213. - - -- the Early Red Deer, 214, 215. - - -- the Prehistoric, 217. - - -- the Historic, 217. - - -- the Reindeer, 213. - - Ages, Archæological, new system of, 215. - - -- -- problem of Scottish copper axe, 219. - - -- the Mythical, colours and metals of, 121. - See also _Geological_ and _Archæological Ages_. - - Agriculture, beginning of, in Britain, 217. - - -- importance of introduction of, 212. - - -- history of, 210. - - -- Neolithic sickles, 4. - - -- barley, wheat, and rye cultivated, 5. - - Aine, the Munster fairy, 202. - - Airts (Cardinal Points), the, doctrine of, 145. - See also _Cardinal Points_. - - Akkad, Sargon of, his knowledge of Western Europe, 96, 218. - - Alabaster, Eastern perfume flasks of, in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - Albertite, jet and, 164. - - Albiorix, the Gaulish god, 207. - - All Hallows, Black Sow of, 200. - - Amber, associated with jet and Egyptian blue beads in - England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- Celtic and German names of, 162. - - -- as magical product of water, 162, 163. - - -- eyes strengthened by, 165. - - -- imported into Britain at 1400 B.C., 106; and in first - century A.D., 114. - - -- jet and pearls and, 22. - - -- as "life substance", 80. - - -- Megalithic people searched for, 93. - - -- origin of, in Scottish lore, 162. - - -- Persian, &c., names of, 163, 164. - - -- Tacitus on the Baltic Æstyans, 161. - - -- connection of, with boar god and mother goddess, 161. - - -- as "tears" of goddess, 161. - - -- trade in, 219. - - -- the "vigorous Gael" and, 163. - - -- connection of, with Woad, 163. - - -- white enamel as substitute for, 165. - - America, green stone symbolism in, 34. - - Angles, 126. - - -- Celts and, 227. - - Anglo-Saxon intruders, our scanty knowledge of, 209. - - Angus, the Irish god of love, 202. - - Animism, not the earliest stage in religion, 178. - - Annis, Black (also "Black Anny" and "Cat Anna"), 195. - - -- -- Irish Anu (Danu), and, 198. - - Anthropology, stratification theory, 11, 12. - - Anu (Ana), the goddess, 198, 201. - - Aphrodite, 221. - - -- amber and, 163. - - -- the black form of, 164. - - -- connection of, with pearl and moon, 158. - - -- Julius Cæsar's pearl offering to, 159. - - -- myth of origin of, 38. - - -- Egyptian Hathor and, 38. - - -- the Scandinavian, 161. - - Apollo, British temples of, 177. - - -- the Gaelic, 202. - - -- the Gaulish, 207. - - -- god of London, 203. - - -- mouse connection of, 179. - - -- mouse feasts, 187. - - Apple, 221. - - -- connection of mouse with, 196. - - -- as fruit of longevity, 144. - - -- Scottish hag-goddess and, 196. - - -- Thomas the Rhymer and apple of knowledge and longevity, 146. - - -- "wassailing", 204. - - Apple land (Avalon), the Celtic Paradise, 144. - - Apples, life substance in, 206. - - Apple tree, God of, 204. - - Archæological Ages, 1400 B.C., a date in British history, 106. - - -- -- "Broad-heads" in Britain and "Long-heads" in Ireland - use bronze, 87. - - -- -- climate in Upper Palæolithic, 14. - - -- -- Egyptian and Babylonian relics in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - -- -- Egyptian Empire beads associated with bronze industry in - south-western England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- -- few intrusions between Bronze and Iron Ages, 109. - - -- -- in humorous art, 1. - - -- -- "Stone Age" man not necessarily a savage, 2. - - Archæological Ages, influences of Neanderthal and Crô-Magnon - races, 12. - - -- -- Irish sagas and, 119. - - -- -- bronze and iron swords, 119. - - -- -- Lord Avebury's system, 8. - - -- -- Neolithic industry introduced by metal workers - in Spain, 95, 99. - - -- -- relations of Neanderthal and Crô-Magnon races, 14, 15, 16. - - -- -- "Transition Period" longer than "Neolithic Age", 61. - - -- -- Western European metals reached Mesopotamia between 3000 B.C. - and 2000 B.C., 99, 100. - See also _Palæolithic_ and _Neolithic_. - - Archæology, stratification theory, 11, 12. - - Argentocoxus, the Caledonian, 112. - - Armenoid (Alpine) races, early movements of, 56. - - Armenoids in Britain, 222. - - -- intrusions of, in Europe, 126. - - -- partial disappearance of, from Britain, 127. - - Armlets, in graves, 158. - - Arrow, the fiery, and goddess Brigit, 188. - - Arrows, Azilians introduced, into Europe, 55. - - -- as symbols of deity, 51. - - Art, ancient man caricatured in modern, 1. - - Artemis, bee and butterfly connected with, 193. - - -- myth of the Scottish, 174, 197. - - Arthur, King, Celtic myth attached to, 198. - - Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, night-shining gem of, 160. - - -- -- giant of, 131, and also note 1. - - Aryans, The, 123. - - Astronomy in Ancient Britain and Ireland, 175, and also note 1. - - -- Welsh and Gaelic names of constellations, 203. - - Atlantis, The Lost, 70. - - Atrebates, The, in Britain, 128. - - Augustine of Canterbury, Pope Gregory's letter, 176. - - -- -- Canterbury temple occupied by, 177. - - Augustonemeton (shrine of Augustus), 159. - - Aurignac, Crô-Magnon cave-tomb of, 20, 22. - - Aurignacian, African source of culture called, 27, 35. - - -- custom of smearing bodies with red earth, 27. - - -- animism and goddess worship, 178. - - -- influence in Britain, 19, 216. - - -- burial customs, 45. - - -- cave hand-prints, 47. - - -- "Combe-Capelle" man, 25. - - -- Brüx and Brünn race, 26. - - -- Crô-Magnons and, 14. - - -- culture of Crô-Magnon grotto, 23, 24. - - -- heart as seat of life, 32. - - -- green stone symbolism, 33. - - -- Indian Ocean shell at Grimaldi, 36. - - -- Magdalenians and, 52. - - -- the Mother-goddess, 42, 178. - - -- Egyptian milk and shells link, 43. - - -- "Tama" belief, 44. - - -- origin of term, 22. - - -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - -- Proto-Solutrean influence on, 49. - - -- no trace of, in Hungary, 50. - - Aurignacian Age, 13. - - Aurignacian implements 21, (_ill._). - - Australian natives, Neanderthal man and, 9. - - Avalon (Apple land), the Celtic Paradise, 144. - - Avebury, megaliths of, 82. - - -- -- burial customs, 171. - - Axe, Chellean 14, (_ill._). - - -- double, as "god-body", 50. - - -- Glasgow and Spanish green-stone axes, 97. - - -- as religious object, 77. - - Axes, Neolithic, distribution of population and, 82, 84. - - -- Neolithic, mathematical skill in manufacture of, 4. - - Aynia, Irish fairy queen, 201. - - Azilian culture, 62. - - -- -- artifacts, 13. - - -- -- English Channel land-bridge crossed by - carriers of, 58, 67, 69. - - Azilian culture, Iberian carriers of, 216. - - -- -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - -- -- rock paintings, 55. - - -- -- customs of, revealed in art, 55. - - -- -- script used, 56. - - -- -- in Scotland and England, 58, 60. - - -- boats, 75. - - Azilians in Britain, 70, 125. - - - Babylonia, goddess of, in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - -- influence of, in Asia Minor and Syria, 95. - - -- influence of culture of, 212. - - -- influence of, in Britain, 218. - - -- knowledge of European metal-fields in, 99. - - -- religious ideas of, in Britain, 154. - - Baptism, milk and honey used in, 152. - - Barley, cultivation of, 5. - - -- the Egyptian, reaches Britain, 84, 85. - - Basket-making, relation of, to pottery and knitting, 6. - - Beads, as "adder stones" and "Druid's gems", 163. - - -- Egyptian blue beads in England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- Egyptian, in Britain, 211. - - Bede, on jet symbolism, 164. - - Bee, connection of, with Artemis and fig tree, 193. - - -- as soul form in legends, 193. - - Bees, connection of, with maggot soul form, 102. - - -- "Telling the bees" custom, 103, 193. - - Belatucadros, a Gaulish Mars, 207. - - Belgæ, The, in Britain, 128. - - Belisama, goddess of Mersey, 206. - - Beltain festival, fires at, 191. - - Berries, fire in, 181. - - -- life substance in, 206. - - -- "the luck", 180. - - -- salmon and red, 183. - - Berry charms, 47. - - Birds, butterfly as "bird of god", 191. - - -- Celtic deities as, 195. - - Birds, language of, Druids and wren, 145. - - -- language of, in India, 151. - - -- language of, St. Columba and, 146. - - -- oyster catcher and wood linnet as birds of goddess Bride, 187. - - -- swan form of soul, 190. - - -- taboo in Ancient Britain, 201. - - -- taboo in Highlands, 201. - - -- tom-tit, robin, wren, and apple cults, 204. - - -- wren as king of, 186. - - Black Annis, Irish Anu (Danu) and, 198. - - --Leicestershire hag-deity, 195, 196. - - Black Demeter, 196. - - Black goddesses, Greek and Scottish, 164. - - Black Kali, Indian goddess, 196. - - Black Pig, Devil as, 200. - - Black Sow, Devil as, 200. - - Blood Covenant, 152. - - Boadicea, 162, 227. - - -- (Boudicca), Queen, 114. - - -- Iceni tribe of, 128. - - Boann, the goddess, 202. - - Boar, Adonis and Diarmid slain by, 197. - - -- in Orkney, 129. - - -- salmon and porpoise as, 182. - - Boar god on British and Gaulish coins, 162. - - -- -- connection of, with amber, 161. - - -- -- the Gaulish, 197. - - -- -- Mars as, 197. - - -- -- The Inverness, 129, 155 (_ill._). - - Boats, ancient migrations by sea, 92. - - -- axe of Clyde boat, 77. - - -- Himilco's references to skin-boats, 77. - - -- sea-worthiness of skin-boats, 77. - - -- how sea-sense was cultivated, 78. - - -- Veneti vessels, 78. - - -- Azilian-Tardenoisians and Maglemosians required, 69. - - -- Britain reached by, before last land movement ceased, 72. - - -- Perth dug-out, under carse clays, 72. - - Boats, Forth and Clyde dug-outs, 72. - - -- dug-outs not the earliest, 72, 73. - - -- Ancient Egyptian papyri and skin-boats, 73. - - -- "seams" and "skins" of, 74. - - -- Egyptian models in Europe and Asia, 74. - - -- religious ceremonies at construction of dug-outs, 74. - - -- Polynesian, dedicated to gods, 74. - - -- earliest Egyptian, 74. - - -- Britons and Veneti, 224. - - -- Celtic pirates, 136. - - -- earliest, in Britain, 218. - - -- early builders of, 6. - - -- Easterners exported ores by, from Western Europe, 99. - - -- Egyptian barley carried by early seafarers to Britain, 84. - - -- exports from early Britain, 104. - - -- Glasgow discoveries of ancient, 75, 76. - - -- cork plug in Glasgow boat, 75, 76. - - -- invention of, 72. - - -- oak god and skin boats, 153. - - -- outrigger at Glasgow, 76. - - -- ancient Clyde clinker-built boat, 76. - - -- Aberdeenshire dug-out, 76. - - -- Sussex, Kentish, and Dumfries finds of, 77. - - -- Brigg boat, 77. - - -- Pictish, 136. - - -- pre-Roman British, 224. - - -- similar types in Africa and Scandinavia 75, (_ill._). - - -- why early seafarers visited Britain, 80, 81. - - Bodies painted for religious reasons, 28. - - Boers, the mouse cure of, 187, and also note 2. - - Bone implements, 82. - - -- -- Magdalenians favoured, 52. - - Bonfires, at Pagan festivals, 181. - - Borvo, the Gaulish Apollo, 207. - - Bows and arrows, Azilians introduced, into Europe, 55. - - Boyne, River goddess of, 202. - - Boyne, The "white cow", 206. - - Bran, the god and saint, 202. - - Bride, The goddess, Bird of, and Page of, 187. - -- -- dandelion as milk-yielding plant of, 187. - - -- serpent of, as "daughter of Ivor" and the "damsel", 187, 188. - See _Brigit_. - - -- Saint, Goddess Bride and, 188. - - Bride's Day, 187. - - Bride wells, 188. - - Brigantes, blue shields of, 173. - - -- Brigit (Bride) goddess of, 187. - - -- territory occupied by, 188. - - -- in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 128, 188. - - Brigit, Dagda and, 202. - - -- as "fiery arrow", 188. - - -- the goddess (also Bride), Brigantes and, 187. - - -- three forms of, 188, 195. - - -- as hag or girl, 195. - - Britain, Stone Age man in, 1. - - -- early races in, 16. - - -- date of last land movement in, 18. - - Briton, "cloth clad", 119. - - Britons, the, Cruithne of Ireland were, 131, 132. - - -- chief people in ancient England, Ireland, and Scotland, 132. - - Brittany, Easterners in, 100. - - Bronze, Celts and, 106. - - -- Gaelic gods connected with, 102. - - -- knowledge of, introduced into Britain by traders, 101. - - -- British, same as Continental, 101. - - -- Spanish Easterners displaced by carriers of, 221. - - Bronze Age, The Archæological, British "broad-heads" and Irish - "long-heads" as bronze users, 87. - - -- -- French forms in Britain and Spanish in Ireland, 88. - - -- -- conquest theory, 88. - - -- -- prospectors discovered metals in Britain, 89. - - -- -- how metals were located, 89. - - -- -- bronze carriers reached Spain from Central Europe, 96. - - -- -- carriers of bronze earliest - settlers in Buchan, Aberdeenshire, 111. - - Bronze Age, Celtic horse-tamers as bronze carriers, 111. - - -- -- carriers expel Easterners from Spain, 100, 101. - - -- -- Druidism and, 149. - - -- -- Egyptian relics of, 104. - - -- -- relics of 113, (_ill._). - - Bronze industry, fibulæ and clothing, 119. - - Brünn and Brüx races, 50. - - -- -- skull caps, 25, 26. - - _Brut, The_, reference in, to Apollo's temple, 177. - - Bull, rivers and, 206. - - Bulls, The Sacred, 155 (_ill._). - - -- sacrifice of, in Ross-shire in seventeenth century, 148. - - Burial Customs, Avebury evidence regarding, 171. - - -- -- body painting, 27. - - -- -- Seven Sleepers myth, 29. - - -- -- British Pagan survivals, 17. - - -- -- Crô-Magnon Aurignacian, in Wales, 19. - - -- -- doctrine of Cardinal Points and, 168, 170. - - -- -- Egyptian pre-dynastic customs, 170. - - -- -- food for the dead, 158. - - -- -- urns in graves, 158. - - -- -- green stones in mouths of Crô-Magnon dead, 33. - - -- -- Egyptian and American use of green stones, 33, 34. - - -- -- long-barrow folk in England, 82. - - -- -- milk offerings to dead, 148. - - -- -- in Neolithic Britain, 86. - - -- -- Palæolithic, 158. - - -- -- "Round Barrow" folk, 87. - - -- -- Shakespeare's reference to Pagan, 45. - - -- -- Crô-Magnon rites, 45. - - -- -- shell and other ornaments, 36. - - -- -- short-barrow and cremation intruders, 104. - - -- -- solar aspect of ancient British, 170. - - -- -- Welsh ideas about destiny of soul, 144. - - -- -- why dead were cremated, 109, 110, 111. - - Butterfly, connection of, with jade and soul in China, 193. - - -- connection with plum tree in China and honeysuckle - in Scotland, 193. - - -- as fire god in Gaelic, 191. - - -- Gaelic names of, 191. - - -- goddess Freyja and, 192. - - -- Psyche as, 192. - - -- as Italian soul form, 192. - - -- Serbian witches and, 192. - - -- Burmese soul as, 193. - - -- Mexican soul and fire god as, 194. - - Byzantine Empire, The, Chinese lore from, 160. - - - Cailleach, The, 174, 197. - See _Artemis_. - - Caithness, the "cat" country, 130. - - Caledonians, The, 129. - - -- Celtic tribal name of, 112. - - -- personal names of, 112. - - -- clothing of, 119. - - -- the Picts and, 130. - - -- Romans and, 224. - - -- Tacitus's theory regarding, 137. - - Calendar, the Gaelic, 198. - - Calgacus, 112. - - Callernish stone circle, 94. - - Calton (hazel grove), 150. - - Camulos, god of Colchester, 207. - - Canoes. See _Boats_. - - Canterbury Pagan temple, St. Augustine used, 177. - - Cantion, the, Kent tribe, 128. - - Cardinal Points, doctrine of, 145, 168. - - -- -- south as road to heaven, 145, and also note 1. - - -- -- Gaelic colours of, 168. - - -- -- goddesses and gods come from their own, 173. - - -- -- giants of north and fairies of west, 173. - - -- -- in modern burial customs, 171. - - -- -- "sunwise" and "withershins", 172, and also note 1. - - Carnonacæ Carini, the, 129. - - Carthage, Britain and, 229. - - -- British and Spanish connection with, 107. - - -- megalithic monuments and, 149. - - Carthage, trade of, with Britain, 114. - - Cassiterides, The, 98. - - -- Carthagenians' trade with, 114. - - -- Pytheas and, 115. - - -- Crassus visits, 116. - - -- exports and imports of, 104. - - -- OEstrymnides of Himilco and, 116. - - -- the Hebrides and, 117. - - Cat, the Big, 196. - - -- as goddess, 154. - - -- pear tree and, 196. - - Cat-Anna, Leicestershire hag-goddess, 195. - - Cat goddess of Egypt, 196. - - Cat stone, 196. - - Cats, the, peoples of Shetland, Caithness, and - Sutherland as, 129, 130. - - -- witches as, 196. - - Caturix, the Gaulish god, 207. - - Catuvellauni, The, in England, 128. - - Cauldron. See _Pot_. - - Cauldron, the Celtic, 90, 91. - - -- -- Welsh goddess of, 204. - - -- of Dagda, 202. - - -- Holy Grail and, 205. - - -- myth of, 205. - - Celts, Achæans and, 111. - - -- as carriers of La Tène culture, 112. - - -- confederacies formed by, 112. - - -- as conquerors of earlier settlers in Britain and Ireland, 107. - - -- as military aristocrats in Britain, 107. - - -- conquests of, 111. - - -- Etruscans overcome by, 112. - - -- Sack of Rome, 112. - - -- Danube valley and Rhone valley trade routes controlled by, 114. - - -- as pig rearers and pork curers, 114, 223. - - -- destiny of soul, 144. - See _Soul_. - - -- displacement theory regarding, 137. - - -- earlier fair folks in Britain, 125. - - -- ethnics of, 112. - - -- the fair in Britain and Ireland, 227. - - -- fair queens of, 112. - - -- gold and silver offered to deities by, 80. - - Celts, Maglemosians and, 138. - - -- origin of, obscure, 222. - - -- as Fair Northerners, 222. - - -- Pictish problem, 130. See _Picts_. - - -- as pirates, 136. - - -- references to clothing of, 119. - - -- British breeches, 119. - - -- settlement of, in Asia Minor, 112. - - -- Tacitus on the Caledonians, &c., 137. - - -- Teutons and, 125. - - -- Iberians and, 125. - - -- Teutons did not exterminate, in England, 227. - - -- early Christian influence of, 228. - - -- theory of extermination of, in Britain, 122. - - -- as traders in Britain, 107. - - -- and transmigration of souls, 143. - - -- tribes of, in ancient Britain, 128. - - -- tribal rivalries of, in Britain, 119. - - -- westward movement of, 214. - - Celtic art, Ægean affinities, 118, 119. - - -- cauldron, 205, 206. - - -- gods, connection of, with metals, 102. - - Cenn Cruach, Irish god, 102, 103. - - Cereals, 5. - - Cerones, Creones, the, 129. - - Chancelade Man, 53. - - Chariots, in pre-Roman Britain, 119. - - Charms, hand-prints, horse-shoes, and berries as, 47. - - -- herbs and berries as, 167. - - -- lore of, 157 _et seq._ See _Shells_, _Necklaces_, _Pearls_. - - -- otter skin charm, 189. - - Chellean culture, 13. - - -- -- artifacts of, 13, 14. - - -- _Coup de Poing_ 14, (_ill._). - - Children sacrificed, 174. - - China, butterfly soul of, 193. - - Chinese dragon, Scottish Bride serpent and, 188, 189. - - Churchyards, Pagan survivals, 171. - - Cocidius, a Gaulish Mars, 207. - - Cockle-shell elixir, in Japan and Scotland, 40, 41. - - -- -- in Crete, 41. - - Coinage, ancient British, 223. - - Colour symbolism, black and white goddesses, 164. - - -- -- blue artificial shells, 173. - - -- -- blue shields of Brigantes, 173. - - -- -- blue as female colour, 173. - - -- -- blue as fishermen's mourning colour, 173. - - -- -- blue stone raises wind, 172. - - -- -- body paint used by Neolithic industry peoples, 82. - - -- -- Celtic root _glas_ as colour term, and in - amber, &c., 162, 163. - - -- -- coloured pearls favoured, 168. - - -- -- coloured races and coloured ages, 121, 124. - - -- -- coloured stones as amulets, 80. - - -- -- Dragon's Eggs, 173. - - -- -- enamel colours, 165. - - -- -- four colours of Aurignacian hand impressions in caves, 47. - - -- -- Gaelic colours of seasons, 169. - - -- -- Gaelic colours of winds and of Cardinal Points, 168. - - -- -- green stones used by Crô-Magnon, Ancient Egyptian, and - pre-Columbian American peoples, 33, 34. - - -- -- how prospectors located metals by rock colours, 89. - - -- -- Irish rank colours, 173, and also note 1. - - -- -- jade tongue amulets in China, 34. - - -- -- luck objects, 165. - - -- -- lucky and unlucky colours, 157. - - -- -- painted vases in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - -- -- painting of god, 174. - - -- -- red berries as "fire berries", 181. - - -- -- red berries, 31. - - -- -- Greek gods painted red, 31. - - -- -- Indian megaliths painted, 32. - - -- -- Chinese evidence, 32. - - -- -- red earth devoured, 32. - - -- -- _Ruadh_ (red) means "strong" in Gaelic, 32. - - Colour symbolism, red and blue supernaturals in Wales, 158. - - -- -- red body paint in Welsh Aurignacian cave burial, 20. - - -- -- red earth and blood, 167. - - -- -- herbs and berries, 167. - - -- -- red jasper as blood of goddess, 45. - - -- -- red stone in Aurignacian cave tomb, 46. - - -- -- shells coloured, in Mentone cave, 46. - - -- -- Red symbolism, 31. - - -- -- red blood and red fire, 31, 32. - - -- -- blood as food of the dead, 32. - - -- -- red souls in "Red Land", 32. - - -- -- red woman as goddess, 45. - - -- -- scarlet-yielding insect, 152. - - -- -- sex colours, 170. - - -- -- significance of wind colours, 174. - - -- -- Solutrean flint-offerings coloured red, 50. - - -- -- white serpent, 188. - - -- -- why Crô-Magnon bodies were smeared with red earth, 27. - - -- -- Woad dye, 163. - - Columba, Saint, Christ as his Druid, 146. - - "Combe-Capelle" man, 25, 26, 36. - - -- -- shells worn by, 46. - - Con-chobar, dog god and, 66. - - Copper, axe of, in Scotland, 219. - - -- in Britain, 91. - - -- difficult to find and work in Britain, 95. - - -- Easterners worked, in Spain, 97, 98. - - -- as variety of gold, 80. - - -- offered to water deity, 174. - - Coral, enamel and, 162. - - -- as "life-giver" (_margan_), 161. - - -- as "life substance", 80. - - -- Megalithic people searched for, 93. - - -- symbolism of, 221. - - -- use of, in Britain, 164, 165. - - -- enamel as substitute for, 165. - - Cormorants, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Cornavii, The, in England and Scotland, 129. - - Cornwall, Damnonians in, 89. - - Cow, The Sacred, in Britain and Ireland, 152, 154, 195, 206. - - -- connected with River Boyne, 206. - - -- Dam[)o]na, Celtic goddess of cattle, 208. - - -- Indian, and milk-yielding trees, 151. - - -- Morrigan as, 195. - - -- The Primeval, in Egypt, 149. - - -- white, sacred in Ireland, 152. - - Cranes, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Cremation, in Britain, 127. - - -- significance of, 109. - - Cresswell caves, Magdalenian art in, 53. - - Cromarty, night-shining gem of, 160. - - Crom Cruach, Irish god, 102; children sacrificed to, 174. - - -- -- as maggot god, 102. - - Crô-Magnon, animism, 178. - - Crô-Magnon Grotto, discovery of, 23. - - -- -- skeletons in, 23. - - Crô-Magnon Races, advent of, in Europe, 12. - - -- -- ancestors of "modern man", 10, 11. - - -- -- archæological horizon of, 9. - - -- -- Aurignacian culture of the, 14. - - -- -- Brüx and Brünn types different from, 26. - - -- -- burial customs of, 45. - - -- -- cultural influence of, on Neanderthals, 14. - - -- -- discovery of Crô-Magnon grotto skeletons, 23. - - -- -- first discovery of traces of, in France, 20. - - -- -- history of modern man begins with, 26. - - -- -- as immigrants from Africa, 35. - - -- -- Indian Ocean shell at Mentone, 36, 37. - - -- -- inventive and inquiring minds of, 27. - - -- -- Magdalenian culture stage of, 53. - - -- -- domestication of horse, 53. - - -- -- modern representatives of, 122. - - Crô-Magnon Races, Mother-goddess of, 42. - - -- -- "Tama" belief, 44. - - -- -- not in Hungary, 50. - - -- -- "Red Man" of Wales, 19. - - -- -- Red Sea shells imported by, 210. - - -- -- history of, 210. - - -- -- relations of, with Neanderthal man, 14. - - -- -- in Wales, 19. - - -- -- sea-shell necklace 39, (_ill._). - - -- -- trade of, in shells, 40. - - -- -- tall types, 24. - - -- -- high cheek-bones of, 25. - - -- -- tallest types in Riviera, 35, 36. - - Crô-Magnon skulls 24, (_ill._). - - Crô-Magnons, Azilian intruders and, 62. - - -- heart as seat of life, among, 32. - - -- in Britain, 67, 125, 216. - - -- English Channel land-bridge crossed by, 67. - - -- hand-prints and mutilation of fingers, 47. - - -- modern Scots and, 137. - - -- Selgovæ and, 139. - - Crow, and goddess of grove and sky, 160. - - Crows, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Cruithne, in Ireland, 224. - - -- the Irish, not Picts, 132. - - -- the Q-Celtic name of Britons, 132. - - Cuchullin, and Scotland, 224. - - -- dog god and, 64. - - -- goddess Morrigan and, 195. - - -- his knowledge of astronomy, 175, and also note 1. - - -- pearls in hair of, 163. - - - Dagda, the god, 202. - - -- connection with oak and fire, 202. - - -- cauldron of, 202. - - -- Thor and, 202. - - -- a giant-slayer, 202. - - Damnonians. See _Dumnonii_. - - -- an early Celtic "wave", 107. - - -- Fomorians as gods of, 198. - - -- settlements of, in metal-yielding areas, 89. - - Damona, Celtic goddess of cattle, 208. - - Danann deities, 201. - - -- -- not in Scotland, 199. - - -- -- talismans of, 205. - - -- -- Japanese talismans, 205. - - -- -- war against Fomorians, 198. - - -- -- Welsh "Children of Don" and, 203. - - Dandelion, as milk-yielding plant of goddess Bride, 187. - - Danes, in Britain, 126. - - Dante, moon called "eternal pearl" by, 159. - - Danu, the goddess, 198. - - Danube valley trade route, 114. - - Danubian culture in Central Europe, 96. - - -- -- Celts as carriers of, 111, 112. - - Decantæ, The, 129. - - Deer, as goddess, 154. - - Demetæ, The, in Wales, 129. - - Demeter, The black, 196. - - Demons, dogs as enemies of, 65. - - Derbyshire, Magdalenian art in, 53. - - Deva, Devona, Dee, Rivers, 206. - - Devil as "Big Black Pig" in Scotland, 200. - - -- as Black Sow in Wales, 200. - - -- as pig, goat, and horse, 191. - - Devon, Damnonians in, 89. - - -- Magdalenian art in, 54. - - Diamond, The night-shining, 160. - - Diana of the Ephesians, fig tree and, 193. - - Diancecht, Irish god of healing, 202. - - Diarmid, Gaelic Adonis, 197. - - Diodorus Siculus, on gold mining, 90. - - -- -- reference to British temple to Apollo, 177. - - Disease, deity who sends also withdraws, 179. - - -- ancient man suffered from, 2. - - -- "Yellow Plague", 2. - - Dog, The Big, god Indra as, 196. - - -- The Sacred, 154, 155 (_ill._). - - -- taboo to Cuchullin, 154, and also note 3. See _Dogs_. - - Dogger Bank, ancient plateau, 68. - - -- -- animal bones, &c., from, 57, 61. - - -- -- Island, 69. - - Dog gods, 64. - - Dogs, children transformed into, 190. - - -- domesticated by Maglemosians, 57, 63. - - -- religious beliefs regarding, 63. - - -- early man's dependence on, 65. - - -- in ancient Britain and Ireland, 66. - - -- in warfare, 66. - - -- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - Dog Star, The, 64. - - Dolmen, The. See _Megalithic monuments_. - - Domnu, tribal goddess of Damnonians, 90. - - Don, the Children of, 203. - - Doves, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Dragon, Bride's Scottish serpent charm and Chinese charm, 188. - - -- Hebridean, 190. - - -- Irish, and the salmon, 182. - - -- otter and, 189. - - -- on sculptured stone, 155 (_ill._). - - -- luck pearls of, 184. - - -- stones as eggs of, 173. - - Dragon-mouth Lake, The Irish, 183. - - Dragon Slayers, the, Druids and, 145. - - Druid Circle, the Inverness, 220. - - Druidism, 140. - - -- belief in British origin of, 142. - - -- doctrines absorbed by, 222. - - -- eastern origin of, 149. - - -- in ancient Spain, 149. - - -- Pliny on Persian religion and, 143, and also note 1. - - -- oak cult, 145. - - -- tree cults and, 141. - - Druids, in Anglesea, 103. - - -- human sacrifices of, 103. - - -- "Christ is my Druid", 146. - - -- the collar of truth, 146. - - -- connection of, with megalithic monuments, 103, 154. - - -- and oak, 141. - - -- classical references to, 141. - - -- "Druid's gem", 163. - - -- evidence of, regarding races in Gaul, 100. - - -- Tacitus on Anglesea Druids, 147. - - -- temples of, 177. - - -- "True Thomas" (the Rhymer) as "Druid Thomas", 146. - - -- sacred salmon and, 182. - - Druids, salmon and dragon myth, 182. - - -- star lore of, 175. - - -- Kentigern of Glasgow as Christian Druid, 185. - - -- wren connection, 145. - - -- soothsayers, 145, 146. - - Dug-out canoes, origin of, 72. See _Boats_. - - Dumnogeni, The, in Yarrow inscription, 89. - - Dumnonii, 128. See _Damnonians_. - - -- Fomorians as gods of, 198. - - -- Silures and, 129. - - Dunatis, Gaulish Mars, 207. - - Durotriges, in Britain and Ireland, 128. - - Dwyn, St., formerly a goddess, 204. - - Dwynwen, British Venus, 204. - - - Eagle, the Sacred, 155 (_ill._). - - -- wren and, in myth, 186. - - Ear-rings, as solar symbols, 165. - - East, The, "Evil never came from", 168. See _Cardinal Points_. - - Easterners, colonies of, in Spain and - Portugal, 95, 100, 211, 218, 229. - - -- descendants of, in Britain, 118. - - -- displacement of, in Spain, 100, 221. - - -- Druidism introduced into Europe by, 149. - - -- as exploiters of Western Europe, 98. - - -- settlements of, in France and Etruria, 100. - - -- in Hebrides, 139. - - -- influence of, in Britain and Ireland, 221. - - -- iron industry and, 107. - - -- not all of one race, 107. - - -- Neolithic industry of, 214. - - -- in touch with Britain at 1400 B.C., 106. - - -- in Western Europe, 218, 229. - - Eel, Morrigan as, 195. - - Eels, as "devil fish" in Scotland, 190. - - -- tabooed in Scotland, 199. - - Eggs, Dragons', stones as, 173. - - Egypt, alabaster flasks, &c., from, in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - -- artificial shells in, 41, 173. - - -- barley of, carried to Europe, 84. - - -- black and white goddesses of, 164. - - -- blue beads from, in England, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106, 211. - - -- Cat goddess of, 196. - - -- culture of, transferred with barley seeds, 212. - - -- "Deathless snake" of, and Scottish serpent, 188. - - -- dog-headed god of, 64. - - -- earliest sailing ship in, 74. - - -- earliest use of gold in, 80. - - -- malachite charms in, 80. - - -- flint sickles of, 4. - - -- furnaces and crucibles of, in Western Europe, 101. - - -- Hathor and Aphrodite, 38. - - -- shell amulets in early graves in, 39. - - -- Isis as "Old Wife", 181, and also note 2. - - -- gods in weapons, 51. - - -- gold in, 90, 93. - - -- gold diadem from, in Spanish Neolithic tomb, 98. - - -- gold models of shells in, 41. - - -- green stone symbolism, 33. - - -- Hathor as milk goddess, 149. - - -- history of agriculture in, 210. - - -- ideas regarding soul in, 103. - - -- influence of, in Asia Minor and Europe, 95. - - -- influence of, in Britain, 218. - - -- invention of boats in, 72. - - -- ivory from, found in Spain, 96· - - -- Ka and serpent, 189. - - -- milk elixir in Pyramid Texts, 43. - - -- milk goddess of, in Scotland, 221. - - -- Mother Pot of, and Celtic cauldron, 206. - - -- Osirian Underworld Paradise, 143. - - -- pork taboo in, 201. - - -- annual sacrifice of pigs in Scotland and, 201. - - -- Post-Glacial forests of, 15. - - -- pre-dynastic burial customs, 170. - - -- sex colours in, 170. - - Egypt, proto-Egyptians and British Iberians, 126. - - -- red jasper as "Blood of Isis", 45. - - -- "Red Souls" in "Red Land", 32. - - -- why gods of, were painted, 32. - - -- religious ideas of, in Britain, 154, 201, 206, 218, 221. - - -- stones, pearls, metals, &c., and deities of, 80. - - -- symbols of, in Celtic art, 118. - - -- transmigration of souls, 143. - - Elk, on Dogger Bank, 57, 68. - - Elm, 221. - - Enamel, 224. - - -- British, the finest, 225. - - -- coral and, 162. - - -- as substitute for coral, 165. - - -- turquoise, lapis lazuli, white amber and, 165. - - Enamels, colours of the British, 226. - - Eoliths, 13, 26. - - Epidii, The, 129. - - Ep[)o]na, Celtic goddess of horses, 208. - - Eskimo, the Chancelade skull, 53. - - -- Magdalenian art of, 53. - - Etruscans, 149. - - -- Celts as conquerors of, 112. - - -- civilization of, origin of, 100. - - European metal-yielding areas, 99. - - Evil Eye, The, shells as protection against, 39. - - - Fairies, associated with the west, 173. - - -- dogs as enemies of, 65. - - -- on eddies of western wind, 173. - - -- Greek nereids and, 173. - - -- Fomorians (giants) at war with, 198. - - -- goddess as "fairy woman", 207. - - -- shell boat of, 207. - - -- Irish "queens" of, 201. - - -- as milkers of deer, 154. - - -- as "the mothers" in Wales, 206. - - -- Picts and, 131, and also note 1. - - -- Scottish "Nimble Men" and "Blue Men", 208. - - Fairies, as supernatural beings, 201, and also note 2. - - Fairy dogs, 64. - - Fairyland, as Paradise, 144. - - -- Thomas the Rhymer in Paradise of, 146. - - Fata Morgana, 161. - - Fauna, Post-Glacial, in Southern and Western Europe, 14. - - Festus Avienus, 116. - - Figs, hazel-nuts and, 151. - - Fig milk, 149. - - -- trees, bees and wasps fertilize, 193. - - -- tree, Diana of the Ephesians and, 193. - - Finger charms, 47. - - Finger-mutilation, Aurignacian custom, 47. - - -- Australian, Red Indian, and Scottish customs, 47. - - Fir, The Sacred, 179. - - Fir-bolgs, The, 188. - - -- as miners, 90, and also note 1. - - -- as slaves, 90. - - -- Celts as subduers of, 107. - - -- subject peoples called, 223. - - Fir-domnan, 90, and also note 1. - - Fir-domnann, 118. - - -- Fomorians as gods of, 198. See _Damnonians_ and _Dumnonii_. - - Fire, Beltain need fires, 191. - - -- Brigit and, 188. - - -- butterfly as god of, in Gaelic, 191. - - -- God Dagda and, 202. - - -- goddess and, 163. - - -- Mexican god of, as butterfly, 193. - - -- pool fish and, 182. - - -- salmon and, 183. - - -- Scottish goddess of, 181. - - -- in red berries, 181. - - -- in St. Mungo myth, 186. - - -- from trees, 180. - - -- lightning and, 181. - - -- worshipped in ancient Britain, 147. - - Fire-sticks, The, 180. - - "Fire water" as "water of life", 181. - - Fish taboo, 201. - - Flax, Stone Age people cultivated, 5. - - Flint, as god, 51. - - Flints, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 45. - - -- as offerings to deity, 50. - - Flint deposits, English, 81. - - -- -- early peoples settled beside, 81. - - -- -- river-drift man in England near, 81. - - Flint industry, Tardenoisian microliths used by Maglemosians, 57. - - -- working, ancient English flint factories, 82. - - -- -- Aurignacian, 13, 14. See _Palæolithic_. - - -- -- Aurignacian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian - implements 21, (_ill._). - - -- -- Chellean _coup de poing_ 14, (_ill._). - - -- -- "Combe-Capelle" man's, 25. - - -- -- early English trade in worked flints, 81. - - -- -- eastern influence in Neolithic industry, 214. - - -- -- Egyptian origin of Spanish Neolithic industry, 97. - - -- -- the evolution theory, 99. - - -- -- Hugh Miller's and Andrew Lang's theories regarding, 11. - - -- -- Neanderthal and pre-Neanderthal, 12. - - -- -- Neolithic saws or sickles, 4. - - -- -- Palæolithic and Neolithic, 212. - - -- -- Tardenoisian microliths or "pygmy flints", 54, 55 (_ill._). - - -- -- proto-Solutrean and "true" Solutrean, 49. - - Flint-god, the Solutrean, 51. - - -- Zeus and Thor as, 51. - - Foam, as milk, 151. - - Fomorians, duels of, in Scotland, 199. - - -- as gods of Dumnonii, 198. - - -- Neit as war god, 202. - - -- Nemon as goddess of, 202. - - -- war of, with fairies, 198, 199. - - Fowl taboo in ancient Britain, 201. - - Freyja, Scandinavian Venus, 161. - - -- pearls, amber, &c., as tears of, 161. - - Furfooz man, 56. - - - Gaelic Calendar, 198. - - Galatia, Celts in, 112. - - Galley Hill man, 26. - - Gaul, Celts of, in Roman army, 127. - - -- early inhabitants of, 100. - - -- refugees from sea-invaded areas in, 70. - - Gaulish gods, 207. - - Gems, "Druid's gem", 163. - - -- night-shining, 160. - - -- as soul-bodies, 44. - - Geological Ages, breaking of North Sea and English Channel - land-bridges, 69. - - -- -- confusion regarding, in modern art, 1. - - -- -- date of last land movement, 100. - - -- -- megalithic monuments submerged, 100. - - -- -- early boats and, 72. - - -- -- England in Magdalenian times, 54. - - -- -- sixth glaciation and race movements, 54. - - -- -- England sinking when Scotland was rising, 71. - - -- -- last land movement, 70, 100. - - -- -- horizon of Crô-Magnon races, 26. - - -- -- Pleistocene fauna in Europe, 14. - - -- -- Archæological Ages and, 14. - - -- -- Post-Glacial and the early Archæological, 13, 14, 15. - - -- -- theories of durations of, 16, 17, 18. - - Giants, associated with the north, 173. - - -- (Fomorians) as gods, 198. - - -- war of, with fairies, 198. - - -- Scottish, named after heroes, 131, and also note 1. - - _Glas_, as "water", "amber", &c., 162, 163. - - Glasgow, seal of city of, 185. - - Glass, connection of, with goddess, 163. - - -- imported into Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - Goat, Devil as, 191. - - God, in stone, 173. - - God-cult, Solutreans and, 51. - - God-cult, stone as god, 51, 173. - - Goddess, Anu (Danu), 198, 201. - - -- -- as "fairy queen" in Ireland, 201, 202. - - -- bird forms of, 195. - - -- Black Annis, 195. - - -- Black Aphrodite, 164. - - -- Black goddess of Scotland, 164. - - -- The Blue, 173. - - -- Bride (Brigit) and her serpent, 187. - - -- Brigit as goddess of healing, smith-work, and poetry, 188. - - -- cat forms of, 196. - - -- connection of, with amber and swine deities, 161. - - -- connection of, with glass, 163. - - -- connection of, with grove, sky, pearl, &c., in Celtic - religion, 158-60, 162, 179, 206. - - -- animals and plants of, 162. - - -- cult animals of, 154, 161, 162, 195, 196, 200. - - -- eel and, 200. - - -- eel, wolf, &c., forms of, 195. - - -- Egyptian milk goddess, 149. - - -- Indian milk goddess, 151. - - -- Gaulish goddess Ro-smerta, 174. - - -- influences of, 179. - - -- groups of "mothers", 206. - - -- Hebridean "maiden queen", 221. - - -- honeysuckle as milk-yielding plant, 193. - - -- bee and, 193. - - -- luck and, 167. - - -- Morrigan comes from north-west, 173. - - -- wind goddess from south-west, 173. - - -- Scottish Artemis, 174, 196. - - -- The Mother, Aurignacians favoured, 51. - - -- -- connection of, with law and trade, 166. - - -- -- Crô-Magnon form of, 42, 51. - - -- -- jasper as blood of, 45. - - -- -- her life-giving shells, 40. - - -- -- shell-milk Highland myth, 42. - - -- The mother-pot, 205. - - -- rivers and, 206. - - -- Oriental, in Spain, 220. - - Goddess, pearl, &c., offerings to, 174. - - -- precious stones of, 221. - - -- Scottish hag goddess, 174, 196. - - -- Indian Kali, 196. - - -- shell and milk Hebridean goddess, 153. - - Gods, animal forms of, 196. - - -- Danann deities, 198. - - -- deity who sends diseases withdraws them, 179. - - -- influences of, 179. - - -- Gaelic references to, 140, 179. - - -- Hazel god, 140, 150. - - -- Gaelic fire god, 140. - - -- "King of the Elements", 179. - - -- Romano-Gaulish, 207. - - Goibniu, Irish god and the Welsh Govannan, 203. - - Gold, amber and, 165. - - -- coins of, in pre-Roman Britain, 223. - - -- deposits of, in Britain and - Ireland, 79, 84, 89, 91, 95, 114, 219, 220. - - -- mixed with silver in Sutherland, 91. - - -- earliest use of, in Egypt, 80. - - -- copper used like, 80. - - -- Egyptian diadem of, found in Neolithic Spain, 98. - - -- in England (map), 83. - - -- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - -- finds of, in Scotland, 220. - - -- first metal worked, 84. - - -- as a "form of the gods", 80. - - -- as "fire, light, and immortality", 80. - - -- as "life giver", 80. - - -- Gaelic god and, 102. - - -- Gauls offered, to water deity, 174· - - -- how miners worked, 90. - - -- "World Mill" myth, 90. - - -- ingot of, from salmon, 184. - - -- luck of, 166. - - -- no trace of where worked out, 93. - - -- not valued by hunting peoples in Europe, 99. - - -- offered to deities by Celts, 80. - - -- psychological motive for searches for, 94. - - Gold, knowledge and skill of searchers for, in Britain, 95. - - -- ring in St. Mungo legend, 185. - - -- rod of, at Inverness stone circle, 220. - - -- in salmon myths, 183. - - -- Scottish deposits of, 89. - - -- search for, in Britain, 214, 217. - - -- shells imitated in, 41, 80. - - -- trade in, 219. - - -- as tree, 221. - - Goodwin Sands, 69. - - Goose, taboo in ancient Britain, 201. - - Govannan. See _Goibniu_. - - Grail, The Holy, 205. - - Grannos, Gaulish Apollo, 207. - - Gregory the Great, letter from, to Mellitus, 176. - - Grimaldi, Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave at, 36. - - Grove, The sacred, Celtic names of, 159· - - -- -- Latin "nemus", 159. - - Gwydion, the god, Odin and, 204. - - - Hades, dog and, 64. - - Hallowe'en, pig associated with, 200. - - Hallstatt culture, Celts influenced by, 112. - - Hand-prints, in Aurignacian caves, 47· - - -- four colours used, 47. - - -- dwellings protected by, in India and Spain, 47. - - -- Arabian, Turkish, &c., customs, 47· - - Hare, taboo in ancient Britain, 201 - - Harpoon, 62. - - -- Victoria cave, late Magdalenian or proto-Azilian, 58. - - -- finds of, in England and Scotland, 58. - - -- Azilians imitated Magdalenian reindeer horn in red deer horn, 56. - - -- Magdalenians introduced, 52. - - Hazel, nut of, as fruit of longevity, 144. - - -- as god, 150, 179. - - -- in early Christian legends, 150. - - -- as milk-yielding tree, 150. - - Hazel, as sacred tree, 150. - - -- nuts of, as food, 151. - - -- palm tree and, 221. - - -- The Sacred, 150, 179. - - -- connection of, with sky, wells, &c., 179. - - -- snakes and, 189. - - -- in St. Mungo (St. Kentigern) myth, 186. - - -- sacred fire from, 186. - - -- Groves, Sacred, "Caltons" were, 150. - - Heart, as seat of life, 154. - - -- as seat of life to Crô-Magnons and Ancient Egyptians, 32. - - Heaven as South, 170. - - Hebrides, dark folks in, 138. - - -- descendants of Easterners in, 118. - - -- "Maiden Queen" of, 221. - - -- reroofing custom in, 178. - - -- Sea god of, 193. - - -- traces of metals in, 117. - - -- as the OEstrymnides, 118. - - Heifer, milk of, in honeysuckle, 193. - - Hell, as North. See _Cardinal Points_. - - Herbs, ceremonial gathering of, 168. - - -- life substance in, 206. - - -- lore of, 167. - - -- from tears of sun god, 181, and also note 3. - - -- Silvanus, god of, 207. - - Hills, Gildas on worship of, 176, 178. - - Himilco, voyage of, 116. - - Homer, reference of, to cremation, 110. - - Honey, in baptisms, 152. - - -- as life-substance, 193. - - -- nut milk and, 150, and also note 1. - - -- in "soma" and "mead", 151. - - Honeysuckle, butterfly and, 193. - - -- honey and milk of, 193. - - Horn implements, 82. - - -- -- Magdalenians favoured, 52. - - Horse, Demeter and, 196. - - -- domesticated by Azilians, 55. - - -- domesticated by Crô-Magnons, 53. - - -- eaten in Scotland, 200. - - -- Ep[)o]na, Celtic horse goddess, 208. - - Horse, The Sacred, 155 (_ill._). - - -- god, 129, and also note 2. - - Horse-shoe charms, 47. - - Hound's Pool, 64. - - Houses, Neolithic, 5. - - Human sacrifices, children as, 174. - - - Iberians, Armenoids and, 127. - - -- as carriers of Neolithic culture, 126. - - -- Celts and, 125. - - -- Silurians as, 137. - - Ice, connection of, with amber, &c., 163. - - Ice Age. See _Geological Ages_. - - Iceni, The, of Essex, 128. - - -- boar god of, 162. - - Idols, in ancient Britain, 147, 176. - - -- Pope Gregory's reference to ancient English, 176. - - Indo-European theory, 124. - - Indo-Germanic theory, 124. - - Indra, dog and, 64. - - Ireland, as a British island, 132. - - Iron, exported from Britain in first century, A.D., 114. - - Iron Age, Celts in, 112. - - Iron industry, Easterners and, in Western Europe, 107. - - Island of Women, 178. - - Isles of the Blest, Gaelic, 143. - - Ivory, associated with bronze, jet, and Egyptian beads - in England, 104. - - -- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23. - - -- Egyptian, in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - -- imported into Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - -- in Welsh cave-tomb, 20. - - - Jade, butterfly soul in, 193. - - Japan, the _shintai_ (god body) and Gaelic "soul case", 173. - - -- talismans of, and the Irish, 206. - - Jasper, symbolism of, 221. - - Jet, amber and, 164. - - -- British and Roman beliefs regarding, 164. - - -- as article of trade at 1400 B.C., 106. - - -- associated in Stonehenge area with Egyptian - blue beads, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - Jet, early trade in, 219. - - -- early working of, 82. - - -- megalithic people searched for, 93· - - -- pearls and amber and, 221. - - Jupiter, The Gaulish, 207. - - -- Lapis, 51. - - Jutes, 126. - - -- Celts and, 227. - - - Kali, the Black, 196. - - Kentigern, St., as Druid, 185. - - -- -- in salmon and ring legend, 184. - - Kent's Cavern, Magdalenian art in, 54· - - Kerridiwen, the goddess, cauldron of, 204. - - Knife of deity, 206. - - Knitting, Stone Age people and, 5. - - -- relation to basket-making and pottery, 5. - - - Lake, the Sacred, goddess and, 180. - - Lanarkshire, Damnonians in, 89. - - Land-bridges, breaking of North Sea and English Channel bridges, 69. - - -- Dogger Bank, 57, 61, 67, 68. - - -- English Channel, 17, 67. - - -- Italian, 14, 35. - - Land movement, the last, 216. - - Language and race, 123, 124, 222. - - Language of birds. See _Birds_. - - La Tène culture, Celts as carriers of, to Britain, 112. - - Leicestershire, Black Annis, a hag deity of, 195. - - Lewis, Callernish stone circle, 94. - - Lightning, butterfly form of god of, 191. - - -- as heavenly fire, 181. - - -- and trees, 181. - - Lir, sea god, 202. - See _Llyr_. - - -- sea god, "Shony" and, 194. - - Liver as seat of life in Gaelic, 154, 187. - - -- cure from mouse's, 187. - - Lizard as soul-form, 189. - - Lleu, the god, 204. - - Llyr, sea god, 202. - See _Lir_. - - -- the sea god, "Shony" and, 194. - - London, god's name in, 203. - - Love-enticing plants, 168. - - Luck, belief in, 157. - - -- berries and, 180. - - -- fire as bringer of, 191. - - -- lucky and unlucky days, 168. - - -- pearls and, 166, 167. - - Lud, god of London, 203. - - -- form of, 203. - - Lugh, Celtic god, associated with north-east, 173. - - -- Gaelic Apollo, 202. - - Lugi, The, 129. - - - Mæatæ, The, Picts and Caledonians and, 130. - - Magdalenian culture, 13. - - -- -- Azilian and, 62. - - -- -- Eskimo art and, 53. - - -- -- in Britain, 53. - - -- -- origin of, 52. - - -- -- new implements, 52. - - -- -- traces of influence of, in Scotland, 60. - - -- -- Victoria cave reindeer harpoon, 58. - - -- cave art revival and progress, 53. - - -- implements, 21 (_ill._). - - -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - Maggot god, early Christian myth of, 103. - - -- -- bees and, 103. - - -- -- Gaelic, 102. - - Magic wands, 146, 191. - - -- -- Etruscan, French, and Scottish, 100. - - Maglemosian culture, 54, 56. - - -- -- art and, 57. - - -- -- Magdalenian influence on, 57. - - -- -- Siberian origin of, 57. - - -- -- artifacts and, 13. - - -- -- in Britain, 125. - - -- -- Northerners as carriers of, 217. - - -- -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - Maglemosians, boats of, 76. - - -- animals hunted, 57. - - -- land-bridges crossed by, 57. - - -- in France and Britain, 58. - - -- in Britain, 70. - - -- Celts and, 138. - - -- Dogger Bank land-bridge crossed by, 57, 67. - - -- dogs domesticated by, 63. - - -- Tardenoisian microliths used by, 58. - - Malachite charms, 80. - - Mammoth, bones of, from Dogger Bank, 68. - - -- evidence that heart was regarded as seat of life, 33, (_ill._). - - -- in Western Europe, 14. - See _Fauna_. - - Man, the Red, of Wales, ornaments of, 80. - - Mars, the Gaulish, 207. - - -- Greek and Gaulish boar forms of, 197. - - Marsh plants, goddess and, 162. - - Mead, milk and honey in, 151. - - Meave, Queen, 112, 114, 227. - - Mediterranean race in North Africa and Britain, 126. - - -- Sea, divided by Italian land-bridge, 14. - - Megalithic culture, Egyptian influence in Britain, &c., 101. - - -- monuments, burial customs and, 170. - - -- -- connection of, with ancient mine workings, &c., 92, 93. - - -- -- connection of, with metal deposits, 82. - - -- -- connection of, with sacred groves, 103. - - -- -- cult animals on Scottish, 155 (_ill._). - - -- -- "cup-marked" stones, 148. - - -- -- knocking stones, 148. - - -- -- Gruagach stone, 148. - - -- -- "cradle stone", 148. - - -- -- child-getting stones, 148. - - -- -- distributed along vast seaboard. 91. - - -- -- searchers for metals, gems, &c., erected, 92. - - -- -- distribution of, 82, 83 (_ill._). - - -- -- distribution of Scottish, 219. - - -- -- Druids and, 103, 154. - - -- -- Easterners and followers of, as builders of, 104, 149. - - -- -- Egyptian Empire beads and Stonehenge - circle, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- -- Gaelic gods and, 102. - - -- -- Gaelic metal symbolism and, 102. - - -- -- Gaelic name of sacred shrine, 159. - - -- -- Phoenicians and, 149. - - Megalithic monuments, their relation to exhausted deposits - of metals, 94. - - -- -- problem of Lewis and Orkney circles, 94. - - -- -- Standing Stones as maidens 147. - - -- -- Tacitus on Anglesea altars and Druids, 147. - - -- -- Stonehenge as temple, 177. - - -- -- Heathen temples and, 178. - - -- -- stone circle as sun symbol, 170. - - -- -- stones submerged in Brittany, 100. - - -- -- Tree Cult and, 220. - - -- -- worship of stones, 147, 179. - - -- -- connection of, with trees and wells, 147. - - Mentone, Aurignacian Mother-goddess, 43. - - -- Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave at, 36. - - Mersey, the, goddess of, 206. - - Mesopotamia, influence of, in Western Europe, 218. - - -- knowledge of European metal fields in, 99. - - Metals, eastern colonists worked, in Spain, 95. - - -- Egyptian furnaces and crucibles in Britain, 101. - - -- megalithic monuments and deposits of, 82. - - -- searchers for, in Britain, 89. - - -- searchers for; how prospectors located deposits of gold, &c., 89. - - -- traces of, in Scotland, 93. - - Metal symbolism, Gaelic gods and metals, 102. - See _Gold_, _Silver_, _Copper_, and _Bronze_. - - Metal working, after introduction of bronze working, 106. - - Mictis, tin from, 116. - - Milk, baptisms of, 152. - - -- in the blood covenant, 152. - - -- children sacrificed for corn and milk, 174. - - -- cult animals of milk goddess, 154. - - -- dandelion as milk-yielding plant of goddess Bride, 187. - - -- in elixirs, 151. - - Milk, "soma" and "mead" and, 151. - - -- elm as milk tree, 151. - - -- foam as milk, 151. - - -- goddess-cow gives healing milk, 195. - - -- Hebridean milk goddess, 153, 221. - - -- honeysuckle as milk-yielding plant, 193. - - -- Indian evidence regarding "river milk" and milk-yielding - trees, 151. - - -- Irish milk lake, 152. - - -- healing baths of, 152. - - -- marsh mallows and, 152, and also note 1. - - -- mistletoe berries as milk berries, 153. - - -- Oblations of, in Ross-shire, 148. - - -- offerings of, to dead, 148. - - -- elixir, Highland shell-goddess myth, 42. - - -- -- Egyptian evidence regarding, 43. - - -- -- prepared from shells in Japan and Scotland, 40. - - -- goddess, Hathor as, 149. - - Milky Way, The, 154, 221. - - -- -- in ancient religion, 150. - - -- -- in Welsh and Gaelic, 203. - - Mind, heart as, 33. - - Mining, Egyptian methods in Western Europe, 102. - - Mistletoe, as "All Heal", 153, 167. - - -- milk berries, 153. - - -- trees on which it grows in Britain, 145, and also note 2. - - Modern man, 9. - See _Crô-Magnon Races_. - - Mogounus, a Gaulish Apollo, 207. - - Moon, Aphrodite as goddess of, 159. - - -- Dante refers to, as pearl, 159. - - -- Gaels swore by, 148. - - -- as "Pearl of Heaven", 159. - - -- worship of, in ancient Britain, 147. - - Morgan le Fay, Arthur's pursuit of, 198. - - -- -- goddess Anu and, 198. - - -- -- as "life giver", 161. - - Morrigan, The (Irish goddess), Anu and, 198. - - Morrigan, associated with north-west, 173. - - -- as the "life giver", 161. - - -- forms of, 195. - - Mother goddess. See _Goddess_. - - Moths as soul forms, 192. - - Mouse, buried under apple tree, 196. - - -- hunting of, in Scotland, 187. - - -- mouse cures, 187. - - -- Scottish supernatural, 187. - - -- Apollo and, 179. - - -- -- mouse feasts, 187. - - -- cures, Boers have, 187, and also note 2. - - -- feasts in Scotland and the Troad, 187. - - Mousterian Age, 13. - - -- -- artifacts of, 14. - - -- -- Neanderthal races of, 14. - - Mungo, St., as Druid, 185, 186. - - -- -- salmon legend of, 184. - - - Navigation. See _Boats_. - - Neanderthal man, Crô-Magnon influence on, 14. - - -- -- disappearance of, 15, 16, 122. - - -- -- European climates experienced by, 14. - - -- -- relations of, with Crô-Magnon races, 14. - - -- -- first discovery of bones of, 8, 9. - - -- -- skeleton of, found, 9. - - -- -- Australian natives and, 9. - - -- -- description of, 9, 10. - - -- -- flint working of, 12. - - -- -- Mousterian artifacts of, 14. - - -- -- Piltdown man and, 26. - - Necklaces in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23. - - -- Crô-Magnon sea shells, 39 (_ill._). - - -- Egyptian blue beads in British "Bronze Age" - necklace, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- as gods, 44. - - -- in graves, 158. - - -- shell, in Welsh Aurignacian cave-tomb, 20. - - -- why worn, 37. - - Need fires, 181. - - -- -- butterfly and, 191. - - Neit, god of battle, 202. - - _Nem_, the root in _neamh_ (heaven), _neamhnuid_ (pearl), _nemeton_ - (shrine in a grove), _nemed_ (chapel), _neimhidh_ (church-land), - _nemus_ (a grove), _Nemon_ (goddess), and _N[)e]m[)e]t[)o]na_ - (goddess), 159, 160. - - N[)e]m[)e]t[)o]na, British goddess, 159. - - Nemon, the goddess, a Fomorian, 202. - - -- Irish goddess, and pearl, heaven, &c., 159. - - Neolithic, chronological problem, 212. - - -- Egyptian diadem of gold found in Spanish Neolithic tomb, 98. - - -- Egyptian origin of Spanish Neolithic industry, 97, 214. - - -- metal workers as flint users, 98. - - -- Scottish copper axe problem, 219. - - -- why ornaments were worn, 37, 38. - - -- Age, transition period longer than, 61. - - -- Culture, Iberians as carriers of, 126. - - -- Industry, carriers of, attracted to Britain, 78. - - -- -- distribution of population and, 81-4. - - -- -- "Edge" theory, 61. - - -- -- Campigny find, 62. - - -- -- in Ireland, 85. - - -- -- in Scotland, 85. - - -- -- Scottish pitch-stone artifacts, 85. - - -- -- carriers of, not wanderers, 86. - - -- -- a lost art, 86. - - Nereids, the, fairies and, 173. - - Ness, the River, 206. - - Night-shining gems, 160. - - Norsemen, 126. - - -- modern Scots and, 137. - - Northern fair race, 125. - - Northerners, Armenoids and, 127. - - Novantæ, The, 129. - - Nudd, the god, 203. - - Nut, as "soul case", 173. - - Nut-milk, 150. - - -- -- honey and, as elixir, 150, and also note 1. - - Nuts, life substance in, 206. - - -- of longevity, 150. - - - Oak, 221. - - -- acorn as fruit of longevity, 144. - - -- Druids and, 141, 145. - - -- Black Annis and, 196. - - -- Galatian oak grove and shrine, 159. - - -- on Glasgow seal, 185. - - -- god of, and seafarers, 153. - - -- god Dagda and, 202. - - -- the Sacred, 179. - - -- use of acorns, 153. - - -- in tanning, 153. - - -- Spirits, 207. - - Oaths, Sacred, Gaels swore by sun, moon, &c., 148. - - Oban, MacArthur Cave, 58, 217. - - Obsidian artifacts, 86. - - Odin, the dog and, 64. - - -- pork feasts of, 144. - - -- Welsh Gwydion and, 204. - - OEstrymnides, The, Himilco's tin islands, 116, 118. - - Onyx, same name as pearl in Gaelic, 160. - - Oracles, Druids and, 145. - - Orc (young boar), salmon as, 182. - - Orcs, The Picts as, 201. - - Orkney, boar name of, 129. - - -- megalithic remains in, 94. - - -- "Sow day" in, 201. - - Ornaments, "adder stones", "Druid gems", &c., 163. - - -- jet charms, 164. - - -- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23. - - -- as gods or god-cases, 44. - - -- in grotto at Aurignac, 22. - - -- in Mentone cave-tombs, 45. - - -- religious value of, 80, 165. - - -- in Welsh Aurignacian cave-tomb, 20. - - -- why worn by early peoples, 37, 38. - - Ostrich eggs, found in Spain, 96. - - Otter, skin charm of, 189. - - -- as god, 190. - - -- as soul-form, 189. - - -- the king, 189. - - -- jewel of, 189. - - - Palæolithic, chronological problem, 212. - - -- implements of Upper Palæolithic, 21 (_ill._). - - Palæolithic Age, why ornaments were worn, 37, 38. - - -- -- break in culture of, 12. - - -- -- origin of term, 8. - - -- -- races of, 8. - - -- -- sub-divisions of, 12, 13. - See, _Chellean_, _Acheulian_, _Mousterian_, _Aurignacian_, - _Solutrean_, and _Magdalenian_. - - Palm tree, British substitutes for, 221. - - -- -- cult of, in ancient Spain, 149. - - Paradise, as "Apple land" (Avalon) 144. - - -- Celtic ideas regarding, 143. - - -- fairyland as, 143. - - -- pork feasts in, 144. - - -- Welsh ideas regarding, 144. - - -- in Border Ballads, 144. - - Parisii, The, in Britain, 128. - - Patrick, St., Pagan myth attached to, 198. - - Paviland cave, Crô-Magnon burial in Welsh, 19. - - Pearl, Aphrodite (Venus) as pearl, 158. - - -- as life substance, 80, 158. - - -- moon as "Eternal Pearl" in Dante's _Inferno_, 159. - - -- Gaelic name of, 159. - - -- nocturnal luminosity of, 160. - - Pearls, British, attracted Romans, 79· - - -- and sacred grove, &c., 159. - - -- Cæsar's pearl offering to Venus, 159. - - -- in Cuchullin's hair, 163. - - -- on Roman emperor's horse, 163. - - -- dragons possess, 184. - - -- in England (map), 83, 84. - - -- fabulous origin of, 161. - - -- Irish standard of value a _set_ (pearl), 166. - - -- luck of, 166. - - -- jet and amber and, 221. - - -- as "life substance", 80, 158. - - -- as _margan_ (life-giver), 161. - - -- as medicine in India, 41. - - -- searched for by megalithic people, 92. - - -- soul in, 206. - - -- as _tama_ in Japan, 44. - - -- as "tears" of goddess Freyja, 161. - - Pearls, why offered to goddess, 174. - - -- Ythan River, Aberdeenshire, yields, 76. - - Pear tree, cat and, 196. - - Peat, from Dogger Bank, 57, 68. - - Penny Wells, 174. - - Phoenicians, the Cassiterides monopoly of, 104. - - -- eastern colonists in Spain and, 98. - - -- methods of, as exploiters, 98. - - -- in Iron Age, 107. - - -- megalithic monuments and, 149. - - -- in modern Cornwall, 139. - - Pictones, The, as allies of Romans, 224. - - -- Scottish Picts and, 131. - - Picts, The, agriculturists and seafarers, 130. - - -- Caledonians and, 130. - - -- allies of the Scots, 130. - - -- Cruithne were Britons, 132. - - -- fairy theory, 131, and also note 1. - - -- as Pechts and Pecti, 131. - - -- Gildas, Bede, and Nennius on, 132. - - -- Irish myth regarding, 132. - - -- Irish Cruithne not Picts, 132. - - -- Saxon allies of, 131. - - -- Roman, Scottish, and Welsh names of, 131. - - -- as branch of the Pictones, 131. - - -- tattooing habit of, 136. - - -- vessels of, 136. - - -- tribes of, 136. - - -- as pirates, 136. - - Pig, Demeter and, 196. - - -- Devil as, 191, 200. - - -- in Roman religious ceremony, 51. - - -- Scottish and Irish treatment of, 199. - - -- taboo in Scotland, 199. - - -- the Sow goddess, 154. - - Pigs, Achæans and Celts as rearers of, 111, 199. - - -- Adonis and Diarmid and, 197. - - -- Celts rearers of, 114. - - -- and amber, 161. - - -- as food of the dead, 144. - - -- "lucky pigs", 157. - - -- Orkney a boar name, 129. - - Pigs, salmon as, 182. - See _Pork taboo_. - - Piltdown man, 26. - - Pin Wells, 174. - - Pirates, ancient, Picts as, 136. - - -- -- Gaelic reference to, 136. - - Pliocene mammals, 16. - - Poetry, goddess of, 188. - - Polycrates of Samos, luck of, in seal, 184. - - Pope Gregory the Great, letter on Pagans in England, 176. - - Pork. See _Pigs_ and _Swine_. - - -- taboo in Arcadia, 223. - - -- -- why Cretans detested, 154, and also note 3. - - -- -- Scottish, 199 _et seq._, 223. - - -- -- Celts ate pork, 199. - - Porpoise as sea-boar, 182. - - Portugal, colonists from, in Britain, 106. - - -- early eastern influence in, 211. - - -- settlements of Easterners in, 95. - - -- settlers from, in Britain, 127. - - Pot, the, shell as, 207. - - -- as symbol of Mother-goddess, 205. - - -- the Mother, Celtic cauldron as, 90. - - "Pot of Plenty", Celtic cauldron as, 205. - - Potter's wheel, 112. - - Pottery, Neolithic, 5. - - -- relation to basket-making and knitting, 5, 6. - - Priestesses, ancient British, Tacitus refers to, 147. - - -- witches and, 147, and also note 1. - - Ptolemy, evidence of, regarding British tribes, 128. - - Purple-yielding shells, in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23. - - -- -- searched for by megalithic people, 92. - - Pytheas, 229. - - -- exploration of Britain by, 115. - - -- the Mictis problem, 116. - - -- voyage of, 107. - - - Races, alien elements may vanish, 123. - - -- "Caucasian Man", 123. - - -- Aryan theory, 123. - - Races, animal names of Scoto-Celtic tribes, 129. - - -- Azilian and Tardenoisian, 55. - - -- Maglemosian, 56. - - -- Britain in Roman period, 127. - - -- Britain mainly "long-headed", 128. - - -- Ptolemy's evidence regarding British tribes, 128. - - -- British extermination theory, 227. - - -- British Iberians and proto-Egyptians, 126. - - -- Armenoid intrusions, 87, 126, 222. - - -- Spanish settlers in Britain, 127. - - -- bronze carriers displace eastern metal searchers in - Western Europe, 100. - - -- bronze users as earliest settlers in Aberdeenshire, 111. - - -- Brünn and Brüx, 50. - - -- Celts and Armenoids, 112. - - -- Celts and Northerners, 112, 222. - - -- Celts as conquerors of early settlers in Britain, 107. - - -- colours of the mythical, 121, 125· - - -- extermination theory, 122. - - -- Celts as Fair Northerners, 222. - - -- "broad heads" in Britain, 56, 87, 126, 222. - - -- Celts and Teutons, 125. - - -- Chancelade skull and Eskimos, 53. - - -- Crô-Magnons in Wales, 19. - - -- first discovery of Crô-Magnons in France, 20. - - -- Cuchullin and Scotland, 224. - - -- Britons in Ireland, 224. - - -- Damnonians as metal workers, 89. - - -- Damnonians in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 89, 90. - - -- dark and fair peoples in England, 227. - - -- descendants of Easterners in Britain, 118. - - -- drifts of, into Britain, 79. - - -- early settlers in Britain, 125, 216. - - -- eastern colonists in Spain, 95. - - -- Easterners reached ancient Britain from Spain, 97. - - -- fair and dark among earliest - settlers in Post-Glacial Britain, 60. - - Races, fair Celts and Teutons, 60. - - -- Fir-bolgs in Ireland, 223. - - -- Furfooz type, 56. - - -- broad-headed fair types, 56. - - -- Gaelic Fir-domnann and Firbolg, 90, and also note 1. - - -- Gibraltar man, 8. - - -- Cannstadt man, 8. - - -- Neanderthal man, 9. - See _Neanderthal Man_. - - -- great migrations by sea, 92. - - -- high and heavy Scots, 137. - - -- intrusion of "Round Barrow", broad-headed people, 87, 126. - - -- "Long heads" use bronze in Ireland, 87. - - -- megalithic intruders, 94. - - -- mixed peoples among Easterners in Western Europe, 107. - - -- modern Crô-Magnons in Africa, British Isles, and France, 25. - - -- "Combe-Capelle" man, 25. - - -- Brüx and Brünn skulls, 25. - - -- "Galley Hill" man, 26, 27. - - -- modern man, 9. - - -- Crô-Magnon, 9, 19. - See _Crô-Magnon Races_. - - -- Piltdown man, 9, 26. - - -- Heidelberg man, 9. - - -- Phoenician type in Cornwall, 139. - - -- physical characters of, 124. - - -- "pockets" in British Isles, 138. - - -- Post-Glacial movements of, 54. - - -- pre-Celtic extermination theory, 107. - - -- few intrusions in ancient Britain, 109. - - -- settlements of traders and workers, 109. - - -- "short barrow" intruders, 104. - - -- cremating intruders, 104. - - -- Solutrean intrusion, 49. - - -- Tacitus's references to British races, 137. - - -- transition period and Neolithic, 61. - - Rainbow as god's rod-sling, 204. - - Raven and goddess of grove and sky, 160. - - Ravens, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Red deer on Dogger Bank, 68. - - "Red Man", The Welsh, 19, 27. - - Regni, The, Sussex tribe, 128. - - Reindeer on Dogger Bank, 68. - - -- French and German, in early, Aurignacian times, 14. - See _Fauna_. - - -- in Scotland till twelfth century, 67. - - -- in Germany in Roman times, 68. - - -- Age, the, 213. - - Rhodesia, mouse cure in, 187, and also note 2. - - Rhone valley trade route, 114. - - Rivers, goddesses and, 206. - - River-worship, 176, 178, 179. - - Robin, apple cult and, 204. - - Robin Red-breast, on Glasgow seal, 185. - - -- -- in St. Mungo legend, 186. - - Romans, how Britain was conquered by, 119, 120. - - -- Celtic boats superior to boats of, 224. - - -- as exploiters of conquered countries, 79. - - -- how loan-rate of interest was reduced, 79. - - -- goddess, groups of, 207. - - -- Gauls in army of, 127. - - -- mean and tragical conquest of Britain by, 226, 227. - - -- myths of, regarding savages in ancient Britain, 224. - - -- references of, to Picts and Caledonians, 130. - - -- religious beliefs of, no higher than those of Gaels, 208. - - -- Tacitus on rewards of, in Britain, 79. - - -- wars for trade, 229. - - Rome, connection of, with milk goddess cult, 149, 150. - - -- sacked by Celts, 112. - - Ro-smerta, the Gaulish goddess, 174. - - Rowan, 221. - - -- berry of, as fruit of longevity, 144. - - -- the sacred, 179, 180. - See _Tree Cults_. - - Rye, cultivation of, 5. - - - Sacred stones and sacred trees, - 103. See _Megalithic Monuments_ and _Tree Cults_. - - Sacrifices, annual pig sacrifices,201. - - -- oxen sacrificed to demons in England, 178. - - -- at "wassailing", 204, 205. - - Sahara, 27. - - -- grass-lands of the, 14. - - St. Swithin's Day, 168. - - Salmon on city of Glasgow seal, 185. - - -- as form of dragon, 182. - - -- fire and, 183. - - -- Gaelic names of, 182. - - -- Irish saint finds gold in stomach of, 184. - - -- in St. Mungo legend, 184. - - -- the ring myth, 183. - - -- the sacred "salmon of wisdom", 182. - - Sargon of Akkad, his knowledge of Western European metal-yielding - areas, 99 _et seq._, 218. - - Saxons, 126. - - -- Celts and, 227. - - -- the, Picts as allies of, 131. - - Scape-dog, the, 65. - - Scots, The, Crô-Magnons and, 137. - - -- Picts and, 130. - - -- first settlement of, in Scotland, 130. - - Scott, Michael, in serpent myth, 188. - - Seafaring. See _Boats_. - - Sea god, the Hebridean _Seonaidh_ (Shony), 193. - - Seasons, Gaelic colours of, 169. - - Selgovæ, The, 139. - - -- in Galloway, 129. - - Serpent, Bride's serpent and dragon, 188. - - -- as "daughter of Ivor", the "damsel", &c., 187. - - -- dragon as, 182. - - -- goddess Bride and, 187. - - -- jet drives away, 164. - - -- sacred white, 188. - - -- on sculptured stones, 155 (_ill._). - - -- "snake of hazel grove", 189. - - -- sea-serpent, 189. - - -- as soul, 189. - - -- the white, in Michael Scott legend, 188. - - Setantii, The, in England and Ireland, 128. - - -- Cuchullin and, 128. - - Severus, disastrous invasion of Scotland by, 130, 225. - - Sheep, goddess as, 154. - - -- in Scoto-Celtic tribal names, 129. - - Shells, as amulets, 34, 80. - - -- Aphrodite as pearl in, 158. - - -- in British graves, 46. - - -- finds of, in Ireland and Scotland, 46. - - -- coloured, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 46. - - -- wearing of, not a juvenile custom, 46. - - -- Combe-Capelle man wore, 25. - - -- in Crô-Magnon grotto, 23. - - -- Crô-Magnon trade in, 40. - - -- Japanese and Scottish "shell-milk" elixirs, 40, 221. - - -- "Cup of Mary" Highland myth, 42. - - -- limpet lore, 42, and also note 1. - - -- Egyptian artificial, 173. - - -- Egyptian gold models of, 41. - - -- stone, ivory, and metal models of, 41. - - -- as "life-givers", 41. - - -- "Evil Eye" charms, 39. - - -- Crô-Magnon necklace, 39 (_ill._). - - -- as food for dead, 41. - - -- Cretan artificial, 41. - - -- fairy woman's coracle a shell, 207. - - -- in grotto at Aurignac, 22. - - -- ground shells as elixir, 38. - - -- as "houses" of gods, 38. - - -- love girdle of, 38. - - -- Hebridean tree goddess and, 153. - - -- Indian Ocean shell in Aurignacian cave, 36. - - -- as "life substance", 80, 158, 178. - - -- mantle of, in Aurignacian cave-tomb, 45. - - -- milk from, 40, 221. - - -- "personal ornaments" theory, 37. - - -- Red Sea shell in Hampshire, 47, and also note 1. - - -- Red Sea shell in Neolithic Spain, 96. - - Shells, Red Sea shell at Mentone, 210. - - -- searched for by megalithic people, 92 _et seq._ - - -- in Welsh cave-tomb, 20. - - Ships. See _Boats_. - - Silures, The, Hebrideans and, 139. - - -- Tacitus on, 137. - - -- in Wales and Scilly Islands, 129. - - Silurians, as miners, 118. - - Silvanus, British deity, 207. - - Silver, amber and, 165. - - -- in Britain, 91. - - -- difficult to find and work in Britain, 95. - - -- exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - -- Easterners worked, in Spain, 97. - - -- Gaelic god connected with, 102. - - -- offered to water deity by Gauls, 174. - - -- offered to deities by Celts, 80. - - -- lead, as ballast for boats of Easterners, 99. - - Sin (pronounced _sheen_), the Druid's judgment collar, 146. - - Skins, exported from Britain in first century, A.D., 114. - - Sky, connection of sacred trees and wells with, 179. - - Slaves, exported from Britain in first century A.D., 114. - See _Fir-bolgs_. - - Sleepers myth, in Highland story, 47. - - -- the Seven, antiquity of myth of, 29. - - Smertæ, The, 129. - - Smertullis, the god, Ro-smerta and, 174. - - Smintheus Apollo. See _Mouse Apollo_. - - Solutrean Age, 13. - - -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - -- proto-Solutrean influence, 216. - - -- culture, cave art declines, 51. - - -- -- characteristic artifacts, 50. - - -- -- climate, 51. - - -- -- open-air camps, 51. - - -- -- bone needles numerous, 52. - - -- -- decline of, in Europe, 52. - - -- -- earliest influence of, in Europe, 49. - - Solutrean culture, "true" wave of, 49. - - -- -- carriers of, 50. - - -- Implements, 21 (_ill._). - - Soul, animal shapes of, 65, 178, 190. - - -- bee and butterfly forms of, 191. - - -- bee forms of, in folk tales, 193. - - -- beliefs regarding, Sleepers myth, 29. - - -- soul-case in Scotland and Japan, 44. - - -- butterfly as, in Greece, Italy, Serbia, Burmah, Mexico, China, - Scotland, Ireland, &c., 192, 193. - - -- the "change" in Gaelic, 158. - - -- nourishment of, 158. - - -- cremation customs and destiny of, 109. - - -- dead go west, 173. - - -- dog form of, 65. - - -- Druids and transmigration, 142. - - -- heart and liver as seats of life, 154. - - -- maggot as, 102. - - -- Egyptian Bata myth, 103. - - -- moth form of, 192. - - -- serpent form of, 189. - - -- lizard and other forms of, 189. - - -- star as, 208. - - -- in stone or husk, 173. - - -- in trees, 190. - - -- in egg, fish, swans, &c., 190. - - -- in weapons, 50. - - -- Welsh ideas regarding destiny of, 144. - - Sow-day in Orkney, 201. - - Sow goddess, the, 154. - See _Pigs_. - - Spain, British trade with, 114, 116. - - -- colonists from, in Britain, 106. - - -- displacement of Easterners in, 221. - - -- Druidism in, 149. - - -- early trade of, with Britain, 218. - - -- Easterners in, 95, 211, 218, 229. - - -- Easterners kept natives of, ignorant of uses of metals, 99. - - -- Egyptian gold diadem in Neolithic tomb, 98. - - -- Egyptian origin of Neolithic industry in, 97. - - -- expulsion of Easterners from, 100. - - -- in pre-Agricultural Age, 213. - - -- settlers from, in Britain, 127. - - Spear of god Lugh, 206. - - Spinning, 5. - - Spirit worship. See _Animism_. - - Standing Stones. See _Megalithic Monuments_. - - Star, St. Ciaran's stellar origin, 208. - - -- the Dog, 64. - - Stars, Druid lore of, 175. - - -- Gaels measured time by, 175, and also note 1. - - -- Sir[)o]na, star goddess, 208. - - -- Milky Way and milk goddess cult, 149. - - -- Welsh and Gaelic names of, 203. - - Stennis, Standing Stones of, 94. - - Stone of Danann deities, 206. - - -- as god, 51. - - Stonehenge, doctrine of Cardinal Points and, 174. - - -- and Egyptian Empire beads, 104, 105 (_ill._), 106. - - -- Temple theory, 177. - - Stones, in graves, 33, 34. - - -- wind raised by, in Hebrides, 172. - - -- as "god body", 173. - - -- as dragon's eggs, 173. - - Sumeria. See _Babylonia_. - - Sun, ancient British solar symbol, 162. - - -- circulating chapels, &c., 148. - - -- ear-rings and, 165. - - -- fire and, 181. - - -- rays of, as tears, 181, and also note 3. - - -- Gaelic worship of, 170. - - -- Gaels swore by, 148. - - -- goddess and, 163. - - -- modern and ancient sunwise customs, 171. - - Sun-worship in Britain, King Canute and, 147. - - Surgery, ancient man's skill in, 2. - - -- folk-lore evidence regarding, 3, 4. - - Surrogate of life blood, 28. - - Sussex dug-out, 76, 77. - - Swallows, Celtic deities as, 195. - - Swans, as souls, 190. - - -- as oracles, 190. - - -- Celtic deities as, 195. - - Swine. See _Pork Taboo_. - - -- Celts rearers of, 114. - - -- Devil and, 200. - - Swine, Maglemosian hunters of, 57. - - -- Orkney a boar name, 129. - - -- in Roman religious ceremony, 51. - - -- Scottish taboo of, 199. - - Sword of god Lugh, 206. - - Symbols, swashtika, &c., 165, 166. - See _Colour Symbolism_. - - - Tæxali, The, 129. - - Talismans, Irish and Japanese, 206. - - Taran[)u]cus (Thunderer), Gaulish god, 207. - - Tardenoisian, 54, 62. - - -- artifacts, 13. - - -- Iberian carriers of, 216. - - -- pre-Agricultural, 213. - - -- pygmy flints, 54, 55 (_ill._). - - Tardenoisians, The, in Britain, 125. - - -- English Channel land-bridge crossed by, 69. - - -- Industry, traces of, in Africa, Asia, and Europe, 71. - - -- Maglemosians and, 57. - - Temples, pagan, used as Christian churches, 177. - - -- the Gaulish, 177. - - -- Apollo's temple in England, 177. - - -- Stonehenge, 177. - - -- Pytheas refers to, 178. - - -- reroofing custom, 178. - - Ten Tribes, The Lost, 118. - - Teutons, British Celts' relations with, 137. - - -- Celts and, 125. - - Thomas the Rhymer, "True Thomas" as "Druid Thomas", 146. - - Thor, Dagda and, 202. - - Tilbury man, 70, 71. - - Tin, 101. - - -- beginning of mining in Cornwall, 116. - - -- Scottish and Irish, 94, 117. - - -- in Britain and Ireland, 91. - - -- surface tin collected in Britain, 9. - - -- English mines of, opened after surface tin was exhausted, 91. - - -- the Mictis problem, 116. - - -- descendants of ancient miners in Britain, 118. - - -- exported from Cornwall in first century A.D., 114. - - Tin, Phoenicians and the Cassiterides, 104. - - -- search for, in Britain, 95. - - -- traces of, in Scotland, 94. - - -- trade in, 219. - - -- voyage of Pytheas, 107. - - -- Cornish mines opened, 107. - See _Cassiterides_ and _OEtrymnides_. - - Tin Land, Sargon of Akkad's knowledge of the - Western European, 99, 218. - - Tin-stone as ballast for boats of Easterners, 99. - - Toad, The, Jewel of, 189. - - Tom-tit, apple cult of, 204. - - Toothache, ancient man suffered from, 2. - - Torquay, Magdalenian art near, 54. - - Trade, early British exports, 104. - - -- Red Sea shell in Hampshire, 47, and also note 1. - - -- routes, British and Irish, 223. - - -- -- British trade with Spain and Carthage, 114. - - -- -- Danube valley and Rhone valley, 114. - - -- -- early trade between Spain and Britain, 218. - - -- -- exports from Britain in first century A.D., 114. - - -- -- when overland routes were opened, 106. - - -- -- Celts and, 106, 107. - - -- -- Phoenicians kept sea-routes secret, 107. - - -- -- voyage of Pytheas, 107. - - Transition Period. See _Azilian_, _Tardenoisian_, and _Maglemosian_. - - -- -- longer than Neolithic Age, 61. - - -- -- race movements in, 54. - - -- in Scotland, 216. - - Transmigration, Druidism and, 142, 222. - - Traprain, silver as substitute for white enamel at, 165. - - Tree cults, apple of knowledge eaten by Thomas the Rhymer, 146. - - -- -- apple tree as "Tree of Life", 204. - - -- -- birds and apple trees, 204. - - -- -- Artemis and the fig, 193. - - Tree cults, bee and maggot soul forms in trees, 103. - - -- -- and standing stones, 103, 104. - - -- -- coral as sea tree, 221. - - -- -- grown gold, 221. - - -- -- and standing stones and wells, 147. - - -- -- trees and wells and heavenly bodies, 180. - - -- -- Druidism and, 141. - - -- -- fig as milk-yielding tree, 149. - - -- -- Gaelic and Latin names of sacred groves, 159. - - -- -- Galatian sacred oak, 159. - - -- -- Gaulish, 151. - - -- -- elm as milk tree, 151. - - -- -- plane as milk tree, 151. - - -- -- grove goddess as raven or crow, 160. - - -- -- the hazel god, 140, 144. - - -- -- apple of longevity, 144. - - -- -- Hebridean shell and milk goddess and, 153. - - -- -- Indian milk-yielding trees, 151. - - -- -- mouse and apple tree, 196. - - -- -- mistletoe and Druidism, 145. - - -- -- megalithic monuments and, 220. - - -- -- and pearls, &c., 220. - - -- -- palm tree cult in Spain, 220. - - -- -- oak on Glasgow seal, 185. - - -- -- sacred groves and stone shrines, 156. - - -- -- sacred rowan, 180. - - -- -- Silvanus, British tree god, 207. - - -- -- souls in trees, 190. - - -- -- St. Mungo takes fire from the hazel, 186. - - -- -- stone circles and, 178. - - -- -- Trees of Longevity and Knowledge, 152. - - -- -- woodbine as "King of the Woods" in Gaelic, 180. - - -- -- fire-producing trees, 180. - - Trepanning in ancient times, 2. - - Trinovantes, The, in England, 128. - - Turquoise, symbolism of, 221. - - Twelfth Night, 204. - - - Underworld, Gaelic ideas regarding, 143. - - Underworld, Egyptian paradise of, 143. - - -- fairyland as Paradise, 144. - - -- Welsh ideas of, 144. - - -- "Well of healing" in, 197. - - Urns, burial, food and drink in, 158. - - Uxellimus, Gaulish god, 207. - - - Vacomagi, The, 129. - - Veneti, The, Pictones assist Romans against, 224. - - -- Picts and, 131. - - Venus. See _Aphrodite_. - - -- the British, 204. - - -- Cæsar offered British pearls to, 79. - - -- origin of, 38. - - -- the Scandinavian, 161. - - Vernicones, The, in Scotland, 129. - - Viking ship, origin of, 76. - - Votadini, in Scotland, 129. - - Vulcan, the Celtic, 202, 203. - - - Warfare, Neolithic weapons rare, 6. - - Water, fire in, 182. - - -- as source of all life, 180. - - -- spirits, 207. - - "Water of Life", "fire water" as, 181, 182. - - Weapons, Celts swore by, 148. - - -- demons in, 50. - - -- as sacred symbols in Ireland and Japan, 206. - - Well, "Beast" (dragon) in, 182. - - Wells, Bride (Brigit) and, 188. - - -- connection of, with trees, stones, and sky, 180. - - -- goddess and, 180. - - -- "well of healing" in Underworld, 197. - - Well-worship and sacred grove, heaven, &c., 160. - - Well-worship, Dingwall Presbytery deals with, 148. - - -- Gildas refers to, 176. - - -- well as a god, 176-9. - - -- trees, standing stones, and, 147. - - -- winds and, 174. - - -- offerings of gold, &c., 174. - - Welsh gods, 203. - - Were-animals, Scottish, 190. - - -- witches and, 191. - - Wheat, cultivation of, 5. - - Whistle, the, antiquity of, 31. - - Widow-burning, 110. - - Wind, fairies come on eddies of, 173. - - Wind and water beliefs, 174. - - Wind goddess, Scottish, associated with south-west, 173. - - Winds, colours of, 169 _et seq._ - - -- Gaelic names of, in spring, 198. - - -- Hebridean wind-stone, 172. - - Witches, cat forms of, 196. - - -- priestesses and, 147. - - -- were-animals and, 191. - - Withershins, 172. - - Woad, Celtic connection of, with water, amber, &c., 163. - - Wolf, goddess as, 154. - - -- goddess Morrigan as, 195. - - Woodbine as "King of the Woods", 180. - - "World Mill", The, metal workers and, 90. - - Wren, apple cult of, 204. - - -- Druids and, 145. - - -- hunting of, 187. - - -- the sacred, 186. - - -- as king of birds, 186. - - - Yellow Muilearteach, the, Scottish deity, 196, 197. - - - Zuyder Zee, formerly a plain, 69. - - -- -- disasters of, 69, 70. - - -PRINTED AND BOUND IN GREAT BRITAIN - -_By Blackie & Son, Limited, Glasgow_ - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Minor spelling inconsistencies, mainly hyphenated words, have been -made consistent. - -Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - -A "List of Illustrations" has been added to the text for the -convenience of the reader. 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