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diff --git a/43682-8.txt b/43682-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4427b03..0000000 --- a/43682-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13970 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of -Northern India, Vol. II (of 2), by W. Crooke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with -almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or -re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included -with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org - - -Title: The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of Northern India, Vol. II (of 2) - -Author: W. Crooke - -Release Date: September 10, 2013 [EBook #43682] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPULAR RELIGION--NORTHERN INDIA, VOL II *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - THE POPULAR RELIGION - AND FOLK-LORE OF - NORTHERN INDIA - - BY - - W. CROOKE, B.A. - BENGAL CIVIL SERVICE - - - - IN TWO VOLUMES - - VOL. II. - - A NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ILLUSTRATED - - WESTMINSTER - ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & CO. - 2, Whitehall Gardens, S.W. - - 1896 - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - - CHAPTER I. PAGE - - The Evil Eye and the Scaring of Ghosts 1 - - CHAPTER II. - - Tree and Serpent Worship 83 - - CHAPTER III. - - Totemism and Fetishism 146 - - CHAPTER IV. - - Animal-Worship 201 - - CHAPTER V. - - The Black Art 259 - - CHAPTER VI. - - Some Rural Festivals and Ceremonies 287 - - Bibliography 327 - - - - - - - -FOLK-LORE OF NORTHERN INDIA. - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS. - - - Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos. - - Virgil, Eclogues, iii. 103. - - -Asma 'bint 'Umais relates that she said, "O Prophet! the family of -Ja' afar are affected by the baneful influence of the Evil Eye. May -I use spells for them or not?" The Prophet said, "Yes; for if there -were anything in the world which would overcome fate, it would be -the Evil Eye."--Miskāt, xxi.-i. Part II. - -The belief in the baneful influence of the Evil Eye prevails -widely. [1] According to Pliny, [2] it was one of the special -superstitions of the people of India, and at the present day it forms -an important part of the popular belief. But the investigation of -its principles is far from easy. It is very closely connected with -a number of kindred ideas on the subject of diabolical influence, -and few natives care to speak about it except in a furtive way. In -fact, it is far too serious a matter to be discussed lightly. Walking -about villages, you will constantly see special marks on houses, and -symbols and devices of various kinds, which are certainly intended -to counteract it; but hardly any one cares directly to explain the -real motive, and if you ask the meaning of them, you will almost -invariably be told that they are purely decorative, or that they have -been made with some object which obviously conceals the real basis -of the practice. - -One, and perhaps the most common theory of the Evil Eye is that "when -a child is born, an invisible spirit is born with it; and unless -the mother keeps one breast tied up for forty days, while she feeds -the child with the other (in which case the spirit dies of hunger), -the child grows up with the endowment of the Evil Eye, and whenever -any person so endowed looks at anything constantly, something will -happen to it." [3] So, in Ireland we are told that "the gift comes by -Nature and is born with one, though it may not be called into exercise -unless circumstances arise to excite the power; then it comes to act -like a spirit of bitter and malicious envy that radiates a poisonous -atmosphere, which chills and blights everything within its reach." [4] - -In Bombay the "blast of the Evil Eye is supposed to be a form of -spirit possession. In Western India all witches and wizards are said -to be, as a rule, evil-eyed. Of the rest, those persons only who are -born under certain circumstances are believed to be evil-eyed. The -circumstances are as follows:--Among the Hindus it is believed that -when a woman is pregnant, she begins to conceive peculiar longings -from the day of conception, or from the fifth month. They consist in -eating various fruits and sweetmeats, in walking under deep shades, -or in gardens where brooks gurgle, or in putting on rich clothes or -ornaments, and in many other like things. If in the case of any woman -these desires are not gratified, the child whom she gives birth to -becomes weak and voracious, and is said to have an Evil Eye. If such a -person sees a man or woman eat anything which he feels a longing for, -the eater either vomits what he or she has eaten, or falls sick. By -some it is believed that if a person come from without at the time -of dinner, and enters the house without washing his feet, the man -who is eating becomes sick or vomits the food he has eaten, or does -not feel longing for food for some time, until the blast of the Evil -Eye is warded off." Mr. Campbell explains this on the principle that -"as he comes from places where three or four roads meet, and which -are spirit haunts, an evil spirit accompanies him without entering -his body, from the place of its residence by which he has passed. If -he washes his feet, the spirit goes back; but if he enters the house -with spirit-laden feet, the spirit enters the house with him, and -affects any one of the persons eating." [5] - -The real fact seems to be that in most cases the Evil Eye is the -result of covetousness. [6] Thus, a man blind of an eye, no matter -how well-disposed he may be, is almost certain to envy a person -blessed with a peculiarly good pair of eyes. But if the blind man's -attention be distracted by something conspicuous in the appearance of -the other, such as lampblack on his eyelids, a mole, or a scar, the -feeling of dissatisfaction, which is fatal to the complete effect of -the envious glance, is certain to arise. This theory that the glance -may be neutralized or avoided by some blot or imperfection is the -basis of many of the popular remedies or prophylactics invented with -the object of averting its influence. - -Hence comes the device of making an intentional blot in anything one -values, so that the glance of the Evil Eye may be deprived of its -complete satisfaction. Thus, most people put lampblack on the eyes of -their children as a protection against fascination, because black is -a colour hateful to evil spirits; it has the additional advantage of -protecting the eye from the fierce heat of the Indian summer. Women -when delivery approaches often mark themselves with black to avert -the demon who causes protracted labour. It is also believed that a -person whose eyelids are encircled with lampblack is incapable of -casting the Evil Eye himself; and it is considered nice in a woman -to ornament herself in this way, since because she herself, except -at some crisis of her life, such as marriage or parturition, is not -liable to fascination, it shows her indisposition to covet the beauty -of others, with the inference that she has no cause to do so. - -On the same principle, when a parent has lost a child by any disease -which, as is usually the case, can be attributed to fascination or -other demoniacal influence, it is a common practice to call the next -baby by some opprobrious name, with the intention of so depreciating it -that it may be regarded as worthless, and so protected from the Evil -Eye of the envious. Thus a male child is called Kuriya or "Dunghill;" -Kadheran or Ghasīta, "He that has been dragged along the ground;" Dukhi -or Dukhita, "The afflicted one;" Phatingua, "Grasshopper;" Jhingura, -"Cricket;" Bhīkhra or Bhīkhu, "Beggar;" Gharīb, "Poor," and so on. So, -a girl is called Andhrī, "Blind;" Tīnkauriyā or Chhahkauriyā, "She that -was sold for three or six cowry shells;" Dhuriyā, "Dusty;" Machhiyā, -"Fly," and so on. [7] - -All this is connected with what the Scotch call "fore-speaking," when -praise beyond measure, praise accompanied with a sort of amazement or -envy, is considered likely to be followed by disease or accident. [8] -Thus Professor Rhys writes of the Isle of Man: [9] "You will never get -a Manxman to say that he is very well. He usually admits that he is -'middling;' and if by any chance he risks a stronger adjective, he -hastens to qualify it by saying 'now' or 'just now,' with an emphasis -indicative of his anxiety not to say too much. His habits of speech -point back to the time when the Manx mind was dominated by the fear -of awaking malignant influences in the spirit world around him." So, -in Ireland, to avoid being suspected of having the Evil Eye, it is -necessary when looking at a child to say, "God bless it!" and when -passing a farmyard where the cows are collected for milking to say, -"The blessing of God be on you and all your labour!" [10] - -The same customs prevail in India. Thus, if a native gentleman brings -his child to visit a European, he dislikes to hear it praised, unless -the praise be accompanied with some pious ejaculation. And it is -safer to speak in a complimentary way of some conspicuous ornament -or piece of dress, which is always put on as a protective. - -In connection with the question of naming, a reference may be made to -some taboos which are probably based on similar principles. A name is -part of a person in the belief of savages, and a man can be injured -through his name as well as through the parings of his nails or hair, -which are carefully looked after. Thus with all Hindus two names are -given to children, one secret and used only for ceremonial purposes, -and the other for ordinary use. The witch if she learns the real name -can work her evil charms through it. [11] Hence arises the use of many -contractions and perversions of the real name and many of the nicknames -which are generally given to children, as well as the ordinary terms -of endearment which are constantly employed. We have this name taboo -coming out in a cycle of folk-tales, such as "Rumpelstilzchen," "Tom -Titty Tot," and "Whuppity Stoorie." Here the imp or gnome has a secret -name of his own, which he thinks it impossible for any one to find out, -and he himself uses it only when he thinks he is sure to be alone. - -This seems to be the most rational explanation of the curious -taboo according to which a Hindu woman will not name her husband, -or if she wants to refer to him, does so in some indirect way as -the father of her child and so on. To this, however, there is one -notable exception. Thus, writing of Bombay, Mr. Campbell says: [12] -"At marriages, coming of age, first pregnancy and festive days, such as -the Nāgpanchamī and Mangalā Gaurī in August, it is usual for the woman -to recite some couplet or verse in which the husband's name occurs. At -marriages this naming is, in practice, little more than a game. An -old man or an old lady gets close to the door and refuses to allow -the young women to go until they have told their husbands' name. At -the pregnancy ceremony the same custom is observed." Mr. Campbell -takes this to be "part of a ceremony whose object is to drive to a -distance any spirits whose influence might blight the tender life -of the unborn child. This seems natural when it is remembered that -the names of men are either the names of gods, of precious stones, -or of spices, all of which have a power to scare spirits; and as -repeating the thousand names of Mahādeva is a service in which he -greatly delights, apparently because it keeps spirits at a distance, -so this repeating of the husband's and wife's name seems to have the -same object." The name, in other words, is kept secret on account of -its sanctity, and the custom would be based on the same rules of taboo -which have been designed among most savages for the protection of -kings and other persons of dignity from the influence of evil spirits. - -Another mode of protecting boys from demoniacal influence is based on -the same idea of the blot of imperfection. Boys of rich parents are -often dressed in mean or filthy clothes so that they may be considered -unworthy of the malicious glance of some envious neighbour or enemy. - -Still another device, that of dressing up the boy during infancy as a -girl, in other words a pretended change of sex, may perhaps lead us on -the track of a possible explanation of some very curious and obscure -practices in Europe. We know that legends of actual change of sex are -not unknown in Indian folk-lore. Thus, we have the very primitive -legend of Idā or Ilā, who was the daughter of the Manu Vaivaswata, -who prayed to Mitra and Varuna for a boy and was given a girl. But the -prayers of her father to the deities resulted in her being changed into -a man, Sudyumna. Siva changed him back again into a woman, and she, -as Ilā, became the wife of Budha. In more modern times we have the -very similar story of the daughter of the Bhadauriya Rāja. He had a -daughter, who was seized by force for the seraglio of the Emperor at -Delhi, but she fled to the temple of Devī at Batesar and by the aid of -the goddess was changed into a boy. By another version of the tale he -arranged with another Rāja that their children should be contracted, -if one chanced to be a boy and the other a girl. Both had daughters, -but the Rāja concealed the circumstance and allowed the marriage -to go on as if his child was a son. When the fraud was detected the -girl tried to commit suicide in the Jumnā, but came out a boy, and -everyone was satisfied. [13] - -One explanation of the custom of pretended change of sex as shown in -the case of the Amazons, has been thus explained by Mr. Abercromby: -[14] "The great desire of women, more especially during a period of -warlike barbarism, is to bear male children. Turning our attention to -the result of flattening a girl's breasts and letting her wear male -attire, it is obvious that a sex distinction has been obliterated, -and she has become externally assimilated to a male youth. Moreover, -the object has evidently been intentional. It would be no outrage to -the reasoning powers of the Sarmatians to suppose that they believed -a woman's chances of bearing male children were vastly enhanced by -her wearing a man's dress, and by being in some degree conformed -to the male type by forcible compression of the breasts during -maidenhood. They would argue thus: a woman wants to bear male children, -therefore she ought to be made as much like a man as possible. A -conviction of this kind is gained by a process identical with the -immature reasoning that underlies what is called sympathetic magic." - -This may possibly be one explanation of the practice among Chamārs and -other low castes in Northern India, when at marriages boys dress up as -women and perform a rude and occasionally obscene dance. Among the Modh -Brāhmans of Gujarāt, at marriages, the bridegroom's maternal uncle, -whose special position is almost certainly a survival from times when -descent through the mother was the only recognized form, dresses as a -Jhanda or Pathān Faqīr, whose ghost is dangerous, in woman's clothes -from head to waist, and in men's clothes below, rubs his face with -oil, daubs it with red powder, goes with the bride and bridegroom to -a place where two roads meet (which, as we have seen, is a haunt of -spirits), and stays there till the pair offer the goddess food. [15] - -Now, there are numerous customs which have been grouped in Europe under -the name of the False Bride. Thus, among the Esthonians the false -bride is enacted by the bride's brother dressed in woman's clothes; -in Polonia by a bearded man called the Wilde Brant; in Poland, by an -old woman veiled in white, and lame; again, among the Esthonians, -by an old woman with a birch-bark crown; in Brittany, where the -substitutes are first a little girl, then the mistress of the house, -and lastly, the grandmother. [16] - -The supposition may then be hazarded, that in the light of the Indian -examples the object may be that some one assumes the part of the bride -in order to divert on himself from her the envious glance of the Evil -Eye. With the same object it is very common in India to bore the noses -of little boys and thus to make them resemble girls. The usual names -of Nathu or Bulāqi, the former where the ring was placed in the side -of the nose and the latter in the septum, are evidence of this. - -The theory of the blot of imperfection again appears in the custom of -not washing the face of a little boy till he is six years old. [17] -Similarly, young men, if vigorous and stout, consider themselves -very liable to the fascination of lean people, and tie a rag round -the left arm, or a blue thread round their necks, often twisting the -blue feathers of the roller bird into the thread as an additional -precaution. Nor do they care to expose their bodies to the public -gaze, but wear a light shawl of a gaudy colour, even in the warmest -season of the year. Should such a youth, if sufficiently conceited -about his personal appearance, detect a suspicious person looking at -him, he will immediately pretend to limp, or contort his face and -spasmodically grasp his ankle or his elbow as if he were in pain, -to distract and divert the attention he fears. - -So, all natives dread being stared at, particularly by Europeans; -and you will often see a witness cast his eyes on the ground when -the magistrate looks him full in the face, sometimes because he -knows he is lying and fears the consequences, but it is often done -through fear of fascination. A European, in fact, is to the rustic a -strange inscrutable personage, gifted with many occult powers both for -good and evil, and there are numerous extraordinary legends current -about him. We shall return to this in dealing with the wonderful -Momiāī story. Here it may be noted that he has control over the -Jinn. There was a place near Dera Ghāzi Khān so possessed by them -that passersby were attacked. A European officer poured a bottle of -brandy on the spot and no Jinn has been seen there ever since. A -very dangerous ghost which some time ago used to infest a road in -the Rūrki Cantonment was routed in the same way by an artilleryman, -who spat on him when he came across him one dark night. The nails -of a European, like those of the Rākshasa, distil a deadly poison, -and hence he is afraid to eat with his fingers, as all reasonable -people do, and prefers to use a knife and fork. - -A few other examples illustrating the same principle may be given -here. When a man is copying a manuscript, he will sometimes make an -intentional blot. A favourite trick is to fold the paper back before -the ink of the last line has time to dry, so as to blot and at the -same time make it appear the result of chance. We have noticed the -same idea in the case of carpet patterns. A similar irregularity is -introduced in printing chintzes and like handicrafts, and this goes a -long way to explain the occasional and almost unaccountable defects -to be found in some native work. The letter from a Rāja is spotted -with gold leaf, partly to divert fascination and partly to act as a -scarer of demons. In fact the two conceptions meet and overlap all -through the theory of these protectives. - -Another plan is to paint up some hideous figure on the posts or arch -of the door. The figure of a Churel or the caricature of a European -with his gun is often delineated in this way. Others paint a figure of -Yamarāja or some of the gods or saints for the same purpose, and the -regular guardian deities, like Hanumān, Bhairon, or Bhīm Sen, often -figure on these protective frescoes. So in Italy Mania was a most -frightful spirit. "Her frightful image used to be hung over the doors -to frighten away evil. This is quite identical with the old Assyrian -observance recorded by Lenormant of placing the images of evil or -dreaded deities in places to scare away the demons themselves." [18] - -Confectioners, when one of their vessels of milk is exposed to view, -put a little charcoal in it, as careful Scotch mothers do in the water -in which they wash their babies. [19] The idea is probably connected -with the use of fire as a charm. In Scotland it used to be the practice -to throw a live coal into the beer vat to avert the influence of the -fairies, and a cow's milk was secured against them by a burning coal -being passed across her back and under her belly immediately after -calving. [20] In India, if a cow gives a large quantity of milk, the -owner tries to hide it, and if it chances to get sour, he attributes -the loss to fascination, or the machinations of some enemy, witch, -or demon. A mother while dressing her baby makes a black mark on -its cheek, and before a man eats betel he pinches off the corner of -the leaf as a safeguard. When food is taken to the labourer in the -field, a piece of charcoal or copper coin is placed in the basket as -a preservative; and when horses while feeding throw a little grain -on the ground, it is not replaced, because the horse is believed to -do this to avoid fascination. Grooms, with the same object, throw -a dirty duster over the withers of a horse while it is feeding, -and they are the more particular to do this when it is new moon -or moonlight, when spirits are abroad. In the same way, when a man -purchases food in the open market, he throws a little into the fire, -and when a man is having a specially good dinner, he should select -an auspicious moment and do the same. The same idea accounts for -various customs of grace-giving at meals. Thus, when the Brāhmans at -Pūna begin dinner they repeat the name of Govinda; the Shenavis say, -Har! Har! Mahādeva, and when half finished sing verses; the Mhārs -never eat without saying Krishnarpana! or "It is dedicated to Krishna"; -[21] the Muhammadan, when he begins to eat, says, Bismillah!--"In the -name of God!" and when he finishes he says, Al-hamdulillah!--"Praise -be to God!" Orthodox Hindus pretend that this offering of food at -a meal is a sacrifice to Annadeva, the god of food; but here many -varied beliefs, such as fear of fascination, earth and fire worship, -appear to combine to establish these and similar practices. - -We now come to consider the various articles which are believed -to have the power of scaring spirits, and counteracting demoniacal -influence of various kinds. - -First among these is iron. Why iron has been regarded as a scarer -of demons has been much debated. Natives of India will tell you -that it is the material out of which weapons are made, and that an -armed man should fear nothing. Others say that its virtues depend -on its black colour, which, as we shall see, is obnoxious to evil -spirits. Mr. Campbell [22] thinks the explanation may be that in all -cases of swooning and seizures iron is of great value, either applied -in the form of the cautery or used as a lancet to let blood. The real -reason is probably a very interesting survival of folk-thought. We know -that in many places the stone axe and arrow head of the Age of Stone -are invested with magic qualities, and Mr. Macritchie has gone so far -as to assume that the various so-called fairy houses and fairy hills -which abound in Europe are really the abodes of a primitive pigmy -race, which survive to our days as the fairies. The belief in the -fairies would thus go back to a time anterior to the use of metals, -and these supernatural beings would naturally feel an abhorrence for -iron, a new discovery and one of the greatest ever made by man. There -is good evidence in custom that the Age of Stone existed in many places -up to comparatively modern times. The Hebrews used a stone knife for -circumcision, their altars were forbidden to be hewn, and even Solomon -ordered that neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron should be -heard while his Temple was building. The same idea appears in many -cases in India. The Magahiya Doms, who are certainly one of the most -primitive races in the country, place iron under a stringent taboo, -and any Magahiya who breaks into a house with an iron implement is not -only put out of caste, but it is believed that some day or other he -will lose his eyesight. The Agariyas, the primitive iron smelters of -the Central Indian Hills, have deified iron under the form of Lohāsura, -as the Kaseras or brass-founders worship brass as Kansāsura. - -This idea appears in many various forms. We have already noticed -the use of iron as a charm against hail. In the same way a sword or -knife is placed in the bed of the young mother. She is, at this crisis -of her life, particularly exposed to the influence of evil spirits, -as the Scotch fairies are very fond of milk, and try to gratify their -desires on "unsained" or unchurched women. [23] There is a case in the -Indian Law Reports, where the knife thus placed near the woman was -used to murder her. [24] Pliny advises that a piece of iron should -be placed in the nest of a sitting hen to save her eggs from the -influence of thunder. This is now done in Sicily, with the object of -absorbing every noise which might be injurious to the chickens. [25] -So, the Indians of Canada put out swords in a storm to frighten off -the demon of thunder. [26] The common belief is that the evil spirit -is such a fool that he runs against the sharp edge of the weapon and -allows himself to be wounded. - -The magic sword constantly appears in folk-lore. We have Excalibur -and Balmung; in the tales of Somadeva it confers the power of making -the wearer fly through the air and renders him invincible; the snake -demon obtains from the wars of the Gods and the Asuras the magic -sword Vaiduryakanti. "Whatever man obtains that sword will become a -chief of the Siddhas and roam about unconquered; and that sword can -only be obtained by the aid of heroes." [27] - -While a house is being built, an iron pot, or a pot painted black, -which is good enough to scare the demon, is always kept on the works, -and when it is finished the young daughter of the owner ties to the -lintel a charm, which is also used on other occasions, the principal -virtue of which consists in a small iron ring. Here is combined -the virtue of the iron and the ring, which is a sacred circle. In -India iron rings are constantly worn as an amulet against disease, -as in Ireland an iron ring on the fourth finger cures rheumatism. The -mourner, during the period of ceremonial impurity, carries a knife -or a piece of iron to drive off the ghost of the dead man, and the -bridegroom in the marriage procession wears a sword as a protection; -if he cannot procure a licence from a magistrate to carry a real -sword, he gets one made of lath, which is good enough to frighten the -evil spirit. In this case he fastens an iron spike to the point. On -the same principle the blacksmith's anvil is used as a hail charm, -and any one who dares to sit on it is likely to be punished for -the contempt by an attack of boils. The Romans used to drive large -nails into the side posts of the door with the same object. We have -already noticed the value of iron nails for the purpose of laying the -ghost of the Churel, and such nails are in India very commonly driven -into the door-post or into the legs of the bed, with the object of -resisting evil spirits. The horse-shoe is one special form of the -charm. The wild Irish, we are told, used to hang round the necks of -children the beginning of St. John's Gospel, a crooked nail out of a -horse-shoe, or a piece of wolf-skin. [28] Why the horse-shoe should -be used in this way has been much debated. Mr. Farrer thinks it may -be connected with the respect paid to the horse in folk-lore. [29] -The Irish say that the reason is that the horse and ass were in the -stall when Christ was born, and hence are blessed for evermore. [30] -The idea that its shape connects it with the Yonī and phallicism -hardly deserves mention. One thing is clear, that the element of -luck largely enters into the matter; the shoe must have been found by -chance on the road. Mr. Leland says, "To find and pick up anything, -at once converts it into a fetish, or insures that all will go well -with it, if we say when taking it up, 'I do not pick it up,'--naming -the object--'I pick up good luck, which may never abandon me!'" [31] -This, combined with the general protective power of iron, is probably -a sufficient explanation of the practice. The custom is common in -India. The great gate of the mosque at Fatehpur Sīkri is covered with -them, and the practice is general at many shrines. - -There is also a cycle of legends which connect iron with the -philosopher's stone and transmutation into gold. The great Chandra -Varma, who was born of the embraces of Chandrama, the Moon god, -possessed the power of converting iron into gold. Laliya, a blacksmith -of Ahmadābād, made an axe for a Bhīl, who returned and complained that -it would not cut. Laliya, on looking at it, found that the blade had -been turned into gold. On questioning the Bhīl, he ascertained that -he had tried to sharpen it on what turned out to be the philosopher's -stone. Laliya, by possession of the stone, acquired great wealth, and -was finally attacked by the king's troops. At last he was obliged to -throw the stone into the Bhadar river, where it still lies, but once -some iron chains were let down into the water, and when they touched -it the links were converted into gold. [32] - - - -Gold and Silver Protectives. - -Gold, and in a less degree silver, have a similar protective -influence. The idea is apparently based on their scarcity and -value, and on their colour--yellow and white being obnoxious to -evil spirits. Hence a little bit of gold is put into the mouth of -the dying Hindu, and both gold and silver, combined with tigers' -claws and similar protectives, are largely used as amulets. These -metals are particularly effective in the form of ornaments, many of -which are images of the gods, or have some mystic significance, or -are made in imitation of some sacred leaf, flower, or animal. This -is one main cause of the recklessness with which rich natives load -their children with masses of costly jewellery, though they are well -aware that the practice often leads to robbery and murder. - - - -Copper and Brass Protectives. - -Next come copper and brass. The use of copper in the form of rings -and amulet cases is very common. Many of the vessels used in the -daily service of the gods, such as the Argha, with which the daily -oblations are made, are made of this metal. So with brass and various -kinds of alloy used for bells, drinking and cooking utensils. - -The common brass Lota is always carried about by a man during the -period of mourning as a preservative against the evil spirits which -surround him until the ghost of the dead man is finally laid. Copper -rings are specially worn as an antidote to pimples and boils, while -those of iron are supposed to weaken the influence of the planet Sani -or Saturn, which is proverbially unlucky and malignant. His Evil Eye, -in particular, brings misfortune at intervals of twenty-four years; -all offerings to him are black, and consequently ill-omened, such as -sesamum, charcoal, buffaloes, and black salt; and only the Dakaut, -the lowest class of Brāhman priest, will accept such offerings. [33] - - - -Coral and Marine Products Protectives. - -Next in value to these metals come coral and other marine products, -which in the case of the Hindus probably derive their virtue from -being strange to an inland-dwelling people, and as connected with -the great ocean, the final home of the sainted dead. Coral is -particularly valued in the form of a necklace by those who cannot -afford the costlier metals, and its ashes are constantly used in -various rustic remedies and stimulants. In Gujarāt a coral ring is -used to keep off the evil influence of the sun, [34] and in Bengal -mourners touch it as a form of purification. According to the old -belief in England, coral guarded off lightning, whirlwind, tempests -and storms from ships and houses, and was hung round the necks of -children to assist teething and keep off the falling sickness. [35] -So with shells, particularly the Sankha or conch shell, which is -used for oblations and is regarded as sacred to Vishnu. It is blown -at his temples when the deity receives his daily meal, in order to -wake him and scare off vagrant spirits, who would otherwise consume -or defile the offering. This shell, in popular belief, is the bone of -the demon Panchajana, who, according to the Vishnu Purāna, [36] "lived -in the form of a conch shell under the ocean. Krishna plunged into -the water, killed him, took the shell, which constituted his bones, -and afterwards used it for a horn. When sounded it fills the demon -hosts with dismay, animates the gods, and annihilates unrighteousness." - -All these shells appear to derive part of their virtue from the fact -that they are perforated. The cowry shell, which is worn round the neck -by children as an antidote to the Evil Eye and diabolical influence, -is supposed to have such sympathy with the wearer that it cracks when -the evil glance falls upon it, as in England coral was thought to -change colour and grow pale when its owner was sick. The cowry shell -is, with the same object, tied round the neck or pasterns of a valued -horse, or on a cow or buffalo. The shell armlet worn by Bengal women -has the same protective influence. [37] - - - -Precious Stones Protectives. - -Precious stones possess similar value. Sir Thomas Brown would not -deny that bezoar was antidotal, but he could not bring himself to -believe that "sapphire is preservative against enchantments." In -one special combination of nine varieties, known as the Nauratana, -they are specially efficacious--the ruby sacred to the sun, the -pearl to the moon, coral to Mars, emerald to Mercury, topaz to -Jupiter, diamond to Venus, sapphire to Saturn, amethyst to Rāhu, -and the cat's-eye to Ketu. In the mythology the gods interrupted -Pārvatī when she was with Mahādeva, and nine jewels dropped from her -anklet. When he looked at them he saw his image reflected in each of -them, and they appeared in the form of the nine Kanyās or heavenly -maidens. The Naulakha or nine lākh necklace constantly appears in -Indian folk-lore. In the story of the Princess Aubergine we read that -"inside the fish there is a bumble-bee, inside the bee a tiny box, -and inside the box is the wonderful nine lākh necklace. Put it on -and I shall die." And in one of Somadeva's stories, at the marriage, -Jaya gives the bride a necklace of such a kind that, as long as it is -upon a person's neck, hunger, thirst, and death cannot harm him. [38] -It is of jewels that the lamps which light fairy-land are made. - -Many of the precious stones have tales and qualities of their own. Once -upon a time a holy man came and settled at Panna who had a diamond -as large as a cart-wheel. The Rāja, hearing of this, tried to take -it by force, but the saint hid it in the ground out of his way. He -told the Rāja that the diamond wheel could not leave his dominions, -and that no one could ever find it. The Muhammadans say that all -the diamonds found since, in these famous mines, were fragments of -the wheel. [39] The wearing of a ring of sapphire, sacred to Sani -or Saturn, is supposed to turn out lucky or unlucky, according to -circumstances. For this reason, the wearer tries it for three days, -that is, he wears it on Saturday, which is sacred to Saturn, and -keeps it on till Tuesday. During this time, if no mishap befalls him, -he continues to wear it during the period when the planet's influence -is unfavourable; but should any mishap befall him during the three -days, he gives the ring to a Brāhman. [40] The amethyst obtains its -name because any one who wears it cannot be affected by wine. The -turquoise or Fīroza is a mystic stone in India. If you bathe wearing a -turquoise, the water touched by it protects the wearer from boils, and -snakes will not approach him. [41] Shylock got a turquoise from Leah -which he would not have given for a wilderness of monkeys, because it -changed colour with the health of the owner, and the Turkeys, says an -old writer, "doth move when there is any peril prepared to him that -weareth it." [42] So the onyx, known as the Sulaimāni, or stone of -Solomon, has mystic virtues, as, according to Burton, carbuncles and -coral, beryl, pearls and rubies were believed to drive away devils, -to overcome sorrow, and to stop dreams. [43] - - - -Beads Protectives. - -With poorer people beads take the place of gems, and in particular -the curious enamelled bead, which probably came from China and is -still found in old deserted sites, mostly of Buddhistic origin, -enjoys special repute. We have already met with the parturition -bead, and in Kolhapur there is a much-valued Arabic stone which, -when any woman is in labour, is washed and the water given to her to -drink. In Scotland the amber bead cures inflamed eyes and sprains, -as in Italy looking through amber beads strengthens the sight. [44] -Here the perforation confers a mystical quality. As an antidote to -the Evil Eye blue beads are specially valued, and are hung round the -necks and pasterns of horses and other valuable animals. The belief in -the efficacy of beads is at the basis of the use of rosaries, which, -as used in Europe, are almost certainly of Eastern origin, imported -in the Middle Ages in imitation of those worn by Buddhistic or Hindu -ascetics, who ascribe to them manifold virtue. Such are those of the -Tulasī or sacred basil, worn by Vaishnavas, and those of the Rudrāksha, -worn by Saivas. - - - -Blood a Protective. - -Blood is naturally closely connected with life. "The flesh with the -life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat." Hence -blood comes to be a scarer of demons. In Scott's Lay the wizard's book -would not open till he smeared the cover with the Borderer's curdled -gore. In Cornwall, the burning of blood from the body of a dead -animal is a very common method of appeasing the spirits of disease, -[45] and the blood sacrifices so prevalent all over the world are -performed with the same object. A curious Evil Eye charm is recorded -from Allahābād. A woman of the Chamār or carrier caste gave birth to a -dead child. Thinking that this was due to fascination, she put a piece -of the cloth used at her confinement down a well, having previously -enclosed in it two leaves of betel, some cloves, and a piece of the -castor-oil plant. [46] Here we have, first, a case of well-worship; -secondly, the use of betel, cloves, and the castor-oil plant, all -scarers of evil spirits; and thirdly, an instance of the use of blood -for the same purpose. We have elsewhere noticed the special character -attached to menstrual or parturition blood. But blood itself is most -effectual against demoniacal influence. There are many cases where -blood is rubbed on the body as an antidote to disease. In Bombay some -Marhātas give warmed goat's blood in cases of piles, and in typhus, -or red discoloration of the skin with blotches, the patient is cured -by killing a cock and rubbing the sick man with the blood. Others use -the blood of the great lizard in cases of snake-bite. [47] A bath of -the blood of children was once ordered for the Emperor Constantine, -and because he, moved by the tears of the parents, refused to take it, -his extraordinary humanity was rewarded by a miraculous cure. - -Similarly, among the Drāvidians, the Kos drink the blood of the -sacrificial bull; the Malers cure demoniacs by giving the blood of -a sacrificed buffalo; the Pahariyas, in time of epidemics, set up a -pair of posts and a cross beam, and hang on it a vessel of blood. [48] -So, the Jews sprinkled the door-posts and the horns of the altar with -blood, and the same customs prevail among many other peoples. - -We shall meet with instances of the same rite when dealing with the -blood covenant and human sacrifice. On the same analogy many Indian -tribes mark the forehead of the bride with blood or vermilion, and -red paint is smeared on the image of the village godling in lieu of -a regular sacrifice. - - - -Incense. - -Similarly, incense is largely used in religious rites, partly to please -with the sweet savour the deity which is being worshipped, and partly -to drive away demons who would steal or defile the offerings. Bad -smells repel evil spirits, and this is probably why assafoetida is -given to a woman after her delivery. In Ireland, if a child be sick, -they take a piece of the cloth worn by the person supposed to have -overlooked the infant and burn it near him. If he sneezes, he expels -the spirit and the spell is broken, or the cloth is burned to ashes and -given to the patient, while his forehead is rubbed with spittle. In -Northern India, if a child be sick, a little bran, pounded chillies, -mustard, and sometimes the eyelashes of the child are passed round its -head and burned. If the burning mixture does not smell very badly, -which it is needless to say is hardly ever the case, it is a sign -that the child is still under the evil influence; if the odour be -abominable, that the attack has been obviated. [49] Similarly, in -Bengal, red mustard seeds and salt are mixed together, waved round the -head of the patient, and then thrown into the fire. [50] This reminds -us of the flight of the Evil One into the remote parts of Egypt from -the smell of the fish liver burnt by Tobit, and an old writer says: -"Wyse clerkes knoweth well that dragons hate nothyng more than the -stenche of breenynge bones, and therefore they gaderyd as many as they -might fynde, and brent them; and so with the stenche thereof they drove -away the dragons, and so they were brought out of greete dysease." [51] - - - -Spittle. - -We have just met with an instance of the use of spittle for the -scaring of the disease demon or the Evil Eye. This is a very common -form of charm for this purpose. In one of the Italian charms the -performer is directed to spit behind himself thrice and not to look -back. In another, "if your eyes pain you, you must take the saliva of -a woman who has given birth only to boys, not girls. And she must have -abstained from sexual union and stimulating food for three days. Then, -if her saliva be bright and clear, anoint your eyes with it and they -will be cured." [52] At Innisboffin, in Ireland, when the old women -meet a baby out with its nurse they spit on the ground all round it to -keep fairies from it. In Wicklow they spit on a child for good luck -the first day it is brought out after birth. [53] In several of the -European folk-tales we find that spittle has the power of speech. The -habit of spitting on the handsell or first money taken in the morning -is common. It is done "either to render it tenacious that it may remain -with them and not vanish away like a fairy gift, or else to render -it propitious and lucky, that it may draw more money to it." [54] -Muhammad advised that when the demon Khanzab interrupted any one at -his prayers, he was to spit over his left shoulder three times. - -In India, spittle is regarded as impure. Hence a native cleans -his teeth daily with a fresh twig of the Nīm tree, and regards the -European's use of the same tooth-brush day after day as one of the -numerous extraordinary impurities which we permit. Hence, too, the -practice of spitting when any one who is feared or detested passes -by. When women see a falling star they spit three times to scare -the demon. In Bombay, spittle, especially fasting spittle, is used -to rub on wounds as a remedy. It cures inflammation of the eyes, an -idea which was familiar to the Jews. It guards children against the -Evil Eye. In the Konkan, when a person is affected by the Evil Eye, -salt and mustard are waved round his head, thrown into the fire, -and he is told to spit. In Gujarāt, when an orthodox Shiah Musalmān -travels with a Sunni, he spits, and among the Roman Catholics of -Kanara, at baptism the priest wets his thumb with spittle and with -it touches the child's ears and nostrils. [55] - - - -Salt. - -We have seen above that salt is also used in the same way. Salt, -apparently from its power of checking decay, is regarded as possessing -mystical powers. All over Europe the spilling of salt in the direction -of a person was considered ominous. "It was held to indicate that -something had already happened to one of the family, or was about -to befall the person spilling it, and also to denote the rupture of -friendship." [56] The custom of putting a plate of salt on a corpse -with the object of driving off evil spirits is common in Great -Britain. We have already seen that salt is given to children after -they have eaten sweets. Many classes of Hindu ascetics bury their -dead in salt. It is waved round the head of the bride and bridegroom, -and buried near the house door as a charm. In classical antiquity it -was mixed with water and sprinkled on the worshippers. - - - -Salutation. - -Another way of dispelling evil spirits is by the various forms -of salutation, which generally consist in the invocation of some -deity. The Hindu says, "Rām! Rām!" when he meets a friend, or Jay -Gopāl! "Glory to Krishna!" or whoever his personal god may be, and the -same idea accounts for many of the customs connected with the reception -of guests, who, coming from abroad, may bring evil spirits with them. - - - -The Separable Soul: Waving. - -Another series of prophylactics depends on the idea of the separable -soul or that spirits are always fluttering in the air round a person's -head. Hence a long series of customs known as Parachhan, performed -at Hindu marriages in Upper India, when lights, a brass tray, grain, -and household implements like the rice pounder or grindstone are waved -round the head of the married pair as a protective. In Somadeva's tale -of Bhunandana we find that he "performs the ceremony of averting evil -spirits from all quarters by waving the hand over the head." [57] This -is perhaps one explanation of the use of flags at temples and village -shrines, though in some cases they appear to be used as a perch, -on which the deity sits when he makes his periodical visits. Hence, -too, feathers have a mystic significance, though in some cases, as in -those of the peacock and jay, the colour is the important part. Hence -the waving of the fan and Chaurī over the head of the great man and -the use of the umbrella as a symbol of royalty. A woman carrying her -child on her return from a strange village, lest she should bring the -influence of some foreign evil spirit back with her, will, before -entering her own homestead, pass seven little stones seven times -round the head of the baby, and throw them in different directions, -so as to pass away any evil that may have been contracted. When -a sorcerer is called in to attend a case attributed to demoniacal -possession, he whisks the patient with a branch of the Nīm, Madār, -or Camel thorn, all of which are more or less sacred trees and have -acquired a reputation as preservatives. When this is completed, the -aspersion of the afflicted one, be he man or beast, with some water -from the blacksmith's shop, in which iron has been repeatedly plunged -and has bestowed additional efficacy upon it, usually follows. - - - -Blacksmith, Respect for. - -The respect paid to the trade of the blacksmith is a curious survival -from the time of the early handicrafts and the substitution of weapons -of iron for those of stone. [58] In Scotland the same belief in the -virtues of the water of the forge prevails, and in Ireland no one -will take anything by stealth from such a place. [59] In St. Patrick's -Hymn we have a prayer against "the spells of women, of smiths, and of -druids." Culann, the mystic smith, appears in Celtic folk-lore. In -all the mythologies the idea is widespread that the art of smithing -was first discovered and practised by supernatural personages. We -see this through the whole range of folk-lore, from the Cyclopes to -Wayland Smith, who finally came to be connected with the Devil of -Christianity. [60] - - - -Water. - -We have already referred to water as a protective against the influence -of evil spirits. We see this principle in the rite of ceremonial -bathing as a propitiation for sin. It also appears in the use of -water which has been blown upon by a holy man as a remedy for spirit -possession. Among many menial tribes in the North-Western Provinces -with the same object the bride is washed in the water in which the -bridegroom has already taken his wedding bath. Again, on a lucky -day fixed by the Pandit the rite of Nahāwan or ceremonial bathing -is performed for the protection of the young mother and her child -two or three days after her confinement. Both of them are bathed in a -decoction of the leaves of the Nīm tree. Then a handful of the seeds of -mustard and dill are waved round the mother's head and thrown into a -vessel containing fire. When the seeds are consumed the cup is upset, -and the mother breaks it with her own foot. Next she sits with grain -in her hand, while the household brass tray is beaten to scare demons -and the midwife throws the child into the air. All this takes place -in the open air in the courtyard of the house. Here we have a series -of antidotes to demoniacal possession, the purport of which will be -easily understood on principles which have been already explained. - - - -Grain. - -With this use of grain we meet with another valuable antidote. We -have it in Great Britain in the rule that "the English, when the -bride comes from church, are wont to cast wheat upon her head." [61] -It survives in our custom of throwing rice over the wedded pair when -they start on the honeymoon. On the analogy of other races one object -of the rite would seem to be to keep in the soul which is likely -to depart at such a crisis in life as marriage. Thus, "in Celebes -they think that a bridegroom's soul is apt to fly away at marriage, -so coloured rice is scattered over him to induce it to stay. And, -in general, at festivals in South Celebes rice is strewed on the head -of the person in whose honour the festival is held, with the object -of retaining his soul, which at such times is in especial danger of -being lured away by envious demons." [62] - -This rite appears widely in Indian marriage customs. Among the -Mhārs of Khāndesh, on the bridegroom approaching the bride's house, -a piece of bread is waved round his head and thrown away. [63] In -a Kunbi's wedding a ball of rice is waved round the boy's head and -thrown away, and at the lucky moment grains of rice are thrown over the -couple. Among the Telang Nhāvis of Bijaypur the chief marriage rite is -that the priest throws rice over the boy and girl. The grain acquires -special efficacy if it be either parched, and thus purified by fire, -or if it be stained in some lucky or demon-scaring colour. [64] Thus, -in Upper India grain parched with a special rite is thrown over the -pair as they revolve round the marriage shed, and this function is, -if possible, performed by the brother of the bride. Rice stained -yellow with turmeric is very often used for this purpose. Another -device is to make a pile of rice, with a knot of turmeric and a copper -coin concealed in it. This at a particular stage of the service the -bride knocks down with her foot. The Lodhis of the Dakkhin, in the -same way, put a pile of rice at the door of the boy's house, which -he upsets with his foot. All through Northern India the exorciser -shakes grain in a fan, which is, as we shall see, a potent fetish, -and by the number of grains which remain in the interstices calculates -which particular ghost is worrying the patient. On the same principle -the Orāons put rice in the mouth of the corpse, and the Koiris, when -they marry, walk round a pile of water-pots and scatter rice on the -ground. [65] The custom of sprinkling grain at marriage appears in -many of the folk-tales. - - - -Urad. - -We are familiar in Roman literature with the use of beans at funerals, -and at the Lemuria thrice every other night to pacify the ghosts -of the dead beans were flung on the fire of the altar to drive the -spirits out of the house. The same idea appears in the Carlings or -fried peas given away and eaten on the Sunday before Palm Sunday. [66] -No special sanctity appears to apply to the pea or bean in India, -but they are replaced by the Urad pulse, which is much used in rites -of all kind, and especially in magic, when it is thrown over the head -of the person whom the magician wishes to bring under his control. [67] - - - -Barley. - -Barley, another sacred grain, is rubbed over the corpse of a Hindu -and sprinkled on the head before the cremation rite is performed. So, -the Orāons throw rice on the urn as they take it to the tomb, and -sprinkle grain on the ground behind the bones to keep the spirit from -coming back. [68] - - - -Sesamum. - -Til or black sesamum, again, has certain qualities of the same -kind. Hence it is used in the funeral rites, and in form of Tilanjalī -or a handful mixed with water is one of the offerings to the sainted -dead, and made up in the form of a cow, called Tiladhenu, it is -presented to Brāhmans. - - - -Sheaves. - -Most grains in the ear have also mystic uses. It is hung up over -the house door to repel evil spirits, and in Hoshangābād they tie -a sheaf of corn on a pole and fasten it to the cattle shed as a -preservative. [69] The combination of seven kinds of grain, known -as Satnaja, is an ingredient in numerous charms and is used in many -forms of worship. - - - -Milk. - -So with the products of the sacred cow, which are, as might have been -expected, most valuable for this purpose. Hence the use of Ghilor -or clarified butter in the public and domestic ritual. Milk for the -same reason is used in offerings and sprinkled on the ground as an -oblation. Cowdung, in particular, is regarded as efficacious. After -the death or birth impurity the house is carefully plastered with a -mixture of cowdung and clay. No cooking place is pure without it, and -the corpse is cremated with cakes of cowdung fuel. Even the urine of -the cow is valued as a medicine and a purificant. The cow guards the -house from evil, and every rich man keeps a cow so that his glance -may fall on her when he wakes from sleep, and he regards her as the -guardian of the household. - - - -Colours. - -Colours, again, are scarers of evil spirits. They particularly dread -yellow, black, red, and white. The belief in the efficacy of yellow -accounts for the use of turmeric in the domestic ritual. [70] A few -days before the marriage rites commence the bride and bridegroom are -anointed with a mixture of oil and turmeric known as Abtan. The bride -assumes a robe dyed in turmeric, which she wears until the wedding. The -marriage letter of invitation is coloured with turmeric, and splashes -of it are made on the wall and worshipped by the married pair. In the -old times the woman who performed Satī, and nowadays married women who -die, are taken to the pyre wrapped in a shroud dyed with turmeric. The -corpse is very often smeared with turmeric before cremation, a custom -which is not peculiar to the so-called Aryan Hindus, because it -prevails among the Thārus, one of the most primitive tribes of the -sub-Himālayan forests. The same principle probably explains the use -of yellow clothes by certain classes of ascetics, and of Chandan or -sandal-wood in making caste marks and for various ceremonial purposes. - -Yellow and red are the usual colours of marriage garments, and the -parting of the bride's hair is stained with vermilion, though here -the practice is probably based on the symbolical belief in the Blood -Covenant. The same idea is probably the explanation of the flinging -of red powder and water coloured with turmeric at the Holī or spring -festival. - -Black, again, is feared by evil spirits, and the husbandman hangs a -black pot in his field to scare spirits and evade the Evil Eye, and -young women and children have their eyelids marked with lampblack. In -the Mirzapur Baiga's sacrifice the black fowl or the black goat is -the favourite victim, and charcoal is valued, some put into the milk -as a preservative and some buried under the threshold to guard the -household from harm. - - - -Grasses. - -For the same reason various kinds of grass are considered sacred, -such as the Kusa, the Dūrva, the Darbha. Among the Prabhus of Bombay -juice of the Dūrva grass is poured into the left nostril of a woman -when the pregnancy and coming of age rites are performed, and the -Kanaujiya Brāhman husband drops some of the juice down her nose when -she reaches maturity. [71] The Sholapur Māngs when they come back -from the grave strew some Hariyāli grass and Nīm leaves on the place -where the deceased died. The Mūnj grass is also sacred, and a thread -made of it is worn at one stage of the Brāhman's life. Some of these -sacred grasses form an important ingredient in the Srāddha offerings to -the sacred dead, some are used in the marriage and cremation ritual, -on some the dying man is laid at the moment of dissolution. They -are potent to avert the Evil Eye, and hence the mother of Rāma and -Lakshmana, when she looks at them, breaks a blade of grass. [72] - - - -Tattooing. - -Next come special marks made on the body. Such are the marks branded -on various parts of their bodies by many classes of ascetics, and the -caste marks made in clay or ashes by most high-class Hindus. It has -been suggested that many of these marks are of totemistic origin. That -this is so among races beyond the Indian border is almost certainly -the case. [73] But though tattooing, a widespread practice of the -Indian people, very possibly originated in totemism, still, as far as -has hitherto been ascertained, no distinct trace remains of a tribal -tattoo, and it is safer at present to class marks of this kind in -the general category of devices to repel evil spirits. Among purely -sectarial marks we have the forehead mark of the Saivas, composed of -three curved lines like a half-moon, to which is added a round mark on -the nose; it is made with the clay of the Ganges, or with sandal-wood, -or the ashes of cowdung, the ashes being supposed to represent the -disintegrating force of the deity. The mark of the Vaishnavas is in -the form of the foot of Vishnu, and consists of two lines rather oval -drawn the whole length of the nose and carried forward in straight -lines across the forehead. It is generally made with the clay of the -Ganges, sometimes with the powder of sandal-wood. The Sākta forehead -mark is a small semi-circular line between the eyebrows, with a dot -in the middle. - -The practice of tattooing is common both among the Aryan and -Drāvidian races, but is more general among the lower than the higher -castes. Thus, the Juāng women tattoo themselves with three strokes on -the forehead just over the nose, and three on each of the temples. They -attach no meaning to the marks, have no ceremony in adopting them, -and are ignorant of the origin of the practice. The Khariya women make -three parallel marks on the forehead, the outer lines terminating -at the ends in a crook, and two on each temple. The Ho women tattoo -themselves in the form of an arrow, which they regard as their national -emblem. The Birhor women tattoo their chests, arms, and ankles, but -not their faces. The Orāon women have three marks on the brow and two -on each temple. The young men burn marks on their fore-arms as part of -the ordeal ceremony; girls, when adult, or nearly so, have themselves -tattooed on the arms and back. The Kisān women have no such marks; -if a female of the tribe indulges herself in the vanity of having -herself tattooed, she is at once turned adrift as having degraded -herself. Here we may have some faint indications of a tribal tattoo, -but among most of the tribes which practise the custom it has become -purely protective or ornamental. [74] - -Among the Drāvidian tribes of the North-Western Provinces tattooing -generally prevails. The Korwas and many other of these tribes get -their women tattooed by a woman of the Bādi sub-division of Nats. They -are tattooed only on the breast and arms, not on the thighs. There -are no ceremonies connected with it, nor any special pattern. Any -girl gets herself tattooed in any figure she approves for a small -sum. Well-to-do women always get it done; but if a woman is not -tatooed, it is not considered unlucky. The men of the tribe are not -tattooed. The Ghasiya women tattoo themselves on the breasts, arms, -thighs, and feet. They say that when a woman dies who is not tattooed, -the Great Lord Parameswar is displeased and turns her out of heaven, -or has her branded with the thorn of the acacia. In the same way among -the Chamārs, when a woman who has not been tattooed dies, Parameswar -asks her where are the marks and signs which she ought to possess -to show that she had lived in the world. If she cannot show them, -she will in her next birth be re-born as a Bhūtnī, Pretnī, or Rākshasī. - -At present among low-caste women the process of tattooing is regarded -as a species of initiation, and usually marks the attainment of -puberty. It thus corresponds with the rite of ear-piercing among -males. To the east of the North-West Provinces a girl is not allowed -to cook until she is tattooed with a mark representing the Sītā kī -Rasoī or cook-house of Sītā, and in Bengal high-caste people will -not drink from the hands of a girl who does not wear the Ullikhī or -star-shaped tattoo mark between her eyebrows. A Chamār woman who is -not tattooed at marriage will not, it is believed, see her father and -mother in the next world. This reminds us of the idea prevalent in -Fiji, that women who are not tattooed are liable to special punishment -in the land of the dead. [75] In Bombay the custom has been provided -with a Brāhmanical legend. One day Lakshmī, the wife of Vishnu, -told her husband that whenever he went out on business or to visit -his devotees she became frightened. Hearing this, Vishnu took his -weapons and stamped them on her body, saying that the marks of his -weapons would save her from evil. - -Hence women in Bombay tattoo themselves with the figures of the lotus, -conch shell, and discus, and from this the present custom is said to -have originated. [76] - -In Upper India the forms of the tattoo marks fall into various -classes. Some are rude or conventionalized representations of animals, -plants, and flowers. The operators carry round with them sketches of -the different kinds of ornament, and the girl selects these according -to taste. The peacock, the horse, the serpent, the scorpion, tortoise, -centipede, appear constantly in various forms. Others, again, are -representations of jewellery actually worn--necklaces, bracelets, -armlets, or rings. Others, again, are purely religious, such as -the trident or matted hair of Siva, the weapons of Vishnu, and the -cooking house of Sītā, the type of wifely virtue. Some of these marks -were probably of totemistic origin, but they have now become merely -ornamentative, as was the case in Central Asia in the time of Marco -Polo, where they were regarded only as "a piece of elegance or a sign -of gentility," and among the Thracians, as described by Herodotus. [77] -It may be noticed that in the time of Marco Polo people used to go -from Upper India to Zayton in China to be tattooed. [78] These animal -forms of tattooing are found also among the Drāvidian tribes of the -Central Provinces, where the forms used are a peacock, an antelope, -or a dagger, and the marks are made on the back of the thighs and -legs. In Bengal tattooing is used as a cure for goitre. [79] - -We may close this long catalogue of devices intended to scare spirits, -with a number of miscellaneous examples. - -It seems to be a well-established principle that evil spirits -fear leather. On this is perhaps based the idea of the shoe being -a mode of repelling the Evil Eye and the influence of demons. We -find this constantly appearing in the folk-lore of the West. Thus, -the Highlanders paid particular attention to the leaving of the -bridegroom's left shoe without buckle or latchet, to prevent the -secret influences of witches on the wedding night. [80] And Hudibras -tells how-- - - - Augustus having by oversight - Put on his left shoe 'fore his right, - Had like to have been slain that day - By soldiers mutinying for pay." - - -Maidens in Europe ascertain whether they will be married and who will -be their future husbands by throwing the slipper at the new year. The -throwing of old shoes at an English wedding seems on the same principle -to be based on the idea of scaring the demon of barrenness. According -to Mr. Hartland, [81] the gipsies of Transylvania throw old shoes and -boots on a newly married pair when they enter their tent, expressly -to enhance the fertility of the union. - -In the same way in India, people who are too poor to afford another -protective place on the top of their houses a shoe heel upwards. This -seems to give some additional efficacy to the charm, because we find -the same rule in force elsewhere. Thus, in Cornwall, a slipper with -the point turned up placed near the bed cures cramp. [82] In Pūna, -if a man feels that he has been struck by an incantation, he at once -takes hold of an upturned shoe. [83] - -The fear which spirits feel for leather is also illustrated by the -procedure of the Drāvidian Baiga, who flagellates people suffering -from demoniacal possession with a tawse or leathern strap. In the -Dakkhin a person troubled with nightmare sleeps with a shoe under -his pillow, and an exorcist frightens evil spirits by threatening to -make them drink water from a tanner's well. We shall see that this -is one way of punishing and repelling the power of witches. The Pūna -Kunbis believe that a drink of water from a tanner's hand destroys the -power of a witch. In the Panjāb, if a man sits on a currier's stone, -he gets boils. [84] The same principle probably accounts for much of -the fear or contempt generally felt in India regarding shoe-beating -as a form of punishment. At the same time it is said in Persia and -Arabia that the dread of a flagellation with the slipper is based -on the idea that while a flogging with the regular scourge involves -little discredit, a beating with anything not originally intended -for the purpose, such as a shoe or knotted cloth, is disgraceful. - -The same feeling for the power of leather possibly explains the use -as a seat of various kinds of skins, such as those of the tiger and -antelope, by many kinds of ascetics, and in the old ritual the wife -with her husband sat on the hide of a bull to promote the fertility -of their union. - - - -Garlic. - -Garlic, again, from its pungency, is valued in the same way. Garlic -was one of the substances used by Danish mothers to keep evil -from children. [85] The Swedish bridegroom sews in his clothes -garlic, cloves, and rosemary. Garlic was an early English cure -for a fiend-struck patient. [86] Juvenal said that the Egyptians -had gods growing in their gardens, in allusion to their reverence -for onions or garlic. In Sanskrit garlic is called Mlechha-kanda, -"the foreigner's root," and its virtues for the removal of demons are -so well known that it will be often seen hung from the lintel of the -house door. The same idea may account for the very common prejudice -among some castes against eating onions. - - - -Glass. - -Glass in the form of beads, which seem to derive some of their -efficacy from being perforated, is also very useful in this -way. Mirrors from time immemorial have been held to possess the same -quality. "Fascinators, like basilisks, had their own terrible glance -turned against them if they saw themselves reflected," "Si on luy -presente un miror, par endardement reciproque, ces rayons retournent -sur l'autheur d'iceux." Philostratus declares that if a mirror be held -before a sleeping man during a hail or thunder-storm, the storm will -cease. [87] Hence women in India wear mirrors in their thumb rings, -and the Jātnī covers her sheet with little pieces of shining glass. - -Pieces of horn, especially that which is said to come from the -jackal, and that of the antelope, are also efficacious. The bāzār -Banya treasures up the gaudy labels from his cloth bales for the -same purpose. Garlands of flowers possess the same quality, and so do -various fruits, such as dates, cocoanuts, betel-nuts, and plantains, -which are placed in the lap of the bride or pregnant woman to scare -the evil spirits which cause barrenness, and sugar is distributed -at marriages. The bones of the camel are very useful for driving off -insects from a sugar-cane field, and buried under the threshold keep -ghosts out of the house. Pliny says that a bracelet of camel's hair -keeps off fever. [88] - -Lastly, the demon may be trapped by physical means. "To be delivered -from witches they hang in their entries whitethorn gathered on May -Day." [89] So, many of the menial castes in the North-West Provinces -keep a net and some thorns in the delivery room to scare evil spirits. - -There are certain persons who are naturally protected from the Evil -Eye and demoniacal agency, or who have control over evil spirits. Such -is a man born by the foot presentation, who can cure rheumatism and -various other diseases by merely rubbing the part affected. Men with -double thumbs are considered safe against the Evil Eye, and so is -a bald man, apparently because no one thinks it worth his while to -envy such people. According to English belief, children born after -midnight have power all through their lives of seeing the spirits of -the departed. In India, people who are born within the period of the -Salono festival in August are not only protected from, but possess -the power of casting, the Evil Eye. The same is the case of those -who have accidentally eaten ordure in childhood. We have already -noticed the mystic power of cowdung. Dung generally is offensive to -spirits. It was believed in Europe that horsedung placed before the -house or behind the door brought good luck. [90] Women who eat dung -possess, as we shall see, the power of witchcraft. - -A man with only one eye is dreaded because he is naturally envious of -those with good sight, and he is proverbially a scoundrel. The giant -with one eye is familiar in folk-lore, and he is generally vicious -and malignant. We have the black man of Celtic folk-lore who has -only one eye and one leg. [91] In the Irish tales Crinnaur, like the -Cyclopes, has only one eye. Sindbad in his third voyage encounters -a monster of the same kind. Laplanders have a one-eyed giant Stalo, -and in one of the modern versions of the Perseus myth there are two -hags who have only a single eye between them. The same idea appears in -Indian folk-lore. The planet Sukra is said to have only one eye. Such -was also the case with the monster Kabandha, who was killed by Rāma, -and Arāyī, the female fiend of the Veda. The one-eyed devil appears -in one of the Kashmīr tales. [92] - - - -Gonds: Procedure in Cases of Fascination. - -The Gonds have a special procedure in cases of deaths which they -believe to have occurred through fascination. The burning of the -body is postponed till it is made to point out the delinquent. The -relations solemnly call upon the corpse to do this, and the theory -is that if there has been foul play of any kind, the body on being -taken up, will force the bearers to convey it to the house of the -person by whom the spell was cast. If this be three times repeated, -the owner of the house is condemned, his property is destroyed, -and he is expelled from the neighbourhood. [93] - - - -Amulets. - -In ordinary cases most people find it advisable to carry an amulet -of some kind as a preservative. An amulet is primarily a portion of -a dead man or animal, by which hostile spirits are coerced or their -good offices secured. [94] The amulet, then, in its original sense, -is supposed to concentrate in itself the virtues and powers of the -man or animal of which it formed a part. Hence the claws of the tiger, -which represent in themselves the innate strength and bravery of the -animal, are greatly esteemed for this purpose, and the sportsman, -when he shoots a tiger, has to count over the claws carefully to -the coolies in charge of the dead animal, or they will certainly -misappropriate them. In the same way a portion of the umbilical cord -is placed among the clothes of the mother and infant to avert the -Evil Eye and scare the demons which are then particularly active. - -Mr. Ferguson may be correct in his opinion that in India, prior to the -distribution of the remains of the Buddha at Kusinagara, we have no -historical record of the worship of relics; [95] still the idea must -have prevailed widely among the Hindu races, out of whom the votaries -of the new faith were recruited. With some of these relics of the -Buddha, such as his begging bowl, which was long kept in a Dagoba or -Vihāra erected by King Kanishka, then removed for a time to Benares, -and finally to Kandahār, where it is now held in the highest respect -by Musalmāns, and has accumulated round it a cycle of legends like -those connected with the Sangrail, we reach the zone of pure fetishism. - -Another form of amulet is a piece of metal, stone, bone, or similar -substance worn on the person, with an invocation inscribed on it to -some special god. These are very commonly used among Muhammadans. By -Hindus the "Yantras or mystic diagrams are thought to be quite as -effective in their operation as the Mantras or spells, and, of course, -a combination of the two is held to be absolutely irresistible. An -enemy may be killed or removed to some other place, or a whole army -destroyed, or salvation and supreme felicity obtained by drawing a -six-sided or eight-sided diagram and writing a particular Mantra -underneath. If this be done with the blood of an animal killed -sacrificially in a Smasāna or place where corpses are burned, no power -in earth or heaven can resist the terrific potency of the charm." [96] -On the same principle Hindus head their letters with the words Srī -Rāmjī! "the great god, Rāma," or the figures 74, of which one not -very probable explanation is that they represent the weight in maunds -of the gold ornaments taken from the Rājput dead at the famous siege -of Chithor. - -The equilateral triangle is another favourite mystic sign. According -to the Christian ideas, the figure of three triangles intersected and -containing five lines, is called the pentangle of Solomon, and when -it is delineated on the body of a man, it marks the five places in -which our Saviour was wounded; it was, therefore, regarded as a fuga -demonum, or a means of frightening demons. [97] Similarly in Northern -India, the equilateral triangle is regarded as a mystic sign, and the -little broadcloth bags hung round the necks of children to avert the -Evil Eye are made in this shape. The diamond shape is also approved -because it contains two equilateral triangles base to base. - -Another form of mystic sign is the mark of the spread hand with -the fingers extended. This is made by the women of the family on -the outer wall and round the door-post, and is considered to be -particularly efficacious. Mr. Campbell suggests that the custom is -based on the belief in the hand being a spirit entry. [98] Natives will -tell you that it is because the number five, that of the fingers, is -lucky. However this may be, the custom is very generally prevalent. The -Bloody Hand of Ulster, worn as a crest by the Baronets of one creation, -is well known. [99] The Uchlas of Pūna strew sand on the spot where -the dead man breathed his last. They cover the spot with a basket, -which they raise next morning in the hope of finding the mark of a -palm, which shows that the dead is pleased and brings vigour on the -family; and the Thākurs on the fifth day after the birth of a child -dip a hand in red powder and water and make a mark on the wall of the -lying-in room, which they worship. [100] At the rock-cut temple of -Tilok Sendur in Hoshangābād, an annual festival is held, and those -who come to demand any special benefit, such as health or children, -mark their vow by staining their hand dipped in red paint against the -rock wall, fingers upward. If the prayer be heard, they revisit the -place and make the same mark, this time with the fingers downward; -but whether Mahādeva is not gracious to his votaries, or whether -it is that the sense of favours to come is not keen enough after -the prayer of the moment has been granted, the hand-stamps pointing -downwards are not a tenth in number of those pointing upwards. [101] -The stamping of the hand and five fingers immersed in a solution of -sandal-wood has always been regarded as a peculiarly solemn mode of -attesting an important document, and it is said that Muhammad himself -adopted this practice. [102] - -There are numerous varieties of these protective amulets. One purpose -which they serve is the procuring of offspring. Children naturally -require special protection. Thus, the Mirzapur Korwas tie on the -necks of their children roots of various jungle plants, such as the -Siyār Singhī, which owes its name and repute to its resemblance to -the so-called horn of the jackal. In cases of disease the Kharwārs -wear leaves of the Bel, a sacred tree, cloves and flowers selected -by a Brāhman. In the Konkan, in order that a child may not suffer -from the Evil Eye, a necklace of marking nuts is put round its -neck. [103] The Gūjars of Hazāra hang the berries of the Batkar tree -(Celtis caucasia) round the necks of men and animals to protect them -from the Evil Eye. [104] The pious Musalmān inscribes on his amulet -the five verses known as Ayātu-l-Hifz or "verses of protection," or -he makes a magic square with the letters making up the word Hāfiz, -"the protector." Many village Musalmāns use little stone or glass -tablets for the same purpose. Some have a hocus-pocus inscription -purporting to be a verse of the Qurān in Arabic; others have the -name of Fātima coupled with that of the famous martyrs Hasan and -Husain. Another amulet of a very elaborate character is described as -containing a piece of the umbilical cord encased in metal, a tiger's -claw, two claws of the large horned owl turned in opposite directions, -and encased in metal, a stone known as the Athrāhā kā mankā, because -it has the property of turning eight colours according to the light -in which it is placed (probably a tourmaline or quartzose pebble), -and a special Evil Eye destroyer in the shape of a jasper or marble -bead. These five articles are necessaries, but as an extra precaution -the amulet contained some crude gold, a whorled shell, an ancient -copper coin, some ashes from the fire of a Jogi ascetic, and the -five ingredients of the sacred incense. The owner admitted that it -would have been improved had it also contained a magic square. [105] -This reminds us of the necklace of amber beads hung round the neck -of Scotch children to keep off ill-luck, and the Irish scapular, a -piece of cloth on which the name of the Virgin Mary is written on one -side, and I.H.S. on the other, which are preservatives against evil -spirits. In old times in England such charms were called Characts, -and one found with a criminal contained an invocation to the three -holy kings, Gaspar, Melchior and Balthasar. [106] - -One of the most valuable of these protectives is the magic -circle, which appears in various forms through the whole range -of folk-lore. The idea is that no evil spirit can cross the sacred -line. Thus, in Mirzapur they make a circle of grain round the circular -pile of corn on the threshing-floor to guard it from evil. Among some -castes the circle round which the bride and bridegroom revolve at -marriage is guarded by a circular line of string hung on the necks -of a number of water-pots surrounding it. We have seen how the Baiga -perambulates his village and drops a line of spirits round the boundary -to repel foreign ghosts. This accounts for the stone circles which -are found both in Europe and in India, and in Ireland are considered -to be the resort of the fairies. [107] - -We have constant references to the same custom in the -folk-tales. Lakshmana, in the Rāmāyana, draws such a circle round -Sītā when he is obliged to leave her alone. We have many references -to the circle within which the ascetic or magician sits when he is -performing his sorceries. Thus, in the story of Nischayadatta, the -ascetics "quickly made a great circle with ashes, and entering into -it, they lighted a fire with fuel, and all remained there muttering -a charm to protect themselves." In the tales of the Vetāla, we find -the mendicant under a banyan tree engaged in making a circle, and -Ksantisila makes a circle of the yellow powder of bones, the ground -within which was smeared with blood, and which had pitchers of blood -placed in the direction of the cardinal points. [108] - -The same idea appears in the magic circle used as an ordeal, or to -compel payment of a debt. Thus, we read in Marco Polo: [109] "If a -debtor have been several times asked by his creditor for payment -and shall have put him off day by day with promises, then if the -creditor once meet the debtor and succeed in drawing a circle round -him, the latter must not pass out of this circle until he shall have -satisfied the claim, or given security for its discharge. If he in -any other case presume to pass the circle, he is punished with death, -as a transgressor against right and justice." In Northern India this -circle is known as a Gururu or Gaurua, and a person who takes an oath -stands within it, or takes from inside an article which he claims. In -one form of this ceremony the circle is made on the ground with calf's -dung by an unmarried girl, and in the centre is placed a vessel of -water. If money is in dispute, the amount claimed is placed in the -water vessel by the defendant. The narrator tells a story to prove -the efficacy of the rite:-- - -"My father owed a Kalwār one rupee and the Kalwār claimed five. The -matter was brought before the tribal council, and the Kalwār swore to -the five rupees upon the Gaurua. Within an hour his boy, while playing -behind the house, was carried off by a wolf. He was rescued, but he was -under the curse of the Gaurua, and shortly after he put his finger into -a rat hole, was bitten by a snake, and died within the hour." [110] - - - -The Ring, Bracelet, and Knotted Cord. - -From the same principle arises the belief in the magic virtue of the -ring, the bracelet, and the knotted cord. - -To begin with rings--we have in Plato the story of Gyges, who by -means of the ring of invisibility introduced himself to the wife of -Candaules, King of Lycia, murdered the latter and got possession of -his kingdom. This is like the cloak or cap which appears so constantly -in folk-lore. In the Indian tales invisibility is generally obtained -by means of a magic ointment, to which there are many parallels -in Western stories. We find also the magic ring, which, like that -of Ala-ud-dīn, when touched procures the presence and aid of the -demons. A woman's nose-ring in India has special respect paid to it, -and for a stranger even to mention it is a breach of delicacy. [111] -It is the symbol of married happiness, and is removed when the wearer -becomes a widow. Among Muhammadans, Shiah women remove their nose-rings -during the Muharram as a sign of mourning. There was an old habit in -England of marrying by the rush ring, "but it was chiefly practised -by designing men, for the purpose of debauching their mistresses, who -sometimes were so infatuated as to believe that this mock ceremony -was a real marriage." [112] In the same way in India a ring of -Kusa grass is put on the finger during the most sacred rites and at -marriage. The custom appears in the folk-tales. The ring represents -an imperishable bond between the giver and the receiver, and is a -symbol of the original blood covenant, which is an important element -in the belief of all primitive people. [113] - -The idea of the magic ring constantly appears in folk-lore. Thus, -we have the ring placed in a sacred square and sprinkled with -butter-milk, which immediately gives whatever the owner demands. In -one of the Kashmīr tales the merchant's son speaks to the magic ring, -and immediately a beautiful house and a lovely woman with golden hair -appeared. [114] So, in the tales of Somadeva, Sridatta places a ring -on the finger of the unconscious princess and she immediately revives; -the disloyal wife here, as in the "Arabian Nights," takes a ring from -each of her lovers as a token. [115] - -The same idea attaches to the bracelet, which is in close connection -with the soul of the wearer. Such is the Chandanhār or sandal-wood -necklace of Chandan Rāja, and Sodewa Bāī is born with a golden -necklace round her neck, concerning which her parents consulted the -astrologers. They announced, "This is no common child; the necklace of -gold about your daughter's neck contains your daughter's soul. Let it, -therefore, be guarded with the utmost care; for if it were taken off -and worn by another person, she would die." [116] The same idea appears -in the Kashmīr tales, where Panj Phūl refuses to give up her necklace, -as "it contains the secret of her life, and was a charm to her against -all dangers, sickness and trials; deprived of it she might become sick -and miserable, or be taken away from them and die." [117] All this is -based on the conception of the external soul, to which reference has -been already made. The Māls of Bīrbhūm exchange necklaces at marriages, -and the Princess Kalingasenā wears a bracelet and necklace of lotus -fibre to secure relief from the pains of love. [118] - -The same idea shows itself in the use of strings and knots. In Northern -India a piece of bat's bone is tied round the ankle as a remedy for -rheumatism, and answers to the eel-skin, which is used for the same -purpose in Europe. [119] In the Shetland Islands, to cure a sprain, -a thread of black wool with nine knots is tied on the injured place -with a metrical spell. [120] An Italian charm says: "Take from a live -hare the ankle bone, remove the hair from his belly, from the hair -make a thread, and with it tie the bone to the body of the sufferer, -and you will see a wonderful cure." [121] In Ireland a strand of -black wool is tied round the ankle, and a charm is recited to cure -a sprain; a red string is tied round a child's neck in chincough -and epilepsy. [122] In Hoshangābād a thread is tied round the ankle -as a remedy in fever. If possible, a bit of Ashtara root should be -fastened in the knot, and before tying it an oblation of butter is -burnt before it. [123] Similarly, a peacock's feather tied on the -ankle cures a wound. In the Panjāb, it is a charm against snake-bite to -smoke one of the tail feathers of the peacock in a tobacco pipe. [124] -The Rājput father binds round the arm of his new-born infant a root -of that species of grass known as the Amardūb or "imperishable" Dūb, -well known for its nutritive qualities and luxuriant vegetation, -in the same way as Scotch women wear round their necks blue woollen -threads or small cords till they wean their children. [125] We have -already noticed the efficacy of various grasses as spirit scarers. - -Lastly, the cord itself has powers in folk-lore, and we meet with -the magic cord, which, tied round the neck of the hero by a witch, -makes him turn into a ram or an ape. [126] - -The belief in the efficacy of the magic circle accounts for a variety -of other customs. Thus, in a family sacrifice among the Chakmas of -Bengal, round the whole sacrificial platform had been run, from the -house mother's distaff, a long white thread which encircled the altar, -and then carried into the house, was held at the two ends by the good -man's wife. Among the Hāris, at marriages, the right hand little -finger of the bridegroom's sister's husband is pierced, and a few -drops of blood allowed to fall on threads of jute, which are rolled -up in a tiny pellet. This the bridegroom holds in his hand, while the -bride attempts to snatch it from him. Her success in the attempt is -considered to be a good omen of the happiness of the marriage. [127] -Here we have a survival of descent in the female line, the blood -covenant, and the magic influence of the cord all combined. - -Connected with this is the belief in the forming a connection by -knotting the magic string. We have the European true love-knot, an -emblem of fidelity between the pair betrothed. So in Italy interlaced -serpents and all kinds of interweaving, braiding, and interlacing -cords are valuable as protectives because they attract the eyes of -witches. [128] Thus, among the Kārans of Bengal, the essential part of -the marriage ceremony is believed to be the laying of the bride's right -hand in that of the bridegroom, and binding their two hands together -with a piece of string spun in a special way. [129] This belief in the -mystic power of knots is common in all folk-lore. [130] The clothes of -the bride and bridegroom in Upper India are knotted together as they -revolve round the sacred fire. A similar belief explains the wearing -of the Janeū or sacred thread by high-caste Hindus. The knots on it, -known as Brahma-granthi, or "the knots of the Creator," repel evil -influences, and Muhammadans on their birthdays tie knots in a cord, -which is known as the Sālgirah or "year knot." - - - -Face-covering. - -Another device to avoid fascination or other dangerous influence is to -cover the face so as to prevent the evil glance reaching the victim for -whom it is intended. Thus, at widow marriages in Northern India, the -bride and bridegroom are covered with a sheet during the rite, probably -in order to avert the envious or malignant influence of the spirit -of the woman's first husband. It is in secret that the bridegroom -marks the parting of the bride's hair with vermilion. So in Bombay, -[131] the Chitpāwan bride in one part of the wedding service has her -head covered with a piece of broadcloth. The Ramoshis tie the ends -of the bride's and bridegroom's robes to a cloth which four men of -the family hold over them. The Dhors of Pūna put a face-cloth on the -dead, which is a general practice all over the world. The same belief -is almost certainly at the root of much of the customs of Pardah and -the seclusion of women. It is as much through fear of fascination as -modesty that women draw their sheet across the face when they meet a -stranger in the streets. We come across the same feeling in the rule by -which all doors were closed when the princess in the "Arabian Nights" -went to the bath, and when not long ago the Mikado of Japan and other -Eastern potentates took their walks abroad. We thus reach by another -route the cycle of Godiva legends. [132] - - - -Omens. - -Closely connected with the class of ideas which we have been discussing -is the belief in omens. This constitutes a very important branch -of folk-lore both in the West and in the East. The success of a -journey or enterprise is believed in a great measure to depend on the -object which was first seen in the morning, or observed on the road -at an early period of the march. Thus, according to Theophrastus, -"The superstitious man, if a weasel run across his path, will not -pursue his walk until some one else has traversed the road, or until -he has thrown three stones across it." And Sir Thomas Brown writes: -"If an hare cross the highway, there are few above threescore years -that are not perplexed thereat, which, notwithstanding, is but an -augurial terror according to that received expression, Inauspicatum -dat iter oblatus lepus. And the ground of the conceit was probably -no greater than this, that a fearful animal passing by us portended -unto us something to be feared; as upon the like consideration, -the meeting of a fox presaged some future imposture." - -Tulasi Dās, in his Rāmāyana, sums up the favourable omens:-- - -"On the left-hand side a blue-necked jay was picking up food, as if -to announce the very highest good fortune; on a fair field on the -right were a crow and a mungoose in the sight of all; a woman was -seen with a pitcher and a child; a fox showed himself winding about; -and in front a cow was suckling its calf; a herd of deer came out on -the right; a Brāhmanī kite promised all success; also a Syāma bird -perched on a tree to the left; a man was met bearing curds, and two -learned Brāhmans with books in their hands." [133] - -The face of a Teli or oilman, perhaps from the dirt which accompanies -his business, is about the worst which can be seen in the early -morning; but, with the curious inconsistency which crops up everywhere -in phases of similar belief, that of a sweeper is lucky. His face -should be always looked at first, but on meeting a Brāhman, the glance -should start from his feet. - -The Thags, like all criminal tribes of the present day, were great -believers in what Dr. Tylor calls Angang or meeting omens. [134] With -them, if a wolf crossed the path from right to left it was considered -a bad omen; if from right to left the import was uncertain. The -call of the wolf was considered ominous; if heard during the day, -the gang had immediately to leave the neighbourhood. The same idea -attached to a crow sitting silent on a tree, which is curiously in -contradistinction to the Roman belief--Saepe sinistra cavā praedixit -ab ilice cornix. It was also considered very unlucky if a member of -the gang had his turban knocked off by accidentally touching a branch. - -The jungle tribes have a strong belief in such omens. The Korwas of -Mirzapur abandon a journey if a jackal cross the road from the left, -or if a little bird, known as the Suiya or small parrot, calls in the -same direction. The Patāris and Majhwārs return if the Nīlgāź cross -the road from the right. - -All natives have more or less the same feeling, and scientific -treatises have been written on the subject. Mentioning a monkey in -the morning brings starvation for the rest of the day; though looking -on its face is considered lucky. Hence monkeys are commonly tied in -stables to protect horses, and an old adage says that "the evil of the -stable is on the monkey's head." So, in Morocco the wealthy Moors keep -a wild boar in their stables, in order that the Jinn and evil spirits -may be diverted from the horses and enter into the boar. [135] For the -same reason an English groom is fond of keeping a cat near his horses. - -If a dog flaps its ears and shakes its head while any business is -going on, disaster is sure to follow, and people careful in such -matters will stop the work if they can. The baying of a dog indicates -death and misfortune, an idea common in British folk-lore. [136] - - - The time when screech-owls cry and lean dogs howl, - And spirits walk and ghosts break up their graves. - - -Even the little house lizard is, like his kinsfolk, the "murdering -basilisks, their softest touch as smart as lizard's stings," considered -by the Bengālis very unlucky, and when they hear its twittering they -postpone a journey. [137] - -The hare is always a bad omen. He is a god among the Kalmucs, who -call him Sakya Muni, or the Buddha, and say that on earth he allowed -himself to be eaten by a starving man, for which gracious act he was -raised to domineer over the moon, where they profess to see him. There -are traces of the same idea in Upper India. [138] The sites of many -cities are said to have been founded where a hare crossed the path -of the first settler. The hare is detested by the agricultural and -fishing population of the Hebrides, and it is one of the ordinary -disguises of the witch in European folk-lore. [139] - -Black is, of course, unlucky, and if a man, when digging the -foundations of a new house, turns up a piece of charcoal, it is -advisable to change the site. - -Owls are naturally of evil omen. Even the stout-hearted Zālim Sinh, -the famous regent of Kota, abandoned his house because an owl hooted -on the roof. [140] The hooting of the owl is a sign that the bird -means to leave the place, and wise people would do well to follow his -example. One kind of owl, the Raghui Chiraiya, learns people's names, -and if any one by chance answer his call he is sure to die. - -To see a Dhobi, or washerman, who is associated with foul raiment, -is exceedingly dangerous. I once had a bearer who was sadly afflicted -because on tour he had to sleep in the same tent with a Dhobi. The -old man was constantly bruising his shins over the ropes and pegs, -because he was in the habit of stumbling out before dawn with his -hands pressed over his eyes to protect himself from the sight of his -ill-omened companion. - -A one-eyed man is, as we have already said, very unlucky. When Jaswant -Rāo Holkar lost one of his eyes, he said, "I was before bad enough; -but now I shall be the Guru, or preceptor, of rogues." [141] I once -had an office clerk afflicted in this way, and his colleagues refused -to sit in the same room with him, because their accounts always went -wrong when he looked in their direction. When it was impossible to -provide any other accommodation for him, they insisted that he should -cover the obnoxious organ with a handkerchief when he had to work in -their neighbourhood. - -One of the last of the Anglo-Indians, who had become thoroughly -orientalized, used to insist on his valet, when he came to wake him, -holding in his hand a tray containing some milk and a gold coin, -so that his first glance on waking might fall on these lucky articles. - - - -Numbers. - -There are mystic qualities attached to numbers. Thus, when Hindus -have removed the ashes from a burning ground they write the figures -49 on the spot where the corpse was cremated. The Pandits explain -this by saying that when written in Hindi the figures resemble the -conch-shell and wheel of Vishnu, or that it is an invocation to the -forty-nine winds of heaven to come and purify the ground. It is more -probably based on the idea that the number seven, as is the case all -over the world, has some mystic application. So in the folk-tales -the number three has a special application to the tests of the hero -who endures the assaults of demons or witches for three successive -nights. The idea of luck in odd numbers is universal, and the seventh -son of a seventh son is gifted with powers of healing. - - - -Bodily Functions. - -The functions of the body supply many omens. Thus, in Somadeva we read: -"My right eye throbbed frequently, as if with joy, and told me that -it was none other than she." [142] - -"When our cheek burns, or ear tingles, we usually say some one is -talking of us," writes Sir Thomas Brown, "a conceit of great antiquity, -and ranked among superstitious opinions by Pliny. He supposes it to -have proceeded from the notion of a signifying Genius, or Universal -Mercury, that conducted sounds to their distant subjects, and taught -to hear by touch." The number of beliefs of this class is infinite -and recorded in numerous popular handbooks. - - - -Lucky and Unlucky Days. - -So, there are days which are lucky and unlucky. A Persian couplet -lays down that one should not go east on Saturday and Monday; -west on Friday and Sunday; north on Tuesday and Wednesday; south -on Thursday. Even Lord Burghley advised his son to be cautious as -regards the first Monday in April, when Cain was born and Abel slain; -the second Monday in August, when Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed; -the last Monday in December, which was the birthday of Judas. Akbar -laid down that the clothes which came into his wardrobe on the first -day of the month Farwardīn were unlucky. [143] The way some people get -over omens of this kind is to send some article ahead of the traveller -on the unlucky day, which absorbs the ill omen, which would otherwise -have fallen upon him. - -The catalogue of superstitions of this class might be almost -indefinitely extended. The principles on which most of them depend are -clear enough. They rest on a sort of sympathetic magic. Things which -are good-looking, people who are healthy or prosperous, give favourable -omens, while those that are ugly, or of low caste, or associated with -menial or unpleasant duties, and so on, are ominous. Europeans in -India usually quite fail to realize the influence which such ideas -exercise over the minds of the people. Most of us have been struck -by the almost unaccountable failure of natives to attend a summons -from the Courts, to keep an appointment to meet a European officer -for the inspection of a school or market. If inquiries are made it -will often be found that some idea of this kind explains the matter. - -Thus, Colonel Tod describes how he had a visit from Mānik Chand. "He -looked very disconsolate and explained that he had seven times left -his tent and as often turned back, the bird of omen having each time -passed him on the adverse side; but that at length he had determined -to disregard it, as having forfeited confidence he was indifferent -to the future." [144] - -The same idea of good or evil omen attaches to many places and -persons. "Nolai was built by Rāja Nol. Its modern appellation of -Barnagar has its origin in a strange, vulgar superstition of names of -ill omen, which must not be pronounced before the morning meal. The -city is called either Nolai or Barnagar, according to the hour at -which the mention becomes necessary." [145] So with the town of Jammu -in Kashmīr, which is unlucky from its association with Yama, the god of -death; with Talwāra in the Hoshyārpur District, which is connected with -the sword (talwār); with Rohtak, which should be called Rustajgarh, -and with numerous other places in Northern India. Thus, if people want -to speak of Bulandshahr in the morning they call it by the old Hindi -name of Unchgānw; Bhongānw in Mainpuri they call Pachkosa; Nānauta in -Sahāranpur, Phūtashahr; Mandwa in Fatehpur, Rotiwāla, and so on. [146] - -So, there is hardly a village in which it is not considered ominous -to name before breakfast some one who, from his misery, rascality, -or some other reason, is considered unlucky. In Mathura there is a -tank built by Rāja Patni Mall. - -"Should a stranger visit it in the morning and inquire of any Hindu -by whom it was constructed, he will have considerable difficulty in -eliciting a straightforward answer. The Rāja, it is said, was of such -a delicate constitution that he could never at any time take more than -a few morsels of the simplest food; hence arises the belief that any -one who mentions him the first thing in the morning will, like him, -have to pass the day fasting." [147] When we wonder at people suffering -bondage of this kind, we must not forget that similar beliefs prevail -in our own country. "In Buckie there are certain family names which -no fisherman will pronounce. The ban lies particularly heavy on -Ross. Coull also bears it, but not to such a degree. The folks of -that village talk of spitting out the bad name." [148] - -A similar euphemistic form of expression is often used in regard to -animals. If you are civil and do not abuse the house rats, they will -not damage your goods. [149] - -The Mirzapur Patāris when they have to mention a monkey in the morning, -call him Hanumān, and the bear Jatari, or "he with the long hair," -or Dīmkhauiya, "he that eats white ants." The Pankas call the camel -Lambghīncha or "long-necked." "I asked the Rāja," says Gen. Sleeman, -"whether we were likely to fall in with any hares, making use of -the term Khargosh, or 'ass-eared.'" "Certainly not," said the Rāja, -"if you begin by abusing them by such a name. Call them Lambkanna or -'long-eared,' and you will get plenty." - -It is, of course, easy to avoid the effect of evil omens by the use -of a little tact and wit, as was the case with William the Conqueror, -and there are many natives who are noted for their cleverness in this -way. Of an Eastern Sultān it is told that, leaving his palace on a -warlike expedition, his standard touched a cluster of lamps, called -Surayya, because they resembled the Pleiades. He would have turned -back, but one of his officers said, "My Lord! our standard has reached -the Pleiades;" so he was relieved, advanced, and was victorious. - - - -Facilitating Departure of and Barring the Ghost. - -We now come to consider the various means adopted to facilitate the -journey of the departing soul, and to prevent it from returning as -a malignant ghost to bring trouble, disease, or death on the survivors. - -First comes the custom of placing the dying man on the ground at the -moment of dissolution. This is done partly, as we have seen, through -some feeling of the sanctity of Mother earth and that anyone resting -on her bosom is safe from demoniacal agency, and partly that the spirit -may meet with no obstruction in its passage through the air. This last -idea prevails very generally. Thus, in Great Britain, death is believed -to be retarded and the dying person kept in a state of suffering by -having any lock closed or any bolt shut in the dwelling. [150] - -The tortures which the soul undergoes in its journey to the land of -the dead are vividly pictured in some of the sacred writings. [151] -He is scorched by heat and pierced by wind and cold, attacked by -beasts of prey, stumbling through thorns and filth, until he at -last reaches the dread river Vaitaranī, which rolls its flood of -abominations between him and the other shore. So, when a Hindu dies, -a lamp made of flour is placed in his hands to light his ghost to -the realm of Yama. Devout people believe that the spirit takes three -hundred and sixty days to accomplish the journey, so an offering of -that number of lamps is made. In order, also, to help him on his way, -they feed a Brāhman every day for a year; if the deceased was a woman, -a Brāhmanī is fed. The lamps are lighted facing the south, and this -is the only occasion on which this is done, because the south is -the realm of death, and no one will sleep or have their house door -opening towards that ill-omened quarter of the sky. - -With the same intention of aiding the spirit on his way, the relations -howl during the funeral rites, like the keeners at an Irish wake, -in order to scare the evil spirits who would obstruct the passage of -the soul to its final rest. [152] - -Another plan is to carry out the corpse by a special way, which is then -barred up, so that it may not be able to find its way back. The same -end is attained by carrying out the corpse feet foremost. Thus Marco -Polo writes: "Sometimes their sorcerers shall tell them that it is not -good luck to carry the corpse out by the door, so they have to break a -hole in the wall, and to draw it out that way when it is taken to the -burning." It is needless to say that the same custom prevails in Great -Britain. [153] The Banjāras of Khāndesh reverse the process. They move -their huts after a death, and make a special entrance instead of the -ordinary door, which is supposed to be polluted by the passage of the -spirit of the dead. [154] A somewhat similar custom prevails among the -Maghs of Bengal. When the friends return from the cremation ground, -if it is the master of the house who has died, the ladder leading -up to the house is thrown down, and they must effect an entrance -by cutting a hole in the back wall and so creeping up. [155] The -theory appears to be that the evil spirits who were on the watch -for the ghost may be lurking near the route by which the corpse was -removed. We have the same idea in the European custom of saluting a -corpse which is being carried past. Grose distinctly states that the -homage was really offered to the attendant evil spirits. [156] So, -the Birhors of Bengal, on the sixth day after birth, take the child -out of the house by an opening made in the wall, so as to evade the -evil spirit on the watch at the door. [157] - -The most elaborate precautions are, however, devoted to barring out the -ghost and preventing its return to its former home. The first of these -consist of rules to prevent the breach of the curiosity taboo. All -through folk-lore we have instances of the danger of looking back, -as in the case of Lot's wife. One of the maxims of Pythagoras was: -"On setting out on a journey, do not return back; for if you do -the fairies will catch you." [158] In one of the Kashmīr tales the -youth is warned not to look back, otherwise he would be changed into -a pillar of stone. [159] In one of the Italian spells the officiant -is told: "Spit behind you thrice and look not behind you." [160] In -an Indian tale the god promises to help the Brāhman and to follow -him. The Brāhman looks back and the deity becomes a stone. [161] -The danger of looking back is that the person's soul may be detained -among the ghosts of the dead. This is the reason why Hindu mourners -do not look back when they are returning from the cremation ground, -and so we find that in Naxos it is a rule that none of the women who -follow the bier must look back, for if she do she will die on the spot, -or else one of her relations will die. [162] - -Another means is to bar the return of the ghost in a physical -way. Thus, when the Aheriyas of the North-Western Provinces burn the -corpse, they fling pebbles in the direction of the pyre to prevent the -spirit accompanying them. In the Himālayas, when a man has attended the -funeral ceremonies of a relative, he takes a piece of the shroud worn -by the deceased and hangs it on some tree in the cremation ground, -as an offering to the spirits which frequent such places. On his -return, he places a thorny bush on the road wherever it is crossed -by another path, and the nearest male relative of the deceased, on -seeing this, puts a stone on it, and pressing it down with his feet, -prays the spirit of the dead man not to trouble him. [163] Among -the Bengal Limbus, the Phedangma attends the funeral, and delivers a -brief address to the departed spirit on the general doom of mankind -and the succession of life and death, concluding with the command to -go where his fathers have gone, and not to come back to trouble the -living with dreams. [164] - -Practically the same custom still prevails in Ireland. When a corpse -is carried to the grave, it is the rule for the bearers to stop -half-way while the nearest relatives build up a small monument of -loose stones, and no hand would dare to disturb this monument while -the world lasts. [165] - -In the case of the Dhāngars and Basors, both menial tribes in the -North-Western Provinces, we come across an usage which appears to -be of a very primitive type and to be intended to secure the same -object of barring the return of the ghost. After they have buried -the corpse they return to the house of the dead man, kill a hog, and -after separating the limbs, which are cooked for the funeral feast, -they bury the trunk in the courtyard of the house, making an invocation -to it as the representative of the dead man, and ordering him to rest -there in peace and not worry his descendants. In the grave in which -they bury this they pile stones and thorns to keep the ghost down. - -Many other mourning customs appear to be based on the same -principle. Thus, the old ritual directs that all who return from a -funeral must touch the Lingam, fire, cowdung, a grain of barley, a -grain of sesame and water--"all," as Professor De Gubernatis says, -"symbols of that fecundity which the contact with a corpse might -have destroyed." [166] The real motive is doubtless to get rid of -the ghost, which may have accompanied the mourners from the cremation -ground. In Borneo rice is sprinkled over them with the same object, -and the Basutos who have carried a corpse to the grave have their -hands scratched with a knife and magic stuff is rubbed into the wound -to remove the ghost which may be adhering to them. [167] - -In Upper India, among the lower Hindu castes, when the mourners return -after the ceremony, they bathe, water being a scarer of ghosts, -and at the house door they touch a stone, cowdung, iron, fire, and -water, which have been placed outside the house in readiness when -the corpse was removed. They then touch each their left ears with -the little finger of the left hand, chew leaves of the bitter Nīm -tree as a sign of mourning, and, after sitting some time in silence, -disperse. Others, as the Ghasiyas, pass their feet through the smoke -of burning oil, and others merely rub their feet with oil to drive -away the ghost. The same idea of barring the return of the ghost by -means of fire is found among the Nats of Kāthiāwār, who burn hay on -the face of the corpse before cremating it, and among the Thoris, -who brand the great toe of the right foot of the deceased. [168] - -This sitting in silence after the funeral is commonly explained merely -as a mark of sympathy for the bereaved relatives, but an analogous -custom in Ireland leads to the inference that the real reason may be -to give the ghost time to depart, and not to interrupt in any way its -progress to the spirit land. On the west coast of Ireland, after the -death no wail is allowed to be raised until three hours have elapsed, -because the sound of the crying would hinder the soul from speaking -to God when it stands before Him, and would waken up the great dogs -that are watching for the souls of the dead to devour them. [169] - -We have in these rites and in the ordinary ritual some further -illustrations of the protective influence of various articles which -scare evil spirits. Thus, after the cremation the officiating Brāhman -touches fire and bathes in order to purify himself and bar the return -of the ghost; and the relative who lights the funeral pyre keeps a -piece of iron with him, and goes about with a brass drinking vessel -in his hand as a preservative against evil spirits while the period -of mourning lasts. The system of protection is exactly the same -as in the case of the young mother and her child during the period -of impurity consequent on parturition. As the Hedley Kow, the North -British goblin, is peculiarly obnoxious at childbirth, so the Rākshasī -of Indian folk-lore carries off the baby if the suitable precautions -to repel her are neglected. [170] - -Another method of barring the ghost is to bury the dead face -downwards. This is common among sweepers of Upper India, whose ghosts, -as seen in the probable connection of the Chūhra and the Churel, -are always malignant. The same custom prevails among the Chāran -Banjāras of Khāndesh. With this may be contrasted the Irish custom -of loosening the nails of the coffin before interment, in order to -facilitate the passage of the soul to heaven. [171] - -A more elaborate ritual is that performed by the Mangars of -Bengal. "One of the maternal relatives of the deceased, usually the -maternal uncle, is chosen to act as priest for the occasion, and to -conduct the ritual for the propitiation of the dead. First of all he -puts in the mouth of the corpse some silver coins and some coral, -which is much prized by the Himālayan races. Then he lights a wick -soaked in clarified butter, touches the lips with fire, scatters -some parched rice about the mouth, and, lastly, covers the face with -a cloth. Two bits of wood about three feet long are set up on either -side of the grave. In the one are cut nine steps or notches, forming -a ladder for the spirit of the dead to ascend to heaven; on the other -every one present at the funeral cuts a notch to show that he has -been there. As the maternal uncle steps out of the grave, he bids a -solemn farewell to the dead and calls upon him to ascend to heaven -by the ladder prepared for him. When the earth has been filled in, -the stick notched by the funeral party is taken away to a distance -and broken in two pieces, lest by its means the dead man should do -the survivors a mischief. The pole used to carry the corpse is also -broken up, and the spades and ropes are left in the grave." [172] - -Among other devices to bar the return of the spirit may be noted the -custom after a death in the family of preparing a resting-place for -the ghost, until on the completion of the prescribed funeral rites it -is admitted to the company of the sainted dead. Thus, among high-caste -Hindus a jar of water is hung on a Pīpal tree for the refreshment of -the spirit. The lower castes practise a more elaborate ritual. When -the obsequies are completed they plant by the bank of a tank a bunch -of grass, which the chief mourners daily water until the funeral rites -are over. In Bombay Mr. Campbell writes: [173] "With a few exceptions -generally among almost all classes of Hindus, when the dead is carried -to the burning ground, on nearing the cemetery, a small stone is picked -up and applied to the eyes, chest, and feet of the deceased. This -stone is called Jivkhāda or the spirit stone, is considered as the -representative or type of the deceased, and offerings of milk and -water are given to it for ten days." Further he says: "On nearing -the burning ground a small stone is picked up, and with it the feet, -nose, and chest of the deceased are touched thrice. This stone is -called Ashma, and is considered as a type of the deceased, and to -it funeral oblations are offered for ten days. The bier is then put -down, and a ceremony called Visrānti Srāddha is performed by the chief -mourner, who comes forward and offers two balls of rice, called Bhūt -or 'spirit,' and Khechar, or 'roamer in the sky,' to the deceased. A -hole is dug and the balls are buried there, and the litter is raised -again on shoulders by four persons and carried to the cemetery." - -The same idea of barring the return of the ghost accounts for the -tombstone and cairn. British evil spirits have been secured in this -way. Mr. Henderson tells of a vicious spirit which was entombed under -a large stone for the space of ninety years and a day. Should any -luckless person sit on that stone, he would be unable to leave it -for ever. [174] In India, when a Ho or Munda dies, a very substantial -coffin is constructed and placed on faggots of brushwood. The body, -carefully washed and anointed with oil, is reverently laid in this -coffin, and all the clothes, ornaments, and agricultural implements -that the deceased was in the habit of using are placed with it, and -also any money that he had with him when he died. Then the lid of the -coffin is put on and the whole is burned. The bones are collected, -taken in procession to the houses of friends, and every place where -the deceased was in the habit of visiting. They are finally buried -under a large slab, and a megalithic monument is erected to the memory -of the dead. A quantity of rice is thrown into the grave with other -food. [175] - -This custom of parading the corpse also prevails in Ireland. - -"I believe it is the custom in most, if not all, small towns in the -south for a body to be carried, on its way to the graveyard, round -the town by the longest way to bid its last farewell to the place. If -the body be that of a murdered man, it is, if possible, carried past -the house of the murderer. In county Wicklow, if an old church lies -on the way to the grave, the body is borne round it three times." [176] - -The Korkus of Hoshangābād have a remarkable method of laying the -ghost. "Each clan has a place in which the funeral rite of every -member of that clan must be performed; and however far the Korku may -have wandered from the original centre of his tribe, he must return -there to set his father's spirit to rest, and enable it to join -its own family and ancestral ghosts. In this spot a separate stake -(munda) is set up for every one whose rites are separately performed, -and if a poor Korku performs them for several ancestors at once, he -still puts up only one stake. It stands two or two and a half feet -above the ground, planed smooth and squared at the top; on one side -is carved at the top the likeness of the sun and moon, a spider, -and a wheat ear, and below it a figure representing the principal -person in whose honour it is put up, on horseback, with weapons in -his hands. If more than one person's death is being celebrated, the -rest are carved below as subordinate figures. I could not learn that -the spirits are supposed to specially haunt this grove of stakes, -or that Korkus have any dread of going near it at night; but they -are far bolder than Hindus in this respect. When the funeral rite -is to be performed, the first thing is to cut a bamboo and take out -the pith, which is to represent the bones of the deceased, unless he -has been burnt, in which case the bones themselves will have been -preserved. A chicken is then sacrificed at the grave, and all that -night the mourners watch and dance, and sing and make merry. - -"Next day they go out very early, and cut down some perfectly -unblemished tree, either teak or Salāi, not hollow or decayed or -marked with an axe, which they cut to make the Munda stake. It is -brought home at once and fashioned by a skilful man. In the afternoon -it is carried to the place where cattle rest outside the village at -noontide, and is washed and covered with turmeric like a bridegroom, -and five chickens are sacrificed to it. It is then brought home again, -and the pith representing the bones is taken outside the village and -hung to some tree for safety during the night." (The idea, as we have -elsewhere seen, is more probably to allow the ghost an opportunity -of revisiting them.) - -"All the friends and relations have by this time assembled, and -this evening the chief funeral dinner is given. Next day, the whole -party set out for the place where the stakes of their clan are set -up, and after digging a hole and putting two copper coins in it, -and the bones of the deceased or the pith which represents them, -they put the stake in and fix it upright. Then they offer a goat -or chickens to it, which are presently eaten close by, and in the -evening the whole party returns home." [177] - -All this ritual, carried out by one of the most primitive Indian -tribes, admirably illustrates the principles which we have been -discussing. The obvious intention of the custom is to provide -a resting-place for the spirit of the dead man, so that it may no -longer be a source of danger to the survivors. - -Similar customs prevail among other aboriginal races of the Central -Provinces. In some places they burn their dead and then erect -platforms, at the corners of which they place tall, red stones. In -other places a sort of low square mound is raised over the remains -of the deceased, at the corners of which are erected wooden posts, -round which thread is wound to complete the sacred circle, and a -stone is set up in the centre. Here offerings are presented, as in -the jungle worship of their deities, of rice and other grains, fowls -or sheep. On one occasion after the establishment of the Bhonsla -or Marhāta Government in Gondwāna a cow was offered to the manes -of a Gond; but this having come to the notice of the authorities, -the relations were publicly whipped, and all were interdicted from -doing such an act again. - -To persons of more than usual reputation for sanctity offerings -continue to be presented for many years after their decease. In the -District of Bhandāra rude collections of coarse earthenware in the -form of horses may be seen, which have accumulated from year to year -on the tombs of such men. [178] The Pauariyas of Chota Nāgpur bury -their dead, except the bodies of their priests, which are carried -on a cot into the forests covered with leaves and branches and kept -there, the reason assigned being that if laid in the village cemetery -their ghosts become very troublesome. The bodies of people who die -of contagious disease are similarly disposed of, the fact of death -in this way being supposed to be the direct act of one of the deities -who govern plagues. [179] - -In a country where immediate burial or cremation is necessary and -habitual, we need not expect to meet many examples of the customs, -of which Mr. H. Spencer gives examples, [180] of placing the body -on a platform or the like in order to secure its personal comfort -and conciliate the spirit. With the object of keeping a place ready -for the spirit, some tribes are careful to preserve the body. The -Singpoo of the north-eastern frontier keep the bodies of their dead -chiefs for several years, and the Kūkis dry the dead at a slow fire, -[181] practices which among more civilized races rise to embalming, as -among the Chinese and Egyptians. The Thārus of the sub-Himālayan Tarāī -have a custom of placing the corpse on the village fetish mound during -the night after death, and then the mourning goes on. The practice is -perhaps intended as much to prevent, by the sanctity of the spot on -which it is placed, the spirit from harming the survivors, as from -any special desire to conciliate it. Among all Hindus, of course, -as far as exigencies of the rapid disposal of the remains allow, -it is habitual to treat the dead with respect; corpses are carefully -covered with red cloth, and removed reverently for burial or cremation. - -There is also among some tribes the custom of disinterring corpses -after temporary burial. Thus, the Bhotiyas of the Himālayas burn -their dead only in the month of Kārttik; those who die in the meantime -are temporarily buried and disinterred when the season for cremation -arrives. The Kathkāris, a jungle tribe in Bombay, dig up the corpse -some time after burial and hold a wake over the ghastly relics. They -appear to do this only in the case of persons dying of cholera or -small-pox, with some idea of appeasing the deity of disease. In parts -of Oudh the custom is said still to prevail among the lower castes -during epidemics, and it has recently attracted the attention of the -sanitary officers. [182] - - - -The Funeral Feast. - -The funeral feast is evidently a survival of the feast when the dead -kinsman was consumed by his relatives, who wished thus to partake -of the properties of the dead. By another theory the feasting of the -mourners is intended to resist the attempt of the ghost of the dead -man to enter their bodies, food being offensive to spirits. - - - -Mutilation a Sign of Mourning. - -Perhaps the only distinct survival of the ceremonial mutilation so -common among savages as a sign of mourning, is the shaving which is -compulsory on all the clansmen who shared in the death pollution. In -the Odyssey, at the death of Antilochus, Peisistratus says, "This is -now the only due we pay to miserable men, to cut the hair and let the -tear fall from the cheek," and at the burial rites of Patroklus "they -heaped all the corpse with their hair which they cut off and threw -thereon." The cutting of the hair is always a serious matter. "Amongst -the Maoris many spells were uttered at hair-cutting; one, for example, -was spoken to consecrate the obsidian knife with which the hair was -cut; another was pronounced to avert the thunder and lightning which -hair-cutting was believed to cause." [183] This ceremonial shaving is -also perhaps the only survival in Northern India of puberty initiation -ceremonies. In some cases the hair cut appears to be regarded as a -sacrifice. Thus between the ages of two and five the Bhīls shave the -heads of their children. The child's aunt takes the hair in her lap, -and wrapping it in her clothes, receives a cow, buffalo, or other -present from the child's parent. [184] - - - -Respect Paid to Hair. - -All over the world the hair is invested with particular sanctity -as embodying the strength of the owner, as in the Samson-Delilah -story. Vishnu, according to the old story, took two hairs, a white -and a black one, and these became Balarāma and Krishna. Many charms -are worked through hair, and if a witch gets possession of it she -can work evil to the owner. An Italian charm directs, "When you -enter any city, collect before the gate as many hairs as you will -which may lie on the road, saying to yourself that you do this to -remove your headache, and bind one of the hairs to your head." [185] -The strength of Nisus lay in his golden hair, and when it was pulled -out he was killed by Minos. It is this power of hair which possibly -accounts for its preservation as a relic of the dead in lockets and -bracelets, or, as Mr. Hartland shows, the idea at the root of these -practices is that of sacramental communion with the dead. [186] - -We have already come across instances of growing hair as a -curse. Mr. Frazer gives numerous examples of this custom among savage -races, and in the Teutonic mythology the avenger of Baldur will not -cut his hair until he has killed his enemy. - -In the folk-tales hair is a powerful deus ex machinā, human hair for -choice, but any kind will answer the purpose. It is one of the most -common incidents that the hero recognizes the heroine by a lock of -her hair which floats down the stream. [187] - -A curious instance of mutilation regarded as a charm may be quoted -from Bengal. Should a woman give birth to several stillborn children, -in succession, the popular belief is that the same child reappears on -each occasion. So, to frustrate the designs of the evil spirit that -has taken possession of the child, the nose or a portion of the ear -is cut off and the body is cast on a dunghill. - - - -Food for the Dead. - -Another means for conciliating the spirit of the dead man is to -lay up food for its use. [188] This is intended partly as provision -for the ghost in its journey to the other world. But in some cases -it would seem that there is a different basis for the custom. As we -have seen, it is dangerous to eat the food of fairy-land, and unless -food is supplied to the wandering ghost, it may be obliged to eat the -food of the lower world and hence be unable to return to the world of -men. According to the ancient Indian ritual it was recommended to put -into the hands of the dead man the reins of the animal killed in the -funeral sacrifice, or in default of an animal victim at least two cakes -of rice or flour, so that he may throw them to the dogs of Yama, which -would otherwise bar his passage, [189] and the same idea constantly -appears in the folk-tales where the hero takes some food with him which -he flings to the fierce beasts which prevent him from gaining the water -of life or whatever may have been the test imposed upon him. The use -of pulse in the funeral rites depends upon the same principle, and -in the Greek belief the dead carried vegetables with them to hell, -either to win the right of passage or as provisions for the road. - - - -Articles left with the Corpse. - -Hence too comes the practice of burning with the corpse the articles -which the dead man was in the habit of using. They rise with the -fumes of the pyre and solace him in the world of spirits. The Kos told -Colonel Dalton that the reason of this was that they were unwilling -to derive any immediate benefit by the death of a member of the -family. Hence they burn his wearing apparel and personal effects, -but they do not destroy clothes and other things which have not been -worn. For this reason, old men of the tribe, in a spirit of careful -economy, avoid wearing new clothes, so that they may not be wasted -at the funeral. [190] - -The custom of laying out food for the ghost still prevails in Ireland, -where it is a very prevalent practice during some nights after -death to leave food outside the house, a griddle cake or a dish of -potatoes. If it is gone in the morning, the spirits must have taken -it, for no human being would touch the food left for the dead, as it -might compel him to join their company. On November Eve food is laid -out in the same way. [191] - -There are numerous examples of similar practices in India. The Mhārs of -Khāndesh, when they remove a corpse, put in its mouth a Pān leaf with -a gold bead from his wife's necklace. At the grave the brother or son -of the dead man wets the end of his turban and drops a little water -on the lips of the corpse. [192] So the Greeks used to put a coin in -the dead man's mouth to enable him to pay his fare to Charon. In the -Panjāb it is a common practice to put in the mouth of the corpse the -Pancharatana or five kinds of jewels, gold, silver, copper, coral, -and pewter. The leaves of the Tulasi or sweet basil and Ganges water -are put into the mouth of a dying man, and the former into the ears and -nostrils also. They are said to be offerings to Yama, the god of death, -who on receiving them shows mercy to the soul of the deceased. The -same customs generally prevail among the Hindus of Northern India. - -Among the Buddhists of the Himālaya, Moorcroft was present at the -consecration of the food of the dead. [193] The Lāma consecrated -barley and water and poured them from a silver saucer into a brass -vessel, occasionally striking two brass cymbals together, reciting or -chanting prayers, to which from time to time an inferior Lāma uttered -responses aloud, accompanied by the rest in an undertone. This was -intended for the use of the souls in hell, who would starve were it -not provided. The music and singing, if we may apply the analogy of -Indian practices, are intended to scare the vagrant ghosts, who would -otherwise consume or defile the food. - -The same is the case among the Drāvidian races. Thus, the Bhuiyārs -of Mirzapur after the funeral feast throw a cupful of oil and some -food into the water hole in which the ashes of the dead man are -deposited. They say that he will never be hungry or want oil to anoint -himself after bathing. The Korwas, when burning a corpse, place with -it the ornaments and clothes of the deceased, and an axe, which they -do not break, as is the habit of many other savages. They say that -the spirit of the dead man will want it to hack his way through the -jungles of the lower world. When the Bhuiyārs cremate a corpse they -throw near the spot an axe, if the deceased was a man, and a Khurpi -or weeding spud, if a woman. No one would dare to appropriate such -things, as he would be forced to join the ghastly company of their -owners. Where the corpse is burned they leave a platter made of leaves -containing a little boiled rice, and they sprinkle on the ground all -the ordinary kinds of grain and some turmeric and salt as food for -the dead in the next world. - -All these tribes and many low-caste Hindus in Northern India lay -out platters of food under the eaves of the house during the period -of mourning, and they ascertain by peculiar marks which they examine -next day whether the spirit has partaken of the food or not. Among the -jungle tribes there is a rule that the food for the dead is prepared, -not by the house-mother, but by the senior daughter-in-law, and even -if incapacitated by illness from performing this duty, she is bound -at least to commence the work by cooking one or two cakes, the rest -being prepared by one of the junior women of the family. - -Among the more Hinduized Majhwārs and Patāris we reach the stage where -the clothes, implements of the deceased, and some food are given to -the Patāri priest, who, by vicariously consuming them, lays up a store -for the use of the dead man in the other world. This is the principle -on which food and other articles are given to the Mahābrāhman or -ordinary Hindu funeral priest at the close of the period of mourning. - -Among the Bengal tribes, the Māl Pahariyas pour the blood of goats -and fowls on their ancestral memorial pillars that the souls may not -hunger in the world of the dead. Among the Bhūmij, at the funeral -ceremony, an outsider, who is often a Laiya or priest, comes forward -to personate the deceased, by whose name he is addressed, and asked -what he wants to eat. Acting thus as the dead man's proxy, he mentions -various articles of food, which are placed before him. After making a -regular meal, he goes away, and the spirit of the deceased is believed -to go with him. So among the Kolis of the Konkan, the dead man's soul -is brought back into one of the mourners. Among the Vārlis of Thāna, -on the twelfth day after death, a dinner is given to the nearest -relations, and during the night the spirit of the dead enters into -one of the relations, who entertains the rest with the story of some -event in the dead man's life. Among the Santāls, one of the mourners -drums by the ashes of the dead, and the spirit enters the body, when -the mourner shaves, bathes, eats a cock, and drinks some liquor. [194] - -Among the Bengal Chakmas, a bamboo post or other portion of a dead -man's house is burned with him, probably in order to provide him with -shelter in the next world. Among the Kāmis, before they can partake -of the funeral feast, a small portion of every dish must be placed -in a leaf plate and taken out into the jungle for the spirit of the -dead man, and carefully watched until a fly or other insect settles -upon it. The watcher then covers up the plate with a slab of stone, -eats his own food, and returns to tell the relatives that the spirit -has received the offering prepared for him. - - - -The Fly as a Life Index. - -The fly here represents the spirit, an idea very common in folk-lore, -where an insect often appears as the Life Index. An English lady has -been known in India to stop playing lawn-tennis because a butterfly -settled in the court. In Cornwall wandering spirits take the form -of moths, ants, and weasels. [195] We have the same idea in Titus -Andronicus, when Marcus, having been rebuked for killing a fly, -gives as his reason,-- - - - "It was a black, ill-favoured fly, - Like to the empress Moor; therefore I kill'd him." - - -A fly is the guardian spirit of St. Michael's well in Banff. [196] - - - -Recalling the Ghost. - -But while it is expedient by some or other of these devices to bar or -lay the ghost, or prevent its return by providing for its journey to, -and accommodation in the next world, some tribes have a custom of -making arrangements to bring back the soul of the deceased to the -family abode, where he is worshipped as a household spirit. Some of -the Central Indian tribes catch the spirit re-embodied in a fowl or -fish, some bring it home in a pot of water or flour. [197] Among the -Tipperas of Bengal, when a man dies in a strange village separated from -his home by the river, they stretch a white string from bank to bank -along which the spirit is believed to return. [198] This illustrates -an idea common to all folk-lore that the ghost cannot cross running -water without material assistance. Among the Hos on the evening -of the cremation day certain preparations are made in anticipation -of a visit from the ghost. Some boiled rice is laid apart for it, -and ashes are sprinkled on the floor, in order that, should it come, -its footsteps may be detected. On returning they carefully scrutinize -the ashes and the rice, and if there is the faintest indication of -these having been disturbed, it is attributed to the action of the -spirit, and they sit down shivering with horror and crying bitterly, -as if they were by no means pleased with the visit, though it be made -at their earnest solicitation. [199] - - - -Ashes. - -This use of ashes as a means of identifying the ghost, constitutes -in itself quite an important chapter in folk-lore. It reminds us -of the Apocryphal legend of Bel and the Dragon. The idea probably -originally arose from the respect paid to the ashes of the house -fire by primitive races, among whom the hearth and the kitchen are -the home of the household godlings. - -There are numerous instances of this practice from Europe. In the -Western Islands of Scotland on Candlemas Day the mistress takes a -sheaf of oats, dresses it in woman's apparel, and after putting it in a -large basket beside which a wooden club is placed, cries three times, -"Briid is come! Briid is welcome!" Next morning they look for the -impression of Briid's club in the ashes, which is an omen of a good -harvest. [200] Ash-riddling is a custom in the northern counties. The -ashes being riddled or sifted on the hearth, if any one of the family -be to die within the year, the mark of a shoe will be impressed -upon the ashes. [201] In Wales they make a bonfire, and when it is -extinguished each one throws a white stone into the ashes. In the -morning they search out the stones, and if any one is found wanting, -he that threw it will die within the year. [202] In Manxland the -ashes are carefully swept to the open hearth and nicely flattened -down by the women before they go to bed. In the morning they look for -footmarks on the hearth, and if they find such footmarks directed to -the door, it means in the course of the year a death in the family, -and if the reverse, they expect an addition to it by marriage. [203] -According to one of the Italian charms, "And they were accustomed to -divine sometimes with the ashes from the sacrifices. And to this day -there is a trace of it, when that which is to be divined is written -on the ashes with the finger or with the stick. Then the ashes are -stirred by the fresh breeze, and one looks for the letters which they -form by being moved." [204] - -Amongst some Hindus, on the tenth night after the death of a person, -he who fired the funeral pyre is required to sift some ashes, near -which a lamp is placed, and the whole covered with a basket. Next -morning the ashes are examined, and the ghost is supposed to have -migrated into the animal whose mark appears on the ashes. [205] So, -at the annual feast of the dead, the jungle tribes of Mirzapur spread -ashes on the floor, and a mark generally like that of a chicken's foot -shows that the family ghosts have visited the house. "On New Year's -Eve," says Aubrey, "sift or smooth the ashes and leave it so when you -go to bed; next morning look, and if you find there the likeness of a -coffin, one will die; if a ring, one will be married." [206] In North -Scotland, on the night after the funeral, bread and water are placed -in the apartment where the body lay. The dead man was believed to -return that night and partake of the food; unless this were done the -spirits could not rest in the unseen world. This probably accounts -for the so-called "food vases" and "drinking cups" found in the long -barrows. [207] All Hindus believe that the ghosts of the dead return -on the night of the Diwālī or feast of lamps. - - - -Replacing Household Vessels. - -After a death all the household earthen pots are broken and -replaced. It has been suggested that this is due either to the -belief that the ghost of the dead man is in some of them, or that the -custom may have some connection with the idea of providing the ghost -with utensils in the next world. [208] In popular belief, however, -the custom is explained by the death pollution attaching to all the -family cooking vessels, which, if of metal, are purified with fire. The -vessel is the home of the spirit: "At most Hindu funerals a water jar -is carried round the pyre, and then dashed to the ground, apparently to -show that the spirit has left its earthly home. So, the Surat Chondras -set up as spirit homes large whitewashed earthen jars laid on their -sides. So, to please any spirit likely to injure a crop, an earthen -jar is set on a pole as the spirit's house, and so at a wedding or -other ceremonies, jars, sometimes empty, sometimes filled with water, -are piled as homes for planets and other marriage gods and goddesses, -that they may feel pleased and their influence be friendly." [209] - -We have already met with the Kalasa or sacred jar. The same idea -of the pollution of earthen vessels prevailed among the Hebrews, -when an earthen vessel remaining in a tent in which a person died -was considered impure for seven days. [210] - - - -Funeral Rites in Effigy. - -When a person dies at a distance from home, and it is impossible -to perform the funeral rites over the body, it is cremated in -effigy. The special term for this is Kusa-putra, or "son of the Kusa -grass." Colonel Tod gives a case of this when Rāja Ummeda of Būndi -abdicated: "An image of the prince was made, and a pyre was erected on -which it was consumed. The hair and whiskers of Ajīt, his successor, -were taken off and offered to the Manes; lamentations and wailing were -heard in the Queen's apartments, and the twelve days of mourning were -held as if Ummeda had really deceased; on the expiration of which -the installation of his successor took place." [211] - - - -Ghosts Lengthening Themselves. - -Ghosts, as we have already seen in the case of the Naugaza, have -the power of changing their length. In the well-known tale in the -Arabian Nights the demon is shut up in a jar under the seal of the -Lord Solomon, as in one of the German tales the Devil is shut up in -a crevice in a pine tree, and the ghost of Major Weir of Edinburgh -resided in his walking-stick. [212] Some of the Indian ghosts, like the -Ifrīt of the Arabian Nights, can grow to the length of ten yojanas or -eighty miles. In one of the Bengal tales a ghost is identified because -she can stretch out her hands several yards for a vessel. [213] Some -ghosts possess the very dangerous power of entering human corpses, -like the Vetāla, and swelling to an enormous size. The Kharwārs of -Mirzapur have a wild legend, which tells how long ago an unmarried -girl of the tribe died, and was being cremated. While the relations -were collecting wood for the pyre, a ghost entered the corpse, but -the friends managed to expel him. Since then great care is taken not -to leave the bodies of women unwatched. So, in the Panjāb, when a -great person is cremated the bones and ashes are carefully watched -till the fourth day, to prevent a magician interfering with them. If -he has a chance, he can restore the deceased to life, and ever after -retain him under his influence. This is the origin of the custom in -Great Britain of waking the dead, a practice which "most probably -originated from a silly superstition as to the danger of a corpse -being carried off by some of the agents of the invisible world, or -exposed to the ominous liberties of brute animals." [214] But in India -it is considered the best course, if the corpse cannot be immediately -disposed of, to measure it carefully, and then no malignant Bhūt can -occupy it. We have already met with instances of a similar idea of -the mystic effect supposed to follow on measuring or weighing grain. - - - -Kindly Ghosts. - -Most of the ghosts whom we have been as yet considering are -malignant. There are, however, others which are friendly. Such -are the German Elves, the Robin Goodfellow, Puck, Brownie and the -Cauld Lad of Hilton of England, the Glashan of the Isle of Man, -the Phouka or Leprehaun of Ireland. Such, in one of his many forms, -is the Brahmadaitya, or ghost of a Brāhman who has died unmarried. In -Bengal he is believed to be more neat and less mischievous than other -ghosts; the Bhūts carry him in a palanquin, he wears wooden sandals, -lives in a Banyan or Bel tree, and Sankhachūrnī is his mistress. He -appears to be about the only respectable bachelor ghost. In one of the -folk-tales a ghostly reaper of this class assists his human friend, -and can cut as much of the crop in a minute as an ordinary person -can in a day. [215] So, the Manx Brownie is called the Fenodyree, -and he is described as a hairy, clumsy fellow who would thresh a whole -barnful of corn in a single night for the people to whom he felt well -disposed. [216] This Brahmadaitya is the leader of the other ghosts -in virtue of his respectable origin; he lives in a tree, and, unlike -other varieties of Bhūts, does not eat all kinds of food, but only -such as are considered ceremonially pure. He never, like common Bhūts, -frightens men, but is harmless and quiet, never plaguing benighted -travellers, nor entering into the bodies of living men or women, -but if his dignity be insulted, or any one trespass on his domains, -he wrings their necks. - - - -Tree Ghosts. - -Hence in regard to trees great caution is required. A Hindu will -never climb one of the varieties of fig, the Ficus Cordifolia, except -through dire necessity, and if a Brāhman is forced to ascend the -Bel tree or Aegle Marmelos for the purpose of obtaining the sacred -trefoil so largely used in Saiva worship, he only does so after -offering prayers to the gods in general, and to the Brahmadaitya in -particular who may have taken up his abode in this special tree. - -These tree ghosts are, it is needless to say, very numerous. Hence -most local shrines are constructed under trees, and in one particular -tree, the Bīra, the jungle tribes of Mirzapur locate Bāgheswar, the -tiger godling, one of their most dreaded deities. In the Konkan, -according to Mr. Campbell, [217] the medium or Bhagat who becomes -possessed is called Jhād, or "tree," apparently because he is a -favourite dwelling-place for spirits. In the Dakkhin it is believed -that the spirit of the pregnant woman or Churel lives in a tree, and -the Abors and Padams of East Bengal believe that spirits in trees -kidnap children. [218] Many of these tree spirits appear in the -folk-tales. Thus, Devadatta worships a tree which one day suddenly -clave in two and a nymph appeared who introduced him inside the tree, -where was a heavenly palace of jewels, in which, reclining on a couch, -appeared Vidyatprabhā, the maiden daughter of the king of the Yakshas; -in another story the mendicant hears inside a tree the Yaksha joking -with his wife. [219] So Daphne is turned into a tree to avoid the -pursuit of her lover. - - - -The Brahmaparusha. - -But there is another variety of Brāhman ghost who is much dreaded. This -is the Brahmaparusha or Brahma Rākshasa. In one of the folk-tales he -appears black as soot, with hair yellow as the lightning, looking -like a thunder-cloud. He had made himself a wreath of entrails; -he wore a sacrificial cord of hair; he was gnawing the flesh of a -man's head and drinking blood out of a skull. In another story these -Brahma Rākshasas have formidable tusks, flaming hair, and insatiable -hunger. They wander about the forests catching animals and eating -them. [220] Mr. Campbell tells a Marhāta legend of a master who became -a Brahmaparusha in order to teach grammar to a pupil. He haunted a -house at Benares, and the pupil went to take lessons from him. He -promised to teach him the whole science in a year on condition that -he never left the house. One day the boy went out and learned that -the house was haunted, and that he was being taught by a ghost. The -boy returned and was ordered by the preceptor to take his bones to -Gaya, and perform the necessary ceremonies for the emancipation of -his soul. This he did, and the uneasy spirit of the learned man was -laid. [221] We have already encountered similar angry Brāhman ghosts, -such as Harshu Pānrź and Mahenī. - - - -The Jāk and Jāknī. - -The really friendly agricultural sprites are the pair known in some -places as the Jāk and Jāknī, and in others as Chordeva and Chordevī, -the "thief godlings." With the Jāk we come on another of these curious -survivals from the early mythology in a sadly degraded form. As -Varuna, the god of the firmament, has been reduced in these later -days to Barun, a petty weather godling, so the Jāk is the modern -representative of the Yaksha, who in better times was the attendant -of Kuvera, the god of wealth, in which duty he was assisted by the -Guhyaka. The character of the Yaksha is not very certain. He was -called Punya-janas, "the good people," but he sometimes appears as -an imp of evil. In the folk-tales, it must be admitted, the Yakshas -have an equivocal reputation. In one story the female, or Yakshinī, -bewilders travellers at night, makes horns grow on their foreheads, -and finally devours them; in another the Yakshas have, like the Churel, -feet turned the wrong way and squinting eyes; in a third they separate -the hero from the heroine because he failed to make due offerings -to them on his wedding day. On the other hand, in a fourth tale the -Yakshinī is described as possessed of heavenly beauty; she appears -again when a sacrifice is made in a cemetery to get her into the hero's -power, as a heavenly maiden beautifully adorned, seated in a chariot -of gold surrounded by lovely girls; and lastly, a Brāhman meets some -Buddhist ascetics, performs the Uposhana vow, and would have become -a god, had it not been that a wicked man compelled him by force to -take food in the evening, and so he was re-born as a Guhyaka. [222] - -In the modern folk-lore of Kashmīr, the Yaksha has turned into the -Yech or Yach, a humorous, though powerful, sprite in the shape of -a civet cat of a dark colour, with a white cap on his head. This -small high cap is one of the marks of the Irish fairies, and the -Incubones of Italy wear caps, "the symbols of their hidden, secret -natures." The feet of the Yech are so small as to be almost invisible, -and it squeaks in a feline way. It can assume any shape, and if its -white cap can be secured, it becomes the servant of the possessor, -and the white cap makes him invisible. [223] - -In the Vishnu Purāna we read that Vishnu created the Yakshas as beings -emaciate with hunger, of hideous aspect, and with big beards, and -that from their habit of crying for food they were so named. [224] -By the Buddhists they were regarded as benignant spirits. One of -them acts as sort of chorus in the Meghadūta or "Cloud Messenger" -of Kālidāsa. Yet we read of the Yaka Alawaka, who, according to the -Buddhist legend, used to live in a Banyan tree, and slay any one who -approached it; while in Ceylon they are represented as demons whom -Buddha destroyed. [225] In later Hinduism they are generally of fair -repute, and one of them was appointed by Indra to be the attendant -of the Jaina Saint Mahāvīra. It is curious that in Gujarāt the term -Yaksha is applied to Musalmāns, and in Cutch to a much older race of -northern conquerors. [226] - -At any rate the modern Jāk and Jāknī, Chordeva and Chordevī, -are eminently respectable and kindly sprites. They are, in fact, -an obvious survival of the pair of corn spirits which inhabit the -standing crop. [227] The Jāk is compelled to live apart from the Jāknī -in neighbouring villages, but he is an uxorious husband, and robs -his own village to supply the wants of his consort. So, if you see a -comparatively barren village, which is next to one more productive, -you may be sure that the Jāk lives in the former and the Jāknī in -the latter. The same is the character of the Chor or Chordeva and -the Chornī or Chordevī of the jungle tribes of Mirzapur. - - - -Ghosts which Protect Cattle. - -In the Hills there are various benevolent ghosts or godlings who -protect cattle. Sāin, the spirit of an old ascetic, helps the Bhotiyas -to recover lost cattle, and Siddhua and Buddhua, the ghosts of two -harmless goatherds, are invoked when a goat falls ill. [228] In the -same class is Nagardeo of Garhwāl, who is represented in nearly every -village by a three-pronged pike or Trisūla on a platform. When cows -and buffaloes are first milked, the milk is offered to him. It is -perhaps possible that from some blameless godling of the cow-pen, -such as Nagardeo, the cultus of Pasupatinātha, "the lord of animals," -an epithet of Siva or Rudra, who has a stately shrine at Hardwār, -where his lingam is wreathed with cobras, was derived. Another Hill -godling of the same class is Chaumu or Baudhān, who has a shrine -in every village, which the people at the risk of offending him are -supposed to keep clean and holy. Lamps are lighted, sweetmeats and -the fruits of the earth are offered to him. When a calf dies the -milk of the mother is considered unholy till the twelfth day, when -some is offered to the deity. He also recovers lost animals, if duly -propitiated, but if neglected, he brings disease on the herd. [229] - -Another cattle godling in the Hills is Kaluva or Kalbisht, who -lived on earth some two hundred years ago. His enemies persuaded his -brother-in-law to kill him. After his death he became a benevolent -spirit, and the only people he injured were the enemies who compassed -his death. His name is now a charm against wild beasts, and people -who are oppressed resort to his shrine for justice. Except in name he -seems to have nothing to say to Kālu Kahār, who was born of a Kahār -girl, who by magical charms compelled King Solomon to marry her. His -fetish is a stick covered with peacock's feathers to which offerings -of food are made. He has more than a quarter of a million worshippers, -according to the last census, in the Meerut Division. - - - -Bugaboos. - -We close this long list of ghostly personages with those who are -merely bugaboos to frighten children. Such are Hawwa, probably a -corruption through the Prākrit of the Sanskrit Bhūta, and Humma or -Humu, who is said to be the ghost of the Emperor Humayūn, who died -by an untimely death. Akin perhaps to him are the Humanas of Kumaun, -who take the form of men, but cannot act as ordinary persons. [230] - -These sprites are to the Bengāli matron what Old Scratch and Red Nose -and Bloody Bones are to English mothers, [231] and when a Bengāli -baby is particularly naughty its mother threatens to send for Warren -Hastings. Akin to these is Ghoghar, who represents Ghuggu or the -hooting of the owl. [232] Nekī Bībī, "the good lady;" Māno or the -cat; Bhākur; Bhokaswa; and Dokarkaswa, "the old man with the bag," -who carries off naughty children, who is the Mr. Miacca of the English -nursery. [233] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP. - - - Sylvarum numina, Fauni - Et satyri fratres. - - Ovid, Metamorp. iii. 163. - - Autar ep' autō - Kyaneos elelikto drakōn, kephalai de hoi źsan - Treis hamphistrephees, henos auchenos ekpephyuiai. - - Iliad, xi. 38-40. - - -The worship of trees and serpents may be conveniently considered -together; not that there is much connection between these two classes -of belief, but because this course has been followed in Mr. Ferguson's -elaborate monograph on the subject. - -The worship of trees appears to be based on many converging lines -of thought, which it is not easy to disentangle. Mr. H. Spencer -[234] classes it as an aberrant species of ancestor worship: -"A species somewhat more disguised externally, but having the same -internal nature; and though it develops in three different directions, -still these have all one common origin. First, the toxic excitements -produced by certain plants are attributed to the agency of spirits or -demons; secondly, tribes that have come out of places characterized by -particular trees or plants, unawares change the legend of emergence -from them into the legend of descent from them; thirdly, the naming -of individuals after plants becomes a source of confusion." - -According to Dr. Tylor, [235] again, the worship depends upon man's -animistic theory of nature: "Whether such a tree is looked on as -inhabited by its own proper life and soul, or as possessed like a -fetish by some other spirit which has entered it or used it for a -body, is often hard to determine. The tree may be the spirits' perch -or shelter (as we have seen in the case of the Churel or Rākshasa), -or the sacred grove is assumed to be the spirits' resort." - -Mr. Frazer has given a very careful analysis of this branch of popular -religion. [236] He shows that to the savage in general the world is -animate and trees are no exception to the rule; he thinks they have -souls like his own and treats them accordingly; they are supposed to -feel injuries done to them; the souls of the dead sometimes animate -them; the tree is regarded sometimes as the body, sometimes as -the home of the tree spirit; trees and tree spirits give rain and -sunshine; they cause the crops to grow; the tree spirit makes the -herds to multiply and blesses women with offspring; the tree spirit -is often conceived and represented as detached from the tree and even -as embodied in living men and women. - -The basis of the cultus may then perhaps be stated as follows: There -is first the tree which is regarded as embodying or representing the -spirit which influences the fertility of crops and human beings. Hence -the respect paid to memorial trees, where the people assemble, as at -the village Pīpal, which is valued for its shade and beauty and its -long connection with the social life of the community. This would -naturally be regarded as the abode of some god and forms the village -shrine, a convenient centre for the religious worship of the local -deities, where they reside and accept the worship and offerings of -their votaries. - -It may, again, be the last survival of the primitive forest, where -the dispossessed spirits of the jungle find their final and only -resting-place. Such secluded groves form the only and perhaps the -earliest shrine of many primitive races. - -Again, an allegorical meaning would naturally be attached to various -trees. It is invested with a mystic power owing to the mysterious -waving of its leaves and branches, the result of supernatural agency; -and this would account for the weird sounds of the forest at night. - -Many trees are evergreen, and thus enjoy eternal life. Every tree is -a sort of emblem of life, reproducing itself in some uncanny fashion -with each recurring spring. - -It has some mystic connection with the three worlds-- - - - Quantum vertice ad auras - Aetherias tantum radice in Tartara tendit. - - -Like Yggdrassil, it connects the world of man with the world of -gods, and men may, like Jack of the Beanstalk, climb by its aid to -heaven. In this connection it may be noted that many Indian tribes -bury their dead in trees. The Khasiyas of East Bengal lay the body in -the hollow trunk of a tree. The Nāgas dispose of their dead in the -same way, or hang them in coffins to the branches. The Māriya Gonds -tie the corpse to a tree and burn it. The Malers lay the corpse of -a priest, whose ghost often gives trouble, under a tree and cover it -with leaves. [237] Similar customs prevail among primitive races in -many parts of the world. - -The tree embodies in itself many utilities necessary to human life, -and many qualities which menace its existence. Its wood is the source -of fire, itself a fetish. Its fruits, juices, flowers or bark are -sources of food or possess intoxicating or poisonous attributes, -which are naturally connected with demoniacal influences. Trees -often develop into curious or uncanny forms, which compel fear or -adoration. Thus according to the old ritual [238] trees which have -been struck by lightning, or knocked down by inundation, or which -have fallen in the direction of the south, or which grew on a burning -ground or consecrated site, or at the confluence of large rivers, or -by the roadside; those which have withered tops, or an entanglement of -heavy creepers upon them, or are the receptacles of many honey-combs -or birds' nests, are reckoned unfit for the fabrication of bedsteads, -as they are inauspicious and sure to bring disease and death. The -step from such beliefs to the worship of any curious and remarkable -tree is easy. - -Hence the belief that the planting of a grove is a work of religious -merit, which is so strongly felt by Hindus, and the idea that the -grove has special religious associations, shown by the marriage -of its trees to the well, and other rites of the same kind. In the -Konkan it is very generally believed that barrenness is caused by -uneasy spirits which wander about, and that if a home be made for the -spirit by planting trees, it will go and reside there and the curse -of barrenness will be removed. [239] - -Though this branch of the subject has been pushed to quite an -unreasonable length in some recent books, [240] there may be some -association of tree worship with the phallic cultus, such as is found -in the Asherah or "groves" of the Hebrews, the European Maypole, -and so on. This has been suggested as an explanation of the honour -paid by the Gypsy race in Germany to the fir tree, the birch and the -hawthorn, and of the veneration of the Welsh Gypsies to the fasciated -vegetable growth known to them as the Broado Koro. [241] In the same -way an attempt has been made to connect the Bel tree with the Saiva -worship of the Lingam and the lotus with the Yonī. But this part of -the subject has been involved in so much crude speculation that any -analogies of this kind, however tempting, must be accepted with the -utmost caution. - -Further than this, it may be reasonably suspected that this cultus -rests to some extent on a basis of totemism. Some of the evidence in -support of this view will be discussed elsewhere, but it is, on the -analogy of the various modes in which the Brāhmanical pantheon has -been recruited, not improbable that trees and plants, like the Tulasī -and the Pīpal, may have been originally tribal totems imported into -Brāhmanism from some aboriginal or other foreign source. - -On the whole it is tolerably certain that there is more in tree -worship than can be accounted for either by Mr. Ferguson's theory -that the worship sprang from a perception of the utility or beauty -of trees, or by Mr. Spencer's theory of nicknames. It is sufficient -to say that both fail to account for the worship of insignificant -and comparatively useless shrubs, weeds, or grasses. - -Tree worship holds an important part in the popular ritual and -folk-lore. This is shown by the prejudice against cutting trees. The -jungle tribes are very averse to cutting certain trees, particularly -those which are regarded as sacred. If a Kharwār, except at the -time of the annual feast, cuts his tribal tree, the Karama, he loses -wealth and life, and none of these tribes will cut the large Sāl trees -which are fixed by the Baiga as the abode of the forest godling. This -feeling prevails very strongly among the Maghs of Bengal. Nothing but -positive orders and the presence of Europeans would induce them to -trespass on many hill-tops, which they regarded as occupied by the tree -demons. With the Europeans, however, they would advance fearlessly, -and did not hesitate to fell trees, the blame of such sacrilege being -always laid on the strangers. On felling any large tree, one of the -party was always prepared with a green sprig, which he ran and placed -in the centre of the stump when the tree fell, as a propitiation to -the spirit which had been displaced so roughly, pleading at the same -time the orders of the strangers for the work. In clearing one spot -an orderly had to take the dāh or cleaver and fell the first tree -himself before a Magh would make a stroke, and was considered to bear -all the odium of the work with the disturbed spirits till the arrival -of the Europeans relieved him of the burden. [242] - -In folk-lore we have many magic trees. We have the Kalpataru or -Kalpadruma, also known as Kalpavriksha, or Manoratha dayaka, the -tree which grows in Swarga or the paradise of Indra and grants -all desires. There is, again, the Pārijāta, which was produced at -the churning of the ocean, and appropriated by Indra, from whom it -was recovered by Krishna. The tree in the Meghadūta bears clothes, -trinkets, and wine, which is like the Juniper tree of the German tale, -which grants a woman a son. Many such trees appear in the Indian -folk-tales. The King Jimutaketu had a tree in his house which came -down from his ancestors, and was known as "the giver of desires"; the -generous Induprabha craved a boon from Indra, and became a wishing -tree in his own city; and the faithful minister of Yasaketu sees a -wave rise out of the sea and then a wishing tree appears, "adorned -with boughs glittering with gold, embellished with sprays of coral, -bearing lovely fruits and flowers of jewels. And he beheld on its trunk -a maiden, alluring on account of her wonderful beauty, reclining on a -gem-bestudded couch." [243] So, in the story of Devadatta, the tree is -cloven and a heavenly nymph appears. We have trees which, like those -in the Odyssey, bear fruit and flowers at the same time, and in the -garden of the Asura maiden "the trees were ever producing flowers -and fruits, for all seasons were present there at the same time." [244] - -We have many trees, again, which are produced in miraculous ways. In -one of the modern tales the tiger collects the bones of his friend, the -cow, and from her ashes spring two bamboos, which when cut give blood, -and are found to be two boys of exquisite grace and beauty. [245] -So in Grimm's tale of "One Eye, Two Eyes, and Three Eyes," the tree -grows from the buried entrails of the goat. In another of Somadeva's -stories the heroine drops a tear on the Jambu flower and a fruit grew, -within which a maiden was produced. [246] The incident of the tree -which grows on the mother's grave and protects her helpless children -is the common property of folk-lore. Again, we have the heavenly fruit -which was given by the grateful monkey, and freed him who ate it from -old age and disease, like the tree in Aelian which makes an old man -become younger and younger until he reaches the antenatal stage of -non-existence. [247] - -We have many instances of trees which talk. The mango tree shows the -hero how the magic bird is to be cut out of it; the heroine is blessed -and aided by the plantain tree, cotton tree, and sweet basil; she is -rewarded by a plum and fig tree for services rendered to them. [248] -In one of the Kashmīr tales the tree informs the hero of the safety -of his wife. So, in Grimm's tale of the "Lucky Spinner," the tree -speaks when the man is about to cut it down. [249] - -In one of the stories, as a link between tree and serpent worship, -the great palace of the snake king is situated under a solitary -Asoka tree in the Vindhyan forest. In the same collection we meet -continually instances of tree worship. The Brāhman Somadatta worships -a great Asvattha, or fig tree, by walking round it so as to keep it -on his right, bowing and making an oblation; Mrigankadatta takes -refuge in a tree sacred to Ganesa; and Naravāhanadatta comes to -a sandal tree surrounded with a platform made of precious jewels, -up which he climbs by means of ladders and adores it. [250] - -We have a long series of legends by which certain famous trees are -supposed to have been produced from the tooth twig of some saint. The -famous hawthorn of Glastonbury was supposed to be sprung from the -staff of Joseph of Arimathea, who having fixed it in the ground on -Christmas Day, it took root immediately, put forth leaves, and the -next day was covered with milk-white blossoms. [251] Traditions of -the Dantadhāvana or tooth-brush tree of Buddha still exist at Gonda; -another at Ludhiāna is attributed to Abdul Qādir Jilāni; there is -a Buddha tree at Saketa, and the great Banyan tree at Broach was -similarly produced by Kabīr. So, the Santāls believe that good men -turn into fruit-trees. [252] - -Next come the numerous sacred groves scattered all over the -country. These, as we have seen, are very often regarded as a -survival from the primeval jungle, where the forest spirits have -taken refuge. The idea is common both to the Aryan as well as to the -Drāvidian races, from the latter of whom it was possibly derived. - -Thus, among the jungle races we find that there are many groves, -known as Sarna, in which the Cheros and Kharwārs offer triennial -sacrifices of a buffalo or other animal. The Kisāns have sacred groves, -called Sā. The Mundāri Kols keep "a fragment of the original forest, -the trees in which have been for ages carefully protected, left when -the clearance was first made, lest the sylvan gods of the place, -disgusted at the wholesale felling of the trees which protected them, -should abandon the locality. Even now if a tree is destroyed in -the sacred grove, the gods evince their displeasure by withholding -seasonable rain." This idea of the influence of cutting trees on -weather has been illustrated by Mr. Frazer from the usages of other -races. [253] So, among the Khāndhs, "that timber may never be wanting, -in case of accidents from fire or from enemies, a considerable grove, -generally of Sāl, is uniformly dedicated by every village to the -forest god, whose favour is ever and anon sought by the sacrifice of -birds, hogs, and sheep, with the usual accompaniments of rice and -an addled egg. The consecrated grove is religiously preserved, the -trees being occasionally pruned, but not a twig cut for use without -the formal consent of the village and the formal propitiation of the -god." [254] Among the Kols, in these groves the tutelary deities of -the village are supposed to sojourn when attending to the wants of -their votaries. [255] In the Central Provinces the Badiyas worship -the manes of their ancestors in a grove of Sāj trees. [256] In Berār -the wood of the Pathrot forests is believed to be dedicated to a -neighbouring temple, and no one will cut or buy it; and in other places -in the same province the sacred groves are so carefully preserved, -that during the annual festivals held in them it is the custom to -collect and burn solemnly all dead and fallen branches and trees. [257] - -Among the higher races the same feelings attach to the holy groves -of Mathura, each of which has appropriated one of the legends of the -Krishna myth. Thus, there is a particularly sacred grove at Bhadanwāra, -and it is believed that any one violating the sanctity of the place by -telling a lie within its precincts will be stricken with leprosy. In -another at Hasanpur Bara the trees are under the protection of the -curse of a Faqīr, and in many places people object to having toddy -collected from the palm trees, because it necessitates cutting their -necks. [258] In the Northern Hills the Sāl and bamboos at Barmdeo are -never cut, as they are sacred to the local Devī. [259] In Kulu, "near -the village were a number of cypresses, much decayed, and many quite -dead. Some of my people had begun to strip off their dry branches for -fuel, when one of the conductors of our caravan came to me in great -agitation, and implored me to command them to desist. The trees, he -said, were sacred to the deities of the elements, who would be sure -to revenge any injury done to them by visiting the neighbourhood with -heavy and untimely snow." [260] - -In a village in Lucknow, noticeable among the trees is a "single -mango tree, of fine growth and comely shape. It is the survivor of -some old grove, which the owner, through straitened circumstances, -has reluctantly cut down. He called it Jāk, or Sakhiya, the witness -of the place where the old grove stood." [261] Jāk is, as we have -seen, the Corn spirit. The preservation of these little patches of -the primeval jungle, with a view to conciliate the sylvan spirits of -the place, is exactly analogous to what is known in Scotland as the -"Gudeman's Croft," "Cloutie's Croft," or "Gudeman's Field." Often in -Northern India little patches are left uncultivated in the corners -of fields as a refuge for the spirits, as in North Scotland many -farmers leave a corner of the field untilled, and say it is for the -"Aul Man," or the Devil. [262] - -Some trees are, again, considered to be mystically connected with -the fortunes of people and places. Thus, the Chilbil tree at Gonda, -which, like others which have already been mentioned, sprouted from -the tooth-twig of a saint, was supposed to be mysteriously connected -with the fate of the last of the Gonda Rājas. His kingdom was to -last until the day a monkey sat on the tree, and this, it is said, -happened on the morning when the Mutiny broke out which ended in -the ruin of the dynasty. [263] In the same way the moving wood of -Dunsinane was fateful to the fortunes of Macbeth. - -We have already referred to some of the regular tree sprites, -like the Churel, Rākshasa, and Bansaptī Mā. They are, like Kliddo, -the North British sprite, small and delicate at first, but rapidly -shooting into the clouds, while everything it overshadows is thrown -into confusion. [264] - -How sprites come to inhabit trees is well shown in an instance given -from Bombay by Mr. Campbell. "In the Dakkhin, when a man is worried -by a spirit, he gives it a tree to live in. The patient, or one of -his relations, goes to a seer and brings the seer to his house, -frankincense is burnt, and the sick man's spirit comes into the -seer's body. The people ask the spirit in the seer why the man is -sick. He says, 'The ghost of the man you killed has come back, and -is troubling you.' Then they say, 'What is to be done?' The spirit -says, 'Put him in a place in his or in your land.' The people say, -'How can we put him?' The spirit says, 'Take a cock, five cocoanuts, -rice, and red lead, and fill a bamboo basket with them next Sunday -evening, and by waving the basket round the head of the patient, -take the ghost out of the patient.' When Sunday afternoon comes they -call the exorcist. If the ghost has not haunted the sick man for a -week, it is held that the man was worried by that ghost, who is now -content with the proposed arrangement. If the patient is still sick, -it is held that it cannot be that ghost, but it must be another ghost, -perhaps a god who troubles him. - -"The seer is again called, and his familiar spirit comes into -him. They set the sick man opposite him, and the seer throws rice on -the sick man, and the ghost comes into the patient's body and begins to -speak. The seer asks him, 'Are you going or not?' The ghost replies, -'I will go if you give me a cock, a fowl, a cocoanut, red lead, and -rice.' They then bring the articles and show them to the spirit. The -spirit sees the articles, and says, 'Where is the cocoanut?' or, 'Where -is the rice?' They add what he says, and ask, 'Is it right?' 'Yes, it -is right,' replies the spirit. 'If we drive you out of Bāpu, will you -come out?' ask the people. 'I will come out,' replies the ghost. The -people then say, 'Will you never come back?' 'I will never return,' -replies the ghost. 'If you ever return,' says the seer's spirit, 'I -will put you in a tanner's well, sink you, and ruin you.' 'I will,' -says the spirit, 'never come back, if you take these things to the -Pīpal tree in my field. You must never hurt the Pīpal. If you hurt -the Pīpal, I will come and worry you.' - -"Then the friends of the patient make the cooked rice in a ball, -and work a little hollow in the top of the ball. They sprinkle the -ball with red powder, and in the hollow put a piece of a plantain -leaf, and on the leaf put oil, and a wick, which they light. Then -the Gādi, or flesh-eating priest, brings the goat in front of the -sick man, sprinkles the goat's head with red powder and flowers, -and says to the spirit, 'This is for you; take it.' He then passes -three fowls three times from the head to the foot of the sick man, -and then from the head lowers all the other articles. The Gādi, -or Mhār, and some friends of the patient start for the place named -by the spirit. When the party leave, the sick man is taken into the -house and set close to the threshold. They put water on his eyes, -and filling a pot with water, throw it outside where the articles -were, and inside and outside scatter cowdung ashes, saying, 'If you -come in you will have the curse of Rāma and Lakshmana.' When the Gādi -and the party reach their destination, the Gādi tells the party to -bring a stone the size of a cocoanut. When the stone is brought, the -Gādi washes it and puts it to the root of the tree and sets about it -small stones. On the tree and on the middle stone he puts red lead, -red powder, and frankincense. The people then tell the spirit to stay -there, and promise to give him a cocoanut every year if he does them -no harm. They then kill the goat and the fowls, and, letting the blood -fall in front of the stone, offer the heart and liver to the spirit, -and then return home." [265] - -From ceremonies like these, in which a malignant spirit is entombed -in a tree and its surrounding stones, the transition to the general -belief in tree sprites is easy. The use of the various articles to -scare spirits will be understood from what has been already said on -that subject. - - - -The Karam Tree. - -Passing on to trees which are considered specially sacred, we find a -good example in the Karam (Neuclea parvifolia), which is revered by -the Kharwārs, Mānjhis, and some of the other allied Drāvidian races -of the Vindhyan and Kaimūr ranges. - -In Shāhābād, their great festival is the worship of the sacred -tree. "Commenced early in the bright portion of the month Bhādon -(August--September), it continues for fifteen days. It marks the -gladness with which people wind up their agricultural operations -all over the world. The festivities begin with a fast during the -day. In the evening the young men of the village only proceed in a -gay circle to the forest. A leafy branch of the Karam is selected, -cut, and daubed with red lead and butter. Brought in due state, -it is planted in the yard in front of the house, and is decorated -with wreaths of wild flowers, such as autumn yields to the Hill men -with a bountiful hand. The homely ritual of the Kharwār then follows, -and is finished with the offering of corn and molasses. The worship -over, the head of the village community serves the men with a suitable -feast. But the great rejoicing of the season is reserved for a later -hour. After dinner the men and women appear in their gala dress, -and range themselves in two opposite rows. The Māndar, or national -drum of the aborigines, is then struck, and the dance commences with -a movement forward, until the men and women draw close. Once face to -face, a gradual movement towards the right is commenced, and the men -and women advance in a slow but merry circle, which takes about an -hour to describe. - -"Under the influence of the example of the Hindus, the practice of -a national dance in which women take a prominent part is already on -the decline. When indulged in, it is done with an amount of privacy, -closed to the public, but open to the members of the race only. It -is difficult, however, to explain why the Karam tree should be so -greatly adored by the Kharwārs. It is an insignificant tree, with -small leaves, which hardly affords shelter or shade, and possesses no -title to be considered superior to others in its native forest. Nor -in the religious belief of the Kharwārs have we been able to trace any -classic tale connected with the growth of the Karam grove, similar to -that of the peaceful olive of old, or aromatic laurel. One important, -though the last incident of the Karam worship is the appearance of -the demon to the Kharwār village men. Generally at the conclusion of -the dance the demon takes possession of a Kharwār, who commences to -talk, tremble, and jump, and ultimately climbs up the branch of the -Karam and begins to eat the leaves. Consultation about the fortunes -of the year then takes place, and when the demon has foretold them -the festivities are concluded." [266] - -This account omits two important points which enable us to explain -the meaning of the rite. The first is that when the festivities are -over the branch of the Karam tree is taken and thrown into a stream -or tank. This can hardly, on the analogy of similar practices to -which reference has been already made, be anything but a charm to -produce seasonable rain. Another is that sprigs of barley grown in -a special way, as at the Upper India festival of the Jayī, which -will be discussed later on, are offered to the tree. This must be -an invocation to the deity of the tree to prosper the growth of the -autumn rice, which is just at this time being planted out. - -I have seen the Karama danced by the Mānjhis, a Drāvidian tribe in -Mirzapur, closely allied to the Kharwārs. The people there seem to -affect no secrecy about it, and are quite ready to come and dance -before Europeans for a small gratuity. The men expect to receive a -little native liquor between the acts, but the ladies of the ballet -will accept only a light supper of coarse sugar. The troupe consists -of about a dozen men and the same number of women. The sexes stand -in rows opposite to each other, the women clinging together, each -with her arms clasped round her neighbour's waist. One man carrying -the sacred Māndar drum, beats it and leads the ballet, hopping about -in a curious way on one leg alternately. The two lines advance and -retreat, the women bowing low all the time, with their heads bending -towards the ground, and joining occasionally in the refrain. Most of -the songs are apparently modern, bearing on the adventures of Rāma, -Lakshmana, and Sītā; some are love songs, many of which are, as might -have been expected, rude and indecent. The whole scene is a curious -picture of genuine aboriginal life. At the regular autumn festival -the ceremony degenerates into regular saturnalia, and is, if common -rumour be trusted, accompanied by an absolute abandonment of decency -and self-respect which culminates in the most unrestrained debauchery. - -The modern explanation of the dance is embodied in a folk-tale which -turns on the verbal confusion between Karam, the name of the tree, -and the Sanskrit Karma, meaning "good works." It is, of course, -comparatively modern, and quite useless as a means for ascertaining -the real basis of the custom, which is probably a means of propitiating -the tree god to grant favourable weather. - - - -The Fig Tree. - -Among the sacred trees the various varieties of the fig hold a -conspicuous place. Many ideas have probably united in securing -reverence for them. Thus the Banyan with its numerous stems may -fitly be regarded as the home of gods or spirits. Others are valued -as a source of food, or because they possess juices valued as drink -or medicine. - -Such is the Umbar, the Udambara of the Sanskrit writers, which is known -as Kshīra Vriksha or "milk tree," and Hemadugha or "golden juiced," -the Ficus glomerata of botanists, from the succulent roots of which -water can be found in times of drought. The juice has, in popular -belief, many valuable properties. A decoction of it is useful for -bile, melancholy, and fainting; it prevents abortion and increases the -mother's milk. [267] According to the old ritual, of its wood is made -the seat of the father god Vivasvat, which is specially worshipped at -the close of the Soma sacrifice; the throne on which Soma is placed -is made of it, and so is the staff given by the Adhvaryu to the -sacrificer at the initiation rite, and the staff of the Vaisya student. - -So with the Pīpal (Ficus religiosa), which is connected with -old temples, as it forces its roots into the crumbling masonry, -grows to a great age, and, like the poplar, moves its leaves at -the slightest breath of wind. The English tradition about the aspen -is that since its wood was used to make the Cross it ever trembles -with shame. The Pippala or Asvattha is said by some to be the abode -of Brahma, and is sometimes invested with the sacred thread by the -regular Upanāyana rite. Others say that in it abide Brahma, Vishnu, -and Siva, but specially Vishnu in his incarnation as Krishna. Others, -again, connect it with Bāsdeo or Vasudeva, the father of Krishna. - -The Vata or Nyagrodha (Ficus Indica) was, according to the ancient -ritual, possessed of many virtues, and the king was directed to drink -its juice instead of that of the Soma. [268] The famous Allahābād -fig tree is mentioned in the Rāmāyana and in the Uttara Rāma -Charitra. Rāma, Sītā and Lakshmana are said to have rested beneath -its branches. Another legend tells how the Rishi Mārkandeya had the -presumption to ask Nārāyana to show him a specimen of his delusive -power. The god in answer to his prayer drowned the whole world in -a sudden flood, and only the Akshaya Vata or imperishable Banyan -tree raised its head above the waters, with a little child seated -on its topmost bough, that put out its head and saved the terrified -saint just as he was on the point of drowning. The Buddhist pilgrim, -Hwen Thsang, says that in his time before the principal room of the -temple there was a tree with wide-spreading branches, which was said -to be the dwelling of a man-eating demon. The tree was surrounded with -human bones, the remains of pilgrims who had offered themselves at the -temple, a custom which had been observed from time immemorial. General -Cunningham identifies this tree with the Akshaya Vata, which is still -an object of worship. The well-known Banyan tree of Ceylon is said -to be descended from it. [269] - -It was under the Bodhi tree at Gaya that the Buddha obtained -enlightenment. The great sacred Banyan tree of the Himālaya is said -to have reached from Badarināth to Nand Prayāg, a distance of eighty -miles. [270] In Bombay women worship the Banyan tree on the fifteenth -of the month of Jeth in honour of Savitrī, the pious wife of Satyavan, -who when her husband was cutting a Banyan tree was struck by the axe -and killed. Yama appeared and claimed her husband, but at last he -was overcome by the devotion of Savitrī and restored her husband to -her. [271] - -Of the Gūlar (Ficus glomerata) it is believed that on the night of -the Divālī the gods assemble to pluck its flowers; hence no one has -ever seen the tree in blossom. It is unlucky to grow a Gūlar tree -near the house, as it causes the death of sons in the family. - -High-caste Hindu women worship the Pīpal tree in the form of Vasudeva -on the Amāvasya or fifteenth day of the month, when it falls on -Monday. They pour water at its roots, smear the trunk with red lead and -ground sandalwood, and walk round it one hundred and eight times in the -course of the sun, putting at each circuit a copper coin, a sweetmeat, -or a Brāhmanical cord at the root, all of which are the perquisite of -beggars. An old woman then recites the tale of the Rāja Nikunjali and -his queen Satyavratī, who won her husband by her devotion to the sacred -tree. Hence devotion to it is supposed to promote wedded happiness. - -In Rājputāna the Pīpal and Banyan are worshipped by women on the 29th -day of Baisākh (April-May) to preserve them from widowhood. [272] -The Pīpal is invoked at the rite of investiture with the sacred -thread at marriages and at the foundation-laying of houses. Vows are -made under its shade for the boon of male offspring, and pious women -veil their faces when they pass it. Many, as they revolve round it, -twist a string of soft cotton round the trunk. The vessel of water -for the comfort of the departing soul on its way to the land of the -dead is hung from its branches, and beneath it are placed the rough -stones which form the shrine of the village godling. Its wood is -used in parts of the Aranī, or sacred fire-drill, and for the spoons -with which butter is poured on the holy fire. When its branches are -attacked by the lac insect, a branch on which they have settled is -taken to the Ganges at Allahābād and consigned to the Ganges. This, -it is believed, saves the tree from further injury. - -The tree should be touched only on Sunday, when Lakshmī, the goddess -of wealth, abides in it; on every other day of the week, poverty and -misfortune take up their quarters in it. The son of a deceased parent -should pour three hundred and sixty brass vessels of water round its -root to ensure the repose of the dead man. Hindus on Sunday after -bathing pour a vessel of water at its root and walk round it four -times. Milk and sugar are sometimes mixed with the water to intensify -the charm. When the new moon falls on Monday, pious Hindus walk one -hundred and eight times round it and wind cotton threads about the -trunk. In rich Hindu families small silver models of the tree answer -the same purpose. When a statement is made on oath, the witness takes -one of the leaves in his hand and invokes the gods above him to crush -him, as he crushes the leaf, if he is guilty of falsehood. - -Though Sir Monier-Williams gives currency to it, it may be suspected -that the story of the Banyas who objected to Pīpal trees being planted -in their bāzār, as they could not carry on their roguery under the -shade of the holy tree, has been invented for the delectation of -the confiding European tourist. As a matter of fact you will often -see merchants plant the tree in the immediate neighbourhood of their -shops. It is needless to say that this regard for the Pīpal extends -through Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Sumatra, and Java. [273] - - - -The Sāl. - -The Sāl or Sākhu is also a holy tree. It is held in much respect by -the jungle races, who consider it the abode of spirits and erect their -shrines under its shade. The Bāgdis and Bauris of Bengal are married in -an arbour made of the branches of the Sāl (Shorea robusta) after they -have been first married to a Mahua tree (Bassia latifolia). Patches -of this tree are often reserved as fragments of the primitive jungle, -of which it must have constituted an important part. - - - -The Shīsham. - -The Shīsham or Sīson, the Sinsapa of the Sanskrit writers, is in the -tales of Somadeva the haunt of the Vetāla. [274] - - - -The Jand. - -In the Panjāb the Jand tree (Prosopis spicigera) is very generally -reverenced, more especially in those parts where it forms a chief -feature in the larger flora of the great arid grazing tracts. It -is commonly selected to mark the abode or shelter the shrine of -some deity. It is to it that, as a rule, rags are dedicated as -offerings, and it is employed in the marriage ceremonies of many -tribes. Most Khatris and Brāhmans perform rites to it, especially at -festivals connected with domestic occurrences. A custom prevails in -some families of never putting home-made clothes upon the children, -but of begging them from friends. This is, as we have already seen, -done with the view of avoiding the Evil Eye. The ceremony of putting -on these clothes is usually performed when the child is three years -of age. It is taken to the Jand tree, from which a bough is cut with -a sickle and planted at the root of the tree as a propitiation of the -indwelling spirit. The Swāstika symbol is made before it with the rice, -flour, and sugar brought as an offering to the tree. Nine threads from -the Mauli, or string used by women to tie up their back hair, are then -taken out and cut into lengths, one of which is tied round the tree -with the knot characteristic of Siva or Krishna, and another round a -piece of dried molasses, which is placed on the Swāstika. Mantras or -spells are repeated and the sugar and rice are distributed among the -women and children; for no male adult, except the officiating Brāhman, -attends the ceremony. The Brāhman then dresses the child in the new -clothes, on which he impresses the mark of his hand in saffron, and -girds the child's loins with a hair string, on which is tied the bag -or purse containing the Brāhman's fee. The hair string has in front a -triangular piece of red silk, which, as we have already noticed, is one -of the most familiar forms of amulet intended to repel the influence -of evil spirits. Similarly at marriages, they perform the ceremony of -cutting off and burning a small branch of the tree, and offerings are -made to it by the relations of persons suffering from small-pox. [275] - - - -The Aonla. - -The Aonla (Emblica officinalis) is another sacred tree. It is -considered propitious and chaste, and is worshipped in the month -of Kārttik (December) by Brāhmans being fed under it, hair strings -(mauli) being tied round it, and seven circumambulations made in -the course of the sun. The eleventh of the month Phālgun (February) -is sacred to it, and on this occasion libations are poured at the -foot of the tree, a string of red or yellow colour is bound round -the trunk, prayers are offered to it for the fruitfulness of women, -animals, and crops, and the ceremony concludes with a reverential -inclination to the sacred tree. [276] - - - -The Mahua. - -The Mahua (Bassia latifolia), which so admirably combines beauty -with utility, and is one of the main sources whence the jungle tribes -derive their food and intoxicants, is held in the highest respect by -the people of the Central Indian Highlands. It is the marriage tree of -the Kurmis, Lohārs, Mahilis, Mundas, and Santāls of Bengal. Many of -the Drāvidian races, such as the Bhuiyas, adore it, and a branch is -placed in the hands of the bride and bridegroom during the marriage -ceremony. They also revolve round a bough of the tree planted in the -ground by the Baiga or aboriginal priest. Some of the semi-Hinduized -Bengal Gonds have the remarkable custom of tying the corpses of adult -males by a cord to the Mahua tree, in an upright position, previous -to burial. It is also the rule with them that all adult males go to -the forest and clear a space round an Āsan tree (Terminalia alata -tormentosa), where they make an altar and present offerings to the -tribal godling, Bara Deo, after which they have a general picnic. [277] - - - -The Cotton Tree. - -The Salmali or Semal (Bombax heptaphyllum) is likewise sacred, an -idea perhaps derived from its weird appearance and the value of its -fibre, which was largely used by the primitive races of the jungle. It -gave its name to one of the seven Dvīpas or great divisions of the -known continent, and to a special hell, in which the wicked are -tortured with the Kūta Salmali, or thorny rod of this tree. In the -folk-tales a hollow cotton tree is the refuge of the heroine. [278] -The posts of the marriage pavilion and stake round which the bride and -bridegroom revolve are very commonly made of its wood among the Kols -and allied Drāvidian tribes, as are also the parrot totem emblems used -at marriages by the Kharwārs and many menial castes. The Bānsphors, -a branch of the great Dom race in the North-Western Provinces, fix -up a branch of the Gūlar and Semal in the marriage shed. "Among the -wild tribes it is considered the favourite seat of gods still more -terrible than those of the Pīpal, because their superintendence -is confined to the neighbourhood, and having their attention less -occupied, they can venture to make a more minute scrutiny into the -conduct of the people immediately around them. The Pīpal is occupied -by one or two of the Hindus triad, the gods of creation, preservation, -and destruction, who have the affairs of the universe to look after, -but the cotton and other trees are occupied by some minor deities, -who are vested with a local superintendence over the affairs of a -district, or perhaps of a single village." [279] - - - -The Nīm. - -The Nimba or Nīm (Azidirachta Indica) is sacred in connection with -the worship of the godlings of disease, who are supposed to reside in -it. In particular it is occupied by Sītalā and her six sisters. Hence -during the season when epidemics prevail, from the seventh day of -the waning moon of Chait to the same date in Asārh, that is during -the hot weather, women bathe, dress themselves in fresh clothes, -and offer rice, sandal-wood, flowers, and sometimes a burnt offering -with incense at the root of the tree. - -The Nīm tree is also connected with snake worship, as its leaves -repel snakes. In this it resembles the Yggdrassil of Europe, the -roots of which were half destroyed by the serpents which nestled among -them. The leaves and wood of the ash tree, the modern successor of the -mystic tree of Teutonic mythology, are still regarded throughout all -Northern Europe as a powerful protective from all manner of snakes -and evil worms. [280] In Cornwall no kind of snake is ever found near -the ashen tree, and a branch of it will prevent a snake from coming -near a person. [281] Nīm leaves are, it may be noted, useless as a -snake scarer unless they are fresh. [282] - -The leaves are also used throughout Northern India as a means of -avoiding the death pollution, or rather as a mode of driving off the -spirit which accompanies the mourners from the cremation ground. Hence -after the funeral they chew the leaves and some water is sprinkled -over them with a branch of the tree. "So great is the power of the -Nīm over spirits and spirit disease, that in Bombay, when a woman -is delivered of a child, Nīm leaves and cow's urine are, as a rule, -kept at the entrance of the lying-in room, in order that the child -and its mother may not be affected by an evil spirit, and on their -New Year's Day it is considered essential for every Hindu to worship -the Nīm tree and to eat its leaves mixed with pepper and sugar, that -he may not suffer from any sickness or disease during the year. In -practice very few worship the tree, but its leaves are generally -eaten by most of them. Among the Chitpāwan Brāhmans, a pot filled -with cow's urine is set at the door of the lying-in room with a Nīm -branch in it, and anyone coming in must dip the branch in the urine -and with it sprinkle his feet. Among Govardhan Brāhmans of Pūna, when -a child is born, Nīm leaves are hung at the front and back doors of -the house. In Ahmadnagar, when a person is bitten by a snake, he is -taken to Bhairoba's temple, crushed Nīm leaves mixed with chillies -are given him to eat, and Nīm leaves waved round his head. Among -the Nāmdeo Shimpis of Ahmadnagar each of the mourners carries from -the pyre a twig of the Nīm tree, and the Kanphatas of Cutch get the -cartilage of their ears slit, and in the slit a Nīm stick is stuck, -the wound being cured by a dressing of Nīm oil." [283] - -We have already found this tree connected with Sun worship, as in the -case of the Nimbārak Vaishnavas, as well as with that of Sītalā, the -goddess of small-pox. Among the wilder tribes it is also revered. The -Jogis, a criminal tribe in Madras, reverence it and brand their dogs -with a representation of the tree. [284] The Banjāras, or wandering -carriers, use a branch of the tree as a test of continence. The jealous -husband throws it on the ground and says, "If thou be a true woman, -lift that Nīm branch." The Doms, or vagrant sweepers of the Eastern -District of the North-Western Provinces, hold the Nīm tree sacred to -Kālī or Sītalā, and the Kurmis dedicate it to Kālī Bhavānī, and worship -this tree and the Pīpal under which the image of Devī is placed. [285] - - - -The Cocoanut. - -The cocoanut is considered one of the most sacred fruits, and is called -Srīphala, or the fruit of Srī, the goddess of prosperity. It is the -symbol of fertility, and all through Upper India is kept on shrines -and presented by the priests to women who desire children. One of the -main causes of the respect paid to it seems to be its resemblance to -a human head, and hence it is often used as a type of an actual human -sacrifice. It is also revered for its uses as food and a source of -intoxicating liquor. But it is not a native of Northern India, and -is naturally more revered in its home along the western coast. In -Gujarāt and Kanara it represents the house spirit, and is worshipped -as a family god. The Konkan Kunbis put up and worship a cocoanut for -each of their relations who dies, and before beginning to cut the rice, -break a cocoanut and distribute it among the reapers. The Prabhus, at -every place where three roads meet, wave a cocoanut round the face of -the bridegroom, and break it into pieces to repel evil influences. The -Musalmāns of the Dakkhin cut a cocoanut and lime into pieces and throw -them over the head of the bridegroom to scare evil spirits. Among some -classes of ascetics the skull is broken at the time of cremation with -a cocoanut in order to allow the ghost to escape. In Western India, at -the close of the rains, cocoanuts are thrown in to pacify the sea. Its -place as a substitute for a human sacrifice in Northern India seems -to have been taken by the pumpkin, which is used in much the same way. - - - -The Mimosa. - -The Khair, or Mimosa (Acacia catechu) seems to owe most of the -estimation in which it is held to its use in producing the sacred -fire. It forms, on account of its hardness, the base of the Aranī or -sacred fire-drill, and in it the wedge of the softer Pīpal wood works -and fire is produced by friction. The Yūpa or sacrificial post to -which the victim was tied for the sacrifice was often made of this -wood. In the great horse sacrifice of the Rāmāyana, twenty-one of -these posts were erected, six made of Vilva (Agle marmelos), six of -Khadira or Acacia, six of Palāsa (Butea frondosa), one of Udumbara -(Ficus glomerata), Sleshmataka (Cordia myxa), and one of Devadru, -the Deodār pine tree. - -Of the Khair tree Bishop Heber thus writes in his Journal: [286] -"As I returned home I passed a fine tree of the Mimosa, with leaves at -a little distance so much resembling those of the mountain ash, that -I was for a moment deceived, and asked if it did not bear fruit. He -answered, 'No; but it was a very noble tree, being called the "Imperial -tree," for its excellent qualities.' That it slept all night, and was -alive all day, withdrawing its leaves if any one attempted to touch -them. Above all, however, it was useful as a preservative against -magic; a sprig worn in the turban, or suspended over the bed, was a -perfect security against all spells, Evil Eye, etc., insomuch that -the most formidable wizard would not, if he could help it, approach -its shade. One indeed, they said, who was very renowned for his power -(like Lorrinite of Kehama) of killing plants and drying up their sap -with a look, had come to this very tree and gazed upon it intently; -'but,' said the old man, who told me this with an air of triumph, -'look as he might, he could do the tree no harm,' a fact of which I -made no question. I was amused and surprised to find the superstition, -which in England and Scotland attaches to the rowan tree, here applied -to a tree of nearly similar form." - -This superstition regarding the rowan tree and the elder is familiar in -European folk-lore. In Ireland the roots of the elder and those of an -apple tree which bears red apples, boiled together and drunk fasting, -expel evil spirits. In connection with this idea that the mimosa sleeps -at night, pious Hindus prefer not to eat betel leaves after sunset, -as catechu forms part of the ingredients with which they are prepared. - - - -The Plantain. - -The plantain is also sacred, probably on account of the value of -its fruit. The leaves are hung on the marriage booth, and a branch -is placed near the pole or sacred fire round which the bride and -bridegroom revolve. In Madras, when premature delivery takes place, -the child is laid on a plantain leaf smeared with oil, the leaf is -changed daily, and the baby is thus treated for the period which is -less than the normal time of delivery. In Bengal, in consecrating -an image of Durgā, a plantain tree is brought in and bathed. It is -clothed as a woman with Bel apples representing the breasts; nine -sorts of leaves smeared with red paint are hung round the breast and it -is worshipped. [287] The leaves are also used as a remedy for wounds -and ulcers, a practice which prevailed in the time of Shakespeare. In -"Romeo and Juliet" Benvolio says:-- - - - "Take thou some new infection to thine eye, - And the rank poison of the old will die." - - -To which Romeo answers:-- - - - "Your plantain leaf is excellent for that." - "For what, I pray thee?" - "For your broken skin." - - -In the folk-tales the deserted wife sweeps the ground round a plantain -tree and it gives her a blessing. [288] - - - -The Pomegranate. - -So with the pomegranate, which among the Pārsis of Bombay is held -in high respect. Its twigs were used to make the sacred broom, its -seeds, in order to scare evil spirits, were thrown over the child -when it was girt with the sacred thread, and its juice was squeezed -into the mouth of the dying. [289] In its fruit Anār Shāhzādī, the -Princess Pomegranate, commonly lies hidden. But it is in Upper India -considered unlucky to have such a tree in the house, as it is envious -and cannot bear that any one should be lovelier than itself. [290] - - - -The Tamarind. - -The Orāons of Bengal revere the tamarind and bury their dead under -its shade. [291] One special rite among the Drāvidian races is the -Imlī ghontnā or "the grinding of the tamarind," when the mother of -the bridegroom grinds on the family curry stone some pods of the -tamarind. The tree was a special favourite with the early Musalmān -conquerors, and the finest specimens of it will be found in their -cemeteries and near their original settlements. - - - -The Siras. - -In the Panjāb the leaves of the Siras (Acacia sirisa) are a powerful -charm. In many villages in Upper India they will be seen hung up on the -rope crossing the village cattle path, when epidemics prevail among men -or animals. [292] In this case the effect of the charm is enhanced by -adding to them a tile covered with some hocus-pocus formula, written -by a Faqīr, and rude models of a pair of wooden sandals, a mud rake, -a plough-share and other agricultural implements which are considered -effectual to scare the demon which brings the plague. - - - -The Mango. - -The Mango is used in much the same way. It is, as we shall see, used -in making the aspersion at rural ceremonies. The leaves are hung up at -marriages in garlands on the house door, and on the shed in which the -rite is performed, and after the wedding is over these are carefully -consigned to running water by the bride and bridegroom. It is also used -as a charm. Before you see a flower on a mango tree shut your eyes -and make some one lead you to a tree in flower. Rub the flowers into -your hands, and you thus acquire the power of curing scorpion stings -by moving your hand over the place. But this power lasts only for -one year, and must be renewed when the season of flowers again returns. - - - -The Tulasī. - -The Tulasī or holy basil (Ocymum sanctum) is closely connected with -the worship of Vishnu. At the last census over eleven hundred persons -in the North-Western Provinces recorded themselves as worshippers of -the plant. It is known in Sanskrit as Haripriya, or "the beloved of -Vishnu," and Bhūtaghni, or "destroyer of demons." It seems to owe -the favour with which it is regarded to its aromatic and healing -properties. Vishnu, so runs the legend, was fascinated with the -beauty of Vrindā, the wife of Jālandhara, to redeem him from whose -enthralment, the gods applied to Lakshmī, Gaurī, and Swadhā. Each -gave them seed to sow where Vishnu was enchanted. The seeds given by -the deities sprang up as the Dhātrī or Emblica Myrobalan, the Mālatī -or jasmine, and the Tulasī, or basil, and appearing in female form -they attracted the admiration of the deity and saved him from the -wiles of Vrindā. [293] - -Another legend comes from Bombay. [294] Tulasī was daughter of the -Rāja Dharmadhwaja, and by her devotions gained the favour of Vishnu, -but she married the demon Sankhachūda, who by the virtue of his -wife overcame the gods. They appealed to Vishnu, but he could not -help them, as the demon was his votary. At last it was resolved that -he should personate her husband and gain her love. When Tulasī was -aware of the deception she was about to curse him, but he pacified -her by promising to marry her and make her name immortal. He added -that those women who married an image of him to the Tulasī on the -eleventh day of the month Kārttik would prosper. - -The Tulasī is also connected with Sītā and Rukminī, and the prayer to -her is: "I adore that Tulasī, in whose roots are all the places of -pilgrimage, in whose centre are all the deities, and in whose upper -branches are all the Vedas." The plant is specially worshipped by -women after bathing, and more particularly at the full moon of Kārttik, -if the bathing be in the Ganges. The chief ceremony is, however, the -marriage of the infant Krishna to the plant, which is carried out by -pious people, often at a considerable cost, in accordance with the -standard ritual. - - - -The Palāsa. - -The Palāsa or Dhāk is sacred, partly on account of its use in -producing the sacred fire, and partly because its orange blossoms -are used to dye the coloured dust and water thrown about at the -Holī festival. It is supposed to be in some way connected with the -Soma, and by one account was produced from the feather of the falcon -imbued with the Soma. Its trifoliate leaves represent the trident, -or the three great gods, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, or birth, life, -and death. The leaves are used to form the platters employed at various -feasts and religious rites; the wood in the Yūpa, or sacrificial pole, -and in the funeral pyre. - -In one respect it resembles the rowan, which is also a sacred tree, -but why this is so has been much debated. "Possibly the inaccessible -rocks on which the tree is not unfrequently found to grow and the -conspicuous colour of its berries may have counted for something, -but this falls decidedly short of a solution of the question. One -kind of answer that would meet the case, provided it be countenanced -by facts, may be briefly indicated, namely, that the berries of the -rowan were used in some early period in the brewing of an intoxicating -drink, or better still, of the first intoxicating drink known to the -Teuto-Aryan Celts." [295] The connection between the Palāsa and the -Soma perhaps indicates that this may have been the case. It was again -a Vedic custom to drive the cows from their calves by striking them -with a rod of a Palāsa tree. In Yorkshire it used to be the custom for -"farmers to have whip-stocks of rowan tree wood, and it was held that -thus supplied, they were safe against having their draught fixed, -or their horses made restive by a witch. If ever a draught came -to a standstill, then the nearest witchwood tree was resorted to, -and a stick cut to flog the horses on with, to the discomfiture of -the malevolent witch who had caused the stoppage." In some parts of -Scotland the milkmaid carries a switch of the magical rowan to expel -the demon which sometimes enters the cow; and in Germany, striking -the cow with this magical wand is believed to render her fertile. [296] - - - -The Bel. - -The Bel (Aegle marmelos) is specially dedicated to Siva, because -it has three leaflets in the leaf, and because of its medicinal -value. Siva is called Bilvadanda, "he with a staff of the Bel wood," -and its leaves are used in his service. Its leaves laid on the Lingam -cool and refresh the heated deity. The wood is one of those used for -the sacrificial post. Its fruit is called Srīphala, because it is -supposed to have been produced from the milk of the goddess Srī. - - - -The Bamboo. - -The bamboo is sacred on account of its manifold uses and because among -the jungle races fire is produced by the friction of two strips of -bamboo. Besides this it contains a sort of manna, known as Bānslochan -or Tabashīr, which is in high repute as a medicine. The flowering of -the bamboo is generally regarded as a sure sign of famine. The bamboo -often appears in the folk-tales. Thus in one of the tales of Somadeva, -[297] "they asked Sumeru about the origin of the bow, and he said: -'Here is a great and glorious wood of bamboo canes; whatever bamboos -are cut from it and thrown into this lake, become great and wonderful -bows; and those bows have been acquired by several of the gods, and by -Asuras and Gandharvas and distinguished Vidyadhāras.'" In one of the -Santāl tales, [298] the bamboo grows from the grave of the murdered -girl, and remonstrates when the Jogi goes to cut it, but out of a -piece he finally makes a flute of wondrous sweetness. Among the jungle -races the bamboo often is used to make the poles of the marriage shed, -while the central post is made of the wood of the holy Siddh tree, -the Hardwickia binata. - -In Gujarāt, [299] the Turis, to keep off evil spirits, lay two slips of -bamboo in the lying-in room. The Prabhus of Pūna at their marriages put -bamboo baskets on the heads of the bride, bridegroom, and guests. The -Mhārs and Māngs make the married pair stand in bamboo baskets. The -Muāsis of Bengal make the wedded pair revolve round a bamboo post. The -Birhors worship Darha in the form of a split bamboo; the Kachāris and -Gāros worship a bamboo planted in the ground; the Rājmahāl hill-man -worships three bamboos with streamers, as Chaunda Gusāīn. [300] The -use of the bamboo decorated with a streamer as a perch for the deity -is common at all low-caste shrines in Northern India. - - - -The Sandal. - -The Sandal, again, in the form of powder or paste is very largely used -in all Hindu rites, and in making the marks characteristic of sect -or caste. "In Bombay, every evening, the Pārsis burn sandal chips in -their houses, as the smell of sandal is supposed to drive away evil -spirits, and the Pūna Ghadsis or musicians say that they are sprung -from sandal wood, because it is one of their tribal guardians. [301]" - - - -The Birch. - -The Bhūrja, a species of birch, is also sacred. It, too, is supposed -to drive away evil spirits. Its bark, now called Bhojpatra, is used -for writing charms, and for other mystic purposes. When a corpse -is burnt by low-caste people, when a person dies at the hands of an -executioner, when he dies on a bed, or when he is drowned and his body -cannot be found, a rite known as Palāsvidhi is performed. An effigy of -the deceased is made, in which twigs of the Palāsa tree represent the -bones, a cocoanut or Bel fruit the head, pearls or cowry shells the -eyes, and a piece of birch bark or the skin of a deer the cuticle. It -is then filled up with Urad pulse instead of flesh and blood, and a -presiding priest recites a spell to bring life into the image, which -is symbolized by putting a lighted lamp close to the head. When the -light goes out, life is believed to be extinct and the funeral rites -are performed in the regular way, the only exception being that the -period of impurity lasts for three, instead of ten days. - - - -Other Sacred Trees. - -The number of these trees and plants which scare evil spirits or are -invested with other mystic qualities is infinite. We may close the -catalogue with the Babūl or Kīkar (Acacia Arabica), which when cut -pours out a reddish juice. One of these trees, when the Musalmāns -tried to cut it near a shrine at Lahore, is said to have poured out -drops of blood as a warning. But on the whole it is an unlucky tree, -and the resort of evil spirits. If you throw water for thirteen days -successively on a Babūl tree, you will get the evil spirits which -inhabit it into your power. They tell of a man who did this near -Sahāranpur, who when taken to his cremation, no sooner was the light -set to his pyre than he got up and walked home, and is alive to this -day. His neighbours naturally look on his proceedings with a certain -degree of suspicion. The ghost of a man burnt with this wood will not -rest quietly, and any one who rests on a bed made of it is afflicted -with evil dreams. An old servant of mine once solemnly remonstrated -against the use of such a bed by his master. Such a bed, he remarked, -should be only used for a clergyman guest, who by virtue of his -profession is naturally protected against such uncanny visitations. - - - -Tree Marriages. - -We now come to discuss the curious custom of marriages to trees. This -prevails widely throughout Northern India. Thus, in some parts of -Kāngra, if a betrothed but as yet unmarried girl can succeed in -performing the marriage ceremony with the object of her choice round -a fire made in the jungle with certain wild plants, her betrothal -is annulled, and this informal marriage is recognized. [302] In the -Panjāb a Hindu cannot be legally married a third time. So, if he -wishes to take a third wife, he is married to a Babūl tree (Acacia -Arabica), or to the Akh plant (Asclepia gigantea), first, so that -the wife he subsequently marries is counted as his fourth, and the -evil consequences of marrying a third time are thus avoided. [303] In -Bengal, writes Dr. Buchanan, [304] "Premature marriage is considered -so necessary to Hindu ideas of prosperity, that even the unfortunate -children who are brought up for prostitution are married with all -due ceremony to a plantain tree, before the age when they would be -defiled by remaining single." In the North-Western Provinces, among -some of the higher classes of Brāhmans, if a man happens to lose one -or two wives and is anxious to marry a third, the ceremony of his -third marriage is first gone through with an Akh plant. The family -priest takes the intending bridegroom to the fields where there are Akh -plants and repeats the marriage formula. This is known as Arka Vivāh, -or Akh marriage, and it is believed that the plant itself dies soon -after being married. In Oudh, it is very unlucky to marry a couple if -the ruling stars of the youth form a more powerful combination than -those of the female. The way to get out of the difficulty is to marry -the girl first to a Pīpal tree. In the Panjāb, rich people who have no -children marry a Brāhman to a Tulasī plant. The pseudo-father of the -bride treats the Brāhman ever afterwards as his son-in-law, which, -it is needless to say, is a very good thing for the Brāhman. [305] -If the birth of a child does not follow this ceremony, they have good -reason for apprehending that a messenger from Yama, the god of death, -will harass them on their way to the spirit world. - -In Bombay, among the Kudva Kunbis of Gujarāt, when there are certain -difficulties in the marriage of a girl, she is married to a mango or -some other fruit tree. Mr. Campbell [306] accounts for this on the -principle that a spirit fears trees, especially fruit trees. Among -another branch of the same tribe, when a girl is marriageable and a -bridegroom cannot be found, the practice is to substitute a bunch of -flowers, and the marriage ceremony proceeds. Next day, by which time -the flowers have begun to fade, they are thrown into a well, and the -bride of yesterday is considered a widow. As a widow can marry at any -time without social discredit, the parents find a husband for her at -their leisure. [307] - -So in Bengal, the Rautiyas before the wedding go through the form of -marriage to a mango tree. [308] Among the Mundāri Kols, "the bride -and bridegroom are well anointed with turmeric, and wedded, not to -each other, but the bride to a Mahua tree, and the groom to a mango, -or both to mango trees. They are made to touch the tree with red -lead, and then to clasp it, and they are tied to it." [309] Among -the Kurmīs, the bridegroom on the wedding morning is first married -to a mango tree. He embraces the tree, is for a time tied to it in a -peculiar manner with a thread, and he daubs it with red lead. Then -the thread is removed from the tree, and is used to attach some of -the leaves to the bridegroom's wrist. The bride is similarly wedded -to a Mahua tree. [310] - -Similarly in the Himālayas, if anyone desires to marry a third time, -whether his other wives are alive or not, he is married to the Akh -plant. He builds an altar near the plant, or brings a branch home -and plants it near the altar. The regular marriage ceremony is then -performed, and a thread is wound ten times round the plant with -the recitation of appropriate verses. Four days the plant remains -where it was fixed, and on the fifth day the celebrant is entitled -to commence the marriage ceremony with his third wife. Similarly, -a person is married to an earthen jar, when from some conjunction of -the planets the omens are unfavourable, or when, from some bodily or -mental defect, no one will marry the boy or girl. The usual ceremonies -are gone through, and the neck of the boy or girl is connected by a -string with the neck of the vessel, and water is sprinkled over them -with a brush made of five leaves. [311] - -In Nepāl every Newār girl is, while a child, married to a Bel fruit, -which, after the ceremony, is thrown into some sacred river. When -she arrives at puberty a husband is selected for her, but should -the marriage prove unpleasant, she can divorce herself by the simple -process of placing a betel-nut under her husband's pillow, and walking -off. Widows are allowed to re-marry; in fact, a Newār woman is never -a widow, as the Bel fruit to which she first married is supposed to -be always in existence. [312] - -Before considering a possible explanation of this group of customs, -we may note other instances of pseudo-marriages. We have, in the first -place, instances of the marriage of girls to a god. "In the Gurgāon -District, in the Rewāri Tahsīl, at the village of Bās Doda, a fair -is held on the 26th of Chait and the two following days. I was told -that formerly girls of the Dhīnwar class used to be married to the -god at these festivals, and that they always died soon afterwards, -but that of late years the practice has been discontinued." [313] - -Again, we have some traces of the allied custom of compulsory -religious prostitution. It is said that Santāl girls are required -to submit to compulsory prostitution once in their lives at Telkūpi -Ghāt. "It is said that the custom originally arose from the killing -of a girl by her parents for incontinence; since when, girls have -been permitted to do as they please, and what was once permissive has -become compulsory." [314] There is no reference to this in Colonel -Dalton's account of the Santāls, and Mr. Beglar's authority is not -quite satisfactory. But on the analogy of similar rites in Babylon, -as described by Herodotus, it is very likely that such a custom once -prevailed. There is some evidence that similar customs once prevailed -at the temple of Jaggannāth and other Indian shrines. - -We have, again, folk-tale references to the same custom in a tradition -of the Vallabhachārya sect of the daughter of a banker, who, by her -devotion to him, won the love of the god Krishna in the form of an -image. Finally the deity revealed himself, and she went with him to -Brindaban and remained with her divine husband till he carried her -off to the heaven of Vishnu. This, however, is hardly perhaps more -than an example of the mystic union of the god with his worshippers, -which forms such a large part of the Vaishnava hagiology, and is -familiar in the tales of Krishna and the Gopīs. - -There is, again, among children in the neighbourhood of Sahāranpur, -a game which may be a survival of some more primitive rite. At the Tīj -festival, which occurs in the rainy season, girls dressed in their -best go to a tank near the city. After dropping offerings into the -water in honour of Khwāja Khizr, they divide into two parties, each of -which selects a leader, one of whom is known as the bride and the other -a bridegroom. The latter is decorated with a paper crown decked with -tinsel. The clothes of the pair are knotted together, and they are made -to walk round a Tulasī plant or a Pīpal tree on the banks of the tank, -in a mock form of the marriage ritual. Meanwhile each party chaffs -the other, saying, "Your bride (or bridegroom) is one-eyed." They -return home with merriment of this kind, and when they come to the -house the knot tied in the garments of the pair is unloosed. - -We have, again, instances of the marriages of, or to animals. In parts -of the Panjāb, if a man have lost two or three wives in succession, -he gets a woman to catch a bird and adopt it as her daughter. He then -marries the bird, and immediately pays over the bride-gift to the -woman that adopted his bird-bride, which he divorces. After this he can -get himself married to another woman, and she will probably live. [315] - -So, there have been many instances of Rājas marrying animals with -the customary rites. Some years ago, one of the Gāekwārs of Baroda -spent a large sum in marrying some favourite pigeons, and a Rāja of -Nadiya spent a lākh of rupees in marrying two monkeys. - -Lastly, there are numerous survivals of what can hardly be anything -else but tree marriage. Among the Bāwariyas, a vagrant tribe in Sirsa, -the bride and bridegroom go outside the village to a Jand tree, which, -as we have seen already, is regarded as sacred, move round it seven -times, and then cut off a branch with an axe. [316] In a Bhīl marriage, -the pair walk round the Salyāra tree, which is placed in the marriage -booth, twelve times. [317] We have a similar custom among most of the -menial tribes. The Kols make the marriage booth of nine bamboo poles, -with a bamboo or a branch of the Siddh tree as the central post. As -the bridegroom smears the parting of the bride's hair with red lead, -he makes a daub of the same substance on the tree. Much the same -custom prevails among all the inferior castes. The worship of trees -at marriage prevails in Madras, where some Rājas worship at their -marriages the fire and the Vahni tree, a twig of which is used as an -arrow at the hunting feast at the Navarātri or Dasahra. [318] - -On the whole, it seems probable that this custom of pseudo-marriages -may be based on various principles. The popular explanation of the -custom is, as we have seen, that it is intended to avoid the curse -of widowhood, the tree-husband being always alive; the woman, even if -her husband die, can never be a widow, nor can the parents be liable -to the contempt which, according to popular Hindu belief, awaits -those who keep a girl who has reached maturity unmarried. But when -we find the same custom prevailing among races who habitually permit -pre-nuptial infidelity, and among whom every marriageable widow is -either subjected to the levirate or made over to a stranger, it seems -obvious that this cannot be the original explanation of the practice. - -Again, according to Mr. Frazer, who has collected numerous examples -of the custom, "it is difficult to separate from totemism the custom -observed by totem clans in Bengal of marrying the bride and bridegroom -to trees before they are married to each other." [319] - -But the idea that, as we have seen in one of the cases of tree -marriages, the tree itself is supposed to die soon after the ceremony, -seems to point to the fact that the marriage may be intended to divert -to the tree some evil influence, which would otherwise attach to the -wedded pair. We have an instance of a somewhat analogous practice from -Bombay. "Among the Konkan Kunbis, when a woman is in labour and cannot -get a speedy delivery, some gold ornament from her hair is taken to -a Rūī plant (the Dhāk--Callotropis gigantea of Northern India), and -after digging at its roots, one of the roots is taken out, and the -ornament is buried in its stead. The root is then brought home and -put in the hair of the woman in labour. It is supposed that by this -means the woman gets speedy delivery. As soon as she is delivered -of a child, the root is taken from her hair and brought back to the -Rūī plant, and after digging at its root the ornament is taken out -and the root placed in its former place." [320] The idea seems to be -that the evil influence hindering parturition is thus transferred to -the plant. And this may be one explanation of the practice where, as -we have seen, a man is married to a bird, or so on, when his former -wives have died. The bird acts as the scape-animal, and carries the -disease spirit away with it. - -Lastly, we have seen instances in which the wedded pair are made -to clasp the tree or are tied to it in some special way. There -are numerous cases in which women, in order to procure offspring, -clasp an idol, like that of Hanumān and one of the other guardian -deities. The clasping of the tree at marriage may possibly be a sort -of sympathetic magic to bring on the pair the fertility and power of -reproduction, of which vegetable life is the well-known symbol. We -have the same principle of the wedding of the grove to its well, -and every Hindu who goes to the expense of making a tank, does not -drink of its waters until he has married the tank to a plantain or -some other tree growing on its banks. - - - -Tree and Serpent Worship. - -In the story of the king and his son, told in the Baitāl Pachīsi, -the king supplicates the sacred tree to give him a son. The request is -granted, and the king then implores the tree to make his people happy; -the result was that poor wretches, hitherto living in the woods, -came forth and concerted measures to seize his kingdom. Rather than -shed blood, the old king, his queen, and his son retired to a lofty -mountain. There the son finds something white lying under a mimosa -tree. On inquiry he learnt that it is a heap of serpents' bones left -there by Garuda, who comes daily to feed on serpents. On hearing this, -the king goes towards a temple, but is arrested by the cry of a woman, -who says: "My son to-day will be eaten by Garuda." She and her people -were, in fact, serpents in human shape. The king was moved to pity, -and as in the famous legend of Buddha and the tigress, he offered to -expose himself to Garuda in the room of her son. This is discovered; -Garuda releases the king, and at his request re-animates the serpents -to whom the bones belong. [321] - -Here we have an example of the combination of tree and serpent worship, -and it would be easy to adduce more instances, as has been done by -Mr. Ferguson and other writers of his school. But in dealing with -this phase of belief much caution is required. As Dr. Tylor observes: -"Serpent-worship unfortunately fell years ago into the hands of -speculative writers, who mixed it up with occult philosophies, -Druidical mysteries, and that portentous nonsense called the Arkite -symbolism, till now sober students hear the very name of ophiolatry -with a shiver." [322] - -It is almost needless to say that snake-worship prevails largely -in Northern India. The last census showed in the North-Western -Provinces over twenty-five thousand Nāga worshippers; one hundred and -twenty-three persons recorded themselves as votaries of Gūga, the -snake god. There are also a certain number who worship Sānp Deotā, -or the snake godling, and Ahīran, another deity of the same class, -who is worshipped in Sultānpur by daily offerings of red lead, water, -and rice. Sokha, said to be the ghost of a Brāhman killed by a snake, -has nearly fourteen thousand worshippers. In the Panjāb, again, there -are over thirty-five thousand special votaries of the snake godlings, -of which the great majority worship Gūga. - -That the cultus of the snake has been derived from aboriginal beliefs -appears tolerably certain. The Hindus of Vedic times looked on the -serpent with fear and dislike. It was impersonated as Ahi or Vritra, -the snake demon which brings darkness and drives away the kindly -rain. The regular snake-worship, as we now find it, was obviously of -a later date. - -It does not appear difficult to disentangle the ideas on which -snake-worship is based. To begin with, the snake is dreaded and revered -on account of the mysterious fear which is associated with it, its -stealthy habits, its sinuous motion, the cold fixity of its gaze, -the protrusion of its forked tongue, the suddenness and deadliness -of its attacks. It would be particularly dreaded by women, whose -habits of walking barefoot in fields in the early dawn, and groping -in dark corners of their huts, render them specially exposed to its -malice. The chief basis of the cultus would then be fear, as in the -case of the tiger and other beasts of prey. - -It would soon be discovered that there were various harmless snakes -which would, as house-hunters, come to be identified with the ancestral -ghosts as the protectors of houses and goods. The power of controlling -and taming the more venomous snakes would then be discovered, and the -snake-charmer would come to be regarded as the wisest of mankind, -as a wizard, and finally as a priest. We have thus three aspects -under which the snake is worshipped by many savage races--as a dreaded -enemy, as the protector of home and treasure, as the accompaniment and -attribute of wisdom. The village temple would be often in early times -a storehouse of treasure, and the snake, respected as its guardian, -would finally, as in Kashmīr, be installed there as a god. - -Next, we have the early connection between the serpent and the powers -of nature, the cloud and the rain, as appears in the familiar Vedic -legend of Indra and the Dragon Ahi, and Seshanāga, the great world -serpent, which appears in so many of the primitive mythologies. - -The serpent would again receive respect as the emblem of life; his -shape would, as in many forms of primitive ornament, be associated -with the ring, as a symbol of eternity; he is excessively long-lived, -and periodically renews his life. - -He has, further, as in the Saiva cultus, become associated with -phallicism, and with the sexual powers, as in the Adam legend. "The -serpent round the neck of Siva denotes the endless cycle of recurring -years, and a second necklace of skulls about his person, with numerous -other serpents, symbolizes the eternal revolution of ages and the -successive dissolution and regeneration of the races of mankind." [323] - -Lastly, the cultus may have a totemistic basis. As Strabo describes the -Ophiogeneis or serpent races of Phrygia actually retaining physical -affinity with the snakes to whom they were to be believed to be -allied, the Cheros of the eastern districts of the North-Western -Provinces and the Bais Rājputs of Oudh profess to be descended from -the Great Serpent. Gautama Buddha himself is said to have been of -serpent lineage. - -But the great serpent race was that of the Nāgas, to whom -much ill-considered argument and crude speculation have been -devoted. According to one theory they were Skythic emigrants from -Central Asia, but whether antecedent or subsequent to the so-called -Aryan inroad is disputed. They seem to have been accustomed to use -the serpent as a national symbol, and hence became identified with the -snake. Some of the myths seem to imply that they suffered persecution -at the hands of the Brāhmans, such as the tale of the burning of -the Khāndava forest, the opening scenes of the Mahābhārata, and the -exploits of the youthful Krishna. They are, again, associated with -Buddhism on monuments like those of Ajanta, and another theory would -make them out to be the Dasyus, or aboriginal races of Upper India, -who were the first to adopt Buddhism and were exterminated in the -Brāhmanical revival. Little, in fact, is known of them, save that -they may have been early worshippers of the snake, may have embraced -Buddhism, and may have introduced the worship into India from some -northern home. [324] But Mr. Ferguson's theory that snake-worship -was of purely Turanian origin is, to say the least, very doubtful, -and his belief that Saivism is antagonistic to snake-worship, and -that Vaishnavism, which he regards as a modification of Buddhism, -encourages it, is opposed by the numerous examples of the connection -of the serpent with the Lingam. - - - -Seshanāga. - -Below the seven Pātālas, according to the Vishnu Purāna, is Vishnu -incarnated as Seshanāga, and known by the name Ananta, or "Endless." He -has a thousand heads adorned with the mystical Swāstika, and in each -head a jewel to give light. He is accompanied by Varunī, the goddess -of wine (who has nowadays been replaced by Madain, who is venerated by -Chamārs in Oudh), supports the world on his head, holds in one hand -a pestle and in the other a plough, which, as we shall see later on, -connects him with agriculture. - - - -Snake Shrines. - -In various places snakes are provided with special shrines. Thus, in -Garhwāl, Seshanāga is honoured at Pandukeswar; Bhekal Nāg at Ratgāon; -Sangal Nāg at Talor; Bānpa Nāg at Margāon, and many others of the same -kind. [325] In fact, all along the Himālaya the worship extensively -prevails. Kailang Nāg is the chief Himālayan godling, and as the -Vedic Ahi controls the clouds, so he gives fine weather. A victim -is killed, and one of his disciples, after drinking the blood, gets -into a state of afflatus. Finally, he gasps out that the sacrifice is -accepted, and falls down in a state of exhaustion. The old shrine to -the serpent deity at Kāngra, known as Baghsu Nāg, has been converted -into a Saiva temple under the name of Baghsunātha, another instance -of the adoption of strange deities into orthodox Hinduism. - -"The Nāg is specially the guardian of cattle and -water-springs. According to the legend, the valleys of Kashmīr and -Nepāl were in some remote period the abode of Nāgas. The milk of a -cow is usually presented to a Nāg, and goats and sheep are usually -sacrificed to him, as to other godlings. So far as I am aware, the only -place in the Himālaya where the living snake is worshipped is at the -foot of the Rotung pass." [326] The Nepāl serpent king is Karkotaka, -who dwelt in the lake Nāgavāsa, and Siva in the form of Karkotaka -Nāga has a temple at Barha Kotra in the Bānda District. - -In one of the Nepāl temples is a representation of a Nāg Kanyā, a -serpent maiden or mermaid, sitting on a tortoise. [327] This serpent -maiden constantly appears in Indian folk-lore. Such is Vijayāvatī, -daughter of Gandamālin, one of the snake kings, who is of surpassing -loveliness, rescues and marries the hero. She is represented by the -Melusina of European folk-lore, and one of her kindred survived to -our own day, to appear as Elsie Venner in one of the finest novels -of this generation. [328] - -Curious as it may appear, all the Kashmīr temples were originally -surrounded by artificial tanks, constructed in order to propitiate the -Nāgas. Ancient stones covered with figures of snakes are occasionally -to be seen worked up into the walls of modern buildings. Abul Fazl -says that in his time there were nearly seven hundred figures of -snake gods existing in Kashmīr. The snake, it is needless to say, -is a common emblem in temples all over the country. An ancient temple -at Bilāspur in the Central Provinces has, as its only image, that of -the cobra. [329] - -Snake-worship appears constantly in history and legend. There is a -passage in Plutarch from which it appears to have been the custom -to sacrifice an old woman (previously condemned to death for some -crime) to the serpent gods by burying her alive on the banks of -the Indus. Ktesias also mentions the worship of snakes, and in the -Buddhist legends snakes are often referred to as the guardian deities -of towns. [330] - -In the folk-tales, Naravāhanadatta worships snakes in a grove sacred to -them, and Bhīmabhatta goes to the temple of the chief of the snakes, -which he finds full of long wreaths of flowers in form like serpents, -and a great lake sacred to Vāsuki, studded with red lotuses, which -seemed like clouds of smoke from the fume of snake poison. [331] - -A curious legend tells how Kadrū and Vinatā were the two wives of the -patriarch Kasyapa, the former being the mother of the serpent race, -and the other of the birds. A discussion arose between them regarding -the colour of the tails of the horses of the sun, Vinatā insisting -that they were white and Kadrū that they were black. It was agreed -that whichever of the two was proved to be wrong should serve the -other. So Kadrū contrived to fasten one of her black snakes on to the -back of one of the horses, and Vinatā, thinking this was the real tail, -accepted defeat; so the snakes rule the birds for ever. - -Nahusha, according to one version of his legend, aspired to the love -of the queen of India when her husband concealed himself because -he had killed a Brāhman. A thousand Rishis bore the litter of the -presumptuous sinner through the air, and when in his pride he touched -Agastya Muni with his foot, the offended sage cursed him, and he became -a serpent. Finally he was pardoned by the intercession of Yudhisthira, -threw off his serpent form, and was raised to the heaven of the gods. - -Near Jait, in the Mathura District, is a tank with the broken statue -of a hooded serpent in it. Once upon a time a Rāja married a princess -from a distant land, and wished to bring her home with him. She refused -to come until he announced his lineage. Her husband told her that she -would regret her curiosity, but she persisted. At last he took her to -the river and warned her again, but in vain. Then he told her not to -be alarmed at anything she saw, adding that if she did so, she would -lose him. Saying this, he began to descend slowly into the water, all -the time trying to dissuade her, till the water rose to his neck. Then, -after a last attempt to induce her to abandon her curiosity, he dived -and reappeared in the form of a Nāga, and raising his head over the -water, he said, "This is my lineage. I am a Nāgavansi." His wife could -not suppress an exclamation of grief, on which the Nāga was turned -into stone, where he lies to this day. Here we have another instance -of the consequences of the violation of the curiosity taboo. [332] - -The town of Nigohan in the Lucknow District is said to have been -founded by Raja Nāhuk of the Chandravansi line of kings. Near it is a -large tank, in which the legend says that the Rāja, transformed into -a snake for the sin of killing a Brāhman, was compelled to live. Here -at length the Pāndava brothers, in their wanderings after their battle -with the Kauravas, came, and as they went to draw water, the serpent -put to each of them five questions touching the vanity of human wishes -and the advantages of absorption from the world. Four out of the five -brethren failed to answer and were dragged under the water, but the -riddle was solved by the fifth. The spell was thus loosed, and the -Rāja's deliverer had come. The Pāndu put his ring round the body of -the serpent, and he was restored to human form. In his gratitude he -performed a great sacrifice, and to this day the cultivators digging -small wells in the centre of the tank in the dry season, come across -the burnt barley, rice, and betel-nuts used in the sacrifices. [333] - -The old Buddhist traveller thus describes the serpent deity in the -temple at Sankisa in the Farrukhābād District--"A white-eared dragon is -the patron of this body of the priests. It is he who causes fertilizing -and seasonable showers of rain to fall within their country, and -preserves it from plagues and calamity, and so causes the priesthood -to dwell in security. The priests, in gratitude for these favours, -have erected a dragon chapel, and within it placed a seat for his -accommodation; and, moreover, they make special contributions in the -shape of religious offerings to provide the dragon with food. Towards -the end of each season of rest, the dragon incontinently assumes the -form of a little serpent, both of whose ears are white. The body of -priests, recognizing him, place in the midst for his use a copper -vessel full of cream. The serpent then proceeds to come down from -the highest part of the alcove, all the while moving, as though he -would pay his respects to all those around him. He then suddenly -disappears. He makes his appearance once every year." [334] - -According to Gen. Cunningham, the only spot which can be identified -with any certainty at Sankisa is the tank of the Nāga, which still -exists to the south-east of the ruins. The name of the Nāga is Kārewar, -which appears to mean "the black one," and that of the tank Kandaiya -Tāl. Milk is still offered to him on every day of May, the Nāgpanchamī -festival in August, and at any other time when rain is wanted. [335] - -There are many instances of this control of the Nāga over the -weather. Thus, in Nepāl, when Rāja Gunkamdeva committed incest, the -gods in their wrath withheld the rain. Finally the Rāja managed to -catch the great Nāga Karkotaka, and the other Nāgas came and worshipped -him and gave him each a likeness of himself drawn with his own blood, -and declared that whenever there was a drought hereafter, plentiful -rain would fall as soon as these pictures were worshipped. - -So, Gorakhnātha confined the nine Nāgas, and there was a drought until -Matsyendranātha appeared and released them, on which the clouds gave -rain. [336] - -The plan of propitiating the Nāga with an offering of milk is found -also in the case of the Durham legend of the Lambton worm and the -dragon of Deerhurst in Gloucestershire. [337] - -The sacred dragons of this kind are innumerable. The Buddhist cave -at Pabhosa in the Allahābād District was the home of a monster of -this class, who was subdued by Buddha. [338] That in the dragon tank -at Rāmagrāma used to assume the form of a Brāhman. [339] Dr. Buchanan -tells of another at Bhāgalpur. "They showed me a hole in a rock opening -into a hollow space close by the path leading up to their village. They -said that this hole was the abode of a very large serpent, which -they considered a kind of god. In cold weather they never saw it, -but in the hot season it was constantly observed lying in the hollow -before its den. The people pass by it without apprehension, thinking -it understands their language, and would on no account injure one of -them, should even a child or a drunken person fall on it." [340] - -But all such snakes are not friendly. In the Hitopadesa, the faithful -mungoose takes the place in the legend of Bethgelert of the hound and -kills the deadly snake. Some reference to this famous folk-tale will be -made in another connection. Aghāsura, "the evil demon," the king of the -serpents, tried to devour the divine infant Krishna. When he and his -foster-father Nanda were asleep together, a huge boa-constrictor laid -hold of Nanda by the toe, and would speedily have devoured him, but -Krishna, hearing his cries, ran to his side and lightly set his foot -on the monster's head. At the very touch the serpent was transformed, -and assumed the figure of a lovely youth; "for years ago a Ganymede -of Heaven's Court, by name Sudarsana, in pride of beauty and exalted -birth, had vexed the holy sage Angiras when in deep contemplation, -by dancing backwards and forwards before him, and by his curses had -been metamorphosed into a snake, in that vile shape to expiate his -offence, until the advent of Krishna." [341] We have already spoken -of another famous Mathura snake, the Nāga of Jait, whose tail is -supposed to reach underground to Brindaban, seven miles away. [342] -The curious dragon cave at Kausambhi at Allahābād was one of the last -notable discoveries of the Archęological Survey. [343] - - - -The Snake Gods. - -Besides the sacred Nāgas there are the regular snake gods. The serpent -deity of Benares is Nāgīswar, who is represented by a serpent twining -round the chief idol, and like his kindred rules the weather. The -Nāg Kuān, or dragon well, is one of the oldest shrines in the -city. [344] Tārā is the snake goddess of the Kols, and the Khāndhs -call her Tārā Penu, the heavenly "star snake." Vāsuki, the "abider," -now known as Bāsuk Nāg, has many shrines, and in all of them, as at -Dāraganj, near Allahābād, described by Sir Monier-Williams, [345] -the priest in charge is always a man of low caste, a fact pointing to -the non-Aryan character of the worship. He forms one of the triad of -the snake gods which rule the snakes of earth and hell, his fellows -being Sesha and Takshaka, "he who cuts off." Vāsuki often appears in -the folk-tales. We find him resisting Garuda, the destroyer of his -subjects. His brother's son Kirtisena is, according to one legend, -a Brāhman, and weds a mortal maiden by the Gandharva form; his eldest -brother Vasunemi presents a benevolent Savara with a magic lute; -Vāsuki himself marries the princess Yasodharā, and their son is -Priyadarsana. Vāsuki has a thousand ears. Once he served the gods by -becoming the rope which the mount Mandara was whirled round, and the -sea was churned and produced Srī or Lakshmī, goddess of wealth. [346] -The foot of the celebrated iron pillar at Delhi was driven so deep in -order that it might rest on the head of Vāsuki. A Brāhman told the -king that this would secure the stability of his kingdom. The Rāja -doubted this, and had the pillar dug up, when its base was found wet -with the blood of the serpent king. Owing to the incredulity of the -Rāja it could never again be firmly fixed, and his want of faith led -to the ultimate downfall of his dynasty. The same tale has reached -the Himālaya, and is told of the foundation of Almora. [347] - - - -The Sinhas. - -Next come the Sinhas, or snake godlings of the Panjāb and the western -parts of the North-Western Provinces. "They are males, and though -they cause fever they are not very malevolent, often taking away -pain. They have got great power over milch cattle, and the milk of the -eleventh day after calving is sacred to them, and libations of milk -(as in the case of the Sankisa dragon) are always acceptable. They are -generally distinguished by some colour, the most commonly worshipped -being Kālī, 'the black one,' Hari, 'green,' Bhūra, 'grey,' Sinh. But -the diviner will often declare a fever to be caused by some Sinh no -one has ever heard of before, but to whom a shrine must be built. And -so they multiply in a most perplexing manner. Dead men also have a -way of becoming snakes--a fact which is revealed in a dream, when -again a shrine must be built. If a peasant sees a snake he will -salute it, and if it bite him, he or his heirs, as the case may be, -will build a shrine on the spot to prevent the recurrence of such an -occurrence. They are the servants of Vāsuki Nāga, King of Pātāla, -or Tartarus, and their worship is certainly connected with that of -the Pitris or ancestors, though it is difficult to see exactly in -what the connection lies." [348] - - - -Connection of Snakes with Ancestor-worship. - -The connection is thus explained by Mr. Spencer: "The other self of -the dead relative is supposed to come back occasionally to the old -house; how else is it possible of the survivors sleeping there to -see him in their dreams? Here are creatures which commonly, unlike -wild animals, come into houses; come in, too, secretly at night. The -implication is clear. That snakes which specially do this are the -returned dead, is inferred by people in Asia, Africa, and America; -the haunting of houses being the common trait of the kind of snakes -reverenced and worshipped." [349] The benevolent household snake, -which in the folk-tales assists the hero and protects the family of -which he is the guardian, thus represents the soul of some deceased -ancestor which has taken up its residence there. That the dead do -appear as snakes is familiar in European folk-lore. Thus, for instance, -the pious Ęneas saw his father Anchises in the snake which crept from -his tomb. We have already come across the same idea in the case of -the Satī. It was an old European idea that this household snake, if -not conciliated, and when dead buried under the threshold, a sacred -place, prevented conception. [350] - - - -Deified Snake Heroes. - -We have already mentioned the regular snake godling Gūga. With him are -often worshipped his father Jaur or Jewar Sinh, and Arjan and Sarjan, -his twin half-brothers. [351] - -Pīpa, the Brāhman, is another deity of the same class in Rājputāna. He -was in the habit of giving milk to a serpent whose retreat was on -the banks of the Sampu, or Snake Lake. The serpent used in return to -present him daily with two pieces of gold. Being obliged to go away on -business, he gave instructions to his son to continue the offering; -but the youth, deeming it a good opportunity of becoming master of -the treasure, took a stick with him, and when the serpent came forth -for his expected food, he struck him violently. But the snake managed -to retreat into his hole. On his return, the young Brāhman related -his adventures to his mother. She was horrified at the account, and -forthwith made arrangements for sending her son away out of danger. But -in the morning when she went to call him she found to her horror that -her son was dead, and a huge snake lay coiled up beside his body. Pīpa -on his return was inconsolable, but, stifling his thoughts of revenge, -he propitiated the monster with copious libations of milk. The serpent -was appeased, and revealed to Pīpa the treasures which he guarded, -commanding him to erect a monument which should transmit the knowledge -of the event to future ages. Hence Pīpa has become a sort of snake -godling, and the town of Pīpar and the Sampu Lake still by their -names commemorate the legend. [352] - -This famous tale, which was originally founded on a story in the -Panchatantra, has come into European folk-lore through the Gesta -Romanorum, and forms an excellent example of a genuine Indian folk-tale -which has been naturalized in Western lands. [353] The incident of -the animals which produce gold is common both in European and Indian -folk-lore. Even Marabhuti in the tale of Somadeva is able to spit -gold, and every one knows Grimm's pretty tale of the "Three little -men in the wood," in which a piece of gold drops from the mouth of -the good girl every time she speaks. - - - -Snake Treasure Guardians. - -Snakes throughout folk-lore are the guardians of treasure. [354] The -griffins of Scythia guarded the treasures coveted by the Arimaspians; -the dragon watched the golden apples of the Hesperides; in the -Nibelungenlied the dragon Fafnir keeps guard over a vast treasure -of gold, which Sigurd seizes after he has killed the monster. It -is a common Indian belief that when a very rich man dies without -an heir, he cannot take away his thoughts from his treasure, and -returns to guard it in the form of a monstrous serpent. But after a -time he becomes tired of this serpent life, and either in a dream, -or assuming the human voice, he asks the persons living near the -treasure to take it and offer him one of their dearest relatives -in return. When some avaricious person complies with the serpent's -wishes, he gets possession of the wealth, and the serpent then enters -into some other state of existence. Instances of treasure speaking are -not uncommon. Some time ago two old ladies, whose houses were divided -by a wall, formally applied to me to have the wall excavated in the -presence of respectable witnesses, because a treasure-guarding snake -was often heard speaking from inside the wall, and begging some one -to take over the wealth which was in his charge. - -Snake charmers are supposed to have the power of recognizing these -serpent treasure guardians, follow them stealthily to their holes, and -ask them to point out the deposit. This they will do in consideration -of the offering of a drop of blood from the little finger of a -first-born son, [355] an obvious survival of human sacrifice, which -is constantly found connected with the serpent cultus. - -Various suggestions have been made to account for the idea of snakes -guarding treasure. By one theory there is some connection between the -snake and primitive metallurgy; by another, that the snake may have -been the totem of the early jewellers; by a third, that the jewelled -head of the snake is at the bottom of the matter. [356] But it seems -more probable that the idea is based on the conception of the snake -as a haunter of houses and temples, and the divine protector of the -inmates and their wealth. - -Indian folk-lore is full of such stories. In the Dakkhin tale, -Seventee Bāī gets possession of the enormous diamond which the cobra -used to take about in his mouth; and in the Bengal story Faqīr Chand -obtains the serpent's crest-jewel. [357] The same idea appears in -the Arabian Nights. Mr. Forbes tells rather a ghastly tale on this -subject. He personally investigated a mysterious chamber supposed to -contain treasure. Viewed from above it was a gloomy dungeon of great -depth. He desired his men to enter it, but they positively refused, -alleging that "wherever money was concealed, there existed one of -the Genii in the mortal form of a snake to guard it." He at last -prevailed on them to descend by means of ropes. They had not been at -the bottom many seconds, when they called out vehemently that they -were encircled by a large snake. Finally he observed something like -billets of wood, or rather more resembling a ship's cable coiled -up in a dark hole. Then he saw the monster raise his head over an -immense length of body, coiled in volumes on the ground. A large -snake was subsequently destroyed by fire, but no treasure was found, -"the owner having doubtless already removed it." [358] - - - -Powers of Snakes in Folk-lore. - -Manifold are the powers of snakes in folk-lore. He can strike people -dead with his look from a distance, like the "death-darting eye of -cockatrice" in "Romeo and Juliet." He has the power of spitting fire -from his mouth, which destroys his enemies and consumes forests. His -saliva is venomous, and there are many stories of snakes spitting -venom into food. In one of the versions of Bethgelert, the prince, -but for his guardian bird, would have drunk as water the venom of the -black snakes which drips from a tree. In the legends of Rāja Rasālu, -Gūga, and Newal Dāī, the snake has power to kill and restore to life; -it has the faculty of metamorphosis and flying through the air. In one -of the Kashmīr tales, the Brāhman, wishing to get rid of his wife, -gives her a snake in a bag; but when she opens it, it turns into a -beautiful little boy. [359] We have, again, the world-wide story -of the snake rescued by the traveller, which rewards the service -rendered to him by biting his benefactor. When Indra carried off -the nectar, the snakes licked the bed of Kusa grass on which the -vessel lay. The sharp edges of the grass cut them as they licked, -so they have had double tongues ever since. [360] Every Indian rustic -believes in the Domunha or snake with a mouth at both ends, which is, -as might have been expected, most virulent. There are snake women, -like Lamia or Vasudeva, the mystic serpent, who go about at night, -and by day resume their hateful form. The humanity of the serpent -race comes out clearly in the legend of Safīdon, which attributes the -leprosy still found in the Panjāb to the sacrilegious acts of Vāsuki, -the king of the serpents. [361] - - - -Modern Snake-worship. - -Some instances may be given of the form assumed by the worship of -the snake in modern times. - -The great snake festival is the Nāgpanchamī, or "Dragon's fifth," held -on the fifth day of the month of Bhādon. In the Hills it is called the -Rikhī or Birurī Panchamī. Rikheswara has now become a title of Siva -as lord of the Nāgas, a form in which he is represented as surrounded -by serpents and crowned with the chaplet of hooded snakes. On the day -of the feast the people paint figures of serpents and birds on the -walls of their houses, and seven days before the festival they steep -a mixture of wheat, gram, and pulse in water. On the morning of the -feast they take a wisp of grass, tie it up in the form of a snake, -dip it in the water in which the gram has been steeped, and offer it -with money and sweetmeats to the serpents. [362] - -In Udaypur on this day they strew particular plants about the -thresholds of houses to prevent the entrance of venomous reptiles, and -in Nepāl the day is observed as the anniversary of a great struggle -between a famous Nāga and Garuda, the foe of the serpent race. [363] -In the eastern districts of the North-West Provinces on this day milk -and dried rice are poured into a snake's hole; while doing this they -call out "Snake! snake!" The feeding of snakes on this holiday is done -in much the same way in Bombay. [364] After the Diwālī in Kāngra, -a festival is held to bid good-bye to the snakes, at which an image -of the Nāga made of cowdung is worshipped. If a snake be seen after -this it is called "ungrateful," and immediately killed. [365] - -In the North-Western Provinces the usual custom is for the head of the -family to bathe on the morning of the feast, to paint on the wall of -his sleeping-room two rude representations of serpents, and to make -offerings to Brāhmans. On this day people pray to what Dr. Buchanan -calls "the chief eight dragons of the pit," [366] girls throw some -playthings into the water, and labourers take a holiday and worship -the tools of their craft. - -In Behār during the month of Sāwan (August) crowds of women calling -themselves Nāgin, or "wives of the snake," go about begging for two -and a half days, during which period they neither sleep under a roof -nor eat salt. Half the proceeds of the begging are given to Brāhmans, -and the other half invested in salt and sweetmeats, which are eaten -by all the people of the village. [367] - -In Garhwāl, the ground is freely smeared with cowdung and mud, -and figures of five, seven, or nine serpents are rudely drawn with -sandal-wood powder or tumeric; rice, beans, or peas are parched; lamps -are lighted and waved before them; incense is burnt and food and fruit -offered. These observances take place both morning and evening, and the -night is spent in listening to stories in praises of the Nāga. [368] - -In parts of the North-Western Provinces, with the usual Nāgpanchamī, -is performed what is known as the Guruī festival. On that day -offerings are made by women to the Dragon godling Nāg Deotā. Girls -let dolls float in the water of some convenient river or tank, and -the village lads beat the dolls with long switches specially cut -for the purpose. The legend of this rite is thus told. When Rāja -Janamejāya held the Sarpa Sattra or snake rite in order to destroy -Takshaka, the king of the serpents, all the snakes were captured by -spells and killed. But Takshaka escaped and was found to have taken -refuge with Indra, on whose throne he seated himself in the shape of -a mosquito. Indra was ordered to produce the fugitive, and begged the -life of Takshaka, which was granted on condition that he was banished -from the land. So the snake king took the shape of a Brāhman lad -and retired to the Caucasus. There he settled and married, but he -foolishly told the story to his wife, and she being unable to keep -the secret, it finally reached the ears of Janamejāya, who sentenced -him to death. Takshaka then retorted by ordering Janamejāya to cause -everyone in his dominions to kill his wife as a revenge for his own -wife's treachery. Janamejāya was unwilling to issue such a cruel -order, so he consulted the Brāhmans. Finally, it was proclaimed -that on the Nāgpanchamī, every woman, to prove her devotion to her -husband, should make a doll and offer it up as a vicarious sacrifice -for herself. It would seem that the rite is the survival of some rite -of human sacrifice in connection with snake-worship. - -The Agarwāla Banyas, who say that they are descended from Rāja Vāsuki, -have a special rite in honour of Astika Muni, who is said to have been -the instructor of Vāsuki. They bathe and make marks representing the -snake on the walls of the house, which they worship, feed Brāhmans, and -do the Ārtī or lamp rite. Each woman takes home with her some of the -sesamum offered to the snake, which they sprinkle with the recitation -of a spell in their houses as a means of driving away venomous snakes. - - - -Cure of Snake-bite. - -In Hoshangābād there were once two brothers, Rājawa and Soral; the -ghost of the former cures snake-bite, and that of the latter cattle -murrain. The moment a man is bitten, he must tie a string or a strip -of his dress and fasten it round his neck, crying, "Mercy! O God -Rājawa!" To call on Ghori Bādshāh, the Delhi Emperor, who conquered -the country, or Rāmjī Dās Bāba will do as well. At the same time -he makes a vow to give so much to the god if he recovers. When he -gets home they use various tests to ascertain if the poison is in -him still. They take him in and out over the threshold, and light -a lamp before him, acts which are supposed to have the effect of -developing latent poison. They then give him salt and leaves of -the bitter Nīm tree. If he can take them he is safe. These are all, -as we have already seen, scarers of evil spirits, in this case the -snake demon. If he cannot take them, the whole village goes out and -cries to Rājawa Deo until he recovers. No one (Sir C. A. Elliott's -informant told him) had been ever known to die of a snake-bite after -this treatment. But the god has no power over the dreaded Biscobra, -which takes its name from the Hindi Bishkhāpra, Sanskrit Vishakharpara, -or "poison-headed," which is said to be so deadly that its very breath -is venomous, one of the numerous popular delusions out of which it -is hopeless to argue the rustic. The bitten man must not untie the -string round his neck till the day when he goes to offer what he vows, -which should be, at latest, on the next Dasahra; but if he attempts -to cheat the god by offering ever so little less than he promised, -he will die on the spot in agonies. [369] - -All through Upper India the stock remedy for snake-bite is the exorcism -of the Ojha or sorcerer, a performance known as Jhār Phūnk, consisting -of a series of passes, massage, and incantations, which are supposed -to disperse the venom. Many, too, have faith in the so-called "Snake -stone," which seems to be usually a piece of bone soaked in blood -and repeatedly baked. This is supposed to have absorbent properties -and to draw the venom out of the wound. It probably works by faith, -and is as effective as the Achates or Agate of which Pliny writes: -"People are persuaded that it availeth much against the venomous -spiders and scorpions, which property I could very well believe to -be in the Sicilian Agate, for that so soon as serpents come within -the air and breath of the said province of Sicily, as venomous as -they be otherwise, they die thereupon." [370] - - - -The Snake in Folk-lore. - -The references to the snake in folk-lore and popular belief are -so numerous that only a few examples can be given. The Dhāman -(Ptyas mucosus), a quite harmless snake, is said in Bombay to give -a fatal bite on Sundays, and to kill cattle by crawling under them, -or putting its tail up their nostrils. Its shadow is also considered -malignant. It is believed to suck the milk of cattle, and that if a -buffalo is looked on by it, it immediately dies. Of the Ghonas snake -it is believed that it bites only at night, and at whatever hour of -the night the victim is bitten, he dies just before daybreak. [371] - -About these snake stones some curious tales are told. By one account, -when a goat kills a snake, it eats it and then ruminates, after which -it spits out a bead, which, when applied to a snake-bite, absorbs the -poison and swells. If it be put into milk, and squeezed, the poison -drips out of it like blood, and the bitten person is cured. If it be -not put in milk it will burst in pieces. By another account, in the -pouch-like appendages of the older Adjutant birds (Leptoptilos Argala) -the fang of a snake is sometimes found. This, if rubbed over the place -where a poisonous snake has bitten a man, is supposed to prevent the -venom spreading to the vital parts of the body. Others say that it is -found within the head of the Adjutant, and that it is only necessary -to rub it to the bitten place and put it into milk, when it becomes -black through the venom. What was known as the Ovum Anguinum of the -Britons is said to have been a bead which assists children to cut -their teeth and cures the chincough and the ague. Mr. Campbell [372] -says he once possessed one of these "snake's eggs," which was a blue -and white glass bead and supposed to be a charm used by the women of -the prehistoric races. - -A very common incident in the folk-tales is that the heroine is beset -by snakes which come out of her nose or mouth at night and kill her -newly-wedded husband, as the evil spirit kills the husband of Sara -in the marriage chamber, until the hero lies awake and succeeds in -destroying them. - -Another power snakes possess is that of identifying the rightful heirs -of kingdoms, and, as in the case of Drona, who found the Ahīr Adirāja -sleeping in the shade of the hood of a cobra, announce that he is born -to rule. [373] So in the mythology the Nāga king Machalinda spreads -his hood over the Buddha to protect him from the rain and flies. [374] -Many of these Nāgas indeed are friendly, as in the case of the Banjāra, -who, in order to avoid octroi duty, declared his valuable goods to be -Glauber salts, and Glauber salts they became until they were restored -to their original condition by the intercession of the kindly Nāga of -the Gundwa tank. [375] In one of Somadeva's tales the friendly snake -clings round the Rāja till he promises to release the Bodhisattwa -out of prison. - - - -Snakes and Euphemism. - -Snakes should, of course, be addressed euphemistically as "Maternal -uncle," or "Rope," and if a snake bites you, you should never mention -its name, but say, "A rope has touched me." The Mirzapur Kharwārs -tell of a man who once came on a Nāgin laying her eggs. When she -saw him she fell at his feet and asked him to throw the eggs in a -water-hole. So he took up the eggs on a bamboo sieve and went with her -to the brink. The Nāgin plunged in and said, "Do not be afraid! Come -on!" He followed her, the waters dried up, and he came to the palace -of the Nāg, who entertained him royally, and offered to give him -anything he wished. The boor asked only for a pan, pot, and spoon, -which the Nāga gave him, and he came home to find his relations doing -the death ceremonies in his honour, believing he had been carried -off by a tiger. He said nothing of his adventures till the day of -his death, when he told the story. So the Nāga in other tales of the -same class blesses and rewards the lucky man who has delivered the -young snake from his persecutors who caught him while in the upper -air. So in the Arabian Nights, the relations of Jullanar of the sea -show their gratitude to the king who is kind to her on earth. - -On the basis of the same idea which has been already referred to -in the case of the Churel, it is believed that if the shadow of a -pregnant woman fall on a snake it becomes blind. [376] - - - -The Snake Jewel. - -The snake, like the "toad ugly and venomous," wears on his head -the Mani or precious jewel, which is a stock subject in Indian -folk-tales. Thus, in one of Somadeva's stories, "when Nala heard this, -he looked round, and beheld a snake coiled up near the fire, having -his head encircled with the rays of the jewels of his crest." [377] -It is sometimes metamorphosed into a beautiful youth; it equals the -treasure of seven kings; it can be hidden or secured only by cowdung -or horsedung being thrown over it; and if it is acquired the serpent -dies. It lights the hero on his way to the palace under the sea where -is the silver jewelled tree; or it is possessed by the sleeping beauty, -who cannot return to her home beneath the waters, and loses the hero -until it is recovered. Its presence acts as an amulet against evil, -and secures the attainment of every wish. It protects the owner from -drowning, the waters parting on each side of him, and allowing him -to pass over rivers dry-shod. [378] - - - -The Rainbow and the Snake. - -So the rainbow is connected with the snake, being the fume of a -gigantic serpent blown up from underground. In Persia it was called -the "celestial serpent." We have already seen that the Milky Way is -regarded as the path of the Nāgas in the sky. It is possibly under -the influence of the association of the snake, a treasure guardian, -that the English children run to find where the rainbow meets the -earth, and expect to find a crock of gold buried at its base. [379] - - - -The Household Snake. - -The belief in the influence of the guardian domestic or national snake -is universal. When the Persians invaded Athens the people would not -leave the city till they learned that the guardian snake had refused -its food and abandoned the citadel. A snake at Lanuvium and at Epirus -resided in a grove and was waited on by a virgin priestess, who entered -naked and fed it once a year, when by its acceptance or refusal of -the offering, the prospects of the harvest were ascertained. The -Teutons and Celts had also their sacred guardian snake. - -In the Panjāb Hills, every householder keeps an image of the -Nāga or harmless snake, as contrasted with the Sānp, which is -venomous. This snake is put in charge of the householder's homestead, -and is held responsible that no cobra or dangerous serpent enters -it. It is supposed to have the power of driving all cobras out of -the place. Should rain drive the house snake out of his hole, he is -worshipped. No image of a cobra or other venomous snake is ever made -for purposes of worship. Ant-hills are believed to be the homes of -snakes, and there the people offer sugar, rice, and millet for forty -days. [380] These correspond to the benevolent domestic snakes, of -whom Aubrey says that "the Bramens have them in great veneration; -they keep their corne. I think it is Tavernier mentions it." [381] - -They are, in fact, as we have already seen, the representatives of -the benevolent ancestral ghosts. Hence the deep-rooted prejudice -against killing the snake, which is both guardian and god. "If," -says Mr. Lang, [382] "the serpent were the deity of an earlier race, -we could understand the prejudice against killing it, as shown in the -Apollo legend." The evidence accumulated in this chapter will perhaps -go some way to settle this question, as far as India is concerned. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM. - - - Olim truncus eram ficulnus, inutile lignum, - Cum faber incertus scamnum faceretne Priapum, - Maluit esse deum. - - Horace, Sat. I. viii. 1-3. - - -"A totem is a class of material objects, which a savage regards with -superstitious respect, believing that there exists between them -and every member of the class an intimate and altogether special -relation." [383] As distinguished from a fetish, a totem is never -an isolated individual, but always a class of objects, generally -a class of animals or plants, rarely a class of inanimate objects, -very rarely a class of artificial objects. - - - -Origin of Totemism. - -As regards the origin of totemism great diversity of opinion -exists. Mr. Herbert Spencer considers that "it arose from a -misinterpretation of nicknames; savages first took their names from -natural objects, and then confusing these objects with their ancestors -of the same name, paid the same respect to the material totem as -they were in the habit of doing to their own ancestors." [384] The -objection to this is, as Mr. Frazer shows, that it attributes to -verbal misunderstandings far more influence than, in spite of the -comparative mythologists, they ever seem to have exercised. - -Sir J. Lubbock derives the idea from the practice of naming persons -and families after animals, but "in dropping the intermediate links -of ancestor-worship and verbal misunderstanding, he has stripped the -theory of all that lent it even an air of plausibility." [385] - -Recent inquiries in the course of the Ethnographical Survey of Bengal -and the North-Western Provinces enable us perhaps to approach to a -solution of the problem. - -To begin with, at a certain stage of culture the idea of the connection -between men and animals is exceedingly vivid, and reacts powerfully -on current beliefs. The animal or plant is supposed to have a soul -or spirit, like that of a human being, and this soul or spirit is -capable of transfer to the man or animal and vice versā. This feeling -comes out strongly in popular folk-lore, much of which is made up of -instances of metamorphosis such as these. The witch or sorcerer is -always changing into a tiger, a monkey, or a fish; the princess is -always appearing out of the aubergine or pomegranate. - -We have, again, the familiar theory to which reference has already -been made, that the demon or magician has an external soul, which he -keeps occasionally in the Life Index, which is often a bird, a tree, -and an animal. If this life index can be seized and destroyed, the -life of the monster is lost with it. - -These principles, which are thoroughly congenial to the beliefs of all -primitive races, naturally suggest a much closer union between man and -other forms of animal or vegetable life than people of a higher stage -of development either accept or admit. With people, then, at this -stage of culture, the theory that the ancestor of the clan may have -been a bear or a tortoise would present no features of improbability. - -This theory accounts, as Mr. Frazer shows, for many of the obscure -rites of initiation which prevail among most savage tribes and in a -modified form among the Brāhmanized Hindus. The basis of such rites -is probably to extract the soul of the youth and temporarily transfer -it to the totem, from which in turn fresh life is infused into him. - -Lastly, the result of the Indian evidence is that it is only in -connection with the rules of exogamy that totemism at the present -day displays any considerable degree of vitality. The real basis of -exogamy in Northern India seems to be the totem sept, which, however, -flourishes at the present day only among the Drāvidian tribes and those -allied to them. But it would, it is almost certain, be incorrect to say -that while totemism is at present most active among the Drāvidians, -in connection with marriage, it was peculiar to them. It is more -reasonable to infer that it continues to flourish among these races, -because of their isolation from Brāhmanical influence. As among the -inferior races of the Gangetic valley, the primitive family customs -connected with marriage, birth, and death have undergone a process -of denudation from their connection with the more advanced Hindu -races which surround them, so to a large degree in Northern India, -the totemistic sept names have been gradually shed off, and replaced -by an eponymous, local, or territorial nomenclature. In short, under -the pressure of higher culture, the kindred of the swan, turtle, or -parrot have preferred to call themselves Kanaujiya or "men of Kanauj," -Sarwariya or "residents of the land beyond the Sarju river," and -Raghuvansa or Bhriguvansa, "descendants of the sages Raghu or Bhrigu." - -We find, then, among such races, as might have been expected, that -at the present day the totemistic sept system exists only in obscure -and not easily recognizable forms. Folk etymology has also exercised -considerable influence, and a sept ashamed of its totemistic title -readily adopts some title of the eponymous type, or a local cognomen -sounding something like the name of the primitive totem. It is perhaps -too much to expect that a careful exploration of the sept titles or -tribal customs of Northern India will lead to extensive discoveries of -the primitive totemistic organization. The process of trituration which -has affected the caste nomenclature for such a lengthened period, and -the obscuration of primitive belief by association with more cultured -tribes, have been so continuous as to leave only a few fragments and -isolated survivals; but it is by a course of such inquiry that the -totemistic basis of the existing caste system can alone be reached. - -I have considered this question in the light of the most recent -evidence in another place, [386] and it is needless to repeat the -results which were there arrived at. - -For the purpose of such an investigation it is convenient to have -some sort of working classification of the tests of, and the forms -in which, totemism usually appears. These have been laid down by the -late Professor Robertson-Smith as follows:-- - -(a) The existence of stocks named after plants, animals, or similar -totems. - -(b) The prevalence of a conception that the members of the stock -are of the blood of the eponym, or are sprung from a plant, etc., -of the species chosen as the totem. - -(c) The ascription of a sacred character to the totem. - - - -Stocks Named from Animals, Plants, etc. - -First as to the stocks named from animals, plants, etc. There are -two divisions of the Pūra Brāhmans of the Dakkhin, known as Bakriyār -and Chheriyār, founded on the names of the male and female goat. In -Upper India, the Kāchhis or market gardeners, and the Kachhwāha sept -of Rājputs allege that they take their names from the Kachchhapa or -tortoise, as the Kurmis refer their name to the Kūrma or turtle. The -Ahban Rājputs and the Ahiwāsis of Mathura connect their names with -Ahi, the dragon. The Kalhans Rājputs derive their name from the -Kālahans or black goose. Among Brāhmans and other high castes, -Bhāradvaja, "the lark, the bringer of food," has given its name -to many sections. Mr. Risley thinks that the fact of there being a -Kasyapa division of Kumhārs or potters, who venerate the tortoise, -points to the name being a corruption of Kachchhapa, the tortoise, -in which case their name would have the same origin as that of the -Kāchhis already mentioned. - -Many people, again, claim kindred with the sun and moon. Such are the -Natchez of North America and the Incas of Peru. [387] There are many -children of the sun and moon in Arabia, [388] and gypsies of the east -of Europe have a legend that they are descended from the sun and moon; -the sun having debauched his moon sister, was condemned to wander for -ever, in consequence of which their descendants can never rest. [389] -So in India, the Sūrajbansi and Chandrabansi Rājputs are said to take -their names from Sūraj, the sun, and Chandra, the moon, respectively. - -According to Captain J. Montgomerie, [390] round Kashmīr, and among -the aboriginal tribes of the Himālayan slopes, men are usually named -after animals, as the Bakhtiyāris, one of the nomad tribes of Persia, -name their children usually not after the Prophet, but after wild -animals, such as the wolf, tiger, and the like, adding some descriptive -epithet. In the same way a tribe of Lodi Pathāns in the Panjāb are -known as Nāhar or "wolf." This is said to be due to their rapacity, -and may be as likely a nickname as a survival of totemism. [391] - - - -Totem Names among the Drāvidians. - -The evidence of this point is, as has been already said, much -more distinct among the Drāvidians than among the more Hinduized -races. Details of such names among the Agariyas, Nats, Baiswārs, and -Ghasiyas have been given in detail elsewhere. [392] Thus, to take -the Dhāngars, a caste in Mirzapur, allied to the Orāons of Bengal, -we find that they have eight exogamous septs, all or most of which -are of totemistic origin. Thus, Ilha is said to mean a kind of fish, -which members of this sept do not eat; Kujur is a kind of jungle herb -which this sept does not use; Tirik is probably the Tirki or bull sept -of the Orāons. In Chota Nāgpur, members of this sept do not touch any -cattle after their eyes are open. It illustrates the uncertainty of -these usages that in other places they say that the word Tirki means -"young mice," which they are prohibited from using. [393] Again, -the Mirzapur sept of the Dhāngars, known as Lakara, is apparently -identical with that called Lakrar among the Bengal Orāons, who must not -eat tiger's flesh as they are named after the tiger; in Mirzapur they -derive their name from the Lakar Bagha, or hyęna, which they will not -hunt or kill. The Bara sept is apparently the same as the Barar of the -Orāons, who will not eat the leaves of the Bar tree or Ficus Indica. In -Mirzapur they will not cut this tree. The Ekka sept in Mirzapur say -that this name means "leopard," an animal which they will not kill, -but in Chota Nāgpur the same word is said to mean "tortoise" and to -be a totemistic sept of the Orāons. So, the Mirzapur Dhāngars have -a Tiga sept, which they say takes its name from a jungle root which -is prohibited to them; but the Orāons of Bhāgalpur have a Tig sept, -which, according to them, means "monkey." The last of the Mirzapur -septs is the Khāha, which, like the Khakkar sept of the Orāons, means -"crow," and neither will eat the bird. Similar instances might be -almost indefinitely repeated from usages of the allied tribes in -Mirzapur and the adjoining Bengal Districts. - - - -The Panjāb Snake Tribe. - -In the Panjāb there is a special snake tribe. They observe every -Monday and Thursday in the snake's honour, cooking rice and milk, -setting a portion aside for the snake, and never eating or making -butter on those days. If they find a dead snake, they put clothes -upon it, and give it a regular funeral. They will not kill a snake, -and say that its bite is harmless to them. The snake, they say, changes -its form every hundred years, and then becomes a man or a bull. [394] -So, in Senegambia, "a python is expected to visit every child of the -Python clan within eight days after birth; and the Psylli, a snake -clan of ancient Africa, used to expose their infants to snakes in -the belief that the snakes would not harm true-born children of the -clan." [395] So, in Northern India the Bais Rājputs are children of -the snake, and supposed to be safe from its bite, and Nāga Rāja is -the tribal godling of the Bājgis. There is a well-known legend of a -queen of India, who is said to have sent to Alexander, among other -costly presents, a girl, who, having been fed with serpents from her -infancy, partook of their venomous nature. The well-known tale of -Elsie Venner has been already referred to in the same connection. - - - -Totemism in Proper Names. - -The subject of Indian proper names has not yet received the attention -it deserves. The only attempt to investigate the subject, so far, -is that of Major Temple. [396] In his copious lists there is ample -evidence that names are freely adopted from those of animals, plants, -etc. Thus we have Bagha, "Tiger"; Bheriya, "Wolf"; Billa, "Cat"; -Chūha, "Rat," and so on from animals; Bagla, "Heron"; Tota, "Parrot," -and so on from birds; Ajgar, "Python"; Mendak, "Frog"; Kachhua, -"Tortoise;"; Bhaunra, "Bumble Bee"; Ghun, "Weevil"; Dīmak, "White -Ant," etc. From plants come Būta, "Tree"; Harabansa, "Green Bamboo" -(or more probably Hari-vansa, "the genealogy of Hari" or Vishnu); Nīma, -"Nīm tree"; Pīpal, "Pīpal tree"; Gulāba, "Rose"; Imliya, "Tamarind"; -Sewa, "Apple"; Ilācha, "Cardamum"; Mirchi, "Pepper"; Bhutta, "Maize." - -The evidence of nomenclature must, of course, be received with -caution. The essence of totemism is a confessed belief in animal -descent, a name declaring that descent and some sacredness attached -to the animal or other fancied ancestor. Many of these names may be -nicknames, or titles of opprobrium selected, as we have already shown, -to baffle the Evil Eye or the influence of demons. Besides, as has been -pointed out, it does not necessarily follow because an Englishman lives -in "Acacia Villa" or "Laburnum Cottage," and calls his daughter "Rose" -or "Violet," that he is in the totemistic stage. At the same time, -it is quite possible that further inquiry will discover undoubted -instances of totemism in the nomenclature of Northern India, as is -the case with other races in a similar stage of culture. - - - -Descent from the Totem. - -We next come to Professor Robertson-Smith's second test, the belief -in descent from the totem. This branch of the subject has been very -fully illustrated by Mr. Frazer. [397] As in old times in Georgiana, -according to Marco Polo, all the king's sons were born with an -eagle on the right shoulder marking their royal origin, [398] so -Chandragupta, king of Ujjain, was the son of a scorpion. "His mother -accidentally imbibed the scorpion's emission, by means of which she -conceived." [399] The Jaitwas of Rājputāna trace their descent from -the monkey god Hanumān, and confirm it by alleging that the spine -of their princes is elongated like a tail. In the Rāmāyana, one of -the wives of King Sāgara gives birth to a son who continues the race; -the other wife produces an Ikshvāku, a gourd or cane containing sixty -thousand sons. The famous Chandragupta was miraculously preserved by -the founder of his race, the bull Chando. [400] The wolf is in the -same way traditionally connected with the settlement of the Janwār -Rājputs in Oudh, and they believe that the animal never preys on their -children. Every native believes that children are reared in the dens -of wolves, and there is a certain amount of respectable evidence in -support of the belief. [401] - -Similar examples are numerous among the Drāvidian tribes. The Cheros -of the Vindhyan plateau claim descent from the Nāga or dragon. The -Rāja and chief members of the Chota Nāgpur family wear turbans so -arranged as to make the head-dress resemble a serpent coiled round -the skull, with its head projecting over the wearer's brow. The seal -of the Mahārāja and the arms of his family show as a crest a cobra -with a human face under its expanded hood, surrounded with all the -insignia of royalty. The Santāl legend ascribes the origin of the -tribe to the wild goose, and similar stories are told by the family -of the Rāja of Sinhbhūm, the Hos, the Malers, and the Kūrs. [402] - - - -Special Respect Paid to the Totem. - -Next come instances of special respect paid to the totem. Some idea -of the kind may be partly the origin of the worship of the cow and -the serpent. Dr. Ball describes how some Khāndhs refused to carry the -skin of a leopard because it was their totem. [403] The Kadanballis of -Kanara will not eat the Sāmbhar stag, the Bargaballis the Barga deer, -and the Kuntiballis the woodcock. The Vaydas of Cutch worship the -monkey god whom they consider to be their ancestor, and to please him -in their marriage ceremony, the bridegroom goes to the bride's house -dressed up as a monkey and there leaps about in monkey fashion. [404] -It is possibly from regard to the totem that the Parihār Rājputs of -Rājputāna will not eat the wild boar, but they have now invented a -legend that one of their princes went into a river while pursuing a -boar and was cured of a loathsome disease. [405] There is a Celtic -legend in which a child is turned into a pig, and Gessa is laid -on Diarmid not to kill a pig, as it has the same span of life as -himself. [406] - -The Bengal Bāwariyas take the heron as their emblem, and must not eat -it. [407] The Orissa Kumhārs abstain from eating, and even worship -the Sāl fish, because the rings on its scales resemble the wheel -which is the symbol of their craft. [408] The peacock is a totem -of the Jāts and of the Khāndhs, as the Yizidis worship the Tāous, -a half mythical peacock, which has been connected with the Phoenix -which Herodotus saw in Egypt. [409] The Parhaiyas have a tradition -that their tribe used to hold sheep and deer sacred, and used the -dung of these animals instead of cowdung to plaster their floors. So -the Kariyas do not eat the flesh of sheep, and may not even use a -woollen rug. The same prohibition of meats appears to be a survival -of totemism in Arabia. [410] - - - -The Devak. - -One of the best illustrations of this form of totemism is that of the -Devak or family guardian gods of Berār and Bombay. Before concluding -an alliance, the Kunbi and other Berār tribes look to the Devak, -which literally means the deity worshipped at marriage ceremonies; -the fact being that certain families hold in honour particular trees -and plants, and at the marriage ceremony branches of these trees are -set up in the house. It is said that a betrothal, in every other -respect irreproachable, will be broken off if the two houses are -discovered to pay honour to the same tree, in other words if they -worship the same family totem and hence must belong to one and the -same endogamous group. [411] - -The same custom prevails in Bombay. "The usual Devaks are some -animals, like the elephant, stag, deer, or cock, or some tree, as -the Jambul, Ber, Mango, or Banyan. The Devak is the ancestor or the -head of the house, and so families which have the same guardian do not -intermarry. If the Devak be an animal, its flesh is not eaten; but if -it be a fruit tree, the use of the fruit generally is not forbidden, -though some families abstain from eating the fruit of the tree which -forms their Devak or badge." [412] Mr. Campbell gives numerous examples -of these family totems, such as wheat bread, a shell, an earthen pot, -an axe, a Banyan tree, an elephant. Oil-makers have as their totem an -iron bar, or an oil-mill; scent-makers use five piles, each of five -earthen pots, with a lighted lamp in the middle. The Bangars' Devak is -a conch-shell, that of the Pardesi Rājputs an earthen pot filled with -wheat, and so on. Many of these are probably tribal or occupational -fetishes, of which instances will be given in another place. - - - -The Vāhanas and Avatāras. - -Some have professed to find indications of totemism in the Vāhanas -and Avatāras, the "Vehicles" and the "Incarnations" of the mythology; -but this is far from certain. It has been suggested that these may -represent tribal deities imported into Hinduism. Brahma rides on the -Hansa or goose; Vishnu on Garuda, half eagle and half man, which is -the crest of the Chandravansi Rājputs; Siva on his bull Nandi; Yama -on a buffalo; Kārttikeya on a peacock; Kāmadeva on the marine monster -Makara, or on a parrot; Agni on a ram; Varuna on a fish. Ganesa is -accompanied by his rat, whence his name Akhuratha, "rat-borne." This -an ingenious comparative mythologist makes out to represent "the pagan -Sun god crushing under his feet the mouse of night." [413] Vāyu rides -on an antelope, Sani or Saturn on a vulture, and Durgā on a tiger. - -The same is the case with the Avatāras or incarnations of the -deities. Vishnu appears in the form of Vārāha, the boar; Kurma, the -tortoise; Matsya, the fish; Nara Sinha, the man-lion; Kalki, the white -horse. Rudra and Indra are also represented in the form of the boar. - - - -The Boar as a Totem. - -How the boar came to be associated with Vishnu has been much -disputed. One and not a very plausible explanation which has -been suggested is that it is because the boar is a destroyer of -snakes. [414] We know that in Rājputāna there was a regular spring -festival at which the boar was killed because he was regarded as the -special enemy of Gaurī, the Rājput tribal goddess. [415] - -The comparative mythologists account for the spring boar festival -by connecting it with the ceremonial eating of the boar's head at -Christmas in Europe, as a symbol of the gloomy monster of winter, -killed at the winter solstice, after which the days get longer and -brighter. [416] Mr. Frazer explains it by the killing of the Corn -Spirit in the form of the boar. [417] - -But it is, perhaps, simpler to believe with Sir A. Lyall [418] that -"when the Brāhmans convert a tribe of pig-worshipping aborigines, -they tell their proselytes that the pig was an Avatār of Vishnu. The -Mīnas in one part of Rājputāna used to worship the pig. When they -took a turn towards Islām they changed their pig into a saint called -Father Adam, and worshipped him as such." Mr. Frazer has pointed -out that the "customs of the Egyptians touching the pig are to be -explained as based upon an opinion of the extreme sanctity rather -than of the extreme uncleanness of the animal; or rather to put it -more correctly, they imply that the animal was looked on not simply -as a filthy and a disgusting creature, but as a being endowed with -high supernatural powers, and that as such it was regarded with that -primitive sentiment of religious awe and fear in which the feelings -of reverence are almost equally blended." - -There are indications of the same belief in India. Thus, in Baghera -"the boar is a sacred animal, and the natives there say that if any -man were to kill a wild boar in the neighbourhood, he would be sure to -die immediately afterwards, while no such fatal result would follow if -the same man killed a boar anywhere else." [419] In the same way the -Prabhus of Bombay eat wild pork once a year as a religious duty. The -Vaddars of the Dakkhin say that they are not troubled with ghosts, -because the pork they eat and hang in their houses scares ghosts. We -know that among the Drāvidian races and many of the menial tribes -of Hindustān the pig is the favourite offering to the local godlings -and to the deities of disease. Swine's teeth are often worn by Hindu -ascetics, and among the Kolarian races the women are forbidden to -eat the flesh. In Northern India the chief place where the worship of -Vishnu in his Vārāha or boar incarnation is localized is at Soron on -the banks of the Būrhī Gangā, or old Ganges, in the Etah District. The -name of the place has been derived from Sukarakshetra, "the place of -the good deed," because here Vishnu slew the demon Hiranyakesu. It -is certainly Sukarakshetra, "the plain of the hog." [420] - -Garuda, another of these vehicles, is the wonder-working bird common -to many mythologies--the Rukh of the Arabian Nights, the Eorosh of -the Zend, the Simurgh of the Persians, the Anka of the Arabs, the -Kargas of the Turks, the Kirni of the Japanese, the Dragon of China, -the Norka of Russia, the Phoenix of classical fable, the Griffin of -chivalry and of Temple Bar. - -From totemism we get a clue to many curious usages, especially in the -matter of food. From this idea probably arose the unclean beasts of -the Hebrew ritual. Many Hindu tribes will not eat the onion or the -turnip. Brāhmans and Bachgoti Rājputs object to potatoes. The Rājputs -place a special value on the wood of the Nīm tree; one clan alone, -the Raikwārs, are forbidden to use it as a tooth-stick. Some Kolarian -tribes, as we have already seen, refuse to use the flesh or wool of -the sheep. The Murmu, or Santāls of the blue bull sept, will not eat -the flesh of that animal. The system of the Orāons is more elaborate -still, for no sub-tribe can eat the plant or animal after which it -is named. So, the Bansetti Binjhiyas, who take their name from the -bamboo, do not touch the tree at a wedding; the Harbans Chamārs, who -are said to be in some way connected with a bone (hadda), cannot wear -bones in any shape; the Rikhiāsan Chiks do not eat beef or pork; the -Sanuāni Dhenuārs cannot wear gold; the Dhanuār Khariyas cannot eat rice -gruel. Numerous instances of this kind are given by Mr. Risley. [421] -The transition from such observances and restrictions to the elaborate -food regulations of the modern castes is not difficult. - - - -Fetishism Defined. - -Fetishism is "the straightforward, objective admiration of -visible substances fancied to possess some mysterious influence -or faculty.... The original downright adoration of queer-looking -objects is modified by passing into the higher order of imaginative -superstition. First, the stone is the abode of some spirit, its -curious shape or position betraying possession. Next, the strange -form or aspect argues some design or handiwork of supernatural beings, -or is the vestige of their presence upon earth, and one step further -leads us to the regions of mythology and heroic legend." [422] -The unusual appearance of the object is thus supposed to imply an -indwelling ghost, without which deviation from the ordinary type -would be inexplicable. Hence fetishism depends on animism and the -ghost theory, to which in order of time it must have succeeded. - - - -Fetishism Illustrated in Afghānistān. - -The process by which the worship of such a fetish grows is well -illustrated by a case from Afghānistān. "It is sufficient for an Afghān -devotee to see a small heap of stones, a few rags, or some ruined tomb, -something, in short, upon which a tale can be invented, to imagine at -once that some saint is buried there. The idea conceived, he throws -some more stones upon the heap and sticks up a pole or flag; those -who come after follow the leader; more stones and more rags are added; -at last its dimensions are so considerable that it becomes the vogue; -a Mullah is always at hand with a legend which he makes or had revealed -to him in a dream; all the village believe it: a few pilgrims come; -crowds follow; miracles are wrought, and the game goes on, much to -the satisfaction of the holy speculator, who drives a good trade by -it, till some other Mullah more cunning than himself starts a saint -of more recent date and greater miraculous powers, when the traffic -changes hands." [423] - -The same process is daily going on before our eyes in Northern India, -and it would be difficult to suggest anything curious or abnormal -which the Hindu villager will not adopt as fetish. - - - -The Lorik Legend. - -The legend of Lorik is very popular among the Ahīr tribe, and has been -localized in the Mirzapur District in a curious way which admirably -illustrates the principles which we have been discussing. The -story is related at wearisome length, but the main features of it, -according to the Shāhābād version, are as follows: Siudhar, an Ahīr, -marries Chandanī, and is cursed by Pārvatī with the loss of all -passion. Chandanī forms an attachment for her neighbour Lorik and -elopes with him. The husband pursues, fails to induce her to return, -fights Lorik and is beaten. The pair go and meet Mahapatiya, a Dusādh, -the chief of the gamblers. He and Lorik play until the latter loses -everything, including the girl. She urges that her jewels did not -form part of the stake, and induces them to gamble again. She stands -opposite Mahapatiya and distracts his attention by giving him a -glance of her pretty ankles. Finally Lorik wins everything back. The -girl then tells Lorik how she has been insulted, and Lorik with his -mighty sword cuts off the gambler's head, when it and the body are -turned into stone. - -Lorik had been betrothed to a girl named Satmanāin, who was not of -age and had not joined her husband. Lorik had an adopted brother -named Semru. Lorik and Chandanī, after killing the gambler, went on -to Hardoi, near Mongir, where Lorik defeated a Rāja and conquered his -country. Lorik was finally seized and put into a dungeon, whence he -was released by the aid of the goddess Durgā. - -He again conquered the Rāja, recovered Chandanī, had a son born to -him, and gained considerable wealth. So they determined to return to -their native land. - -Meanwhile Semru, Lorik's brother by adoption, had been killed by the -Kols and all his cattle and property were plundered. Lorik's real -wife, Satmanāin, had grown into a handsome woman, but still remained -in her father's house. Lorik was anxious to test her fidelity; so -when she came to sell milk in his camp, not knowing her husband, -he stretched a loin cloth across the entrance. All the other women -stepped over it, but the delicacy of Satmanāin was so excessive that -she would not put her foot across it. Lorik was pleased, and filling -her basket with jewels, covered them with rice. When she returned, -her sister saw the jewellery and charged her with obtaining them as -the price of her dishonour. She indignantly denied the accusation, -and her nephew, Semru's son, prepared to fight Lorik to avenge the -dishonour of his aunt. Next day the matter was cleared up to the -satisfaction of all parties. - -Lorik then reigned with justice, and incurred the displeasure of Indra, -who sought to destroy him. So the goddess Durgā took the form of his -mistress Chandanī and tempted him. He succumbed to her wiles, and -she struck him so that his face turned completely round. Overcome by -grief and shame, he went to Benares, and there he and his friends were -turned into stone and sleep the sleep of magic at Manikarnika Ghāt. - - - -The Mirzapur Version. - -The Mirzapur version is interesting from its association with -fetishism. As you descend the Mārkundi Pass into the valley of the -Son, you observe a large isolated boulder split into two parts, -with a narrow fissure between them. Further on in the bed of the Son -is a curious water-worn rock, which, to the eye of faith, suggests -a rude resemblance to a headless elephant. On this foundation has -been localized the legend of Lorik, which takes us back to the time -when the Aryan and the aboriginal Dasyu contended for mastery in -the wild borderland. There was once, so the tale runs, a barbarian -king who reigned at the fort of Agori, the frontier fortress on the -Son. Among his dependents was a cowherd maiden, named Manjanī, who -was loved by her clansman Lorik. He, with his brother Sānwar, came -to claim her as his bride. The Rāja insisted on enforcing the Jus -primae noctis. The heroic brethren, in order to escape this infamy, -carried off the maiden. The Rāja pursued on his famous wild elephant, -which Lorik decapitated with a single blow. - -When they reached in their flight the Mārkundi Pass, the wise Manjanī -advised Lorik to use her father's sword, which, with admirable -forethought, she had brought with her. He preferred his own weapon, -but she warned him to test both. His own sword broke to pieces -against the huge boulder of the Pass, but Manjanī's weapon clave it -in twain. So Lorik and his brother, with the aid of the magic brand, -defeated the infidel hosts with enormous slaughter, and carried off -the maiden in triumph. - -If you doubt the story, there are the cloven boulder and the petrified -elephant to witness to its truth, and both are worshipped to this day -in the name of Lorik and his bride with offerings of milk and grain. - -This tale embodies a number of incidents which constantly appear in -the folk-tales. We have the gambling match in the Mahābhārata and in -the tale of Nala and Damayantī, as well as in the Celtic legend of -the young king of Easaidh Ruadh. [424] The magic sword and the various -fidelity tests appear both in the folk-tales of the East and West. - -Of living creatures turned into stone we have many instances in -connection with the Pāndava legend, as in Cornwall, the granite rocks -known as the "Merry Maidens" and the "Pipers" are a party who broke -the Sabbath, were struck by lightning, and turned into stone. [425] - - - -Jirāyā Bhavānī. - -Of a similar type is Jirāyā Bhavānī, who is worshipped at Jungail, -south of the Son. In her place of worship, a cave on the hillside, -the only representative of the goddess is an ancient rust-eaten coat -of mail. This gives her name, which is a corruption of the Persian -Zirah, meaning a coat of armour. Close by is a little stream, known -as the Suaraiya, the meaning of which is, of course, assumed to be -"Hog river," from the Hindi Sūar, a pig. Here we have all the elements -of a myth. In one of the early fights between Hindu and Musalmān, -a wounded hero of Islām came staggering to the bank of the stream, -and was about to drink, when he heard that its name was connected -with what is an abomination to the true believer. So he preferred -to die of thirst, and no one sees any incongruity in the fact that -the armour of a martyr of the faith has become a form of the Hindu -goddess. The shrine is now on its promotion, and Jirāyā Bhavānī will -be provided with a Sanskrit etymology and develop before long into -a genuine manifestation of Kālī. - - - -Village Fetish Stones. - -It is hardly necessary to say that, as Sir J. Lubbock has shown, the -worship of fetish stones prevails in all parts of the world. [426] -There is hardly a village in Northern India without a fetish of this -kind, which is very often not appropriated to any special deity, but -represents the Grāmadevatā or Gānw-devī, or Deohār, the collective -local divine cabinet which has the affairs of the community under -its charge. - -Why spirits should live in stones has been debated. Mr. Campbell -perhaps presses the matter too far when he suggests that stones were -by early man found to contain fire, and that heated stones being found -useful in disease, cooking, and the like may have strengthened the -idea. "The earliest theory was perhaps that as the life of the millet -was in the millet seed and the life of the Mango tree was in the Mango -stone, a human spirit could live in a rock or a pebble. The belief -that the soul, or part of the soul of a man, lives in his bones, -seems closely connected with the belief in the stone as a spirit -house. Probably it was an early belief that the bones should be kept, -so that if the spirit comes back and worries the survivors he may -have a place to go to." [427] - -It is quite possible that the worship of stocks and stones may not in -all places be based on exactly the same train of ideas. To the ruder -races, the more curious or eccentric the form of the stone is, the more -likely it is to be the work and possibly the abode of a spirit, and -in a stoneless land, like the Gangetic plain, any stone is a wonder, -and likely to be revered. The conception of the worshipper will always -vary in regard to it. To the savage it will be the actual home or -the occasional resting-place of the spirit; to the idolater of more -advanced ideas it will be little more than a symbol, which reminds -him of the deity without shape or form whom he is bound to worship. - -Other fetish stones, again, by their form prove that they are the -work of another or a higher race. Thus, on the village fetish mounds -we often find the carved relics of some Buddhistic shrine, or the -prehistoric stone implements, which were the work of a forgotten -people. - -Lastly, many stones lend themselves directly to the needs of the -phallic cultus. - -One form of stone is regarded with special reverence, those that have -holes or perforations. Among these may be mentioned the Sālagrāma, a -sort of ammonite found in the Gandak river, which has perforations, -said to be the work of the Vajrakīta insect and hence sacred to -Vishnu. The story goes that the divine Nārāyana once wandered through -the world in the form of the Vajrakīta or golden bee. The gods, -attracted by his beauty, also took the form of bees, and whirled -about him in such numbers that Vishnu, afraid of the consequences, -assumed the form of a rock and stopped the moving of Garuda and the -gods. On this Garuda, followed by all the gods, made each a separate -dwelling in the rock for the conversion of the infidels. So the Cornish -Milpreve, or adder stone which is a preservative against vipers, is a -ball of coralline limestone, the sections in the coral being thought -to be entangled young snakes. [428] In Italy, pieces of stalagmite -full of cavities are valued as amulets. - -The respect for these perforated stones rests, again, on the well-known -principle that looking through a stone which has a hole bored through -it improves the sight. - -All over the world it is a recognized theory that creeping through the -orifice in a perforated stone or under an arching stone or tree is -a valuable remedy in cases of disease. Mr. Lane describes how women -in Cairo walk under the stone on which the decapitated bodies of -criminals are washed, in the hope of curing ophthalmia or procuring -offspring. The woman must do this in silence, and with the left foot -foremost. [429] In Cornwall, Mr. Hunt writes: "In various parts of -the country there are, amongst the granitic masses, rocks which have -fallen across each other, leaving small openings, or there are holes, -low and narrow, extending under a pile of rocks. In nearly every case -of this kind, we find it is popularly stated that any one suffering -from rheumatism or lumbago would be cured if he crawled through the -opening. In some cases nine times are insisted on to make the charm -complete." [430] So, walking under a bramble which has formed a second -root in the earth is a cure for rheumatism, and strumous children -were passed nine times through a cleft ash tree, against the sun. The -tree was then bound up, and if the bark grew the child was cured, -if the tree died the death of the child was sure to follow. [431] - -In the same way at many shrines it is part of the worship to creep -through a narrow orifice from one side to the other. At Kankhal, -worshippers at the temple of Daksha creep through a sort of tunnel -from one side to the other. The same is the rule at the temple at -Kabraiya in the Hamīrpur District, and at many other places of the -same kind. [432] - -The same principle probably accounts for the respect paid to the -grindstone. Part of the earliest form of the marriage ritual consisted -in the bride standing on the family grindstone. At the present day she -puts her foot upon it and knocks down little piles of heaped grain. It -is waved over the heads of the pair to scare evil spirits. In Bombay -it is said that sitting on a grindstone shortens life, and the Kunbis -of Kolāba place a grindstone in the lying-in room, and on it set a -rice flour image of a woman, which is worshipped as the goddess, -and the baby is laid before it. Such a stone readily passes into -a fetish, as at Ahmadnagar, where there is a stone with two holes, -which any two fingers of any person's hand can fill, and the mosque -where it stands is, in consequence, much respected. [433] - -Much, however, of the worship of stones appears to be the result of -the respect paid to the tombstone or cairn, which, as we have already -said, keeps down the ghost of the dead man, and is often a place in -which his spirit chooses to reside. - -These rude stones are very often smeared with ruddle or red ochre. We -have here a survival of the blood sacrifice of a human being or animal -which was once universal. [434] Such sacrifices rest on the principle -that it is necessary to supply attendants to the dead or to the tribal -gods in the other world; and the commutation of human sacrifices, -first into those of animals, and then into a mere scarlet stain on -the fetish stone, is a constantly recurring fact in the history of -custom. [435] It may be worth while to discuss this transition from -the Indian evidence. - - - -Human Sacrifice among the Indo-Aryans. - -That human sacrifice prevailed among the early Aryans in India is -generally admitted. The whole question has been treated in detail by -that eminent Hindu scholar, Rajendra Lāla Mitra. He arrives at the -conclusion that, looking to the history of the ancient civilization -and the ritual of the Hindus, there is nothing to justify the belief -that the Hindus were incapable of sacrificing human victims to their -gods; that the Sunasepha hymns of the Rig Veda Sanhita most probably -refer to a human sacrifice; that the Aitareya Brāhmana refers to an -actual and not to a typical human sacrifice; that the Parushamedha -originally required the actual sacrifice of men; that the Taitareya -Brāhmana enjoys the killing of a man at the horse sacrifice; that -the Satapatha Brāhmana sanctions human sacrifice in some cases, but -makes the Parushamedha emblematic; that the Purānas recognize human -sacrifices to Chandikā, but prohibit the Parushamedha rite; that the -Tantras enjoin human sacrifices to Chandikā, and require that when -human victims are not available, an effigy of a human being should -be sacrificed to her. [436] - - - -Human Sacrifice in the Folk-tales. - -There is ample evidence from the folk-tales of the existence of -human sacrifice in early times. We have in the tales of Somadeva -constant reference to human sacrifices made in honour of Chandikā -or Chāmundā. We find one Muravara, a Turushka or Indo-Scythian, who -proposes to make a human sacrifice in memory of his dead father; we -have expiatory sacrifices to Chandikā to save the life of a king. In -one of the Panjāb tales a ship will not leave port till a human victim -is offered. In one of the modern tales we have an account of a man -and his family who sacrifice themselves before the god Jyoti Bara, -"the great diviner," who is worshipped by the Sānsya gypsies. [437] - -The folk-tales also disclose ample evidence of cannibalism. The -Magian cannibals of the Book of Sindibad used to eat human flesh -raw, and the same tale is told by Herodotus of the Massagetae, the -Padaei of India, whom Col. Dalton identifies with the Birhors of -Chota Nāgpur, and of the Essedones near Lake Moeotis. [438] It is -needless to say that Indian folk-tales abound with references to the -same practices. We have cannibal Rākshasas in abundance, and in one of -Somadeva's stories Devaswāmin, the Brāhman, looks out and finds his -"wife's mouth stained with blood, for she had devoured his servant -and left nothing of him but the bones." And in the tale of Asokadatta -we have a woman who climbs on a stake and cuts slices of the flesh -of an impaled criminal, which she eats. [439] In the Mahābhārata we -find the legend of Kalmashapada, who, while hunting, meets Saktri, -son of Vasishtha, and strikes him with his whip. The incensed sage -cursed him to become a cannibal. This curse was heard by Viswamitra, -the rival of Vasishtha, and he so contrived that the body of the -king became possessed by a man-eating Rākshasa. Kalmashapada devoured -Saktri and the hundred sons of Vasishtha, who finally restored him to -his original state. In a tale recently collected among the Drāvidian -Mānjhis, a girl accidentally cuts her finger and some of the blood -falls upon the greens, whereupon her brothers, finding that it -flavoured the mess, killed and devoured her. [440] - - - -Human Sacrifice in Modern Times. - -Up to quite modern times the same was the case, and there is some -evidence to show that the custom has not quite ceased. - -Until the beginning of the present century, the custom of offering a -first-born child to the Ganges was common. Akin to this is the Gangā -Jātra, or murder of sick relatives on the banks of the sacred river, -of which a case occurred quite recently at Calcutta. At Katwa, near -Calcutta, a leper was burnt alive in 1812; he threw himself into a -pit ten cubits deep which was filled with burning coals. He tried -to escape, but his mother and sister thrust him in again and he was -burnt. They believed that by so doing he would gain a pure body in -the next birth. [441] Of this religious suicide in Central India, -Sir J. Malcolm wrote: "Self-sacrifice of men is less common than it -used to be, and the men who do it are generally of low tribes. One -of their chief motives is that they will be born Rājas at their next -incarnation. Women who have been long barren, vow their first child, if -one be given to them, to Omkār Mandhāta. The first knowledge imparted -to the infant is this vow, and the impression is so implanted in his -mind, that years before his death he seems like a man haunted by his -destiny. There is a tradition that anyone saved after the leap over -the cliff near the shrine must be made Rāja of the place; but to make -this impossible, poison is mixed with the last victuals given to the -devoted man, who is compelled to carry out his purpose." [442] - -The modern instances of human sacrifice among the Khāndhs of Bengal and -the Mers of Rājputāna are sufficiently notorious. It also prevailed -among some of the Drāvidian tribes up to quite recent times. The -Kharwārs, since adopting Hinduism, performed human sacrifices to Kālī -in the form of Chandī. Some of our people who fell into their hands -during the Mutiny were so dealt with. The same was the case with the -Bhuiyas, Khāndhs, and Mundas. Some of the Gonds of Sarguja used to -offer human sacrifice to Burha Deo, and still go through a form of -doing so. [443] There is a recent instance quoted among the Tiyars, -a class of boatmen in Benares; one Tonurām sacrificed four men in -the hope of recovering the treasures of seven Rājas; another man was -killed to propitiate a Rākshasa who guarded a treasure supposed to be -concealed in a house where the deed was committed. [444] About 1881 -a village headman sacrificed a human being to Kālī in the Sambalpur -District, and a similar charge was made against the chief of Bastar -not many years ago. - -Of the Karhāda Brāhmans of Bombay, Sir J. Malcolm writes: [445] -"The tribe of Brāhmans called Karhāda had formerly a horrid custom -of annually sacrificing to their deities a young Brāhman. The Saktī -is supposed to delight in human blood, and is represented with fiery -eyes and covered with red flowers. This goddess holds in one hand a -sword and in the other a battle-axe. The prayers of her votaries are -directed to her during the first nine days of the Dasahra feast, and -on the evening of the tenth a grand repast is prepared, to which the -whole family is invited. An intoxicating drug is contrived to be mixed -with the food of the intended victim, who is often a stranger whom the -master of the house has for several months treated with the greatest -kindness and attention, and sometimes, to lull suspicion, given him -his daughter in marriage. As soon as the poisonous and intoxicating -drug operates, the master of the house unattended takes the devoted -person into the temple, leads him three times round the idol, and on -his prostrating himself before it, takes this opportunity of cutting -his throat. He collects with the greatest care the blood in a small -bowl, which he first applies to the lips of the ferocious goddess, -and then sprinkles it over her body; and a hole having been dug at -the feet of the idol for the corpse, he deposits it with great care -to prevent discovery. After this the Karhāda Brāhman returns to his -family, and spends the night in mirth and revelry, convinced that -by the bloodthirsty act he has propitiated the goddess for twelve -years. On the morning of the following day the corpse is taken from -the hole in which it had been thrown, and the idol deposited till -next Dasahra, when a similar sacrifice is made." - -There seems reason to suspect that even in the present day such -sacrifices are occasionally performed at remote shrines of Kālī or -Durgā Devī. Within the last few years a significant case of the kind -occurred at Benares. There are numerous instances from Nepāl. [446] -At Jaypur, near Vizagapatam, the Rāja is said, at his installation -in 1861, to have sacrificed a girl to Durgā. [447] A recent case of -such sacrifice with the object of recovering hidden treasure occurred -in Berār; a second connected with witchcraft at Muzaffarnagar. [448] -At Chanda and Lanji in the Province of Nāgpur there are shrines to -Kālī at which human sacrifices to the goddess have been offered almost -within the memory of this generation. - -Besides the religious form of human sacrifice in honour of one of -these bloodthirsty deities, there are forms of the rite which depend -on the mystic power attributed to human flesh and blood in various -charms and black magic. - -In connection with human flesh a curious story is told of a man who -went to bathe in the Ganges, and met one of the abominable Faqīrs known -as Augars or Aghorpanthis, who carry about with them fragments of a -human corpse. He saw the Faqīr cut off and eat a piece of the flesh -of a corpse, and he then offered him a piece, saying that if he ate -it he would become enormously rich. He refused the ghastly food, and -the Faqīr then threw a piece at him which stuck to his head, forming a -permanent lump. [449] In one of the tales of Somadeva the witches are -seen flying about in the air, and say, "These are the magic powers of -witches' spells, and are due to the eating of human flesh." In another -the hero exchanges an anklet with a woman for some human flesh. [450] - -The same mysterious power is attributed to human blood. The blood of -the Jinn has, it is hardly necessary to say, special powers of its -own. Thus, in one of the Kashmīr stories the angel says: "This is -a most powerful Jinn. Should a drop of his blood fall to the ground -while life is in him, another Jinn will be quickly formed therefrom, -and spring up and slay you." [451] Bathing in human blood has been -regarded as a powerful remedy for disease. The Emperor Constantine -was ordered a bath of children's blood, but moved by the prayers -of the parents, he forbore to apply the remedy and was rewarded by -a miraculous recovery. In one of the European folk-tales a woman -desirous of offspring is directed to take a horn and cup herself, -draw out a clot of blood, place it in a pot, lute it down and only -uncover it in the ninth month, when a child would be found in the -pot. In the German folk-tales, bathing in the blood of innocent -maidens is a cure for leprosy. [452] - -The same beliefs largely prevail in India. In 1870, a Musalmān butcher -losing his child was told by a Hindu conjuror that if he washed his -wife in the blood of a boy, his next infant would be healthy. To -ensure this result a child was murdered. A similar case occurred -in Muzaffarnagar, where a child was killed and the blood drunk by -a barren woman. [453] In one of the tales of Somadeva the pregnant -queen asks her husband to gratify her longing by filling a tank with -blood for her to bathe in. He was a righteous man, and in order to -gratify her craving he had a tank filled with the juice of lac and -other extracts, so that it seemed to be full of blood. In another -tale the ascetic tells the woman that if she killed her young son and -offered him to the divinity, another son would certainly be born to -her. Quite recently at Muzaffarnagar a childless Jāt woman was told -that she would attain her desire if she bathed in water mixed with -the blood of a Brāhman child. A Hindu coolie at Mauritius bathed -in and drank the blood of a girl, thinking that thereby he would be -gifted with supernatural powers. It would be easy to add largely to -the number of instances of similar beliefs. [454] - - - -Survivals of Human Sacrifice. - -There are, in addition, numerous customs which appear to be survivals -of human sacrifice, or of the blood covenant, which also prevailed -in Arabia. [455] Among the lower castes in Northern India the -parting of the bride's hair is marked with red, a survival of the -original blood covenant, by which she was introduced into the sept -of her husband. We see that this is the case from the rites of the -more savage tribes. Among the Kewats of Bengal, a tiny scratch is -made on the little finger of the bridegroom's right hand and of the -bride's left, and the drops of blood drawn from these are mixed with -the food. Each then eats the food with which the other's blood has -been mixed. Among the Santāls blood is drawn in the same way from the -little finger of the bride and bridegroom, and with it marks are made -on both above the clavicle. [456] - - - -Human Sacrifice and Buildings. - -One standing difficulty at each decennial census has been the -rumour which spreads in remote tracts that Government is making the -enumeration with a view of collecting victims to be sacrificed at -some bridge or other building, or that a toll of pretty girls is to -be taken to reward the soldiery after some war. Thus, about a fort -in Madras it had long been a tradition that when it was first built a -girl had been built into the wall to render it impregnable. [457] It -is said that a Rāja was once building a bridge over the river Jargo at -Chunār, and when it fell down several times he was advised to sacrifice -a Brāhman girl to the local deity. She has now become the Marī or ghost -of the place, and is regularly worshipped in time of trouble. [458] In -Kumaun the same belief prevails, and kidnappers, known as Dokhutiya, -or two-legged beasts of prey, are said to go about capturing boys -for this purpose. In Kāthiāwār, if a castle was being built and the -tower would not stand, or if a pond had been dug and would not hold -water, a human victim was offered. [459] The rumour that a victim was -required spread quite recently in connection with the Hughli Bridge at -Calcutta and the Benares water-works. The Narmadā, it was believed, -would never allow herself to be bridged until she carried away part -of the superstructure, and caused the loss of lives as a sacrifice. At -Ahmadābād, by the advice of a Brāhman, a childless Vānya was induced to -dig a tank to appease the goddess Sītalā. The water refused to enter -it without the sacrifice of a man. As soon as the victim's blood fell -on the ground, the tank filled and the goddess came down from heaven -and rescued the victim. [460] In building the fort of Sikandarpur -in Baliya, a Brāhman and a Dusādh girl were both immolated. [461] -The Vadala lake in Bombay refused to hold water till the local -spirit was appeased by the sacrifice of the daughter of the village -headman. When the Shorkot fort was being built one side repeatedly -fell down. A Faqīr advised the Rāja to put a first-born son under the -rampart. This was done and the wall stood. The child's mother went to -Mecca, and returned with an army of Muhammadans; but they could not -take the fort. Then a Faqīr transformed himself into a cock and flew -on the roof of the palace, where he set up a loud crow. The Rāja was -frightened and abandoned the place. As he was leaving it, he shouted, -"Shame on thee, O Fort! to remain standing!" and the walls at once -fell down. [462] - - - -Modifications of Human Sacrifice. - -There are also many instances of the transition from human sacrifices -to those of a milder form. Thus, when Ahmadābād was building, Mānik -Bāwa, a saint, every day made a cushion, and every night picked it to -pieces. As he did so the day's work fell down. The Sultān refrained -from sacrificing him, but got him into a small jar and kept him there -till the work was over. [463] The Villālis of Pūna on the fifteenth -day after a death shape two bricks like human beings, dress them, -and lay them on a wooden stool. They weep by them all night, and -next day, taking them to the burning ground, cremate them. Among -the Telugu Brāhmans of Pūna, if a man dies at an unlucky time, -wheaten figures of men are made and burnt with the corpse. The Konkani -Marāthas of Kanara on the feast of Raulnāth get a man to cut his hand -with a knife and let three drops of blood fall on the ground. [464] -Formerly in Hoshangābād, men used to swing themselves from a pole, -as in the famous Bengal Charakh Pūjā. In our territories this is now -uncommon, as the village headmen being afraid of responsibility for -an accident, generally, instead of a man, fasten up a white pumpkin, -which they swing about. [465] - -At the installation of a Bhuiya Rāja, a man comes forward whom the -Rāja touches on the neck, as if about to cut off his head. The victim -disappears for three days; then he presents himself before the Rāja, -as if miraculously restored to life. Similarly, the Gonds, instead of -a human sacrifice, now make an image of straw, which they find answers -the purpose. The Bhuiyas of Keunjhar used to offer the head of their -prime minister to Thakurānī Māī. She is now transformed into the Hindu -Durgā and accepts a sacrifice of goats and sheep. [466] In Nepāl, -after the Sithi Jātra feast, the people divide into two parties and -have a match at stone-throwing; formerly this used to be a serious -matter, and any one who was knocked down and fell into the hands of -the other side was sacrificed to the goddess Kankeswarī. The actual -killing of the victim, as in the case of sacrifices to the goddess -Bachhlā Devī, has now been discontinued under the influence of British -officers. [467] We shall meet later on in another connection other -instances of mock fights of the same kind. - - - -Momiāī. - -In connection with human sacrifice may be mentioned the curious -superstition about Momiāī or mummy. - -The virtues of human fat as a magical ointment appear all through -folk-lore. Othello, referring to the handkerchief which he had given -to Desdemona, says,-- - - - "It was dyed in the mummy which the skilful - Conserved of maidens' hearts." - - -Writing of witches Reginald Scot says: "The devil teacheth them to -make ointment of the bowels and members of children, whereby they -ride in the air and accomplish all their desires. After burial they -steal them out of their graves and seethe them in a cauldron till -the flesh be made potable, of which they make an ointment by which -they ride in the air." In Macbeth the first witch speaks of-- - - - "Grease that sweaten - From the murderer's gibbet." - - -Indian witches are believed to use the same mystic preparation to -enable them to fly through the air, as their European sisters are -supposed to use the fat of a toad. [468] Human fat is believed to be -specially efficacious for this purpose. In one of Somadeva's stories -the Brāhman searches for treasure with a candle made of human fat in -his hand. [469] One of the Mongol Generals, Marco Polo tells us, was -accused of boiling down human beings and using their fat to grease -his mangonels; and Carpini says that when the Tartars cast Greek -fire into a town they used to shoot human fat with it, in order to -cause the fire to burn more quickly. [470] So, in Europe a candle -of human fat is said to have been used by robbers with the Hand of -Glory to prevent the inmates waking, and on the Scotch border the -torch used in the mystic ceremony of "saining" was made from the fat -of a slaughtered enemy. [471] - -In India, the popular idea about Momiāī is that a boy, the fatter and -blacker the better, is caught, a small hole is bored in the top of -his head, and he is hung up by the heels over a slow fire. The juice -or essence of his body is in this way distilled into seven drops of -the potent medicine known as Momiāī. - -This substance possesses healing properties of a supernatural -kind. Sword cuts, spear thrusts, wounds from arrows and other weapons -of warfare are instantly cured by its use, and he who possesses it -is practically invulnerable. In Kumaun, this substance is known as -Nārāyan Tel or Rām Tel, the "oil of Vishnu or Rāma." - -It is further believed that a European gentleman, known as the -Momiāī-wāla Sāhib, has a contract from Government of the right of -enticing away suitable boys for this purpose. He makes them smell a -stick or wand, which obliges them to follow him, and he then packs -them off to some hill station where he carries on this nefarious -manufacture. - -As an instance of this belief, "A very black servant of a friend of -mine states that he had a very narrow escape from this Sāhib at the -Nauchandi fair at Meerut, where Government allows him to walk about -for one day and make as many suitable victims as he can by means of -his stick. The Sāhib had just put his hand in his pocket and taken out -the stick, which was dry and shrivelled and about a span long, when -the servant with great presence of mind held out his hands and said, -'Bas! Bas!' 'Enough! enough!' Thus intimidated, the Sāhib went away -into the crowd. In connection with Momiāī, a lady here narrowly escaped -a very uncanny reputation. Some of her servants gave out that she -possessed a Momiāī stick, for which she had paid a hundred rupees. On -hearing this an inquiry was made which brought out that the lady had -missed a pod of vanilla about seven inches long, of a very special -quality, that she kept rolled up in a piece of paper among some of her -trinkets. The ayah who mislaid it was scolded for her carelessness, -and told that it was worth more than she thought. She promptly put -two and two together. The shrivelled appearance which is supposed to -be peculiar to mysterious sticks, such as snake charmers produce, -the fuss made about it, and the value attached to it convinced her -that her mistress owned a Momiāī stick." [472] - -These mystic sticks appear constantly in folk-lore. We have the -caduceus of Hermes, the rod of Moses, the staff of Elisha, the -wand of Circe, or of Gwydion or Skirni. In one of Somadeva's tales -the Kapālika ascetic has a magic stick which dances. In one of the -Kashmīr tales the magic wand placed under the feet of the prince makes -him insensible, when laid under his head he revives. Many people in -England still believe in the divining rod which points out concealed -springs underground. [473] - -Every native boy, particularly those who are black and fat, believes -himself a possible victim to the wiles of the dreaded Momiāī Sāhib, -who frequents hill stations because he is thus enabled to carry on -his villainous practices with comparative impunity and less danger -of detection. Even to whisper the word Momiāī is enough to make the -crowd of urchins who dog the steps of a district officer when he is on -his rounds through a town, disperse in dismay. Surgeons are naturally -exposed to the suspicion of being engaged in this awful business, and -some years ago most of the coolies deserted one of the hill stations, -because an enthusiastic anatomist set up a private dissecting-room of -his own. Freemasons, who are looked on by the general native public -as a kind of sorcerers or magicians, are also not free from this -suspicion. That such ideas should prevail among the rural population -of India is not to be wondered at, when in our own modern England it -is very commonly believed that luminous paint is made out of human -fat. [474] - - - -The Dānapurwāla Sāhib. - -Another of these dreaded Sāhibs is the Dānapurwāla Sāhib, or gentleman -from Dinapur. Why this personage should be connected with Dinapur, -a respectable British cantonment, no one can make out. At any rate, -it is generally believed that he has a contract from Government for -procuring heads for some of the museums, and he too has a magic stick -with which he entices unfortunate travellers on dark nights and chops -off their heads with a pair of shears. The influence of these magic -wands by smelling may perhaps be associated with the fact that the -nose is a spirit entry, as we have seen in the case of sneezing. - - - -Fetish Stones. - -To return after this digression to fetish stones. Of this phase -of belief we have well-known instances in the coronation stone in -Westminster Abbey, which is associated with the dream of Jacob, and -the Hajuru'l Aswad of Mecca, which Sir R. Burton believed to be an -aėrolite. No one will bring a stone from the Sacred Hill at Govardhan -near Mathura, because it is supposed to be endowed with life. The -Yādavas, who are connected with the same part of the country, had -a stone fetish, described in the Vishnu Purāna, which brought rain -and plenty. There are numerous legends connected with many of these -fetish stones, such as that in the temple of Daksha at Kankhal and -Gorakhnātha in Kheri, [475] which are said to owe the fissures in -them to the blow of the battle-axe or sword of one of the iconoclast -Muhammadan Emperors. Of Gorakhnātha it is said that Aurangzeb attempted -to drag up the great Lingam, and failed to do so even with the aid -of elephants. When he came to investigate the cause of his failure, -tongues of flame burst from the bottom of the pillar. - -The stalactites in the Behār Hills are regarded as the images of the -gods. [476] The pestle and mortar in which a noted Darvesh of Oudh -used to grind his drugs are now worshipped, and a leading family in -the Lucknow District keep before their family residence a large square -stone which they reverence. They say that their ancestors brought it -from Delhi, and that it is the symbol of their title to the estates, -which were granted to them by one of the Emperors. He enjoined them -to take it as the foundation of their settlement, and since that -time each new Rāja on his accession presents flowers, sweetmeats, -and money to it. [477] - -A great rock in the river above Badarināth, the famous shrine in -the Hills, is worshipped as Brahm Kapāl or the skull of Brahma, and -Nandā Devī, the mountain goddess of the Himālaya, is worshipped in -the form of two great stones glittering with mica, and reflecting the -rays of the sun. [478] At Amosi in the Lucknow District they worship -at marriages and birth of boys the door-post of the house of an old -Rājput leader, named Bināik, who is honoured with the title of Bāba or -"father." [479] At Deodhūra in the Hills the grey granite boulders -near the crest of the ridge are said to have been thrown there in -sport by the Pāndavas. Close to the temple of Devī at the same place -are two large boulders, the uppermost of which is called Ransila, or -"the stone of battle," and is cleft through the centre by a deep, -fresh-looking fissure, at right angles to which is a similar rift -in the lower rock. A small boulder on the top is said to have been -the weapon with which Bhīmsen produced these fissures, and the print -of his five fingers is still to be seen upon it. Ransila itself is -marked with the lines for playing the gambling game of Pachīsi, which, -though it led to their misfortunes, the Pāndavas even in their exile -could not abandon. There are many places where the marks of the hoofs -of the horse of Bhīmsen are shown. [480] "One spot on the margin -of Lake Regillus was regarded during many ages with superstitious -awe. A mark, resembling in shape a horse's hoof, was discernible in -the volcanic rock; and this mark was believed to have been made by -one of the celestial chargers." [481] - - - -Fetishes among the Santāls. - -The Santāls, like all uncivilized races, have a whole army of -fetishes. A round piece of wood, nearly a foot in length, the top -of which is painted red, is called Banhī, or "the protector of -the jungle." Another stands for Laghū, the goddess of the earth, -who is sometimes represented by a mountain. An oblong piece of wood, -painted red, stands for Mahāmāī, "the great Mother," Devī's daughter; -a small piece of white stone daubed with red is Burhiyā Māī, or "the -old Mother," her granddaughter; an arrow-head stands for Dūdhā Māī, -"the milk Mother," the daughter of Burhiyā; a trident painted red -represents the monkey god Hanumān, who executes all the orders of -Devī. "Sets of these symbols are placed, one on the east and one on -the west of their huts to protect them from evil spirits, snakes, -tigers, and all sorts of misfortune." [482] - -Very similar to this is the worship of Bīrnāth, the fetish of the -Mirzapur Ahīrs. His platform, which is made of clay, usually contains -one, three, or five rude wooden images, each about three feet high, -with a rough representation of a human face sculptured on the top. He -was, it is said, an Ahīr who was killed by a tiger, and he is now -worshipped by them in times of trouble. His special function is -to protect the cattle from beasts of prey. The worshipper bathes, -plasters his platform with fresh clay, and laying his offering on it, -says: "Bīrnāth! Keep our cattle safe and you will get more." The same -form of worship prevails all along the Central Indian Hills. "In the -south of the Bhandāra District the traveller frequently meets with -squared pieces of wood, each with a rude figure carved in front, -set up close to each other. These represent Bangarām, Bangarā Bāī, -or Devī, who is said to have one sister and five brothers, the sister -being styled Kālī, and four out of the five brothers being known as -Gantarām, Champarām, Nāikarām, and Potlinga. They are all deemed to -possess the power of sending disease and death upon men, and under -these or other names seem to be generally feared in the region east -of Nāgpur. Bhīmsen, again, is generally adored under the form of one -or two pieces of wood standing three or four feet in length above the -ground, like those set up in connection with Bangarām's worship." [483] - - - -Fetish Stones which Cure Disease. - -Many of these stones have the power of curing disease, and the water -with which they have been bathed is considered a useful medicine. This -is the case with a number of sacred Mahādeva Lingams all over the -country. A common proverb speaks of the old woman who is ready enough -to eat the Prasād or offering to the god, but hesitates to drink the -water in which his feet have been washed. In Western India no orthodox -Brāhman will eat his food till he has thrice sipped the water in which -his Sālagrāma stone has been washed. [484] We have already noticed -the fetish bowl, the washings of which are administered by midwives -to secure easy parturition. So, in Western lands the stones fetched -by Merlin had the power of healing if washed in water and the patient -bathed in it. [485] Stone celts are, in Cornwall, supposed to impart -a healing effect to water in which they have been soaked. [486] In -Java a decoction of the lichen which grows on fetish stones is used -as a remedy for disease. [487] In the Isle of Lewis cattle disease -is attributed to the bites of serpents, and the suffering animals are -made to drink water into which charm stones are put; in the Highlands -large crystals of a somewhat oval shape were kept by the priests to -work charms with, and water poured thereon was given to cattle as a -preventative of disease. [488] - - - -Fetish Stones the Abode of Spirits. - -The virtue of all these fetish stones rests in their embodying the -spirits of gods or deified men. As we have shown, this is a common -principle of popular belief. In one of Miss Stokes's Indian tales, -"The man who went to seek his fate," the fate is found in stones, -some standing up and some lying down. The man beats the stone which -embodies his fate because he is miserably poor. Mr. H. Spencer thinks -that the idea of persons being turned into stones may have arisen from -instances of actual petrifaction of trees and the like; but this is -not very probable, and it is much simpler to believe with Dr. Tylor -that it depends on the principles of animism. [489] - - - -Family Fetishes. - -Some fetishes, like the Bombay Devaks, are special to particular -families. Such is the case with the Thārus, a non-Aryan tribe in the -sub-Himālayan Tarāī. Each member of the tribe constructs a hollow -mound in front of his door, and thereon erects a stake of Palāsa -wood (Butea frondosa), which is regarded as the family fetish and -periodically worshipped. - - - -Tool Fetishes. - -Next comes the worship of the tool fetish, which, according to Sir -A. Lyall, is "the earliest phase or type of the tendency which later -on leads those of one guild or walk in life to support and cultivate -one god, who is elected in lieu of the individual trade fetishes -melted down to preside over their craft or trade interests." [490] - -A good example of this is the pickaxe fetish of the Thags. - -When Kālī refused to help them in the burial of their victims -she gave them one of her teeth for a pickaxe, and the hem of her -lower garment for a noose. Hence the pickaxe was venerated by the -Thags. Its fabrication was superintended with the utmost care, and it -was consecrated with many ceremonies. A lucky day was selected, and -a smith was appointed to forge it with the most profound secrecy. The -door was closed against all intruders; the leader never left the forge -while the manufacture was going on; and the smith was allowed to do no -other work until this was completed. Next came the consecration. This -was done on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, or Friday, and care was taken -that the shadow of no living thing fell upon the axe. The consecrator -sat with his face to the west, and received the implement in a brass -dish. It was then washed in water which was allowed to fall into -a pit made for the purpose. Then further ablutions followed, the -first in sugar and water, the second in sour milk, and the third in -spirits. The axe was then marked from the head to the point with seven -spots of red lead, and replaced on the brass dish with a cocoanut, -some cloves, white sandalwood, and other articles. - -A fire was next made of cowdung and the wood of the Mango and -Ber tree. All the articles deposited on the brass plate, with the -exception of the cocoanut, were thrown into the fire, and when the -flame rose the Thag priest passed the pickaxe with both hands seven -times through the fire. The cocoanut was then stripped of its husk and -placed on the ground. The officiant, holding the axe by the point, -asked: "Shall I strike?" The bystanders assented, and he then broke -the cocoanut with the blunt end of the weapon, exclaiming, "All hail, -Devī! Great Mother of us all!" The spectators responded, "All hail, -Devī, and prosper the Thags." If the cocoanut was not broken at one -blow, all the labour was lost; the goddess was considered unpropitious, -and the entire ceremony had to be repeated. The broken shell and -kernel of the cocoanut were then thrown into the fire, the pickaxe -wrapt in white cloth was placed on the ground towards the west, -and all present prostrated themselves before it. [491] - -Here we have another example of magic in its sympathetic form, the -use of sundry spirit scarers, which have been already discussed, -and the cocoanut representing an actual human victim. - - - -Weapons and Implement Fetishes. - -In the same way soldiers and warlike tribes worship their -weapons. Thus, the sword was worshipped by the Rājputs, and when a man -of lower caste married a Rājput girl, she was married, as in the case -of Holkar, to his sword with his kerchief bound round it. [492] This -sword-worship is specially performed, as by the Baiswārs of Mirzapur -and the Gautam sept of Rājputs. The Nepālese worship their weapons -and regimental colours at the Dasahra festival. At the Diwālī, or -feast of lamps, on the first day they worship dogs; on the second day -cows and bulls; on the third day capitalists worship their treasure -under the name of Lakshmī, the goddess of wealth; on the fourth day -every householder worships as deities the members of his family, -and on the fifth day sisters worship their brothers. [493] - -The same customs prevail among the artisan castes in Northern -India. The hair-scraper of the tanner is worshipped by curriers, -and the potter's wheel, regarded as a type of productiveness, is -reverenced at marriages by many of the lower castes. Even the clay -which has been mixed by the potter has mystic powers. When a person -has been bitten by a mad dog, a lump of this clay is brought, and the -wound is touched with it while a spell is recited. [494] Carpenters -worship their yard measure; Chamārs swear by the shoemaker's last, and -the children of the Darzi or tailor are made to worship the scissors. - -In Bengal, the Alakhiya sect of Saiva ascetics profess profound respect -for their alms-bag; the carpenters worship their adze, chisel, and saw; -the barbers their razors, scissors, and mirror. At the Srīpanchamī, -or fifth day of the month of Māgh, the writer class worship their -books, pens, and inkstand. The writing implements are cleaned, and -the books, wrapped in white cloth, are strewn over with flowers and -the leaves of young barley. [495] - -The same customs prevail in Bombay. A mill is the Devak or guardian -of oil-makers; dancing girls worship a musical instrument; jewellers -worship their pincers and blowpipe; curriers worship an axe, and -market gardeners a pair of scales. [496] - -In the Panjāb, farmers worship their oxen in August, their plough at -the Dasahra festival, and they have a ceremony at the end of October to -drive away ticks from their cattle; shepherds worship their sheep at -the full moon of July; bankers and clerks worship their books at the -Diwālī festival; grain-sellers worship their weights at the Dasahra, -Diwālī, and Holī, and, in a way, every morning as well. Oilmen worship -their presses at odd times; artisans salute their tools daily when they -bathe; and generally the means of livelihood, whatever they may be, -are worshipped with honour at the Diwālī, Dasahra, and Holī. [497] -So the Pokharna Brāhmans, who are said to have been the navvies who -originally excavated the lake at Pushkar, worship in memory of this -the Kudāla, or mattock. [498] - -All these customs are as old as the time of the Chaldeans, "who -sacrifice unto their net and burn incense unto their drag, because -by them their portion is fat and their meat plenteous." [499] - -Among these implement fetishes the corn-sieve and the plough, the -basket, the broom, and the rice-pounder are of special importance. - - - -The Corn-sieve. - -The corn-sieve or winnowing basket, the Mystica vannus Iacchi of -Virgil, has always enjoyed a reputation as an emblem of increase and -prosperity, and as possessing magical powers. The witch in Macbeth -says:-- - - - "Her husband's to Aleppo gone, Master of the Tiger; - But in a sieve I'll thither sail." - - -It was used in Scotland to foretell the future at Allhallow -Eve. Divination was performed with a pair of shears and a sieve. Aubrey -describes how "the shears are stuck in a sieve, and the maidens hold up -the sieve with the top of their fingers by the handle of the shears, -then say, 'By St. Peter and St. Paul, he hath not stolen it.' After -many adjurations the sieve will turn at the name of the thief." [500] - -In India the sieve is the first cradle of the baby, and in Bombay -the winnowing fan in which a newly-born child is laid is used on the -fifth day for the worship of Satvāī. This makes it impure, and it is -henceforward used only for the house sweepings. In Northern India, -when a mother has lost a child, she puts the next in a sieve and -drags it about, calling it Kadheran or Ghasītan, "the dragged one," -so as to baffle the Evil Eye by a pretence of contempt. - -All through Upper India, at low-caste marriages, the bride's -brother accompanies the pair as they revolve in the marriage shed, -and sprinkles parched grain over them out of a sieve as a charm for -good luck and a means of scaring the demon which causes barrenness. So -Irish brides in old times used to be followed by two attendants bearing -high over the heads of the couple a sieve filled with meal, a sign -of the plenty that would be in the house, and an omen of good luck -and the blessing of children. [501] We have already seen that this -rite survives in the custom of flinging rice over the newly-married -pair as they leave for the honeymoon. - -This habit of scaring the spirits of evil by means of the sieve -appears in a special usage at the Diwālī festival. Very early -in the morning the house-mother takes a sieve and a broom, and -beats them in every corner of the house, exclaiming, "God abide, -and poverty depart!" The fan is then carried outside the village, -generally to the east or north, and being thrown away, is supposed, -like the scapegoat, to bear away with it the poverty and distress -of the household. The same custom prevails in Germany. The Posterli -is imagined to be a spectre in the shape of an old woman. In the -evening the young fellows of the village assemble, and with loud -shouts and clashing of tins, ringing of cow-bells and goat-bells, -and cracking of whips, tramp over hill and dale to another village, -where the young men receive them with like uproar. One of the party -represents the Posterli, or they draw it in a sledge in the shape of -a puppet, and leave it standing in a corner of the other village. In -the same way the Eskimo drive the demon Tuna out of their houses. [502] - -Among the Kols, when a vacancy occurs in the office of the village -priest, the winnowing fan with some rice is used, and by its magical -power it drags the person who holds it towards the individual on -whom the sacred mantle has fallen. The same custom prevails among -the Orāons. [503] - -The Greeks had a special name, Koskinomantis, for the man who -divined in this way with the sieve, and the practice is mentioned by -Theocritus. [504] The sieve is very commonly used in India as a rude -form of the planchette. Through the wicker-work of the raised side -or back a strong T-shaped twig is fixed, one end of which rests on -the finger. A question is asked, and according as the sieve turns -to the right or left, the answer is "Yes" or "No." This is exactly -what is known as "Cauff-riddling" in Yorkshire and Scotland. [505] -In the eastern districts of the North-Western Provinces, when the -Ojha or "cunning man" is called in to cure disease, or possession by -evil spirits, he puts some sesamum into a sieve, shakes it about, -and then proceeds to identify the ghost concerned by counting the -number of grains which remain stuck between the reeds. At a Santāl -cremation, a man takes his seat near the ashes, and tosses rice on -them with a winnowing fan till a frenzy appears to seize him, and he -becomes inspired and says wonderful things. [506] - -It is one of the curiosities of comparative folk-lore that this -instrument should be credited with magical powers all over two -continents. [507] - -The winnowing basket, again, perhaps from its association, like -the winnowing fan, with the sacred grain, has mystic powers. In -Scotland it was used in the rite of creeling as a means of scaring -barrenness. "The young wedded pair, with their friends, assemble in a -convenient spot. A small creel or basket is prepared for the occasion, -into which they put some stones; the young men carry it alternately, -and allow themselves to be caught by the maidens, who have a kiss when -they succeed. After a great deal of innocent mirth and pleasantry, -the creel falls at length to the young husband's share, who is obliged -generally to carry it for a long time, none of the young women having -compassion upon him. At length his fair mate kindly relieves him from -his burden; and her complaisance, in this particular, is considered -as a proof of her satisfaction at the choice she has made. [508]" - -In Bengal, at the full moon immediately following the Durgā Pūjā, the -festival of Lakshmī, the goddess of wealth, is held. In every Hindu -house a basket, which serves as the representative of prosperity, is -set up and worshipped. This basket, or corn measure, is filled with -paddy, encircled with a garland of flowers, and covered with a piece -of cloth. They sit up all night and watch for Lakshmī to arrive, -and any negligence in watching is believed to bring misfortune on -the family. [509] - - - -The Broom. - -The same idea applies to the broom used in sweeping the house or -collecting the grain on the threshing-floor. We have already seen -the use of it to drive out poverty. "Pythagoras warned his followers -against stepping over a broom. In some parts of Bavaria, housemaids -in sweeping out the house are careful not to step over the broom for -fear of the witches. Again, it is a Bavarian rule not to step over a -broom while a confinement is taking place in a house; otherwise the -birth will be tedious, and the child will always remain small with -a large head. But if anyone has stepped over a broom inadvertently, -he can undo the spell by stepping backwards over it again." [510] -So, in Bombay, they say you should never step over a broom, or you -will cause a woman to suffer severely in childbed. - -In Bombay, some old Hindu woman, to cure a child affected by the -Evil Eye, waves salt and water round its face and strikes the ground -with a broom three times; and among the Bani Isrāīls of Bombay, -when the midwife drives off the blast of the Evil Eye, she holds in -her left hand a shoe, a winnowing fan, and a broom. [511] In Italy, -the broom is an old Latin charm against sorcery. The Beriyas, a gypsy -tribe of the Ganges-Jumna Duāb, drive off the disease demon with a -broom. In Oudh, it is said, when a broomstick has been done with, -it should always be laid down, and not left standing. Mahā-Brāhmans, -who gain by officiating at funeral ceremonies, are alleged to violate -this rule in order to cause deaths. [512] - - - -The Rice-pounder. - -The rice-pounder, too, has magical powers. We have seen that it is -one of the articles waved round the heads of the bride and bridegroom -to scare evil spirits. In Bengal, it is worshipped when the child -is first fed with grain. And there is a regular worship of it in the -month of Baisākh, or May. The top is smeared with red lead, anointed -with oil, and offerings of rice and holy Dūrva grass made to it. The -worship has even been provided with a Brāhmanical legend. A Guru once -ordered his disciple to pronounce the word Dhenk at least one hundred -and eight times a day. Nārada Muni was so pleased with his devotion, -as he is the patron deity of the rice-pounder, that he paid him a -visit riding on one, and carried off his votary to heaven. [513] - - - -The Plough. - -Next comes the plough as a fetish. The carrying about of the plough -and the prohibition common in Europe against moving it on Shrove -Tuesday and other holidays have, like many other images of the same -class, been connected with Phallicism. [514] But, considering the -respect which an agricultural people would naturally pay to the chief -implement used in husbandry, it is simpler to class it with the other -tool fetishes of a similar kind. In India, as in Europe on Plough -Monday, [515] there is a regular worship of the plough at the end of -the sowing season, when the beam is coloured with turmeric, adorned -with garlands, and brought home from the field in triumph. After that -day it is considered unlucky to use it or lend it. The beam is put -up in the village cattle track when rinderpest is about, as a charm -to drive away the disease. Among some castes the polished share is -fixed up in the marriage shed during the ceremony. Among the Orāons, -the bride and bridegroom are made to stand on a curry stone, under -which is placed a sheaf of corn resting on the plough yoke, and among -the same people their god Darha is represented by a plough-share set -upon an altar dedicated to him. [516] Here we have the mystic influence -of grain and iron combined with the agricultural implement fetish. - - - -Fire. - -Fire is undoubtedly a very ancient Hindu protective fetish, and its -virtue as a scarer of demons is very generally recognized. One of -the earliest legends of the Hindu race is that recorded in the Rig -Veda, where Agni, the god of fire, concealed himself in heaven, was -brought down to earth by Mātarisvan, and made over to the princely -tribe of Bhrigu, in which we have the Oriental version of the myth -of Prometheus. In the Vedas, Agni ranks next to the Rain god, and -takes precedence of every other god in connection with sacrificial -rites. Even the Sun godling is regarded as a form of the heavenly -fire. One of the titles of Agni is Pramantha, because on each occasion -when he was required he was summoned by the friction of the Aranī, -or sacred fire-drill. This word Pramantha is probably the equivalent -of the Prometheus of the Greeks. - - - -Origin of Fire-worship. - -According to Dr. Tylor, "the real and absolute worship of fire falls -into two great divisions, the first belonging to fetishism, the -second to polytheism proper, and the two apparently representing an -earlier and later stage of theological ideas. The first is the rude, -barbarous adoration of the actual flame which he watches writhing, -devouring, roaring like a wild animal; the second belongs to an -advanced generalization that any individual fire is a manifestation -of one general elemental being, the fire god." [517] In a tropical -country it would naturally be associated with the worship of the sun, -and with that of the sainted dead as the medium by which the spirit -wings its way to the other world. Among many races fire is provided -for the ghost after interment, to enable it to warm itself and cook -its food. As Mr. Spencer points out, the grave fire would tend to -develop into kindred religious rites. [518] - - - -The Sacred Fire. - -But it is almost certainly erroneous to class the sacred fire as an -institution peculiar to the so-called Aryan races. The Homa is, of -course, one of the most important elements of the modern Hindu ritual; -but at the same time it prevails extensively as a means of propitiating -the local or village godlings among many of the Drāvidian races, who -are quite as likely to have discovered for themselves the mystical -art of fire production by mechanical means, as to have adopted it by -a process of conscious or unconscious imitation from the usages of -their Hindu neighbours. - -The production of fire by means of friction is a discovery which would -naturally occur to jungle races, who must have constantly seen it occur -by the ignition of the bamboo stalks rubbed together by the blasts -of summer. From this would easily be developed the very primitive -fire-drill or Asgara, used to this day by the Cheros, Korwas, Bhuiyas -and other Drāvidian dwellers in the jungle. These people even to the -present day habitually produce fire in this way. A small round cavity -is made in a dry piece of bamboo, in which two men alternately with -their open hands revolve a second pointed piece of the wood of the same -tree. Smoke and finally fire are rapidly produced in this way, and the -sparks are received on a dry leaf or other suitable tinder. The use -of the flint and steel is also common, and was possibly an early and -independent invention of the same people. Even to the present day in -some of their more secret worship of the village godlings of disease, -fire is produced for the fire sacrifice by this primitive method. - - - -The Fire-drill. - -What has been called the Aryan fire-drill, the Aranī, which in -one sense means "foreign" or "strange," and in another "moving" -or "entering," "being inserted," is not apparently nowadays used -in the ordinary ritual for the production of fire for the Homa or -fire sacrifice. The rites connected with the sacred fire have been -given in detail in another place. [519] In Northern India, at least, -the production of the sacred fire has become the speciality of one -branch of the Brāhmans, the Gujarāti, who are employed to conduct -certain special services occasionally conducted at large cost by -wealthy devotees, and known as Jag or Yaksha, in the sense of some -particular religious rite. - -The Aranī in its modern form consists of five pieces. The Adhararanī is -the lower bed of the instrument, and is usually made of the hard wood -of the Khadira or Khair--Acacia catechu. In this are bored two shallow -holes, one, the Garta, a small shallow round cavity, in which the -plunger or revolving drill works and produces fire by friction. Close -to this is a shallow oblong cavity, known as the Yonī or matrix, -in which combustible tinder, generally the husk of the cocoanut, -is placed, and in which the sparks and heated ashes are received -and ignited. The upper or revolving portion of the drill is known -as Uttararanī or Pramantha. This consists of two parts, the upper -portion a piece of hard, round wood which one priest revolves with -a rope or cord known as Netra. This part of the implement is known -as Mantha or "the churner." It has a socket at the base in which the -Sanku, a spike or dart, is fixed. This Sanku is made of a softer wood, -generally that of the Pīpal, or sacred fig tree, than the Adhararanī -or base; and each Aranī is provided with several spare pieces of fig -wood for the purpose of replacing the Sanku, as it becomes gradually -charred away by friction. The last piece is the Upamantha or upper -churner, which is a flat board with a socket. This is pressed down -by one priest, so as to force the Sanku deep and hard into the Garta -or lower cavity, and to increase the resistance. - -The working of the implement thus requires the labour of two priests, -one of whom presses down the plunger, and the other who revolves the -drill rapidly by means of the rope. It is not easy to obtain specimens -of the implement, which is regarded as possessing mystical properties, -and the production of the sacred fire is always conducted in secret. - -We have in one of the African folk-tales a reference to the production -of the fire by friction, in which the hyęna gets his ear burnt. [520] -In one of the tales of Somadeva we read, "Then the Brāhman blessed -the king and said to him, 'I am a Brāhman named Nāga Sarman, and bear -the fruit, I hope, from my sacrifice. When the god of fire is pleased -with this Vilva sacrifice, then Vilva fruits of gold will come out -of the fire cavity. Then the god of fire will appear in bodily form, -and grant me a boon, and so I have spent much time in offering Vilva -fruits.' Then the seven-rayed god appeared from the sacrificial cavity, -bringing the king a golden Vilva fruit of his tree of valour." [521] - -The Agnikunda, the hole or enclosed space for the sacred fire, out -of which, according to the popular legend, various Rājput tribes were -produced, is thus probably derived from the Garta or pit out of which -the sparks fly in the fire-drill. - -The Agnihotri Brāhman has to take particular care to preserve the -germ of the sacred fire, as did the Roman vestal virgins. It is in -charge of the special guardians at some shrines, such as those of -Sambhunāth and Kharg Joginī at Nepāl. [522] - - - -The Muhammadan Sacred Fire. - -But it is not only in the Hindu ritual that the sacred fire holds -a prominent place. Thus, in ancient Ireland, the sacred fire was -obtained by the friction of wood and the striking of stones, and -it was supposed "that the spirits of fire dwelt in these objects, -and when the priests invoked them to appear, they brought good luck -to the household for the coming year, but if invoked by other hands -on that special day, their influence was malific." [523] - -So, among the Muhammadans in the time of Akbar, "at noon of the day -when the sun enters the 19th degree of Aries, the whole world being -surrounded by the light, they expose a round piece of a white shining -stone, called in Hindi Sūrajkrant. [524] A piece of cotton is then held -near it, which catches fire from the heat of the stone. The celestial -fire is committed to the care of proper persons." [525] Perhaps the -best example of the Muhammadan sacred fire is that at the Imāmbāra -at Gorakhpur. There it was first started by a renowned Shiah Faqīr, -named Roshan 'Ali, and has been maintained unquenched for more than -a hundred years, a special body of attendants and supplies of wood -being provided for it. There seems little reason to believe that the -fire is a regular Muhammadan institution; it has probably arisen from -an imitation of the customs of the Hindu Jogis. - -It is respected both by Hindus and Musalmāns, and as in the case -of the fires of the same kind, maintained by many noted Jogis, its -ashes have a reputation as a cure for fever. We shall meet with the -same belief of the curative effects of the ashes of the sacred fire -in the case of the Holī. The ashes of the Jogi's fire form a part of -many popular charms. In Italy, the holy log burnt on Christmas Eve, -which corresponds to the Yule log of the North of Europe, is taken with -due observances to the Faunus, or other spirits of the forest. [526] -In Ireland part of the ashes from the bonfire on the 24th of June is -thrown into sown fields to make their produce abundant. [527] The -ceremony of strewing ashes on the penitent on Ash Wednesday dates -from Saxon times. [528] A modern Muhammadan of the advanced school -has endeavoured to rationalize the curative effect of the ashes of -the Gorakhpur fire by the suggestion that it is the potash in it -which works the cure, but probably the element of faith has much to -do with it. [529] - - - -Volcanic Fire; Will-o'-the-Wisp. - -Fire of a volcanic nature is, as might be expected, regarded with -veneration. Such is the fire which in some places in Kashmīr rises -out of the ground. [530] - -The meteoric light or Shahāba is also much respected. In Hoshangābād -there is a local godling, known as Khapra Bāba, who lives on the edge -of a tank, and is said to appear in the darkness with a procession -of lights. [531] In Rohilkhand and the western districts of Oudh, -one often hears of the Shahāba. In burial-grounds, especially where -the bodies of those slain in battle are interred, it is said that -phantom armies appear in the night. Tents are pitched, the horses are -tethered, and lovely girls dance before the heroes and the Jinn who -are in their train. Sometimes some foolish mortal is attracted by the -spectacle, and he suffers for his foolhardiness by loss of life or -reason. Sometimes these ignes fatui mislead the traveller at night, -as Robin Goodfellow "misleads night wanderers, laughing at their -harm," or the Cornish piskies, who show a light and entice people -into bogs. [532] There appears to be in Northern India no trace of -the idea which so widely appears in Europe, that such lights are the -souls of unbaptized children. [533] - - - -The Tomb Fetish. - -Next comes the respect paid to the cairn which covers the remains of -the dead or is a mere cenotaph commemorating a death. We have already -seen instances of this in the pile of stones which marks the place -where a tiger has killed a man, and in the cairns in honour of the -jungle deities, or the spirits which infest dangerous passes. The -rationale of these sepulchral cairns is to keep down the ghost of -the dead man and prevent it from injuring the living. We see the same -idea in the rule of the old ritual, that on the departure of the last -mourner, after the conclusion of the funeral ceremony, the Adhvāryu, -or officiating priest, should place a circle of stones behind him, -to prevent death overtaking those who have gone in advance. [534] - -The primitive grave-heap grows into the cairn, and the cairn into the -tomb or Stūpa. [535] In the way of a tomb Hindus will worship almost -anything. The tomb of an English lady is worshipped at Bhandāra in the -Central Provinces. At Murmari, in the Nāgpur District, a similar tomb -is smeared with turmeric and lime, and people offer cocoanuts to it in -the hope of getting increased produce from their fields. The tomb of an -English officer near the Fort of Bijaygarh in the Aligarh District was, -when I visited the place some years ago, revered as the shrine of the -local village godling. There is a similar case at Rāwalpindi. There -is a current tale of some people offering brandy and cigars to the -tomb of a European planter who was addicted to these luxuries in his -lifetime, but no one can tell where the tomb actually exists. [536] - - - -Miscellaneous Fetishes. - -We have already referred to the Sālagrāma fetish. Akin to this is -the Vishnupada, the supposed footmark of Vishnu, which is very like -the footmark of Hercules, of which Herodotus speaks. [537] - -There is a celebrated Vishnupada temple at Gaya, where the footprint of -Vishnu is in a large silver basin under a canopy, inside an octagonal -shrine. Pindas or holy balls and various kinds of offerings are placed -by the pilgrims inside the basin and around the footprint. [538] -It was probably derived from the footmark of Buddha, which is a -favourite subject in the early Buddhistic sculptures. Dr. Tylor, -curiously enough, thinks that it may have some connection with the -footmarks of extinct birds or animals imprinted on the strata of -alluvial rocks. [539] - -Even among Muhammadans we have the same idea, and the Qadam-i-Rasūl, -or mosque of the footprint of the Prophet at Lucknow, used to contain -a stone marked with his footmarks, which was said to have been brought -by some pilgrim from Arabia. It disappeared during the Mutiny. [540] -There is another in a mosque at Chunār and at many other places. - -The same respect is paid to the footprint of Rāmanand in his monastery -at Benares, and the pin of Brahma's slipper is now fixed up in the -steps of the bathing-place at Bithūr, known as the residence of the -infamous Nāna Sāhib, where it is worshipped at an annual feast. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -ANIMAL-WORSHIP. - - - Tō de kai Automedōn hypage zygon ōkeas hippous - Chanthon kai Balion, tō hama pnoiźsi petesthźn - Tous eteke Zephyrō anemō Harpuia Podargź - Boskomenź leimōni para rhoon Ōkeanoio. - - Iliad, xvi. 148-51. - - - -Origin of Animal-worship. - -We now come to consider the special worship of certain animals. The -origin of this form of belief may possibly be traced to many different -sources. - -In the first place, no savage fixes the boundary line between man -and the lower forms of animal life so definitely as more civilized -races are wont to do. The animal, in their belief, has very much the -same soul, much the same feelings and passion as men have, a theory -exemplified in the way the Indian ploughman speaks to his ox, or the -shepherd calls his flock. - -To him, again, the belief is familiar that the spirits of his ancestors -appear in the form of animals, as among the Drāvidian races they -come in the shape of a tiger which attacks the surviving relatives, -or as a chicken which leaves the mark of its footsteps in the ashes -when it re-visits its former home. - -So, all these people believe that the witch soul wanders about at -night, and for want of a better shape enters into some animal, takes -the form of a tiger or a bear, or flies through the air like a bird. - -All through folk-lore we find the idea that man has kinship with -animals generally accepted. We constantly find the girl wooed by the -frog, marrying the pigeon, elephant, eagle, or whale. Every child -in the nursery reads of the frog Prince, and no savage sees any -particular incongruity in his marriage and transformation. In more -than one of the Indian tales the childless wife longs for a child -and is delivered of a snake. - -The incident of animal metamorphosis is also familiar. Thus, in one -of Somadeva's tales his mistress turns a man into an ox; in another -his wife transforms him into a buffalo; in a third the angry hermit -turns the king into an elephant. [541] Everyone remembers the terrific -scene of transformation into various animals which makes up the tale -of the second Qalandar in the Arabian Nights. Animals, too, constantly -assume other shapes. In one of the Bengal stories the mouse becomes a -cat. In other Indian tales the golden deer becomes the mannikin demon, -the white hind becomes the white witch, the hero's mother becomes a -black bitch, the hero himself a parrot, and so on. [542] In fact a -large part of the incidents of Indian stories turns on various forms -of metamorphosis, and every English child knows how the lover of Earl -Mar's daughter took the shape of a dove. - -We have again the very common incident in the folk-tales of animals -understanding the speech of human beings, and men learning the tongue -of birds, and the like. Solomon, according to the Qurān, knew the -language of animals; in the tales of Somadeva, the Vaisya Bhāshājna -knows the language of all beasts and birds, a faculty which in Germany -is gained by eating a white snake. [543] - -Then there is the large cycle of tales in which the grateful animal -warns the hero or heroine of approaching danger, as in the story of -Bopuluchi, or brings news, or produces gold. The idea of grateful -animals assisting their benefactors runs through the whole range of -folk-lore. [544] - -Another series of cognate ideas has been very carefully analyzed by -Mr. Campbell. The spirits of the dead haunt two places, the house -and the tomb. Those who haunt the house are friendly; those who haunt -the tomb are unfriendly. Two classes of animals correspond to these -two classes of spirits--an at-home, fearless class, as the snake, the -rat, flies and ants and bees, into which the home-haunting or friendly -spirits would go; and a wild, unsociable class, such as bats and owls, -dogs, jackals, or vultures, into which the unfriendly or tomb-haunting -spirits would go. In the case of some of these tomb-haunting animals, -the dog, jackal, and vulture, the feeling towards them as tomb-haunters -seems to have given place to the belief that as the spirit lives in -the tomb where the body is laid, so, if the body be eaten by an animal, -the spirit lives in the animal, as in a living tomb. [545] - -Other animals, again, are invested with particular qualities, -fierceness and courage, strength or agility, and eating part of their -flesh, or wearing a portion as an amulet, conveys to the possessor the -qualities of the animal. A familiar instance of this is the belief in -the claws and flesh of the tiger as amulets or charms against disease -and the influence of evil spirits. - -Many animals, too, are respected for their use to man or as scarers -of demons, as the cow; as possessors of wisdom, like the elephant or -snake; as semi-human in origin or character, as the ape. But it is, -perhaps, dangerous to attempt, as Mr. Campbell has done, to push the -classification much farther, because the respect paid to any particular -animal is possibly based on varied and diverging lines of belief. - -Lastly, as Mr. Frazer has shown, many animals are regarded as -representing the Corn spirit, and are either revered or killed in -their divine forms to promote the return of vegetation with each -recurring spring. - - - -Horse-worship. - -To illustrate some of these principles from the worship of certain -special animals, we may begin with the horse. - -War horses were so highly prized by the early Aryans in their battles -with the aborigines, that the horse, under the name of Dadhikra, -"he that scatters the hoar frost like milk," soon became an object -of worship, and in the Veda we have a spirited account of the worship -paid to this godlike being. [546] - -Another horse often spoken of in the early legends is Syāma Karna, -"he with the black ears," which alone was considered a suitable victim -in the horse sacrifice or Asvamedha. One hundred horse sacrifices -entitled the sacrificer to displace Indra from heaven, so the deity -was always trying to capture the horse which was allowed to roam about -before immolation. The saint Gālava, who was a pupil of Visvamitra, -when he had completed his studies, asked his tutor what fee he should -pay. The saint told him that he charged no fee, but he insisted in -asking, till at last the angry Rishi said that he would be content -with nothing less than a thousand black-eared horses. After long -search Gālava found three childless Rājas, who had each two hundred -such horses, and they consented to exchange them for sons. Gālava then -went to Yayāti, whose daughter could bear a son for any one and still -remain a virgin. By her means the three Rājas became fathers of sons, -Visvamitra took them, and to make up the number, had himself two sons -by the same mystic bride. - -In the Mahābhārata, Uchchaihsravas, "he with the long ears," or -"he that neighs loudly," is the king of the horses, and belongs to -Indra. He is swift as thought, follows the path of the sun, and is -luminous and white, with a black tail, made so by the magic of the -serpents, who have covered it with black hair. In the folk-tales he -consorts with mares of mortal birth, and begets steeds of unrivalled -speed, like the divine Homeric coursers of Ęneas. [547] In the -tales of Somadeva we find the king addressing his faithful horse, -and praying for his aid in danger, as Achilles speaks to his steeds -Xanthos and Balios, and in the Karling legend of Bayard. [548] We -meet also with the horse of Manidatta, which was "white as the moon; -the sound of its neighing was as musical as that of a clear conch or -other sweet-sounding instrument; it looked like the waves of the sea -of milk surging on high; it was marked with curls on the neck, and -adorned with the crest jewels, the bracelet, and other signs, which -it seemed it had acquired by being born in the race of Gandharvas." - -At a later mythological stage we meet Kalki, the white horse which is -to be the last Avatāra of Vishnu, and reminds us of the white horse -of the Book of Revelation. We meet in the Rig Veda with Yatudhanas, -the demon horse, which feeds now upon human flesh (like the Bucephalus -of the legend of Alexander), now upon horseflesh, and now upon milk -from cows. He has a host of brethren, such as Arvan, half horse, -half bird, on which the Daityas are supposed to ride. Dadhyanch or -Dadhīcha has a curious legend. He was a Rishiand. Indra, after teaching -him the sciences, threatened to cut his head off if he communicated -the knowledge to any one else. But the Aswins tempted him to disobey -the god, and then, to save him from the wrath of Indra, cut off his -head and replaced it with that of a horse. Finally Indra found his -horse-head in the lake at Kurukshetra, and using it as Sampson did -the jaw-bone of the ass, he slew the Asuras. We have, again, Vishnu -in the form of Hayagrīva, or "horse-necked," which he assumed to -save the Veda, carried off by two Asuras, and in another shape he -is Hayasiras or Hayasīrsha, which vomits forth fire and drinks up -the waters. In the Purānas we meet the Daitya Kesi, who assumes the -form of a horse and attacks Krishna, but the hero thrusts his hand -into his mouth and rends him asunder. A large chapter of Scottish -folk-lore depends on the doings of magic horses such as these. [549] - -The flying horse of the Arabian Nights has been transferred into -many of the current folk-tales, and has found its way into European -folk-lore. [550] In the same connection we meet the magic bridle; -the flying car, such as Pushpaka, the flying vehicle of Kuvera, the -god of wealth; the flying bed, the Urān Khatola of the Indian tales; -the flying boat, and the flying shoes. [551] - -There are numerous other horses famous in Hindu legend. The saint Alam -Sayyid of Baroda was known as Ghorź Kā Pīr, or the horse saint. His -horse was buried near him, and Hindus hang images of the animal on -trees round his tomb. [552] We have already spoken of Gūga and his -mare Javādiyā. The horse of the king of Bhilsa or Bhadrāvatī was of -dazzling brightness, and regarded as the palladium of the kingdom, -but in spite of all the care bestowed upon it, it was carried off by -the Pāndavas. - -There is a stock horse miracle story told in connection with Lāl Beg, -the patron saint of the sweepers. The king of Delhi lost a valuable -horse, and the sweepers were ordered to bury it, but as the animal was -very fat, they proceeded to cut it up for themselves, giving one leg to -the king's priest. They took the meat home and proceeded to cook it, -but being short of salt, they sent an old woman to buy some. She went -to the salt merchant's shop and pressed him to serve her at once, -"If you do not hurry," said she, "a thousand rupees' worth of meat -will be ruined." He informed the king, who, suspecting the state of -the case, ordered the sweepers to produce the horse. They were in -dismay at the order, but they laid what was left of the animal on a -mound sacred to Lāl Beg, and prayed to him to save them, whereupon -the horse stood up, but only on three legs. So they went to the king -and confessed how they had disposed of the fourth leg. The unlucky -priest was executed, and the horse soon after died also. [553] - -The horse is regarded as a lucky and exceedingly pure animal. When a -cooking vessel has become in any way defiled, a common way of purifying -it is to make a horse smell it. In the Dakkhin it is said that evil -spirits will not approach a horse for fear of his foam. [554] In -Northern India, the entry of a man on horseback into a sugar-cane field -during sowing time is regarded as auspicious. This taking of omens -from horses was well known in Germany, and Tacitus says, "Proprium -gentis equorum praesagia ac monitus experiri, hinnitus ac fremitus -observant." [555] There does not appear to be in India any trace of -the idea prevalent in England that the horse has the power of seeing -ghosts, or that it can cure diseases such as whooping cough. [556] -But, like the bull, the stallion is believed to scare the demon of -barrenness. In the Rāmāyana, Kausalyā touches the stallion in the -hope of obtaining sons, and with the same object the king and queen -smell the odour of the burnt marrow or fat of the horse. The water -in which a fish is washed has the same effect on women in Western -folk-lore. With the same object, at the Asvamedha, the queen lies at -night beside the slain sacrificial horse. [557] - -It is popularly supposed that the horse originally had wings, and that -the chestnuts or scars on the legs are the places where the wings -originally grew. Eating horseflesh is supposed to bring on cramp, -and when a Sepoy at rifle practice misses the target, his comrades -taunt him with having eaten the unlucky meat. [558] - - - -Modern Horse-worship. - -Of modern horse-worship there are many examples. The Palliwāl -Brāhmans of Jaysalmer worship the bridle of a horse, which Colonel Tod -supposes to prove the Scythic origin of the early colonists, who were -equestrian as well as nomadic. [559] Horse-worship is still mixed up -with the creed of the Buddhists of Yunān, who doubtless derived it -from India. [560] - -In Western India this form of worship is common. It is the chief object -of reverence at the Dasahra festival. Some Rājput Bhīls worship a deity -called Ghorādeva or a stone horse; the Bhātiyas worship a clay horse -at the Dasahra, and the Ojha Kumhārs erect a clay horse on the sixth -day after birth, and make the child worship it. Rag horses are offered -at the tombs of saints at Gujarāt. The Kunbis wash their horses on -the day of the Dasahra, decorate them with flowers, sacrifice a sheep -to them, and sprinkle the blood on them. [561] The custom among the -Drāvidian races of offering clay horses to the local gods has been -already noticed. The Gonds have a horse godling in Kodapen, and at the -opening of the rainy season they worship a stone in his honour outside -the village. A Gond priest offers a pottery image of the animal and a -heifer, saying, "Thou art our guardian! Protect our oxen and cows! Let -us live in safety!" [562] The heifer is then sacrificed and the meat -eaten by the worshippers. The Devak or marriage guardian of some of -the Dakkhin tribes is a horse. - - - -The Worship of the Ass. - -The contempt for the ass seems to have arisen in post-Vedic -times. Indra had a swift-footed ass, and one of the epithets of -Vikramaditya was Gadharbha-rūpa, or "he in the form of an ass." The -Vishnu Purāna tells of the demon Dhenuka, who took the form of an -ass and began to kick Balarāma and Krishna, as they were plucking -fruit in the demon's grove. Balarāma seized him, with sundry of his -companions and flung him on the top of a palm tree. Khara, a cannibal -Rākshasa who was killed by Rāma Chandra, also used to take the form of -an ass. Muhammad said, "The most ungrateful of all voices is surely the -voice of asses." Muhammadans believe that the last animal which entered -the ark was the ass to which Iblīs was clinging. At the threshold the -beast seemed troubled and could enter no farther, when Noah said unto -him, "Fie upon thee! Come in!" But as the ass was still in trouble -and did not advance, Noah cried, "Come in, though the Devil be with -thee!" So the ass entered, and with him Iblīs. Thereupon Noah asked, -"O enemy of Allah! Who brought thee into the ark?" And Iblīs answered, -"Thou art the man, for thou saidest to the ass, 'Come in, though the -Devil be with thee!'" [563] - -The worship of the ass is chiefly associated with that of Sītalā, whose -vehicle he is. The Agarwāla sub-caste of Banyas have a curious rule of -making the bridegroom just before marriage mount an ass. This is done -in secret, and though said to be intended to propitiate the goddess -of small-pox, is possibly a survival of some primitive form of worship. - -In folk-lore the ass constantly appears. We have in Somadeva the -fable of the ass in the panther's skin, which also appears in the -fifth book of the Panchatantra. Professor Weber asserts that it was -derived from the original in Ęsop, but this is improbable, as it is -also found in the Buddhist Jātakas. In one of the Kashmīr tales we -have the bird saying, "If any person will peel off the bark of my -tree, pound it, mix the powder with some of the juice of its leaves -and then work it into a ball, it will be found to work like a charm; -for any one who smells it will be turned into an ass." [564] We have -instances of ass transformation in Apuleius and Lucian, and in German -and other Western folk-tales. - - - -The Lion. - -The lion, from his comparative rarity in Northern India, appears -little in popular belief. It is one of the vehicles of Pārvatī, -and rude images of the animal are sometimes placed near shrines -dedicated to Devī. There is a current idea that only one pair of -lions exists in the world at the same time. They have two cubs, a -male and a female, which, when they arrive at maturity, devour their -parents. In the folk-tales the childless king is instructed that he -will find in the forest a boy riding on a lion, and this will be his -son. The lovely maiden in the legend of Jimutavāhana is met riding on -a lion. We have the lion Pingalika, king of beasts, with the jackal -as his minister, and in one of the cycle of tales in which the weak -animal overcomes the more powerful, the hare by his wisdom causes -the lion to drown himself. The basis of the famous tale of Androcles -is probably Buddhistic, but only a faint reference to it is found -in Somadeva. In one of the modern stories the soldier takes a thorn -out of the tiger's foot, and is rewarded with a box which contains -a manikin, who procures for him all he desires. [565] - - - -The Tiger. - -The tiger naturally takes the place of the lion. According to the -comparative mythologists, "the tiger, panther, and leopard possess -several of the mystical characteristics of the lion as the hidden -sun. Thus, Dionysos and Siva, the phallical god par excellence, -have these animals as their emblems." [566] Siva, it is true, is -represented as sitting in his ascetic form on a tiger skin, but it -is his consort, Durgā, who uses the animal as her vehicle. Quite -apart from the solar myth theory, the belief that witches are changed -into tigers, and the terror inspired by him, are quite sufficient to -account for the honour bestowed upon him. - -Much also of the worship of the tiger is probably of totemistic -origin. Thus the Baghel Rājputs claim descent, and from him (bāgh, -vyāghra, "the spotted one") derive their name. This tribe will not, -in Central India, destroy the animal. So, "no consideration will -induce a Sumatran to catch or wound a tiger, except in self-defence, or -immediately after the tiger has destroyed a friend or a relation. When -a European has set traps for tigers, the people of the neighbourhood -have been known to go by night to the spot and explain to the tiger -that the traps were not set by them, nor with their consent." The Bhīls -and the Bajrāwat Rājputs of Rājputāna also claim tiger origin. [567] - -Another idea appearing in tiger-worship is that he eats human flesh, -and thus obtains possession of the souls of the victims whom he -devours. For this reason a man-eating tiger is supposed to walk along -with his head bent, because the ghosts of his victims sit on it and -weigh it down. [568] - -He is, again, often the disguise of a sorcerer of evil temper, an -idea similar to that which was the basis of the European dread of -lycanthropy and the were-wolf. "Accounts differ as to the way in which -the were-wolf was chosen. According to one account, a human victim -was sacrificed, one of his bowels was mixed with the bowels of animal -victims, the whole was consumed by the worshippers, and the man who -unwittingly ate the human bowel was changed into a wolf. According -to another account, lots were cast among the members of a particular -family, and he upon whom the lot fell was the were-wolf. Being led -to the brink of a tarn, he stripped himself, hung his clothes on an -oak tree, plunged into the tarn, and swimming across it, went into -desert places. There he was changed into a wolf, and herded with -wolves for nine years. If he tasted human blood before the nine years -were out he had to remain a wolf for ever. If during the nine years -he abstained from preying on men, then, when the tenth year came -round, he recovered his human shape. Similarly, there is a negro -family at the mouth of the Congo who are supposed to possess the -power of turning themselves into leopards in the gloomy depths of -the forest. As leopards, they knock people down, but do no further -harm, for they think that if, as leopards, they once lapped blood, -they would be leopards for ever." [569] - -Hence in India the jungle people who are in the way of meeting him -will not pronounce his name, but speak of him as Gīdar, "the jackal," -Jānwar, "the beast," or use some other euphemistic term. They do -the same in many cases with the wolf and bear, and though they -sometimes hesitate to kill the animal themselves, they will readily -assist sportsmen to destroy him, and make great rejoicings when he is -killed. A Shikāri will break off a branch on the road as he goes along, -and say, "As thy life has departed, so may the tiger die!" When he is -killed they will bring forward some spirits and pour it on the head of -the animal, addressing him, "Mahārāja! During your life you confined -yourself to cattle, and never injured your human subjects. Now that -you are dead, spare us and bless us!" In Akola the gardeners are -unwilling to inform the sportsmen of the whereabouts of a tiger or -panther which may have taken up its quarters in their plantation, -for they have a superstition that a garden plot loses its fertility -from the moment one of these animals is killed there. So, with the -Ainos of Japan, who when a bear is trapped or wounded by an arrow, -go through an apologetic or propitiatory ceremony. [570] - -In Nepāl they have a regular festival in honour of the tiger known -as the Bāgh Jātra, in which the worshippers used to dance in the -disguise of tigers. - - - -Tiger-worship among the Jungle Races. - -But, as is natural, the worship of the tiger prevails more widely -among the jungle races. We have already met with Bāgheswar, the tiger -deity of the Mirzapur forest tribes. The Santāls also worship him, -and the Kisāns honour him as Banrāja, or "lord of the jungle." They -will not kill him, and believe that in return for their devotion -he will spare them. Another branch of the tribe does not worship -him, but all swear by him. The Bhuiyārs, on the contrary, have no -veneration for him, and think it their interest to slay him whenever -they have an opportunity. The Juāngs take their oaths on earth from -an ant-hill, and on a tiger's skin; the ant-hill is a sacred object -with the Khariyas, and the tiger skin is brought in when the Hos and -Santāls are sworn. Among the eastern Santāls, the tiger is worshipped, -but in Rāmgarh only those who have suffered from the animal's ferocity -condescend to adore him. If a man is carried off by a tiger, the Bāgh -Bhūt, or "Tiger ghost," is worshipped, and an oath on a tiger's skin -is considered most solemn. [571] - - - -Bāgh Deo, the Tiger Godling. - -Further west the Kurkus of Hoshangābād worship the tiger godling, -Bāgh Deo, who is the Wāgh Deo of Berār. At Petri in Berār is a sort -of altar to Wāghāī Devī, the tiger goddess, founded on a spot where a -Gond woman was once seized by a tiger. She is said to have vanished as -if by some supernatural agency, and the Gonds who desire protection -from wild beasts present to her altar gifts of every kind of animal -from a cow downwards. A Gond presides over the shrine and receives -the votive offerings. - -In Hoshangābād the Bhomka is the priest of Bāgh Deo. "On him devolves -the dangerous duty of keeping tigers out of the boundaries. When a -tiger visits a village, the Bhomka repairs to Bāgh Deo, and makes his -offerings to the god, and promises to repeat them for so many years on -condition that the tiger does not appear for that time. The tiger, on -his part, never fails to fulfil the compact thus solemnly made by his -lord; for he is pre-eminently an upright and honourable beast--'pious -withal,' as Mandeville says, not faithless or treacherous like the -leopard, whom no compact can bind. Some Bhomkas, however, masters -of more powerful spell, are not obliged to rely on the traditional -honour of the tiger, but compel his attendance before Bāgh Deo; and -such a Bhomka has been seen, a very Daniel among tigers, muttering -his incantations over two or three at a time as they crouched before -him. Still more mysterious was the power of Kālibhīt Bhomka (now, -alas! no more). He died, the victim of misplaced confidence in a -Louis Napoleon of tigers, the basest and most bloodthirsty of his -race. He had a fine large Sāj tree into which, when he uttered his -spells, he would drive a nail. On this the tiger came and ratified the -contract with enormous paw manual. Such was that of Timūr the Lame, -when he dipped his mighty hand in blood and stamped its impression -on a parchment grant." [572] - -In the same way in other parts of the Central Provinces the village -sorcerers profess to be able to call tigers from the jungles, to -seize them by the ears, and control their voracity by whispering to -them a command not to come near their villages, or they pretend to -know a particular kind of root, by burying which they can prevent -the beasts of the forest from devouring men or cattle. With the same -object they lay on the pathway small models of bedsteads and other -things which are supposed to act as charms and stop their advance. - - - -Magical Powers of Dead Tigers. - -All sorts of magical powers are ascribed to the tiger after death. The -fangs, the claws, the whiskers are potent charms, valuable for love -philters and prophylactics against demoniacal influence, the Evil Eye, -disease and death. The milk of a tigress is valuable medicine, and it -is one of the stock impossible tasks or tests imposed upon the hero -to find and fetch it, as he is sent to get the feathers of the eagle, -water from the well of death, or the mystical cow guarded by Dānos or -Rākshasas. [573] The fat is considered a valuable remedy for rheumatism -and similar maladies. The heart and flesh are tonics, stimulants and -aphrodisiacs, and give strength and courage to those who use them. The -Miris of Assam prize tiger's flesh as food for men; it gives them -strength and courage; but it is not suited for women, as it would -make them too strong-minded. [574] The whiskers are believed, among -other qualities which they possess, to be a slow poison when taken -with food, and the curious rudimentary clavicles, known as Santokh or -"happiness," are highly valued as amulets. There is a general belief -that a tiger gets a new lobe to his liver every year. A favourite -amulet to repel demoniacal influence consists of the whiskers of the -tiger or leopard mixed with nail parings, some sacred root or grass, -and red lead, and hung on the throat or upper arm. This treatment -is particularly valuable in the case of young children immediately -after birth. Tiger's flesh is also a potent medicine and charm, and -it is burnt in the cow-stall when cattle disease prevails. The flesh -of the tiger, or if that be not procurable, the flesh of the jackal -is burnt in the fields to keep off blight from the crops. - - - -Tigers, Propitiation of. - -Some tigers are supposed to be amenable to courtesy. In one of -the Kashmīr tales, the hero in search of tiger's milk shoots an -arrow and pierces one of the teats of the tigress, to whom he -explains that he hoped she would thus be able to suckle her cubs -with less trouble. In other tales we find the tiger pacified if -he is addressed as "Uncle." [575] So, Colonel Tod describes how a -tiger attacked a boy near his camp, and was supposed to have, like -the fierce Rākshasa of the Nepāl legend, released the child when he -was addressed as "Uncle." [576] "This Lord of the Black Rock, for -such is the designation of the tiger, is one of the most ancient -bourgeois of Morwan; his stronghold is Kāla Pahār, between this -and Magawār; and his reign during a long series of years has been -unmolested, notwithstanding numerous acts of aggression on his bovine -subjects. Indeed, only two nights before he was disturbed gorging on -a buffalo belonging to a poor oilman of Morwan. Whether the tiger -was an incarnation of one of the Mori lords of Morwan, tradition -does not say; but neither gun, bow, nor spear has ever been raised -against him. In return for this forbearance, it is said, he never -preyed on man; or if he seized one, would, on being entreated with -the endearing epithet of 'Uncle,' let go his hold." [577] - - - -Tiger-worship among the Gonds. - -Among the Gonds tiger-worship assumes a particularly disgusting -form. At marriages among them, a terrible apparition appears of two -demoniacs possessed by Bāgheswar, the tiger god. They fall ravenously -on a bleating kid, and gnaw it with their teeth till it expires. "The -manner," says Captain Samuells, who witnessed the performance, -"in which the two men seized the kid with their teeth and killed -it was a sight which could only be equalled on a feeding day in the -Zoological Gardens or a menagerie." [578] - - - -Men Metamorphosed into Tigers. - -The only visible difference between the ordinary animal and a man -metamorphosed into a tiger was explained to Colonel Sleeman to consist -in the fact that the latter had no tail. In the jungles about Deori -there is said to be a root, which if a man eats, he is converted -into a tiger on the spot; and if, when in this state, he eats another -species of root, he is turned back into a man again. - -"A melancholy instance of this," said Colonel Sleeman's informant, -"occurred in my own father's family when I was an infant. His washerman -Raghu was, like all washermen, a great drunkard. Being seized with a -violent desire to ascertain what a man felt like in the state of a -tiger, he went one day to the jungle and brought back two of these -roots, and desired his wife to stand by with one of them, and the -instant she saw him assume the tiger's shape to thrust the root she -held into his mouth. She consented, and the washerman ate his root -and instantly became a tiger, whereupon she was so terrified that -she ran off with the antidote in her hand. Poor old Raghu took to the -woods, and there ate a good many of his friends from the neighbouring -villages; but he was at last shot, and recognized from his having -no tail. You may be quite sure when you hear of a tiger having no -tail that it is some unfortunate man who has eaten of that root, -and of all the tigers he will be found the most mischievous." [579] - -This is a curious reversal of the ordinary theory regarding the tail -of the tiger, to which a murderous strength is attributed. A Hindu -proverb says that the hair of a tiger's tail may be the means of -losing one's life. This has been compared by Professor De Gubernatis -with the tiger Mantikora spoken of by Ktesias, which has on its tail -hairs which are darts thrown by it for the purpose of defence. [580] - -A Nepāl legend describes how some children made a clay image of a -tiger, and thinking the figure incomplete without a tongue, went -to fetch a leaf to supply the defect. On their return they found -that Bhairava had entered the image and had begun to devour their -sheep. The image of Bāgh Bhairava and the deified children are still -to be seen at this place. We have the same legend in the Panchatantra -and the tales of Somadeva, where four Brāhmans resuscitate a tiger -and are devoured by it. [581] - -We have many instances in the folk-tales of the tiger befooled. In -one of the tales told by the Mānjhis of Mirzapur the goat has kids -in the tiger's den, and when he arrives she makes her kids squall -and pretends that she wants some tiger's flesh for them. [582] In a -Panjābi tale the farmer's wife rides up to the tiger calling out, -"I hope I may find a tiger in this field, for I have not tasted -tiger's flesh since the day before yesterday, when I killed three," -whereupon the tiger runs away. The tale which tells how the jackal -succeeds in getting the tiger back into the cage and thus saves the -Brāhman is common in Indian folk-lore. [583] - - - -Dog-worship. - -In the Nepāl legend which we have been discussing we find Bhairava -associated with the tiger, but his prototype, the local godling -Bhairon, has the dog as his sacred animal, and his is the only temple -in Benares into which the dog is admitted. [584] - -Two conflicting lines of thought seem to meet in dog-worship. As -Mr. Campbell says, "There is a good house-guarding dog, and an evil -scavenging and tomb-haunting dog. Some of the products of the dog -are so valued in driving off spirits that they seem to be a distinct -element in the feeling of respect shown to the dog. Still it seems -better to consider the dog as a man-eater, and to hold that, like -the tiger, this was the original reason why the dog was considered -a guardian." [585] It is perhaps in this connection that the dog is -associated with Yama, the god of death. - -An ancient epithet of the dog is Kritajna, "he that is mindful -of favours," which is also a title of Siva. The most touching -episode of the Mahābhārata is where Yudhisthira refuses to enter the -heaven of Indra without his favourite dog, which is really Yama in -disguise. These dogs of Yama probably correspond to the Orthros and -Kerberos of the Greeks, and Kerberos has been connected etymologically -with Sarvari, which is an epithet of the night, meaning originally -"dark" or "pale." [586] The same idea shows itself in the Pārsi -respect for the dog, which may be traced to the belief of the early -Persians. The dog's muzzle is placed near the mouth of the dying Pārsi -in order that it may receive his parting breath and bear it to the -waiting angel, and the destruction of a corpse by dogs is looked on -with no feeling of abhorrence. The same idea is found in Buddhism, -where on the early coins "the figure of a dog in connection with a -Buddhist Stūpa recalls to mind the use to which the animal was put in -the bleak highlands of Asia in the preferential form of sepulchre over -exposure to birds and wild beasts in the case of deceased monks or -persons of position in Tibet. Strange and horrible as it may seem to -us to be devoured by domestic dogs, trained and bred for the purpose, -it was the most honourable form of burial among Tibetans." [587] - -The Kois of Central India hold in great respect the Pāndava brethren -Arjuna and Bhīma. The wild dogs or Dhol are regarded as the Dūtas -or messengers of the heroes, and the long black beetles which appear -in large numbers at the beginning of the hot weather are called the -Pāndavas' goats. None of them will on any account interfere with -these divine dogs, even when they attack their cattle. [588] - - - -Dog-worship: Bhairon. - -In modern times dog-worship appears specially in connection with the -cultus of Bhairon, the Brāhmanical Bhairava, the Bhairoba of Western -India. No Marātha will lift his hand against a dog, and in Bombay -many Hindus worship the dog of Kāla Bhairava, though the animal is -considered unclean by them. Khandź Rāo or Khandoba or Khandoji is -regarded as an incarnation of Siva and much worshipped by Marāthas. He -is most frequently represented as riding on horseback and attended by a -dog and accompanied by his wife Malsurā, another form of Pārvatī. His -name is usually derived from the Khanda or sword which he carries, -but Professor Oppert without much probability would connect it with -that of the aboriginal Khāndhs who are supposed to have been original -settlers in Khāndesh, after whom it was called. [589] In many temples -of Bhaironnāth, as at Benares and Hardwār, he is depicted on the -wall in a deep blue colour approaching to black, and behind him -is the figure of the dog on which he rides. Sweetmeat sellers make -little images of a dog in sugar, which are presented to the deity as -an offering. - -At Lohāru, in the Panjāb, a common-looking grave is much respected -by the Hindus. It is said to contain the remains of a dog formerly -possessed by the chief of the victorious Thākurs, which is credited -with having done noble service in battle, springing up and seizing -the wounded warriors' throats, many of whom it slew. Finally it was -killed and buried on the spot with beat of drum, and has since been an -object of worship and homage. "Were it not," says General Cunningham, -"for the Sagparast of Naishapur, mentioned in Khusru's charming Darvesh -tales, this example of dog-worship would probably be unique." [590] -This is, it is hardly necessary to say, a mistake. - -Thus, close to Bulandshahr, there is a grove with four tombs, which -are said to be the resting-place of three holy men and their favourite -dog, which died when the last of the saints departed this life. They -were buried together, and their tombs are held in much respect by -Muhammadans. [591] - -In Pūna, Dattātreya is guarded by four dogs which are said to stand -for the four Vedas, and at Jejuri and Nāgpur children are dedicated -to the dogs of Khandź Rāo. The Ghisādis, on the seventh day after a -birth, go and worship water, and on coming back rub their feet on a -dog. At Dharwār, on the fair day of the Dasahra at Malahāri's temple, -the Vāggayya ministrants dress in blue woollen coats and meet with bell -and skins tied round their middles, the pilgrims barking and howling -like dogs. Each Vāggayya has a wooden bowl into which the pilgrims -put milk and plantains. Then the Vāggayyas lay down the bowls, fight -with each other like dogs, and putting their mouths into the bowls, -eat the contents. [592] In Nepāl, there is a festival, known as -the Khichā Pūjā, in which worship is done to dogs, and garlands of -flowers are placed round the neck of every dog in the country. [593] -Among the Gonds, if a dog dies or is born, the family has to undergo -purification. [594] - - - -Dogs in Folk-lore: The Bethgelert Legend. - -The famous tale of Bethgelert, the faithful hound which saves the -child of his master from the wolf and is killed by mistake, appears -all through the folk-tales and was probably derived from India. In the -Indian version the dog usually belongs to a Banya or to a Banjāra, -who mortgages him to a merchant. The merchant is robbed and the dog -discovers the stolen goods. In his gratitude the merchant ties round -the neck of the dog a scrap of paper, on which he records that the -debt has been satisfied. The dog returns to his original master, -who upbraids him for deserting his post, and, without looking at the -paper, kills him, only to be overcome by remorse when he learns the -honesty of the faithful beast. This famous tale is told at Haidarābād, -Lucknow, Sītapur, Mirzapur, and Kashmīr. In its more usual form, as -in the Panchatantra and the collection of Somadeva, the mungoose takes -the place of the dog and kills the cobra on the baby's cradle. [595] - -Throughout folk-lore the dog is associated with the spirits of the -dead, as we have seen to be the case with Syāma, "the black one," and -Sabala or Karvara, the "spotted ones," the attendants of Yama. [596] -Hence the dog is regarded as the guardian of the household, which -they protect from evil spirits. According to Aubrey, [597] "all -over England a spayed bitch is accounted wholesome in a house; that -is to say they have a strong belief that it keeps away evil spirits -from haunting of a house." As in the Odyssey, the two swift hounds of -Telemachus bear him company and recognize Athene when she is invisible -to others, and the dogs of Virgil howl when the goddess approaches, -so the Muhammadans believe that dogs recognize Azraīl, the angel of -death, and in Northern India it is supposed that dogs have the power -of seeing spirits, and when they see one they howl. In Shakespeare -King Henry says:-- - - - "The owl shriek'd at thy birth, an evil sign; - The night-crow cried, aboding luckless time; - Dogs howled and hideous tempests shook down trees." - - -Hence in all countries the howling of dogs in the vicinity of a house -is an omen of approaching misfortune. - -The respect for the dog is well shown in the case of the Bauris of -Bengal, who will on no account kill a dog or touch its body, and the -water of a tank in which a dog has been drowned cannot be used until -an entire rainy season has washed the impurity away. They allege -that as they kill cows and most other animals, they deem it right -to fix on some beast which should be as sacred to them as the cow to -the Brāhman, and they selected the dog because it was a useful animal -when alive and not very nice to eat when dead, "a neat reconciliation -of the twinges of conscience and cravings of appetite." [598] - -Various omens are in the Panjāb drawn from dogs. When out hunting, -if they lie on their backs and roll, as they generally do when they -find a tuft of grass or soft ground, it shows that plenty of game -will be found. If a dog lies quietly on his back in the house, it -is a bad omen, for the superstition runs that the dog is addressing -heaven for support, and that some calamity is bound to happen. [599] - -We have seen already that some of the Central Indian tribes respect the -wild dog. The same is the case in the Hills, where they are known as -"God's hounds," and no native sportsman will kill them. [600] In one -of Grimm's tales we read that the "Lord God had created all animals, -and had chosen out the wolf to be his dog," and the dogs of Odin were -wolves. [601] Another sacred dog in Indian folk-lore is that of the -hunter Shambuka. His master threw him into the sacred pool of Uradh -in the Himālaya. Coming out dripping, he shook some of the water -on his owner, and such was the virtue of even this partial ablution -that on their death both hunter and dog were summoned to the heaven -of Siva. [602] - -All over Northern India the belief in the curative power of the tongue -of the dog widely prevails. In Ireland they say that a dried tongue -of a fox will draw out thorns, however deep they be, and an old late -Latin verse says:-- - - - In cane bis bina sunt, et lingua medicina - Naris odoratus, amor intiger, atque latratus. [603] - - -Among Musalmāns the dog is impure. The vessel it drinks from must be -washed seven times and scrubbed with earth. The Qurān directs that -before a dog is slipped in chase of game, the sportsman should call -out, "In the name of God, the great God!" Then all game seized by -him becomes lawful food. - - - -The Goat. - -The goat is another animal to which mystic powers are attributed. In -the mythology of the West he is associated with Dionysos, Pan, and -the Satyr. In England it is commonly believed that he is never seen -for twenty-four hours together, and that once in this space he pays -a visit to the Devil to have his beard combed. [604] The Devil, they -say, sometimes appears in this form, which accounts for his horns -and tail. The wild goat was associated with the worship of Artemis, -the Arab unmarried goddess. [605] In the Rāmāyana, Agamukhī, or -"goat's face," is the witch who wishes Sītā to be torn to pieces. - -Mr. Conway asks whether this idea about the goat is due to the smell -of the animal, its butting and injury to plants, or was it demonized -merely because of its uncanny and shaggy appearance? [606] Probably -the chief reason is because it has a curious habit of occasionally -shivering, which is regarded as caused by some indwelling spirit. The -Thags in their sacrifice used to select two goats, black, and perfect -in all their parts. They were bathed and made to face the west, and if -they shook themselves and threw the water off their hair, they were -regarded as a sacrifice acceptable to Devī. Hence in India a goat -is led along a disputed boundary, and the place where it shivers is -regarded as the proper line. Plutarch says that the Greeks would not -sacrifice a goat if it did not shiver when water was thrown over it. - -In the Panjāb it is believed that when a goat kills a snake it eats it -and then ruminates, after which it spits out a Manka or bead, which, -when applied to a snake-bite, absorbs the poison and swells. If it be -then put in milk and squeezed, the poison drips out of it like blood, -and the patient is cured. If it is not put in milk, it will burst to -pieces. [607] It hence resembles the Ovum Anguinum, or Druid's Egg, -to which reference has been already made. [608] If a person suffers -from spleen, they take the spleen of a he-goat, if the patient be a -male; or of a she-goat, if the patient be a female. It is rubbed on -the region of the spleen seven times on a Sunday or Tuesday, pierced -with acacia thorns and hung on a tree. As the goat's spleen dries, -the spleen of the patient reduces. - -The horn is regarded as somehow most closely connected with the -brain. So, in the "Merry Wives of Windsor," Mrs. Quickly says: -"If he had found the young man, he would have been horn mad," and -Horace gives the advice, "Fenum habet in cornu longe fuge." Martial -describes how in his time the Roman shrines were covered with horns, -Dissimulatque deum cornibus ora frequens. [609] - -It is for this reason that the local shrines in the Himālaya are -decorated with horns of the wild sheep, ibex, and goat. In Persia many -houses are adorned with rams' heads fixed to the corners near the roof, -which are to protect the building from misfortune. In Bilochistān and -Afghanistān it is customary to place the horns of the wild goat and -sheep on the walls of forts and mosques. [610] Akbar covered his Kos -Minars or mile-stones with the horns of the deer he had killed. The -conical support of the Banjāra woman's head-dress was originally -a horn, and many classes of Faqīrs tie a piece of horn round their -necks. We have the well-known horn of plenty, and it is very common -in the folk-tales to find objects taken out of the ears or horns of -the helpful animals. [611] - - - -Goat and Totemism. - -We perhaps get a glimpse of totemism in connection with the goat in -some of the early Hindu legends. When Parusha, the primeval man, -was divided into his male and female parts, he produced all the -animals, and the goat was first formed out of his mouth. There is, -again, a mystical connection between Agni, the fire god, Brāhmans, -and goats, as between Indra, the Kshatriyas, and sheep, Vaisyas and -kine, Sūdras and the horse. These may possibly have been tribal totems -of the races by whom these animals were venerated. [612] The sheep, -as we have already seen, is a totem of the Keriyas. The Aheriyas, -a vagrant tribe of the North-Western Provinces, worship Mekhasura or -Meshasura in the form of a ram. - - - -Cow and Bull Worship. - -But the most famous of these animal totems or fetishes is the cow or -bull. According to the school of comparative mythology the bull which -bore away Europe from Kadmos is the same from which the dawn flies -in the Vedic hymn. He, according to this theory, is "the bull Indra, -which, like the sun, traverses the heaven, bearing the dawn from -east to west. But the Cretan bull, like his fellow in the Gnossian -labyrinth, who devours the tribute children from the city of the Dawn -goddess, is a dark and malignant monster, akin to the throttling snake -who represents the powers of night and darkness." [613] This may be -so, but the identification of primitive religion, in all its varied -phases, with the sun or other physical phenomena is open to the obvious -objection that it limits the ideas of the early Aryans to the weather -and their dairies, and antedates the regard for the cow to a period -when the animal was held in much less reverence than it is at present. - - - -Respect for the Cow Modern. - -That the respect for the cow is of comparatively modern date is best -established on the authority of a writer, himself a Hindu. "Animal -food was in use in the Epic period, and the cow and bull were often -laid under requisition. In the Aitareya Brāhmana, we learn that an -ox, or a cow which suffers miscarriage, is killed when a king or -honoured guest is received. In the Brāhmana of the Black Yajur Veda -the kind and character of the cattle which should be slaughtered in -minor sacrifices for the gratification of particular divinities are -laid down in detail. Thus a dwarf one is to be sacrificed to Vishnu, -a drooping-horned bull to Indra, a thick-legged cow to Vāyu, a barren -cow to Vishnu and Varuna, a black cow to Pūshan, a cow having two -colours to Mitra and Varuna, a red cow to Indra, and so on. In a larger -and more important ceremonial, like the Aswamedha, no less than one -hundred and eighty domestic animals, including horses, bulls, goats, -sheep, deer, etc., were sacrificed. - -"The same Brāhmana lays down instructions for carving, and the -Gopatha Brāhmana tells us who received the portions. The priests -got the tongue, the neck, the shoulder, the rump, the legs, etc., -while the master of the house wisely appropriated to himself the -sirloin, and his wife had to be satisfied with the pelvis. Plentiful -libations of Soma beer were to be allowed to wash down the meat. In -the Satapatha Brāhmana we have a detailed account of the slaughter -of a barren cow and its cooking. In the same Brāhmana there is an -amusing discussion as to the propriety of eating the meat of an ox -or cow. The conclusion is not very definite. 'Let him (the priest) -not eat the flesh of the cow and the ox.' Nevertheless Yajnavalkya -said (taking apparently a very practical view of the matter), 'I, -for one, eat it, provided it is tender.'" [614] - -The evidence that cows were freely slaughtered in ancient times could -be largely extended. It is laid down in the early laws that the meat -of milch cows and oxen may be eaten, and a guest is called a Goghna or -"cow-killer," because a cow was killed for his entertainment. [615] -In the Grihya Sūtra we have a description of the sacrifice of an ox to -Kshetrapati, "the lord of the fields." In another ancient ritual the -sacrifice of a cow is stated to be very similar to that of the Satī, -and, according to an early legend, kine were created from Parusha, -the primal male, and are to be eaten as they were formed from the -receptacle of food. [616] - -It need hardly be said that the worship of the cow is not peculiar -to India, but prevails widely in various parts of the world. [617] - - - -Origin of Cow-worship. - -The explanation of the origin of cow-worship has been a subject of -much controversy. The modern Hindu, if he has formed any distinct -ideas at all on the subject, bases his respect for the cow on her -value for supplying milk, and for general agricultural purposes. The -Panchagāvya, or five products of the cow--milk, curds, butter, urine, -and dung--are efficacious as scarers of demons, are used as remedies in -disease, and play a very important part in domestic ritual Gaurochana, -a bright yellow pigment prepared from the urine or bile of the cow, -or, as is said by some, vomited by her or found in her head, is -used for making the sectarial mark, and as a sedative, tonic, and -anthelmintic. In Bombay it is specially used as a remedy for measles, -which is considered to be a spirit disease. [618] - -There is, again, something to be said for the theory which finds in -these animals tribal totems and fetishes. [619] We have a parallel -case among the Jews, where the bull was probably the ancient symbol of -the Hyksos, which the Israelites having succeeded them could adopt, -especially as it may have been retained in use by their confederates -the Midianites; and it appears in the earliest annals of Israel as -a token of the former supremacy of Joseph and his tribe, and was -subsequently adopted as an image of Iahveh himself. - -So, speaking of Egypt, Mr. Frazer writes: "Osiris was regularly -identified with the bull Apis of Memphis and the bull Mnevis of -Heliopolis. But it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments -of him as the corn spirit, as the red oxen appear to have been, or -whether they were not entirely distinct deities which got fused with -Osiris by syncretism. The fact that these two bulls were worshipped -by all the Egyptians, seems to put them on a different footing from -the ordinary sacred animals, whose cults were purely local. Hence, -if the latter were evolved from totems, as they probably were, some -other origin would have to be found for the worship of Apis and -Mnevis. If these bulls were not originally embodiments of the corn -god Osiris, they may possibly be descendants of the sacred cattle -worshipped by a pastoral people. If this were so, ancient Egypt -would exhibit a stratification of the three great types of religion -corresponding to the three great stages of society. Totemism or -(roughly speaking) the worship of wild animals--the religion of -society in the hunting stage--would be represented by the worship -of the local sacred animals; the worship of cattle--the religion of -society in the pastoral stage--would be represented by the cults of -Apis and Mnevis; and the worship of cultivated plants, especially -of corn--the religion of society in the agricultural stage--would be -represented by the worship of Osiris and Isis. The Egyptian reverence -for cows, which were never killed, might belong either to the second -or third of these stages." [620] - -There is some evidence that the same process of religious development -may have taken place in India. It is at least significant that the -earlier legends represent Indra as created from a cow; and we know that -Indra was the Kuladevatā or family godling of the race of the Kusikas, -as Krishna was probably the clan deity of some powerful confederation -of Rājput tribes. Cow-worship is thus closely connected with Indra and -with Krishna in his forms as the "herdman god," Govinda or Gopāla; -and it is at least plausible to conjecture that the worship of the -cow may have been due to the absorption of the animal as a tribal -totem of the two races, who venerated these two divinities. - -Further, the phallic significance of the worship, in its modern form -at least, and its connection with fertility cannot be altogether -ignored. [621] This is particularly shown in the close connection -between Siva's bull Nandi and the Lingam worship; and there seems -reason to suspect that the bull is intended to intercept the evil -influences which in the popular belief are continually emitted from -the female principle through the Yonī. As we have already seen, the -dread of this form of pollution is universal. Hence when the Lingam -is set up in a new village the people are careful in turning the spout -of the Yonī towards the jungle, and not in the direction of the roads -and houses, lest its evil influence should be communicated to them; and -in order still further to secure this object, the bull Nandi is placed -sitting as a guardian between the Yonī and the inhabited site. [622] - -Cow-worship assumes another form in connection with the theory of -transmigration. It has become part of the theory that the soul migrates -into the cow immediately preceding its assumption of the human form, -and she escorts the soul across the dreaded river Vaitaranī, which -bounds the lower world. - - - -Cow-worship: Its Later Development. - -Though cow-worship was little known in the Vedic period, by the time -of the compilation of the Institutes of Manu it had become part of the -popular belief. He classes the slaughter of a cow or bull among the -deadly sins; "the preserver of a cow or a Brāhman atones for the crime -of killing a priest;" [623] and we find constant references in the -medięval folk-lore to the impiety of the Savaras and other Drāvidian -races who killed and ate the sacred animal. Saktideva one day, -"as he was standing on the roof of his palace, saw a Chandāla coming -along with a load of cow's flesh, and said to his beloved Vindumatī: -'Look, slender one! How can the evil-doer eat the flesh of cows, that -are the object of veneration to the three worlds?' Then Vindumatī, -hearing that, said to her husband: 'The wickedness of this act is -inconceivable; what can we say in palliation of it? I have been born -in this race of fishermen for a very small offence owing to the might -of cows. But what can atone for this man's sin?'" [624] - - - -Re-birth through the Cow. - -When the horoscope forebodes some crime or special calamity, the -child is clothed in scarlet, a colour which repels evil influences, -and tied on the back of a new sieve, which, as we have seen, is a -powerful fetish. This is passed through the hindlegs of a cow, forward -through the forelegs towards the mouth, and again in the reverse -direction, signifying the new birth from the sacred animal. The usual -worship and aspersion take place, and the father smells his child, -as the cow smells her calf. This rite is known as the Hiranyagarbha, -and not long since the Mahārāja of Travancore was passed in this way -through a cow of gold. [625] - -The same idea is illustrated in the legend of the Pushkar Lake, which -probably represents a case of that fusion of races which undoubtedly -occurred in ancient times. The story runs that Brahma proposed to -do worship there, but was perplexed where he should perform the -sacrifice, as he had no temple on earth like the other gods. So he -collected all the other gods, but the sacrifice could not proceed as -Savitrī alone was absent; and she refused to come without Lakshmī, -Pārvatī, and Indrānī. On hearing of her refusal, Brahma was wroth, -and said to Indra: "Search me out a girl that I may marry her and -commence the sacrifice, for the jar of ambrosia weighs heavy on my -head." Accordingly Indra went and found none but a Gūjar's daughter, -whom he purified, and passing her through the body of a cow, -brought her to Brahma, telling him what he had done. Vishnu said: -"Brāhmans and cows are really identical; you have taken her from the -womb of a cow, and this may be considered a second birth." Siva said: -"As she has passed through a cow, she shall be called Gāyatrī." The -Brāhmans agreed that the sacrifice might now proceed; and Brahma -having married Gāyatrī, and having enjoined silence upon her, placed -on her head the jar of ambrosia and the sacrifice was performed. [626] - - - -Respect Paid to the Cow. - -The respect paid to the cow appears everywhere in folk-lore. We have -the cow Kāmadhenū, known also as Kāmadughā or Kāmaduh, the cow of -plenty, Savalā, "the spotted one," and Surabhī, "the fragrant one," -which grants all desires. Among many of the lower castes the cow-shed -becomes the family temple. [627] In the old ritual, the bride, on -entering her husband's house, was placed on a red bull's hide as a -sign that she was received into the tribe, and in the Soma sacrifice -the stones whence the liquor was produced were laid on the hide of -a bull. When a disputed boundary is under settlement, a cow skin is -placed over the head and shoulders of the arbitrator, who is thus -imbued with the divine influence, and gives a just decision. It is -curious that until quite recently there was a custom in the Hebrides of -sewing up a man in the hide of a bull, and leaving him for the night -on a hill-top, that he might become a spirit medium. [628] The pious -Hindu touches the cow's tail at the moment of dissolution, and by her -aid he is carried across the dread river of death. I have more than -once seen a criminal ascend the scaffold with the utmost composure -when he was allowed to grasp a cow's tail before the hangman did -his office. The tail of the cow is also used in the marriage ritual, -and the tail of the wild cow, though nowadays only used by grooms, -was once the symbol of power, and waved over the ruler to protect -him from evil spirits. Quite recently I found that one of the chief -Brāhman priests at the sacred pool of Hardwār keeps a wild cow's tail -to wave over his clients, and scare demons from them when they are -bathing in the Brahma Kund or sacred pool. - -The Hill legend tells how Siva once manifested himself in his fiery -form, and Vishnu and Brahma went in various directions to see how -far the light extended. On their return Vishnu declared that he had -been unable to find out how far the light prevailed; but Brahma said -that he had gone beyond its limits. Vishnu then called on Kāmadhenū, -the celestial cow, to bear testimony, and she corroborated Brahma with -her tongue, but she shook her tail by way of denying the statement. So -Vishnu cursed her that her mouth should be impure, but that her tail -should be held holy for ever. [629] - - - -Modern Cow-worship. - -There are numerous instances of modern cow-worship. The Jāts and -Gūjars adore her under the title of Gāū Mātā, "Mother cow." The -cattle are decorated and supplied with special food on the Gopashtamī -or Gokulashtamī festival, which is held in connection with the -Krishna cultus. In Nepāl there is a Newāri festival, known as the -Gāź Jātra, or cow feast, when all persons who have lost relations -during the year ought to disguise themselves as cows and dance round -the palace of the king. [630] In many of the Central Indian States, -about the time of the Diwālī, the Maun Charāūn, or silent tending -of cattle, is performed. The celebrants rise at daybreak, wash and -bathe, anoint their bodies with oil, and hang garlands of flowers -round their necks. All this time they remain silent and communicate -their wants by signs. When all is ready they go to the pasture in -procession in perfect silence. Each of them holds a peacock's feather -over his shoulder to scare demons. They remain in silence with the -cattle for an hour or two, and then return home. This is followed -by an entertainment of wrestling among the Ahīrs or cowherds. When -night has come, a gun is fired, and the Mahārāja breaks his fast and -speaks. The rite is said to be in commemoration of Krishna feeding -the cows in the pastures of the land of Braj. [631] - -During an eclipse, the cow, if in calf, is rubbed on the horns and -belly with red ochre to repel the evil influence, and prevent the -calf being born blemished. Cattle are not worked on the Amāvas or -Ides of the month. There are many devices, such as burning tiger's -flesh, and similar prophylactics, in the cow-house to drive away -the demon of disease. So, on New Year's Day the Highlander used to -fumigate his cattle shed with the smoke of juniper. [632] Cow hair is -regarded as an amulet against disease and danger, in the same way as -the hair of the yak was valued by the people of Central Asia in the -time of Marco Polo. [633] An ox with a fleshy excrescence on his eye -is regarded as sacred, and is known as Nadiya or Nandi, "the happy -one," the title of the bull of Siva. He is not used for agriculture, -but given to a Jogi, who covers him with cowry shells, and carries -him about on begging excursions. One of the most unpleasant sights at -the great bathing fairs, such as those of Prayāg or Hardwār, is the -malformed cows and oxen which beggars of this class carry about and -exhibit. The Gonds kill a cow at a funeral, and hang the tail on the -grave as a sign that the ceremonies have been duly performed. [634] -The Kurkus sprinkle the blood of a cow on the grave, and believe -that if this be not done the spirit of the departed refuses to rest, -and returns upon earth to haunt the survivors. [635] The Vrishotsarga -practised by Hindus on the eleventh day after death, when a bull calf -is branded and let loose in the name of deceased, is apparently an -attempt to shift on the animal the burden of the sins of the dead man, -if it be not a survival of an actual sacrifice. - - - -Feeling against Cow-killing. - -Of the unhappy agitation against cow-killing, which has been in recent -years such a serious problem to the British Government in Northern -India, nothing further can be said here. To the orthodox Hindu, -killing a cow, even accidentally, is a serious matter, and involves -the feeding of Brāhmans and the performance of pilgrimages. In the -Hills a special ritual is prescribed in the event of a plough ox -being killed by accident. [636] The idea that misfortune follows the -killing of a cow is common. It used to be said that storms arose on -the Pīr Panjāl Pass in Kashmīr if a cow was killed. [637] - -General Sleeman gives a case at Sāgar, where an epidemic was attributed -to the practice of cattle slaughter, and a popular movement arose -for its suppression. [638] Sindhia offered Sir John Malcolm in -1802 an additional cession of territory if he would introduce an -article into the Treaty with the British Government prohibiting the -slaughter of cows within the territory he had been already compelled -to abandon. The Emperor Akbar ordered that cattle should not be killed -during the Pachūsar, or twelve sacred days observed by the Jainas; -Sir John Malcolm gives a copy of the original Firmān. [639] Cow-killing -is to this day prohibited in orthodox Hindu States, like Nepāl. - - - -Bull-worship among Banjāras. - -There is a good example of bull-worship among the wandering tribe of -Banjāras. "When sickness occurs, they lead the sick man to the foot -of the bullock called Hatādiya; for though they say that they pay -reverence to images, and that their religion is that of the Sikhs, -the object of their worship is this Hatādiya, a bullock devoted -to the god Bālajī. On this animal no burden is ever laid, but he -is decorated with streamers of red-dyed silk and tinkling bells, -with many brass chains and rings on neck and feet, and strings of -cowry shells and silken tassels hanging in all directions. He moves -steadily at the head of the convoy, and the place he lies down on -when tired, that they make their halting-place for the day. At his -feet they make their vows when difficulties overtake them, and in -illness, whether of themselves or cattle, they trust to his worship -for a cure." The respect paid by Banjāras to cattle seems, however, -to be diminishing. Once upon a time they would never sell cattle to -a butcher, but nowadays it is an every-day occurrence. [640] - - - -Superstitions about Cattle. - -Infinite are the superstitions about cattle, their marks, and every -kind of peculiarity connected with them, and this has been embodied -in a great mass of rural rhymes and proverbs which are always on the -lips of the people. Thus, for instance, it is unlucky for a cow to -calve in the month of Bhādon. The remedy is to swim it in a stream, -sell it to a Muhammadan, or in the last resort give it away to a -Gujarāti Brāhman. Here may be noticed the curious prejudice against -the use of a cow's milk, which prevails among some tribes such as -the Hos and some of the aboriginal tribes of Bengal. The latter use -a species of wild cattle, the Mithun, for milking purposes, but will -not touch the milk of the ordinary cow. [641] - - - -The Buffalo. - -The respect paid to the cow does not fully extend to the buffalo. The -buffalo is the vehicle of Yama, the god of death. The female buffalo -is in Western India regarded as the incarnation of Savitrī, wife of -Brahma, the Creator. Durgā or Bhavānī killed the buffalo-shaped Asura -Mahisa, Mahisāsura, after whom Maisūr is called. According to the -legend as told in the Mārkandeya Purāna, Ditī, having lost all her -sons, the Asuras, in the fight with the gods, turned herself into -a buffalo in order to annihilate them. She underwent such terrible -austerities to propitiate Brahma, that the whole world was shaken and -the saint Suparsva disturbed at his devotions. He cursed Ditī that her -son should be in the shape of a buffalo, but Brahma so far mitigated -the curse that only his head was to be that of a buffalo. This was -Mahisāsura, who ill-treated the gods, until they appealed to Vishnu -and Siva, who jointly produced a lovely representation of a Bhavānī, -the Mahisāsurmardanī, who slew the monster. This Mahisāsura is supposed -to be the origin of the godling Mahasoba, worshipped in Western India -in the form of a rude stone covered with red lead. - -Another of these buffalo demons is Dundubhi, "he that roars like the -sound of the kettle-drum," who in the Rāmāyana bursts with his horns -the cavern of Bali, son of Indra and king of monkeys. Bali seized him -by the horns and dashed him to pieces. The comparative mythologists -regard him as one of the forms of the cloud monster the sun. [642] - -Sadasiva, one of the forms of Mahādeva, took the form of a buffalo to -escape the Pāndavas, and sank into the ground at Kedārnāth. The upper -portion of his body is said to have come to the surface at Mukhār -Bind in Nepāl, where he is worshipped as Pasupatinātha. When the -Pāndavas were freed from their guilt, they in their gratitude built -five temples in honour of the hinder parts of the deity, which are -now known as the Pānch Kedār-Kedarnāth, Madhya Maheswar, Rudranāth, -Tungunāth, and Kalpeswar. - -The buffalo is constantly sacrificed at shrines in honour of Durgā -Devī. The Toda worship of the buffalo is familiar to all students of -Indian ethnology. - - - -The Antelope. - -The black buck was in all probability the tribal totem of some of the -races occupying the country anciently known as Āryāvarta. Mr. Campbell -accounts for the respect paid to the animal by the use of hartshorn as -a remedy for faintness, swoons, and nervous disorders. [643] But this -hardly explains the respect paid to it, and the use of its dung by the -Bengal Parhaiyas instead of cowdung to smear their floors looks as -if it were based on totemism. [644] This too is shown by the regard -paid its skin. As Mr. Frazer has proved, it is a custom among many -savage tribes to retain the skin as an image of the deity which the -animal represented. [645] Hence according to the old ritual, the skin -of the antelope was the prescribed dress of the student of theology, -and it is still the seat of the ascetic. [646] - -The antelope constantly appears in the folk-tales as a sort of Deus -ex machinā, which leads the hero astray in the chase and brings -him to the home of the ogress or the ensorcelled maiden. [647] -In the Mahābhārata, the King Parīkshit is led astray by a gazelle, -and King Pāndu dies when he meets his wife Madrī, because he had -once killed under similar circumstances a gazelle with his mate. In -the Vishnu Purāna, Bharata loses the fruits of his austerities by -becoming enamoured of a fawn. These fairy hinds appear throughout -the whole range of folk-lore. A Nepālese legend tells how the three -gods Vishnu, Siva, and Brahma once appeared in the form of deer, -whence the place where they were seen is known as Mrigasthali. [648] - - - -The Elephant. - -The elephant naturally claims worship as the type of strength and -wisdom. To the rustic he impersonates Ganesa, the god of wisdom, the -remover of obstacles, who is propitiated at the commencement of any -important enterprise, such as marriage and the like. Many legends are -told to account for his elephant head. One tells how his mother Pārvatī -was so proud of her baby that she asked Sani to look at him, forgetting -the baneful effects of the look of the ill-omened deity. When he looked -at the child its head was burned to ashes, and Brahma, to console her, -told her to fix on the first head she could find, which happened to -be that of the elephant. By another account she put Ganesa to guard -the door while she was bathing, and when he refused to allow Siva to -enter, the angry god cut off his head, which was afterwards replaced -by that of the elephant. Again, one of his tusks was broken off by -Parasurāma with the axe which Siva, father of Ganesa, had given him. - -Again, there are the Lokapālas, the eight supporters of the -world. These eight pairs of elephants support the earth. Indra with -Airāvata and Abhramu support the east; Agni with Pundarīka and Kapilā -the south-east; Yama with Vāmana and Pingalā the south; Sūrya with -Kumuda and Anupamā the south-west; Varuna with Anjana and Anjanavatī -the west; Vāyu with Pushpadanta and Subhadantī the north-west; -Kuvera on the north with Sarvabhauma, and Soma on the north-east with -Supratīka. As usual, there are differences in the enumeration. - -From these all the modern elephants are descended. As Abul Fazl writes: -"When occasion arises people read incantations in their names and -address them in worship. They also think that every elephant in the -world is offspring of one of them. Thus, elephants of a white skin and -white hairs are related to the first, and elephants with a large head -and long ears, of a fierce and bold temper, and eyelids far apart, -belong to the second. Such as are good-looking, black, and high in -the back, are the offspring of the third. If tall, ungovernable, -quick in understanding, short-haired, and with red and black eyes, -they come from the fourth. If bright black, with one tusk longer than -the other, with a white breast and belly, and long and thick forefeet, -from the fifth. If fearful, with prominent veins, a short hump and -ears, and a long trunk, from the sixth. If thin-bellied, red-eyed, -and with a long trunk, from the seventh. And if of a combination of -the preceding seven qualities, from the eighth." [649] - -Through India the reverence for the white elephant of Burma and Siam -has arisen. The figure of the elephant appears on some of the pillars -of Asoka. There is an elephant gate at Fatehpur Sīkri, one of the -King Huvishka at Mathura, and another connected with the dynasty -of Kanauj at Dabhāon in the Azamgarh District. Delhi contains the -remarkable elephant statues, believed by General Cunningham to have -been erected in honour of Jaymal and Patta, the two Rājput heroes -who defended the Fort of Chithor against Akbar. [650] - -The elephant constantly occurs in folk-lore. In the projection of -its forehead it possesses a pearl, known as the Kunjara Mani, or Gaja -Mukta, which is invested with magical qualities. In the folk-tales the -wooden horse of Troy is represented by an artificial elephant filled -with soldiers; other elephants have the power of flying through -the air; in other stories, as in one of La Fontaine's fables, an -elephant selects a king by raising him up with his trunk; the elephant -Kuvalyapīda is the guardian of a kingdom, and touching an elephant -is one of the tests of a woman's chastity. We have also numerous -instances of the metamorphosis of human beings into elephants. [651] - -The hair of the elephant's tail is in high repute as an amulet, and -little village children, when an elephant passes, pat the dust where -his feet have rested and sing a song, of which one version is-- - - - Hāthi hāthi, bār dé - Sone kī tarwār dé-- - - -"Give us a hair, elephant, like a sword of gold." - -In Europe, it may be noted, the hair from the tail of a horse is -commonly regarded as a cure for wens. [652] - -In the Fatehpur District there is an elephant turned into stone. The -famous Jaychand of Kanauj, it is said, as in the Carthage legend, -offered to Parāsara Rishi as many villages as an elephant could walk -round. It traversed an enormous extent of country, and finally halted -at Irādatnagar, where it was turned into stone, and once a year an -enormous fair is held in its honour. [653] - - - -The Cat. - -The cat is everywhere invested with demoniac qualities, and is the -companion of the witch. In "Macbeth" the first witch says, "Thrice -the brinded cat has mewed." Among Muhammadans the cat is a pure -animal, and to kill a cat is very unlucky, and brings on trouble and -sickness. So, among Hindus, the killing of a cat can be expiated only -by the performance of the rite known as the Prajapati Yajna, which -secures the birth of male issue. They say that Mahādeva and Pārvatī -were one day playing dice, and Pārvatī called in Ganesa in his form -as a rat to upset the dice with his tail and cause her to make a good -throw. Mahādeva was wroth, and called in a demon like a cat, but he -was afraid to kill Ganesa. Then Mahādeva cursed any one in after days -who should kill a cat. We have the same tale in the Rasālu cycle, -where the rat of Dhol Rāja changes the course of the game between -him and Rāja Sarkap. The cat is respected because she is the vehicle -of Shashthī, the protectress of children, and part of the orthodox -Hindu rite at dinner is giving food to the cat. Among the Orāons, -as we have seen, the birth fiend Chordeva comes in the form of a cat. - - - -The Rat and Mouse. - -The rat is sacred as the vehicle of Ganesa. In Bombay, "to call -a rat a rat is considered by lower classes of Hindus as unlucky, -and so they call him Undir Māma, or 'the rat uncle.' He is so called -because he is probably supposed to be the spirit of an uncle. It is -considered a great sin to kill a rat, and so, when rats give trouble -in a house, the women of the house make a vow to them that, if they -cease troubling, sweet balls will be given to them on a certain day, -and it is believed by the Hindus that when such a vow has been made, -the rats cease troubling them for some time." [654] In parts of England -it is believed that a field mouse creeping over the back of a sheep -gives it paralysis, and that this can be cured only by shutting up a -mouse in a hollow of the trunk of the witch elm or witch hazel tree -and leaving it to die of famine. [655] - -The curiously deformed idiot boys which are collected at the shrine -of Shāh Daula at Gujarāt are known from their wizened appearance as -the rats of Shāh Daula. [656] - - - -The Squirrel. - -The little Indian squirrel is called in the Panjāb Rāma Chandra Kā -Bhagat, or the saint of Rāma Chandra, because when he was building -the bridge across the strait to Lanka, the squirrel helped by shaking -dust from his tail, and the god stroked it on the back, hence the -dark marks which it bears to the present day. Many of the Drāvidian -tribes claim descent from the squirrel. - - - -The Bear. - -The bear is regarded as a scarer of disease, and sickly children are -taken for a ride on the back of a tame bear or one of his hairs is worn -round the neck as an amulet. It was Jāmbavat, the king of the bears, -who carried off the celebrated amulet, Syamantaka. He was pursued -by Krishna, to whom he surrendered the gem and gave him his daughter -Jāmbavatī to wife. He afterwards with his army of bears assisted Rāma -in his invasion of Lanka. - - - -The Jackal. - -The jackal is an important character in the folk-tales, where he -assumes the part taken in Europe by the fox. Many are the tales told -of his acuteness. The pack is supposed to howl only at each watch -of the night, and the leader says, Main Dilli kā Bādshāh hūn--"I am -King of Delhi" thrice, and his companions say, Ho! ho! ho!--"Yes! of -course you are." - - - -The Hare. - -Of the hare in the moon we have spoken already, and also referred -to the animal in connection with omens. In Cornwall, when a girl has -loved not wisely but too well, she haunts her deceiver in the shape -of a white hare. [657] - - - -Birds: The Crow. - -Passing on to birds, the crow is a famous totem or sacred bird. [658] -It personifies in Indian tradition the soul of the dead man; hence, -to give food to the crows, known in Northern India as Kāgaur, is -equivalent to offering food to the Manes. Rāma in the Rāmāyana orders -Sītā to make this offering, and Yama, in reward for its services, -conceded to it the right of eating the funeral meats, for which -reason the souls of the dead, when this food is given to the crows, -are enabled to pass into a better world. Hence the bird is known as -Balipushta or "nourished by offerings," and Balibhuj or "devourer of -oblations." [659] - -In the Mahābhārata, the son of Drona, one of the few survivors of the -Kauravas, sees an owl killing the crows on a sacred fig tree, and this -suggests to him the idea of attacking the camp of the Pāndavas. This -contest of the owl and the crow forms the subject of one of the tales -of Somadeva. [660] The incident of the wicked crow, which bit the -foot of Sītā, is related in the Rāmāyana. The Bhātus of Central India, -a class of migratory athletes, worship Nārāyana and the bamboo, with -which all their feats are performed. When they bury their dead they -place rice and oil at the head of the grave, and stand near to worship -whatever animal comes to eat the offerings. They draw the happiest -omen of the state of the departed from crows visiting the spot. [661] - -In the Garuda Purāna a tale is told of a wicked hunter who was -killed by a tiger in the depths of the forest, and his ghost became a -troublesome Bhūt, until one day a crow carried off one of the bones -and dropped it into the Ganges, when the sinner was at once carried -in a heavenly chariot to the mansions of the blessed. This legend is -localized in the Hills and tells how Karma Sarma was killed by a tiger -in the forest. A crow took up one of his bones and carried it to the -shrine at Tungkshetra, and such is the virtue of the soil there that -the hunter was at once carried off to the heaven of Indra. [662] - -Bhusundi is the legendary crow of the battlefield, who drinks the blood -of the slain. He had more blood than he could drink in the wars of the -two Asuras, Sumbha and Nisumbha, who contended with the gods. He just -quenched his thirst in the wars of Rāma, but broke his beak against -the hard, dry ground, which had soaked in the small amount of blood -shed by the comparatively degenerate heroes of the Mahābhārata. He -now croaks over the armies as they go out to war, and looks for some -Armageddon, when his thirst will at last be satisfied. - -Manifold are the ideas about crows and omens taken from their -appearance and cawing. Some people think a crow has only one eye, which -he shifts from one cavity to the other as he finds it convenient. In -the Panjāb, if a crow picks up a woman's handkerchief and then drops -it, she will not use it, but gives it to a beggar. [663] The brains -of a crow are a specific against old age, but the cawing of a crow -is ominous at the beginning of a journey. If a crow hops and caws -on the roof a guest may be expected. Musalmāns have both fear and -respect for the crow, because it was he showed Cain how to bury Abel. - - - -The Hand of Glory. - -It is a common belief in Europe that the Hand of Glory, or the -dried-up hand of a criminal who has been executed, is a powerful -charm for thieves. In Ireland, "if a candle is placed in a dead hand, -neither wind nor water can extinguish it, and if carried into a house, -the inmates will sleep the sleep of the dead as long as it remains -under the roof, and no power on earth can wake them as long as the -dead hand holds the candle." The hand of a dead man is also used -to stir the milk when butter will not form. [664] So, in Northern -India, thieves have a superstition that the ashes of a corpse will, -if sprinkled by the door of a house, prevent the inmates from awaking -during the commission of a burglary. The Hand of Glory, according to -Sir G. Cox, is "the light flashing from the dim and dusky storm-cloud," -[665] but this can hardly, with the utmost ingenuity, be invoked -to explain the similar usage of Indian burglars, who carry about -with them the stick out of a crow's nest, the Gad kī Lakrī, which -opens locks and holds the household spell-bound. The Indian thief, -like his English brother, by the way, often carries about a piece of -charcoal as a charm in his operations. - - - -The Fowl. - -Among some of the Indian races the value set on the fowl may possibly, -as Mr. Campbell suggests, depend on the feeling that the spirits of -the dead wandering near their ancient homes find an asylum in the -domestic fowls. [666] At any rate, as a sacrifice, the black fowl -is very generally preferred. This is so among the Drāvidian races of -Central India. In Ireland the first egg laid by a little black hen, -eaten the very first thing in the morning, will keep you from fever -for the year. [667] In Germany it was held that to find treasure, -that is to say, to scare the fiends which guard and hide it, one -should use a black he-goat and a black fowl. [668] - -One of the Italian charms directs, "To bewitch one till he die, take -a black hen and pluck from it every feather; and this done, keep them -all carefully, so that not one be lost. With these you may do any harm -to grown-up people or children." [669] Another possible reason for the -respect paid to the fowl is that the corn spirit is often killed in -the form of a cock to promote the periodical vegetation of the crops. - - - -The Dove and Pigeon. - -The dove is held in much respect by Musalmāns. "Among the Northern -Semites the dove is sacred to Ashtoreth and has all the marks of a -totem, for the Syrians would not eat it. It was not merely a symbol, -but received divine honour. In Arabia we find a dove idol in the -Qaaba, and sacred doves surround it." [670] So, the Kheshgi Pathāns -of Qasūr in the Panjāb will not kill pigeons; they are similarly -protected by Hindus at Bharatpur, and among Muhammadans they rank -as the Sayyid among birds. In Northern India a house with pigeons -is supposed to be safe from ghosts. The dove is believed to utter -a peculiar note four times in succession, in which she bewails her -neglected lover. She says,-- - - - Pisūn thi, kātūn thi: - Ayā thā, chalā gayā. - - -"While I was grinding flour and spinning, he came and departed." [671] - - - -The Goose or Swan. - -The goose or swan is possibly an illustration of what may be a -tribal totem. It is said in the Bhāgavata Purāna that at one time -there existed one Veda, one god Agni, and one caste. This we learn -from the commentator was in the Krita age, and the one caste he -tells us of was named Hansa or Swan. The Hansas are, again, in the -Vishnu Purāna, said to be one of four castes or tribes existing in -a district exterior to India, and finally we learn from the Linga -Purāna that Hansa was a name of Brahma himself. It is reasonable to -suppose that we have a swan tribe in the Indian Hansas. [672] As an -argument in favour of the theory that the Hansa was a tribal totem, -we find that the Kalhans Rājputs of Oudh are said to take their name -from the Kāla Hansa or Black Swan; that Rājputs nowadays will not eat -it; and that the same respect is shown to a bird of allied type, the -Brāhmani Duck, and its mate, the Chakwa, Chakwi of our rivers. They -were once two lovers, separated by fate, changed into ducks, and -all through the night they call sadly to each other across the broad -stream of the Ganges, which keeps them apart. - -To the Hansa is ascribed the fabulous power of being able to separate -milk from water after the two have been mixed together. [673] In -England the goose is supposed to have some uncanny way of predicting -weather. [674] In Welsh belief the wild goose is a witch, especially -if first seen on the first Thursday night of the lunar month. [675] -The ancient Greeks ascribed to the swan the gift of prophecy and -song; the sacred geese of the capital were respected at Rome, and -the ancient Germans considered it a prophetic bird. The goose was -a favourite Buddhist emblem, and a flock of them is depicted on the -Lion Pillar at Betiya in Tirhūt. [676] - -In the story of Nala and Damayantī, a flock of these birds arranges -the interviews between the lovers, and in the Mahābhārata the Rishis -take the form of a swan to convey the divine message. According to -the comparative mythologists, it is needless to say, the Hansa is -the sun. [677] - - - -Sundry Sacred Birds. - -Mention has already been made of Garuda, half man, half bird, the -vehicle of Vishnu. He is the son of one of the daughters of Daksha, -whom we have already met with in connection with the moon, and the -sage Kasyapa. According to the Mahābhārata, he was given leave to -devour wicked men, but not to touch a Brāhman. Once he did devour -a Brāhman, but the holy man so burnt his throat that he was glad -to disgorge him. In the Rāmāyana we meet with Jatāyu, who is said -to be a son of Garuda and king of the vultures. He tried to stop -the chariot in which Rāvana was abducting Sītā, and though wounded, -was able to carry the news to Rāma. - -A bird known as the Malahāri or "filth destroyer" is a sort of totem -of the Kanjar gipsies. If they see it singing on a green branch to -the front or right, it is an auspicious omen, and they start at once -on the prowl. - -So with the Khanjarīt, in Sanskrit Khanjanākriti, the wagtail, which -is also known as Rām Chiraiya or "the bird of Rāma." It is associated -with Vishnu, because the marks on its throat are said to resemble the -Sālagrāma. It comes from the heaven of Rāma in the end of the rains, -and remains till the close of spring, and then bears back to Rāma a -report of the state of the world and the crops. When it first appears -every one bows to it. A Sanskrit text lays down that when a person -first sees the bird, if he be standing near a Brāhman, or near water, -or sitting on an elephant, or at daybreak, or when the bird is flying -near or sitting on a serpent, it is considered propitious. When a -person first sees it in the east, it brings him good luck all through -the year; when seen in the south-east, it predicts loss by fire; -to the south-west, fighting; to the west, acquisition of wealth; -if seen to the north-east, the observer will gain good clothes and -jewels. He who sees it in the north-west will die. The superstitions -in Europe connected with the magpie and cuckoo are of much the same -class. In Ireland it is said, "Beware of killing the water wagtail, -for it has three drops of the Devil's blood in its little body, -and ill-luck ever goes with it and follows it." [678] - -The Ojhiyāls or wizards of the Central Provinces sell the skins of a -species of Buceros, called Dhanchirya, which are used to hang up in -the house to secure wealth (dhan), whence its name; and thigh bones -of the same bird are hung round the wrists of children as a charm -against evil spirits. [679] - - - -The Hoopoe. - -The legend of the hoopoe is thus told by Arrian: "To the king of the -Indians was born a son. The child had elder brothers, who, when they -came to man's estate, turned out to be very unjust and the greatest of -reprobates. They despised their brother because he was the youngest; -and they scoffed at their father and their mother, whom they despised -because they were old and grey-headed. The boy, accordingly, and his -aged parents could no longer live with these wicked men, and away they -fled from home, all three together. In the course of the protracted -journeys which they had then to undergo, the old people succumbed -to fatigue and died, and the boy showed them no light regard, but -buried them in himself, having cut off his head with a sword. Then, -as the Brachmanes (Brāhman) tell us, the all-seeing sun, in admiration -of this surprising act of piety, transformed the boy into a bird, -which is most beautiful to behold, and which lives to a very advanced -age. So on his head there grew up a crest, which was, as it were, -a memorial of what he had done in the time of his flight." [680] - -Somadeva gives another story of this bird. Rajatadanshtra one day -saw his sister Somaprabhā playing on a Pinjara, and when she would -not give it to him, took the form of a bird and flew away with it -to heaven. She cursed him that he should become a bird with a golden -crest, but promised that when in his bird shape he should fall into -a blind well, "and a merciful person draws you out, and you do him -a service in return, you shall be released from this curse." [681] - -The Muhammadan tradition is that the Hudhud, or hoopoe, had the -power of finding water which the devils have buried under the earth, -and she assisted Solomon to find water for ablution, and helped him -to find Bilqīs, the queen of Sheba. In Sweden the appearance of the -hoopoe is looked on as an omen of war. [682] - - - -The Woodpecker. - -So of the woodpecker, which is said to have been a Rāja in a former -birth, and still to retain his royal crest. In Italian tradition the -woodpecker (Picus Martis) is a digger in forests, where he lives alone -and digs and hews, and knows all hidden secrets and treasures. [683] -In India the Titihrī, or sandpiper, is said to sleep with his legs -in the air and thus supports the firmament. - - - -The Peacock. - -The peacock is, of course, a sacred bird. He is specially venerated -by the Jāts, who strongly object to seeing the bird killed near their -villages. A bunch of the feathers is waved over the sick to scare -the demon of disease. As we have already seen, it is a charm against -snake-bite to smoke one of its feathers in a pipe. In Europe the loud -calling of the bird presages a death. - - - -The Pheasant. - -Once upon a time the Monāl pheasant of the Hills and the Kalchuniya -had a dispute as to when the sun arose. The Monāl woke first and then -walked between the legs of the other, who was so injured that he has -never been able to do anything but skip ever since. - - - -The Kite. - -Young kites do not open their eyes till they are shown a bit of -gold. The best cure for weak eyes is to apply to them antimony mixed -with the yolk of a kite's egg, a good instance of sympathetic magic, -because the kite is the most long-sighted of birds. When sweepers -suffer from rheumatic pains, they kill a kite on Tuesday, cut up -the bones, and tie them to the affected part, which brings about an -immediate cure. [684] - - - -The Partridge. - -The partridge and the peacock once contended in dancing, and when the -turn of the partridge came he borrowed the pretty feet of the peacock, -which he has never returned since. Rāja Nala, at one period of his -life, came under the malignant influence of Sani or Saturn and lost -all he possessed in the world. At last, as he was starving, he managed -to catch a black partridge and set about roasting it. But the ill-luck -of the evil planet asserted itself and the dead bird came to life and -flew away. The result is the black marks of charring which still remain -upon its body. Now it cries in the words, Subhān terī qudrat--"Great -is the power of the Almighty," because it was saved from the fire. - - - -The Parrot. - -Last among sacred birds comes the parrot. Of course, according to -Professor De Gubernatis and his school, he represents the sun. [685] -The bird appears constantly in the folk-tales as gifted with the power -of speaking and possessed of wisdom. The wife of the sage Kasyapa was, -according to the Vishnu Purāna, the mother of all the parrots. In the -folk-tales we have the parrot who knows the four Vedas who is like -the falcon in the Squire's tale of Chaucer. [686] In others he warns -the hero of fortune, befriends the heroine, and is the companion of -Rāja Rasālu. [687] The talking parrot constantly warns the deceived -husband. The bird seems to have been a sort of marriage totem among -the Drāvidian races, for images of it made of the wood of the cotton -tree or of clay are hung up in the marriage shed among the Kols and -lower castes in the North-Western Provinces. - - - -The Alligator. - -The alligator and crocodile are revered because of their habit of -killing human beings. Writing of South Africa, Mr. Macdonald says: -"To the Bathlapin the crocodile is sacred, and by all it is revered, -but rather under the form of fear than of affection. I have often -thought that the 'river calling' of South Africa, where there are -no crocodiles, is the survival of an ancient recollection of the -time when the ancestors of the present Kaffirs dwelt on the margins -of rivers infested by these murderous brutes, and where they often -saw their women drawn underneath when going to the river to fetch -water." [688] The crocodile may thus be the type of many of the -Indian water demons to whom reference has been already made. Hence, -it is a general rule among savages to spare crocodiles, or rather -only to kill them in obedience to the law of blood feud, that is, -as a retaliation for the slaughter of men by crocodiles. In India -it became a favourite form of religious suicide to be devoured by -the crocodiles at Gangasāgar. Makara, a sort of marine monster, half -crocodile and half shark, is the vehicle of Kāmadeva, the god of love, -and Gangā Māī is depicted as riding on an alligator. They are sometimes -put into tanks and worshipped, and fishermen have a tradition that, -if duly appeased, they never attack them. [689] - - - -Fish. - -Fish are in many places regarded as sacred. The salmon of knowledge -appears in the Celtic folk-lore. [690] The sacred speckled trout are -found in many Irish wells, and the same idea prevails in many parts -of Europe. [691] We find the fish figuring in the Hindu myth of the -Creation. Manu, while he was bathing, found a fish in the water, -which said, "I will save thee from the flood which shall destroy -the world." The fish grew and was about to go to the ocean, when he -directed Manu to build a boat. When the deluge came, the fish dragged -the boat by his horn to a place of safety. The myth appears in other -forms, more or less akin to the Hebrew story based on Babylonian -tradition. - -There are many places in India where fish are protected, such as -those at Kota and in the Mahānadī river, the Betwa at Bhilsa, Hardwār, -Mathura, Mirzapur, Benares, Nepāl, and in Afghanistān. [692] In the -Sāraswata pool in the Himālaya lived the sacred fish called Mrikunda; -they are fed on the fourteenth of the light half of each month, -and oblations are offered for the repose of the Manes of deceased -relations. [693] It is a common custom among pious Hindus to feed -fish at sacred places with a lākh or more of little balls of flour -wrapped up in Bhojpatra or birch bark or paper with the name of Rāma -written upon it. Their eating the name of the deity ensures their -salvation, and thus confers religious merit on the giver. The fish -is the vehicle of Khwāja Khizr, the water god, and hence has become a -sort of totem of the Shiah Musalmāns and the crest of the late royal -family of Oudh. Pictures of fish are constantly drawn on the walls -of houses as a charm against demoniacal influence. - - - -The Fish in Folk-lore. - -The fish constantly appears in the folk-tales. We have in Somadeva -the fish that laughed when it was dead; the fish that swallows the -hero or heroine or a boat. [694] In one of the Kashmīr tales we have -the fish swallowing the ring, which is like the tale which Herodotus -tells of Polycrates. In another we have the Oriental version of the -story of Jonah, where the merchant is found by the potter in the -belly of the fish. [695] So, Pradyumna, son of Krishna and Rukminī, -was thrown into the ocean by the demon Sambara, and recovered from -the belly of a fish by his wife Māyā Devī. In many of the modern -tales the fish takes the form of the Life Index. The king Bhartari, -the brother of the celebrated Rāja Vikramaditya, who is now a godling -and spends part of the day at Benares and part at the Chunār Fort, -had a fish, "the digestion of which gave him knowledge of all -that occurred in the three worlds." By a divine curse the nymph -Adrikā was transformed into a fish which lived in the Jumnā. Here -she conceived by the king Uparichara, was caught by a fisherman, -taken to the king and opened, when she regained her heavenly form, -and from her were produced Matsya, the male, and Matsyā, the female -fish, the progenitors of the finny race. The fish often plays a part -in the miraculous conception myths, as in the Mahābhārata we read -of a fish which devours the seed, and a girl having eaten it brings -forth a child. The fish incarnation of Vishnu possibly represents the -adoption of a fish totem into Brāhmanism. It is needless to say that -the legendary fish has been identified with the sun by the school of -comparative mythologists. [696] - - - -The Eel. - -The eel is a totem of the Mundāri Kols of Bengal and of the Orāons, -neither of whom will eat it. In Northern England an eel skin tied round -the leg is a cure for cramp. Eel fat, in the European tales, is used -as a magic ointment, and gives the power of seeing the fairies. [697] - - - -The Tortoise. - -The tortoise, again, is sacred. Vishnu appeared as a tortoise in the -Satya Yuga or first age to recover some things of value which had been -lost in the deluge. In the form of a tortoise he placed himself at -the bottom of the sea of milk, and made his back the basis on which -the gods and demons, using the serpent Vāsuki as a rope, churned the -ocean by means of the mount Mandara. The Ganrār, a tribe of Bengal -fishermen, make sacrifices of the river tortoise to the goddess -Kolokumārī, the daughter of the deep; this is the only sacrifice -she will accept, and she brings sickness on those who fail to make -this offering. [698] The tortoise is a totem of the Mundāri Kols, -and the Kharwārs and Mānjhis of Mirzapur worship clay images of it, -which they keep in their house, because on one occasion it conveyed -their first ancestor across a river in flood. - -The Gonds have a similar tradition that the tortoise saved their -ancestor Lingo from the clutches of the alligator. The tortoise is -also a helper in one of the German tales. [699] In one of Somadeva's -stories, the tortoise is sacrificed by a Brāhman to the Manes of his -father. [700] - - - -The Frog. - -The frog, again, is invested with mystical powers. The monstrous toad -of Berkeley Castle is said to be really a seal. [701] - -In English folk-lore it is associated with witches, and wears a -precious jewel in its head. Hindus believe that the female frog is the -spirit of Mandodarī, the wife of Rāvana. It is a common belief that -the fat of the frog forms a magic ointment which enables witches to fly -through the air. [702] According to a Scotch Saga, the middle piece of -a white snake roasted by the fire gives a knowledge of supernatural -things to anyone who shall put his finger in the fat which drops -from it. According to one of the Indian legends, Agni, the fire god, -took refuge in the water to escape the gods, but the frogs, suffering -from the heat, informed the gods, and the angry deity cursed them that -their speech should henceforth be inarticulate. The frog by his voice -announces the coming of rain; hence when rain holds off it is a common -charm to pour water over a frog, another instance of sympathetic magic. - - - -Insects. - -Even insects are in some cases regarded with veneration. In Cornwall, -the ants are "the small people" in their state of decay from off the -earth; it is deemed most unlucky to destroy a colony of ants. [703] - -The ant-hill is, as we have seen, used as an altar by some of the -Drāvidian tribes, and on it they take their oaths. Hence ants are -carefully fed on certain days by both Hindus and Jainas, and are -regarded as in some way connected with the souls of the sainted -dead. We have in many of the folk-tales the ant as a helper. - -So, in many parts of the Panjāb, the many-coloured grasshopper, which -feeds on the leaves of the Madār or great swallow wort, is called -Rāmjī-kī-gāź or "Rāma's cow," which reminds us of the respect paid -by English children to the ladybird insect. [704] So, the Greeks and -Romans called the Cicada Mantis or "the soothsayer," and it is often -delineated on their tombs as a charm against evil. Mystic powers of -the same kind are attributed to the spider, and to Daddy Longlegs in -our nurseries. - -The souls of the dead are believed to enter into flies and bees. Hence -in parts of Great Britain news of a death in a family is whispered -into the beehive. [705] In one of Somadeva's tales we find the monkeys -trying to warm themselves over a firefly, which is gifted with various -miraculous powers. [706] A fly falling into an inkstand is a lucky -omen. In the Rāmāyana Hanumān metamorphoses himself into a fly to -reach Sītā, and there are many instances of this in the tales. - -Lastly, comes the Tassar silkworm. In Mirzapur, when the seed of the -silkworm is brought to the house, the Kol or Bhuiyār puts it in a -place which has been carefully plastered with cowdung to bring good -luck. From that time the owner must be careful to avoid ceremonial -impurity; he must give up cohabitation with his wife, he must not -sleep on a bed, he must not shave nor have his nails cut, nor anoint -himself with oil, nor eat food cooked with butter, nor tell lies, -nor do anything opposed to his simple code of morality. He vows to -Singārmatī Devī that if the worms are duly born he will make her an -offering. When the cocoons open and the worms appear, he collects the -women of his house and they sing the usual song as at the birth of -a baby into the family, and some red lead is smeared on the parting -of the hair of all the married women of the neighbourhood. He feeds -his clansmen, and duly makes the promised offering to Singārmatī -Devī. When the worms pair, the rejoicings are made as at a marriage. - -In Bengal, in addition to these precautions, the women, apparently -through fear of sexual pollution, are carefully excluded from the -silkworm shed. [707] We have the same idea in the Western Isles of -Scotland, where they send a man very early on the morning of the first -of May to prevent any woman from crossing, for that, they say, would -prevent the salmon from coming into the river all the year round. [708] - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -THE BLACK ART. - - Simulacraque cerea figit - Et miserum tenues in jecur urget acus. - - Ovid, Heroides, vi. 91, 92. - - -From the Baiga or Ojha, who by means of his grain sieve fetish -identifies the particular evil spirit by which his patient is -afflicted, we come to the regular witch or wizard. He works in India by -means and appliances which can be readily paralleled by the procedure -of his brethren in Western countries. [709] - - - -The Witch. - -The position of the witch has been so clearly stated by Sir A. Lyall, -that his remarks deserve quotation. "The peculiarity of the witch -is that he does everything without the help of the gods. It begins -when a savage stumbles on a few natural effects out of the common -run of things, which he finds himself able to work by unvarying rule -of thumb. He becomes a fetish to himself. Fetishism is the adoration -of a visible object supposed to possess active power. A witch is one -who professes to work marvels, not through the aid or counsel of the -supernatural beings in whom he believes as much as the rest, but by -certain occult faculties which he conceives himself to possess. There -is a real distinction even in fetishism between the witch and the -brother practitioner on a fetish, or between the witch and the Shaman, -who rolls about the ground and screams out his oracles; and this -line, between adoration and inspiration, vows and oracles on the one -side, and thaumaturgy by occult, incomprehensible arts on the other, -divides the two professions from bottom to top. Hence, the witch, -and not the man who works through the fetish, is proscribed. Hence -any disappointment in the aid which the aboriginal tribes are entitled -to expect from their gods to avoid averting disease or famine, throws -the people on the scent of witchcraft." [710] - -Again, "The most primitive witchcraft looks very like medicine in the -embryonic state; but as no one will give the aboriginal physician -any credit for cures or chemical effects produced by simple human -knowledge, he is soon forced back into occult and mystic devices, -which belong neither to religion nor to destiny, but are a ridiculous -mixture of both; whence the ordinary kind of witchcraft is generated." - -And he goes on to show how "the great plagues, cholera and the -small-pox, belong to the gods; but a man cannot expect a great -incarnation of Vishnu to cure his cow, or find his lost purse; nor -will public opinion tolerate his going to any respectable shrine -with a petition that his neighbour's wife, his ox, or his ass may be -smitten with some sore disease." This, however, must be taken with -the correction that, as we have seen already, the deities which rule -disease are of a much lower grade than the divine cabinet which rules -the world. The main difference then between the hedge priest and the -witch is, as Sir A. Lyall shows, that the former serves his god or -devil, whereas the latter makes the familiar demon, if one is kept, -serve him. - - - -Witchcraft: How Developed. - -The belief in witchcraft is general among the lower and less advanced -Indian races. Colonel Dalton's assertion that the Juāngs, who were -quite recently in the stage of wearing leaf aprons, do not believe -in witchcraft or sorcery, must be accepted with great caution. It -is quite certain that all the allied Drāvidian races, even those at -a somewhat higher state of culture than the Juāngs, such as Kols, -Kharwārs, and Cheros, firmly believe in witchcraft. But all these -people observe the most extreme reticence on the subject. If you ask -a Mirzapur Hill-man if there are any witches in his neighbourhood, -he will look round furtively and suspiciously, and even if he admits -that he has heard of such people, he will be very reluctant to give -much information about them. - -A belief in witchcraft is, then, primarily the heritage of the more -isolated and least advanced races, like the Kols and Bhīls, Santāls and -Thārus. In fact, whatever may be the ethnical origin of the theory, it -is at present in Northern India almost specialized among the Drāvidian, -or aboriginal peoples. It also widely prevails among those who lead a -nomadic life and are thus brought more directly in contact with nature -in her wilder and sterner moods, such as the Nat and the Kanjar, the -Hābūra and the Sānsiya. So, in Europe sorcery and fortune-telling, -the charming of disease, the making of love philters, and so on are -the function of the Romani; and Mr. Leland hazards the supposition -that Herodias was a gipsy. [711] - -The belief that a certain person is a witch is probably generated -in various ways. Many a one becomes reputed as a witch from the -realization of some unlucky prophecy, or the fulfilment of some -casual, passionate curse or imprecation upon an enemy or rival. The -old Scottish rhymes exactly express this feeling:-- - - - There dwelt a weaver in Moffat toun, - That said the minister would die sune; - The minister died, and the fouk o' the toun - They brant the weaver wi' the wadd o' the lume, - And ca'd it weel-waned on the warloch loon. [712] - - -With this is intimately connected the belief in the Evil Eye, -and that certain persons have the power of calling down on their -enemies the influence of evil spirits; and, as in Western lands, -such a power is often attributed to persons afflicted with ugliness, -deformity, crankiness of temper, liability to sudden fits of passion, -epilepsy, and the like. Disease or death, famine, accident, or any -form of trouble, never, in popular belief, come naturally. There is -always behind calamity some malignant power which selects the victim, -and the attribution of this faculty to any one naturally regarded as -uncanny, or who practises rites or worship strange to orthodox belief, -is in the opinion of the rustic only reasonable. - - - -The Jigar Khor. - -One particularly dreaded form of witch is the Jigar Khor or -liver-eater, of whom Abul Fazl gives a description: "One of this class -can steal away the liver of another by looks and incantations. Other -accounts say that by looking at a person he deprives him of his -senses, and then steals from him something resembling the seed of a -pomegranate, which he hides in the calf of his leg; after being swelled -by the fire, he distributes it among his fellows to be eaten, which -ceremony concludes the life of the fascinated person. A Jigar Khor is -able to communicate his art to another by teaching him incantations, -and by making him eat a bit of the liver cake. These Jigar Khors -are mostly women. It is said they can bring intelligence from a long -distance in a short space of time, and if they are thrown into a river -with a stone tied to them, they nevertheless will not sink. In order to -deprive any one of this wicked power, they brand his temples and every -joint of his body, cram his eyes with salt, suspend him for forty days -in a subterraneous chamber, and repeat over him certain incantations." - -Of the modern Jigar Khors of the Panjāb we are told that when a witch -succeeds in taking out a man's liver, she will not eat it for two and -a half days. If after eating it she is put under the influence of an -exorciser, she can be forced to take the liver of some animal and put -it back to replace that taken from the original victim. [713] In one -of the tales of Somadeva the wicked wife of the barber is a witch, -and when he is asleep she takes out his entrails and sucks them, -and then replaces them as before. [714] - - - -The Witch in Folk-lore. - -We have already learned to look to the folk-tales for the most -trustworthy indications of popular belief, and here the dark shadow of -witchcraft overclouds much of their delicate fancy. Here we find the -witch taking many forms--of an old woman in trouble, of a white hind -with golden horns, of a queen. Others, like the archwitch Kālarātrī -or "black night," are of repulsive appearance; she has dull eyes, -a depressed, flat nose. Her eyebrows, like those of the werewolves or -vampires of Slavonia, [715] meet together; she has large cheeks, widely -parted lips, projecting teeth, a long neck, pendulous breasts, a large -belly, and broad, expanded feet. "She appears as if the Creator had -made a specimen of his skill in producing ugliness." Like the Jigar -Khor she obtains her powers by eating human flesh, or like modern -witches, who claim to possess the Dāyan kā Mantra or Dākinī's spell, -by which she can tear out the heart of her victim. - -The powers of such witches are innumerable. They can find anything on -earth, can open or patch up the sky, possess second sight, can restore -the dead to life, can set fire to water, can turn stones into wax, -can separate lovers, can metamorphose the hero into any shape they -please. They control the weather and cause storms and tempests. If -they follow one they hate and measure his footsteps in the dust, -he at once becomes lame. [716] - -They carry on their unholy revels in cemeteries and cremation -grounds. They meet under the leadership of the dreaded Bhairava, -as German witches assemble on the Blocksberg. So Diana Herodias -leads the Italian witches who meet at the walnut tree of Benevento, -as those of Cornwall collect at Trewa. [717] - -Many witches obtain power over the fever demon. She fastens a string -round the hero's neck, and by a spell turns him into an ape. She often -kills a child, and the heroine, like Genoveva, is falsely accused, -and expelled from her home, until the plot is discovered and she is -restored to her husband's love. Lastly, we have the conflict between -the powers of good and evil, the benevolent and malignant witch, which -forms one of the stock incidents of the European folk-tales. [718] -The malignant, liver-eating witch is naturally associated with the -tomb-haunting badger. One of them appeared quite recently at Ahmadābād, -and being supposed to carry off children in the disguise of a badger, -was called Adam Khor, or the devourer of the sons of men. [719] - - - -Instruction in Witchcraft. - -Writing of Italy, Mr. Leland says: [720]--"Among the priestesses of the -hidden spell, an elder dame has usually in hand some younger girl, whom -she instructs, firstly, in the art of bewitching or injuring enemies, -and secondly, in the more important processes of annulling or unbinding -the spells of others, or causing mutual love or conferring luck." - -So, among the Agariyas of Bengal, there are old women, professors -of witchcraft, who stealthily instruct the young girls. "The latter -are all eager to be taught, and are not considered proficient till -a fine forest tree selected to be experimented on is destroyed by -the potency of their charms; so that the wife a man takes to his -bosom has probably done her tree, and is confident in the belief that -she can, if she pleases, dispose of her husband in the same manner, -if he makes himself obnoxious." [721] - -So, in Bombay, when a Guru, or teacher, wishes to initiate a candidate -into the mysteries of the Black Art, he directs the candidate to -watch a favourable opportunity for the commencement of the study, the -opportunity being the death of a woman in childbirth. As soon as this -event takes place, the candidate is instructed what to do. He watches -the procession as the dead is being taken to the burning or burial -ground, and takes care to see who the bearers are. He then takes a -small tin box in his hand, and picking up a pinch of the earth out -of the hind footsteps of the two rear bearers, he keeps the earth -in the tin box. Then he watches where the dead body is being burnt, -and goes home. - -"Next day he goes to the spot, and taking a little of the ashes of -the corpse, puts it in the tin box. Subsequently, on a suitable day, -that is on a new moon or on an eclipse day, he goes to the burning -ground at midnight, and taking off his clothes, he sits on the ground, -and placing the tin box in front of him, lights a little incense, and -repeats the incantations taught to him by his guru or teacher. When -he has practised the repetition of the incantations, the spirit Hadal -becomes subject to his control, and by her help he becomes able to -annoy any one he pleases. - -"Among the troubles which the witch or magician brings upon his -enemies, the following are said to be the most common in the Dakkhin as -well as in the Konkan. The witch causes star-shaped or cross-like marks -of marking-nuts on the body of the person she has a grudge against. The -peculiarity of these marks is that they appear in numbers in different -parts of the body, and as suddenly disappear. The other troubles are -the drying-up of the milk of milch cattle, or turning the milk into -blood; stopping or retarding the growth of the foetus in cattle, and -turning them into moles; stealing grain or other field produce from -the farm-yards of the victim; letting loose wolves, jackals, or rats -into the victim's field; pricking needles or thorns into the victim's -eyes or body; applying turmeric to the eyes of a female victim, or -putting lampblack into her eyes; or tearing the open end of her robe; -and causing death to an enemy by means of a method of the Black Art, -called Mūth, literally 'a handful.' - -"The Mūth generally consists of a handful of rice or Urad pulse -(Phaseolus radiatus) charmed and sent by the witch against her enemy -through the agency of the familiar spirit. It is likened to a shock of -electricity sudden and sharp, which strikes in the centre of the heart, -causes vomiting and spitting of blood, and may, if not warded against, -end in the death of the victim. Practised experts pretend to see the -Mūth rolling through the air, like a red-hot ball, and say that they -can avert its evil consequences in two ways--either by satiating it, -which is done so as to cause a little bleeding, and allowing the blood -to drop on a charmed lemon, which is afterwards cut and thrown into a -river; or by reversing its action and sending it back to the person -who issued it, which is done by charging a lemon and throwing it in -the direction whence the Mūth has been seen to come. The operation -of a Mūth is most dreaded in many parts of Bombay, and especially in -the Konkan. Cases of sudden illness, blood vomiting, or sudden death -are frequently attributed to the agency of a Mūth or charmed handful -of rice or pulse sent by an enemy." [722] - -We have here examples of the dread of the woman dying at her -confinement, which we have already noticed in the case of the Churel, -and the nudity charm is also familiar. - - - -Witch Seasons. - -In Central India, witches are supposed, by the aid of their familiars, -who are known as Bīr, or "the hero," to inflict pain, disease, and -death upon human beings. Their power of witchcraft, like that of all -Indian witches, exists on the fourteenth, fifteenth, and twenty-ninth -of each month, and in particular at the Diwālī or feast of lamps, -and the Naurātrī or nine days devoted to the worship of Durgā. - -In the same way the Irish witches flit on November Eve, and "on that -night mortal people should keep at home, or they will suffer for it; -for souls of the dead have power over all things on that night of -the year, and they hold a festival with the fairies, and drink red -wine from the fairy cups and dance to fairy music till the moon goes -down." [723] Of the Allhallows demon Professor Rhys writes: "This -night was the Saturnalia of all that was hideous and uncanny in the -world of spirits. It had been fixed as the time of all others when the -Sun god, whose power had been gradually falling off since the great -feast associated with him on the first of August, succumbed to his -enemies, the powers of darkness and of winter. It was their first -hour of triumph after an interval of subjection, and the popular -imagination pictured them stalking abroad with more than ordinary -insolence and aggressiveness." [724] - -At other times the Indian witches appear, dress, talk, and eat like -other women, but "when the fit is on them, they are sometimes seen -with their eyes glaring red, their hair dishevelled and bristled, -while their heads are often turned round in a strange, convulsive -manner. On the nights of those days, they are believed to go abroad, -and after casting off their garments, to ride about on tigers and -other wild animals; and if they desire to go on the water, alligators -come like the beasts of the forests at their call, and they disport -in rivers and lakes upon their backs till dawn of day, about which -period they always return home, and resume their usual forms and -occupations." [725] - - - -Witches Taking the Form of Tigers. - -The idea that witches take the form of tigers is widespread. Colonel -Dalton describes how a Kol, tried for the murder of a wizard, stated -in his defence that his wife having been killed by a tiger in his -presence, he stealthily followed the animal as it glided away after -gratifying its appetite, and saw that it entered the house of one -Pūsa, a Kol, whom he knew. He called out Pūsa's relations, and when -they heard the story, they not only credited it, but declared that -they had long suspected Pūsa of possessing such power; on entering -they found him, and not a tiger; they delivered him bound into the -hands of his accuser, who at once killed him. In explanation of their -proceedings, they deposed that Pūsa had one night devoured an entire -goat, and roared like a tiger while he was eating it; and on another -occasion he had informed his friends that he felt a longing for a -particular bullock, and that very night the bullock was carried off -by a tiger. [726] - -Mr. Campbell gives a very similar story from Bombay, in which a -man-eating tiger was supposed to be a witch in disguise. [727] All -these stories very closely resemble the European were-wolf and similar -legends. [728] In Mirzapur they tell a tale of one of the Drāvidian -Bhuiyārs, whose wife went recently on the Pura Mamuār Hill, when an -evil spirit in the form of a tiger attacked and killed her. This was -after her death ascertained to be the case by the inquiries of the -village Baiga, who now does an annual ceremony and sacrifice near -the place. For such witch tigers the favourite remedy is to knock -out their teeth to prevent their doing any more mischief and becoming -the Indian equivalent of the Loupgarou. [729] - - - -Witches Extracting Substances from their Victims. - -Another remedy is thus described by Abul Fazl: "The sorceress casts -something out of her mouth like the grain of a pomegranate, which -is believed to be part of the heart which she has eaten. The patient -picks it up as part of his own intestine and greedily swallows it. By -this means, as if his heart was replaced in his body, he recovers -his health by degrees." - -The idea that witches extract substances out of a sick person's body -is very common. [730] The witch in Macbeth says, "I will drain him -dry as hay." In the same way the original object of kissing is said -to be to extract an evil spirit out of a person. Many people get a -holy man to kiss a sick child and blow over some water which is given -it to drink, and thus the evil spirit is removed. - -General Sleeman gives the case of a trooper who had taken some -milk from an old woman without payment, and was seized with severe -internal pains, which he attributed to her witchcraft. She was sent -for, but denied having bewitched him. She admitted, however, that -"the household gods may have punished him for his wickedness." She -was ordered to cure him, and set about collecting materials for the -purpose, but meanwhile the pains left him. - -Another man took a cock from an old Gond woman and was similarly -affected. "The old cock was actually heard crowing in his belly." In -spite of all the usual remedies he died, and the cock never ceased -crowing at intervals till his death. - -He tells of another witch who was known to be such by the juice of the -sugar-cane she was eating turning into blood. A man saw her staring -at him and left the district at once. "It is well known that these -spells and curses can only reach a distance of ten or twelve miles, -and if you offend one of these witches, the sooner you put that -distance between you and them, the better." - -Another witch was bargaining with a man for some sugar-cane. She seized -one end of the stalk and the purchaser the other. A scuffle ensued, and -a soldier came up and cut the cane in two with a sword. Immediately a -quantity of blood flowed from the cane to the ground, which the witch -had been drawing through it from the man's body. So we read of the -two witches in the Italian tale, who "seeing that he would not go, -cast him by their witchcraft into a deep sleep, and with a small -tube sucked all his blood from his veins, and made it into a blood -pudding which they carried with them. And this gave them the power -to be invisible till they should return." [731] - -"It is the general belief that there is not a village or a single -family without its witch in this part of the country. Indeed, no one -will give his daughter in marriage to a family without one, saying, -'If my daughter has children, what will become of them without -a witch to protect them from witches of other families in the -neighbourhood?'" [732] Sir John Malcolm notices the same fact. "In -some places men will not marry into a family where there is not a -Dākinī or witch to save them from the malice of others; but this name, -which is odious, is not given to those persons by their relations -and friends. They are termed Rakhwālī or guardians." [733] - - - -Witches and Cats. - -One sign of the witch is that she is accompanied by her cat. This is -an idea which prevails all over the world. Thus, in Ireland, cats are -believed to be connected with demons. On entering a house the usual -salutation is, "God save all here except the cat!" Even the cake on the -griddle may be blessed, but no one says, "God bless the cat!" [734] -The negroes in Mussouri say "some cats are real cats and some are -devils; you can never tell which is which, so for safety it is well -to whip them all soundly." [735] One explanation of the connection -of witches and cats is that "when Galinthis was changed into a cat -by the Fates, Hecate took pity on her and made her her priestess, -in which office she continues to this day." [736] We have already -seen that it is probably her stealthy ways and habit of going about -at night which gave the cat her uncanny character. - -The cat, say the jungle people, is aunt of the tiger, and taught -him everything but how to climb a tree. The Orāons of Chota Nāgpur -say that Chordeva, the birth fiend, comes in the form of a cat and -worries the mother. [737] The Thags used to call the caterwauling -of cats Kālī ki Mauj, or the roaring wave of Kālī, and it was of -evil omen. The omen could be obviated only by gargling the mouth in -the morning with sour milk and spitting it out. We have already seen -the danger of killing a cat. Zālim Sinh, the famous regent of Kota, -thought that cats were associated with witches, and on one occasion -when he believed himself exposed to enchantment, ordered that every -cat should be expelled from his cantonment. [738] - - - -Witch Ordeals. - -All the ordeals for witches turn on the efficacy of certain things -to which reference has been already made as scarers of evil spirits. - -Thus, the ordeal of walking over hot coals and on heated ploughshares -was a common method of testing a witch both in India and in -Europe. [739] Zālim Sinh, however, generally used the water ordeal, -a test which is known all over the world. [740] Even Pliny knew that -Indian witches could not sink in water. [741] Manu prescribes water -as a form of oath, and to this day it is a common form of oath ordeal -for a man to stand in water when he is challenged to swear. Zālim Sinh -used to say that handling balls of hot iron was too slight a punishment -for such sinners as witches, for it was well known that they possessed -substances which enabled them to do this with impunity; so he used -to throw them into a pool of water; if they sank, they were innocent; -if they, unhappily, came to the surface, their league with the powers -of darkness was apparent. A bag of cayenne pepper tied over the head, -if it failed to suffocate, afforded another test. - -"The most humane method employed was rubbing the eyes with a well-dried -capsicum; and certainly if they could furnish the demonstration of -their innocence by withholding tears, they might justly be deemed -witches." [742] Akin to these tests is the folk-tale ordeal by -which the calumniated heroine bathes in boiling oil to prove her -chastity. [743] - - - -Santāl Witch Ordeals. - -Forbes gives the tests in vogue in his day among the Santāls, whom -he calls Soontaar. Branches of the Sāl tree (Shorea robusta) marked -with the names of all the females of the village, whether married or -unmarried, who had attained the age of twelve years, were planted in -the morning in water for the space of four and a half hours; and the -withering of any of these branches was proof of witchcraft against the -person whose name was attached to it. Small portions of rice enveloped -in pieces of cloth marked as before, were placed in a nest of white -ants; the consumption of the rice in any of the bags was proof of -witchcraft against the woman whose name it bore. Lamps were lighted -at night; water was placed in cups made of leaves, and mustard oil -was poured drop by drop into the water, while the name of each woman -in the village was pronounced. The appearance of the shadow of any -woman in the water during the ceremony proved her to be a witch. [744] - - - -Witch Tests, Bilāspur. - -One of the most noted witch-finders in the Bilāspur District of the -Central Provinces had two most effectual means of checkmating the -witches. "His first effort was to get the villagers to describe the -marked eccentricities of the old women of the community, and when these -had been detailed, his experience soon enabled him to seize on some -ugly or unlucky idiosyncrasy, which indicated in unmistakable clearness -the unhappy offender. If no conclusion could be arrived at in this way, -he lighted an ordinary earthen lamp, and repeating consecutively the -name of each woman in the village, he fixed on the witch or witches -by the flicker of the wick when the name or names were mentioned. The -discovery of the witch soon led to her being grossly maltreated, and, -under the Native Government, almost invariably in her death. Since -the introduction of the British rule these cases are becoming year -to year rarer; but the belief itself remains strong and universal, -and the same class of superstitions pervades every-day life." [745] - - - -Witch Tests, Bastar. - -In Bastar, "a fisherman's net is wound round the head of the suspected -witch to prevent her escaping or bewitching her guards. Two leaves of -the Pīpal or sacred fig tree, one representing her and the other her -accusers, are thrown upon her outstretched hands. If the leaf in her -name fall uppermost, she is supposed to be a suspicious character; -if the leaf fall with the lower part upwards, it is possible that -she may be innocent, and popular opinion is in her favour." The final -test is the usual water ordeal. [746] - - - -Miscellaneous Tests: Eggs. - -Several persons, natives of the Khasiya Hills, were convicted -of beating to death a man whom they believed to be a wizard. They -confessed freely, saying that he destroyed their wives and daughters -by witchcraft. One of the accused was the brother of the wife of the -deceased. It appears that they discovered he was a sorcerer by the -appearance of an egg when broken. [747] A similar case is reported -among the Banjāras of Berār. [748] The use of eggs in this way opens -up an interesting chapter in folk-lore. Thus, we have the famous -legend which tells how a golden egg was produced at the beginning -of all things, and from it Prajapati Brahma, the great progenitor of -the universe, was produced. This piece of primitive folk-lore appears -in the folk-tales in the numerous stories of children produced from -eggs. [749] In one of the Kashmīr tales the egg of the wondrous bird -has the power of transmuting anything it touches into gold. [750] -Again, we have everywhere instances of the belief in the power of eggs -as guardians against evil spirits. "An egg laid on Ascension Day hung -to the roof of the house preserveth the same from all hurts." [751] -Children in Northumberland, when first sent abroad in the arms of the -nurse, are presented with an egg, salt, and fine bread. In India, we -constantly see the eggs of the ostrich hung up in mosques and tombs -to repel evil influences. We have the same idea in the use of eggs -at Easter in England. In the Konkan, Kunbis give a mixture of eggs -and turmeric to a man who spits blood; and to remove the effects of -the Evil Eye, they wave bread and an egg round a sick person. The -Sultānkārs, when their wives are possessed with evil spirits, offer -rice, a fowl, and an egg, and the spirit passes away. The Beni Israels, -to avert evil, break a hen's egg under the forefoot of the bridegroom's -horse. [752] - -There is another form of witch test in Chhatīsgarh, where a pole -of a particular wood is erected on the banks of a stream, and each -suspected person, after bathing, is required to touch the pole; -it is supposed that if any witch does this her hand will swell. - - - -The Rowan Tree. - -According to British folk-lore, one of the most potent antidotes -for witches is a twig of the rowan tree bound with scarlet thread, -or a stalk of clover with four leaves laid in the byre, or a bough -of the whitty, or "wayfaring tree." [753] Many, in fact, are the -herbs which are potent in this way, of which the chief is perhaps -that Moly, "that Hermes once to wise Ulysses gave." In India, the -substitute for these magic trees is a branch of the tamarind, or a -stalk of the castor-oil tree (Palma Christi). If, after receiving in -silence an ordinary scourging by the usual methods, the suspected -person cries out at a blow with the magic branch, he is certainly -guilty. [754] These plants are everywhere supposed to exercise power -over witches, and even in places like the North-Western Provinces, -where witch-hunting is happily a thing of the past, a Chamār or -currier, a class which enjoy an uncanny reputation, is exceedingly -afraid of even a slight blow with a castor-oil switch. - - - -Witch-finding among Kols. - -The Kolarian witch-finder's test is to put a large wooden grain measure -under a flat stone as a pivot on which the latter can revolve. A -boy is then seated on the stone supporting himself with his hands, -and "the names of all the people in the neighbourhood are slowly -pronounced. As each name is uttered a few grains of rice are thrown -at the boy. When they come to the name of the witch or wizard, the -stone turns and the boy rolls off." [755] This, no doubt, is the -effect of the boy's falling into a state of coma, and losing the -power of supporting himself with his hands. - - - -Marks of Witches. - -Some witches are believed to learn the secrets of their craft by -eating filth. We have already seen that this is also believed to -be the case with evil spirits. Such a woman, in popular belief, is -always very lovely and scrupulously neat in her personal appearance, -and she always has a clear line of red lead applied to the parting -of her hair. Witches have a special power of casting evil glances on -children, and after a child is buried, they are believed to exhume the -corpse, anoint it with oil, and bring it to life to serve some occult -purpose of their own. On the same principle the Kāfirs believe that -dead bodies are restored to life, and made hobgoblins to aid their -owners in mischief. [756] Indian witches, moreover, are supposed to -keep a light burning during the ceremony of child exhumation, and if -the father or the mother has the courage to run and snatch away the -child just as it is revived, and before the witch can blow out the -light, the child will be restored to them safe and sound. [757] - - - -Charms Recited Backward. - -One well-known characteristic of witches is that she cannot die as -long as she is a witch, but must while alive pass on her craft to -another, is well recognized in India. Hence a witch is always on -the look-out for some one to whom she may delegate her functions, -and many well-meaning people have been ruined in this way through -misplaced confidence in the benevolence of a witch. [758] - -Indian witches also resemble their European sisters in their habit -of reciting their charms backward,-- - - - He who'd read her aright must say her - Backwards like a witch's prayer. - - -And in "Much ado about Nothing," Hero says of Beatrice,-- - - - "I never yet saw man - How wise, how noble, young, how rarely featured, - But she would spell him backward." - - -This backward recital of spells appears all through folk-lore. [759] -Indian witches are supposed to repeat two letters and a half from -a verse in the Qurān, known only to themselves, and to say them -backwards. We have the same belief in one of the tales of Somadeva, -where Bhīmabhatta prays in his extremity to Mother Ganges, and -she says, "Now receive from me this charm called 'forwards and -backwards.' If a man repeats it forwards, he will become invisible to -his neighbour; but if he repeats it backwards, he will assume whatever -shape he desires." [760] The use of this charm enables the witch to -take the liver out of a living child and eat it. But, in order to do -this effectively, she must first catch some particular kind of wild -animal not larger than a dog, feed it with cakes of sugar and butter, -ride on it, and repeat the charm one hundred times. When dying, the -breath will not leave the body of the witch until she has taught -the two and a half letters to another woman, or failing a woman, -until she has repeated it to a tree. [761] - - - -Witchcraft by Means of Hair, Nail Parings, etc. - -The idea is common in folk-lore that a witch can acquire power over -her victim by getting possession of a lock of hair, the parings of -his nails, or some other part of his body. In the "Comedy of Errors," -Dromio of Syracuse says,-- - - - "Some devils ask but the parings of one's nail, - A rush, a hair, a drop of blood, a pin, - A nut, a cherry stone." - - -In Ireland, nail-parings are an ingredient in many charms, and -hair-cuttings should not be placed where birds can find them, for they -take them to build their nests, and then you will have headaches all -the year after. [762] The same is the case with the leavings of food, -which should be thrown to the crows lest some ill-disposed person get -possession of them. On the same principle English mothers hide away the -first tooth of a child. [763] There are numerous instances of these -and similar beliefs all through the whole range of folk-lore. Hence -natives of India are very careful about the disposal of hair-cuttings -and nail-parings; and it is only at shrines and sacred places of -pilgrimage where shaving is a religious duty that such things are -left lying about on the ground. In the Grihyasūtras it is provided -that the hair cut from a child's head at the end of the first, third, -fifth, or seventh year shall be buried in the earth at a place covered -with grass or in the neighbourhood of water. The carelessness shown -at places of pilgrimage in this respect rests on the belief that the -sanctity of the place is in itself a protective against sorcery. But -some people do not depend on this, and fling the hair into running -water. At Hardwār the barber at the sacred pool takes the hair which -he keeps collected in a bag and flings it into the air on the top of -the neighbouring hill, at least he assures his patrons that he does so. - - - -Witchcraft by Means of Images. - -Another means which witches are supposed to adopt in order to -injure those whom they dislike, is to make an image of wax, flour, -or similar substances, and torture it, with the idea that the pain -will be communicated to the person whom they desire to annoy. - -Thus, among Muhammadans, when the death of an enemy is desired, -a doll is made of earth taken from a grave, or a place where bodies -are cremated, and various sentences of the Qurān are read backwards -over twenty-one small wooden pegs. The officiant is to repeat the -spell three times over each peg, and is then to strike them so as -to pierce various parts of the body of the image. The image is then -to be shrouded like a corpse, conveyed to a cemetery, and buried in -the name of the enemy whom it is intended to injure. He will, it is -believed, certainly die after this rite is performed. The practice -has become a branch of the fine arts and numerous methods are detailed -by Dr. Herklots. [764] - -It is almost unnecessary to say that similar ideas prevail in -Europe. The wounded Melun in "King John" says:-- - - - "Have I not hideous death within my view, - Retaining but a quantity of life, - Which bleeds away, even as a form of wax - Resolveth from his figure 'gainst the fire?" - - -An old woman in Cornwall was advised "to buy a bullock's heart, and get -a packet of pound pins. She was to stick the heart as full of pins as -she could, and the body that wished her ill felt every pin run into -the bullock's heart, same as if they had been run into her." [765] -Examples of such images may be seen in the Pitt-Rivers collection at -Oxford. Sir W. Scott describes how, under the threshold of a house in -Dalkeith, was found the withered heart of some animal, full of many -scores of pins; and Aubrey tells us of one Hammond, of Westminster, -who was hanged or tried for his life in 1641 for killing a person by -means of an image of wax. This was one of the charges made against -the unfortunate Jane Shore. [766] - -In Bengal, "a person sometimes takes a bamboo which has been used -to keep down a corpse during cremation, and making a bow and arrow -with it, repeats incantations over them. He then makes an image of -his enemy in clay, and lets fly an arrow into this image. The person -whose image is thus pierced is said to be immediately seized with a -pain in his breast." In the folk-tales restoration to life is usually -effected by collecting the ashes or bones of the deceased and making -an image of them, into which life is breathed. [767] - - - -Witchcraft through the Footsteps. - -It was a precept of Pythagoras not to run a nail or a knife into -a man's foot. This, from the primitive point of view, was really -a moral, not merely a prudential precept. For it is a world-wide -superstition that by injuring the footsteps you injure the foot that -made them. Thus, in Mecklenburgh it is thought that if you thrust -a nail into a man's footsteps the man will go lame. The Australian -blacks held exactly the same view. "Seeing that a Tutungolung was very -lame," says Mr. Howitt, "I asked him what was the matter. He said, -'Some fellow has put bottle in my foot.' I asked him to let me see -it. I found that he was probably suffering from acute rheumatism. He -explained that some enemy must have found his foot-track, and have -buried in it a piece of broken bottle." [768] The same feeling -widely prevails in Northern India, and rustics are in the habit of -attributing all sorts of pains and sores to the machinations of some -witch or sorcerer who has meddled with their footprints. - - - -Punishment of Witches. - -The method by which witches are punished displays a diabolical -ingenuity. The Indian newspapers a short time ago recorded six out of -nine murders in the Sambalpur District as due to "the superstition, -which is so general, that the spread of cholera is due to the sorcery -of some individual, whose evil influence can be nullified if he be -beaten with rods of the castor-oil plant. The people who are thus -suspected are so cruelly beaten that in the majority of cases they -die under the infliction." - -A milder form of treatment is to make the witch drink the filthy water -of a washerman's tank, which is believed to destroy her skill. [769] -The punishment in vogue in Central India was to make witches drink -the water used by curriers, leather being, as we have seen, a scarer -of evil spirits, and drinking such water involves degradation from -caste. In more serious cases the witch's nose was cut off, or she -was put to death. [770] - -In Bastar, if a man is adjudged guilty of witchcraft, he is beaten by -the crowd, his hair is shaved, the hair being supposed to constitute -his power of mischief, his front teeth are knocked out, in order, -it is said, to prevent him from muttering incantations, or more -probably, as we have already seen, to prevent him from becoming a -Loupgarou. All descriptions of filth are thrown at him; if he be of -good caste, hog's flesh is thrust into his mouth, and lastly he is -driven out of the country, followed by the abuse and execrations of -his enlightened fellow-men. Women suspected of sorcery have to undergo -the same ordeal; if found guilty, the same punishment is awarded, -and after being shaved, their hair is attached to a tree in some -public place. In Chhattīsgarh, a witch has her hair shaved with a -blunt knife, her two front teeth are knocked out, she is branded in -the hinder parts, has a ploughshare, which is a strong fetish, tied -to her legs, and she is made to drink the water of a tannery. [771] - - - -Witchcraft Punishments among the Drāvidians. - -In former times among the Drāvidian races persons denounced as -witches were put to death in the belief that witches breed witches and -sorcerers. A terrible raid was made on these unfortunate people when -British authority was relaxed during the Mutiny, and most atrocious -murders were committed. "Accusations of witchcraft are still sometimes -made, and persons denounced are subjected to much ill-usage, if they -escape with their lives." [772] Among the Bhīls suspected persons used -to be suspended from a tree head downwards, pounded chillies being -first put into the witch's eyes to see if the smarting would bring -tears from her. Sometimes after suspension she was swung violently from -side to side. She was finally compelled to drink the blood of a goat, -slaughtered for the purpose, which is regarded as a substitute for the -sick man's life, and to satisfy the witch's craving for blood. She was -then brought to the patient's bedside, and required to make passes -over his head with a Nīm branch; a lock of hair was also cut from -the head of the witch and buried in the ground, that the last link -between her and her former powers of mischief might be broken. [773] - - - -Other Witchcraft Punishments. - -Dr. Chevers has collected a number of instances in which the punishment -of death or mutilation was inflicted on supposed witches. He quotes -a case in 1802, in which several of the witnesses declared that -they remembered numerous instances of persons being put to death for -sorcery; one of them, in particular, proved that her mother had been -tried and executed as a witch. In another case a Kol, thinking that -some old women had bewitched him, placed them in a line and cut off all -their heads, except that of the last, who, objecting to this drastic -form of ordeal, ran away and escaped. In another, the nose-ring of a -suspected witch was torn out with such violence as to cause extensive -laceration. There are recorded instances of even more brutal forms -of mutilation. A case occurred at Dhāka in which some people went to -the house of a supposed witch, intending, as they said, to make her -discontinue her enchantments, and ill-treated her in such a shameful -way as to leave her in a dying state. She appears to have been in the -habit of prescribing medicine for children, and this seems to have -been the only basis for the reports that she practised magic. [774] - - - -Drawing Blood from a Witch. - -One favourite way of counteracting the spells of a witch is to draw -blood from her. Thus, Professor Rhys, writing of Manxland, says: -"There is a belief that if you can draw blood, however little, from a -witch or one who has the Evil Eye, he loses his power of harming you; -and I have been told that formerly this belief was sometimes acted -on. Thus, on leaving church, for instance, the man who fancied himself -in danger from another would go up to him, or walk by his side, and -inflict on him a slight scratch or some other trivial wound, which -elicited blood." [775] In the First Part of "Henry VI." Talbot says -to the Pucelle de Orleans,-- - - - "I'll have a bout with thee; - Devil or devil's dam, I'll conjure thee; - Blood will I draw on thee, thou art a witch." - - -And Hudibras says,-- - - - "Till drawing blood o' the Dames like witches, - They're forthwith cur'd of their capriches." - - -So at the present day in Mirzapur, when a woman is marked down -as a witch, the Baiga or Ojha pricks her tongue with a needle, -and the blood thus extracted is received on some rice, which she -is compelled to eat. In another case she is pricked on the breast, -tongue, and thighs, and given the blood to drink. The ceremony is -most efficacious if performed on the banks of a running stream. This -is probably a survival of the actual blood sacrifice of a witch. - - - -Witch Haunts. - -"In any country an isolated or outlying race, the lingering survivors -of an older nationality, is liable to the imputation of sorcery." [776] -This is exactly true of Asia. Marco Polo makes the same assertion about -Pachai in Badakhshān. He says the people of Kashmīr "have extraordinary -acquaintance with the devilries of enchantment, insomuch that they -can make their idols to speak. They can also by their sorceries -bring on changes of weather, and produce darkness, and do a number -of things so extraordinary, that without seeing them no one would -believe them. Indeed this country is the very original source from -which idolatry has spread abroad." In Tibet, he says, "are the best -enchanters and astrologers that exist in that part of the world; -they perform such extraordinary marvels and sorceries by diabolical -art, that it astounds one to see or even hear of them." [777] So -in European folk-lore the north was considered the home of witches, -and in Shakespeare La Pucelle invokes the aid of the spirit under the -"lordly monarch of the north." - -In India, the same is the case with the Konkan in Bombay. [778] The -semi-aboriginal Thārus of the Himālayan Tarāī are supposed to possess -special powers of this kind, and Thāruhat, or "the land of the Thārus," -is a common synonym for "Witchland." At Bhāgalpur, Dr. Buchanan was -told that twenty-five children died annually through the malevolence -of witches. These reputed witches used to drive a roaring trade, as -women would conceal their children on their approach and bribe them -to go away. In Gorakhpur, he says, the Tonahis or witches were very -numerous, "but some Judge sent an order that no one should presume to -injure another by enchantment. It is supposed that the order has been -obeyed, and no one has since imagined himself injured, a sign of the -people being remarkably easy to govern," [779] and it may be added -of the patriarchal style of government in those early days. Nowadays -the accusation of witchcraft is practically confined to the menial -tribes. The wandering, half-gipsy Banjāras, or grain-carriers, are -notoriously witch-ridden, and the same is the case with the Dom, -Sānsiya, Hābūra, and other vagrants of their kin. - - - -Nonā Chamārin, the Witch. - -At the present day the half-deified witch most dreaded in the -Eastern Districts of the North-Western Provinces is Lonā, or Nonā, -a Chamārin, or woman of the currier caste. Her legend is in this -wise. The great physician Dhanwantara, who corresponds to Luqmān -Hakīm of the Muhammadans, was once on his way to cure King Parikshit, -and was deceived and bitten by the snake king Takshaka. He therefore -desired his son to roast him and eat his flesh, and thus succeed to his -magical powers. The snake king dissuaded them from eating the unholy -meal, and they let the cauldron containing it float down the Ganges. A -currier woman, named Lonā, found it and ate the contents, and thus -succeeded to the mystic powers of Dhanwantara. She became skilful in -cures, particularly of snake-bite. Finally she was discovered to be -a witch by the extraordinary rapidity with which she could plant out -rice seedlings. One day the people watched her, and saw that when she -believed herself unobserved, she stripped herself naked, and taking the -bundle of the plants in her hands threw them into the air, reciting -certain spells. When the seedlings forthwith arranged themselves -in their proper places, the spectators called out in astonishment, -and finding herself discovered, Nonā rushed along over the country, -and the channel which she made in her course is the Lonī river to -this day. So a saint in Broach formed a new course for a river by -dragging his clothes behind him. In Nonā's case we have the nudity -charm, of which instances have been already given. - - - -Pūtanā, the Witch Fiend. - -Another terrible witch, whose legend is told at Mathura, is Pūtanā, -the daughter of Bali, king of the lower world. She found the infant -Krishna asleep, and began to suckle him with her devil's milk. The -first drop would have poisoned a mortal child, but Krishna drew her -breast with such strength that he drained her life-blood, and the -fiend, terrifying the whole land of Braj with her cries of agony, fell -lifeless on the ground. European witches suck the blood of children; -here the divine Krishna turns the tables on the witch. [780] - - - -The Witch of the Palwārs. - -The Palwār Rājputs of Oudh have a witch ancestress. Soon after the -birth of her son she was engaged in baking cakes. Her infant began to -cry, and she was obliged to perform a double duty. At this juncture -her husband arrived just in time to see his demon wife assume gigantic -and supernatural proportions, so as to allow both the baking and -nursing to go on at the same time. But finding her secret discovered, -the witch disappeared, leaving her son as a legacy to her astonished -husband. [781] Here, though the story is incomplete, we have almost -certainly, as in the case of Nonā Chamārin, one of the Melusina type of -legend, where the supernatural wife leaves her husband and children, -because he violated some taboo, by which he is forbidden to see her -in a state of nudity, or the like. [782] - -The history of witchcraft in India, as in Europe, is one of the saddest -pages in the annals of the people. Nowadays, the power of British law -has almost entirely suppressed the horrible outrages which, under the -native administration, were habitually practised. But particularly in -the more remote and uncivilized parts of the country, this superstition -still exists in the minds of the people, and occasional indications of -it, which appear in our criminal records, are quite sufficient to show -that any relaxation of the activity of our magistrates and police would -undoubtedly lead to its revival in some of its more shocking forms. - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -SOME RURAL FESTIVALS AND CEREMONIES. - - - En d' etithei neion malakźn pieiran arouran, - Eureian, tripolon· polloi d' apotźres en autź - Zeugea dineuontes elastreon entha kai entha. - - Iliad, xviii. 541-43. - - -The subject of rural festivals is much too extensive for treatment in -a limited space. Here reference will be made only to a few of those -ceremonies which illustrate the principles recently elucidated from -the folk-lore of Europe by Messrs. Frazer, Gomme, and Mannhardt. [783] - - - -The Akhtīj. - -The respect paid to ploughing is illustrated by the early Vedic legend -of Sītā, who, like the Etruscan Tago, sprung from a furrow. [784] -It is only in a later development of the story that she becomes the -daughter of Janaka, and wife of Rāma Chandra. - -The agricultural year in Northern India begins with the ceremony of -the Akhtīj, "the undecaying third," which is celebrated on the third -day of the light fortnight in the month of Baisākh, or May. In the -North-Western Provinces the cultivator first fees his Pandit to select -an auspicious hour on that day for the commencement of ploughing. In -most places he does not begin till 3 p.m.; in Mirzapur the time fixed -is usually during the night, as secrecy is in most of these rural -ceremonies an important part of the ritual. - -In Rohilkhand the cultivator goes at daybreak to one of his fields, -which must be of a square or oblong shape. He takes with him a brass -drinking vessel of water, a branch of the Mango tree, both of which -are, as we have seen, efficacious in scaring spirits, and a spade. The -object of the rite is to propitiate Prithivī, "the broad world," -as contrasted with Dhartī Māī, or "Mother Earth," and Sesha Nāga, -the great snake which supports the world. Whenever Sesha yawns he -causes an earthquake. - -The Pandit first makes certain observations by which he is able -to determine in which direction the snake happens at the time to be -lying, because, in order to ease himself of his burden, he moves about -beneath the world, and lies, sometimes north and south, north-west -and south-east, and so on. This imaginary line having been marked -off, the peasant digs up five clods of earth with his spade. This -is a lucky number, as it is a quarter more than four. Hence Sawāi, -or one and a quarter, has been taken as one of the titles of the -Mahārāja of Jaypur. He then sprinkles water five times into the trench -with the branch of the sacred mango. The object of this is by a form -of sympathetic magic to ensure the productiveness of the crop, and -scare the demons of evil which would injure it. In Bombay, at the -beginning of the sowing season, a cocoanut is broken and thrown at -each side of the plough, so that the soil spirits may leave and make -room for Lakshmī, the goddess of prosperity, who is represented by -the plough. [785] During all these proceedings the peasant watches -the omens most carefully, and if anything inauspicious happens, the -ceremony must be discontinued and recommenced at a luckier hour later -on in the day. When he gets home, some woman of the family, who must -not be a widow, who is naturally considered unlucky, presents him -with curds and silver for good luck. He then stays all day in the -house, rests, and does no work, and does not even go to sleep. He -avoids quarrels and disputes of all kinds, and on that day will give -neither grain nor money, nor fire to any one. [786] Next day he eats -sweet food and balls of wheaten flour, toasted with curds and sugar, -but carefully abstains from salt. - -These usages have parallels in the customs of other lands. Thus, -the rule against giving fire on the sowing day prevailed in Rome, -and is still observed in the rural parts of England. In Iceland and -the Isle of Man it is believed that fire and salt are the most sacred -things given to man, and if you give them away on May Day you give -away your luck for the year; no one will give fire from a house while -an unbaptized baby is in it. [787] - -In Rājputāna the custom is less elaborate. The first day of ploughing -after the rains begin is known as the Halsotiya festival. Omens -being favourable, the villagers proceed to the fields, each household -carrying a new earthen pot, coloured with turmeric, the virtues of -which have been already explained, and full of Bājra millet. Looking -to the north, the home of the gods, they make an obeisance to the -earth, and then a selected man ploughs five furrows. The ploughman's -hands and the bullock's hoofs are rubbed with henna, and the former -receives a dinner of delicacies. [788] - -In Mirzapur, only the northern part of the field, that facing the -Himālaya is dug up in five places with a piece of mango wood. The -peasant, when he goes home, eats rich food, and abstains from quarrels. - -All over the country the people seem to be becoming less careful -about these observances. Some, without consulting a Pandit at all, -go early to the field on the morning after the Holī fire is lighted, -scratch the ground with a ploughshare, and on their return eat cakes -and sweetmeats. Others, on the first day after the Holī, when they -hear the voice of the Koil, or Indian cuckoo at twilight, go in -silence to the field and make a few scratches. [789] - -Among the Drāvidian Hill tribes of Mirzapur, the ceremony seems to be -merely a formal propitiation of the village godlings. Among the Korwas, -before ploughing commences, the Baiga makes an offering of butter and -molasses in his own field. This he burns in the name of the village -godlings, and does a special sacrifice at their shrine. After this -ploughing commences. The Kharwārs, before sowing, take five handfuls -of grain from the sowing basket, and pray to Dhartī Mātā, the earth -goddess, to be propitious. They keep the grain, grind it, and offer it -at her annual festival in the month of Sāwan or August. The Pankas only -do a burnt offering through the Baiga, and offer up cakes and other -food, known as Nźuj. Before the spring sowing, a general offering of -five cocks is made to the village godlings by the Baiga, who consumes -the sacrifice himself. All these people do not commence agricultural -work till the Baiga starts work in his own field, and they prefer to -do this on Monday. - -In Hoshangābād the ceremony is somewhat different. The ploughing is -usually begun by the landlord, and all the cultivators collect and -assist at the ceremony in his field before they go on to their own. "It -is the custom for him to take a rupee and fasten it up in the leaf of -the Palāsa tree with a thorn. He also folds up several empty leaves -in the same way and covers them all with a heap of leaves. When he has -done worship to the plough and bullocks, he yokes them and drives them -through the heap, and all the cultivators then scramble for the leaf -which contains the rupee. They then each plough their fields a little, -and returning in a body, they are met by the daughter or sister of -the landlord, who comes out to meet them with a brass vessel full of -water, a light in one hand and the wheaten cakes in the other. The -landlord and each of the cultivators of his caste put a rupee into -her water vessel and take a bit of the cake, which they put on their -heads. On the same day an earthen jar full of water is taken by each -cultivator to his threshing-floor, and placed to stand on four lumps -of earth, each of which bears the name of one of the four months of -the rainy season. Next morning as many lumps as are wetted by the -leaking of the water jar (which is very porous and always leaks), -so many months of rain will there be, and the cultivator makes his -arrangements for the sowing accordingly." [790] - -In the Himālaya, again, there is a different ritual: "On the day fixed -for the commencement of ploughing the ceremony known as Kudkhyo and -Halkhyo takes place. The Kudkhyo takes place in the morning or evening, -and begins by lighting a lamp before the household deity and offering -rice, flowers, and balls made of turmeric, borax, and lemon juice. The -conch is then sounded, and the owner of the field or relative whose -lucky day it is, takes three or four pounds of seed-grain from a basin -and carries it to the edge of the field prepared for its reception. He -then scrapes a portion of the earth with a mattock, and sows a part -of the seed. One to five lamps are placed on the ground, and the -surplus seed is given away. At the Halkhyo ceremony, the balls as -above described are placed on the ploughman, plough, and plough cattle; -four or five furrows are ploughed and sown, and the farm servants are -fed." [791] This custom of giving away what remains of the seed-grain -to labourers and beggars prevails generally throughout Northern India. - -A curious rite is performed in Kulu at the rice planting. "Each family -in turn keeps open house. The neighbours, men and women, collect at the -rice-fields. As soon as a field is ready, the women enter it in line, -each with a bundle of young rice in her hands, and advance dabbing the -young plants into the slush as they go. The mistress of the house and -her daughters, dressed in their gayest, take their stand in front of -the line, and supply more bundles of plants as they are wanted. The -women sing in chorus as they work; impromptu verses are often put in, -which occasion a great deal of laughter. Two or three musicians are -generally entertained by the master of the house, who also supplies -food and drink of his best for the whole party. The day's work often -ends with a tremendous romp, in which every one throws mud at his -neighbours, or tries to give him or her a roll in it. No such ceremony -is observed in sowing other crops, rice having been formerly, in all -probability, the most important crop. It is also the custom to make -a rude image of a man in dough and to throw it away as a sacrifice to -the Ishta Deotā or household deity." [792] This can hardly be anything -but a survival of an actual sacrifice to appease the field godlings -at sowing time. The rude horseplay which goes on is like that at the -Saturnalia and on the English Plough Monday. - -Going on to the Drāvidian races, the Mundas have a feast in May at -the time of sowing for the first rice crop. "It is held in honour -of the ancestral shades and other spirits, who, if unpropitiated, -would prevent the seed from germinating. A he-goat and a cock are -sacrificed." Again in June they have a festival to propitiate the -local gods, that they may bless the crops. "In the Mundāri villages -everyone plants a branch of the Bel tree in his land, and contributes -to the general offering, which is made by the priest in the sacred -grove, a fowl, a pitcher of beer, and a handful of rice." In July, -again, each cultivator sacrifices a fowl, and after some mysterious -rites, a wing is stripped off and inserted in a cleft of a bamboo, -and stuck up in the rice-field or dung-heap. If this is omitted, -the rice crop, it is supposed, will not come to maturity. It appears -more like a charm than a sacrifice. Among the Kols of Chota Nāgpur, -there is a special dance, "the women follow the men and change their -attitudes and positions in obedience to signals from them." In one -special figure "the women all kneel and pat the ground with their -hands, in tune of music, as if coaxing the earth to be fertile." [793] - - - -Prohibition of Ploughing. - -A clergyman in Devonshire informed Brand that the old farmers in his -parish called the three first days of March "Blind Days," which were -anciently considered unlucky, and on them no farmer would sow his -seed. [794] - -In Northern India there are certain days on which ploughing is -forbidden, such as the Nāgpanchamī or snake feast held on the -fifth of the light half of Sāwan, and the fifteenth of the month -Kārttik. Turning up the soil on such days disturbs Seshanāga, the great -world serpent and Mother Earth. But Mother Earth is also supposed -to sleep on six days in every month--the 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 21st, -and 24th; or, as others say, the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 21st, and -24th. On such days it is inadvisable to plough if it can be possibly -avoided. The fifteen days in the month of Kuār which are devoted to -the worship of the Pitri or sainted dead, are also an inauspicious -time for agricultural work. - -All these ceremonies at the commencement of the agricultural season -remind us in many ways of the observance of the festivals of Plough -Monday and similar customs in rural England. [795] - - - -The Rakshabandhan and Jāyī Festivals. - -We have already noticed the use of the knotted cord or string as an -amulet. On the full moon of Sāwan is held the Salono or Rakshabandhan -festival, when women tie these amulets round the wrists of their -friends. Connected with this is what is known as the barley feast, -the Jāyī or Jawāra of Upper India, and the Bhujariya of the Central -Provinces. It is supposed to be connected in some way with the famous -story of Alha and Udal, which forms the subject of a very popular -local epic. They were Rājputs of the Banāphar clan, and led the -Chandels in their famous campaign against the Rāhtaurs of Kanauj, -which immediately preceded, and in fact led up to, the Muhammadan -conquest of Northern India. [796] - -In connection with this simple rural feast, a most elaborate ritual -has been prescribed under Brāhmanical influence, but all that is -usually done is that on the seventh day of the light half of Sāwan, -grains of barley are sown in a pot of manure, and spring up so -rapidly that by the end of the month the vessel is full of long, -yellowish-green stalks. On the first day of the next month, Bhādon, -the women and girls take these out, throw the earth and manure into -water, and distribute the plants to their male friends, who bind them -in their turbans and about their dress. [797] - -We have already come across an instance of a similar practice among -the Kharwārs at the Karama festival, and numerous examples of the same -have been collected by Mr. Frazer. [798] Thus, "in various parts of -Italy and all over Sicily it is still customary to put plants in water -or in earth on the Eve of St. John, and from the manner in which they -are found to be blooming or faded on St. John's Day omens are drawn, -especially as to fortune in love. In Prussia two hundred years ago -the farmers used to send out their servants, especially their maids, -to gather St. John's wort on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day. When they -had fetched it, the farmer took as many plants as there were persons -and stuck them on the wall or between the beams; and it was thought -that the person whose plant did not bloom would soon fall sick or -die. The rest of the plants were tied in a bundle, fastened to the -end of a pole, and set up at the gate or wherever the corn would -be brought in at the next harvest. This bundle was called Kupole, -the ceremony was known as Kupole's festival, and at it the farmer -prayed for a good crop of hay, etc." - -We have the same idea in the English rural custom of "wearing the -rose." There can be no reasonable doubt that all these rites were -intended to propitiate the spirit of vegetation and promote the -germination and growth of the next crop. [799] - - - -The Diwālī, or Feast of Lamps. - -The regular Diwālī, or Feast of Lamps, which is performed on the last -day of the dark fortnight in the month of Kārttik, is more of a city -than a rural festival. But even in the villages everyone burns a lamp -outside the house on that night. - -The feast has, of course, been provided with an appropriate -legend. Once upon a time an astrologer foretold to a Rāja that on the -new moon of Kārttik his Kāl, or fate, would appear at midnight in -the form of a snake; that the way to avoid this was that he should -order all his subjects on that night to keep their houses, streets, -and lanes clean; that there should be a general illumination; that the -king, too, should place a lamp at his door, and at the four corners -of his couch, and sprinkle rice and sweetmeats everywhere. - -If the door-lamp went out it was foretold that he would become -insensible, and that he was to tell his Rānī to sing the praises of -the snake when it arrived. These instructions were carefully carried -out, and the snake was so pleased with his reception, that he told -the Rānī to ask any boon she pleased. She asked for long life for her -husband. The snake replied that it was out of his power to grant this, -but that he would make arrangements with Yamarāja, the lord of the -dead, for the escape of her husband, and that she was to continue to -watch his body. - -Then the snake carried off the spirit of the king to Yamarāja. When -the papers of the king's life were produced before Yamarāja his age -was denoted by a cipher, but the kindly snake put a seven before -it, and thus raised his age to seventy years. Then Yamarāja said: -"I find that this person has still seventy years to live. Take him -back at once." So the snake brought back the soul of the king, and he -revived and lived for seventy years more, and established this feast -in honour of the event. Much the same idea appears in one of Grimm's -German tales. [800] - -The original basis of the feast seems to have been the idea that on -this night the spirits of the dead revisit their homes, which are -cleaned and lighted for their reception. Now it is chiefly observed -in honour of Lakshmī, the goddess of wealth and good luck, who is -propitiated by gambling. On this night the women make what is called -"the new moon lampblack" (Amāwas Kā Kājal), which is used throughout -the following year as a charm against the Evil Eye, and, as we have -already seen, the symbolical expulsion of poverty goes on. - -Immediately following this festival is the Bhaiyya Dūj, or "Brothers' -second," when sisters make a mark on the foreheads of their brothers -and cause them to eat five grains of gram. These must be swallowed -whole, not chewed, and bring length of days. The sister then makes -her brother sit facing the east, and feeds him with sweetmeats, -in return for which he gives her a present. - - - -The Govardhan. - -Following the Diwālī comes what is known as the Govardhan, or Godhan, -which is a purely rural feast. In parts of the North-Western Provinces, -the women, on a platform outside the house, make a little hut of mud -and images of Gaurī and Ganesa; there they place the parched grain -which the girls offered on the night of the Diwālī; near it they -lay some thorny grass, wave a rice pounder round the hut, and invoke -blessings on their relations and friends. This is also a cattle feast, -and cowherds come round half drunk and collect presents from their -employers. They sing, "May this house grow as the sugar-cane grows, -as Ganga increases at the sacred confluence of Prayāg!" - -In the Panjāb "the women make a Govardhan of cowdung, which consists -of Krishna lying on his back surrounded with little cottage loaves of -dung to represent mountains, in which are stuck stems of grass with -tufts of cotton or rag on the top for trees, and by little dung balls -for cattle, watched by dung men dressed in little bits of rag. Another -opinion is that the cottage loaves are cattle, and the dung balls -calves. On this they put the churn-staff, five white sugar-canes, some -parched rice, and a lamp in the middle. The cowherds are then called -in, and they salute the whole, and are fed with rice and sweets. The -Brāhman then takes the sugar-cane and eats a bit, and till then no one -must eat, cut, or press cane. Rice-milk is then given to the Brāhmans, -and the bullocks have their horns dyed and are extra well fed." [801] - -The Emperor Akbar, we are told, used to join in this festival. [802] - -The custom in Cawnpur, known as the Dāng, or "Club," Diwālī is very -similar. The cowherds worship Govardhan in the form of a little heap -of cowdung decorated with cotton, and go round to the houses of the -persons whose cattle they graze, dance to the music of two sticks -beaten together and a drum played by a Hindu weaver, and get presents -of grain, cloth, or money. [803] - - - -Cattle Festivals. - -There are a number of similar usages in various parts of the country -solemnized with the object of protecting the herds. Thus in Hoshangābād -they have the rite of frightening the cattle. "Everyone keeps awake -all night, and the herdsmen go out begging in a body, singing, -and keeping the cattle from sleeping. In the morning they are all -stamped with the hand dipped in yellow paint for the white ones, -and white paint for the red ones, and strings of cowries or peacocks' -feathers are tied to their horns. Then they are driven out with wild -whoops or yells, and the herdsman standing at the doorway smashes -an earthen water jar on the last. The neck of this is placed on the -gateway leading to the cattle sheds, and preserves them from the -Evil Eye. In the afternoon the cattle are all collected together, -and the Parihār priest sprinkles them with water, after which they -are secure from all possible evil." [804] - -This reminds us of the custom of Manx cattle dealers, who drive -their herd through fire on May Day, so as to singe them a little, -and preserve them from harm. [805] The same was probably the origin -of the bull-running in the town of Stamford of which Brand gives an -account. So the Chinese make an effigy of an ox in clay, which after -being beaten by the governor, is stoned by the people till they break -it in pieces, from which they expect an abundant year. - -We have already met with instances where the scape animal merges in a -sacrifice. In Garhwāl, at the sacrifice in honour of Devī, the Brāhmans -make a circle of flour filled with various sorts of colours. Inside -this they sit and repeat sacred verses. Then a male buffalo is made -to move round the circle seven times, and everyone throws some holy -rice and oats over it. After this the headman of the village strikes -it lightly on the back with a sword and makes it run, on which the -people follow and hack it to pieces with their swords. [806] - -So in Bengal, on the last day of the month Kārttik (October-November) -a pig is turned loose among a herd of buffaloes, who are encouraged to -gore it to death. The carcase is given to the Dusādh village menials -to eat. The Ahīrs, who practise this strange rite, aver that it has no -religious significance, and is merely a sort of popular amusement. They -do not themselves partake of any part of the pig. [807] It is plainly -a survival of a regular sacrifice, probably intended to promote the -fertility of the herds and crops. - -Similar customs for the protection of cattle prevail in other parts -of the country. Thus, in Mirzapur, at the Diwālī, a little earthen -bell is procured from the village potter, and hung round the necks -of the cattle as a protective. - -In Berār, at the Pola festival, the bullocks of the whole village pass -in procession under a sacred rope made of twisted grass and covered -with mango leaves. The sacred pole of the headman is then borne aloft -to the front. He gives the order to advance, and all the bullocks, his -own leading the way, file under the rope according to the respective -rank of their owners. The villagers vie with each other in having -the best decorated and painted bullocks, and large sums are often -expended in this way. This rope is supposed to possess the magic -power of protecting the cattle from disease and accident. [808] - -In Northern India it is a common charm to drive the cattle under a -rope fixed over the village cattle path, and among the Drāvidians of -Mirzapur, two poles and a cross bar are fixed at the entrance of the -village with the same object. The charm is rendered more powerful if -a plough beam is sunk in the ground close by. - -The custom of the silent tending of cattle has been already -mentioned. At the cattle festival in Rājputāna, in the evening the -cow is worshipped, the herd having been previously tended. "From -this ceremony no rank is excepted; on the preceding day, dedicated -to Krishna, prince and peasant all become pastoral attendants of the -cow in the form of Prithivī or the Earth." [809] In some places the -flowers and other ornaments of the cattle, which they lose in their -wild flight, are eagerly picked up and treated as relics bringing good -fortune. We have a similar idea in the blessing of cattle in Italy, -[810] and this is probably the origin of the observance described by -Aubrey, when "in Somersetshire, where the wassaile (which is, I think, -Twelfe Eve), the ploughmen have their Twelfe cake, and they go into -the ox-house to the cattle, and drink to the ox with the crumpled -horn that treads out the corne." [811] - - - -The Sleep of Vishnu. - -According to the rural belief, Vishnu sleeps for four months in the -year, from the eleventh of the bright half of the month Asārh, the -Deosoni Ekādashī, "the reposing of the god," till the eleventh of the -bright half of the month Kārttik, the Deothān, or "god's awakening." So -the demon Kumbha Karana in the Rāmāyana when he is gorged sleeps for -six months. According to Mr. Campbell, [812] during these four months -while the god sleeps demons are abroad, and hence there are an unusual -number of protective festivals in that period. On the day he retires -to rest women mark the house with lines of cowdung as a safeguard, -fast during the day, and eat sweetmeats at night. During the four -months of the god's rest it is considered unlucky to marry, repair -the thatch of a hut, or make the house cots. His rising at the Deothān -marks the commencement of the sugar-cane harvest, when the cane mill -is marked with red paint, and lamps are lighted upon it. The owner of -the crop then does worship in his field, and breaks off some stalks -of sugar-cane, which he puts on the boundary. He distributes five -canes each to the village Brāhman, blacksmith, carpenter, washerman, -and water carrier, and takes five home. - -Then on a wooden board about one and a half feet long two figures -of Vishnu and his wife Lakshmī are drawn with lines of butter and -cowdung. On the board are placed some cotton, lentils, water-nuts, -and sweets; a fire sacrifice is offered, and the five canes are -placed near the board and tied together at the top. The Sālagrāma, -or stone emblematical of Vishnu, is lifted up, and all sing a rude -melody, calling on the god to wake and join the assembly. "Then all -move reverently round the emblems, the tops of the cane are broken -off and hung on the roof till the Holī, when they are burnt. When -the worship has been duly performed, and the officiating Brāhman -has declared that the fortunate moment has arrived, the cutting may -commence. The whole village is a scene of festivity, and dancing and -singing go on frantically. Till this day no Hindu will eat or touch -the crop. They believe that even jackals will not eat the cane till -then. The real fact is that till then the juice has not properly come -up, and the cane is not worth eating. On the first day the cane is -cut the owner eats none of it, it would bring him bad luck." [813] - - - -Ceremonies to Avert Blight, etc. - -There are various ceremonies intended to save certain crops from the -ravages of blight and insects. Blight is very generally attributed to -the constant measurement of the soil which goes on during settlement -operations, to the irreligious custom of eating beef, or to adultery, -or to a demon of the east wind, who can be appeased with prayers and -ceremonies. [814] No pious Hindu, if the seed fails, will re-sow his -winter crop. - -When sugar-cane germinates, the owner of the crop does worship on the -next Saturday before noon. On one of the days of the Naurātrī in the -month of Kuār the cultivator himself, or through his family priest, -burns a fire sacrifice in the field and offers prayers. In the month -of Kārttik he has a special ceremony to avert a particularly dangerous -grub, known as the Sūndi. For this purpose he takes from his house -butter, cakes, sweets, and five or six lumps of dough pressed into -the shape of a pear, with some clean water. He goes to the field, -offers a fire sacrifice, and presents some of the cakes to the field -spirit. He then buries one of the lumps of dough at each corner of his -field, and, having eaten the rest of the cakes, goes home happy. [815] - -When field-mice do injury to the crop the owner goes to a Syāna, or -cunning man, who writes a charm, the letters of which he dissolves in -water and scatters it over the plants. The ancient Greek farmer was -recommended to proceed as follows: "Take a sheet of paper and write on -it these words, 'Ye mice here present, I adjure ye that ye injure me -not, neither suffer another mouse to injure me. I give you yonder field -(specifying the field), but if ever I catch you here again, by the help -of the Mother of the gods, I will rend you in seven pieces.' Write -this and stick the paper on an unhewn stone in the field where the -mice are, taking care to keep the written side uppermost." [816] - -General Sleeman gives a case of a cowherd who saw in a vision that -the water of the Biyās river should be taken up in pitchers and -conveyed to the fields attacked with blight, but that none of it -should be allowed to fall on the ground in the way. On reaching the -field a small hole should be made in the bottom of the pitcher so as -to keep up a small but steady stream, as the bearer carried it round -the border of the field, so that the water might fall in a complete -ring except at a small opening which was to be kept dry, so that -the demon of the blight could make his escape through it. Crowds of -people came to fetch the water, which was not supposed to have any -particular virtue except that arising from this revelation. [817] - - - -Scaring of Locusts. - -Locusts, one of the great pests of the Indian peasant's life, are -scared by shouting, lighting of fires, beating of brass pots, and in -particular, by ringing the temple bell. In Sirsa, the Karwa, a flying -insect which injures the flower of the Bājra millet, is expelled by -a man taking his sister's son on his shoulder and feeding him with -rice-milk while he repeats the following charm: "The nephew has -mounted his uncle's shoulder. Go, Karwa, to some other field!" [818] - -In the Panjāb a popular legend thus explains the enmity between the -starling and the locust. Once upon a time the locusts used to come -and destroy the crops as they were ripening. The people prayed to -Nārāyana, and he imprisoned them in a deep valley in the Himālaya, -putting the starlings to keep them in confinement. Now and again the -locusts try to escape and the starlings promptly put them to death. The -legend is probably based on the fact that both the starlings and the -locusts come from the Hills, and about the same time. [819] - -Another device to scare them is based on the well-known principle -of treating with high distinction one or two chosen individuals of -the obnoxious species, while the rest are pursued with relentless -vigour. "In the East Indian island of Bali, the mice which ravage -the rice-fields are caught in great numbers and burnt in the same -way that corpses are burnt. But two of the captured mice are allowed -to live and receive a little packet of white linen. Then the people -bow down before them, as before gods, and let them go." [820] So -in Mirzapur the Drāvidian tribes, when a flight of locusts comes, -catch one, decorate its head with a spot of red lead, salaam to it, -and let it go, when the whole flight immediately departs. - - - -Betel Planting. - -When cultivators in the North-Western Provinces sow betel, they cook -rice-milk near the plants and offer it to the local godling. They -divide the offering, and a little coarse sugar is dedicated to -Mahābīr, the monkey god, which is taken home and distributed among -the children. This is known as Jeonār Pūjā or "the banquet rite." The -Barais, who make a speciality of cultivating the plant, have two -godlings of their own, Sokha Bāba, the ghost of some famous magician, -and Nāgbeli, the "creeper Nāga," or snake, who is connected with the -sinuous growth of the tendrils. - -In Bengal, the Baruis, a similar caste, worship their patron goddess -on the fourth day of the month Baisākh with offerings of flowers, -rice, sweetmeats, and sandal-wood paste. Some do the Navamī Pūjā in -honour of Ushas, or the Aurora, on the sixth day of the waning moon -in Asin. Plantains, rice, sugar, and sweetmeats are placed in the -centre of the garden, from which the worshippers retire, but after a -little time return, and carrying out the offerings, distribute them -among the village children. In Bikrampur, Sunjāī, a form of Bhāgawatī, -is worshipped. - -They do not employ Brāhmans in the worship, because, they say, a -Brāhman was the first cultivator of betel. Through his neglect the -plant grew so high that he used his sacred thread to fasten up the -tendrils, but as it still shot up faster than he could supply thread, -its charge was given to a Kāyasth or writer. Hence it is that a Brāhman -cannot enter a betel garden without defilement. [821] In another form -of the story, the thread of the Brāhman grew up to the sky and became -a betel tendril. So, in a Tartar story, the hop plant originates from -the bow-string of a man that had been turned into a bear. [822] - -All over India, the betel plant, perhaps on account of the delicacy -of its growth, is considered as being very susceptible to demoniacal -influence, and a woman or a person in a state of ceremonial pollution -is excluded from the nursery. We meet with an instance of the same -idea among the Ainos. "They prepare for the fishing by observing -rules of ceremonial purity, and when they have gone out to fish the -women at home must keep strict silence, or the fish would hear them -and disappear. When the first fish is caught he is brought home -and passed through a small opening at the end of the hut, but not -through the door; for if he were passed through the door, the other -fish would certainly see him and disappear." [823] - -All these protective measures intended to guard the crop from -defilement and demoniacal influence are rather like the old English -rule of the young men and girls walking round the corn to bless it -on Palm Sunday, an observance which Audley drily remarks in his time -"gave many a conception." [824] - - - -Sugar-cane Sowing. - -When sugar-cane is being planted, the sower is decorated with -silver ornaments, a necklace, flowers, and a red mark is made on his -forehead. It is considered a favourable omen if a man on horseback -come into the field while the sowing is going on. After the sowing -is completed, all the men employed come home to the farmer's house -and have a good dinner. [825] All surplus seed is carefully destroyed -with fire, as it is believed that the plants grown from it would be -worthless and produce only flowers and seed. - -In the Panjāb, on the first day of sowing, sweetened rice is brought -to the field, the women smear the outside of the vessel with it, and -it is then distributed to the workmen. Next morning a woman puts on a -necklace and walks round the field, winding thread on a spindle. This -forms a sacred circle which repels evil influence from the crop. On -the night of the Deothān, when Vishnu wakes from his four months' -sleep, lamps are lighted on the cane mill, and it is smeared with -daubs of red paint. [826] - - - -Cotton Planting. - -When the cotton has sprung up, the owner of the field goes there on -Sunday forenoon with some butter, sweetmeats, and cakes. He burns a -fire sacrifice, offers up some of the food, and eats the remainder in -silence. Here we have another instance of the taboo against speaking, -which so commonly appears in these rural ceremonies. [827] - -When the cotton comes into flower, some parched rice is taken to the -field on a Wednesday or Friday; some is thrown broadcast over the -plants, and the rest given to children, the object assigned being that -the bolls may swell, as the rice does when parched. Many instances of -symbolical or sympathetic magic of the same kind might be collected -from the usages of other races. Thus, for instance, in Sumatra, the -rice is sown by women, who, in sowing, let their hair hang loose down -their back, in order that the rice may grow luxuriantly and have long -stalks. [828] - -When the cotton is ripe and ready for picking, the women pickers -go to the north or east quarters of the field with parched rice and -sweetmeats. These directions are, of course, selected with reference -to the Himālaya, the home of the gods, and the rising sun. They pick -two or three large pods, and then sit down and pull out the cotton -in as long a string as possible without breaking it. They hang these -threads on the largest cotton plant they can find in the field, round -which they sit, and fill their mouths as full as possible with the -parched rice, which they blow out as far as they can in each direction; -the idea being, of course, the same as in the ceremony when the plant -flowers. A fire offering is made and the picking commences. [829] - -The custom in Karnāl is very similar. When the pods open and the -cotton is ready for picking, the women go round the field eating -rice-milk, the first mouthful of which they spit on the field towards -the west. The first cotton picked is exchanged for its weight in -salt, which is prayed over and kept in the house till the picking is -over, when it is distributed among the members of the household and -friends. [830] - - - -The Last Sheaf. - -In Hoshangābād, when the reaping is nearly over, a small patch of -corn is left standing in the last field, and the reapers rest a -little. Then they rush at this piece, tear it up, and cast it in -the air, shouting victory to their deities, Omkār Mahārāja, Jhamajī, -Rāmjī Dās, or other local godlings according to their persuasions. A -sheaf is made of this corn, which is tied to a bamboo, stuck up on -the last harvest cart, carried home in triumph, and fastened up at -the threshing-floor or to a tree, or on the cattle shed, where its -services are essential in averting the Evil Eye. [831] - -The same custom prevails in the eastern districts of the North-Western -Provinces. Sometimes a little patch in the corner of the field is -left untilled as a refuge for the field spirit; sometimes it is sown -and the corn reaped with a rush and shout and given to the Baiga as -an offering to the local godlings, or distributed among beggars. - -This is a most interesting analogue of a branch of European folk-lore -which has been copiously illustrated by Mr. Frazer. [832] It is the -Devon custom of "Crying the Neck." The last sheaf is the impersonation -of the Corn Mother, and is worshipped accordingly. We have met already -with the same idea in the reservation of small patches of the original -forest for the accommodation of the spirits of the jungle. - - - -First-fruits. - -There are many customs connected with the disposal of the first-fruits -of the crop. The eating of the new grain is attended with various -observances, in which the feeding of Brāhmans and beggars takes a -prominent place. In Kāngra, the first-fruits of corn, oil, and wine, -and the first fleece of the sheep are not indeed actually given, -but a symbolical offering is made in their stead. These offerings -are made to the Jāk or field spirit to whom reference has already -been made. The custom has now reached a later stage, for the local -Rāja puts the right of receiving the offerings on behalf of the Jāk -to public auction. [833] - -In the same way at Ladākh, "the main rafters of the houses are -supported by cylindrical or square pillars of wood, the top of which, -under the truss, is, in the houses of the peasantry, encircled -by a band of straw and ears of wheat, forming a primitive sort of -capital. It is the custom, I was told, to consecrate the two or three -first handsful of each year's crop to the spirit who presides over -agriculture, and these bands are thus deposited. Sometimes rams' -horns are added to this decoration." [834] - -In Northern India the first pressing of the sugar-cane is attended -with special observances. When the work of pressing commences, the -first piece of sugar made is presented to friends or beggars, as is -the first bowl of the extracted juice, and in the western districts of -the North-Western Provinces some is offered in the name of the saint -Shaikh Farīd, who from this probably gains his title of Shakkarganj, -or "Treasury of sugar." - -The Santāls have a harvest-home feast in December, at which the Jag -Mānjhi, or headman of the village, entertains the people. The cattle -are anointed with oil and daubed over with vermilion, and a share of -rice-beer is given to each animal. [835] - -Everywhere in treading out the grain the rule that the cattle move -round the stake in the course of the sun is rigidly observed. - - - -Ceremonies at Winnowing. - -Winnowing is a very serious and solemn operation, not lightly to be -commenced without due consultation of the stars. - -In Hoshangābād, when the village priest has fixed a favourable -time, the cultivator, his whole family, and his labourers go to the -threshing-floor, taking with them the prescribed articles of worship, -such as milk, butter, turmeric, boiled wheat, and various kinds of -grain. The threshing-floor stake is washed in water, and these things -are offered to it and to the pile of threshed grain. The boiled wheat -is scattered about in the hope that the Bhūts or spirits may content -themselves with it and not take any of the harvested corn. Then the -master stands on a three-legged stool, and taking five basketsful -from the threshed heap, winnows them. After winnowing, the grain -and chaff are collected again and measured; if the five baskets are -turned out full, or anything remains over, it is a good omen. If -they cannot fill the baskets, the place where they began winnowing is -considered unlucky and it is removed a few yards to another part of -the threshing-floor. The five basketsful are presented to a Brāhman, -or distributed in the village, not mixed with the rest of the harvest. - -Winnowing can then go on as convenient, but one precaution must be -taken. As long as winnowing goes on the basket must never be set down -on its bottom, but always upside down. If this were not done, the -spirits would use the basket to carry off the grain. The day's results -are measured generally in the evening. This is done in perfect silence, -the measurer sitting with his back to the unlucky quarter of the sky, -and tying knots to keep count of the number of the baskets. The spirits -rob the grain until it is measured, but when once it has been measured -they are afraid of detection. [836] - -In the Eastern Panjāb, the clean grain is collected into a -heap. Preparatory to measuring, the greatest care has to be observed -in the preparation of this heap, or evil spirits will diminish the -yield. One man sits facing the north, and places two round balls of -cowdung on the ground. Between them he sticks in a plough-coulter, -a symbol known as Shāod Mātā or "the mother of fertility." A piece of -the Ākh or swallow-wort and some Dūb grass are added, and they salute -it, saying: "O Mother Shāod! Give the increase! Make our bankers and -rulers contented!" The man then carefully hides the image of Shāod -from all observers while he covers it up with grain, which the others -throw over his head from behind. When it is well covered, they pile -the grain upon it, but three times during the process the ceremony of -Chāng is performed. The man stands to the south of the heap and goes -round it towards the west the first and third time, and the reverse -way the second time. As he goes round, he has the hand furthest from -the heap full of grain, and in the other a winnowing fan, with which -he taps the heap. When the heap is finished they sprinkle it with -Ganges water, and put a cloth over it till it is time to measure -the grain. A line is then drawn on the ground all round the heap, -inside which none but the measurer must go. All these operations must -be performed in profound silence. [837] - -In Bareilly, when the whole of the grain and chaff has been winnowed, -all the dressed grain is collected into a heap. "The winnower, with -his basket in his right hand, goes from the south towards the west, -and then towards the north, till he reaches the pole to which the -treading-out cattle have been tethered. He then returns the same way, -goes to the east till he reaches the pole, and back again to the -south; then he places the basket on the ground and utters some pious -ejaculation. Then an iron sickle, a stick of the sacred Kusa grass, -and a bit of swallow-wort, with a cake of cowdung in a cleft stick, -are placed on the heap, and four cakes of cowdung at the four corners; -and a line is traced round it with cowdung. A fire offering is then -made, and some butter and coarse sugar are offered as sacrifice. Water -is next thrown round the piled grain and the remainder of the sugar -distributed to those present." [838] - -In the Etah District, the owner of the field places to the north of -the pile of grain a threshing-floor rake, a bullock's muzzle, and a -rope at a distance of three spans from the piled grain; and between -these things and the pile he lays a little offering consisting of -a few ears of grain, some leaves of the swallow-wort, and a few -flowers. These things are laid on a piece of cowdung. He then covers -the pile of grain with a cloth to protect it from thieving Bhūts, -and puts in a basket three handfuls of grain as the perquisite of the -village priest who lights the Holī fire. Something is also laid by for -the village beggars. Then he sprinkles a little grain on the cloth, -and fills a basket full of grain which he pours back on the pile as an -emblem of increase. He then bows to the gods who live in the northern -hills, and mutters a prayer; it is only at this time that he breaks -the silence with which the whole ceremony is performed. The cloth is -then removed, and the rite is considered complete. - - - -Measurement of Grain. - -All these precautions are based on principles which have been -already discussed, and we meet in them with the familiar fetishes and -demon-scarers, of which we have already quoted instances--the iron -implements, the sacred grasses and plants, water and milk, cowdung, -the winnowing fan, and so on. - -All over Northern India a piece of cowdung, known as Barhāwan, "that -which gives the increase," is laid on the piled grain, and a sacred -circle is made with fire and water round it. Silence, as we have -already seen, is a special element in the worship. All this rests on -the idea that until the grain is measured, vagrant Bhūts will steal -or destroy it. This is something like the principle of travellers, -who keep a cowry or two in their purses, so that thieves may not -be able to divine the contents. So, in a Talmudic legend we read, -"It is very difficult for devils to obtain money, because men are -careful to keep it locked or tied up; and we have no power to take -anything that is measured or counted; we are permitted to take only -what is free and common." [839] - -In the Eastern Panjāb grain must not be measured on the day of -the new or full moon, and Saturday is a bad day for it. It must be -begun at dawn, or sunset, or midnight, when the Bhūts are otherwise -engaged. Four men go inside the enclosure line with a wooden measuring -vessel, and no one must come near them till they have finished. They -sit facing the north and spread a cloth on the ground. One fills the -measure from the heap with the winnowing fan, another empties it on the -cloth, substituting an empty one for it. The man who has the measure -puts down for every measure filled a small heap of grains of corn, -by which the account is kept. Perfect silence must be observed till -the whole operation is finished, and especially all counting aloud -of the number of measures must be avoided. But when once the grain -is measured, it is safe from the Evil Eye; the people are at liberty -to quarrel over the division of it. [840] - -The same rule of silence often appears in the custom of Europe. Favete -linguis was the principle on such occasions in Rome. So in the -"Tempest" Prospero says,-- - - - "Hush and be mute, - Or else our spell is marred." - - -In the Highlands, on New Year's Day, a discreet person is sent to draw -a pitcher of water from the ford, which is drunk next day as a charm -against the spell of witchcraft, the malignity of Evil Eyes, and the -activity of all infernal agency. So the baker who makes the bannocks on -Shrove Tuesday must be mute as a stone; the cake on St. Mark's Eve must -be made in silence, and the same is the rule on St. Faith's Day. [841] - -The same rule of secrecy and silence is observed in the worship of -Dulha Deo. Among the Gaiti Gonds, their great festival is held after -the ingathering of the rice harvest, when they proceed to a dense -part of the jungle, which no woman is permitted to enter, and where, -to represent the great god, a copper coin has been hung up, enclosed -in a joint of bamboo. Arriving at the spot, they take down the copper -god in his case, and selecting a small area about a foot square, they -lay on it the copper coin, before which they arrange as many small -heaps of uncooked rice as there are deities worshipped by them. The -chickens brought for sacrifice are loosed and permitted to feed on -the rice, after which they are killed and their blood sprinkled -between the copper coin and the rice. Goats are also offered, -and their blood presented in the same manner. Until prohibited by -the Hindus, sacrifices of cows were also common. On the blood some -country spirits is poured as a libation to their deities. The copper -coin is now lifted, replaced in its bamboo case, which is shut up with -leaves, wrapped up in grass, and returned to its place in the tree, -to remain there till it is required on the following year. [842] - - - -The Holī: Its Origin. - -The most famous and interesting of the village festivals is the Holī, -which is held in the early spring, at the full moon of Phālgun. One -account of its origin describes it as founded in honour of a female -demon or Rākshasī called Dundhas, "she who would destroy many." - -Another account connects the observance with the well-known legend of -Hiranya-kasipu, "golden-dressed," and his son Prahlāda. Hiranya-kasipu -was, it is said, a Daitya, who obtained from Siva the sovereignty of -the three worlds for a million years, and persecuted his pious son -Prahlāda because he was such a devoted worshipper of Vishnu. Finally -the angry god, in his Nara-sinha or man-lion incarnation, slew -the sinner. - -Harnākas, as the father is called in the modern version of the story, -was an ascetic, who claimed that the devotion of the world was to -be paid to him alone. His son Prahlāda became a devotee of Vishnu, -and performed various miracles, such as saving a cat and her kittens -out of the blazing kiln of a potter. His father was enraged at what -he considered the apostasy of his son, and with the assistance of his -sister Holī or Holikā, commenced to torture Prahlāda. Many attempts on -his life failed, and finally Vishnu himself entered a pillar of heated -iron, which had been prepared for the destruction of Prahlāda, and -tore Harnākas to pieces. Then Holī tried to burn herself and Prahlāda -together, but the fire left him unscathed and she was consumed. The -fire is now supposed to be burnt in commemoration of this tragedy. - -This legend has been localized at a place called Deokali near Irichh -in the Jhānsi District, where Hiranya-kasipu is said to have had his -palace. Just below it is a deep pool, into which Prahlāda was flung -by the orders of his father, and the mark of the foot of the martyr -is still shown on a neighbouring rock. [843] - -Another legend identifies Holī with the witch Pūtanā, who attempted -to destroy the infant Krishna by giving him her poisoned nipple to -suck. [844] - -Lastly, a tale told at Hardwār brings us probably nearer the real -origin of the rite. Holikā or Holī was, they say, sister of Sambat or -Sanvat, the Hindu year. Once, at the beginning of all things, Sambat -died, and Holī in her excessive love for her brother insisted on being -burnt on his pyre, and by her devotion he was restored to life. The -Holī fire is now burnt every year to commemorate this tragedy. - - - -Propitiation of Sunshine. - -There seems to be little doubt that the custom of burning the Holī -fire rests on the same basis as that of similar observances in -Europe. The whole subject has recently been copiously illustrated by -Mr. J. G. Frazer. [845] His conclusion is that "they are sun charms -or magical ceremonies intended to ensure a proper supply of sunshine -for men, animals, and plants. We have seen that savages resort to -charms for making sunshine, and we need not wonder that primitive -man in Europe has done the same. Indeed, considering the cold and -cloudy climate of Europe during a considerable portion of the year, -it is natural that sun charms should have played a much more prominent -part among the superstitious practices of European peoples than among -those of savages who live near the equator. This view of the festival -in question is supported by various considerations drawn partly from -the rites themselves, partly from the influences they are believed -to exert on the weather and on vegetation. For example, the custom of -rolling a burning wheel down a hill-side, which is often observed on -these occasions, seems a very natural imitation of the sun's course -in the sky, and the imitation is particularly appropriate on Midsummer -Day, when the sun's annual declension begins. Not less graphic is the -imitation of his apparent revolution by swinging a burning tar barrel -round a pole. The custom of throwing blazing discs, shaped like suns, -into the air, is probably also a piece of imitative magic." [846] -In these, as in so many cases, the magic force is supposed to take -effect through mimicry or sympathy. - -It is true, of course, that the climatic conditions of Northern India -do not, as a rule, necessitate the use of incantations to produce -sunshine. But it must be remembered that the native of the country does -not look on the fierceness of the summer sun with the same dread as is -felt by Europeans. To him it is about the most pleasant and healthy -season of the year, and people who are sometimes underfed and nearly -always insufficiently dressed have more reason to fear the chills -of December and January than the warmth of May and June. It is also -usually recognized in popular belief that seasonable and sufficient -rainfall depends on the due supply of sunshine. - - - -The Holī Observances. - -The Holī, while generally observed in Northern India, is performed -with special care by the cowherd classes of the land of Braj, or the -region round the city of Mathura, where the myth of Krishna has been -localized, and it is here that we meet with some curious incidents -which are undoubtedly survivals of the most primitive usages. - -The ceremonies in vogue at Mathura have been very carefully recorded -by Mr. Growse. [847] He notes "the cheeriness of the holiday-makers -as they throng the narrow, winding streets on their way to and -from the central square of the town of Barsāna, where they break -into groups of bright and ever varying combinations of colour, with -the buffooneries of the village clowns, and the grotesque dances of -the lusty swains, who, with castanets in hand, caricature in their -movements the conventional graces of the Indian ballet girl. - -"Then follows a mock fight between the men of the adjoining village -of Nandgānw and the women of Barsāna. The women have their mantles -drawn down over their faces and are armed with long, heavy bamboos, -with which they deal their opponents many shrewd blows on the head and -shoulders. The latter defend themselves as best they can with round -leather shields and stag horns, as they dodge in and out among the -crowd, and now and again have their flight cut off, and are driven -back upon the crowd of excited viragoes. Many laughable incidents -occur. Not unfrequently blood is drawn; but an accident of this kind -is regarded rather as an omen of good fortune, and has never been -known to give rise to any ill-feeling. Whenever the fury of their -female assailants appears to be subsiding, it is again excited by -the men shouting at them snatches of ribald rhymes." - - - -The Lighting of the Holī Fire. - -Next day the Holī fire is lit. By immemorial custom, the boys are -allowed to appropriate fuel of any kind for the fire, the wood-work -of deserted houses, fences, and the like, and the owner never dares -to complain. We have the same custom in England. The chorus of the -Oxfordshire song sung at the feast of Gunpowder Plot runs,-- - - - A stick and a stake - For King James's sake; - If you won't give me one, - I'll take two, - The better for me, - The worse for you. - - -This is chanted by the boys when collecting sticks for the bonfire, -and it is considered quite lawful to appropriate any old wood they -can lay hands on after the recitation of these lines. [848] - -Mr. Growse goes on to describe how a large bonfire had been stacked -between the pond and the temple of Prahlāda (who, as we have already -seen, is connected with the legend), inside which the local village -priest, the Kherapat or Panda, who was to take the chief part in the -performance of the day, was sitting, telling his beads. At 6 p.m. the -pile was lit, and being composed of the most inflammable materials, -at once burst into a tremendous blaze. The lads of the village -kept running close round it, jumping and dancing and brandishing -their bludgeons, while the Panda went round and dipped in the pond, -and then with his dripping turban and loin-cloth ran back and made a -feint of passing through the fire. In reality he only jumped over the -outermost verge of the smouldering ashes, and then dashed into his cell -again, much to the dissatisfaction of the spectators, who say that the -former incumbent used to do it much more thoroughly. If on the next -recurrence of the festival the Panda shows himself equally timid, the -village proprietors threaten to eject him as an impostor from the land -which he holds rent-free, simply on the score of his being fire-proof. - -It is hardly necessary to say that this custom of jumping through the -fire prevails in many other places. We have already had an instance -of it in the case of the fire worship of Rāhu. In Greece people jump -through the bonfires lighted on St. John's Eve. The Irish make their -cattle pass through the fire, and children are passed through it in -the arms of their fathers. The passing of victims through the fire -in honour of Moloch is well known. [849] - - - -The Throwing of the Powder. - -In the Indian observance of the Holī next followed a series of -performances characterized by rude horseplay and ribald singing. Next -day came the throwing of the powder. "Handfuls of red powder, mixed -with glistening talc, were thrown about. Up to the balconies, above -and down on the heads of the people below; and seen through this -atmosphere of coloured cloud, the frantic gestures of the throng, -their white clothes and faces all stained with red and yellow patches, -and the great timbrels with branches of peacocks' feathers, artificial -flowers and tinsel stars stuck in their rims, borne above the players' -heads, and now and then tossed up in the air, combined to form a -curious and picturesque spectacle." - -Then followed another mock fight between men and women, conducted -with perfect good-humour on both sides, and when it was all over, -many of the spectators ran into the arena, and rolled over and over -in the dust, or streaked themselves with it on the forehead, taking -it as the dust hallowed by the feet of Krishna and the Gopīs. - - - -The Holī in Mārwār. - -Colonel Tod gives an interesting account of the festival as performed -at Mārwār. He describes the people as lighting large fires into which -various substances, as well as the common powder, were thrown; and -around which groups of children danced and screamed in the streets, -"like so many infernals; until three hours after sunrise of the -new moon of the month of Chait, these orgies are continued with -increased vigour; when the natives bathe, change their garments, -worship, and return to the ranks of sober citizens, and princes and -chiefs receive gifts from their domestics." [850] - - - -The Ashes of the Holī Fire. - -The belief in the efficacy of the Holī fire in preventing the blight -of crops, and in the ashes as a remedy for disease, has been already -noticed. So in England, the Yule log was put aside, and was supposed -to guard the house from evil spirits. [851] - - - -The Basis of the Holī Rite. - -We have seen that the primary basis of this and similar rites is -probably the propitiation of sunshine. But the present observances in -India are probably a survival of a very much more primitive cultus. We -have already seen that in one form of the popular legend, Holī is the -sister of Sambat, the year, and revived him from death by burning -herself with his corpse. We find the same idea in Nepāl, where a -wooden post adorned with flags is erected in front of the palace, -and this is burned at night, representing the burning of the body of -the old year, and its re-birth with each succeeding spring. [852] - -The Drāvidian Hill tribes of Mirzapur do not perform the Holī ceremony -like their Hindu neighbours, but on the same date the Baiga burns a -stake, a ceremony which is known as Sambat Jalānā, or "the burning -of the old year." - -In Kumaun each clan puts up the Chīr or rag-tree. A middle-sized tree -or a large branch is cut down and stripped of its leaves. Young men -go round and beg scraps of cloth, which are tied to the tree, and it -is then set up in the middle of the village. Near it the Holī fire -is burnt. On the last day the tree itself is burnt, and the people -jump over the ashes as a cure for itch and similar diseases. While -the tree is burning, men of other clans try to snatch away some of -the rags. It is regarded as being very propitious to be able to do -this, and the clan which loses is not allowed to set up the tree -again. Faction fighting in order to gain the right of setting up the -tree has practically ceased under British law. [853] - -The ceremony in another form appears at Gwālior. There, instead of -a tree, they burn large heaps of cowdung fuel. The Marwāris erect a -nude figure known as Nathurām, made of bricks, of a most disgusting -shape. This, when the pile of cowdung cakes is consumed, is broken to -pieces with blows of shoes and bludgeons. Another beautifully carved -image of the same kind is paraded through the bazars and kept safely -from year to year. This Nathurām is said to have been a scamp from -some part of Northern India, who went to Mārwār and seduced a number -of women, until he was detected and put to death. He then became a -malignant ghost and began to torment women and children, and now his -spirit can be appeased only by a series of indecent songs and gestures -performed by the women. No Mārwāri household is without an image of -Nathurām, and a representation of him is laid with the married pair -after the wedding, while barren women and those whose children die -pray to him for offspring. He is in short a phallic fetish. - -The Holī, then, in its most primitive form, is possibly an aboriginal -usage which has been imported into Brāhmanism. This is specially -shown by the functions of the Kherapat or village priest, who lights -the fire. He is sometimes a Brāhman, but often a man drawn from the -lower races. As we have seen, his duties among the Drāvidian races -are performed by the Baiga, who is always drawn from the non-Aryan -races. It seems probable that the legends connecting the rite with -Prahlāda and Krishna are a subsequent invention, and that the fire -is really intended to represent the burning of the old year and -the re-birth of the new, which they pray may be more propitious to -the families, cattle, and crops of the worshippers. The observance -seems also to include certain ceremonies intended to scare the evil -spirits which bring disease and famine. The compulsory entry of the -local priests into the fire can hardly be anything but a survival of -human sacrifice, intended to secure the same results; and the dancing, -singing, waving of flags, screaming, the mock fight, and the throwing -of red powder, a colour supposed, as we have seen, to be obnoxious -to evil spirits, are probably based on the same train of ideas. - -Finally comes the indecency of word and gesture, which is a distinct -element in the rite. There seems reason to believe that in the worship -of certain deities in spring, promiscuous intercourse was regarded -as a necessary part of the ceremony. [854] This appears at what is -called the Kāhi ka Mela in Kulu, in which indecency is supposed to -scare evil spirits. [855] We have already noticed the practice of -indecency as a rain charm, and it seems at least a plausible hypothesis -that the unchecked profligacy which prevails among the Hindus at the -spring feast and at the Kajalī in autumn may be intended to repel evil -spirits which check the fecundity of men, animals, and crops. The same -idea probably also underlies the licentious observance of the Karama -among the Drāvidian races. The same theory explains similar usages in -Europe, such as the Lupercalia, Festum Stultorum, Matronalia Festa, -Liberalia, and our own All Fools' Day, where the indecent part of the -performance has disappeared under the influence of a purer faith and -a higher morality, and a little kindly merriment is its only survival. - -Of the mock fight as a charm for rain we have spoken already, and at -the Holī it may be merely a fertility charm. Of these mock fights -we have numerous instances in the customs of Northern India. Thus, -in Kumaun, in former days at the Bagwāh festival the males of several -villages used to divide into two bodies and sling stones at each other -across a stream. The results were so serious that it was suppressed -after the British occupation of the country. [856] The people in some -places attribute the increase of cholera and other plagues to its -discontinuance. In the plains, the custom survives in what is known -as the Barra, when the men of two villages have a sort of Tug of War -with a rope across the boundary of the village. Plenty is supposed -to follow the side which is victorious. - -Another of these spring rites is that known as the Rāli ka Mela in -Kāngra, the Rāli being a sort of rude image of Siva or Pārvatī. The -girls of the village in March take baskets of Dūb grass and flowers, -of which they make a heap in a selected place. Round this they walk and -sing for ten days, and then they erect two images of Siva and Pārvatī, -who are married according to the regular rites. At the conjunction or -Sankrānt in the month of Baisākh the images are flung into a pool and -mock funeral obsequies are performed. The object of the ceremonial -is said to be to secure a good husband. [857] - -In Gorakhpur this spring rite takes the form of hunting and crucifying -a monkey on the village boundary. This is said to be intended to -scare these animals, which injure the crops. But the rite seems to -be intended to secure fertility, and is possibly the survival of an -actual sacrifice. - -Of the same class is what is known in the Hills as the Badwār rite, -where a Dom, one of the menial castes, is made to slide down a rope -from a high precipice. The intention is to promote the fertility of -the crops and expel the demons of disease. - - - -Marriage of the Powers of Vegetation. - -Mr. Frazer has collected instances of the marriage of the powers of -vegetation, of which we have a survival in the English King and Queen -of the May. This seems to be the explanation of the remarkable rite -among the Kharwārs, of which Mr. Forbes has given an account. [858] - -"One of the most remarkable of the Kharwār deities is called Durgāgiya -Deotā; this spirit rejoices in the name of Mūchak Rānī. She is a -Chamārin by caste, and her home is on a hill called Buhorāj; her -priests are Baigas. All the Kharwārs regard her with great veneration, -and offer up pigs and fowls to her several times during the year. Once -a year, in the month of Aghan, what is called the Kāruj Pūjā takes -place in her honour. - -"The ceremony is performed in the village threshing-floor, when a kind -of bread and kids are offered up. Once in three years the ceremony of -marrying the Rānī is performed with great pomp. Early in the morning of -the bridal day both men and women assemble with drums and horns, form -themselves into procession and ascend the hill, singing a wild song in -honour of the bride and bridegroom. One of the party is constituted -the priest, who is to perform the wedding ceremony. This man ascends -the hill in front of the procession, shouting and dancing till he -works himself into a frenzy. The procession halts at the mouth of a -cave, which does, or is supposed to, exist on the top of the hill. The -priest then enters the cave and returns bearing with him the Rānī, who -is represented as a small oblong-shaped and smooth stone, daubed over -with red lead. After going through certain antics, a piece of Tasar -silk cloth is placed on the Rānī's head, and a new sheet is placed -below her, the four corners being tied up in such a manner as to -allow the Rānī, who is now supposed to be seated in her bridal couch, -to be slung on a bamboo, and carried like a dooly or palanquin. - -"The procession then descends the hill and halts under a Banyan tree -till noon, when the marriage procession starts for the home of the -bridegroom, who resides on the Kandi hill. - -"On their arrival there, offerings, consisting of sweetened milk, -two copper pice, and two bell-metal wristlets, are presented to -the bride, who is taken out of her dooly and put into the cave in -which the bridegroom, who, by the way, is of the Agariya caste, -resides. This cave is supposed to be of immense depth, for the stone -goes rolling down, striking the rocks as it falls, and the people -all listen eagerly till the sound dies out, which they say it does -not do for nearly half an hour. - -"When all is silent, the people return rejoicing down the hill, -and finish off the evening with a dance. The strangest part of the -story is that the people believe that the caves on the two hills are -connected, and that every third year the Rānī returns to her father's -house. They implicitly believe that the stone yearly produced is the -same. The village Baigas could probably explain the mystery. - -"In former times the marriage used to take place every year, but -on one occasion, on the morning succeeding the marriage ceremony, -the Rānī made her appearance in the Baiga's house. The Baiga himself -was not present, but his wife, who was at home, was very indignant -at this flightiness on the part of the Rānī, and the idea of her -going about the country the morning after her marriage so shocked the -Baigāin's sense of propriety, that she gave the Rānī a good setting -down, and called upon her to explain herself, and as she could give -no satisfactory account of her conduct, she was punished by being -married every three years, instead of yearly as before." - -The mock marriage of Ghāzi Miyān, to which some reference has been -already made, a very favourite rite among the Musalmāns and low Hindu -castes of the North-Western Provinces, is very possibly the survival -of some non-Aryan rite of this kind, performed to secure the annual -revival of the year and the powers of vegetation. - - - -The Drāvidian Saturnalia. - -Some of the Drāvidian tribes enjoy the Saturnalia in other forms. - -Thus, the Gond women have the curious festival known as Gurtūtnā or -"breaking of the sugar." "A stout pole about twelve or fifteen feet -high is set up, and a lump of coarse sugar with a rupee in it placed -on the top; round it the Gond women take their stand, each with a -little green tamarind rod in her hands. The men collect outside, -and each has a kind of shield made of two parallel sticks joined -with a cross-piece held in the hand to protect themselves from the -blows. They make a rush together, and one of them swarms up the pole, -the women all the time plying their rods vigorously; and it is no -child's play, as the men's backs attest next day. When the man gets -to the top, he takes the piece of sugar, slips down, and gets off -as rapidly as he can. This is done five or six times over with the -greatest good-humour, and generally ends with an attack of the women -en masse upon the men. It is the regular Saturnalia for the women, -who lose all respect, even for a settlement officer; and on one -occasion when he was looking on, he only escaped by the most abject -submission and presentation of rupees." [859] - -The Bhīls of Gujarāt plant a small tree or branch firmly in the -ground. The women stand near it, and the men outside. One man rushing -in tries to uproot the tree, and the men and women fall upon him -and beat him so soundly that he has to retire. He is succeeded by -another, who is belaboured in the same way, and this goes on till -one man succeeds in bearing off the tree, but seldom without a load -of blows which cripples him for days. [860] - -All these mock combats have their parallels in English customs, such -as the throwing of the hood at Haxey, the football match at Derby, -the fighting on Lammas Day at Lothian, and hunting of the ram at -Eton. [861] - - - -The Desauli of the Hos. - -The Hos of Chutia Nāgpur have a similar festival, the Desauli held in -January, "when the granaries are full of grain, and the people are, -to use their own expression, 'full of devilry!' They have a strange -notion that at this period men and women are so overcharged with -vicious propensities that it is absolutely necessary for the safety -of the person to let off steam by allowing for the time full vent to -the passions. The festival, therefore, becomes a sort of Saturnalia, -during which servants forget their duty to their masters, children -their reverence for their parents, men their respect for women, -and women all notions of gentleness, modesty, and delicacy; they -become raging Bacchantes. It opens with a sacrifice to Desauli of -three fowls, a cock and two hens, one of which must be black, and -offered with some flowers of the Palāsa tree (Butea frondosa), bread -made from rice flour and sesamum seeds. The sacrifice and offering -are made by the village priest, if there be one, or if not by any -elder of the village who possesses the necessary legendary lore; -and he prays that during the year they are going to enter on they -and their children may be preserved from all misfortune and sickness, -and that they may have seasonable rain and good crops. Prayer is also -made in some places for the souls of the departed. At this period an -evil spirit is supposed to infest the locality, and to get rid of it, -men, women, and children go in procession round and through every part -of the village with sticks in their hands, as if beating for game, -singing a wild chant and vociferating loudly, till they feel assured -that the bad spirit must have fled, and they make noise enough to -frighten a legion. These religious ceremonies over, the people give -themselves up to feasting, drinking immoderately of rice-beer till -they are in a state of wild ebriety most suitable for the purpose of -letting off steam." [862] - -With these survivals of perhaps the most primitive observances of the -races of Northern India we may close this survey of their religion and -folk-lore. To use Dr. Tylor's words in speaking of savage religions -generally, "Far from its beliefs and practices being a rubbish heap -of miscellaneous folly, they are consistent and logical in so high a -degree as to begin, as soon as even roughly classified, to display the -principles of their formation and development; and these principles -prove to be essentially rational, though working in a mental condition -of intense and inveterate ignorance." 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N., "Memorandum on the Agriculture of Cawnpur," Allahabad, -1877. - - -Yule, H., "The Book of Ser Marco Polo," 2 vols., London, 1871. - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] For some of the literature of the Evil Eye see Tylor, "Early -History," 134; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 187 -sq.; Westropp, "Primitive Symbolism," 58 sqq.; Gregor, "Folk-lore of -North-East Scotland," 8. - -[2] "Natural History," vii. 2. - -[3] Ibbetson, "Panjāb Ethnography," 117. - -[4] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 24. - -[5] Campbell, "Notes," 207. - -[6] On this see valuable notes by W. Cockburn in "Panjāb Notes and -Queries," i. 14. - -[7] For many lists of such names see Temple, "Proper Names of -Panjābis," 22 sqq.; "Indian Antiquary," viii. 321 sq.; x. 321 sq.; -"Panjāb Notes and Queries," i.26, 51; iii. 9. - -[8] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 35. - -[9] "Folk-lore," iii. 85. - -[10] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 20. - -[11] "Folk-lore," i. 273; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 242; -Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 243; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," -119 sq. - -[12] "Notes," 400. - -[13] Cunningham, "Archęological Reports," vii. 6. - -[14] "Folk-lore," ii. 179. - -[15] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 45 sq. - -[16] "Folk-lore," iv. 147. - -[17] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 42. - -[18] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 53. - -[19] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 7. - -[20] Brand, "Observations," 753. - -[21] Campbell, "Notes," 184. - -[22] "Notes," 34. - -[23] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 5, 60, 62. - -[24] Reg. vs. Lalla, "Nizāmat Adālat Reports," 22nd September, 1853. - -[25] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 281. - -[26] "Folk-lore," i. 154. - -[27] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 386, 575; ii. 64. - -[28] Brand, "Observations," 339. - -[29] "Primitive Manners," 293. - -[30] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 181. - -[31] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 264. - -[32] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 123; and for another instance, see Jarrett, -"Aīn-i-Akbari," ii. 197. - -[33] Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," 108 sqq.; Wilson, "Indian Caste," -ii. 174. - -[34] Campbell, "Notes," 69. - -[35] Brand, "Observations," 344, 733. - -[36] v. 21. - -[37] For further examples see Campbell, "Notes," 126 sqq. - -[38] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 83; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," -i.478. - -[39] Cunningham, "Archęological Reports," vii. 50. - -[40] Campbell, "Notes," 119. - -[41] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 53. - -[42] Brand, "Observations," 733. - -[43] "Anatomy of Melancholy," 434. - -[44] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 146; -Leland. "Etruscan Roman Remains," 267. - -[45] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 213. - -[46] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 67. - -[47] Campbell, "Notes," 49 sq. - -[48] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 115, 270, 272. - -[49] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 51. - -[50] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 209. - -[51] Brand, "Observations," 166. - -[52] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 260, 279; Hartland, "Legend -of Perseus," ii. 258 sqq. - -[53] "Folk-lore," iv. 358, 361. - -[54] Brand, loc. cit., 724. - -[55] Campbell, "Notes," 131; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 439. - -[56] Brand, loc. cit., 668. - -[57] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 198. - -[58] Schrader, "Prehistoric Antiquities," 163 sqq. - -[59] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 45; Lady Wilde, -"Legends," 205. - -[60] "Folk-lore," ii. 292; Rhys, "Lectures," 446, 553; Campbell, -"Popular Tales," Introduction, lxx.; ii. 98; Hartland, "Legend of -Perseus," i. 37. - -[61] Brand, "Observations," 355. - -[62] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 125. - -[63] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 117. - -[64] Campbell, "Notes," 95. - -[65] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 261, 321. - -[66] Brand, "Observations," 58. - -[67] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 289. - -[68] Dalton, loc. cit., 261. - -[69] "Settlement Report," 274. - -[70] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 29. - -[71] Campbell, "Notes," 92. - -[72] Growse, "Rāmāyana," 99. - -[73] Frazer, "Totemism," 26 sq. - -[74] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 157, 161, 191, 219, 251. - -[75] Bholanāth Chandra, "Travels of a Hindu," i. 326; "Panjāb Notes -and Queries," i. 27, 99; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 125. - -[76] Campbell, "Notes," p. 134. - -[77] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 69,99; Herodotus, v. 6; and for the -Dacians, Pliny, "Natural History," vii. 10; xxii. 2. - -[78] Loc. cit., ii. 218. - -[79] Hislop, "Papers," ii., note; Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 292. - -[80] Brand, "Observations," 399. For the Indian versions of Cinderella -and her shoe, see "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 102, 121. - -[81] "Legend of Perseus," i. 171. - -[82] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 409. - -[83] Campbell, "Notes," 105. - -[84] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 86. - -[85] Brand, "Observations," 335. - -[86] Campbell, "Notes," 91, quoting Chambers, "Book of Days," 720. - -[87] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 93. - -[88] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iv. 132; Campbell, "Notes," 284. - -[89] Brand, "Observations," 121. - -[90] Brand, "Observations," 598. - -[91] Rhys, "Lectures." 348; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 489; Grimm, -"Household Tales," ii. 429; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 12. - -[92] Knowles, "Folk-lore of Kashmīr," 333. - -[93] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 283. - -[94] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 254, note, 301. - -[95] "History of Indian Architecture," 57 sqq.; Cunningham, -"Archęological Reports," ii. 87; xvi. 8 sqq. - -[96] Monier-Williams, "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 203. - -[97] Aubrey, "Remaines," 57. - -[98] "Notes," 177. - -[99] Westropp, "Primitive Symbolism," 58 sqq., 61 sqq. - -[100] "Bombay Gazetteer," xviii. 473, 426. - -[101] "Settlement Report," 59 sqq. - -[102] Tod, "Annals," i. 383, note, 411, note. - -[103] Campbell, "Notes." 251. - -[104] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 44. - -[105] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 186. - -[106] "Folk-lore," ii. 75; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 110; Brand, -"Observations," 754. - -[107] Lady Wilde, loc. cit., 79. - -[108] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 337; ii. 233, 358. - -[109] ii. 279. - -[110] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 61. - -[111] Tod, "Annals," i. 457; "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 169. - -[112] Brand, "Observations," 359. - -[113] Trumbull, "Blood Covenant," 65; Lubbock, "Origin -of Civilization," 25; Tylor, "Early History," 128 sq.; Jones, -"Finger-ring Lore," 91 sqq. - -[114] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 23. - -[115] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 61; ii. 80; Lane, "Arabian -Nights," i. 9. - -[116] Miss Frere, "Old Deccan Days," 230, 236. - -[117] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 467. - -[118] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 49; Tawney, loc. cit., i. 300. - -[119] Henderson, "Folk-lore of Northern Counties," 155; Gregor, -"Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 145. - -[120] "Notes and Queries," i. ser. iv. 500. - -[121] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 259. - -[122] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 195, 197, 199. - -[123] "Settlement Report," 278, 286. - -[124] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[125] Tod, "Annals," i. 415; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern -Counties," 20. - -[126] Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmīr," 71; Tawney, "Katha Sarit -Sāgara," i. 340. - -[127] Risley, "Tribes and Castes." i. 173, 315. - -[128] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 168. - -[129] Risley, loc. cit., i. 425. - -[130] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 576, quoting Lenormant, -"Chaldean Magic and Sorcery," 141; Ralston, "Songs of the Russian -People," 288. - -[131] Campbell, "Notes," 60. - -[132] Harland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 79 sqq. - -[133] Growse, 146. - -[134] "Primitive Culture," i. 120. - -[135] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 151. - -[136] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 48; Lady Wilde, -"Legends," 146 sqq. - -[137] Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Govinda Sāmanta," i. 12. - -[138] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 66. It has been suggested that -the idea arose from the Sanskrit word sasin, meaning "hare-marked" -or "the moon"; but this seems rather putting the cart before -the horse. Conway, "Demonology," i. 125; Gubernatis, "Zoological -Mythology," ii. 8; Aubrey, "Remaines," 20, 109. - -[139] "Bombay Gazetteer," vi. 126; Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East -Scotland," 128; Lady Wilde, "Legends," 179. - -[140] Tod, "Annals," ii. 577 sq. - -[141] Malcolm, "Central India," i. 253, note. - -[142] Tawney, loc cit., ii. 128. - -[143] Blochmann, "Aīn-i-Akbari," i. 91. - -[144] "Annals," i. 694. - -[145] Malcolm, "Central India," i. 12, note. - -[146] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 137, 207; ii. 28; iii. 18; -"Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 15, 87, 137. - -[147] Growse, "Mathura," 128. - -[148] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 200 sq. - -[149] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[150] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 379; "Contemporary Review," -xlviii. 108; Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 206. - -[151] Monier-Williams, "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 293. - -[152] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 153. - -[153] Gregor, loc. cit., 206; Conway, "Demonology," i. 53; Farrer, -"Primitive Manners," 23. - -[154] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 107; Campbell, "Notes," 394. - -[155] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 34. - -[156] Brand, "Observations," 450. - -[157] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 219. - -[158] "Folk-lore," i. 155. - -[159] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 401. - -[160] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 260. - -[161] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 10; iii. 90. - -[162] "Folk-lore," iv. 257. - -[163] "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 832; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," -ii. 126; Wilson, "Essays," ii. 292; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," -i. 147. - -[164] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 19. - -[165] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 83. - -[166] "Zoological Mythology," i. 49. - -[167] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 154. - -[168] "Bombay Gazetteer," viii. 159. - -[169] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 83. - -[170] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 14, 271; Tawney, -"Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 305, 546; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 194 -sq; "Contemporary Review," xlviii. 113; Grierson, "Behār Peasant Life," -388; "Folk-lore," ii. 26, 294. - -[171] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 109; "Illustrations of the History -and Practices of the Thags," 9. - -[172] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 75. - -[173] "Notes," 214, 473. - -[174] "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 264. - -[175] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 202 sq. - -[176] "Folk-lore," iv. 360. - -[177] "Settlement Report," 263 sq. - -[178] Hislop, "Papers," 19. - -[179] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 274. - -[180] "Principles of Sociology," i. 161. - -[181] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 12; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," -ii. 33 sq. - -[182] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 7; iii. 17; Campbell, -"Notes," 495. - -[183] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 196. - -[184] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 220. - -[185] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 281. - -[186] "Legend of Perseus," ii. 320. - -[187] Temple, "Wide-awake Tales," 414; "Legends of the Panjāb," -i. Introduction xix.; "Folk-lore," ii. 236; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," -504; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 341; Campbell, "Santāl Folk-tales," -16; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 382. - -[188] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 157, 206; Tylor, -"Primitive Culture," i. 482; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 37; -Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 21 sq. - -[189] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 49. - -[190] "Descriptive Ethnology," 205. - -[191] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 118, 140. - -[192] "Bombay Gazetteer," xii. 118; "Folk-lore," iv. 245. - -[193] "Travels in the Himālaya," i. 342. - -[194] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 126, 174, 395; ii. 71; "Bombay -Gazetteer," xiii. 187; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 218. - -[195] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 82. - -[196] Brand, "Observations," 519. - -[197] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 152. - -[198] Risley, loc. cit., ii. 326. - -[199] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 204 sq. - -[200] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 57. - -[201] Ibid., 199. - -[202] Ibid., 398. - -[203] "Folk-lore," ii. 310. - -[204] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 345. - -[205] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 35. - -[206] "Remaines," 95; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," -57. - -[207] Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 213. - -[208] Frazer, "Contemporary Review," xlviii. 117; Spencer, "Principles -of Sociology," i. 195. - -[209] Campbell, "Notes," 334. - -[210] Numbers xix. 15. - -[211] "Annals," ii. 542. - -[212] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 402; Clouston, "Popular Tales," -i. 380. - -[213] Lane, "Arabian Nights," i. 71; Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," -198, 274. - -[214] Brand, "Observations," 435. - -[215] Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales of Bengal," 198, 206; "Govinda -Sāmanta," i. 135; "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 199. - -[216] "Folk-lore," ii. 286. - -[217] "Notes," 165. - -[218] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 25. - -[219] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 229; ii. 116; Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," i. 476; ii. 148, 215. - -[220] Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 338, 511. - -[221] "Notes," 146 sq. - -[222] Tawney, loc. cit., i. 337, 204; ii. 427, 83. - -[223] Temple, "Wide-awake Stories," 317; "Indian Antiquary," xi. 260 -sq.; Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 163. - -[224] As if from Jaksh, "to eat;" a more probable derivation is Yaksh, -"to move," "to worship." - -[225] Spencer Hardy, "Manual of Buddhism," 269; Conway, "Demonology," -i. 151 sq. - -[226] "Bombay Gazetteer," v. 133, 236. - -[227] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 17. - -[228] "Himālayan Gazetteer," iii. 117. - -[229] Ibid., ii. 833; "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 56. - -[230] Ganga Datt, "Folk-lore," 71. - -[231] Aubrey, "Remaines," 59; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern -Counties," 263. - -[232] Ghoghar in Bombay takes the form of a native seaman or Lascar, -"Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 343. - -[233] Jacobs, "English Fairy Tales." - -[234] "Principles of Sociology," i. 359. - -[235] "Primitive Culture," ii. 221, 89. - -[236] "Golden Bough," i. 39. - -[237] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 56, 40, 43, 283; Hislop, -"Papers," 10. - -[238] "Brihatsanhita," Rajendra Lāla Mitra, "Indo-Aryans," i. 245. - -[239] Campbell, "Notes," 225. - -[240] Forlong, "Rivers of Life;" Westropp, "Primitive Symbolism." - -[241] Groome, "Encyclopędia Britannica," s.v. "Gypsies." - -[242] "Calcutta Review," xxvi. 512. - -[243] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 174; ii. 181, 592, 286. - -[244] Ibid., ii. 270. - -[245] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 123; Grimm, "Household -Tales," ii. 429. - -[246] Ibid., ii. 142. - -[247] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 596. - -[248] Temple, "Wide-awake Stories," 413. - -[249] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 184; Grimm, loc. cit., ii. 428. - -[250] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 153; ii. 387, 460. - -[251] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 467. - -[252] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 304; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," i. 4, 37; "Bombay Gazetteer," ii. 355. - -[253] "Golden Bough," i. 61. - -[254] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 112. - -[255] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 129, 132, 141, 186, 188. - -[256] Hislop, "Papers," 20. - -[257] "Berār Gazetteer," 29, 31. - -[258] Growse, "Mathura," 70, 76 sqq., 83, 420, 470, 458. - -[259] "Himālayan Gazetteer," iii. 47. - -[260] Moorcroft, "Travels," i. 211. - -[261] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 16. - -[262] Conway, "Demonology," i. 315 sq.; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," -309; Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 79; Gregor, "Folk-lore of -North-East Scotland," 116, 179; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern -Counties," 278. - -[263] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 566; Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," -304. See instances collected by Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," -ii. 35 sqq. - -[264] Henderson, loc. cit., 273. - -[265] Campbell, "Notes," 221 sq. - -[266] "Calcutta Review," lxix. 364 sq. - -[267] Campbell, "Notes," 237. - -[268] Haug, "Aitareya Brāhmanam," ii. 486 sq. - -[269] Cunningham, "Bhilsa Topes," 24; "Archęological Reports," -i. 5 sq.; Ferguson, "Eastern Architecture," 69; Führer, "Monumental -Antiquities," 127. - -[270] "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 783. - -[271] Campbell, "Notes," 238. - -[272] Tod, "Annals," i. 611. - -[273] See instances collected by Wake, "Serpent Worship," 18. - -[274] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 293. - -[275] Ibbetson, "Panjāb Ethnography," 118; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," -ii. 55; O'Brien, "Multāni Glossary," 82. - -[276] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 74; Elliot, "Supplementary -Glossary," 26. - -[277] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 148, 281, 283; Rousselet, -"India and its Native Princes," 369 sq. - -[278] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 162. - -[279] Sleeman, "Rambles and Recollections," ii. 18; Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," ii. 225. - -[280] "Quarterly Review," cxiv. 226; "Folk-lore," iii. 88. - -[281] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 420. - -[282] Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," i. 473. - -[283] Campbell, "Notes," 234. - -[284] Mullaly, "Notes on Madras Criminal Tribes," 20. - -[285] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 38. - -[286] i. 287. - -[287] Ward, "Hindus," ii. 13, quoted by Campbell, "Notes," 229. - -[288] Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," 280. - -[289] Campbell, loc. cit., 229. - -[290] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 207. - -[291] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 189. - -[292] "Sirsa Settlement Report," 154. - -[293] Wilson, "Works," iii. 68. - -[294] Campbell, "Notes," 248. - -[295] Rhys, "Lectures," 359. - -[296] Kelly, "Curiosities," 159; Conway, "Demonology," i. 126; -Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 225; Dyer, "Popular Customs," -274; Brand, "Observations," 616. - -[297] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 439. - -[298] Campbell, "Santāl Folk-tales," 54. - -[299] Campbell, "Notes," 239. - -[300] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 109, 220, 234. - -[301] Campbell, loc. cit., 232. - -[302] Ibbetson, "Panjāb Ethnography," 119. - -[303] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 42; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," ii. 27. - -[304] "Eastern India," iii. 555. - -[305] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 151 sq. - -[306] "Notes," 461. - -[307] "Bombay Gazetteer," vii. 61. - -[308] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," ii. 201. - -[309] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 194. - -[310] Ibid., 319. - -[311] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 912. - -[312] Wright, "History of Nepāl," 33. - -[313] "Settlement Report," 38. - -[314] "Archęological Reports," x. 177. - -[315] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[316] "Settlement Report," 167. - -[317] "Bombay Gazetteer," iii. 221. - -[318] Oppert, "Original Inhabitants," 73. - -[319] "Totemism," 33 sqq. - -[320] Campbell, "Notes," 250. - -[321] Manning, "Ancient India," ii. 330 sq.; Tawney, "Katha Sarit -Sāgara," i. 185. - -[322] "Primitive Culture," ii. 239. - -[323] Monier-Williams, "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 319 sqq. - -[324] Wheeler, "History of India," i. 148; "Gazetteer Central -Provinces," lxiii.; lxxii.; Campbell, "Notes," 269; Ferguson, "Tree -and Serpent Worship," Appendix D; Elliot, "Supplementary Glossary," -s.v. "Gaur Taga"; Tod, "Annals," i. 38; Atkinson, "Himālayan -Gazetteer," ii. 280 sqq., 297; Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," -i. 414 sq. - -[325] Bhekal Nāg is perhaps the Sanskrit bheka, "frog." It has been -suggested that the gypsy Beng or Devil is connected with Bheka, and -thus allied to serpent-worship (Groome, "Encyclopędia Britannica," -Art. "Gypsies"). Sir G. Cox ("Introduction," 87, note) makes out -Bheki, or "the squatting frog," to be an old name for the sun. For -the Himālayan snake shrines see Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 374 sq. - -[326] Oldham, "Contemporary Review," April, 1885. - -[327] Oldfield, "Sketches," ii. 204; Wright, "History," 85. - -[328] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 173, 544. - -[329] "Calcutta Review," li. 304 sq.; liv. 25 sq.; Ferguson, "Eastern -Architecture," 289; "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 86. - -[330] Tawney, loc. cit. i. 577. - -[331] Ibid., i. 312; ii. 225. - -[332] "Archęological Reports," vii. 4. - -[333] "Settlement Report," 121. - -[334] Beal, "Travels of Fah Hian," 67 sq. - -[335] "Archęological Reports," i. 274. - -[336] Wright, "History of Nepāl," 85, 141. - -[337] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 289; -"Gloucestershire Folk-lore," 23. - -[338] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 144. - -[339] Beal, loc. cit., 90. - -[340] "Eastern India," ii. 149. - -[341] Growse, "Mathura," 55, 58. - -[342] Ibid., 71. - -[343] "Reports," xxi. 2, "Academy," 23rd April, 1887. - -[344] Sherring, "Sacred City," 75, 87 sqq.; Führer, "Monumental -Antiquities," 211. For weather snakes see Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," -i. 438. - -[345] "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 323. - -[346] Tawney, loc. cit., i. 32, 55, 538; ii. 568. - -[347] Gangadatta, "Folk-lore of Kumaun," Introduction, vii. - -[348] Ibbetson, "Panjāb Ethnography," 114; "Legends of the Panjāb," -i. 426. - -[349] "Principles of Sociology," i. 345; Gubernatis, "Zoological -Mythology," ii. 407 sq.; Wake, "Serpent-worship," 105; Tylor, -"Primitive Culture," ii. 240. - -[350] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 132. - -[351] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 2. - -[352] Tod, "Annals," i. 777 sqq. - -[353] Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 127; Grimm, "Household Tales," -ii. 405; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 454; Jacobs, "English -Fairy Tales," 207, 251. - -[354] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 407; Clouston, loc. cit., -i. 126. - -[355] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 91. - -[356] Conway, "Demonology," i. 353 sq. - -[357] Miss Frere, "Old Deccan Tales," 33; Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," -19. - -[358] "Oriental Memoirs," ii. 19, 385. - -[359] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 492. - -[360] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 182. - -[361] Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 99; Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," -i. Introduction, xv.; "Wideawake Stories," 193, 331. - -[362] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 851. - -[363] Tod, "Annals," i. 614; Wright, "History," 37. - -[364] Rousselet, "India and its Native Princes," 28. - -[365] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 75. - -[366] "Eastern India," ii. 481. - -[367] Grierson, "Bihār Peasant Life," 405; "Maithili Chrestomathy," -23 sqq., where examples of the songs are given; "Panjāb Notes and -Queries," iii. 38. - -[368] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 836. - -[369] "Settlement Report," 120 sq. - -[370] "Natural History," xxxvii. 10. - -[371] "Gazetteer," xi. 36. - -[372] "Popular Tales," ii. 385. - -[373] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 28. - -[374] Hardy, "Manual of Buddhism," 146. - -[375] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 597. - -[376] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[377] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 564; ii. 315. - -[378] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 304, 424; "Panjāb Notes and -Queries," i. 15, 76. - -[379] Sleeman, "Rambles," i. 42; Conway, "Demonology," i. 354. - -[380] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 92, 59. - -[381] "Remaines," 39. He perhaps refers to Tavernier, "Travels," -Ball's Edition), i. 42; ii. 249. - -[382] "Custom and Myth," ii. 197. - -[383] Frazer, "Totemism," 1; and his article on "Totemism," in -"Encyclopędia Britannica," 9th Edition. - -[384] "Principles of Sociology," i. 367. - -[385] "Origin of Civilization," 260, and Mr. Frazer's criticism, -loc. cit. - -[386] "Tribes and Castes," Introduction. - -[387] Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 13, note. - -[388] Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 17. - -[389] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 90. - -[390] Quoted by McLennan, "Fortnightly Review," 1869, p. 419. - -[391] O'Brien, "Multāni Glossary," 260 sq. - -[392] "Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh," -s.v.v. - -[393] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 254; Risley, "Tribes and -Castes," ii. 327. - -[394] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 91. - -[395] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 95. - -[396] "Dissertation on the Proper Names of Panjābis," 155 sq. - -[397] "Totemism," 3 sqq. - -[398] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 52. - -[399] Hardy, "Manual of Buddhism," 251. - -[400] Max Müller, "Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 290. - -[401] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 10; ii. 215; iii. 144; Ball, -"Jungle Life," 455 sqq. - -[402] Dalton "Descriptive Ethnology," 126, 162, 165 sq., 179, 185, -209, 231, 265. - -[403] "Jungle Life," 600. - -[404] Campbell, "Notes," 7. - -[405] "Rājputāna Gazetteer," i. 223. - -[406] Rhys, "Lectures," 508. - -[407] Dalton, loc. cit., 327. - -[408] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," Introduction, xlvii. - -[409] Conway, "Demonology," i. 27; "Herodotus," ii. 73. - -[410] Dalton, loc. cit., 131, note; Ball, loc. cit., 89; -Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 306 sq. - -[411] "Berār Gazetteer," 187. - -[412] Campbell, "Notes," 8 sqq. - -[413] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 68; and see Lang, -"Custom and Myth," 113. - -[414] Conway, "Demonology," i. 144. - -[415] Tod, "Annals," i. 599. - -[416] Gubernatis, loc. cit., ii. 13. - -[417] "Golden Bough," ii. 26 sqq., 58. - -[418] "Asiatic Studies," 264. - -[419] "Archęological Reports," vi. 137. - -[420] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 88. - -[421] "Tribes and Castes," ii. Appendix; Dalton, loc. cit., 162, -note, 213, 254. - -[422] Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 9 sq. - -[423] Ferrier, "Caravan Journey," 186. - -[424] Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," v. 425 sq.; Lāl Bihāri Dź, -"Folk-tales of Bengal," 193 sq., 277; Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," -48 sqq.; "Wideawake Stories," 277 sqq.; Campbell, "Popular Tales," -i. 2; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 323; and for fidelity tests, -Grimm, "Household Tales," i. 453; Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 601; Clouston, -"Popular Romances," i. 43, 173. - -[425] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 352, note; "Wideawake Stories," -419 sqq.; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iv. 201; Knowles, "Folk-tales of -Kashmīr," 192; Tawney, loc. cit., i. 123; Grimm, loc. cit., ii. 400; -Hunt, "Popular Romances," 178. - -[426] Also see Rhys, "Lectures," 206; Lang, "Custom and Myth," 52. - -[427] "Notes," 163. - -[428] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 418. - -[429] "Modern Egyptians," i. 325. - -[430] "Popular Romances," 177. - -[431] "Popular Romances," 412, 415. - -[432] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 173. - -[433] "Bombay Gazetteer," xi. 56; xvii. 698. - -[434] Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 49; Lubbock, "Origin of -Civilization," 306; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 164; Conway, -"Demonology," ii. 284. - -[435] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 268; Lang, "Custom and -Myth," i. 270. - -[436] "Indo-Aryans," ii. 70 sqq.; "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," -1876; Max Müller, "Ancient Sanskrit Literature," 408 sq.; Muir, -"Ancient Sanskrit Texts," i., ii., passim; Wilson, "Rig Veda," -i. 59, 63; "Essays," ii. 247 sqq.; Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," -ii. 800, 867. - -[437] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 336; ii. 253, 338; Temple, -"Wideawake Stories," 147; Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," 194; Miss Frere, -"Old Deccan Days," 6; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 111, 129; -iii. 105. - -[438] Burton, "Arabian Nights," iv. 376. - -[439] Tawney, loc. cit., i. 212; ii. 616. - -[440] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 65. - -[441] Ibid., ii. 22. - -[442] "Central India," ii. 210. - -[443] Campbell, "Khondistān," passim; Frazer, "Golden Bough," i. 384 -sqq.; "Rājputāna Gazetteer," ii. 47; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," -130, 147, 176, 285 sq., 281. - -[444] Chevers, "Medical Jurisprudence," 406, 411. - -[445] Campbell, "Notes," 339: Wilson, "Indian Caste," ii. 22 sq.; -"Bombay Gazetteer," x. 114. - -[446] Wright, "History," 11, note. - -[447] Ball, "Jungle Life," 580. - -[448] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 112, 148. And for other -instances, see Balfour, "Cyclopędia," iii. 477 sqq. - -[449] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 75. - -[450] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 157, 214. - -[451] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 2. - -[452] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 294; Grimm, "Household Tales," -i. 396; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 98. - -[453] "Report Inspector-General Police, N.-W.P., 1870," page 93; -"Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 205; iii. 74, 162; Chevers, "Medical -Jurisprudence," 842, 396; Campbell, "Notes," 338. - -[454] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 148; iii. 71. - -[455] Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 48 sq. - -[456] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 456; Dalton, "Descriptive -Ethnology," 220. - -[457] "Folk-lore," iv. 260. - -[458] "North Indian Notes and Queries." iii. 40. - -[459] Ibid., 106. - -[460] "Bombay Gazetteer," ii. 349; xiv. 49. - -[461] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 194. - -[462] For similar instances see "Archęological Reports," v. 98; -"Bombay Gazetteer," xx. 144; "Folk-lore Records," iii. Part II. 182; -"Oudh Gazetteer," iii. 253; "Indian Antiquary," xi. 117; "Calcutta -Review," lxxvii. 106; Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," 130; "Panjāb Notes -and Queries," iii. 110; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 27, -63, 93; Campbell, "Santāl Folk-tales," 106. - -[463] "Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 276. - -[464] Campbell, "Notes," 348. - -[465] "Settlement Report," 126. - -[466] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 146, 281; Risley, "Tribes and -Castes," i. 115. - -[467] Wright, "History," 35 sq., 156, note, 126, 205, 265. - -[468] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 594. - -[469] Ibid., i. 306. - -[470] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 165. - -[471] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 54, 200 sqq. - -[472] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 190. - -[473] Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 485; Knowles, "Kashmīr Tales," 199; -Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 88; Rhys, "Lectures," 241; Tawney, -"Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 612. - -[474] "Folk-lore Record," iii. Part II. 283. For the commonplace -Momiāī which is used as an application by women before parturition, -see Watt's "Dictionary of Economic Products," ii. 115. - -[475] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 284. - -[476] Buchanan, "Eastern India," i. 526. - -[477] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 303; ii. 415. - -[478] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 311, note, 792 sq. - -[479] "Oudh Gazetteer," i. 61. - -[480] "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 282. - -[481] Macaulay, "Battle of Lake Regillus," Introduction. - -[482] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 220. - -[483] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 2. - -[484] Campbell, "Notes," 30. - -[485] Rhys, "Lectures," 193. - -[486] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 427. - -[487] Forbes, "Wanderings of a Naturalist," 103. - -[488] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 165; Brand, -"Observations," 621. - -[489] "Principles of Sociology," i. 109 sq., 310; Tylor, "Primitive -Culture," i. 353. - -[490] "Asiatic Studies," 16. - -[491] "Illustrations of the History and Practice of the Thags." 46 sqq. - -[492] Tod, "Annals," i. 615; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 221. - -[493] Oldfield, "Sketches," 344, 352. - -[494] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 54. - -[495] Wilson, "Essays," ii. 188; Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 16, -67, 93, 451. - -[496] Campbell, "Notes," 9. - -[497] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 20 sq., 93. - -[498] Tod, "Annals," ii. 320. - -[499] Habakkuk i. 16; Isaiah xxi. 5. - -[500] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 400; Brand, "Observations," 209, 773; -Aubrey, "Remaines," 25. - -[501] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 116. - -[502] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," 934; Frazer, "Golden Bough," -ii. 164. - -[503] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 187, note, 247. - -[504] "Idylls," iii. 31. - -[505] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 52; Gregor, -"Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 43, 92. - -[506] Dalton, loc. cit., 218. - -[507] "Academy," 23rd July, 1887; "Gentleman's Magazine," July, 1887; -Henderson, loc. cit., 233; Brand, "Observations," 233; Lady Wilde, -"Legends," 207. - -[508] Brand, "Observations," 354. - -[509] "Calcutta Review," xviii. 60. - -[510] "Folk-lore," i. 157; ii. 293. - -[511] Campbell, "Notes," 53. - -[512] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 202; Leland, "Etruscan Roman -Remains," 79. - -[513] "Calcutta Review," xviii. 51. - -[514] Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 119, note. - -[515] Chambers, "Book of Days," i. 94 sq. - -[516] Dalton, loc. cit., 252, 258. - -[517] "Primitive Culture," ii. 277. - -[518] "Principles of Sociology," i. 158, 273. - -[519] "Tribes and Castes of the N.-W. P. and Oudh," s. v. "Agnihotri." - -[520] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 547. - -[521] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 322. - -[522] Oldfield, "Sketches," ii. 242; Wright, "History," 35; and compare -Prescott, "Peru," i. chap. 3; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 312. - -[523] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 126. - -[524] Abul Fazl appears to have confused Sūraj Sankrānti or the -entrance of the sun into a constellation with Sūrya-Kānta or -"sun-beloved," the sun-crystal or lens, which gives out heat when -exposed to the rays of the sun. - -[525] Blochmann, "Aīn-i-Akbari," i. 48. - -[526] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 103. - -[527] "Folk-lore," iv. 359. - -[528] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 92. - -[529] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 199. - -[530] Hugel, "Travels," quoted by Jarrett, "Aīn-i-Akbari," ii. 314. - -[531] "Settlement Report," 121. - -[532] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 117; Hunt, "Popular -Romances," 81; Campbell, "Popular Tales," ii. 82. - -[533] Conway, "Demonology," i. 225. - -[534] Rajendra Lāla Mitra, "Indo-Aryans," i. 146. - -[535] Ferguson, "Tree and Serpent Worship," 88; "History of Indian -Architecture," 60; Cunningham, "Bhilsa Topes," 9; Spencer, "Principles -of Sociology," i. 254 sq. - -[536] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 63; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," -ii. 8; "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 93. - -[537] iv. 82. - -[538] Monier-Williams, "Hinduism and Brāhmanism," 309. - -[539] Tennent, "Ceylon, ii. 132; Ferguson, "Indian Architecture," -184, with engraving; Tylor, "Early History," 116. - -[540] "Oudh Gazetteer," ii. 370. - -[541] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 342; ii. 135, 230, 302, 363; -"North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 13; Clouston, "Popular Tales," -i. 448. - -[542] Lāl Bihāri Dź, "Folk-tales," 139. - -[543] Tawney, loc. cit., i. 499; ii. 276; Grimm, "Household Tales," -No. 33; i. 357; Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmīr," 432; Campbell, -"Santāl Folk-tales," 22; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 496; Campbell, -"Popular Tales," i. 283. - -[544] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 74, 412; Lāl Bihāri Dź, loc. cit., -40, 106, 134, 138, 155, 210, 223; "Cinderella," 526; "North Indian -Notes and Queries," iii. 13; Clouston, loc. cit., i. 223. - -[545] Campbell, "Notes," 259. - -[546] "Rig Veda," iv. 33; Datt, "History of Civilization," i. 72 sq., -79; Monier-Williams, "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 329. - -[547] Wright, "History," 165; "Iliad," v. 265 sqq.; Tawney, "Katha -Sarit Sāgara," ii. 593. - -[548] Tawney, ibid., i. 130, 574, quoting Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," -i. 392. - -[549] Campbell, "Popular Tales," Introduction, lxxviii. - -[550] Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 476; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 373. - -[551] Clouston, loc. cit., i. 417; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 479; -Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 261; Clouston, ibid., 110, 218; Tawney, ibid., -i. 13. - -[552] Rousselet, "India and its Native Princes," 116. - -[553] "Indian Antiquary," xi. 325 sq.; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," -ii. 2. - -[554] Campbell, "Notes," 392. - -[555] "Germania," 10. - -[556] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 142. - -[557] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 332. - -[558] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 113. - -[559] "Annals," ii. 319. - -[560] Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 275. - -[561] Campbell, "Notes," 292. - -[562] Hislop, "Papers," Appendix, i. iii. - -[563] Burton, "Arabian Nights," ii. 340. - -[564] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 90; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 168; -Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 97; Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 419. - -[565] Tawney, loc. cit., i. 37, 78; ii. 28, 32; Grimm, loc. cit., -ii. 404; Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 107. - -[566] Gubernatis, loc. cit., ii. 160. - -[567] Forsyth, "Highlands of Central Indian," 278; Tod, "Annals," -ii. 660; Rowney, "Wild Tribes," 139; Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," -214; Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 110. - -[568] Trumbull, "Blood Covenant," 312; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," -i. 309; Sleeman, "Rambles," i. 153 sqq. - -[569] "Folk-lore," i. 169; Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 13; Spencer, -"Principles of Sociology," i. 323; Conway, "Demonology," i. 313 sq.; -Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 174. - -[570] "Berār Gazetteer," 62; Wright, "History of Nepāl," 38; Frazer, -"Golden Bough," ii. 101. - -[571] Dalton, loc. cit., 132, 133, 158, 214. - -[572] "Berār Gazetteer," 191 sq.; "Hoshangābād Settlement Report," -255 sq. - -[573] See for example Knowles, "Kashmīr Folk-tales," 3, 45, 46. - -[574] Dalton, loc. cit., 33. - -[575] Knowles, loc. cit., 47; Campbell, "Santāl Tales," 18. - -[576] Wright, "History," 169. - -[577] "Annals," ii. 669. - -[578] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 280. - -[579] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 154 sqq. - -[580] "Zoological Mythology," i. 160 sq. - -[581] Wright, "History," 161; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 348 sq. - -[582] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 65. - -[583] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 116; Campbell, "Santāl Folk-tales," -40; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i. 146. - -[584] Sherring, "Sacred City," 63, 65. - -[585] "Notes," 276. - -[586] Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 336. - -[587] "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," lix. 212. The horror with -which the Homeric Greeks regarded the eating of a corpse by dogs -comes out very strongly in the Iliad. - -[588] "Indian Antiquary," v. 358 sq. - -[589] "Original Inhabitants," 157 sq. - -[590] "Archęological Reports," xxiii. 26. - -[591] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 118. - -[592] Campbell, "Notes," 276 sq. - -[593] Wright, "History," 39 sq. - -[594] Hislop, "Papers," 6. - -[595] "Folk-lore," iii. 127; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 94, -148; iv. 46, 150, 173; "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 18, 67; -Knowles, "Folk-tales of Kashmīr," 36, 429; Clouston, "Popular Tales," -ii. 166; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 90; "Gesta Romanorum," -Introd. xlii. - -[596] Conway, "Demonology," i. 134; Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East -Scotland," 126 sq. - -[597] "Remaines," 53. - -[598] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 79 sq. - -[599] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," i. 88. - -[600] "Journal Asiatic Society, Bengal," 1847, p. 234. - -[601] "Household Tales," ii. 444. - -[602] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 329. - -[603] "Folk-lore," iv. 351; "Gesta Romanorum," 25. - -[604] Brand, "Observations," 583. - -[605] Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 194. - -[606] "Demonology," i. 122. - -[607] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[608] Brand, "Observations," 785. - -[609] "Epigrams," i. 6. - -[610] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iv. 131; Moorcroft, "Travels," i. 22; -"Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," 1840, p. 572; "Aīn-i-Akbari," i. 289. - -[611] Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 473. - -[612] Muir, "Ancient Sanskrit Texts," i. 24 sq.; iii. 166, 310 sq.; -McLennan, "Fortnightly Review," 1870, 198 sq. - -[613] Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," i. 107, 437 sq.; -ii. 49 sq. - -[614] Romesh Chandra Datt, "History of Indian Civilization," i. 253 sq. - -[615] Bühler, "Sacred Laws," Part i. 64, 119, note. - -[616] Rajendra Lāla Mitra, "Indo-Aryans," ii. 134; Muir, "Ancient -Sanskrit Texts," i. 24 sqq. - -[617] Schliemann, "Ilios," 112; Rawlinson, "Herodotus," ii. 27 sq., -41; Ewald, "History of Israel," ii. 4; Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," -196; Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 40. - -[618] Campbell, "Notes," 285. - -[619] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 3 sqq.; Cox, -"Introduction," 151 sqq.; Kuenen, "Religion of Israel," i. 236 -sq.; Goldziher, "Mythology among the Hebrews," 226, 343; Wake, -"Serpent-worship," 35; Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 340; -McLennan, "Fortnightly Review," 1870, p. 199. - -[620] "Golden Bough," ii. 60. - -[621] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 158. - -[622] Sellon, "Memoirs Anthropological Society of London," i. 328. - -[623] "Institutes," xi. 60, 80. - -[624] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 227. - -[625] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 215. - -[626] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 914; "Rājputāna Gazetteer," -ii. 67. - -[627] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 39. - -[628] Miss Gordon-Cumming, "From the Hebrides to the Himālaya," i. 141. - -[629] Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 771; Wright, "History of Nepāl," 82. - -[630] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 109. - -[631] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 154. - -[632] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 18. - -[633] Yule, "Marco Polo," ii. 341. - -[634] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 283. - -[635] "Indian Antiquary," i. 348 sq. - -[636] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 913. - -[637] Jarrett, "Aīn-i-Akbari," ii. 348, quoting Erskine; "Babar," -Introduction, 47. - -[638] "Rambles," i. 199 sqq. - -[639] "Central India," i. 329, note; ii. 164. - -[640] Balfour, "Journal Asiatic Society Bengal," xiii. N.S.; Gunthorpe, -"Notes on Criminal Tribes of Berār," 36. - -[641] Ball, "Jungle Life," 165; "North Indian Notes and Queries," -i. 60; "Calcutta Review," lxxx. 53, 58. - -[642] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 75. - -[643] "Notes," 287. - -[644] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 131. - -[645] "Golden Bough," ii. 93. - -[646] Manu, "Institutes," ii. 41. - -[647] Burton, "Arabian Nights," ii. 508; Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," -i. 166; Clouston, "Popular Tales," i.; "Gesta Romanorum," Tale xviii. - -[648] Wright, "History," 81. - -[649] Blochmann, "Aīn-i-Akbari," i. 121. - -[650] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 8, 73, 105, 188; Cunningham, -"Archęological Reports," i. 225. - -[651] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 73, 177, 328 sq.; ii. 102, -215, 500, 540; Knowles, "Kashmīr Folk-tales," 17. - -[652] Black, "Folk Medicine," 152. - -[653] Führer, loc. cit., 161. - -[654] Campbell, "Notes," 267. - -[655] Brand, "Observations," 739. - -[656] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iv. 2. - -[657] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 377. - -[658] For the crow in English folk-lore, see Henderson, "Folk-lore -of the Northern Counties," 126; Gregor, "Folk-lore of N.E. Scotland," -135 sq. - -[659] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 253 sq.; "Panjāb Notes -and Queries," i. 27. - -[660] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 64, 73. - -[661] Balfour, "Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal," N.S. xiii. - -[662] Monier-Williams, "Brāhmanism and Hinduism," 301; Atkinson, -"Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 329. - -[663] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 15. - -[664] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 81 sq., 172; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," -iii. 24; Brand, "Observations," 732; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the -Northern Counties," 239 sq.; Aubrey, "Remaines," 197; "North Indian -Notes and Queries," ii. 215. - -[665] "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," ii. 219 sq. - -[666] "Notes," 264. - -[667] "Folk-lore," iv. 350. - -[668] Grimm, "Teutonic Mythology," iii. 977. - -[669] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 354. - -[670] Robertson-Smith, "Kinship," 196 sq. - -[671] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 12, 42, 60; ii. 29; -iii. 161; Grimm, "Household Tales," i. 367; ii. 428, 573. - -[672] McLennan, "Fortnightly Review," vi. 582. - -[673] Knowles, "Kashmīr Folk-tales," 449. - -[674] Brand, "Observations," 699. - -[675] Rhys, "Lectures," 175. - -[676] Ferguson, "History of Indian Architecture," 54; Tennent, -"Ceylon," i. 484. - -[677] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 307 sqq. - -[678] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 177. - -[679] Hislop, "Papers," 6. - -[680] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 178. - -[681] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 105. - -[682] Brand, "Observations," 701. - -[683] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 272. - -[684] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 81; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," iii. 162. - -[685] "Zoological Mythology," i. 375. - -[686] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 18. - -[687] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 139, 205, 255 sqq. - -[688] "Folk-lore," iii. 342. - -[689] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 4, 38. - -[690] Rhys, "Lectures," 553. - -[691] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 238 sq. - -[692] Rousselet, "India and its Native Princes," 402; "North Indian -Notes and Queries," i. 76; ii. 57, 93; iii. 130. - -[693] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 380, 775. - -[694] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 24, 207; ii. 599. - -[695] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 27, 158. - -[696] Cox, "Mythology of the Aryan Nations," i. 292, note; ii. 25 sq. - -[697] Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 65. - -[698] Buchanan, "Eastern India," iii. 532. - -[699] Grimm, "Household Tales," ii. 407. - -[700] Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 271. - -[701] "Gloucestershire Folk-lore," 9. - -[702] Tawney, loc. cit., ii. 594; Grimm, loc. cit., i. 357. - -[703] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 130. - -[704] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 8. - -[705] Brand, "Observations," 685. - -[706] "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 39. - -[707] Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 157. - -[708] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 270. - -[709] For the European witch, consult among other authorities Scott, -"Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft," passim; Chambers, "Book of -Days," i. 356 sq.; Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 69 sq.; -Conway, "Demonology," ii. 317, 327; Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," -245 sq. - -[710] "Asiatic Studies," 79 sqq., 89 sqq. - -[711] "Etruscan Roman Remains," 155. - -[712] Chambers, "Popular Rhymes of Scotland," 23. - -[713] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 14. - -[714] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," i. 289. - -[715] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 176; Tawney, loc. cit., i. 375. - -[716] Temple, "Wideawake Stories," 395; Tawney, loc. cit., i. 157, -159, 289, 340; ii. 164, 240; Brand, "Observations," 589; Rhys, -"Lectures," 199: Hunt. "Popular Romances," 327. - -[717] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 150; Hunt, loc. cit., 328. - -[718] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 395; Tawney, loc. cit., i. 313. - -[719] "Bombay Gazetteer," iv. 27; Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," -iii. 13. - -[720] Loc. cit., 3. - -[721] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 323. - -[722] Campbell, "Notes," 203 sq. - -[723] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 78. - -[724] "Lectures," 516 sq. - -[725] Malcolm, "Central India," ii. 212. - -[726] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 290. - -[727] "Notes," 257 sq. - -[728] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 312 sqq.; Henderson, "Folk-lore -of the Northern Counties," 201 sq. - -[729] Balfour, "Cyclopędia," i. 961; Lyall, "Asiatic Studies," 85; -"Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 7. - -[730] Tylor, "Early History," 276. - -[731] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 218. - -[732] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 84 sqq. - -[733] "Central India," ii. 216. - -[734] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 151. - -[735] Leland, loc. cit., 221. - -[736] Brand, "Observations," 609. - -[737] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 252. - -[738] Malcolm, "Central India," ii. 214, note. - -[739] Leland, loc. cit., 57; Brand, loc. cit., 740; Clouston, -"Popular Tales," i. 177. - -[740] Tod, "Annals," ii. 106. - -[741] "Natural History," vii. 2. - -[742] Tod, "Annals," ii. 638; Malcolm, loc. cit., ii. 212. - -[743] Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," i. Introduction, xxi; "Wideawake -Stories," 429. - -[744] "Oriental Memoirs," ii. 374 sq. - -[745] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 110 sq. - -[746] Ibid., 39. - -[747] "Reports Nizāmat Adālat," 14th December, 1854. - -[748] "Berār Gazetteer," 197. - -[749] Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," i. 98. - -[750] Knowles, "Folk-tales," 77. - -[751] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 164; Brand, "Observations," 108, 341. - -[752] Campbell, Notes," 83. - -[753] "Folk-lore," ii. 290; Gregor, "Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," -188; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 201, 218 sq., -244; Aubrey, "Remaines," 247; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 290 sq. - -[754] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 157. - -[755] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 199. - -[756] Spencer, "Principles of Sociology," i. 240. - -[757] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," ii. 6. - -[758] See Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 199. - -[759] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 32; Gregor, -"Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 183. - -[760] Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. 221. - -[761] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 7. - -[762] Lady Wilde, "Legends," 197, 206. See instances collected by -Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 64 sq. - -[763] Aubrey, "Remaines," 11; and for examples of similar practices -see Sir W. Scott, "Letters on Demonology," 273; Spencer, "Principles -of Sociology," i. 243; Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 116; ii. 149; -Lubbock, "Origin of Civilization," 241, 244; Henderson, loc. cit., -148; Farrer, "Primitive Manners," 287; Oldenberg, "Grihya Sūtras," -i. 57.; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 70 sq. - -[764] "Qānūn-i-Islām," 222 sq. - -[765] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 320. - -[766] "Letters on Demonology," 273; "Remaines," 61, 228; "Folk-lore," -iii. 385; iv. 256; Miss Cox, "Cinderella," 491. - -[767] Ward, "Hindus," i. 100; Temple, "Legends of the Panjāb," -i. Introduction, xvii; and compare Tawney, "Katha Sarit Sāgara," ii. - -[768] "Folk-lore," i. 157; Hartland, "Legend of Perseus," ii. 78. - -[769] "Hoshangābād Settlement Report," 287. - -[770] Malcolm, "Central India," ii. 212 sq. - -[771] "Central Provinces Gazetteer," 39, 157. - -[772] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 199. - -[773] Chevers, "Indian Medical Jurisprudence," 546 sq. - -[774] Ibid., 12, note, 14, note, 393, 488, 492, note, 493, 514; Ball, -"Jungle Life," 115 sq.; "Calcutta Review," v. 52. - -[775] "Folk-lore," ii. 293; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 315. - -[776] Tylor, "Primitive Culture," i. 113. - -[777] Yule, "Marco Polo," i. 172, 175, with note; ii. 41; Sir W. Scott, -"Letters on Demonology," 68 sq. - -[778] Campbell, "Notes," 141. - -[779] "Eastern India," ii. 108, 445. - -[780] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," ii. 202; Growse, "Mathura," -53. - -[781] "Oudh Gazetteer," iii. 480. - -[782] Hartland, "Science of Fairy Tales," 270 sqq. - -[783] Frazer, "Golden Bough;" Gomme, "Ethnology in Folk-lore;" -Mannhardt, "Wald- und Feldkulte." - -[784] Leland, "Etruscan Roman Remains," 96. - -[785] Campbell, "Notes," 89. - -[786] On the rule against giving fire from his house, see Hartland, -"Legend of Perseus," ii. 94. - -[787] Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 74; "Folk-lore," -iii. 12, 84, 90; Dyer, "Popular Customs," 14; Lady Wilde, "Legends," -103, 106, 203. - -[788] "Gazetteer," iii. 237. - -[789] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 95. - -[790] "Settlement Report," 123 sq. - -[791] Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 856. - -[792] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 196. - -[793] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 198. - -[794] "Observations," 316. - -[795] Chambers, "Book of Days," i. 94 sqq.; Aubrey "Remaines," 40 sq. - -[796] Cunningham, "Archęological Reports," ii. 455. - -[797] Atkinson, loc. cit., ii. 886. - -[798] "Golden Bough," i. 249. - -[799] "Hoshangābād Settlement Report," 124; Atkinson, loc. cit., -ii. 870; "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iv. 197. - -[800] "Household Tales," ii. 276. - -[801] Ibbetson, "Panjāb Ethnography," 120. - -[802] Blochmann, "Aīn-i-Akbari," i. 217. - -[803] Wright, "Cawnpur Memorandum," 105; Buchanan, "Eastern India," -i. 194. - -[804] "Settlement Report," 17. - -[805] "Folk-lore," ii. 303; Brand, "Observations," 7; Rhys, -"Lectures," 520. - -[806] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 92. - -[807] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 290. - -[808] "Berār Gazetteer," 207. - -[809] Tod, "Annals," i. 631. - -[810] Gubernatis, "Zoological Mythology," i. 51. - -[811] "Remaines," 40; Brand, "Observations," 17. - -[812] Campbell, "Notes," 376. - -[813] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 93 sq. - -[814] Sleeman, "Rambles and Recollections," i. 235, 240. - -[815] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 93. - -[816] "Folk-lore," i. 163. - -[817] "Rambles and Recollections," i. 248. - -[818] "Settlement Report," 256. - -[819] "North Indian Notes and Queries," ii. 64. - -[820] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 131. - -[821] Risley, "Tribes and Castes," i. 72. - -[822] "Folk-lore," iii. 321. - -[823] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 122. - -[824] "Remaines," 9; Brand, "Observations," 118. - -[825] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 93. - -[826] "Karnāl Settlement Report," 151. - -[827] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 93; "North Indian Notes and -Queries," iii. 94; and compare Tylor, "Primitive Culture," ii. 40; -Lady Wilde, "Legends," 199. - -[828] Frazer, "Golden Bough," iii. 94. - -[829] "Bareilly Settlement Report," 87 sq. - -[830] "Karnāl Settlement Report," 183. - -[831] "Settlement Report," 78. - -[832] "Golden Bough," i. 333 sqq.; Brand, "Observations," 311; -Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 87; "Folk-lore," -iv. 123; Hunt, "Popular Romances," 385. - -[833] "Panjāb Notes and Queries," iii. 56. - -[834] "North Indian Notes and Queries," i. 57. - -[835] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 213. - -[836] "Settlement Report," 78 sq. - -[837] "Karnāl Settlement Report," 173. - -[838] "Settlement Report," 78. - -[839] Conway, "Demonology," ii. 117. - -[840] "Karnāl Settlement Report," 174. - -[841] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 17, 90, 199, 384. - -[842] Hislop, "Papers," 22. - -[843] Führer, "Monumental Antiquities," 118. - -[844] Buchanan, "Eastern India," ii. 480; Wilson, "Essays," ii 233; -Atkinson, "Himālayan Gazetteer," ii. 867 sq.; "Panjāb Notes and -Queries," iii. 127; Growse, "Mathura," 56. - -[845] "Golden Bough," ii. 246; and see Conway, "Demonology," i. 65 -sqq.; Henderson, "Folk-lore of the Northern Counties," 72 sqq.; Gregor, -"Folk-lore of North-East Scotland," 167 sq.; Brand, "Observations," -165 sqq. - -[846] Frazer, "Golden Bough," ii. 268. - -[847] "Mathura," 84 sq. - -[848] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 414. - -[849] Hunt, "Popular Romances," 208; "Folk-lore," i. 520; ii. 128; -Dyer, loc. cit., 234. - -[850] "Annals," i. 599 sq. - -[851] Dyer, loc. cit., 52. - -[852] Wright, "History," 41. - -[853] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 92. - -[854] "Folk-lore," ii. 178; "Herodotus," ii. 58. - -[855] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 184. - -[856] Ibid., iii. 17, 99. - -[857] "Indian Antiquary," xi. 297. - -[858] "North Indian Notes and Queries," iii. 24. - -[859] "Hoshangābād Settlement Report," 126 sq. - -[860] "Bombay Gazetteer," vi. 29. - -[861] Dyer, "Popular Customs," 32, 75, 85, 353 sq. - -[862] Dalton, "Descriptive Ethnology," 196 sq. - -[863] "Primitive Culture," i. 22 sq. - - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Popular Religion and Folk-Lore of -Northern India, Vol. II (of 2), by W. 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